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4863885	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic%20hip%20hop	Arabic hip hop	Arabic hip-hop is a segment of hip hop music performed in the Arabic-speaking world. Due to variety of dialects and local genres which exist in the localities, Arabic hip-hop music may appear very diverse depending on the country of the song. Like most artists of the genre, the hip-hop artists from the Arabic-speaking world are highly influenced by American hip-hop. History Before Arabic hip-hop emerged as a separate genre, Arab-Americans were regularly involved in hip-hop in the United States, such as Los Angeles-based producer Fredwreck and Miami-based DJ Khaled. American hip-hop music began to see popularity in the Arab World in the early-to-mid 1990s. Northern African Arabic-speakers in Europe, mostly residing in France, the epicenter of European hip-hop, were the first to begin making the music that constitutes the Arabic hip-hop genre. For example, the Saïan Supa Crew and IAM had Arabic members. This music, a product of the French banlieue's beur and noir communities, was a blend of traditional American hip-hop, the French styles popular at the time, and Raï, a popular music style from Northern Africa. French hip-hop rose to popularity partly because of Francophone radio broadcasting requirements, begun in 1994, that established quotas for all stations of 40% of daily broadcasts to be in French. Groups began to emerge in Palestine in the mid-90s, including popular group DAM. DJ Lethal Skillz was promoting new local groups "such as Aks El Seir" at around the same time. In Egypt, American hip-hop was less popular, but a small buzz led to an emergent b-boy population. In 2004, the first hip-hop show took place there when the RZA, member of the Wu-Tang Clan, performed in the Siag Hotel in Cairo alongside Kinetic 9 of Killarmy, a Wu-Tang Clan affiliate, Cilvaringz (a Moroccan-Dutch, and the first Arab to get signed by an American rap group) and Saleh Edin, an American-Moroccan rapper. In 2006, Arabic hip-hop solidified its mainstream presence in the Arab World with Hip Hop Na, a reality TV show on MTV Arabia hosted by Fredwreck and Qusai, a Saudi Arabian Artist. Hip-hop, both Arabic and American, is followed and created to varying degrees in most of the countries of the Arab world, including where social and political restrictions make this difficult. For example, Saudi Arabia is home to the group Dark2Men, who competed in the HipHopNa reality show mentioned above. In addition, break dancing "has become a popular pastime in the kingdom". It is difficult to establish numbers for albums sold or listenership by demographic in the Arab world due to the lack of reliable statistics. Furthermore, viewership of satellite TV in the Arab world cannot be accurately quantified. However, we can discern popularity through marketing techniques utilized by satellite television providers. According to a 2007 report, "more than 85 percent of urban households in the Arab world have satellite television," a forum that has expanded to include music channels such as MTV Arabia which "[at the time] plan[ned] to offer a hefty dose of [mainly western] hip-hop and much of the same youth-lifestyle programming MTV beams across the U.S." Female hip-hop Although it is unclear whether or not there is a separate and distinct female Arabic hip-hop genre, artists such as Shadia Mansour from Palestine and Malikah from Lebanon, are very eloquent in the Arabic Hip-Hop art form, then we have the Egyptian EmpresS 1 the "First Female Egyptian Rapper" in Egypt that is more on the African tip giving credit to both her North African and Middle Eastern roots. Female hip-hop artists are involved in a number of outreach activities in the Arabic, African and International World. In 2010 EmpresS 1 was invited from Egypt to Khartoum, Sudan by the Ministry of Culture, Studio One and Space, to workshop and perform at Beit el Fenoon, working with young Sudanese rappers, poets and singers from different parts of Sudan. EmpresS *1 has also done similar work in the UK, Brazil and Egypt. Shadia Mansour Arabia's "First Lady of Hip-Hop" pays regular visits to Palestine to help with musical aid throughout the war. Female Arab Rappers performed at "Home and Exile in Queer Experience", a conference organized by Aswat, "an organization for Arab lesbians with members in Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza Strip". Musical influence Arabic hip-hop artists, commensurate with those of the overall genre, engage in the process of sampling. According to Jannis Androutsopoulos, sampling is "a process of cultural literacy and intertextual reference... taken from various domains, such as traditional folk music, contemporary popular music, mass media samples, and even poetry." Artists in the genre cite musical references, influences, and sampling material from a number of contemporary and classical sources, including 20th century Lebanese singers Fairuz, Majida al-Roumi, and Julia Boutros, as well as a number of modern mainstream and underground hip-hop artists, and regional music styles from countries such as Jamaica. Arabic hip hop artists have used full Arabic orchestras in beat-making as well as beats inspired by traditional Arabic music styles. Certain regional variations of the music, notably French and Northern African styles, incorporate influences from the musical genre known as Raï, "a form of folk music that originated in Oran, Algeria from Bedouin shepherds, mixed with Spanish, French, African and Arabic musical forms, which dates back to the 1930s." Political and social influence Much of the hip-hop generated in the Arab World deals with a mix of social circumstances, such as poverty, violence, and drug use, as well as political reality, insofar as this is possible given censorship. The hip-hop of Palestine in particular has generated much interest in this respect and the music is considered a means of opposition. For example, the song "Meen Erhabe" by DAM aligns itself with opposition to the Israeli occupation, and was referred to critically as a "theme song for Hamas". Arabic hip-hop has been both an active player in and directly influenced by the changing political and social conditions of the region over the past two years. The Arab Spring, in particular, as a revolutionary movement affecting numerous states, including Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Syria, and Yemen, elicited musical responses from emergent or formerly repressed hip-hop artists. Hip-hop and rap music were the soundtrack to the Arab Spring as the protest movements chanted to the poetics of young, influential rappers. Issues such as poverty, rising unemployment, hunger, and oppressive authoritarian regimes were all part of the politicized messages of hip-hop music. Hip-hop served as a mode of resistance in dissenting against authoritarian states, as well as a tool for mobilization in mass demonstrations. As such, the conventions of the hip-hop genre within the Arab context, provided a voice for marginalized citizens within these revolutionary and subsequently transitional states. Arabic hip-hop is most typically directed towards and most relevant to youth populations, who made up a substantial number of political actors in the Arab Spring. Hip-hop music that emerged from the Arab Spring movements, though directly influenced by particular social and political realities, transcended borders and resonated throughout the region. This was largely achieved through social media, as artists and activists share their music via Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter. Outside of the Arab World, artists focus on many of the same types of issues, but there is a stronger focus on issues associated with immigration and living as ethnic minorities. In France, for example, much of the "socially critical" music focuses on "migration related problems such as discrimination, xenophobia, and the problematic identities of young people of foreign descent." Furthermore, these artists deal with the government enforced impetus for assimilation "coupled with the age-old stereotypes rooted in colonial references and the stigma of the marginalized banlieue." Arabic hip-hop artists in the west, particularly Great Britain and North America, who also deal with racism and marginalization in their content, specifically mention an experience of "doubleness" – internal conflict between traditional and modern culture. For some rap and spoken word artists, hip-hop is seen as being true to both, due both to the rich Arabic poetic history and to the utility of hip-hop as a form of expression for marginalized or demonized communities. The poet Lawrence Joseph addresses the conflict explicitly in his poem "Sand Nigger". The view of mainstream America towards the Arab population, domestically and worldwide, and military intervention in the MENA region factor prominently in Arab-American hip-hop and other western forms. Certain artists from the Arab world approach the western viewpoint similarly, such as the Emirati group Desert Heat who rap in English specifically for the purpose of "educating" westerners on a realistic view of Arabic culture and history. On the other extreme, Mohammed Kamel Mostafa, whose father Abu Hamza al-Masri is in prison on terrorism charges, uses hip-hop to express solidarity with groups such as Hizbollah and Hamas, as well as to glorify violent Jihad. His message is different from other opposition rappers who have gained popularity in the genre insofar as he explicitly establishes his credentials by referencing his military skill and ability to cause violence. Censorship Associative life and media are restricted to varying degrees throughout the Arab world. Reasons for censorship, whether state enforced or community enforced, generally fall under two categories – political or religious. Vis-a-vis state control, satellite TV has done much to restrict the state monopoly on television programming. This has directly impacted the space allowed for hip-hop music and culture. In religiously conservative Arab states, such as Saudi Arabia, "singing and dancing can be viewed as shameful," therefore enforcing somewhat of a social censorship (enforced as a "taboo") on hip-hop and other art forms. As of 2008, concerts and nightclubs were non-existent in the Kingdom, and local radio and TV played mainly Arabic pop music (all state enforced policies). Tamer Farhan, a member of the Saudi rap group Dark2Men that appeared on HipHopNa, said that rappers in Saudi Arabia are forced "underground because of the wrong impression people have of them". Even socially cautious acts are subject to censorship. This phenomenon is not restricted to Saudi Arabia however, as relatively liberal Kuwait joined them in banning the group Desert Heat's first album despite their "pro-Muslim" message and "cautious approach to religion, politics, and society". However, hip-hop music, both Arabic and American, has managed to circumnavigate some of these restrictions. In addition to subversion via the internet or bootleg record sales, it seems that censorship inconsistencies and/or linguistic difficulty associated with translating hip-hop from English may account for some English language records making their way to cities where they would otherwise be banned. Abdullah Dahman of Desert Heat offers an example of west coast rapper Snoop Dogg, whose records are available for purchase in Jeddah in Saudi Arabia. Another example, 2 Live Crew's album "As Nasty as They Wanna Be", released in 1989, made it by censors due to translational difficulty. Hip-hop music from the Arab Spring movement presented direct challenges to the strict censorship policies of many regimes throughout the Middle East and North African region. Arabic hip-hop became a means of expression that actively resisted against the state and its regulations. In states like Tunisia, a state that previously censored all negative public statements against the government and was characterized as having one of the least free media in the world, hip-hop music became a visible representation of the resistance and signaled the impending social and political changes. Several rappers were arrested for their music, including El General in Tunisia and El Haqed of Morocco, which only generated more attention to the issue of censorship and the artists themselves. Regional Arabic hip-hop Hip hop communities in different Arab countries are interconnected with each other to varying degrees and also have connections to their respective diaspora communities in the US and Europe. United Arab Emirates Hip-hop was found in Forums Year 2001 in the United Arab Emirates was not given his rights for being too Underground for listeners, There aren't many rappers in the UAE Unfortunately no one wants to listen. Desert Heat was formed in late 2002, consists of two Emirati brothers ‘Illmiyah’ (eel-mee-yah) & ‘Arableak’, Mustafa qarooni Emirati Rapper known with his stage name Dj Sadcat started in 2004, In the year 2009 Sadcat had met a Car Accident in which created a song (Surrounded) for his situation the song was on YouTube until the listeners they started reporting the song for be to real and sad to listen Saudi Arabia Hip hop emerged in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia around 2003 as an online community of rappers sharing their work and competing for fans. A rapper named Klash became infamous for his allegedly racist lyrics. Klash and his friends initially focused on social issues such as unemployment and nepotism. It was common for groups of teenage and young adult friends, or "gangs," to produce music on these themes. A diss track was released against Klash by someone who was offended by his lyrics and sought revenge. Klash responded with his own diss track, and soon he and a growing number of rappers were turning their attention to diss tracks. Klash's diss tracks attracted many fans, and this led to young people adopting this style, which made Klash famous. Tunisia Hamada Ben Amor, known as El General, is a Tunisian rapper. El General's popularity is largely attributable to his musical contributions to the Jasmine Revolution that took place in his home country. El General began producing hip-hop music prior to the revolution and largely relied upon social media to publicize his music. His first recording, "Rais LeBled," was posted to YouTube in November 2010. The song was an attack on the former authoritarian ruler, Zine El Abidine Ben-Ali, and the poor conditions in the state, including poverty, unemployment, and political and social injustices. Following the suicide attempt by Mohammed Bouazizzi in Sidi Bouzzid, Tunisia, which prompted the revolutionary movement, El General's music was used in ensuing demonstrations. El General released subsequent songs, which similarly criticize the government and called for the end to Ben-Ali's regime. Consequently, he was arrested and imprisoned by Tunisian state police. His imprisonment further propelled the popularity of his music and activists demanded his release. El General was released soon after Ben-Ali fled the country in January 2011. El General is widely considered to be one of the largest musical influences emerging from the Arab Spring and is considered to have made direct contributions to political activism during the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia. Yemen The hip hop major outbreak in Yemen is often associated to the influence of Hagage "AJ" Masaed, an American-Yemeni rapper producing music since 1997. Although he had grown in the United States, AJ has successfully reached Yemeni audience by addressing to local issues and incorporating traditional musical language into his hits. This versatility was also one of the reasons he drew international recognition, since he entered in the Yemeni music scene, he has been partnering up with several Yemeni artists, such as Hussein Muhib, Fuad Al-Kibisi, Fuad Al-Sharjabi, Ibrahim Al-Taefi, Abdurahman Al-Akhfash and others, and helping new ones to develop their talents. He has also played a major role on propagating the understanding of rap as a means of change. One contributing factor to the development of the music is also the creation of Yemen Music House in 2007. that has been providing assets to the development of a contemporary music scene In 2009, took place the first Yemeni Rap public festival, co-sponsored by the French and German foreign-missions Due to the importance of this event, AJ draws a comparison between it and the fall of the Berlin wall. Syria Refugees Of Rap (Arabic: لاجئي الراب; French: "Les Réfugiés Du Rap") is a Syrian-Palestinian hip-hop group based in Paris, France. Two brothers, Yaser and Mohamed Jamous, created the group in 2007, in a Palestinian refugee camp in Yarmouk, Syria. The brothers' texts offer a glimpse of life in the camp and denounce the situation in Syria. Forced into exile in 2013, the brothers become refugees in France the same year. Their collaboration led to several artistic projects. From 2007 to 2012, the band performed concerts and performed in Syria, Egypt, and Lebanon. The group collaborated with multiple other artists, including Tamer Nafar (DAM), Tarabband, and Linda Bitar, to release two albums in 2010 and 2014. Since their arrival in Europe as refugees, the group has performed in several festivals and participated in several artistic and associated projects (France, Italy, Spain, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, Norway). (2015 Summer Camps (Rennes), Warm-up Roskilde Festival (Denmark 2017), IMA Institut du Monde Arabe 2017 Poetry Night, Fête de l'Humanité 2016 2017 etc..). In the continuity of their project, the two brothers offer musical workshops to young teens. These writing workshops are based around the notion of freedom of expression, where messages of peace and tolerance circulate in a humanist approach that democratizes rap and allows young people from all walks of life to express themselves through music and words. Throughout their career, the group has attracted the interest of several media such as Rolling Stone magazine, the World, BBC or ARTE, Vice, Konbini, The Guardian, Radio France, TV5 Complex. Refugees of Rap also organized a "rap writing" workshop last one was at Octave Mirbeau College in Trévières. Omar Offendum is a Syrian American hip-hop artist, designer, poet and peace activist. He was born in Saudi Arabia, raised in Washington, DC, and now lives in Los Angeles, California. His song #Jan25, inspired by the Arab Spring uprisings in Egypt, went viral in 2011, shortly before the resignation of Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak. Omar Offendum has often collaborated with Yassin Alsalman, also known as Narcy, and with renowned hip-hop artist Shadia Mansour. Amir Almuarri (Arabic: أمير المعري) is an Idlib-based rapper who achieved worldwide recognition for his music in 2019. His work draws attention to the suffering of the Syrian people under siege. His latest composition, entitled "On all fronts," expresses Almuarri's anger toward all parties involved in the fighting. It received widespread coverage by Arabic and international media. See also Algerian hip hop Egyptian hip hop Lebanese hip hop Moroccan hip hop Palestinian hip hop References External links Arabic music
4864520	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas%20Batum	Nicolas Batum	Nicolas Batum (}} ; born 14 December 1988) is a French professional basketball player for the Philadelphia 76ers of the National Basketball Association. He is also a member of the French national team and earned a silver medal in the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. Early life His father, Richard, of Cameroonian origin, was a professional basketball player in France. Richard died during a game in 1991 after suffering an aneurysm. Nicolas, at only 2 1/2 years old, and his mother were in the crowd to witness Richard’s death. Recruiting Batum delivered an impressive performance at the 2007 Nike Hoop Summit scoring 23 points (9/13 FG, 3/5 for 3 pointers) in 28 minutes. He also grabbed four rebounds and recorded four steals. As a youngster, Nicolas Batum was considered one of the most talented young players in Europe, as he was ranked #17 among international players born in 1988, by the scouting website DraftExpress.com at the time he entered the 2008 NBA draft. Professional career Le Mans Sarthe (2006–2008) Batum was part of the junior French national team that won the 2004 FIBA Europe Under-16 Championship. He was named the MVP of the 2006 FIBA Europe Under-18 Championship, as France won the gold medal at that tournament. In 2006, Batum was named the most valuable player of the Under-18 Albert Schweitzer Tournament in Mannheim, Germany, as part of the tournament-winning French national team. Batum averaged 19 points, over 5 rebounds, and over 2 steals per game, during the seven game tournament. While playing for Le Mans, Batum averaged 3.4 points (65.9% FG), 2.5 rebounds, 0.5 assist per game in 13 minutes for the 2006–2007 French league season, and 12.3 points (52.3%), 5.0 rebounds and 3.6 assists per game in 28 minutes for the 2007–2008 season. Portland Trail Blazers (2008–2011) Upon being selected with the 25th pick in the 2008 NBA draft by the Houston Rockets, Batum was traded to the Portland Trail Blazers for the rights to Darrell Arthur and Joey Dorsey. After coming off the bench for the first three games of his NBA career, Batum moved into the starting lineup in place of Travis Outlaw in Portland's fourth game of the 2008–09 season, a 103–96 loss to the Utah Jazz. On March 13, 2009, Batum recorded a season-high 20 points to go along with a clutch three-pointer with 29.9 seconds left, en route to a 109–100 victory over the New Jersey Nets. Batum missed the first 45 games of the 2009–10 season due to torn cartilage in his right shoulder. He played in his first game of the season on January 25, 2010. Batum scored more than 30 points for the first time with a 31-point performance (including 7 rebounds, 7 assists, and 3 steals) on February 27, 2010 against the Minnesota Timberwolves. SLUC Nancy (2011) In August 2011, during the 2011 NBA lockout, he signed a one-year contract with SLUC Nancy in French Basketball League which was valid until the NBA lockout ended. Return to Portland (2011–2015) Batum returned to Portland after the lockout ended. On June 25, 2012, the Portland Trail Blazers extended a qualifying offer to Batum, making him a restricted free agent. Less than three weeks later Batum signed a $46 million/4 year offer sheet with the Minnesota Timberwolves. On July 18, 2012, the Trail Blazers elected to match the Timberwolves' offer, signing Batum to the team through the 2015–16 campaign. On November 16, 2012, Batum tied a career-high of 35 points in a 119–117 overtime win against the Houston Rockets. This was followed exactly one month later by a game in which Batum recorded the 15th "five-by-five" in the NBA since the 1985–86 season, and the first since Andrei Kirilenko in January 2006. In this effort Batum scored 11 points while racking up 10 assists, 5 rebounds, 5 blocks and 5 steals in a 95–94 win against the New Orleans Hornets. On January 21, 2013, Batum recorded his first triple-double in a 98–95 loss to the Washington Wizards, scoring 12 points and adding 10 rebounds, and 11 assists, in addition to 3 steals and 2 blocks. Batum had a career year in 2012–13, as he finished with career-highs in nearly every statistic. His biggest improvement was his passing; he averaged 4.9 assists, more than triple his previous career-high (1.5 assists per game during the 2010–11 season). Charlotte Hornets (2015–2020) On June 24, 2015, Batum was traded to the Charlotte Hornets in exchange for Gerald Henderson, Jr. and Noah Vonleh. On August 1, 2015, Batum played for Team Africa at the 2015 NBA Africa exhibition game. He made his debut for the Hornets in the team's season opener against the Miami Heat on October 28, recording 9 points and 6 rebounds in a 104–94 loss. On November 15, he scored a season-high 33 points in a 106–94 win over the Portland Trail Blazers. The following day, he was named Eastern Conference Player of the Week for games played Monday, November 9 through Sunday, November 15. It was the first career Player of the Week award for Batum, who led the Hornets to a 3–1 record on the week. On December 9, he recorded his fifth career triple-double with 10 points, 11 rebounds and 11 assists in a 99–81 win over the Miami Heat. In early January, he missed four games with a right toe injury. Later that month, he missed three more games with the same injury. On March 29, he recorded his second triple-double of the season with 19 points, 12 rebounds and 12 assists in a 100–85 win over the Philadelphia 76ers. On April 20, Batum's first season with the Hornets came to an end after he suffered another injury, this time a sprained left ankle in Game 2 of the Hornets' first-round playoff series with the Miami Heat. On July 7, 2016, Batum re-signed with the Hornets on a five-year, $120 million contract. On December 23, 2016, he recorded his first triple-double of the season with 20 points, 11 rebounds and 10 assists in a 103–91 win over the Chicago Bulls. On October 5, 2017, Batum was ruled out for six to eight weeks with a tear of the ulnar collateral ligament in his left elbow. Batum made his season debut on November 15, 2017, scoring 16 points in 32 minutes as a starter in a 115–107 loss to the Cleveland Cavaliers. A week later, Batum left the Hornets' game against the Washington Wizards in the second quarter with a left elbow contusion and did not return. On January 31, 2018, he had 10 points, 11 rebounds and 10 assists in a 123–110 win over the Atlanta Hawks. On March 10, 2018, he recorded 29 points, 12 rebounds and seven assists in a 122–115 win over the Phoenix Suns. Five days later, he recorded a career-high 16 assists to go with 10 points and 10 rebounds in a 129–117 win over the Hawks. On October 24, 2019, Batum was sidelined for two to three weeks due to an avulsion fracture on the third finger of his left hand. Batum was waived by the Hornets November 29, 2020. Los Angeles Clippers (2020–2023) On December 1, 2020, after clearing waivers, Batum signed with the Los Angeles Clippers. On August 13, 2021, Batum re-signed with the Clippers. On July 6, 2022, Batum re-signed with the Clippers on a two-year deal. Philadelphia 76ers (2023–present) On November 1, 2023, the Philadelphia 76ers acquired Batum, Marcus Morris, Kenyon Martin Jr. and Robert Covington from the Clippers in exchange for James Harden, P.J. Tucker, and Filip Petrušev. As part of the trade, the Clippers dealt a first-round pick, two second-round picks, a pick swap, and cash considerations to the 76ers, while sending a pick swap and cash considerations to the Oklahoma City Thunder. Player profile Lanky and agile, Batum is regarded as a highly skilled defensive player and one of the NBA's best executors of the chase-down block. Growing up in Pont-l'Évêque, Normandy, the lanky Batum was among the tallest boys of his age group and began his basketball career as a center. Inspiration had been drawn from NBA shot-blocking specialist Dikembe Mutombo, known for theatrically wagging his finger after rejections — an affectation which Batum emulated. Batum noted in a 2013 interview with the Portland Oregonian that, as he got older, he was moved from the low post to the wing, where he was no longer able to make the face-up block, a signature component of his game. "I couldn't block it like I used to when I played inside, so when I would see a guy going down the court on a fast break, I used to run behind him and get the block". The chase-down block thus became a fundamental part of Batum's game and was a skill brought with him to the NBA. Through March 2013, only two players in the 2012–13 season who did not play center or power forward had performed more blocks than Batum — Josh Smith and Kevin Durant. On May 31, 2021, Batum started for Los Angeles Clippers as a center of the lineup against Dallas Mavericks in game four of the 2021 NBA playoffs. National team career 2012 Summer Olympics Batum played for the senior men's French national basketball team at the 2012 Summer Olympics. Late in a 66–59 quarterfinal loss to Spain, a frustrated Batum punched Spanish player Juan Carlos Navarro in the groin. After the game, Batum said, "I wanted to give him a good reason to flop." Batum later apologized on Twitter, writing, "I showed a bad image of France and myself. and the city of Portland Oregon. Congrats to team Spain." 2014 FIBA World Cup Batum was a member of the French national team that finished third-place in the 2014 FIBA Basketball World Cup, becoming the first French team to win a medal in a FIBA Basketball World Cup competition. In the final two games he averaged 31.0 points and was subsequently named to the all-tournament team. 2020 Summer Olympics Batum blocked Klemen Prepelič at the last second of the 2020 Olympics semi final giving victory to France. France eventually lost the final 82–87 to the United States. Rudy Gobert stated that Batum's game-saving play was one of the best blocks he had ever seen. His block was ranked as one of the unforgettable moments of the 2020 Summer Olympics. French national team individual awards and honors FIBA Basketball World Cup: (2014) FIBA EuroBasket: (2013) FIBA EuroBasket: (2011) FIBA Europe Under-18 Championship: 2006 FIBA Under-19 World Cup: 2007 FIBA World Cup All-Tournament Team: 2014 FIBA Europe Under-18 Championship MVP: 2006 FIBA Europe Under-18 All-Tournament Team: 2006 Career statistics NBA Regular season \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 79 \|\| 76 \|\| 18.4 \|\| .446 \|\| .369 \|\| .808 \|\| 2.8 \|\| .9 \|\| .6 \|\| .5 \|\| 5.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 37 \|\| 25 \|\| 24.8 \|\| .519 \|\| .409 \|\| .843 \|\| 3.8 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .6 \|\| .7 \|\| 10.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 80 \|\| 67 \|\| 31.5 \|\| .455 \|\| .345 \|\| .841 \|\| 4.5 \|\| 1.5 \|\| .9 \|\| .6 \|\| 12.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 59 \|\| 34 \|\| 30.4 \|\| .451 \|\| .391 \|\| .836 \|\| 4.6 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 13.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 73 \|\| 73 \|\| 38.5 \|\| .423 \|\| .372 \|\| .848 \|\| 5.6 \|\| 4.9 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 14.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 82 \|\| style="background:#cfecec;"\| 82* \|\| 36.0 \|\| .465 \|\| .361 \|\| .803 \|\| 7.5 \|\| 5.1 \|\| .9 \|\| .7 \|\| 13.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 71 \|\| 71 \|\| 33.5 \|\| .400 \|\| .324 \|\| .857 \|\| 5.9 \|\| 4.8 \|\| 1.1 \|\| .6 \|\| 9.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Charlotte \| 70 \|\| 70 \|\| 35.0 \|\| .426 \|\| .348 \|\| .849 \|\| 6.1 \|\| 5.8 \|\| .9 \|\| .6 \|\| 14.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Charlotte \| 77 \|\| 77 \|\| 34.0 \|\| .403 \|\| .333 \|\| .856 \|\| 6.2 \|\| 5.9 \|\| 1.1 \|\| .4 \|\| 15.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Charlotte \| 64 \|\| 64 \|\| 31.0 \|\| .415 \|\| .336 \|\| .831 \|\| 4.8 \|\| 5.5 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .4 \|\| 11.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Charlotte \| 75 \|\| 72 \|\| 31.4 \|\| .450 \|\| .389 \|\| .865 \|\| 5.2 \|\| 3.3 \|\| .9 \|\| .6 \|\| 9.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Charlotte \| 22 \|\| 3 \|\| 23.0 \|\| .346 \|\| .286 \|\| .900 \|\| 4.5 \|\| 3.0 \|\| .8 \|\| .4 \|\| 3.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|L.A. Clippers \| 67 \|\| 38 \|\| 27.4 \|\| .464 \|\| .404 \|\| .828 \|\| 4.7 \|\| 2.2 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .6 \|\| 8.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|L.A. Clippers \| 59 \|\| 54 \|\| 24.8 \|\| .463 \|\| .400 \|\| .658 \|\| 4.3 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .7 \|\| 8.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|L.A. Clippers \| 78 \|\| 19 \|\| 21.9 \|\| .420 \|\| .391 \|\| .708 \|\| 3.8 \|\| 1.6 \|\| .7 \|\| .6 \|\| 6.1 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 993 \|\| 825 \|\| 29.9 \|\| .436 \|\| .365 \|\| .833 \|\| 5.0 \|\| 3.4 \|\| .9 \|\| .6 \|\| 10.7 Play-in \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2022 \| style="text-align:left;"\|L.A. Clippers \| 2 \|\| 2 \|\| 30.6 \|\| .231 \|\| .200 \|\| .500 \|\| 7.0 \|\| 1.5 \|\| .5 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 4.5 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 2 \|\| 2 \|\| 30.6 \|\| .231 \|\| .200 \|\| .500 \|\| 7.0 \|\| 1.5 \|\| .5 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 4.5 Playoffs \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2009 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 6 \|\| 5 \|\| 10.5 \|\| .556 \|\| .500 \|\| .000 \|\| .5 \|\| .2 \|\| .2 \|\| .3 \|\| 2.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2010 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 6 \|\| 6 \|\| 23.2 \|\| .459 \|\| .429 \|\| .750 \|\| 3.2 \|\| .8 \|\| .3 \|\| .0 \|\| 8.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2011 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 6 \|\| 0 \|\| 25.2 \|\| .413 \|\| .269 \|\| .750 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 1.3 \|\| .8 \|\| .8 \|\| 8.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2014 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 11 \|\| 11 \|\| 41.7 \|\| .472 \|\| .350 \|\| .800 \|\| 7.6 \|\| 4.8 \|\| 1.3 \|\| .5 \|\| 15.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2015 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 5 \|\| 5 \|\| 41.8 \|\| .343 \|\| .333 \|\| .769 \|\| 8.6 \|\| 5.2 \|\| .2 \|\| .2 \|\| 14.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2016 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Charlotte \| 5 \|\| 2 \|\| 28.8 \|\| .378 \|\| .273 \|\| .850 \|\| 3.6 \|\| 2.0 \|\| .4 \|\| .0 \|\| 11.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2021 \| style="text-align:left;"\|L.A. Clippers \| 19 \|\| 10 \|\| 29.2 \|\| .486 \|\| .389 \|\| .826 \|\| 5.5 \|\| 2.1 \|\| 1.3 \|\| .5 \|\| 8.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2023 \| style="text-align:left;"\|L.A. Clippers \| 5 \|\| 3 \|\| 18.3 \|\| .421 \|\| .353 \|\| \|\| 2.2 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .4 \|\| .4 \|\| 4.4 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 63 \|\| 42 \|\| 28.7 \|\| .440 \|\| .352 \|\| .807 \|\| 4.7 \|\| 2.3 \|\| .8 \|\| .4 \|\| 9.2 EuroLeague \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2006–07 \| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2"\|Le Mans \| 12 \|\| 2 \|\| 13.5 \|\| .500 \|\| .273 \|\| .769 \|\| 1.7 \|\| .7 \|\| .8 \|\| .4 \|\| 4.3 \|\| 4.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2007–08 \| 13 \|\| 13 \|\| 26.6 \|\| .453 \|\| .290 \|\| .667 \|\| 3.5 \|\| 2.7 \|\| 1.5 \|\| .5 \|\| 8.5 \|\| 9.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2011–12 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Nancy \| 6 \|\| 6 \|\| 37.6 \|\| .415 \|\| .333 \|\| .818 \|\| 6.7 \|\| 5.2 \|\| 1.7 \|\| .7 \|\| 15.8 \|\| 23.2 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 31 \|\| 21 \|\| 23.6 \|\| .449 \|\| .298 \|\| .765 \|\| 3.4 \|\| 2.4 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .5 \|\| 8.3 \|\| 10.3 Personal life His father, Richard, of Cameroonian origin, was a professional basketball player in France. Richard died during a game in 1991 after suffering an aneurysm. Nicolas, at only 2 1/2 years old, and his mother were in the crowd to witness Richard’s death. Batum has a younger sister named Pauline. In March 2017, Batum became a shareholder in Infinity Nine Sports, the company owned by Tony Parker, which runs French basketball club ASVEL Basket, and took over the position as director of basketball operations at ASVEL. See also List of European basketball players in the United States References External links Nicolas Batum at euroleague.net Nicolas Batum at fiba.com 1988 births Living people 2010 FIBA World Championship players 2014 FIBA Basketball World Cup players 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup players Basketball players at the 2012 Summer Olympics Basketball players at the 2016 Summer Olympics Basketball players at the 2020 Summer Olympics Black French sportspeople Charlotte Hornets players French expatriate basketball people in the United States French men's basketball players French sportspeople of Cameroonian descent Houston Rockets draft picks Le Mans Sarthe Basket players Los Angeles Clippers players Medalists at the 2020 Summer Olympics National Basketball Association players from France Olympic basketball players for France Olympic medalists in basketball Olympic silver medalists for France People from Lisieux Portland Trail Blazers players Shooting guards SLUC Nancy Basket players Small forwards Sportspeople from Calvados (department) 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup players
4864703	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Archer%20%28Jesuit%29	James Archer (Jesuit)	James Archer (1550–1620) was an Irish Roman Catholic priest of the Society of Jesus who played a highly controversial role in both the Nine Years War and in the military resistance to both the House of Tudor's religious persecution of the Catholic Church in Ireland and the Elizabethan wars against both Gaelic Ireland and the Irish clans. During the final decade of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, Fr. James Archer became a leading figure of hate in the anti-Catholic propaganda of the English government, but his most lasting achievement was his role in the establishment and strengthening of the Irish Colleges in Catholic Europe during the Counter-Reformation. Early life Archer came from an Anglo-Norman family in County Kilkenny. He may have attended the local grammar school Kilkenny College which had been established in 1555 under Peter White, a fellow of the University of Oxford. David Wolfe, papal nuncio to Ireland, had been evangelizing in south Leinster in this period, although there is no evidence that he came in contact with Archer. Archer entered the seminary college of Louvain around the year 1564, when Nicholas Sanders was in charge. In his maturity, he was described as tall, of dark complexion, with a long, thin face. Irish mission Fr. Archer took a degree of Master of Arts and returned to Ireland in March 1577. Later the same year his presence about Waterford and Clonmel was reported to the queen's secretary, Francis Walsingham, by the President of Munster, William Drury. In the report, Archer was described as a "principal prelate" and "a detestable enemy to the Word of God". Drury also claimed that en route to Ireland Fr. Archer had "taught all the way betwixt Rye and Bristol [in England] against our religion and caused a number to despair". In 1579, the rebel James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald landed a papal invasion force at Smerwick in modern-day County Kerry in the company of Fr. Nicolas Sanders. Fitzmaurice proceeded to Holy Cross in County Tipperary via Kilmallock, and it is possible that Archer, who was in the vicinity, was attached to his forces. Fitzmaurice was killed in action during this journey. At about this time Archer is said to have attended on the rebel Conor O'Rourke on the evening of the latter's execution for treason. One source asserts that he was imprisoned at Westminster sometime after, but there is no substantial evidence for this. Jesuit Archer was received as a novice into the Society of Jesus at Rome in 1581. He then spent two and a half years at the Roman College, studying logic, physics, and moral and controversial theology. In a report to the Jesuit General in 1584, he was described as physically strong, although choleric and melancholy in temperament; he had not distinguished himself in his studies, and was reckoned, "suitable to hear confessions". In 1585 Archer was sent to the University of Pont-à-Mousson, where a joint Scots-Irish major seminary had lately been established. He studied scholastic theology for two years while ministering to the students and hearing confessions. In an unenthusiastic report delivered in 1587 - describing him as "bilious" - it was suggested that he was suited to become a preacher in his native country. Low Countries In 1587 Archer was sent to the Low Countries to serve as chaplain to the Spanish forces under the Duke of Parma during the Anglo-Spanish war (1585–1604).William Stanley, commander of a regiment of Irish soldiers under English crown authority, had just surrendered the Belgian city of Deventer to Parma and committed himself and his men to the service of the Spanish king. Archer spent his time hearing confessions from the Irish soldiers and busying himself with administrative duties. Expectations ran high among the forces for an invasion of England, but were defeated in the following year when the Spanish Armada was driven from the Dutch coast. As Spain gradually regained its strategic initiative over England, Archer was reported to be following Stanley's regiment throughout 1590. In September of the following year, he was at Brussels, recovering from an illness. His superiors still considered him of middling ability, and the impression of melancholy and irascibility persisted. A request was then received from the Archbishop of Armagh, Edmund MacGauran, for his participation in a Jesuit mission to Ireland. Salamanca Fr. Archer remained in the Low Countries throughout 1591, then spent three months at Calais before he sailed to Spain, where he became the first rector of the Irish College at Salamanca after a visit to Philip II's court at Madrid. In the following years, he visited court regularly in an effort to secure scarce funding for the institution. By this time his superiors had altered their opinion of him to such a degree that he was considered ripe for promotion. Plots and allegations In 1594 Archer became involved in controversy, when it was alleged that he had plotted two years previously with other Jesuits and Stanley to assassinate Queen Elizabeth I. The chosen assassin had been Hugh Cahill, a Tipperary man, who confessed that he was paid to hang about the court at London, on the off chance that the queen might present herself as a target, and then stab her. The confession had been obtained under torture by Richard Topcliffe, and further information came from an agent of Robert Cecil, secretary to the queen. At this time, Archer was also implicated in a plot to torch the French and English ships at Dieppe. The merits of the allegations are impossible to judge, although it seems clear that Archer was acquainted with Cahill. The assassination plot was just one of many against the queen that received credence during the final decade of her reign. One sceptic has pointed out that the evidence only emerged once Father Robert Persons had published his A Conference about the Next Succession to the Crown of England. The book does appear to have alarmed Elizabeth's advisers, and from that date onward the flow of supposed plots against the queen's life became steady. In 1601 Cecil himself was accused of treason at the trial of the Earl of Essex on the basis of his reading of Person's book, but survived this twist and went on to secure the succession of James I upon the queen's death two years later. Ireland In 1596 Archer returned to Ireland, landing in the southeast (at either Waterford or Wexford), with a view to re-establishing the Jesuit mission there and to raise funds for the college at Salamanca. The brief visit became an enforced stay of four years, and it was soon decided at Rome to make him superior of the new mission. His presence came to the attention of the Lord Deputy of Ireland, Sir William Russell, and the government regarded him with such suspicion that a reward was offered for his capture. By August 1598 it seems Archer had fled north to Ulster, where he joined the rebels as the Nine Years war entered its most active phase. It is probable that, following the English defeat at the battle of the Yellow Ford later in that year, he decided to commit himself to the cause of Hugh O'Neill. With this newfound authority, he returned south to more familiar territory. During the rest of the war reports of Archer's exploits were legion, so that an aura of mystery and almost awe was attached to his name, and government officers referred to him as the "arch traitor" and the "arch devil". However exaggerated the reports, it is certain that he was present at the taking of the Earl of Ormond in 1599, when the rebel O'Mores lured the most powerful nobleman in the country to a parley in a remote part of Carlow and seized him by treachery. The earl spent a substantial period in custody, with Archer attending on him regularly, at a time when the English presence in Ireland was in jeopardy. Ormond's seizure - which followed the departure from Ireland of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex after a disappointing campaign (see Essex in Ireland) - was put down by the Lord President of Munster, Sir George Carew, to Archer's influence. Upon Ormond's release some months later - unharmed - the earl described Archer as an "odious traitor". It may be that Ormond himself was complicit in the act, with some suggestion that he was indulging in a long game to ensure his power against the hazard of an outright defeat of the English and the removal of their influence from Ireland. One source later claimed that Ormond had converted to the Catholic faith during his captivity, and Archer is reported to have declared that the earl would be made king of Ireland upon Spanish intervention. This episode still defies satisfactory explanation. Spanish intervention In October 1599 Archer left Ireland for Rome, where he effectively acted as O'Neill's envoy. Pope Clement VIII delayed the appointment of a nuncio to Ireland, but at Madrid plans for an Irish expedition were given renewed attention upon the agreement of peace between Spain and France. In early 1601 Philip III of Spain opted to send an armada with a force of 6000 soldiers, and the Dublin government began preparations to meet the Spanish effort. During the spring and summer of 1601, Carew and Cecil received reports of the activities of Archer, who had just arrived in Spain. Despite the appointment of a Jesuit nuncio - a neutral who was averse to a militant mission in Ireland - Archer managed to defer service in the seminary at Salamanca and involved himself in the Irish expedition instead. He proposed a landing in Munster - in the south - while the commander of the expedition, Juan del Águila, insisted on one in Ulster. In consultation, O'Neill and the northern clans recommended a compromise: a landing along the coast between the Shannon Estuary and Lough Foyle in the extreme north. In September Archer, with the assistance of Jesuit lay brother and future Irish Catholic Martyr Dominic Collins, set sail with the armada, which bore over 4500 soldiers and was bound for the port of Cork, or its alternative at Kinsale - both destinations lay at the extreme south of the island. Battle of Kinsale On arriving in Munster in September 1601, both Fr. Archer and Juan del Aguila discovered that the province lay docile under Lord President of Munster Sir George Carew's domination and control. This was largely due to the recent capture and imprisonment of both Fínghin mac Donncha Mac Carthaig Mór and the Súgán Earl of Desmond. Meanwhile, Fr. Archer vouched with del Aguíla for local Irish clan chief, Donal Cam O'Sullivan Beare, who offered to raise his clan and block the march from the Pale of the Crown's principal army under Lord Mountjoy, but del Aguila declined. The Spanish instead occupied the walled town of Kinsale, which was almost immediately surrounded by Lord Mountjoy in a siege that was to last three months. Seeking to rescue Juan del Águila's forces and break the siege, the anti-Tudor coalition of the Irish clans of Ulster under the leadership of Aodh Mór Ó Néill and Red Hugh O'Donnell marched across the whole length of Ireland through extremely bitter winter conditions, but were catastrophically defeated by the English cavalry in December at the battle of Kinsale. Juan del Aguila then surrendered Kinsale on terms and departed with his forces for Spain. Fr. Archer immediately engaged in recrimination. He accused the Spanish commander of cowardice, vacillation, and dereliction of duty by both refusing to heed the advice of local Irish clans and refusing to sally forth and meet his Ulster allies at the critical point. Determined to seek further Spanish reinforcements, Archer left Kinsale and joined the forces of Donal Cam O'Sullivan Beare, who were refusing to give up the fight and were holding out further down the coast at Dunboy Castle. In a letter to Robert Cecil, Lord President of Munster Sir George Carew, "could not forbear", according to Irish historian Proinsias Ó Fionnagáin, "voicing his almost superstitious fear of Archer". Carew commented, "Archer the priest conjures the foul weather, which I do partly believe, for the old men have never seen the like in May. If he remains in Dunboy I hope to conjure his head in a halter. He hath a fellow devil with him, one Dominic Collins, a friar, who in his youth was a scholar and brother to him that was last year mayor of Youghal. Every week that traitorly priest administers the sacrament to them; yet I hope to sow such sedition amongst them that they will break." Consideration was being given at the court of King Philip III to a further expedition, and Archer sailed for Spain on 6 July 1602 (just before the Siege of Dunboy and the capture and execution by hanging of Brother Dominic Collins) to report on the state of Ireland. At the Spanish Court, Archer railed against Juan del Aguila. For his part, the commander argued against giving any further aid to the Irish clans and presented the King with a forged letter - leaked to him by Sir George Carew - purporting to be from Fr. Archer, in which the priest was supposed to have sought a full pardon from Queen Elizabeth. The arguments dragged on, but by March 1603, Fr. Archer appears to have been vindicated while del Aguila was placed under house arrest by the King. Fr. Archer's hopes of aid continued, but after the Queen's death in March 1603 Aodh Mór Ó Néill accepted terms of surrender from Lord Mountjoy. Upon the accession of King James I to the English throne in May a new dispensation was in place, and in the following year, a peace was concluded between the English and Spanish Governments. Juan del Aguila was eventually restored to favour, and in Ireland Sir George Carew ordered all Roman Catholic priests to depart the kingdom. Fr. Archer repeatedly sought to return to Ireland, and for years afterwards his imminent arrival was touted in anti-Catholic propaganda by the English government, but the remainder of his life was spent as an exile in Catholic Europe. The Irish College Fr. Archer was appointed prefect of mission by the Jesuit father-general, Fr. Claudio Acquaviva, with the task of coordinating the work of the Irish colleges in Iberia. In the Irish College at Salamanca, allegations had arisen that the Jesuits were discriminating against Gaels in favour of Old English students from those parts of Ireland more loyal to the English crown. A Spanish rector was appointed after a royal inquiry, but Fr. Archer intervened, seeking greater safeguards for students from the Gaeltachtaí, and was granted his wish by the king. In 1610 the Irish College at Salamanca was raised to a Royal College. Archer spent much time at court, and his approach to his responsibilities is summed up in the following quote, concerning the opportunity afforded through the running of the seminaries: "if we do not take advantage of it we shall do nothing heroic or outstanding". Decline and death Archer began to suffer ill health in 1608, and little is known of him until 1613, when he stayed two months at Bordeaux on seminary business. He appears to have commanded respect for his devoted religious observance. In 1615 Archer again sought to return to Ireland, but his request was denied by the new Jesuit father—general, Mutius Vitelleschi. He spent the last years of his life at Santiago de Compostella as the spiritual father to the seminarians. On 15 February 1620, he died at the Irish college there. Legacy Archer became notorious for his contributions to the rising of the Irish clans during the Nine Years' War. However, his greatest achievement was arguably in the establishment of the Irish Colleges to train students for the priesthood, which went from strength to strength in the succeeding centuries and contributed greatly to the Counter-Reformation. Folklore According to historian and folklorist Tony Nugent, Fr. James Archer and Brother Dominic Collins are associated in local Irish folklore with a rock located in a mountain pass between Kenmare, County Kerry and Bantry, County Cork. The rock, which is known in Munster Irish as Léim an tSagairt ("The Priest's Leap"), is alleged to be where Fr. Archer, Brother Dominic, or in some accounts both, leapt an enormous distance on horseback to escape pursuit by a posse of Elizabethan soldiers. A metal cross now marks the site. References Sources McCoog, Thomas M. SJ The Society of Jesus in Ireland, Scotland and England 1598-1606 Leiden 2017 Thomas Morrissey S.J., James Archer of Kilkenny: an Elizabethan Jesuit (Dublin, 1979) 1550 births 1620 deaths 16th-century Irish Jesuits 17th-century Irish Jesuits Counter-Reformation Irish Roman Catholic priests Christian clergy from County Kilkenny People of Elizabethan Ireland People of the Nine Years' War (Ireland) People of the Second Desmond Rebellion
4864744	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil%20Hamilton%20Fairley	Neil Hamilton Fairley	Brigadier Sir Neil Hamilton Fairley, (15 July 1891 – 19 April 1966) was an Australian physician, medical scientist, and army officer who was instrumental in saving thousands of Allied lives from malaria and other diseases. A graduate of the University of Melbourne, Fairley joined the Australian Army Medical Corps in 1915. He investigated an epidemic of meningitis that was occurring in Army camps in Australia. While with the 14th General Hospital in Cairo, he investigated schistosomiasis (then known as bilharzia) and developed tests and treatments for the disease. In the inter-war period he became renowned as an expert on tropical medicine. Fairley returned to the Australian Army during the Second World War as Director of Medicine. He played an important role in the planning for the Battle of Greece, convincing the British Commander-in-Chief, General Sir Archibald Wavell to alter his campaign plan to reduce the danger from malaria. In the South West Pacific Area, Fairley became responsible for co-ordinating the activities of all allied forces in the fight against malaria and other tropical diseases. Fairley again sounded the alarm on the dangers of malaria, persuading authorities in the United States and United Kingdom to greatly step up production of anti-malarial drugs. Through the activities of the LHQ Medical Research Unit, he fast-tracked research into new drugs. Fairley convinced the Army of the efficacy of the new drug atebrin, and persuaded commanders to adopt a tough approach to administering the drug to the troops. After the war Fairley returned to London where he became a consulting physician to the Hospital for Tropical Diseases and Wellcome Professor of Tropical Medicine at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. A serious illness in 1948 forced him to resign his professorship, but he retained his practice and membership of numerous committees, becoming an "elder statesman" of tropical medicine. Early life Neil Hamilton Fairley was born in Inglewood, Victoria, on 15 July 1891, as the third of six sons of James Fairley, a bank manager, and his wife Margaret Louisa, née Jones. All four of their sons who survived to adulthood took up medicine as a career. One qualified as a Doctor of Medicine at the University of Melbourne and a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons in England and became a surgeon; he was killed in action in the First World War. A second also qualified as a Doctor of Medicine at the University of Melbourne, and later as a Fellow of the Royal Australasian College of Physicians and Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians; he became senior physician at Royal Melbourne Hospital. A third son became a general practitioner. Neil was educated at Scotch College, Melbourne, where he was dux of his class. He attended the University of Melbourne, graduating with his Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery with first class honours in 1915, and his Doctor of Medicine in 1917. While there, he won the Australian inter-varsity high jumping championship and represented Victoria in tennis. First World War Fairley joined the Australian Army Medical Corps with the rank of captain on 1 August 1915 and was posted to Royal Melbourne Hospital as a resident medical officer. He investigated an epidemic of meningitis that was occurring in local Army camps, and his first published paper was an analysis of this disease, documenting fifty cases. In 1916, he co-authored a monograph published by the federal government detailing 644 cases, of which 338 (52%) were fatal (before the invention of antibiotic drugs). Fairley enlisted in the First Australian Imperial Force (AIF) on 24 August 1916. On 5 September 1916, he embarked for Egypt on RMS Kashgar, joining the 14th General Hospital in Cairo. There he encountered Major Charles Martin, formerly Professor of Physiology at the University of Melbourne and Director of the Lister Institute from 1903 to 1930. At this time, Martin was working as a Consulting Physician to the AIF in Egypt and commanded the Anzac Field Laboratory. While in Egypt, Fairley investigated schistosomiasis (then known as bilharzia). The disease was known to be caused by contact with fresh water inhabited by certain species of snails, and orders had been issued that prohibited bathing in fresh water, but the troops were slow to appreciate the danger involved. In its toxic phase, the disease was easily confused with typhus, so Fairley developed a complement fixation test for the disease along the lines of the Wassermann test. He studied its pathology, confirming that the worms in the circulatory system could be cured by intravenous tartaric acid. Fairley also studied, and later published papers on typhus, malaria, and bacillary dysentery. Fairley married Staff Nurse Violet May Phillips at the Garrison Church, Abbassia, Cairo on 12 February 1919. They divorced on 21 November 1924. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 15 March 1919 and commanded the 14th General Hospital for a time before embarking for the United Kingdom in June 1919. For his services in the First World War, Fairley was mentioned in despatches and made an Officer of the Military Division of the Order of the British Empire. His citation read: Between the wars Fairley was one of a number of AIF officers granted leave "to visit various hospitals in the United Kingdom so that they become conversant with the latest developments in the medical sciences". For a time, he worked for Martin at the Lister Institute in London where he qualified for membership of the Royal College of Physicians of London. He also received a Diploma of Public Health from the University of Cambridge. He returned to Australia on the transport Orontes in February 1920, to become a research assistant to Sydney Patterson, director of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, where Fairley worked on developing a test for echinococcosis along the lines of the test that he had already developed for bilharzia. Fairley remained for less than a year before resigning to take up a five-year appointment in Bombay as Chair of Clinical Tropical Medicine at a newly created School of Tropical Medicine, a post for which he had been nominated by the Royal Society. On arrival in India, he found that the scheme had been abandoned and that as his appointment could be terminated at six-months' notice, he would no longer be required after October 1922. Fairley demanded and received an audience with the Governor of Bombay, Sir George Lloyd, the result of which was that the Secretary of State agreed to create a special five-year post of Medical Officer of the Bombay Bacteriological Laboratory and Honorary Consulting Physician to the Sir Jamshedjee Jeejebhoy Hospital and St George Hospital. In India, Fairley continued his research into schistosomiasis. The disease was unknown in India but snails were abundant and there was danger that troops returning from Egypt might introduce it. In the absence of human schistosoma, Fairley investigated bovine schistosoma, which infected water buffalo and other domesticated animals in the Bombay area. Experiments with monkeys proved that daily intravenous doses of tartaric acid were an effective treatment. Fairley also carried out pioneering work on Guinea worm disease (dracunculiasis). His main interest was tropical sprue, but he was unable to determine its cause or discover a cure. He contracted the disease himself and made some advances in its treatment. He was invalided out of India, and travelled to the United Kingdom to recuperate in 1925. While in India he had met Mary Evelyn Greaves, and they were married at the Presbyterian Church, Marylebone, on 28 October 1925. Fairley returned to Australia in 1927 and rejoined the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute. He worked there for two years, collaborating with the new director, Charles Kellaway in studies of snake venoms and with Harold Dew on the development of diagnostic tests for echinococcosis. Fairley dedicated most of 1928 to the snake venom programme, co-ordinating an enormous body of epidemiological data—including a questionnaire to Australian clinicians—on the frequency and outcome of bites by Australian elapid snakes. This work involved numerous milkings to establish typical and maximal venom yields, innovative studies of snake dentition using wax moulds, and detailed dissections to describe each species' biting apparatus. Fairley furthermore undertook in vivo studies of envenomation in a range of large animal species, to determine the efficacy of prevailing first-aid measures. He concluded that at best, ligature and local venesection might slow time to death after a significant envenomation. This reinforced the need for effective antivenenes (antivenoms) for the more dangerous local species of snakes, notably the tiger snake (Notechis scutatus), death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus) and copperhead (Austrelaps superbus), although only the former was suitable for manufacture by the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories (now CSL Limited). In 1928, Fairley received an appointment in London as Assistant Physician to the Hospital for Tropical Diseases and Lecturer at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Although he and Kellaway convinced the governors to delay Fairley's commencement until their major venom work was completed, he departed for London by the end of that year. He also opened a consulting practice in Harley Street. In London he encountered patients with filariasis and devised a test to diagnose the disease at an early stage; but when he went to write up his results he discovered that details of a similar test had already been published. In 1934, a sewer worker was referred to his ward with acute jaundice which Fairley diagnosed as caused by filariasis. The disease was revealed to be an occupational hazard of sewer workers, and steps were taken to protect the workers. Perhaps his most important work in this period was research into blackwater fever. Since malaria cases were uncommon in the United Kingdom, he made annual visits to the Malaria Research Laboratory of the League of Nations at the Refugee Hospital in Salonika. In the process, he described methaemalbumin, a previously unknown blood pigment. For his scientific accomplishments in London, Fairley was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1942. Second World War Middle East With the outbreak of the Second World War, the Australian Army's director general of medical services, Major General Rupert Downes tapped Fairley as consulting physician. Fairley was seconded to the Second Australian Imperial Force (AIF) with the rank of colonel on 15 July 1940 and given the serial number VX38970. He joined the AIF Headquarters in Cairo in September, taking advantage of the initial quiet period to familiarise himself with the AIF's medical units and their commanders. As the British Army in the Middle East had no consulting physician in tropical diseases, Fairley accepted an offer to act in this capacity as well. In January 1941 the British Army began planning for operations in Greece. Fairley and his British colleague, Colonel John Boyd, a consulting pathologist, drafted a medical appreciation. Drawing on the experience of the Salonika front in the First World War, where very heavy casualties suffered from malaria, plus Fairley's more recent experience in that part of the world, they painted a gloomy picture, emphasising the grave risks, and going so far as to suggest that the Germans might attempt to entice the allies into a summer campaign in which they could be destroyed by malaria. The British Commander-in-Chief, General Sir Archibald Wavell decried their report as "typical of a very non-medical and non-military spirit", but a face-to-face meeting with Boyd and Fairley convinced Wavell that they were serious and not merely uncooperative, and Wavell promised his assistance in mitigating the danger. The campaign plan was altered to position allied forces further south, away from the plains of Macedonia and the Vardar and Struma River basins, where malaria was hyper-endemic and heavy casualties had been suffered from malaria by British troops during the First World War. Fairley tackled an outbreak of bacilliary dysentery among the troops in Egypt. In most cases the patients recovered of their own accord but some cases of shigellosis became seriously ill and died. Fairley had some Shiga anti-toxin with him, but it proved ineffective in serious cases, even when administered in large doses. However, he also had an experimental supply of sulphaguanidine that had been given to him by Dr E. K. Marshall of Johns Hopkins Hospital. The drug was administered to a patient with severe shigellosis who was not expected to live, and the patient soon recovered. Of the 21,015 Australian soldiers who contracted bacilliary dysentery during the Second World War, only 21 died. Malaria again became a concern in the Syria-Lebanon Campaign. The Australian Army raised malaria control units for the first time and as soon as the operational situation permitted swamps and areas of open water were drained and mosquito breeding areas were sprayed. There were 2,435 cases of malaria in the AIF in 1941, a rate of 31.8 per thousand per year. Quinine was used as a prophylaxis. On Fairley's advice, patients with relapses were treated with intravenous quinine for three days followed by a course of atebrin and plasmoquine. For his services in the Middle East, Fairley was mentioned in despatches a second time, and made a Commander of the Military Division Order of the British Empire for his "immense and specialised knowledge of tropical diseases in the Middle East". South West Pacific With the entry of Japan into the war, Fairley flew to Java in January 1942. Fairley was well aware that Java produced 90% of the world's supply of quinine and that the implications would be serious if Java was lost. He arranged for the purchase of all available stocks of quinine, some . Fairley was informed that the quinine had been loaded on board two ships. One was never seen again. The other, the SS Klang, reached Fremantle in March. Although of quinine was loaded on board, it was apparently unloaded when the ship stopped at Tjilatjap, possibly due to fifth columnists. Thus, none of the shipment reached Australia. Fairley himself departed Java with the I Corps staff on the transport Orcades on 21 February 1942 shortly before Java fell. In General Sir Thomas Blamey's reorganisation of the Australian Army in April 1942, Fairley was appointed director of medicine at Allied Land Forces Headquarters (LHQ) in Melbourne. Fairley was soon facing a series of medical emergencies caused by the Kokoda Track campaign. An epidemic of bacillary dysentery was headed off by Fairley's decision to rush all available supplies of sulphaguanadine to New Guinea. On Fairley's advice every man who complained of diarrhoea was given the drug and the epidemic was brought under control in ten days. But Fairley's main concern was malaria. Despite the experience with malaria in the Middle East, most of the troops had a poor understanding of anti-malaria precautions and few medical officers had encountered the disease. In combination with critical shortages of drugs and anti-malarial supplies such as netting, insecticides and repellents, the result was a medical disaster. In the 13-week period from 31 October 1942 to 1 January 1943, the Army reported 4,137 battle casualties, but 14,011 casualties from tropical diseases, of which 12,240 were from malaria. The government grimly contemplated disbanding divisions to replace malaria casualties. "Our worst enemy in New Guinea," General Blamey declared, "is not the Nip—it’s the bite." This caused Blamey to despatch a medical mission headed by Fairley to the United States and the United Kingdom in September 1942 to present the Army's case for a more adequate and equitable share of anti-malarial supplies. The mission was successful. Fairley was able to secure supplies and expedite the delivery of those that were already on order but held up for lack of shipping or priority. In bringing the problem to the attention of the highest allied military and civil authorities overseas, he lifted the global profile and priority of malaria control measures. It was calculated that Allied requirements for atebrin would be per annum, of which would be manufactured in the United Kingdom and in the United States. American production in 1942 was estimated at 60 tons but efforts were soon under way to increase production. The possibility of producing atebrin in Australia was considered, but the drug was complicated to synthesise and required little shipping space, although steps were taken to produce mosquito repellent. As in the Middle East, the Army relied on a combination of quinine, atebrin and plasmoquine (QAP) to cure malaria. The United States and United Kingdom agreed to each produce two tons of plasmoquine each per annum. The requested drugs and supplies began arriving in December 1942. As "one of the reasons for the lamentable record in malaria control in 1942 and early 1943 was the absence of medical authority at the level of the theatre commander's headquarters", Fairley suggested that there be a body responsible for co-ordinating the activities of all allied forces in the South West Pacific Area. General Blamey took the matter up with the General Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander. MacArthur, who had himself suffered an attack of malaria back in 1904 (and a serious relapse the next year), created the Combined Advisory Committee on Tropical Medicine, Hygiene and Sanitation with Colonel Fairley as its chairman in March 1943. After its first meeting, Fairley met with MacArthur, who emphasised that he did not wish the committee to concern itself with matters of academic interest but to make concrete recommendations on essential medical matters. The committee proceeded to make a series of recommendations regarding training, discipline, equipment, procedures and priorities, which then went out as GHQ orders to all commands. Fairley's proposed use of atebrin as a prophylactic agent was accepted and Fairley switched the Australian Army over to using atebrin as a prophylaxis instead of quinine in March 1943. The most acute problem at this time was a shortage of atebrin. The Australian Army had only seven weeks' stock was on hand in March 1943 and US forces in both the South West Pacific and South Pacific Area were drawing on Australian Army stocks as they had not yet received adequate stocks of their own. The drug is also a dye, and had the known side effect of making the skin and eyeballs of the user go yellow in colour after repeated use but this was an acceptable drawback in wartime. Prolonged use could cause lichen planus and psychosis in rare cases, but atebrin still turned out to be much safer than quinine. Blackwater fever—which had a mortality rate of 25%—disappeared entirely. Fairley was acutely aware that much remained unknown about malaria. In particular, he was interested in the possibility that sulphaguanidine (or a related sulphonamide) might be a causal prophylactic against malaria, as they could be manufactured in Australia, unlike atebrin and plasmoquine. Fairley decided to establish a unit in Cairns to investigate malaria. The LHQ Medical Research Unit commenced work in June 1943. Fairley travelled to New Guinea at the end of June 1943 and arranged for Plasmodium falciparum cases to be evacuated to Cairns for treatment. As the flight time from Port Moresby to Cairns was only a few hours, this was considered safe, but since the disease can be fatal if not treated promptly, Fairley was concerned lest the cases be delayed for some reason. Movement Control suggested that a special priority be allocated to such cases, and Major General Frank Berryman suggested calling it priority Neil after Fairley himself. Because movement priorities had to have five letters, an extra L was added on the end. Priority Neill soon came to be applied to the entire Cairns project. The LHQ Medical Research Unit used human test subjects, all volunteers drawn from the Australian Army, including a small but notable group of 'Dunera Boys' (Jewish refugees) from the 8th Employment Company. The volunteers were infected with strains of malaria from infected mosquitoes, or from the blood of other test subjects, which was then treated with various drugs. The volunteers were rewarded with three weeks' leave and a certificate of appreciation signed by General Blamey. The LHQ Medical Research Unit researched quinine, sulphonamides, atebrin, plasmoquine, and paludrine. In June 1944, a conference was held at Atherton, Queensland on "Prevention of Disease in Warfare". Chaired by Lieutenant General Vernon Sturdee, the commander of the First Army, it was attended by key corps and division commanders. Fairley, who had been promoted to brigadier in February 1944, described the results of the work at Cairns on anti-malarial drugs; other officers described practical measures that could be taken to reduce the toll of disease on the men. The Director General of Medical Services, Major General S. R. (Ginger) Burston, told the senior commanders "the ball is in your court". Using draconian drills that required officers to place atebrin tablets in their men's mouths, the army attempted to reduce the incidence of malaria to zero. For the most part they were successful but in the Aitape-Wewak campaign the 6th Division suffered an epidemic of malaria despite its best efforts. Fairley was urgently recalled from a tour of South East Asia Command and given orders by General Blamey to personally proceed to Wewak and investigate the situation. A special section was formed from the LHQ Medical Research Unit to assist the 6th Division and certain relapsing personnel were evacuated to Cairns. The epidemic was ultimately brought under control by doubling the dosage of atebrin. Fairley was forced to confront the fact—confirmed by research at Cairns—that an atebrin-resistant strain of malaria had arisen. The ability of malaria to develop resistant strains would have profound implications in the post-war world. Later life After the war Australian medical research was substantially reorganised, but Fairley joined the ranks of senior Australian medical scientists who spent the remainder of their professional lives in Britain. In London he became consulting physician to the Hospital for Tropical Diseases and Wellcome Professor of Tropical Medicine at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. His early post war research was a continuation of his wartime work on malaria. He became seriously ill in 1948 and his health steadily declined thereafter, forcing him to resign his professorship. He retained his practice and membership of numerous committees, becoming an "elder statesman" of tropical medicine. In recognition of his service to tropical medicine, he was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 8 June 1950. Fairley's declining health prompted him to leave London and move to The Grove, Sonning, Berkshire, where he died on 19 April 1966, and was buried in the graveyard of St Andrew's Church, Sonning. He was survived by his wife and their two sons, who were both medical doctors, and also by the son of his first marriage, who had become an Australian Army officer. His son Gordon Hamilton-Fairley, a renowned oncologist, was killed by a Provisional Irish Republican Army bomb on 22 October 1975. Sir William Dargie painted a portrait of Fairley in 1943, which is in the possession the Fairley family. A later 1960 portrait by Dargie, together with a 1945 one by Nora Heysen, is in the Australian War Memorial. Neither is on display, although the latter can be viewed online. A 1954 Dargie portrait of Queen Elizabeth II painted while Dargie was staying at Fairley's home at 81 Duke Street, Grosvenor Square, in London, and subsequently given to Fairley, was sold at auction to the National Museum of Australia in 2009 for $120,000. Fairley's papers were in the Basser Library at the Australian Academy of Science from 1975 until 2019. In November 2019 they were transferred to the Australian War Memorial. He is commemorated by the Neil Hamilton Fairley Overseas Clinical Fellowship, which provides full-time training in Australia and overseas in areas of clinical research including the social and behavioural sciences. Medical awards and prizes 1920 Dublin Research Prize 1921 David Syme Research Prize and Medal 1931 Chalmers Medal for Research in Tropical Medicine 1945 Bancroft Memorial Medal 1946 Richard Pierson Strong Medal, American Foundation of Tropical Medicine 1947 Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh 1948 Moxon Medal, Royal College of Physicians 1949 Mary Kingsley Medal, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine 1950 Manson Medal, Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1951 James Cook Medal, Royal Society of NSW 1957 Buchanan Medal, Royal Society of London Source: Notes References Further reading 1891 births 1966 deaths Military personnel from Victoria (state) Australian brigadiers Australian Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire Australian medical researchers Australian military doctors Australian military personnel of World War I Australian Army personnel of World War II Australian tropical physicians Commanders of the Order of St John Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians Fellows of the Royal Society Malariologists Manson medal winners Melbourne Medical School alumni People educated at Scotch College, Melbourne People from Inglewood, Victoria People from Sonning WEHI alumni Presidents of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
4864757	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collegiate%20secret%20societies%20in%20North%20America	Collegiate secret societies in North America	The are many collegiate secret societies in North America. They vary greatly in their level of secrecy and the degree of independence from their universities. A collegiate secret society makes a significant effort to keep affairs, membership rolls, signs of recognition, initiation, or other aspects secret from the public. Some collegiate secret societies are referred to as "class societies", which restrict membership to one class year. Most class societies are restricted to the senior class and are therefore also called senior societies on many campuses. Categorization There is no strict rule on the categorization of secret societies. Secret societies can have ceremonial initiations, secret signs of recognition (gestures, handshakes, passwords), formal secrets (the 'true' name of the society, a motto, or society history); but college fraternities or "social fraternities" have the same, and some of these elements can also be a part of literary societies, singing groups, editorial boards, and honorary and pre-professional groups. Some secret societies have kept their membership secret, for example Seven Society and Gridiron, and some have not, like Skull and Bones (the Yale societies had published their membership lists in the yearbooks and the Yale Daily News). One key concept in distinguishing secret societies from fraternities is that, on campuses that have both kinds of organizations, one can be a member of both (that is, membership is not mutually exclusive). Usually, being a member of more than one fraternity is not considered appropriate, because that member would have divided loyalties; however, typically, there is no issue with being a member of a secret society and a fraternity, because they are not considered similar organizations or competing organizations. An especially difficult problem is the degree to which any one society is an actual society or is simply an honorary designation. Phi Beta Kappa, for example, was a true secret society, but after its secrets were divulged, the society continued. It claims today to still be an actual society that has meetings, conducts its affairs, and is a living social entity. For most members, membership consists of one evening's initiation, and no more, which would make the society completely an honorary one in most people's eyes. Many secret societies exist as honoraries on one campus and may have been actual meeting societies at one time, kept alive by one or two dedicated local alumni or an alumni affairs or Dean's office person, who see to it that an annual initiation is held every year. Some of these state that they are honoraries; others seek to perpetuate the image of a continuing active society where there is none. While there are some guideline criteria for the neutral observer to understand what sort of society any given organization is, much of the analysis reverts to what any one society has been traditionally understood to be. There are additional means, such as societies that were more or less explicitly established in emulation of some previous secret society, or using historical records to show that society X was created out of society Y. Common traits There are several common traits among these societies. For example, many societies have two-part names, such as Skull and Bones or Scroll and Key. Many societies also limit their membership to a specific numerical limit in a class year. Extensive mortuary imagery is associated with many secret societies, maintaining a pretense of great seriousness, and clubhouses are often called "tombs". Tapping The archetypical selection process for entry into a collegiate secret society began at Yale University by a process called tapping. On a publicly announced evening, Yale undergraduates would assemble informally in the College Yard. Current members of Yale's secret societies would walk through the crowd and literally tap a prospective member on the shoulder and then walk with him up to the tapped man's dorm room. There, in private, they would ask him to become a member of their secret society; the inductee had the choice of accepting or rejecting the offer of membership. During this process, it was publicly known who was being tapped for the coming year. Today, the selection process is not quite as formal but is in some ways still public. Now, many societies slip seal-stamped letters under the doors of expecting Juniors, and send cryptic emails to students' inboxes, inviting them to rush parties. Formal tapping days used to exist at Berkeley, and still exist in a much more formal setting at Missouri. Honoraries Several campuses distinguish societies called "honoraries" from secret societies. An honorary is considered to operate in name only: membership is an honor given in recognition of some achievement, and such a society is distinct from a secret society. However, functionally, such organizations can operate identically to secret societies, and historically, most honoraries operated on a secret society basis. Phi Beta Kappa is the best-known such example, where it originally operated on a secret chapter basis, and it became the progenitor of all college fraternities, at the same time, sometime after its secrets were made public in the 1830s, Phi Beta Kappa continued as an honorary. Virtually all the oldest honoraries were once clearly secret societies, and the extent to which they are distinct is now ambiguous. History The first collegiate secret society recorded in North America is that of the F.H.C. Society, established on November 11, 1750, at The College of William & Mary. Though the letters stand for a Latin phrase, the society is informally and publicly referred to as the "Flat Hat Club"; its most prominent members included St. George Tucker, Thomas Jefferson, and George Wythe. The second-oldest Latin-letter society, the P.D.A. Society ("Please Don't Ask"), in 1776 refused entry to John Heath, then a student at the college; rebuffed, he in the same year established the first Greek-letter secret society at the college, the Phi Beta Kappa, modeling it on the two older fraternities (see the Flat Hat Club). The Phi Beta Kappa society had a rudimentary initiation and maintained an uncertain level of secrecy. Those secrets were exposed in the mid-1830s by students at Harvard University acting under the patronage of John Quincy Adams. Since the 1840s, Phi Beta Kappa has operated openly as an academic honor society. The spread of Phi Beta Kappa to different colleges and universities likely sparked the creation of such competing societies as Chi Phi (1824), Kappa Alpha Society (1825), and Sigma Phi Society (1827); many continue today as American collegiate social fraternities (and, later, sororities). Sigma Phi remains the oldest continuously operating national collegiate secret society; it may have declined the founding members of Skull & Bones a charter before they formed their society. A second line of development took place at Yale College, with the creation of Chi Delta Theta (1821) and Skull and Bones (1832): antecedents of what would become known as class societies. Skull & Bones aroused competition on campus, bringing forth Scroll and Key (1841), and later Wolf's Head (1883), among students in the senior class. But the prestige of the senior societies was able to keep the very influential fraternities Alpha Delta Phi and Psi Upsilon from ever becoming full four-year institutions at Yale. They remained junior class societies there. There were sophomore and freshman societies at Yale as well. A stable system of eight class societies (two competing chains of four class societies each) was in place by the late 1840s. Delta Kappa Epsilon is a highly successful junior class society, founded at Yale in 1844. None of the 51 chapters the parent chapter spawned operates as a junior society, but DKE did come from the class society system. Likewise, Alpha Sigma Phi started as a Yale sophomore society and now has 68 chapters (although, again, none of Alpha Sigma Phi's chapters have remained sophomore societies). The development of class societies spread from Yale to other campuses in the northeastern States. Seniors at neighboring Wesleyan established a senior society, Skull & Serpent (1865), and a second society, originally a chapter of Skull and Bones, but then independent as a sophomore society, Theta Nu Epsilon (1870), which began to drastically increase the number of campuses with class societies. William Raimond Baird noted in the 1905 edition of his Manual that, "In addition to the regular fraternities, there are Eastern college societies which draw members from only one of the undergraduate classes, and which have only a few features of the general fraternity system." From Wesleyan, the practice spread more widely across the Northeast, with full systems soon in place at Brown, Rutgers, and other institutions. Kappa Sigma Theta, Phi Theta Psi, Delta Beta Xi, Delta Sigma Phi, were all sophomore societies at Yale, and the two large freshman societies of Delta Kappa and Kappa Sigma Epsilon lived until 1880. Delta Kappa established chapters at Amherst College, the University of North Carolina, University of Virginia, University of Mississippi, Dartmouth College, and Centre College. Kappa Sigma Epsilon had chapters at Amherst, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and Dartmouth. Other class societies existed at Brown, Harvard, Syracuse, Colgate, Cornell, and other Northeastern institutions. At universities such as Colgate University, these secret societies have evolved and morphed over the years. Theta Nu Epsilon spread to about 120 colleges and universities, but many of its chapters operated as three-year societies where a class-year society was inappropriate. It is from this class society's historical base and the desire to emulate the best-known of all the class societies, Skull & Bones, that senior societies in particular began to spread nationally between 1900 and 1930. Junior, sophomore, and freshman class societies also are to be found at campuses across the country today. Individual institutions Clemson University Tiger Brotherhood is an honorary service fraternity at Clemson University. It still embraces the same basic tenets as established by its founders, led by John Logan Marshall in 1929. Tiger Brotherhood promotes high standards of social and ethical conduct while recognizing in its members an earnest devotion to Clemson, coupled with the integrity of character commensurate with a typical Clemson gentleman. The organization embodies an unequaled cross-section representation of the Clemson community. Students, faculty, and staff all work with the bonds of brotherhood to champion a closer relationship. One for all and all for one, with Clemson and its many traditions and undying spirit as the central focus, today provides a viable, flexible, and continuing forum for ideas and unending service to Clemson. For 90 years it has remained surrounded by an air of mystery. Colgate University Since being founded in 1819, Colgate University has had a rich tradition of student societies. Over the years, Colgate has had numerous secret societies with various degrees of secrecy. Although there have been many underground organizations on the Colgate campus, the first secret honor society on record is the Skull and Scroll Society founded in 1908. Members of the Skull and Scroll wore white hats with a black skull and scroll added to them. The Skull and Scroll had a rich history of membership with important names in Colgate history such as Ellery Huntington, Melbourne Read, and Harold O. Whitnall. A rival organization, The Gorgon's Head, was founded in 1912 and had members who wore black hats with a golden emblem. The Gorgon's Head chose people for traits such as character, distinguished service, and achievement. These two organizations competed with each other until 1934 when they merged to create the Konosioni senior honor society, none of the Tredecim Senior Honor Society. In its earlier iteration, the society initially was tasked with enforcing rules, such as mandating that all freshmen have to wear green beanies, with the punishment of paddling. The 1970s saw a change in course for the society as it became focused on leadership and the community. Tredecim now leads torch-light processions for first-year students during convocation and seniors during graduation. The College of William & Mary The College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, was home to the first known secret collegiate society in the United States, the F.H.C. Society (founded in 1750). The initials of the society stand for a Latin phrase, likely "Fraternitas, Humanitas, et Cognitio" or "Fraternitas Humanitas Cognitioque" (two renderings of "brotherhood, humaneness, and knowledge"), but it has long been publicly nicknamed the "Flat Hat Club". William & Mary alumnus and third American president, Thomas Jefferson, was perhaps the most famous member of the F.H.C. Society. Other notable members of the original society included Col. James Innes, St. George Tucker, and George Wythe. Jefferson noted, "When I was a student of Wm. & Mary college of this state, there existed a society called the F.H.C. society, confined to the number of six students only, of which I was a member, but it had no useful object, nor do I know whether it now exists." The best opinion is that the society did not survive the British invasion of Virginia at the end of the American Revolution. The society was revived in 1916 (at first, as the Flat Hat Club) and revived again in 1972. William & Mary students John Heath and William Short (Class of 1779) founded the nation's first collegiate Greek-letter organization, Phi Beta Kappa, on December 5, 1776, as a secret literary and philosophical society. Additional chapters were established in 1780 and 1781 at Yale and Harvard. With nearly 300 chapters across the country and no longer secret, Phi Beta Kappa has grown to become the nation's premier academic honor society. Alumni John Marshall and Bushrod Washington were two of the earliest members of the society, elected in 1778 and 1780, respectively. Although the pressures of the American Civil War forced several societies to disappear, many were revived during the 20th century. Some of the secret societies known to currently exist at the college are: The 7 Society, 13 Club, Alpha Club, Bishop James Madison Society, The Cord, Flat Hat Club, The Spades, W Society, and Wren Society. Columbia University Columbia University has three secret societies: St. Anthony Hall (1847) and the Nacoms and Sachems (1898 and 1915, respectively). St. Anthony Hall is a fraternal organization and literary society founded at Columbia that has ten other chapters, notably at Yale, Princeton, and the University of Pennsylvania. The Nacoms and Sachems are senior societies of fifteen members each. Though efforts have been made by the university's student body to force them to abolish their secrecy and register with the administration, efforts have been unsuccessful. Cornell University Cornell University has a rich history of secret societies on campus. Andrew Dickson White, the first President of Cornell University and himself a Bonesman, is said to have encouraged the formation of a "secret society" on campus. In the early years, the fraternities were called the "secret societies", but as the Greek system developed into a larger, more public entity, "secret society" began to refer only to the class societies, except for the Sigma Phi Society on campus. In the early twentieth century, Cornell students belonged to sophomore, junior, and senior societies, as well as honorary societies for particular fields of study. Liberalization of the 1960s spelled the end of these organizations as students rebelled against the establishment. The majority of the societies disappeared or became inactive in a very short period, and today, the four organizations that operate on campus are: Sphinx Head (founded in 1890), Der Hexenkreis (founded in 1892), Quill and Dagger (founded in 1893), and Order of Omega (founded in 1959). Dartmouth College Dartmouth College's Office of Residential Life states that the earliest senior societies on campus date to 1783 and "continue to be a vibrant tradition within the campus community". Six of the eight senior societies keep their membership secret, while the other societies maintain secretive elements. According to the college, "approximately 25% of the senior class members are affiliated with a senior society." The college's administration of the society system at Dartmouth focuses on keeping track of membership and tapping lists, and differs from that of Yale's, though there are historical parallels between the two colleges' societies. Dickinson College The Raven's Claw is an all-male senior honorary society at Dickinson College. It was founded in 1896, making it the first society unique to Dickinson College. Membership is limited to seven senior men who are selected by the seven previous members. The new members are chosen based on a variety of factors, these include campus leadership, a solid academic record, and athletic participation. New members are inducted through a "Tapping Ceremony" which is held on the "Old Stone Steps of Old West". The ceremony is traditionally conducted during the commencement weekend. They are called "claws" or "white hats", denoting the white caps they wear around campus to signify unity and loyalty. While the members of the group are known, the majority of their actions and traditions are concealed. The group prides itself in serving the Dickinson College and Carlisle, Pennsylvania communities through discreet service activities. The group's alumni organization is also responsible for founding one of the college's largest scholarship funds and the McAndrews Fund for athletics. Founded in 2001, The Order of Scroll and Key is a senior honor society at Dickinson College that recognizes seven senior men each year. Every member is tapped at the end of their junior year based on their dedication to the college and the surrounding Carlisle community. Their current membership includes fraternity presidents, community advisers, community service leaders, as well as many other individuals. Their alumni have gone on to be successful community leaders, businessmen, artists, etc. The Order of Scroll and Key works to benefit numerous area charities and philanthropies, and in recent years has supported Carlisle C.A.R.E.S., Safe Harbor, and Sadler Health Clinic, among others. As one of Dickinson's distinctive "hat" societies, members can always be recognized by the gray hats that they wear. Wheel and Chain is Dickinson College's Senior Women's Honorary Society. Founded in 1924, members are elected in the spring of their junior year based on participation in campus activities, service to the college and community, leadership skills, and personal character. Membership is limited to ten senior women. New members are inducted into a "Tapping Ceremony" which is held on the "Old Stone Steps of Old West" in April. In May, each incoming Wheel and Chain class ceremoniously rings the bell in Denny Hall during Commencement ceremonies. Colloquially known as the "blue hats", members are known to the public; however, the society's activities remain secret. Duke University Throughout its history, Duke University has hosted several secret societies. The Tombs was a society founded in 1903 whose members were known to tie bells around their ankles. Details regarding its purpose, selection of members, and the importance of the bells are still unknown. Two of the best-known societies were the Order of the Red Friars and the Order of the White Duchy. The Order of the Red Friars was founded in 1913 with the initial purpose of promoting school spirit. Later, the group declared a change of mission to focus more on fostering loyalty to Duke University. The Order, as it was colloquially known, was semi-secret. This is because the selection of new members, known as tapping, was held on the steps of Duke Chapel in broad daylight. As the years went on, the rites of tapping became more elaborate; in the final and most traditional form of the rite, a red-hooded and robed figure publicly tapped new men into membership on the steps of the chapel. Some notable members of the Order were President Richard M. Nixon, William P. Few, and Rex Adams. The Order of the White Duchy was founded in May 1925 by the Order of the Red Friars. The Red Friars chose what they considered the seven outstanding female members of the Class of 1925 to organize a similar organization, although it was not to be a sister organization. From 1925 on, new members were tapped into the order by the seven members of the White Duchy from the previous year. Members were known by the white carnation they wore on specific days of the year. Throughout the 1960s, both societies faced charges of elitism and struggled to tap students at an increasingly hostile university. In 1968, the White Duchy disbanded, and in 1971, the Order of the Red Friars was disbanded by alumni who determined that the group had outlived its usefulness. However, rumors surrounding its continued, albeit modified, form exist today. Two current secret societies - the Trident Society and the Old Trinity Club - are both thought to have been founded in the wake of the disbanding of the Order of the Red Friars. The Old Trinity Club is rumored to have started when an Editor-in-Chief of the Duke Chronicle was passed up for membership and decided to create his own, rival society. The Old Trinity Club is the most visible society on campus today, as its members are seen walking around campus wearing black graduation gowns and sunglasses on certain days of the year. They follow a set pattern, holding their arms in symbols in the air and routinely stopping and shouting "Eruditio et Religio." A November 2007 edition of Rival Magazine quoted Associate Vice President for Student Affairs and Dean of Students, Sue Wasiolek T'r76, claiming that "the Old Trinity Club has died, or at least in terms of its original manifestation. The way it manifests today is very different than when it was at its finest." It is said that students do not take society seriously, viewing it more as a social fraternity than a secret society. For years, there were rumors of a "TS" on campus as a continuation of the Order of the Red Friars' original mission. Only recently has it come to light that "TS" stands for "Trident Society". This society keeps the strictest silence about its membership and mission except for two instances when its existence came to be known. The first, in the November 2007 edition of the Rival Magazine, explained its ideas. According to a "cryptic letter sealed with wax", the society is "rooted in ideals that stretch back to the university's founding". The letter continued: "Our founders recognized that similar institutions existed at other top universities (Skull and Bones at Yale, The Sevens at UVA, Quill and Dagger at Cornell) and saw a void to fill at Duke". As such, its members are not well-known on campus. They "do not join to gain fame" or recognition; that said, members of the society are or were Rhodes Scholars, commencement speakers, players for Coach Krzyzweski, Phi Beta Kappas, A.B. & B.N. Duke Scholars, and leaders of the most influential groups on campus. The secrecy around this group drove Samantha Lachman to investigate the society in 2013. Her subsequent article, "Trasked with Secrecy", revealed many of the secrets of the group. She discovered the names of several prominent members, that the red roses & white carnations sometimes found at the base of the James B. Duke statue on West Campus are their calling card, and even that they have uninhibited access to the Duke University Chapel for their Initiation Rites. Emory University Founded in 1836, Emory University is a prominent research institution in the city of Atlanta, GA. Emory has five secret societies, including the Paladin Society, D.V.S. Senior Honor Society, Ducemus, Speculum, and The Order of Ammon. In 2021, Ducemus was accused of attempting to manipulate Emory's student government elections by a member of its legislature, which led to a trial presided by the student judicial council. The accusatory plaintiff claimed that members of the secret society, who allegedly held positions in student government and various student organizations, attempted to sway the elections in their favor and secure positions for their members. The student judicial council ruled in the plaintiff's favor and disqualified the allegedly Ducemus-backed candidates. Florida State University The Burning Spear Society is a secret society at Florida State University, founded in 1993. Burning Spear was founded on July 14, 1993, by three students initially to promote Charlie Ward's Heisman campaign. By August 1993, sixteen students joined together to charter this new organization, and within one year, seven additional students were initiated into membership. Though not much is publicly available on the dealings of the organization, members often cite the provision of political, professional, and financial support of FSU community members and efforts that strengthen the university's traditions as two of their most basic ambitions. Fordham University Fordham University was long accused of being involved with secret societies and covert activities due to anti-Catholic and nativist sentiments against the Irish and Italian immigrants it historically served. John Kelly, successor to Boss Tweed as Grand Sachem of Tammany Hall, was the nephew-in-law of Cardinal John McCloskey, the first president of Fordham, and many Fordham students and alumni were involved with Tammany Hall, including Edward Flynn, 20th-century chair of the Democratic National Committee. Fr. Leo McLaughlin S.J. founded the Fordham Club in 1954. Membership is reserved to about thirty members of the Fordham College at Rose Hill senior class "recommended by their prominence and influence in extracurricular endeavors during their first three college years, having contributed in a significant and preeminent way to the vibrant spirit of Fordham." They have a robust alumni network with regular reunions and influence in the University. Founded in 1837, the Parthenian Sodality was transferred to Fordham, which was founded in 1841, from St. Mary's College in Kentucky when the Jesuits took over the administration of Fordham from the Archdiocese of New York in 1846. Approval of the transfer was granted by the Roman Prima Primaria in 1847. The Roman Sodality, under whose guidance the Parthenian Sodality was, was first founded in Rome in 1584. Though no longer held to the Roman sodality after Vatican II, the organization is said to exist in some form to this day under the name The Second Sodality, at which point it transitioned to being more identifiable as a secret society: hiding membership, meeting at odd times, and communicating through codes and riddles. The chapel atop the administration building, now known as Cunniffe House, listed over a hundred years of members, but this practice ended around when the sodality went covert. They leave clues in the form of sonnets around campus and in the student newspapers to attract members. They tap around 25 members per year, of whom half usually figure out the clues. Meetings are usually held in the various chapels around campus, with important ceremonies happening in the Chapel of Our Lady of Sorrows. There is also evidence of a group known as the "Legion of Hidden Loyalty" operating in the 1930s and 40s but no evidence of its proceedings or continued existence. Furman University Founded in 1826, Furman University is one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in South Carolina. Until 1992, the university was, to varying degrees, affiliated with the Southern Baptist Convention which banned social organizations of all kinds. This drove students to seek such groups underground. The most notable of these early secret societies was called "The Star and Lamp". It is known today on more than 100 campuses as Pi Kappa Phi Fraternity. Founded at The College of Charleston in 1904, Pi Kappa Phi operated "sub-rosa", or under the rose of secrecy, for much of the twentieth century to hide their activities from the university's Baptist administrators. During this time Sigma Alpha Epsilon and Tau Kappa Epsilon operated respectively as "The Centaur" and "The Knights Eternal" while a fourth organization, "The Robert E. Lee Fraternity" was concurrently active which would go on to merge with today's Kappa Alpha Order. For this reason, Pi Kappa Phi Fraternity's official flower is today, the rose, their sweetheart is called the rose and one of the group's most cherished songs is "The Rose Song". The rose and "sub-rosa" concepts are present in the group's esoteric literature and rituals. Furthermore, the fraternity's chapter at Furman carries a unique flag that bears a red rose in the upper right-hand corner. On campus today the only known active secret society is The Quaternion Club, although many are rumored to exist. Quaternion, which dates back to 1903, taps four juniors and four seniors each year in the late winter or early spring. The selection process is guarded but is thought to be controlled by current Quaternions currently in residence at the school. The initiation ritual and all group meetings take place in the "Old College", the original building in which James C. Furman taught the university's first courses in Greenville in 1851. It is also widely known that Quaternions are given lifetime access to this building upon initiation which also houses the controls for the 59 bell Burnside Carillon inside Furman's iconic bell tower. Famous Quaternions have included U.S. Secretary of Education Richard Riley, South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford, and Clement Haynsworth, a nominee for the U.S. Supreme Court. There are also several strongly rumored secret societies with less documentation including The Magnolia Society, which has formed within the past decade and taps men and women from all classes into something like an elitist supper club. Magnolians, as they are called, can be identified only on their way to or from a "happening" by the sweetgrass rose they wear on their breast. The Black Swan or Paladin Brotherhood was a darker organization rumored to have operated on and off from the late 1940s to the mid-1980s, utilizing the unfinished attic of Judson dormitory for occult rituals. George Washington University Founded in 1821, George Washington University is located in the heart of the nation's capital. In 1997, University President Stephen Joel Trachtenberg brought together student leaders from all parts of the university to support fellowship, make GW a better university and behave in slightly frivolous ways. The secret society was named The Order of the Hippo, after a bronze statue of a hippo, also known as the River Horse (sculpture), displayed prominently in the center of campus. The Order takes its oath from a plaque located on the front of the hippo statue, which reads, "Art for wisdom, Science for joy, Politics for beauty, and a Hippo for hope." The Order has a ritual book, which is passed down from year to year and the main aim of the group is to enact Random Acts of Kindness around GW's campus to create a better environment for all students. Georgetown University Georgetown’s leading secret society is the Society of Jesus founded as an all-male fraternity of would-be Catholic priests at the University of Paris (the Sorbonne) in 1534. In 1773, the Jesuits were suppressed by the Pope but in Maryland, they stayed organized secretly. In 1789, the suppressed Jesuits helped staff Georgetown College for its founder, America's first Catholic bishop, Archbishop John Carroll; who later to become Georgetown University. The Jesuits were long hostile to college fraternities and societies that tried to form at Georgetown like at other colleges in the 19th century because they could not control them, but the hostility had waned by 1920. One century later, Georgetown has several fraternities and sororities, independent of the university, and a few all-male, all-female, and co-ed secret societies. The Stewards Society (collectively referred to as The Stewards) is an anonymous, all-male service fraternity, often considered a secret society, at Georgetown University. While generally considered a secret society by the student body, the Stewards have claimed to be a predominantly alumni-built organization. The original organization was founded in 1982, eventually going public in 1988. The Stewards would continue to operate until the mid-1990s when the organization broke apart and the original group became defunct. The organization, following this schism, would form The Second and later the Third Stewards Societies, although the groups are not connected organizationally. The organization would put out public addresses in 2001 and 2020, claiming several service activities and defending their existence. In 2013, and 2020, the Stewards were the subject of a series of leaks, indicating that undisclosed members of the organization were part of student government. The group has been criticized for pushing a conservative agenda on campus and for its exclusion of women. Georgia Institute of Technology The Anak Society is the oldest known secret society and honors society at the Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech) in Atlanta, Georgia. Founded in 1908, Anak's purpose is "to honor outstanding juniors and seniors who have shown both exemplary leadership and a true love for Georgia Tech". The society's name refers to Anak, a biblical figure said to be the forefather of a race of giants. Although not founded as a secret society, Anak has kept its activities and membership rosters confidential since 1961. Membership is made public upon a student's graduation or a faculty member's retirement. The Anak Society's membership comprises at least 1,100 Georgia Tech graduates, faculty members, and honorary members. The society was influential in the history of Georgia Tech. Anak played a major role in establishing several of Georgia Tech's most active student organizations – including Georgia Tech's yearbook, the Blueprint; Georgia Tech's student newspaper, The Technique, and Georgia Tech's Student Government Association – as well as several lasting Georgia Tech traditions. The society also claims involvement in several civil rights projects, most notably in peacefully integrating Georgia Tech's first African-American students in 1961, preventing the Ku Klux Klan from setting up a student chapter at Georgia Tech. Harvard University Harvard does not have secret societies in the usual sense, though it does have final clubs, fraternities, sororities, and a variety of other secret or semi-secret organizations. Final clubs are secretive about their election procedures, and they have secret initiations and meetings. However, there is little secrecy about who is a member. They are larger than secret societies generally are (approximately forty students per club). Guests are admitted under restrictions. "Punch Season" and the "Final Dinner" are analogous to "Tap" at Yale. As of the Fall of 2015, one of the all-male final clubs has gone co-ed (the Spee Club). The seven remaining all-male clubs are in the process of going co-ed or are fighting pressures to do so. Final clubs at Harvard include The Porcellian Club (1791), originally called The Argonauts; The Delphic Club (1900); The Fly Club, (1836), a successor of Alpha Delta Phi; The Phoenix - S K Club (1895); The Owl Club, originally called Phi Delta Psi, (1896); and The Fox Club (1898). Co-ed clubs include The Spee Club, The Aleph (formerly Alpha Epsilon Pi) (2001), and The K.S (formerly Kappa Sigma) (1905). There are also five female clubs: The Bee Club (1991), The Isis Club (2000), The Sablière Society (2002), The Pleiades Society (2002), and La Vie Club (2008). Harvard also has two fraternities, Sigma Chi (1992) and Sigma Alpha Epsilon (1893), and four sororities: Delta Gamma (1994), Kappa Kappa Gamma (2003), Kappa Alpha Theta (1993), and Alpha Phi (2013). These organizations are semi-secret and have secret initiation processes and meetings but a more transparent process for gaining membership. All four sororities and the Sigma Chi fraternity also have rules against admitting non-members to many parts of their buildings. Another all-male social group is The Oak Club (2005), a successor of Delta Upsilon (1890) and later The D.U. "Duck" Club (1940), which holds events but does not own property in Harvard Square. There are also several final clubs and fraternities that are now defunct, including Pi Eta Speakers, The D.U. "Duck" Club, Delta Upsilon, Pi Kappa Alpha, and The Iroquois. Approximately 10% of men and 5% of women are in final clubs. Approximately 7% of men and 15% of women are in Greek letter organizations. Additionally, an unknown number of students are in other secretive on-campus groups. Other secretive social groups include the Hasty Pudding Club, Harvard Lampoon, Harvard Advocate, the Signet Society, and The Seneca. Finally, Harvard Lodge is a university Masonic lodge, founded in 1922 by Harvard Law School Dean/Professor Roscoe Pound, members of the Harvard Square & Compass Club, and members of the Harvard Masonic Club (which included Theodore Roosevelt). It is the oldest academic lodge in North America, its membership is restricted to males with a Harvard affiliation, and it operates in the building of Grand Lodge of Massachusetts, overlooking Boston Common. James Madison University Although the members remain reticent, James Madison University has only one known secret society. This society is named IN8 (pronounced /ɪˈneɪt/). The name references the college's founding in 1908 and the emblem of the organization consists of an infinity sign with an ‘I’ and ‘N’ embedded within the curve. Most notably, IN8 is known for its laud of eight students per semester who have outstanding college careers and fulfill the organization's 8 supposed core values: Loyalty, Benevolence, Service, Justice, Integrity, Intellect, Character, and Spirit. However, this is not their only known function, IN8 also provides philanthropic gifts to the university. The sundial located by the Quad, which is a famous landmark for many of the students, was donated by the group. IN8 hosts a website bearing their emblem which states “The IN8 Foundation is a benevolent charitable organization supporting the James Madison University community.” The IN8 Foundation was mentioned in The Insider's Guide to the Colleges, 2009. Writing on student involvement at James Madison University, Insider Guides states that IN8 is “Not necessarily the most popular but one of the most famed among these [student groups] is IN8, JMU’s secret society. Every year, it gives out eight letters to students and faculty who have significantly impacted their society to let them know that their work does not go unnoticed. In addition, in 2003, they donated a human sundial, a spot in the middle of campus where a person stands on a particular month’s mark and casts a shadow on plaques six or seven feet away that designates the time.” Johns Hopkins University Through the years, many secret societies, senior societies, and other groups have been founded at Johns Hopkins. Most of these societies were founded around the 1890s at the beginning of the university and played a significant role in the early development of the student body. This includes the Cane Club, The Ananias Society, The Senior Society, The Pithotomy Club, The Ubiquiteers, the Tau Club, and the De Gang. These historic secret societies are either defunct or non-existent. Founded for members who value friendship and privacy to enjoy the arts together, the Blue Jay Supper Society is the only active secret society with open applications at Johns Hopkins. The Supper Society looks for brilliant misfits and creative types, and accepts applications from undergraduate and graduate students as well as alumni. Membership is capped at 150 globally. Loyola University Maryland Loyola University Maryland, a Jesuit, Liberal-Arts school located in Baltimore, Maryland has had a few secret societies of notability. The Green and Grey society, named after the school’s colors, was established in 1989. The school selects “a small number of men and women from the senior class who demonstrated excellence in academic, personal, and spiritual integration and a commitment to leadership and service to Loyola. In the spirit of Jesuit ideals, the Society serves as an advisor to the University executives by identifying and communicating issues of significance. As engaged members of the community, the Society empowers students across the University to live the magis.” While the society is acknowledged to exist, they members and overall selection process remains elusive. Longwood University Secret societies have also long been part of Virginia's third-oldest public institution, which began in 1839 as an all-female seminary. One of the first of its kind, Longwood has undergone multiple name changes and became co-educational in 1967 and transitioned from its previous name, Longwood College, to its final name, Longwood University, in 2002. Longwood currently has three secret societies, the oldest of which is CHI, founded on October 15, 1900, by members from three of Longwood's four sorority Alpha chapters-- Kappa Delta, Zeta Tau Alpha, and Sigma Sigma Sigma. The society was originally called the "Society of Societies" whose original intentions were to hold students accountable and enrich the lives of their peers and professors by calling out bad behavior, taking hooded walks called "CHI Walks" and hosting a bonfire at the end of each academic year called "CHI burning" where senior members would reveal themselves to campus. Today, CHI represents something very different and works on behalf of the college to represent the Longwood spirit—the blue and white spirit. Members make their presence known by leaving small "droppings" or tokens around campus, writing letters to Longwood students, faculty, and staff that celebrate their achievements, and the members of CHI "commend" members during their annual "CHI Burning" which remains to this day. The mark of the society can be found on the sidewalks of the campus, where their symbol (a simple geometric version of Ruffner Hall) is painted in blue. Students, faculty, and staff do not step on these symbols as a means of paying respect to the society, the Longwood spirit, and the preservation of said spirit. The physical presence of CHI can also be found on campus because the society has donated generously to many campus fundraising campaigns, and donated the CHI Fountain, located at the center of campus, which along its top stone, reads the public motto of the society. The third-oldest and second-longest consistently operating secret society at Longwood is Princeps, which was founded in 1992 on the premise of promoting citizen leadership and academic excellence. The society is represented by the number seven, with a seven-point crown above the number, most commonly in black. The society's colors are red, gold, and black, and they often commend members of the community with letters, tokens of achievement, and other gifts. Princeps, meaning "leader" in Latin, also award paper cutout versions of their symbol, the seven, to students who achieve both Dean's List and President's List. Those who achieve Dean's List receive a black seven and those who achieve President's List receive a red seven. Princeps also recognizes students with wooden sevens, and the senior members of the society reveal themselves on graduation morning on the front steps of Lancaster Hall, home to the President's Office, at 7:07am, where they appear from within the crowd or from the building wearing a red sash with their symbol, the 7 and crown, stitched on the sash which drapes across their body. Membership selection for this society, just like CHI, remains a secret. Princeps has no known ties to the University of Virginia 7 Society. New York University Several secret societies have historically existed at New York University, including Red Dragon Society, which only takes both "distinguished" male and female seniors from the College of Arts and Science; Knights of the Lamp, which only takes seniors from the Stern School of Business; the Philomathean Society (which operated from 1832 to 1888); the Eucleian Society (from 1832 to the 1940s); and the Andiron Club. Only Red Dragon Society still exists. Edgar Allan Poe was a frequent speaker at the Philomathean Society and the Eucleian Society and lived on the Square. In addition, NYU's first yearbook was formed by fraternities and "secret societies" at the university. Norwich University Secret societies are banned in all military academies in the United States. Norwich University was the last military academy to outlaw secret societies, doing so in 1998. The stated reason for doing so was controversy regarding hazing and abuse of cadets. Before the ban, Norwich was home to a handful of long-standing secret societies such as the Old Crow Society, Night Riders, and Skull and Swords. Like the other military academies, Norwich does not allow fraternities, having been banned in 1962. However, Norwich has an Alpha chapter of the Theta Chi Society now known as Theta Chi Fraternity on the basis that it is not a traditional fraternity, but admits those in pursuit of engineering degrees and thus an order to honor academic accomplishments akin to Phi Theta Kappa. Pennsylvania State University There are currently three well-known societies at Pennsylvania State University: Parmi Nous (1907), Lion's Paw (1908), and Skull and Bones (1912). Penn State has seen several different honorary societies with varying levels of publicity and activity. In 1907, the first "hat" society, so-named because of such organizations' emblematic headwear, Druids, was formed; similar societies expanded and included dedicated groups for women (e.g. Chimes, Scrolls) and men (e.g. Blue Key, Androcles) based on class standing and extracurricular involvement. These groups were temporarily governed by a "Hat Society Council" which was made up of representatives from each organization from 1948 to 1958. Hat societies were involved in University life passing down traditions (called "freshmen customs") for first-year students, forming honor guards for football players as they went on to the field, and recognizing leaders, scholars, and athletes in the Penn State community. The three remaining senior societies no longer operate publicly but continue to serve the university in a variety of functions. Lion's Paw is closely associated with conservation efforts at Mount Nittany in State College, PA. Pomona College Princeton University Princeton's eating clubs are not fraternities, nor are they secret societies by any standard measure, but they are often seen as being tenuously analogous. Additionally, Princeton has several genuine secret societies; perhaps the best-known is a chapter of St. Anthony Hall, otherwise known as Delta Psi, a co-ed literary society. While membership in the Princeton chapter of Delta Psi (aka St. Anthony Hall) is public, the society is known to maintain a secret president, referred to as Number One, whose identity is known only to members for the duration of his or her office. The 21 Club, an all-male drinking society, is also a notorious Princeton secret society. Princeton also has a long tradition of underground societies. While secret society membership is relatively public at some schools, Princeton's historical secret society rolls are very secretive because of Woodrow Wilson's ban on clandestine organizations and his threat to expel secret fraternity members from Princeton. One such society is Phi (pronounced fē), a society dating to 1929 when members of the Whig society splintered off after the merger of the Whig and Cliosophic debating societies. Phi's membership is secretive and difficult to discern because no more than ten active "Phis" exist at one time: Phis usually receive offers at the end of their third year. As an adaptation to Princeton's stringent anti-society rules, each active class does not meet the preceding class that selected it until the First of June (after their first Reunions and before graduation). 1.6... is the Golden Ratio, hence the name Phi. Another society is the exclusively female Foxtail Society, founded in 1974 soon after Princeton began admitting women in 1969. The society was founded in response to the lack of eating clubs open to women. While admittance numbers have changed over the years, Foxtail selects anywhere from 10 to 15 women to become members at the end of their junior year. Rutgers University As eighth oldest of the colleges in the United States, Rutgers University has had several secret societies on campus. One of which, a likely hoax, claims to be established in 1834. Students associated with these societies were allegedly involved in the Rutgers-Princeton Cannon War in 1876. At the turn of the 20th century, Rutgers had developed two full sets of class year societies based on the Yale model, down to the freshman societies such as the Chain and Bones and Serpent and Coffin. The senior class societies at Rutgers included the Brotherhood of the Golden Dagger (1898–1940), Casque and Dagger (1901), and Cap and Skull (1900). Cap and Skull was dissolved in the 1960s after complaints of elitism. In 1982 the name was revived for the university-sanctioned senior-year honor society. Smith College Founded in 1871, Smith College opened in 1875 as an institution dedicated to the education of women. Similarly to other colleges and universities, Smith also had secret societies from the 1890s until the 1960s. Two of these societies, the Orangemen and the Ancient Order of Hibernians (A.O.H.) were both founded in 1890 according to the Smith College Special Collections. In 1948, the President of the College, Herbert John Davis outlawed secret societies because he believed they were “undemocratic.” The A.O.H. and the Orangemen carried out a rivalry throughout their existence at the college. The A.O.H. was a parody of the Irish Roman Catholic fraternal order by the same name, the Ancient Order of Hibernians, which dates back to 1500s Ireland. The Orangemen also was a parody of the Loyal Orange Association, a Protestant Irish organization, which dates back to 1795 Ireland. The A.O.H. of Smith College did write to the A.O.H. for “recognition,” but were turned down. The A.O.H’s color was green and the Orangemen’s was orange. The Orangemen wore cloaks with orange hoods and also had orange hats in which they paraded around campus. The A.O.H. also had activities including giving out special names to new members. According to Smith College Special Collections, both organizations limited membership to 12 people from each class year. The A.O.H. held initiations for new members in the fall of their first year of college. The Orangemen also held initiations. Secret societies were outlawed at Smith College in 1948 making the groups stop “all official activities.” But, Smith College Special Collections says, “records indicate that both organizations continued unofficially until the mid-1960s” with available documentation ceasing during the 1965-1966 academic year. University of California, Berkeley The University of California, Berkeley is home to a small handful of secret societies. Skull & Keys, founded in 1892 by Frank Norris, is the earliest secret society at Berkeley and is composed of a select few members from certain fraternity chapters on campus. The second oldest is the Sigma Phi Society of the Thorsen House (popularly shortened to Thorsen), founded in 1912, which acts independent of all of Berkeley's fraternal traditions and regulations and has resided in the famous Thorsen House since 1942. The campus is also home to the Order of the Golden Bear, established in 1900, which discourages the term "secret society" despite operating with a secret membership. The order is composed of undergraduate and graduate students, alumni, faculty, and administrators with a commitment to the betterment of the university. Its significance and recognition are considerably smaller now than in its earliest years. University of Chicago The University of Chicago has never had a substantial number of active secret societies; indeed, shortly after the university's founding, the faculty of the university released a resolution suggesting that the exclusionary structure of many such societies made them antithetical to the democratic spirit of the university. Nevertheless, one notable exception - The Society of the Owl and Serpent, a secret honors society founded in 1896 - was active for over 70 years. The Society voted to officially disband in 1968 as a sign of its "counterculture" values, electing to donate its office space to the student radio group WHPK and use its remaining funds for the purchase of an FM transmitter. The University of Chicago currently has one active secret society, The Iron Key Society. The Iron Key Society, formerly the University's chapter of the Delta Upsilon fraternity, existed on the campus in the early 1900s and has since made a resurgence in 2023. Notable alumni of the Society of the Owl and Serpent include former Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens, who graduated from the university in 1941. University of Cincinnati The University of Cincinnati hosts several secret societies, locally referred to as honoraries. The first such organization is Sigma Sigma, founded in 1898 and is open to upperclassmen men on campus. Sigma Sigma is responsible for the Sigma Sigma commons on the UC campus, along with other donations to the campus. Cincinnatus (co-ed) was founded in 1917 with the Men of METRO founded in 1946. CWEST and Sigma Phi exist as the female counterparts to Men of METRO and Sigma Sigma, respectively. Many of the university's prominent alumni claim membership in one or many of these organizations. Each organization coordinates at least one annual event: Men of Metro and CWEST host an annual Talent Show, Cincinnatus a charitable run, Sigma Phi the Homecoming dance, and Sigma Sigma an annual carnival. University of Georgia A group unique to the University of Georgia is the men's secret society known as the Order of the Greek Horsemen which annually inducts five fraternity men, all leaders of the Greek Fraternity system. Likewise, the highest achievement a male can attain at the university is claimed by the Gridiron Secret Society. Palladia Secret Society was founded in the early 1960s as the highest honor a woman can attain at the University of Georgia. Palladia inducts approximately 12 women each fall and has an extensive network of alumni, including administrators at the University of Georgia and prominent female leaders across the state. The Panhellenic sororities also have a secret society known as Trust of the Pearl, which inducts five accomplished sorority women each spring. The Sphinx Club is the oldest honorary society at the University of Georgia, recognizing students, faculty, staff, and alumni who have made significant contributions to the university, the State of Georgia, and the nation. Membership in this organization is not secret; however, all business and happenings of the organization are. University of Miami Iron Arrow Honor Society, founded in 1926 in conjunction with the University of Miami's opening, is the highest honor attained at the University of Miami. Based on Seminole Indian tradition, Iron Arrow recognizes those individuals in the University of Miami community who exemplify the five qualities of Iron Arrow: Scholarship, Leadership, Character, Humility, and Love of Alma Mater. University of Michigan The University of Michigan Ann Arbor hosts three secret societies: Order of Angell, Phoenix, and the Vulcan Senior Engineering Society. Order of Angell and Phoenix were once under the umbrella group "The Tower Society", the name referring to their location at the top of the Michigan Union Tower. Michigauma (Order of Angell) was all-male while Adara (Phoenix) was all-female. Order of Angell, known as "Order", is an evolved version of a previous society Michigauma. It was inspired by the rituals and culture of the Native Americans of the United States. Since its creation in 1902, the group is credited with creating Dance Marathon, one of the largest charitable events at the University of Michigan, and the construction of the Michigan Union for which it was granted permanent space on the top floors of the tower which they refer to as the "tomb". In 2007 the group changed its name to Order of Angell and later, in 2021, the group officially disbanded. Phoenix, (formerly known as Adara) holding to astrological roots, was formed in the late 1970s by the women leaders on campus. In the early 1980s, they joined the tower society and occupied the sixth floor of the tower just below Michigamua. Phoenix, alongside Order, is now co-ed. Phoenix was disbanded in March 2021 via a vote of an overwhelming majority. Vulcan Senior Engineering Society, known as "the Vulcans", occupied the fifth floor of the Union Tower though were not formally a part of the tower society. They draw their heritage from the Roman god Vulcan. The group that used to do its tapping publicly is known for its long black robes and its financial contributions to the University of Michigan College of Engineering. University of Missouri In 1895, the Alpha Theta Chapter of the Theta Nu Epsilon sophomore society was founded under the guidance of faculty member Luther DeFoe. DeFoe also served as a mentor to the founding members of the QEBH senior men's society, which was founded in 1898. Mystical Seven was founded in 1907 and has become the second best-known society on campus. Some have suggested that Missouri's Mystical Seven was modeled after Virginia's Seven Society, which had been established just a couple of years earlier. Other secret societies followed, including Society of the Hidden Eye for junior, and senior men, LSV for senior women, Thadstek for freshman, and sophomore men, Tomb and Key for freshman, and sophomore men, and Kappa Kappa whose membership composition was unknown. During this period of rapid expansion of secret societies, a network of sub-rosa inter-fraternity organizations also established itself on campus with no purpose other than socializing and mischief-making. This network, known commonly as the "Greek Underworld" included organizations such as Seven Equals, Kappa Beta Phi, Sigma Phi Sigma, Kappa Nu Theta, and Sigma Alpha Beta. It is currently home to at least six secret honor societies that still participate in an annual public Taies Day ceremony at the end of each spring semester. QEBH, Mystical Seven, LSV, Alpha Xi chapter of Omicron Delta Kappa, Friars chapter of Mortar Board, and Rollins Society each use the Tap Day ceremony after the year to reveal the members who were initiated over the past year. Missouri is one of the few remaining institutions in which the local Omicron Delta Kappa and Mortar Board chapters carry out much of their work in secrecy. The Jefferson Society, which attempted to take part in Tap Day and was denied, claims to have been around since 1862. In addition to Tap Day activities, several of the societies maintain a public presence during some athletic events. QEBH is the caretaker of the Victory Bell, along with Nebraska's Society of Innocents, awarded to the winner of the Missouri–Nebraska Rivalry football game each year. The Friars Chapter of Mortar Board exchanges a gavel with Nebraska (The Black Masque Chapter of Mortar Board) at each MU-UNL football game, symbolizing the rivalry between the Universities. Mystical Seven and Oklahoma's Pe-et Society were likewise entrusted with the Peace Pipe trophy that was awarded to the winner of the biennial Missouri-Oklahoma football match. Omicron Delta Kappa previously served as the caretaker of the Indian War Drum trophy awarded to the winner of the annual Border War football game between Missouri and Kansas. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill The library at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill contains the archives of the Order of Gimghoul, a secret society headquartered at the Gimghoul Castle. The order was founded in 1889 and is open to male students (rising juniors and higher), and faculty members by invitation. The founders originally called themselves the Order of Dromgoole, but later changed it to the Order of Gimghoul to be, "in accord with midnight and graves and weirdness", according to the university's archives. The Order of the Gorgon's Head, another secret society at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, was founded in 1896 by Darius Eatman, Edward Kidder Graham, Ralph Henry Graves, Samuel Selden Lamb, Richard Henry Lewis Jr., and Percy DePonceau Whitaker. Membership has always been limited to male members of the junior, senior, professional, and post-graduate classes along with male faculty members. Inductees may not be members of other societies. Officers include Princeps (chief officer), Quaestor, and Scriptor. The purpose of the Order is to promote friendship, goodwill, and social fellowship among its members. The Order of the Gorgon's Head was one of two "junior orders" established at the university in the 1890s. The two orders had written agreements that they would not attempt to recruit freshmen or sophomores. Each order had a lodge (the Gimghouls later built a castle), where members gathered for meetings and events. Each had secret rituals based on myths. Those of the Order of the Gorgon's Head centered on the myth of the Gorgons, three monstrous sisters prominent in ancient Greek and Roman lore. The university's library also contains the archives of the Dialectic and Philanthropic Societies. The Societies were founded in 1795 by some of the first students to attend the university, and are the oldest public school societies in the nation. While at first maintaining strict secrecy in their proceedings, the Societies' meetings are now generally open to the public; however, the Societies reserve the right at all times to call an "Executive Session", at which point all non-members are escorted from the chambers. All undergraduates may attempt to join one of the two societies by petitioning, upon a vote by current Society members. Most recently, in 2011, The Daily Tar Heel reported the first of two donations to campus entities by a secret society named Infinity. In 2011, the society gifted $888.88 to the Eve Carson Scholarship fund, which honors the late Student Body President Eve Carson. In 2012, the society gifted $888.88 to the Student Enrichment Fund, a student-created fund allowing students to apply for grants to attend off-campus events such as speeches, conferences or other academic or extracurricular opportunities. The significance of the digit '8' comes from the symbol for infinity that resembles an eight on its side. University of Pennsylvania Senior societies at the University of Pennsylvania are smaller than their Greek counterparts and tend to vary in degree of secrecy. There are three senior honorary societies. The Sphinx Senior Society and the Friars Senior Society were both founded at the turn of the 20th century, while The Mortar Board Senior Society was founded in 1922. None of these societies was intended to be secret, in that their undergraduate and alumni membership were and continue to be publicly known, they share many of the characteristics of undergraduate secret societies of the time; they tap a diverse group of campus leaders to become members during their senior year, organize social and service activities throughout the year, and maintain an extensive network of successful and notable alumni. Alumni of Friars, for example, include Harold Ford Jr. and Ed Rendell; the Sphinx alumni roster boasts Richard A. Clarke and John Legend. In addition, there are several other groups called "secret societies". These groups generally denote a social club that is independent of any official organization. For this reason, the society is not regulated by the university and is not accountable to a national organization. University of Southern California The University of Southern California is home to the Skull and Dagger Society. Founded in 1913, Skull and Dagger is USC's oldest honor society. The Society inducts Trojans who have demonstrated extraordinary leadership on campus or who have brought fame and notoriety to the university. In the early 20th century, the Society published its members' names and accomplishments. In recent years, it has kept its members' identities secret. Members often include student body presidents, Daily Trojan editors in chief, All-American athletes, football team captains, and inter-fraternity council presidents. Little is known about the rituals and practices of the society aside from once a year when the society pranks the school, drops a banner from the Student Union Building, and runs through campus wearing odd hats and tailcoats. Recently, the society has been criticized for its annual prank practice, with opponents saying the pranks "damage the trustworthiness and credibility of respected campus services". Although originally an all-male society, Skull and Dagger now admit women. Skull and Dagger has been known to make gifts to the university. In 1994, the Society donated "The Wall of Scholars" to honor students who have won national and international fellowships, as well as recipients of USC awards. In 2011, the Society embarked to restore the university's class marker tradition and has been donating class markers ever since. Skull and Dagger has additionally endowed two scholarships, which are awarded annually to students "who have demonstrated significant campus and/or community leadership". University of Texas The University of Texas at Austin is home to the Friar Society. The Friar Society was founded in 1911 by Curtice Rosser and Marion Levy. Eight members were initially selected for the charter group. Originally, four men were chosen from the junior and senior classes every year based on a significant contribution to The University of Texas. The Friar Society recognizes students who have made a significant contribution to The University of Texas. In 1936, the Friars decided to start taking larger classes to accommodate the growing size of the university. Women were first admitted to the Friar Society on March 25, 1973. In 1982, the Friars decided to create a teaching fellowship in honor of the upcoming centennial celebration for The University of Texas. Friar alumni raised $100,000 for this purpose, and this amount was matched by the Board of Regents to create an endowment. The Friar Centennial Teaching Fellowship is an annual award given to a UT professor who has demonstrated excellence at the undergraduate teaching level. With a prize of $25,000, the award is the largest monetary award annually given to a UT professor. The University of Texas at Austin is also home to the Tejas Club, an all-male secret society founded in 1925 that is one of the oldest student organizations on campus. The three pillars of Tejas are scholarship, leadership, and friendship, representing a desire to attract and mold male student leaders on campus. Prominent members of the Tejas Club include former U.S. Secretary of State Rex Tillerson, CarMax founder Austin Ligon, and numerous Austin-area leaders. The membership process is secretive and closed to the public. University of South Carolina The Clariosophic Society, also known as ΜΣΦ (Mu Sigma Phi), is a literary society founded in 1806 at the University of South Carolina, then known as South Carolina College. It was formed after the splitting of the Philomathic Society, which had been formed within weeks of the opening of the college in 1805 and included virtually all students. At the Synapian Convention in February 1806, the members of Philomathic voted to split into two societies, Clariosophic and Euphradian. Two blood brothers picked the members for the new groups like choosing sides for an impromptu baseball game. John Goodwin became the first president of Clariosophic. Other early presidents include Stephen Elliott, Hugh S. Legaré, George McDuffie, and Richard I. Manning. The Society was reactivated in 2013 and became co-ed. The membership process and society roster are secretive and closed to the public. Members are identified by a key insignia on their diplomas. University of Virginia Secret societies have been a part of University of Virginia student life since the founding of the Eli Banana society in 1878. Early secret societies, such as Eli Banana and T.I.L.K.A., had secret initiations but public membership; some, such as the Hot Feet, now the IMP Society, were very public, incurring the wrath of the administration for public reveals. The first truly "secret society" was the Seven Society, founded circa 1905. Two decades before, there had been a chapter of the Mystical 7 society at Virginia, which may have been an inspiration. Nothing is known about the Seven Society except for their philanthropy to the university; members are revealed at their death. A few other societies flourished around the turn of the 20th century, such as the Z Society (formerly Zeta), which was founded in 1892, the IMP Society, reformulated in 1913 after the Hot Feet were banned in 1908, and Eli Banana, are still active at the university today. The Thirteen Society was founded on February 13, 1889. After an unknown period of inactivity, they reemerged in 2004. Currently, The Thirteen Society operates as a mainly honorary society for those who demonstrate "unselfish service to the University and excellence in their respective fields of activity." New societies have periodically appeared at the university during the 20th century. The most notable is the P.U.M.P.K.I.N. Society, a secret group that rewards contributions to the university and which was founded before 1970; and the Society of the Purple Shadows, founded 1963, who are only seen in public in purple robes and hoods and who seek to "safeguard vigilantly the University traditions". The A.N.G.E.L.S. Society started sometime in the late 1900s is known to place white roses and letters on doors of those mourning, needing encouragement, or showing "kind behavior" to others. They are known to promote a stronger community of kindness throughout the university, completing many acts of service for students and faculty. Many of the secret societies listed contribute to the university either financially or through awards or some other form of recognition of excellence at the university. University of Washington The University of Washington in Seattle, Washington is known for one secret society, the Oval Club. Founded in 1907, the Oval Club was founded to "promote student unity and cooperation, develop cultural leaders and preserve traditions of the University of Washington". Records for Oval Club meetings have been kept by the University of Washington Library's Special Collection dating up to 1963, and membership is publicly acknowledged for Oval Club. Washington and Lee University Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia, has two secret societies: the Sigma Society and the Cadaver Society. Founded in 1880, the Sigma Society is one of Washington and Lee's "oldest, continuous social organizations". While membership information is not necessarily anonymous, the group's purpose and inner workings remain a secret. The group has long had a connection to President George Washington, though the extent of that relationship is unknown to the public at large. Similarly, the acronym P.A.M.O.L.A. R.Y.E.—which is inscribed on buildings and in classrooms throughout the Lexington area—also bears an unknown significance to the group. The group has largely gone underground since 1994 when University officials tore down the Sigma cabin and paid the Sigmas $15,000. Associate Justice to the Supreme Court Lewis Powell Jr. is one of the group's most prominent members. The membership and organizational structure of the Cadaver Society are largely unknown. Cadaver has been in continuous operation since its founding in 1957. The Cadavers have a bridge that bears their name, connecting the main campus to Wilson Field, as well as their symbol in many prominent places throughout the campus. Cadavers are known for donating large sums of money to the university and for upholding the school’s historic values. They have been criticized for their secrecy and many of their activities include running around dressed in all black and masks late at night as well as drawing their symbol all over campus. They have been known to run through the Sorority houses, talking in high voices and attempting to wake everyone in the houses up. Washington University in St. Louis Three known secret societies operate at Washington University in St. Louis: ThurtenE, Lock & Chain, and Chimes. Instead of "secret societies", they are called Honoraries because of the public nature of their members and their purposes within the community. ThurtenE was formed in 1904 as a secret society of junior men chosen for their leadership, character, and participation in campus activities. Not much is known about the founding of the group or its selection process from the early years other than the fact that only the members themselves knew who belonged to ThurtenE and membership varied from 4 to 14, before finally settling on a consistent 13. Members made themselves known at the end of their senior year during graduation by wearing a small skull pin and having the number “13” listed next to their names in Washington University's yearbook "The Hatchet". In recent years, the 13 new members are revealed when pieces of paper listing the names and the honorary symbol are posted around campus. ThurtenE found its purpose in 1935 when it was approached by the Chancellor to rescue the floundering student circus from the senior honorary, which had merged with another group. Since 1935, ThurtenE has held the Thurtene Carnival, which is the largest and oldest student-run Carnival in the nation. The society has been co-ed since 1991. Lock & Chain was created in 1904 by six sophomore men. Since then, the honorary has expanded to 15 members from different backgrounds. Students are chosen during the spring from the freshman class based on academic merit, extracurricular involvement, leadership capabilities and roles, and personal qualities through an application and interview process. New members can be seen around campus wearing chains across their chests. Lock & Chain sponsors various events throughout the year and does community engagement and philanthropic programming. Chapter of Chimes Junior Honorary, founded in 1948 as a women's group, is a group of juniors who share values of scholarship, leadership, and service. Each class works together for one year on programming for Wash U's campus, the internal Chapter, and the chosen partner philanthropy, with the freedom to follow their path for the year. Each member has a name assigned to them that represents an aspect of what they bring to the Honorary (such as intrepidity or flair). Their main campus program is Chimes Week, which explores a particular theme. Like ThurtenE, Chimes has been co-ed since 1991. Yale University The term "secret society" at Yale University encompasses organizations with many shared but not identical characteristics. The oldest surviving undergraduate secret societies at Yale parallel various 19th-century fraternal organizations. In the traditional Yale system, societies were organized by class year. There were two, (then three), senior societies, three junior societies, two sophomore societies, and two freshman societies. All the societies were independent, all had their traditions, and each class-year pair or trio shared common traits appropriate to their class year; the freshmen societies were rambunctious and owned little real property, the sophomore and junior ones were progressively more elaborate, (the sophomore ones regularly maintained live theater in their halls), and the senior ones were extremely small and elite, and with quite expensive property and celebrations. Each of the societies had a link in the class year before and after it; that is, members of one freshman society would all get elected to the same sophomore society year after year, and so on so that there were two or three parallel sets of linked societies. From time to time, there would be a coup, and one society would break the pattern, forcing the other societies to likewise change election strategies, or cause the creation of a new society. Delta Kappa Epsilon, a junior society, was created in reaction to a botched election process to the junior class societies in 1844. This process lasted from the 1840s to the 1910s. This system kept Yale out of the more typical intercollegiate college fraternity system, although some regular college fraternities were created out of the Yale system. Yale-type class societies also extended across northeastern colleges. This system has not survived the introduction of regular fraternities and other changes. The senior-class societies continue to prosper today without any of the lower-class societies. A similar system was introduced at Wesleyan University in nearby Middletown, Connecticut, but with a pair of societies in each class year and dual memberships between class societies and college fraternities so that most class society members were also fraternity members. The older societies survived because of their endowments, real estate, and the vigor of their respective alumni organizations and their charitable Trusts. In the past century, the size of Yale has allowed for a wider variety of student societies, including regular college fraternity chapters, and other models, so it can be challenging to categorize the organizations. And there are societies like Sage and Chalice, Brothers in Unity, and St. Anthony Hall which cross ordinary categories. There are typical attributes of the Yale societies. They are often restricted by class year, especially the senior class. They usually have fifteen members per class year. They "tap" their members, mostly on the same "Tap Night", and a member is off-limits to recruitment by another secret society, (i.e. reciprocal exclusivity). The normal pattern now is that a group of secret societies places an advertisement in the Yale Daily News in early spring that informs students when Tap Night is taking place and when students should expect to receive formal offers (usually one week before official Tap Night). Tap Night is typically held on a Thursday in mid-April; for the Class of 2024, Tap Night was April 20th, 2023. During 1854–1956, "'Sheff, the Sheffield Scientific School was the sciences and engineering college of Yale University, and it also had a fraternal culture that differed in some respects from the humanities campus. Many societies have owned meeting halls, with different accommodations. Following the example of Skull & Bones, the halls are often referred to as 'tombs'. A series of articles on Dartmouth and Yale secret-society architecture provides an overview of the buildings. Societies that own tombs or halls are sometimes known as 'landed' societies. The five oldest landed societies are Skull and Bones (1832), Scroll and Key (1841), Spade and Grave (1864), St. Anthony Hall (1867), which calls itself a "final society", and Wolf's Head (1883). The surviving landed Sheffield societies are Berzelius (1848), Book and Snake (1863), St. Elmo (1889), and the Aurelian Honor Society (1910). Three newer societies that own property include Elihu Club (1903) – whose building is the oldest of the senior society buildings at Yale – Manuscript Society (1952), and Mace and Chain (1956). Yale's Buildings and Grounds Department lists the societies with halls in its online architectural database. List of North American collegiate secret societies See also High school secret societies Secret societies Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links "How the Secret Societies Got That Way", Yale Alumni Magazine (September 2004) "Halls, Tombs and Houses: Student Society Architecture at Dartmouth" "Four Years at Yale" A late 19th-century contemporary account of fraternal societies at two Connecticut Universities: Yale & Wesleyan (courtesy of Google Books) The Peter Dromgoole legend North America Student societies in the United States Collegiate secret societies
4864766	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Gellibrand	John Gellibrand	Major General Sir John Gellibrand, (5 December 1872 – 3 June 1945) was a senior Australian Army officer in the First World War, Chief Commissioner of the Victoria Police from 1920 to 1922, and a member of the Australian House of Representatives, representing the Tasmanian Division of Denison for the Nationalist Party from 1925 to 1928. The scion of a prominent Tasmanian family, Gellibrand graduated top of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the South Lancashire Regiment (The Prince of Wales's Volunteers) in October 1893. He served in the South African War, participating in the Relief of Ladysmith. In May 1900 he was promoted to captain in the Manchester Regiment, and served on St Helena where its primary task was guarding Boer prisoners of war. He graduated from the Staff College, Camberley, in December 1907, and served on the staff of the garrison commander in Ceylon. Frustrated at the poor prospects for promotion, he resigned his British Army commission in April 1912 and returned to Tasmania to grow apples. When the First World War broke out in August 1914, Gellibrand offered his services, and was appointed to the First Australian Imperial Force (AIF) as a captain on the staff of the 1st Division. He landed at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915, and served in the Gallipoli Campaign until he was wounded on 11 May. He returned to Anzac on 31 May 1915, but put in for a transfer to the staff of the 2nd Division. In December, he was given command of the 12th Infantry Battalion, the 1st Division's Tasmanian battalion, then resting on Lemnos, but did not return to Anzac, which was evacuated in December. On 1 March 1916 he was promoted to brigadier general and given command of the 6th Infantry Brigade, which he led in the Battle of Pozières and Second Battle of Bullecourt. He was relieved of his command at his own request, and posted to the AIF Depots in the United Kingdom. He returned to the Western Front in November 1917 to command of the 12th Infantry Brigade, which he led in the Battle of Dernancourt in April 1918. He was promoted to major general on 1 June 1918, and commanded the 3rd Division in the Battle of Amiens and the Battle of the Hindenburg Line. After the war, Gellibrand returned to Tasmania. In 1919 he accepted the post of Public Service Commissioner in Tasmania. He investigated the conditions of the service, and recommended reforms. He then took up a position as Chief Commissioner of Victoria Police in Victoria, but failed to get the Victorian government to agree with his recommendations for reform, and resigned in 1922. While in Melbourne, Gellibrand commanded the 3rd Division, but had to resign when he returned to Tasmania in 1922. He entered Federal politics in 1925, and was elected the member for Denison. He was defeated in the 1928 and 1929 elections, and returned to farming, first in Tasmania, and then in Victoria. In the late 1930s, he was consulted by Prime Ministers Joseph Lyons and Robert Menzies about defence matters. He campaigned for an increase in the size of the Australian Army, and, after the outbreak of the Second World War, lobbied the Menzies government to appoint Major General Sir Thomas Blamey as Commander in Chief of the Army. In June 1940, he was appointed commandant of the Victorian Volunteer Defence Corps, the Australian version of the British Home Guard, but ill-health forced him to resign. Early life and career John Gellibrand (known as Jack to his family) was born at Leintwarden, near Ouse in Tasmania, on 5 December 1872, the sixth child and third son of Thomas Lloyd Gellibrand, a grazier, landowner and local politician and his wife Isabella née Brown. Thomas Lloyd was the son of Joseph Gellibrand, a member of the Tasmanian House of Assembly from 1856 to 1861, and a captain in a Militia unit, the 3rd Rifles (Southern Tasmanian Volunteers). Gellibrand had two older brothers, Tom and Walter; three sisters, Annie, Lina and Mary; and a younger brother, Blake. His father died on 9 November 1874, and on 7 February 1876, his mother took her seven children to live in England, sailing on the clipper Sobroan. En route she met the ship's surgeon, Dr Edward Clayton Ling, and they were married in Saxmundham, Suffolk, where his family lived, on 28 December 1878. They had two more children, a daughter, Muriel, and a son, Maurice, but Ling died on 28 June 1882. Gellibrand was initially educated at Crespigny Preparatory School at Aldeburgh in Suffolk. In 1883 the family moved to Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany, where he continued his education before completing it at the King's School, Canterbury in 1888 and 1889. After a visit to Tasmania with his mother and sister Annie in 1891, he returned to Frankfurt-am-Main in September 1891 to study for the entrance exam to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. In Frankfurt he met and courted Elizabeth Helena Breul, known as Elsie to her family, who would later become his wife. He passed the entrance exam, topping the list of candidates, which was published on 17 August 1892, and entered on 1 September. He graduated at the top of his class of 87 on 18 October 1893, and was awarded the General Proficiency Sword for gaining the highest aggregate marks in the final exams. He was commissioned a second lieutenant in the South Lancashire Regiment (The Prince of Wales's Volunteers) on 21 October 1893, and was posted to its 1st Battalion, then on garrison duty in Birr, County Offaly, in Ireland. Gellibrand married Elsie in an Anglican ceremony at the parish church in Ilkley, Yorkshire, on 27 July 1894. He attended a course at the School of Musketry in February and March 1895, qualifying him as an instructor in small arms and the Maxim gun, and was promoted to lieutenant on 24 April 1895. He commanded C Company from October 1895 to October 1897. His salary was insufficient to live on, so Gellibrand and Elsie supplemented it by translating German works by Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, Prince Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen and others into English, for which they were paid 10 shillings per thousands words. In early 1894 he had taken advantage of his fluent German to qualify as a translator. Their first child, Elizabeth Joan, was born in London on 30 May 1899. In August 1899, Gellibrand easily passed the examinations for promotion to captain, but was passed over for the post of adjutant of the 2nd Battalion of the South Lancashire Regiment, then based in St Helens, Merseyside. In October the post became vacant again, and this time he secured it. The South African War had broken out, and the 2nd Battalion embarked for South Africa on 30 November, but Gellibrand was left behind, in charge of the regimental depot. He eventually received orders to embark for South Africa with reinforcements on 3 January 1900. He arrived in South Africa on 25 January 1900. Soon after, he was given command of D Company. As such he participated in the relief of Ladysmith, leading a bayonet charge on 27 February. His company entered the town on 3 March. Five days later he became ill with typhoid, and lay in a comatose state until 3 April. He was joined in Durban by Elsie, who had made her way out to South Africa with Cecil Rhodes, and they embarked for England together on 26 May, arriving at Southampton on 18 June. On 26 May 1900, Gellibrand was promoted to captain in the newly raised 3rd Battalion of the Manchester Regiment, joining his new command at Aldershot on 29 November 1900, where his second daughter, Cynthia Lloyd was born on 22 June 1901. On 28 July 1902, the battalion moved to St Helena where its primary task was guarding of the 6,000 Boer prisoners of war there. These were released when the war ended in May 1902, and most of the battalion moved to Middelburg, in South Africa. Gellibrand remained on St Helena, where he became a justice of the peace and garrison adjutant, until he too left for South Africa on 5 January 1904, becoming adjutant on 24 January. The announcement in July 1904 that the 3rd and 4th Battalions of the Manchester Regiment were to be disbanded ended any prospect of further promotion in the near future. In August 1905, Gellibrand passed the staff college entrance exam, and he embarked for England with his family on 28 December. He entered the Staff College, Camberley, in January 1906. He graduated on 2 December 1907. Staff college was normally followed by a staff posting, and in March 1908 he was informed by the Commandant, Brigadier General Henry Wilson, that his next posting would be to Ceylon, as Deputy Assistant Adjutant and Quartermaster General (DAA & QMG) on the staff of the garrison commander. Gellibrand arrived in Colombo with his family on 22 May 1908. The family increased when their third child, Thomas Ianson, was born on 29 November 1908. He got along well with his first commander, Brigadier General R. C. B. Lawrence, but much less so with his successor, Brigadier General A. J. W. Allen. As the seventh most senior captain in his regiment, he could expect that promotion to major in seven or eight years. Frustrated at this, he took leave in July 1910, and travelled to Tasmania to find out what the prospects were there. On 27 April 1912, his four-year posting to Ceylon ended. He resigned his commission, and returned to Tasmania with his family, reaching Hobart on 14 June 1912. He hoped to be able to take over one of his family's properties, but none were willing to sell out to him, so he bought an apple orchard at Risdon, and settled into life as a farmer. Charles Bean later wrote that "It was a constant wonder, to those who knew in Gellibrand one of the best and ablest officers in any army with the experience of the Australians, how a man with these qualities and with staff college training could have been allowed—much less almost compelled—to slip out of the British Army. It was standing evidence of the hopeless defects in a system under which staffs were often appointed on the principles of a hunt-club." First World War When the First World War broke out on 4 August 1914, Gellibrand offered his services to the commandant of the 6th Military District (Tasmania). On 20 August 1914, he was appointed to the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) as a captain, and given the post of Deputy Assistant Quartermaster General (DAQMG) on the staff of the 1st Division. Staff college graduates like Gellibrand were scarce in Australia; only six Australian Army officers had graduated from staff colleges. There were also four of the British Army's graduates on secondment. For the 1st Division's General Staff (G) Branch, the division commander, Major General William Bridges, chose two of Gellibrand's Camberley classmates, Lieutenant Colonel Brudenell White from the Australian Army, and Major Duncan Glasfurd from the British Army, and Captain Thomas Blamey, an Australian Army officer who had graduated from the Staff College, Quetta. The Administration (A) Branch was headed by the AA & QMG, Colonel Victor Sellheim. Lieutenant Colonel W. G. Patterson was his deputy, the DAA & QMG. As DAQMG, Gellibrand was responsible for logistics; Major Cecil Foott, an Australian 1913 Camberley graduate, was the Deputy Assistant Adjutant General (DAAG), responsible for personnel matters. On 23 September 1914 Gellibrand was promoted to major, the usual rank for his post. The 1st Division headquarters left Port Melbourne on the Orient liner SS Orvieto on 21 October 1914, which reached Alexandria on 3 December. Sellheim left to command the new Intermediate Base Depot on 12 January 1915. Patterson stepped up to become AA & QMG, and Gellibrand to become DAA & QMG. Foott took Gellibrand's place as DAQMG, and Captain Thomas Griffiths became DAAG. Gellibrand landed at Anzac Cove with the second echelon of 1st Division Headquarters at around 09:00 on 25 April 1915. As DAA & QMG, he was responsible for supply. He helped organise the beach parties, rounded up stragglers, and organised the movement of supplies and ammunition forward. Patterson had a nervous breakdown and was evacuated on 28 April 1915, Gellibrand performed his job as well until Lieutenant Colonel John Forsyth was appointed AA & QMG on 7 May 1915. Gellibrand was disappointed at not being appointed AA & QMG, but Bridges was unimpressed with Gellibrand's staff work. He felt that Gellibrand had mishandled the move of the 2nd Infantry Brigade to Cape Helles, where it participated in the First Battle of Krithia. He also expected Gellibrand to organise a proper officers' mess at Gallipoli and was annoyed at the poor quality of what Gellibrand had scrounged from ships' canteen supplies. Gellibrand might have even been dismissed by Bridges but fate intervened. On 1 May Gellibrand was wounded in the ankle by shrapnel. Then, on 11 May, while laughing at two men whose water bottles had been holed, he received a severe wound in his right shoulder and was evacuated to the hospital ship HMHS Gascon. While it was still anchored off Anzac Cove, Bridges was wounded on 15 May and brought on board the same ship (and to the same bed, Gellibrand was moved out of the way), where Bridges died on 18 May 1915. Gellibrand returned to Anzac on 31 May 1915, to find that Forsyth had been given command of the 2nd Infantry Brigade and Foott, who had been his subordinate, had become AA & QMG and was now his superior. Gellibrand took this in bad grace although Foott was in fact the senior major. Dissatisfied, Gellibrand put in for a transfer to the 2nd Division, then being formed in Egypt under the command of Major General James Gordon Legge. He became DAA & QMG of the 2nd Division in Egypt on 21 August 1915. Because the 2nd Division's AA & QMG, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Blamey, was forced to remain in Egypt for medical reasons, Gellibrand became acting AA & QMG on 29 August, embarking for Anzac once again on the SS Southland that day. On 2 September, the ship was torpedoed. Gellibrand eventually reached Anzac on 6 September. The August offensive was over, and Gellibrand settled into routine administration. He was struck down by typhoid again on 11 October and evacuated a second time, returning on 23 October 1915. For his services at Anzac, Gellibrand was twice mentioned in despatches, and awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO). On 4 December 1915, Gellibrand received a promotion to lieutenant colonel, and was given command of the 12th Infantry Battalion, the 1st Division's Tasmanian battalion, then resting on Lemnos. It did not return to Anzac, which was evacuated on 20 December 1915. Instead, the battalion returned to Egypt, arriving at Alexandria on 6 January 1916. Gellibrand would not lead it into battle. On 1 March 1916 he was again promoted, this time to full colonel and temporary brigadier general, and given command of the 6th Infantry Brigade, on the specific request of Legge. Apparently Gellibrand had greatly impressed Legge during his time as AA & QMG of the 2nd Division. The 6th Infantry Brigade sailed for the Western Front just a few days later, on 19 March 1916, and entered the line there on 10 April. On 31 May, Gellibrand was wounded by a German shell that had landed close to his headquarters and was evacuated to England, returning on 28 June. The brigade fought at Pozières, where it performed well in the attack on 4 August. He was mentioned in despatches once more. Gellibrand went to England on leave on 25 November 1916. While there he had four teeth extracted and did not return until December. He was evacuated again on 13 December 1916 with influenza, returning on 30 January 1917. In the meantime he was promoted to brevet major in the British Army's Reserve of Officers List, which he considered an insult. He was acting commander of the 2nd Division until 5 March 1917, directing it in probing attacks against Malt Trench when it was suspected that the Germans were withdrawing to the Hindenburg Line. The advance of the 6th Infantry Brigade to the Hindenburg Line began well but ended with a costly, ill-planned and ill-executed attack on Noreuil. This caused his division commander, Major General Nevill Smyth, and corps commander, Lieutenant General William Birdwood, to lose confidence in Gellibrand, although the commander of the British Fifth Army, General Sir Hubert Gough, considered it a risk that he had accepted. Gellibrand received a fourth mention in despatches. The 6th Infantry Brigade's next attack was against the Hindenburg Line near Bullecourt, in the Second Battle of Bullecourt. In this attack, Gellibrand had his headquarters well forward and his planning was meticulous and detailed. Nonetheless, the attack was very nearly a disaster, and only decisive and forceful leadership from Gellibrand retrieved the situation. For this battle he was awarded a bar to his DSO, made a Companion of the Order of the Bath, and was mentioned in despatches. The bar's citation reads: From 25 May to 5 June 1917, he was again acting commander of the 2nd Division. He did not get along well with Smyth, Brigadier General Robert Smith of the 5th Infantry Brigade, or Colonel A. H. Bridges, the division's chief of staff. According to Bean, "misunderstandings between himself and the divisional staff had caused Gellibrand to ask for relief from the brigade command. Birdwood was eager to compose the difficulty, but Gellibrand would not take the opportunity offered for explanation. Gellibrand's request was therefore granted." Gellibrand was sent to the AIF Depots in the United Kingdom as Brigadier General, General Staff (BGGS) to Major General James Whiteside McCay. McCay was known as a hard task master, but he had nothing but praise for the work of Gellibrand, who helped him overhaul the organisation and the training syllabus. Likewise, Gellibrand held McCay in high regard. Gellibrand returned to the Western Front on 14 November 1917, taking over command of the 12th Infantry Brigade vice Brigadier General James Campbell Robertson, who was returning to Australia on leave. He soon placed his own distinctive stamp on his new command. In April 1918, the brigade was committed to battle in the path of the advancing German Army in the Battle of Dernancourt. The brigade held and defeated the German advance. On 30 May 1918, Major General John Monash was appointed to command the Australian Corps, and Birdwood selected Gellibrand to take Monash's place in command of the 3rd Division. Gellibrand was promoted to major general on 1 June 1918. He found the 3rd Division a difficult assignment. The division staff had been together for two years, and were accustomed to Monash. Other brigadier generals were understandably disappointed at missing out on a division command, particularly Walter McNicoll. At the Battle of Amiens, Monash and Gellibrand had serious disagreements over tactics and troop dispositions. Gellibrand disliked part of the plan that called for the leapfrogging of divisions, generally regarded as Monash's master stroke. Monash overruled him. On 27 September 1918, the two had a more heated clash during the Battle of the Hindenburg Line over the merits of Gellibrand's intention to attack on a narrow front, something not normally considered advisable. Gellibrand angrily claimed that his battalions were only 200 strong. Monash countered that some were 600 strong. The attack went in as Monash directed, and was successful because the Germans began to withdraw. Monash later wrote that: For his services, Gellibrand was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in June 1919. He was appointed an Officer of the Legion of Honour, and awarded the Croix de Guerre by the French, and the Distinguished Service Medal by the Americans. He was also mentioned in despatches twice more. Post-war After the war, Gellibrand returned to Tasmania. He boarded the troopship RMS Kaisar-i-Hind in London on 4 May 1919, and reached Hobart on 30 June, after a long sea voyage, a rail trip from Fremantle to Melbourne, passage across the Bass Strait, and a week in quarantine on Bruny Island due to the 1918 flu pandemic. As Tasmania's highest-ranking war hero, he was greeted by the Governor of Tasmania, Sir Francis Newdegate. In August 1919 he accepted an offer from the Premier of Tasmania, Walter Lee, of the post of Public Service Commissioner. He investigated the conditions of the service, and found that public servants were agitating for a 40 per cent pay rise, as no pay rises had been granted since before the war. He came up with a plan for a temporary reclassification of positions, which would offer some relief, at a cost to the government of £12,000. This was implemented in December. On 19 July 1920, he was formally knighted by the Prince of Wales. Gellibrand resigned as Public Service Commissioner to take up a position as Chief Commissioner of Victoria Police in Victoria on 2 September 1920. The force he inherited was under-manned, poorly equipped, overworked and inadequately paid. Gellibrand felt that urgent action was required to increase force numbers and improve working conditions, but was unable to get his recommendations approved. He clashed with his political master, the Chief Secretary, Matthew Baird, and Gellibrand resigned on 7 February 1922. While in Melbourne, Gellibrand was appointed commander of the 3rd Division on 8 February 1921. He had to resign on 20 February 1922, when he returned to Tasmania. Concerned about the plight of fellow ex-servicemen, whose businesses were often failing, Gellibrand banded together with like-minded individuals to form the Hobart Remembrance Club. This organisation aimed to support ex-servicemen by providing employment and support for their businesses. The Hobart Club inspired the formation of Legacy Australia in Melbourne, which over time became a national movement, expanding its scope to the care of ex-servicemen's widows and their families. The Hobart Club did not join Legacy until 1940, but Charles Bean wrote in 1944 that "coming back to the great and good man from whose original work it all sprang—there was a time when some of us thought that the best monument to John Gellibrand might be the story of Second Bullecourt. Now I feel there will be an even better—the record of Legacy." Gellibrand entered Federal politics in the November 1925 election, at which he was elected the member for Denison on the Nationalist Party of Australia ticket. In his campaign speeches he exploited the fear of communism. As the member for Denison, he supported increased Federal funding for Tasmania, and called for improvements in the way the Australian Army trained future leaders. He was involved in the campaign for the 1926 referendum, which failed. He lost his seat in the 1928 election, and failed to regain it in the 1929 election. After that he returned to farming at Greenhills. He also bought a foreclosed property near Smithton, Tasmania, called Garth, from the AMP Society, of which he was a director. On 1 August 1936, he purchased a new property, Balaclava, at Murrindindi, Victoria, not far from Yea, Victoria, where his son Tom had a farm, and made his home there, selling the properties in Tasmania. In the late 1930s, he was consulted by Prime Ministers Joseph Lyons and Robert Menzies about defence matters. He campaigned for an increase in the size of the Australian Army, writing letters to newspapers, and a series of articles for Reveille, the Returned Sailors and Soldiers Imperial League of Australia's organ. After the outbreak of the Second World War, he lobbied the Menzies government to appoint Blamey as Commander in Chief of the Army. In June 1940, he was appointed commandant of the Victorian Volunteer Defence Corps, the Australian version of the Home Guard, but ill-health forced him to resign in July 1940, to be replaced by Foott. Gellibrand died at Balaclava from a cerebral haemorrhage on 3 June 1945, and was buried in Yea Cemetery. He was survived by his wife and children. His funeral service was attended by Major Generals James Cannan, Eric Plant and Charles Lloyd. Honours and awards References External links 1872 births 1945 deaths Military personnel from Tasmania Australian Companions of the Distinguished Service Order Australian generals Australian military personnel of World War I British Army personnel of the Second Boer War Chief Commissioners of Victoria Police Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst Australian Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath Manchester Regiment officers Members of the Australian House of Representatives Members of the Australian House of Representatives for Denison Nationalist Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Australia Officers of the Legion of Honour People educated at The King's School, Canterbury People from British Ceylon Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France) Foreign recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (United States) South Lancashire Regiment officers 20th-century Australian politicians Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley Volunteer Defence Corps officers
4865141	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood%20control%20in%20the%20Netherlands	Flood control in the Netherlands	Flood control is an important issue for the Netherlands, as due to its low elevation, approximately two thirds of its area is vulnerable to flooding, while the country is densely populated. Natural sand dunes and constructed dikes, dams, and floodgates provide defense against storm surges from the sea. River dikes prevent flooding from water flowing into the country by the major rivers Rhine and Meuse, while a complicated system of drainage ditches, canals, and pumping stations (historically: windmills) keep the low-lying parts dry for habitation and agriculture. Water control boards are the independent local government bodies responsible for maintaining this system. In modern times, flood disasters coupled with technological developments have led to large construction works to reduce the influence of the sea and prevent future floods. These have proved essential over the course of Dutch history, both geographically and militarily, and has greatly impacted the lives of many living in the cities affected, stimulating their economies through constant infrastructural improvement. History The Greek geographer Pytheas noted of the Low Countries, as he passed them on his way to Heligoland around BCE, that "more people died in the struggle against water than in the struggle against men". Roman author Pliny, of the 1st century, wrote something similar in his Natural History: There, twice in every twenty-four hours, the ocean's vast tide sweeps in a flood over a large stretch of land and hides Nature's everlasting controversy about whether this region belongs to the land or to the sea. There these wretched peoples occupy high ground, or manmade platforms constructed above the level of the highest tide they experience; they live in huts built on the site so chosen and are like sailors in ships when the waters cover the surrounding land, but when the tide has receded they are like shipwrecked victims. Around their huts they catch fish as they try to escape with the ebbing tide. It does not fall to their lot to keep herds and live on milk, like neighboring tribes, nor even to fight with wild animals, since all undergrowth has been pushed far back. The flood-threatened area of the Netherlands is essentially an alluvial plain, built up from sediment left by thousands of years of flooding by rivers and the sea. About 2,000 years ago most of the Netherlands was covered by extensive peat swamps. The coast consisted of a row of coastal dunes and natural embankments which kept the swamps from draining but also from being washed away by the sea. The only areas suitable for habitation were on the higher grounds in the east and south and on the dunes and natural embankments along the coast and the rivers. In several places the sea had broken through these natural defenses and created extensive floodplains in the north. The first permanent inhabitants of this area were probably attracted by the sea-deposited clay soil which was much more fertile than the peat and sandy soil further inland. To protect themselves against floods they built their homes on artificial dwelling hills called terpen or wierden (known as Warften or Halligen in Germany). Between 500 BC and AD 700 there were probably several periods of habitation and abandonment as the sea level periodically rose and fell. The first dikes were low embankments of only a meter or so in height surrounding fields to protect the crops against occasional flooding. Around the 9th century the sea was on the advance again and many terps had to be raised to keep them safe. Many single terps had by this time grown together as villages. These were now connected by the first dikes. After about AD 1000 the population grew, which meant there was a greater demand for arable land but also that there was a greater workforce available and dike construction was taken up more seriously. The major contributors in later dike building were the monasteries. As the largest landowners they had the organization, resources and manpower to undertake the large construction. By 1250 most dikes had been connected into a continuous sea defense. The next step was to move the dikes ever-more seawards. Every cycle of high and low tide left a small layer of sediment. Over the years these layers had built up to such a height that they were rarely flooded. It was then considered safe to build a new dike around this area. The old dike was often kept as a secondary defense, called a sleeper dike. A dike could not always be moved seawards. Especially in the southwest river delta it was often the case that the primary sea dike was undermined by a tidal channel. A secondary dike was then built, called an inlaagdijk. With an inland dike, when the seaward dike collapses the secondary inland dike becomes the primary. Although the redundancy provides security, the land from the first to second dike is lost; over the years the loss can become significant. Taking land from the cycle of flooding by putting a dike around it prevents it from being raised by silt left behind after a flooding. At the same time the drained soil consolidates and peat decomposes leading to land subsidence. In this way the difference between the water level on one side and land level on the other side of the dike grew. While floods became more rare, if the dike did overflow or was breached the destruction was much larger. The construction method of dikes has changed over the centuries. Popular in the Middle Ages were wierdijken, earth dikes with a protective layer of seaweed. An earth embankment was cut vertically on the sea-facing side. Seaweed was then stacked against this edge, held into place with poles. Compression and rotting processes resulted in a solid residue that proved very effective against wave action and they needed very little maintenance. In places where seaweed was unavailable, other materials, such as reeds or wicker mats, were used. Another system used much and for a long time was that of a vertical screen of timbers backed by an earth bank. Technically these vertical constructions were less successful as vibration from crashing waves and washing out of the dike foundations weakened the dike. Much damage was done to these wood constructions with the arrival of the shipworm (Teredo navalis), a bivalve thought to have been brought to the Netherlands by VOC trading ships, that ate its way through Dutch sea defenses around 1730. The change was made from wood to using stone for reinforcement. This was a great financial setback as there is no natural occurring rock in the Netherlands and it all had to be imported from abroad. Current dikes are made with a core of sand, covered by a thick layer of clay to provide waterproofing and resistance against erosion. Dikes without a foreland have a layer of crushed rock below the waterline to slow wave action. Up to the high waterline the dike is often covered with carefully laid basalt stones or a layer of tarmac. The remainder is covered by grass and maintained by grazing sheep. Sheep keep the grass dense and compact the soil, in contrast to cattle. Developing the peat swamps At about the same time as the building of dikes the first swamps were made suitable for agriculture by colonists. By digging a system of parallel drainage ditches water was drained from the land to be able to grow grain. However, the peat settled much more than other soil types when drained and land subsidence resulted in developed areas becoming wet again. Cultivated lands which were at first primarily used for growing grain thus became too wet and the switch was made to dairy farming. A new area behind the existing field was then cultivated, heading deeper into the wild. This cycle repeated itself several times until the different developments met each other and no further undeveloped land was available. All land was then used for grazing cattle. Because of the continuous land subsidence it became ever more difficult to remove excess water. The mouths of streams and rivers were dammed to prevent high water levels flowing back upstream and overflowing cultivated lands. These dams had a wooden culvert equipped with a valve, allowing drainage but preventing water from flowing upstream. These dams, however, blocked shipping and the economic activity caused by the need to transship goods caused villages to grow up near the dam, some famous examples are Amsterdam (dam in the river Amstel) and Rotterdam (dam in the Rotte). Only in later centuries were locks developed to allow ships to pass. Further drainage could only be accomplished after the development of the polder windmill in the 15th century. The wind-driven water pump has become one of the trademark tourist attractions of the Netherlands. The first drainage mills using a scoop wheel could raise water at most 1.5 m. By combining mills the pumping height could be increased. Later mills were equipped with an Archimedes' screw which could raise water much higher. The polders, now often below sea level, were kept dry with mills pumping water from the polder ditches and canals to the boezem ("bosom"), a system of canals and lakes connecting the different polders and acting as a storage basin until the water could be let out to river or sea, either by a sluice gate at low tide or using further pumps. This system is still in use today, though drainage mills have been replaced by first steam and later diesel and electric pumping stations. The growth of towns and industry in the Middle Ages resulted in an increased demand for dried peat as fuel. First all the peat down to the groundwater table was dug away. In the 16th century a method was developed to dig peat below water, using a dredging net on a long pole. Large scale peat dredging was taken up by companies, supported by investors from the cities. These undertakings often devastated the landscape as agricultural land was dug away and the leftover ridges, used for drying the peat, collapsed under the action of waves. Small lakes were created which quickly grew in area, every increase in surface water leading to more leverage of the wind on the water to attack more land. It even led to villages being lost to the waves of human-made lakes. The development of the polder mill gave the option of draining the lakes. In the 16th century this work was started on small, shallow lakes, continuing with ever-larger and deeper lakes, though it was not until in the 19th century that the most dangerous of lakes, the Haarlemmermeer near Amsterdam, was drained using steam power. Drained lakes and new polders can often be easily distinguished on topographic maps by their different regular division pattern as compared to their older surroundings. Millwright and hydraulic engineer Jan Leeghwater has become famous for his involvement in these works. Control of river floods Three major European rivers, the Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt, flow through the Netherlands, of which the Rhine and Meuse cross the country from east to west. The first large construction works on the rivers were conducted by the Romans. Nero Claudius Drusus was responsible for building a dam in the Rhine to divert water from the river branches Waal to the Nederrijn and possibly for connecting the river IJssel, previously only a small stream, to the Rhine. Whether these were intended as flood control measures or just for military defense and transport purposes is unclear. The first river dikes appeared near the river mouths in the 11th century, where incursions from the sea added to the danger from high water levels on the river. Local rulers dammed branches of rivers to prevent flooding on their lands (Graaf van Holland, c. 1160, Kromme Rijn; Floris V, 1285, Hollandse IJssel), only to cause problems to others living further upstream. Large scale deforestation upstream caused the river levels to become ever more extreme while the demand for arable land led to more land being protected by dikes, giving less space to the river stream bed and so causing even higher water levels. Local dikes to protect villages were connected to create a ban dike to contain the river at all times. These developments meant that while the regular floods for the first inhabitants of the river valleys were just a nuisance, in contrast the later incidental floods when dikes burst were much more destructive. The 17th and 18th centuries were a period of many infamous river floods resulting in much loss of life. They were often caused by ice dams blocking the river. Land reclamation works, large willow plantations and building in the winter bed of the river all worsened the problem. Next to the obvious clearing of the winter bed, overflows (overlaten) were created. These were intentionally low dikes where the excess water could be diverted downstream. The land in such a diversion channel was kept clear of buildings and obstructions. As this so-called green river could therefore essentially only be used for grazing cattle it was in later centuries seen as a wasteful use of land. Most overflows have now been removed, focusing instead on stronger dikes and more control over the distribution of water across the river branches. To achieve this canals such as the Pannerdens Kanaal and Nieuwe Merwede were dug. A committee reported in 1977 about the weakness of the river dikes, but there was too much resistance from the local population against demolishing houses and straightening and strengthening the old meandering dikes. It took the flood threats in 1993 and again in 1995, when over people had to be evacuated and the dikes only just held, to put plans into action. Now the risk of a river flooding has been reduced from once every 100 years to once every years. Further works in the Room for the River project are being carried out to give the rivers more space to flood and in this way reducing the flood height. Water control boards The first dikes and water control structures were built and maintained by those directly benefiting from them, mostly farmers. As the structures got more extensive and complex councils were formed from people with a common interest in the control of water levels on their land and so the first water boards began to emerge. These often controlled only a small area, a single polder or dike. Later they merged or an overall organization was formed when different water boards had conflicting interests. The original water boards differed much from each other in the organisation, power, and area that they managed. The differences were often regional and were dictated by differing circumstances, whether they had to defend a sea dike against a storm surge or keep the water level in a polder within bounds. In the middle of the 20th century there were about 2,700 water control boards. After many mergers there are currently 21 water boards left. Water boards hold separate elections, levy taxes, and function independently from other government bodies. The dikes were maintained by the individuals who benefited from their existence, every farmer having been designated part of the dike to maintain, with a three-yearly viewing by the water board directors. The old rule "Whom the water hurts, he the water stops" (Wie het water deert, die het water keert) meant that those living at the dike had to pay and care for it. This led to haphazard maintenance and it is believed that many floods would not have happened or would not have been as severe if the dikes had been in better condition. Those living further inland often refused to pay or help in the upkeep of the dikes though they were just as much affected by floods, while those living at the dike itself could go bankrupt from having to repair a breached dike. Rijkswaterstaat (Directorate General for Public Works and Water Management) was set up in 1798 under French rule to put water control in the Netherlands under a central government. Local waterboards however were too attached to their autonomy and for most of the time Rijkswaterstaat worked alongside the local waterboards. Rijkswaterstaat has been responsible for many major water control structures and was later and still is also involved in building railroads and highways. Water boards may try new experiments like the sand engine off the coast of South Holland. Notorious floods Over the years there have been many storm surges and floods in the Netherlands. Some deserve special mention as they particularly have changed the contours of the Netherlands. A series of devastating storm surges, more or less starting with the First All Saints' flood (Allerheiligenvloed) in 1170 washed away a large area of peat marshes, enlarging the Wadden Sea and connecting the previously existing Lake Almere in the middle of the country to the North Sea, thereby creating the Zuiderzee. It in itself would cause much trouble until the building of the Afsluitdijk in 1933. Several storms starting in 1219 created the Dollart from the mouth of the river Ems. By 1520 the Dollart had reached its largest area. Reiderland, containing several towns and villages, was lost. Much of this land was later reclaimed. In 1421 the St. Elizabeth's flood caused the loss of De Grote Waard in the southwest of the country. Particularly the digging of peat near the dike for salt production and neglect because of a civil war caused dikes to fail, which created the Biesbosch, now a valued nature reserve. The more recent floodings of 1916 and 1953 gave rise to building the Afsluitdijk and Deltaworks respectively. Flooding as military defense The deliberate inundating of certain areas can allow a military defensive line to be created. In case of an advancing enemy army, the area was to be inundated with about 30 cm (1 ft) of water, too shallow for boats but deep enough to make advance on foot difficult by hiding underwater obstacles such as canals, ditches, and purpose-built traps. Dikes crossing the flooded area and other strategic points were to be protected by fortifications. The system proved successful on the Hollandic Water Line in rampjaar 1672 during the Third Anglo-Dutch War but was overcome in 1795 because of heavy frost. It was also used with the Stelling van Amsterdam, the Grebbe line and the IJssel Line. The advent of heavier artillery and especially airplanes have made that strategy largely obsolete. Modern developments Technological development in the 20th century meant that larger projects could be undertaken to further improve the safety against flooding and to reclaim large areas of land. The most important are the Zuiderzee Works and the Delta Works. By the end of the 20th century all sea inlets have been closed off from the sea by dams and barriers. Only the Westerschelde needs to remain open for shipping access to the port of Antwerp. Plans to reclaim parts of the Wadden Sea and the Markermeer were eventually called off because of the ecological and recreational values of these waters. Zuiderzee Works The Zuiderzee Works (Zuiderzeewerken) are a system of dams, land reclamation, and water drainage works. The basis of the project was the damming off of the Zuiderzee, a large shallow inlet of the North Sea. This dam, called the Afsluitdijk, was built in 1932–33, separating the Zuiderzee from the North Sea. As result, the Zuider sea became the IJsselmeer—IJssel lake. Following the damming, large areas of land were reclaimed in the newly freshwater lake body by means of polders. The works were performed in several steps from 1920 to 1975. Engineer Cornelis Lely played a major part in its design and as statesman in the authorization of its construction. Delta Works A study done by Rijkswaterstaat in 1937 showed that the sea defenses in the southwest river delta were inadequate to withstand a major storm surge. The proposed solution was to dam all the river mouths and sea inlets thereby shortening the coast. However, because of the scale of this project and the intervention of the Second World War its construction was delayed and the first works were only completed in 1950. The North Sea flood of 1953 gave a major impulse to speed up the project. In the following years a number of dams were built to close off the estuary mouths. In 1976, under pressures from environmental groups and the fishing industry, it was decided not to close off the Oosterschelde estuary by a solid dam but instead to build the Oosterscheldekering, a storm surge barrier which is only closed during storms. It is the most well-known (and most expensive) dam of the project. A second major hurdle for the works was in the Rijnmond area. A storm surge through the Nieuwe Waterweg would threaten about 1.5 million people around Rotterdam. However, closing off this river mouth would be very detrimental for the Dutch economy, as the Port of Rotterdam—one of the biggest sea ports in the world—uses this river mouth. Eventually, the Maeslantkering was built in 1997, keeping economical factors in mind: the Maeslantkering is a set of two swinging doors that can shut off the river mouth when necessary, but which are usually open. The Maeslantkering is forecast to close about once per decade. Up until January 2012, it has closed only once, in 2007. Current situation and future The current sea defenses are stronger than ever, but experts warn that complacency would be a mistake. New calculation methods revealed numerous weak spots. Sea level rise could increase the mean sea level by one to two meters by the end of this century, with even more following. This, land subsidence, and increased storms make further upgrades to the flood control and water management infrastructure necessary. The sea defenses are continuously being strengthened and raised to meet the safety norm of a flood chance of once every 10,000 years for the west, which is the economic heart and most densely populated part of the Netherlands, and once every 4,000 years for less densely populated areas. The primary flood defenses are tested against this norm every five years. In 2010 about 800 km of dikes out of a total of 3,500 km failed to meet the norm. This does not mean there is an immediate flooding risk; it is the result of the norm's becoming more strict from the results of scientific research on, for example, wave action and sea level rise. The amount of coastal erosion is compared against the so-called "reference coastline" (Dutch: ), the average coastline in 1990. Sand replenishment is used where beaches have retreated too far. About 12 million m3 of sand are deposited yearly on the beaches and below the waterline in front of the coast. The Stormvloedwaarschuwingsdienst (SVSD; Storm Surge Warning Service) makes a water level forecast in case of a storm surge and warns the responsible parties in the affected coastal districts. These can then take appropriate measures depending on the expected water levels, such as evacuating areas outside the dikes, closing barriers and in extreme cases patrolling the dikes during the storm. The Second Delta Committee, or Veerman Committee, officially Staatscommissie voor Duurzame Kustontwikkeling (State Committee for Durable Coast Development) gave its advice in 2008. It expects a sea level rise of 65 to 130 cm by the year 2100. Among its suggestions are: to increase the safety norms tenfold and strengthen dikes accordingly, to use sand replenishment to broaden the North Sea coast and allow it to grow naturally, to use the lakes in the southwest river delta as river water retention basins, to raise the water level in the IJsselmeer to provide freshwater. These measures would cost approximately 1 billion euros/year. Room for the River Global warming in the 21st century might result in a rise in sea level which could overwhelm the measures the Netherlands has taken to control floods. The Room for the River project allows for periodic flooding of indefensible lands. In such regions residents have been removed to higher ground, some of which has been raised above anticipated flood levels. References Vergemissen, H (1998). "Het woelige water; Watermanagment in Nederland", Teleac/NOT, Ten Brinke, W (2007). "Land in Zee; De watergeschiedenis van Nederland", Veen Magazines, Stol, T (1993). "Wassend water, dalend land; Geschiedenis van Nederland en het water", Kosmos, External links DeltaWorks.org – website about the flood of 1953 and the construction of the Delta Works Water Management in the Netherlands – 2009 publication by Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment: Rijkswaterstaat FloodControl2015.com – 2008–2012 research program for flood control in the Netherlands History of science and technology in the Netherlands Water management authorities in the Netherlands
4865293	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Oriel%20College%2C%20Oxford%2C%20people	List of Oriel College, Oxford, people	A list of notable people affiliated with Oriel College, Oxford University, England, including alumni, academics, provosts and honorary fellows. Alumni Academics Richard Ithamar Aaron – D.Phil student, graduated 1928: Welsh philosopher. Donald Ferlys Wilson Baden-Powell – Undergraduate 1917: Geologist and palaeolithic archeologist. Marius Barbeau – Rhodes Scholar 1907–1910: Canadian ethnographer and folklorist. Geoffrey Barraclough – scholar in History 1926–1929. Chichele Professor of Modern History, University of Oxford, 1970–73. Harold Idris Bell – Adam de Brome scholar 1897, British papyrologist (specialising in Roman Egypt) and scholar of Welsh literature. Peter Brunt – Ancient historian. Anthony Collett – author and writer on natural history. Richard A. Epstein – American legal scholar Eric Foner – American historian, Bancroft Prize winner. Jeff Forshaw – Particle physicist, winner of the Maxwell Medal and Prize. James Anthony Froude – Undergraduate 1836 to 1840: English historian and Regius Professor of Modern History, 1892 to 1894. Robert Alfred Cloynes Godwin-Austen – Undergraduate 1826–1830: English geologist, Fellow in 1830. Sir Francis Knowles, 5th Baronet – Archaeologist J. L. Mackie – Undergraduate 1938 to 1940: Australian Philosopher. James Meade – Undergraduate 1926 to 1930: Economist, Nobel Prize award winner. Edward Thomas Monro – Principal Physician of Bethlem Hospital from 1816. Henry Monro – President of the Medical Psychological Association in 1864–1865. Thomas Monro – Principal Physician of Bedlam Hospital from 1816. Michael Moore – Professor of theoretical physics at the University of Manchester John Nunn – English chess player and mathematician Mark Pattison – Undergraduate 1832: English author and rector of Lincoln College, Oxford. Eduardo Peñalver – American law professor, President-elect of Seattle University, and Dean of Cornell Law School. Baden Powell – Undergraduate 1814 to 1817: Physicist and theologian, father of Robert Baden-Powell, founder of the Scout Movement. Paul Preston – Professor in International History at the London School of Economics; historian of modern Spain. Philip Russell, FRS – Director of the third division of the Max Planck Research Group at the Institute of Optics, Information and Photonics at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg. John Martin Robinson – Historian and author. William David Ross – FBA, philosopher, Aristotelian scholar, Provost of Oriel College, Vice Chancellor of Oxford University. Rebecca Saxe – Undergraduate 1997–2000, Professor of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, MIT. Hugh Edwin Strickland – Undergraduate 1829: English geologist, ornithologist and systemist. Ronald Syme – New Zealand-born historian, was the pre-eminent classicist of the 20th century. A.J.P. Taylor – Undergraduate 1924 to 1927: Renowned British historian of the 20th century. Alexander Todd – Undergraduate 1931 to 1934: Chemist, Nobel Prize award winner. D. E. R. Watt FRSE – Scottish historian and Professor Emeritus at St Andrews University. Ronald Lampman Watts – Canadian academic and the 15th Principal and Vice-chancellor of Queen's University from 1974 until 1984. Miles Weatherall – Physician and research pharmacologist affiliated with London Hospital Medical College and Wellcome Research Laboratories. Gilbert White – Undergraduate 1739 to 1743, Fellow of the college 1744 to 1793. Pioneering naturalist and ornithologist. Clergy William Allen – Undergraduate 1547, Fellow of the college from 1550 to 1561: Principal of St Mary Hall 1556 to 1561, fellow at University of Douai, Cardinal. Thomas Arundel – Undergraduate 1373: Son of Richard FitzAlan, 10th Earl of Arundel, with whom he erected the first college chapel. Chancellor of England and Archbishop of Canterbury. Godwin Birchenough – Dean of Ripon Cathedral. Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton – Churchman and translator of one of only two English translations of the Septuagint. Joseph Butler – Undergraduate 1715 to 1718, graduate until 1733: Bishop of Bristol and Dean of St Paul's Cathedral 1740, Bishop of Durham 1750. David Chillingworth – Bishop of St Andrews, Dunkeld, and Dunblane 2005– Nigel Cornwall – Bishop of Borneo 1949–1962. Maxwell Craig – Minister of the Church of Scotland and General Secretary of Action of Churches Together in Scotland 1990–1999. Harold de Soysa – Bishop of Colombo 1964–1971. Frank Tracy Griswold – Presiding Bishop and Primate of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America. Gerald Edgcumbe Hadow – English Christian missionary to East Africa in the mid-twentieth century. Renn Hampden – Bampton lecturer in 1832, principal of St Mary Hall 1833, Bishop of Hereford 1847. David Hand – Bishop Coadjutor of New Guinea 1950–1963, Archbishop of Papua New Guinea 1977–1983 James Hannington – Undergraduate 1868 to 1873: Missionary bishop. George Wyndham Kennion – Anglican bishop of Adelaide and Bath and Wells. Edward King – Bishop of Lincoln 1885 to 1910. Thomas Mozley – English clergyman and writer. Reginald Pecock – Bishop of Chichester Iain Torrance – President of Princeton Theological Seminary and a former Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. Vernon White – MLitt in Theology 1980, now principal of STETS and Canon of Winchester Samuel Wilberforce – Undergraduate 1823 to 1826: Bishop of Oxford and Winchester. Opposed Darwin's theory of evolution in a famous debate with biologist Thomas Huxley. Michael Iprgrave – Bishop of Lichfield. Politicians and civil servants Alexander Hugh Bruce, 6th Lord Balfour of Burleigh – Scottish politician and statesman, Minister for Scotland 1895 to 1903. James Brudenell, 5th Earl of Cardigan – Member of Parliament and later peer. Donald Cameron – Member of the Scottish Parliament since 2016. Baron Clements – Irish nobleman and politician. George Coldstream – Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office José Agustín de Lecubarri – Spanish diplomat and peer Peter Emery – Member of Parliament from 1959 to 2001, appointed Privy Counsellor in 1993. William Grant – Scottish MP (1955 to 1962) and judge. Lord Justice Clerk 1962 to 1972. George Wellesley Hamilton – Ontario political figure, Canadian Conservative MP from 1871 to 1874. William Gerard Hamilton – English Statesman, Chief Secretary for Ireland 1761 to 1764. Daniel Hannan – British politician and Conservative MEP (1999 to 2020). James Howard Harris, 3rd Earl of Malmesbury – Foreign Secretary 1852 and 1858 to 1859, Lord Privy Seal 1866 to 1868 and 1874 to 1876. Alan Haselhurst – British politician – Deputy Speaker of the House of Commons 1997 to 2010, later a life peer. Sidney Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Lea – English statesman. Baron Maude of Stratford-upon-Avon – Conservative party MP from 1963 to 1983, Paymaster General from 1979 until 1981. David Menhennet CB (1928–2016), 10th Librarian of the House of Commons Library Paul Murphy – Secretary of State for Northern Ireland (2002 to 2005) and for Wales (2008 to 2009), later a life peer. Wilfrid Normand, Baron Normand – Scottish politician and judge. Phillip Oppenheim – MP from 1983 to 1997, businessman, credited for introducing Mojitos to the UK. Robert Pierrepont, 1st Earl of Kingston-upon-Hull – Member of parliament (1601) and hereditary peer. Cecil Rhodes – Undergraduate 1873, 1876 to 1878, 1881: Politician, businessman and the effective founder of the state of Rhodesia. Andrew Robathan – British Conservative politician, and Member of Parliament for Blaby. Thomas Sotheron-Estcourt – British politician, Home Secretary 1859. John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough – Undergraduate 1840: Lord President of the Council 1867; grandfather of Sir Winston Churchill. Charles Talbot, 1st Baron Talbot of Hensol – Lord Chancellor 1733 to 1737. Christopher Rice Mansel Talbot – Industrialist, Liberal Member of Parliament for Glamorgan for sixty years. William Vesey-FitzGerald – British politician, Governor of Bombay 1867 to 1872 and Member of Parliament for Horsham. Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk – Reich Minister of Finance 1932 to 1945, Leading Minister and de facto Chancellor of Germany 1945. Civil servants Henry Unton – English diplomat, ambassador to Henry IV of France. Frederic Rogers, 1st Baron Blachford – British civil servant. Oswald Rayner – British intelligence officer Cranley Onslow – MI6 field agent and privy counsellor. Peter Neyroud – chief executive officer (Designate) for the National Policing Improvement Agency (NPIA), and former Chief Constable of Thames Valley Police. David Manning – British Ambassador to the United States, Hon. Fellow. Stewart Crawford – diplomat Robert Chalmers, 1st Baron Chalmers – BA 1881. Governor of Ceylon 1913–1915 Fabian Picardo – Chief Minister of Gibraltar Herman Merivale – English civil servant and author. Lebrecht Wilhelm Fifi Hesse – First Black African Rhodes Scholar, former Director General of the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation Hugh Trevor Lambrick – archaeologist, historian and administrator Literary and performing artists Jon Bentley – British journalist and television presenter. Norman Cameron – poet. Rosaline Elbay – actor and writer. Edmund Fellowes – Undergraduate 1889 to 1892: Music editor and author on 16th and 17th century English music. David Giles – British television director. Os Guinness – Writer and social critic living in McLean, Virginia. Peter Harness – British dramatist and screenwriter. Christopher Hibbert – English writer and popular historian and biographer. Michael Hoffman – Undergraduate 1979: Film director Thomas Hughes – Undergraduate 1841 to 1845: Author of Tom Brown's Schooldays, founder member of the Christian Socialists. Richard Hughes – British writer of poems, short stories, novels and plays. Francis Kynaston – Undergraduate 1601: English courtier and poet. Matt Lacey – actor and comedian. James Leasor – Undergraduate 1946 to 1948: English writer and popular historian. Eugene Lee-Hamilton – Late-Victorian English poet. Philip Napier Miles – 1865–1935 – composer and philanthropist. Martin Mills – British Music Industry Executive. Nick Newman – cartoonist and scriptwriter Adam Raphael – journalist. Rachel Riley – television presenter. Eric Schlosser – American journalist and author. W. C. Sellar & R. J. Yeatman – Undergraduates 1919 to 1922: Humorists, authors of 1066 and All That. William Seward, matriculated 1764, anecdotist and conversationalist Richard Simpson – British Roman Catholic writer and literary scholar. J. I. M. Stewart – Scottish author whose pen name was Michael Innes. Joseph Warton – English academic and literary critic. Nigel Williams – novelist, playwright and screenwriter. Sandy Wilson – British lyricist and composer of The Boy Friend (1954). Michael Wood – Popular British historian, broadcaster and television presenter. Camilla Wright – Editor of Popbitch David Wright – Author and poet. Jonathan Charles – former BBC Broadcaster Lawyers, judges and statesmen Kwamena Bentsi-Enchill – judge and academic; justice of the Supreme Court of Ghana (1971–1972) Geoffrey Bindman – human rights lawyer. Alexander Croke – British judge, colonial administrator and author influential in Nova Scotia of the early 19th century. Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron – Undergraduate 1710 to July 1713: friend and patron of George Washington. Sir Francis Ferris QC (1932–2018) – High Court Judge (Chancery Division). George Joachim Goschen, 1st Viscount Goschen – British statesman and businessman. John Holt – Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales from 1689 to 1710. William Prynne – Graduated BA 1621; lawyer, author, polemicist. Walter Raleigh – Undergraduate 1572 to 1574: Courtier, statesman, scientist, writer, poet, spy, and explorer. A. N. Ray – Chief Justice of India (1973–77). Studied modern history. William Scroggs – Undergraduate 1639 to c.1640: Lord Chief Justice over the Popish Plot. Sports people Bernard Bosanquet – Undergraduate 1896 to 1899: Triple Blues, English test cricketer, inventor of the googly. George Bridgewater – New Zealand rower, Bronze medallist in the pair at the 2008 Summer Olympics Charles Wreford-Brown – Captained the England national football team several times between 1894 and 1895, credited with inventing the word soccer. Peter Hackworth – British coxswain, cox of the 2002 Blue Boat Sjoerd Hamburger – Dutch rower, competed in the 2009 and 2010 Boat Races Malcolm Howard – Canadian rower, Olympic Gold medalist and 2014 OUBC President Chris Mahoney – British rower, Olympic Silver medalist in 1980 Lucas McGee – American rower, USRowing Men's National Team coach Pete Reed – British rower, Olympic champion 2008, and world champion 2005/6. Plum Warner – Played first-class cricket for Oxford University, Middlesex and England. Other people David Arculus – English businessman. Raj Bahra – Philosophy, Politics and Economics undergraduate and contestant on Channel 4's The Taste. Beau Brummell – Undergraduate 1794: Dandy and arbiter of fashion. Clive Cheesman – Undergraduate: Richmond Herald 2010–current. Graham Chipchase – CEO of Rexam plc. Geoffrey Sandford Cox – former editor and chief executive of ITN and a founder of News at Ten. James Ralph Darling – Headmaster of Geelong Grammar School, and Chairman of the Australian Broadcasting Commission. Michael Edwards – academic, writer and activist. Chris Green – British railway manager. Charles Handy – Management educator. Honorary Fellow. Edward Leigh, 5th Baron Leigh – Undergraduate 1761 to 1764: High Steward of Oxford University and benefactor. Jim Mellon – British businessman. Honorary Fellow. Provosts Fellows and lecturers Matthew Arnold – Elected 28 March 1845, perpetual Fellow 17 April 1846, vacated (due to marriage) 6 April 1852: Poet and critic, Oxford Professor of Poetry from 1857 to 1867 Thomas Arnold – Elected 31 March 1815, perpetual Fellow 20 July 1816, year of grace (due to marriage) 12 August 1820: Headmaster of Rugby School 1828 to 1841 and Regius Professor of Modern History from 1841 to 1842. John Ashwardby – follower of John Wycliffe, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford (1391–1394) Robert Beddard – Fellow to 2006: British historian. Henry Bishop – member of the Royal Commission into the Operation of the Poor Laws 1832 Derek Blake – Wellcome Trust Senior Fellow in Basic Biomedical Science at Oriel until 2007. Joseph Bowles – Bodley's Librarian, Fellow from 1719 Henry Brooke – schoolmaster and divine Thomas Edward Brown – Elected 21 April 1854, perpetual Fellow 13 April 1855, year of grace (due to marriage) 24 June 1857: Poet. James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce – Elected 25 April 1862, perpetual Fellow 6 April 1863, resigned June 1893, honorary fellow 12 October 1894: British jurist, historian and politician. John Burgon – Elected 17 April 1846, perpetual Fellow 5 April 1847: Dean of Chichester Cathedral. The Rev. Charles Fox Burney – Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture from 1914, elected Fellow in 1919 Jeremy Catto – Fellow to 2006: British historian. Thomas Kelly Cheyne – Fellow 1885 to 1905: English Biblical critic. Richard William Church – Fellow 1838, Dean of St Paul's 1871–1890. Arthur Hugh Clough – Elected 1 April 1842, perpetual Fellow 21 April 1843: English poet. Thomas Cogan – physician, fellow in 1563, resigned his fellowship 1574 John Cook Wilson – Fellow in 1874, Wykeham Professor of Logic from 1889 Richard Alan Cross – Fellow, Professor of Medieval Theology and Tutor in Theology. Henry William Carless Davis – Fellow 1925 to 1928: British historian, editor of the Dictionary of National Biography and Regius Professor of Modern History. John Davison – clergyman and theological writer, Fellow 1800, and tutor at Oriel George Anthony Denison – Elected 11 April 1828, perpetual Fellow 24 April 1829: English churchman, curate of Cuddesdon. Frederick Dillistone – Dean of Liverpool (1956–1963), Fellow and Chaplain of Oriel (1964–70) John Flemming – economist and Warden of Wadham College, Oxford, Lecturer and Fellow (1963–65) James Fraser – Elected 24 April 1840, perpetual Fellow 1841, vacated fellowship 20 December 1861: Anglican Bishop of Manchester 1870 to 1885. Hurrell Froude – Early leader of the Oxford Movement, Fellow in 1826. Robert Fysher – Bodley's Librarian, Fellow in 1726 Vivian Hunter Galbraith – Fellow of the British Academy and Oxford Regius Professor of Modern History. Eric Graham – priest, Fellow and Dean of Oriel Alexander Grant, 10th Baronet – Elected 13 April 1849, perpetual Fellow 1 April 1850, vacated (married) 2 June 1860: British educationalist and Principal of the University of Edinburgh Charles Edward Grey – Member of Parliament for Tynemouth and North Shields (1838–1841), elected in 1808 Dalziel Hammick – Chemist, Fellow (1920–1966) John Harris – Bishop of Llandaff (1728–1738), Fellow in 1728 William Holt – Jesuit, elected on 29 February 1568 Simon Hornblower – Fellow until 1997, since when Professor of Classics and Grote Professor of Ancient History University College London Robert Ingham – barrister and politician, Fellow from 1816 until 1826. Richard William Jelf – Principal of King's College London, elected as Fellow in 1820. John Keble – Fellow 1811 to 1835: One of the leaders of the Oxford Movement, Oxford Professor of Poetry from 1831 to 1841, gave his name to Keble College in 1870. Richard Kilvington – philosopher. Raymond Klibansky – Honorary Fellow, Canadian Philosopher. William Lewis – mineralogist, elected 1871 Humphrey Lloyd – Bishop of Bangor from 1674 until 1689, Fellow in 1630. Richard Mant – Fellow 1798: English churchman and writer. Charles Marriott – priest and a member of the Oxford Movement, Fellow 1833 Basil Mitchell – British philosopher and Nolloth Professor of the Philosophy of the Christian Religion, Fellow 1968. John Henry Newman – Major figure in the Oxford Movement. Thomas Nowell – clergyman, historian, fellow in 1753 and Dean 1758–1760 and in 1763. Cadwallader Owen – Welsh clergyman, Fellow from 1585 to no later than 1606 Frederick York Powell – Fellow and Regius Professor of Modern History, 1894 to 1904 Edward Bouverie Pusey – One of the leaders of the Oxford Movement. George Richards – priest, poet, Fellow 1790–1796 Samuel Rickards – priest, opponent of the Oxford Movement, Fellow from 16 April 1819 to 6 October 1822 Howard Robinson – philosopher, Fellow and lecturer in philosophy (1970–1974), Provost (Pro-Rector) of the Central European University. John Robinson – Fellow, English diplomat, Bishop of Bristol and London. Richard Robinson – Fellow and Tutor in Philosophy 1946–69, Author of An Atheists Values John Rouse – second Bodley's Librarian, friend of John Milton, Fellow 1600. William Young Sellar – Fellow, Scottish classical scholar. William Henry Stowe – scholar and journalist, Fellow March 1852 John Van Seters – Visiting Research Fellow (1985–86) Thomas Vesey, 1st Baronet – Irish clergyman, Bishop of Ossory from 1714 to 1730 William Wand – Fellow and Dean from 1925: English born Anglican Archbishop of Brisbane, Australia. Richard Whately – Undergraduate, Fellow 1811: English logician, economist and theological writer, Archbishop of Dublin Robert Wilberforce – clergyman, writer, second son of William Wilberforce, Fellow 1826–1831. John Wordsworth – Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture, Bishop of Salisbury. Current fellows Ordered by seniority of fellowship, oldest first; Gordon MacPherson – (Reader in Experimental Pathology, Turnbull Fellow and Tutor in Medicine), Former Senior Tutor. Emeritus. Glenn Black – Emeritus Fellow. David Charles – Colin Prestige Fellow and Tutor in Philosophy John Barton – Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture Michael Spivey – Misys and Andersen Fellow, Tutor in Computer Science, and Dean of Degrees David Hodgson – Todd Fellow and Tutor in Chemistry Teresa Morgan – William and Nancy Bissell Turpin Fellow and Tutor in Ancient History, Senior Dean Brian Leftow – Nolloth Professor of the Philosophy of the Christian Religion Ian Horrocks – Professor of Computer Science Honorary Fellows The following is a list of former and current Honorary Fellows who have not been included elsewhere in this article. Sir Al Ainsley-Green, Children's Commissioner for England (2005–2009) Anthony Barber, Baron Barber of Wentbridge, British Conservative politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer and member of the House of Lords. Jonathan Barnes – scholar of ancient philosophy, Fellow (1968–78), elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1987. James Barr – British Old Testament scholar. Anthony Collett – author and writer on natural history. Francesco Cossiga – Italian politician and former President of Italy, professor of law at University of Sassari. Sir Zelman Cowen – Fellow 1947 to 1950, 19th Governor-General of Australia. Sir Crispin Davis – businessman, former chief executive of Reed Elsevier. Sir John Elliott – Eminent English historian and former Regius Professor of Modern History. Robert John Weston Evans – Regius Professor of Modern History Sir Ewen Fergusson – British diplomat, former ambassador to France. Eric Foner – American historian, Bancroft Prize winner. Robert Fox, British historian of science. Charles Handy – Management educator, author and philosopher. Philip Harris, Baron Harris of Peckham – Conservative peer and businessman John Hegarty – Irish physicist, Provost of Trinity College, Dublin (2001–2011) Sir Michael Howard – military historian, formerly Chichele Professor of the History of War, Hon. Fellow and Regius Professor of Modern History, 1980 to 1989 Isobel, Lady Laing – wife of Kirby Laing, of the civil engineering company Lee Seng Tee – Singaporean businessman and philanthropist. David Manning – British Ambassador to the United States. Colin Mayer – Peter Moores Professor of Management Studies at the Saïd Business School Kenneth O. Morgan – Welsh historian and author Paul Murphy – Secretary of State for Wales and former Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. Keith Murray, Baron Murray of Newhaven – Graduate of Oriel, Agricultural academic, Rector of Lincoln College, Chancellor of Southampton University (1964–74) William Abel Pantin – historian, Fellow and Lecturer in History, Keeper of the Archives for the university, Hon. Fellow 1971. Patrick Prendergast – Provost of Trinity College, Dublin Thomas Symons – founding President of Trent University, Canada John Vickers – economist and Warden of All Souls College, Oxford. Norman Willis – Former General Secretary of the TUC and President of the European Trade Union Confederation. Former Visiting Fellow: Antonia Logue – novelist and Visiting Fellow: References Rannie, David, Oriel College (1900) — published by F. E. Robinson & Co. London (part of the University of Oxford College Histories series). Salter H. E. and Lobel, Mary D. (editors), The Victoria History of the County of Oxford, Volume III: The University of Oxford — Oxford University Press VCH series, (1954), pp. 119–129 . Oriel College People associated with Oriel College, Oxford
4865795	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piet%20Mondrian	Piet Mondrian	Pieter Cornelis Mondriaan (), after 1906 known as Piet Mondrian (, also , ; 7 March 1872 – 1 February 1944), was a Dutch painter and art theoretician who is regarded as one of the greatest artists of the 20th century. He is known for being one of the pioneers of 20th-century abstract art, as he changed his artistic direction from figurative painting to an increasingly abstract style, until he reached a point where his artistic vocabulary was reduced to simple geometric elements. Mondrian's art was highly utopian and was concerned with a search for universal values and aesthetics. He proclaimed in 1914: "Art is higher than reality and has no direct relation to reality. To approach the spiritual in art, one will make as little use as possible of reality, because reality is opposed to the spiritual. We find ourselves in the presence of an abstract art. Art should be above reality, otherwise it would have no value for man." He was a contributor to the De Stijl art movement and group, which he co-founded with Theo van Doesburg. He evolved a non-representational form which he termed Neoplasticism. This was the new 'pure plastic art' which he believed was necessary in order to create 'universal beauty'. To express this, Mondrian eventually decided to limit his formal vocabulary to the three primary colors (red, blue and yellow), the three primary values (black, white and gray) and the two primary directions (horizontal and vertical). Mondrian's arrival in Paris from the Netherlands in 1911 marked the beginning of a period of profound change. He encountered experiments in Cubism and with the intent of integrating himself within the Parisian avant-garde removed an 'a' from the Dutch spelling of his name (Mondriaan). Mondrian's work had an enormous influence on 20th century art, influencing not only the course of abstract painting and numerous major styles and art movements (e.g. Color Field painting, Abstract Expressionism and Minimalism), but also fields outside the domain of painting, such as design, architecture and fashion. Design historian Stephen Bayley said: "Mondrian has come to mean Modernism. His name and his work sum up the High Modernist ideal. I don't like the word 'iconic', so let's say that he's become totemic – a totem for everything Modernism set out to be." Life Netherlands (1872–1911) Mondrian was born in Amersfoort, province of Utrecht in the Netherlands, the second of his parents' children. He was descended from Christian Dirkzoon Monderyan who lived in The Hague as early as 1670. The family moved to Winterswijk when his father, Pieter Cornelius Mondriaan, was appointed head teacher at a local primary school. Mondrian was introduced to art from an early age. His father was a qualified drawing teacher, and, with his uncle, Frits Mondriaan (a pupil of Willem Maris of the Hague School of artists), the younger Piet often painted and drew along the river Gein. After a strict Protestant upbringing, in 1892, Mondrian entered the Academy for Fine Art in Amsterdam. He was already qualified as a teacher. He began his career as a teacher in primary education, but he also practiced painting. Most of his work from this period is naturalistic or Impressionistic, consisting largely of landscapes. These pastoral images of his native country depict windmills, fields, and rivers, initially in the Dutch Impressionist manner of the Hague School and then in a variety of styles and techniques that attest to his search for a personal style. These paintings are representational, and they illustrate the influence that various artistic movements had on Mondrian, including pointillism and the vivid colors of Fauvism. In 1893 he had his first exhibition. On display in the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag are a number of paintings from this period, including such Post-Impressionist works as The Red Mill and Trees in Moonrise. Another painting, Evening (Avond) (1908), depicting a tree in a field at dusk, even augurs future developments by using a palette consisting almost entirely of red, yellow, and blue. Although Avond is only limitedly abstract, it is the earliest Mondrian painting to emphasize primary colors. Mondrian's earliest paintings showing a degree of abstraction are a series of canvases from 1905 to 1908 that depict dim scenes of indistinct trees and houses reflected in still water. Although the result leads the viewer to begin focusing on the forms over the content, these paintings are still firmly rooted in nature, and it is only the knowledge of Mondrian's later achievements that leads one to search in these works for the roots of his future abstraction. Mondrian's art was intimately related to his spiritual and philosophical studies. In 1908, he became interested in the theosophical movement launched by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky in the late 19th century, and in 1909 he joined the Dutch branch of the Theosophical Society. The work of Blavatsky and a parallel spiritual movement, Rudolf Steiner's Anthroposophy, significantly affected the further development of his aesthetic. Blavatsky believed that it was possible to attain a more profound knowledge of nature than that provided by empirical means, and much of Mondrian's work for the rest of his life was inspired by his search for that spiritual knowledge. In 1918, he wrote "I got everything from the Secret Doctrine", referring to a book written by Blavatsky. In 1921, in a letter to Steiner, Mondrian argued that his neoplasticism was "the art of the foreseeable future for all true Anthroposophists and Theosophists". He remained a committed Theosophist in subsequent years, although he also believed that his own artistic current, neoplasticism, would eventually become part of a larger, ecumenical spirituality. Mondrian and his later work were deeply influenced by the 1911 Moderne Kunstkring exhibition of Cubism in Amsterdam. His search for simplification is shown in two versions of Still Life with Ginger Pot (Stilleven met Gemberpot). The 1911 version, is Cubist; in the 1912 version, the objects are reduced to a round shape with triangles and rectangles. Paris (1911–1914) In 1911, Mondrian moved to Paris and changed his name, dropping an "a" from "Mondriaan", to emphasize his departure from the Netherlands, and his integration within the Parisian avant-garde. While in Paris, the influence of the Cubist style of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque appeared almost immediately in Mondrian's work. Paintings such as The Sea (1912) and his various studies of trees from that year still contain a measure of representation, but, increasingly, they are dominated by geometric shapes and interlocking planes. While Mondrian was eager to absorb the Cubist influence into his work, it seems clear that he saw Cubism as a "port of call" on his artistic journey, rather than as a destination. Piet Mondrian’s Cubist period lasted from 1912 to 1917. Netherlands (1914–1918) Unlike the Cubists, Mondrian still attempted to reconcile his painting with his spiritual pursuits, and in 1913 he began to fuse his art and his theosophical studies into a theory that signaled his final break from representational painting. While Mondrian was visiting the Netherlands in 1914, World War I began, forcing him to remain there for the duration of the conflict. During this period, he stayed at the Laren artists' colony, where he met Bart van der Leck and Theo van Doesburg, who were both undergoing their own personal journeys toward abstraction. Van der Leck's use of only primary colors in his art greatly influenced Mondrian. After a meeting with Van der Leck in 1916, Mondrian wrote, "My technique which was more or less Cubist, and therefore more or less pictorial, came under the influence of his precise method." With Van Doesburg, Mondrian founded De Stijl (The Style), a journal of the De Stijl Group, in which he first published essays defining his theory, which he called neoplasticism. Mondrian published "De Nieuwe Beelding in de schilderkunst" ("The New Plastic in Painting"), in twelve installments during 1917 and 1918. This was his first major attempt to express his artistic theory in writing. Mondrian's best and most-often quoted expression of this theory, however, comes from a letter he wrote to H. P. Bremmer in 1914: Over the next two decades, Mondrian methodically developed his signature style embracing the Classical, Platonic, Euclidean worldview where he simply focused on his, now iconic, horizontal and vertical black lines forming squares and rectangles filled with primary hues. Paris (1918–1938) When World War I ended in 1918, Mondrian returned to France, where he would remain until 1938. Immersed in post-war Paris culture of artistic innovation, he flourished and fully embraced the art of pure abstraction for the rest of his life. Mondrian began producing grid-based paintings in late 1919, and in 1920, the style for which he came to be renowned began to appear. Mondrian believed that "pure abstract art becomes completely emancipated, free of naturalistic appearances. It is no longer natural harmony but creates equivalent relationships. The realization of equivalent relationships is of the highest importance for life. In the early paintings of this style, the lines delineating the rectangular forms are relatively thin, and they are gray, not black. The lines also tend to fade as they approach the edge of the painting, rather than stopping abruptly. The forms themselves, smaller and more numerous than in later paintings, are filled with primary colors, black, or gray, and nearly all of them are colored; only a few are left white. During late 1920 and 1921, Mondrian's paintings arrive at what is to casual observers their definitive and mature form. Thick black lines now separate the forms, which are larger and fewer in number, and more of the forms are left white. This was not the culmination of his artistic evolution, however. Although the refinements became subtler, Mondrian's work continued to evolve during his years in Paris. In the 1921 paintings, many, though not all, of the black lines stop short at a seemingly arbitrary distance from the edge of the canvas, although the divisions between the rectangular forms remain intact. Here, too, the rectangular forms remain mostly colored. As the years passed and Mondrian's work evolved further, he began extending all of the lines to the edges of the canvas, and he began to use fewer and fewer colored forms, favoring white instead. These tendencies are particularly obvious in the "lozenge" works that Mondrian began producing with regularity in the mid-1920s. The "lozenge" paintings are square canvases tilted 45 degrees, so that they have a diamond shape. Typical of these is Schilderij No. 1: Lozenge With Two Lines and Blue (1926). One of the most minimal of Mondrian's canvases, this painting consists only of two black, perpendicular lines and a small blue triangular form. The lines extend all the way to the edges of the canvas, almost giving the impression that the painting is a fragment of a larger work. Although one's view of the painting is hampered by the glass protecting it, and by the toll that age and handling have obviously taken on the canvas, a close examination of this painting begins to reveal something of the artist's method. The painting is not composed of perfectly flat planes of color, as one might expect. Subtle brush strokes are evident throughout. The artist appears to have used different techniques for the various elements. The black lines are the flattest elements, with the least depth. The colored forms have the most obvious brush strokes, all running in one direction. Most interesting, however, are the white forms, which clearly have been painted in layers, using brush strokes running in different directions. This generates a greater sense of depth in the white forms so that they appear to overwhelm the lines and the colors, which indeed they were doing, as Mondrian's paintings of this period came to be increasingly dominated by white space. In 1926, Katherine Dreier, co-founder of New York City's Society of Independent Artists (along with Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray), visited Piet Mondrian's studio in Paris and acquired one of his diamond compositions, Painting I. This was then shown during an exhibition organized by the Society of Independent Artists in the Brooklyn Museum--the first major exhibition of modern art in America since the Armory Show. She stated in the catalog that "Holland has produced three great painters who, though a logical expression of their own country, rose above it through the vigor of their personality – the first was Rembrandt, the second was Van Gogh, and the third is Mondrian." As the years progressed, lines began to take precedence over forms in Mondrian's paintings. In the 1930s, he began to use thinner lines and double lines more frequently, punctuated with a few small colored forms, if any at all. Double lines particularly excited Mondrian, for he believed they offered his paintings a new dynamism which he was eager to explore. The introduction of the double line in his work was influenced by the work of his friend and contemporary Marlow Moss. From 1934 to 1935, three of Mondrian's paintings were exhibited as part of the "Abstract and Concrete" exhibitions in the UK at Oxford, London, and Liverpool. London and New York (1938–1944) In September 1938, Mondrian left Paris in the face of advancing fascism and moved to London. After the Netherlands was invaded and Paris fell in 1940, he left London for Manhattan in New York City, where he would remain until his death. Some of Mondrian's later works are difficult to place in terms of his artistic development because there were quite a few canvases that he began in Paris or London and only completed months or years later in Manhattan. The finished works from this later period are visually busy, with more lines than any of his work since the 1920s, placed in an overlapping arrangement that is almost cartographical in appearance. He spent many long hours painting on his own until his hands blistered, and he sometimes cried or made himself sick. Mondrian produced Lozenge Composition With Four Yellow Lines (1933), a simple painting that innovated thick, colored lines instead of black ones. After that one painting, this practice remained dormant in Mondrian's work until he arrived in Manhattan, at which time he began to embrace it with abandon. In some examples of this new direction, such as Composition (1938) / Place de la Concorde (1943), he appears to have taken unfinished black-line paintings from Paris and completed them in New York by adding short perpendicular lines of different colors, running between the longer black lines, or from a black line to the edge of the canvas. The newly colored areas are thick, almost bridging the gap between lines and forms, and it is startling to see color in a Mondrian painting that is unbounded by black. Other works mix long lines of red amidst the familiar black lines, creating a new sense of depth by the addition of a colored layer on top of the black one. His painting Composition No. 10, 1939–1942, characterized by primary colors, white ground and black grid lines clearly defined Mondrian's radical but classical approach to the rectangle. On 23 September 1940 Mondrian left Europe for New York aboard the Cunard White Star Line ship , departing from Liverpool. The new canvases that Mondrian began in Manhattan are even more startling, and indicate the beginning of a new idiom that was cut short by the artist's death. New York City (1942) is a complex lattice of red, blue, and yellow lines, occasionally interlacing to create a greater sense of depth than his previous works. An unfinished 1941 version of this work, titled New York City I, uses strips of painted paper tape, which the artist could rearrange at will to experiment with different designs. In October 2022 it was revealed that the work, which was first displayed at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York in 1945, had been displayed upside down, since at least 1980, at the Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen in Germany, where it is now held. The gallery explained that it would continue to display it the wrong way up to avoid damaging it. His painting Broadway Boogie-Woogie (1942–43) at the Museum of Modern Art was highly influential in the school of abstract geometric painting. The piece is made up of a number of shimmering squares of bright color that leap from the canvas, then appear to shimmer, drawing the viewer into those neon lights. In this painting and the unfinished Victory Boogie Woogie (1942–1944), Mondrian replaced former solid lines with lines created from small adjoining rectangles of color, created in part by using small pieces of paper tape in various colors. Larger unbounded rectangles of color punctuate the design, some with smaller concentric rectangles inside them. While Mondrian's works of the 1920s and 1930s tend to have an almost scientific austerity about them, these are bright, lively paintings, reflecting the upbeat music that inspired them and the city in which they were made. In these final works, the forms have indeed usurped the role of the lines, opening another new door for Mondrian's development as an abstractionist. The Boogie-Woogie paintings were clearly more of a revolutionary change than an evolutionary one, representing the most profound development in Mondrian's work since his abandonment of representational art in 1913. In 2008 the Dutch television program Andere Tijden found the only known movie footage with Mondrian. The discovery of the film footage was announced at the end of a two-year research program on the Victory Boogie Woogie. The research found that the painting was in very good condition and that Mondrian painted the composition in one session. It also was found that the composition was changed radically by Mondrian shortly before his death by using small pieces of colored tape. Wall works When the 47-year-old Piet Mondrian left the Netherlands for unfettered Paris for the second and last time in 1919, he set about at once to make his studio a nurturing environment for paintings he had in mind that would increasingly express the principles of neoplasticism about which he had been writing for two years. To hide the studio's structural flaws quickly and inexpensively, he tacked up large rectangular placards, each in a single color or neutral hue. Smaller colored paper squares and rectangles, composed together, accented the walls. Then came an intense period of painting. Again he addressed the walls, repositioning the colored cutouts, adding to their number, altering the dynamics of color and space, producing new tensions and equilibrium. Before long, he had established a creative schedule in which a period of painting took turns with a period of experimentally regrouping the smaller papers on the walls, a process that directly fed the next period of painting. It was a pattern he followed for the rest of his life, through wartime moves from Paris to London's Hampstead in 1938 and 1940, across the Atlantic to Manhattan. At the age of 71 in the fall of 1943, Mondrian moved into his second and final Manhattan studio at 15 East 59th Street, and set about to recreate the environment he had learned over the years was most congenial to his modest way of life and most stimulating to his art. He painted the high walls the same off-white he used on his easel and on the seats, tables and storage cases he designed and fashioned meticulously from discarded orange and apple-crates. He glossed the top of a white metal stool in the same brilliant primary red he applied to the cardboard sheath he made for the radio-phonograph that spilled forth his beloved jazz from well-traveled records. Visitors to this last studio seldom saw more than one or two new canvases, but found, often to their astonishment, that eight large compositions of colored bits of paper he had tacked and re-tacked to the walls in ever-changing relationships constituted together an environment that, paradoxically and simultaneously, was both kinetic and serene, stimulating and restful. It was the best space, Mondrian said, that he had inhabited. He was there for only a few months, as he died in February 1944. After his death, Mondrian's friend and sponsor in Manhattan, artist Harry Holtzman, and another painter friend, Fritz Glarner, carefully documented the studio on film and in still photographs before opening it to the public for a six-week exhibition. Before dismantling the studio, Holtzman (who was also Mondrian's heir) traced the wall compositions precisely, prepared exact portable facsimiles of the space each had occupied, and affixed to each the original surviving cut-out components. These portable Mondrian compositions have become known as "The Wall Works". Since Mondrian's death, they have been exhibited twice at Manhattan's Museum of Modern Art (1983 and 1995–96), once in SoHo at the Carpenter + Hochman Gallery (1984), once each at the Galerie Tokoro in Tokyo, Japan (1993), the XXII Biennial of Sao Paulo (1994), the University of Michigan (1995), and – the first time shown in Europe – at the Akademie der Künste (Academy of The Arts), in Berlin (22 February – 22 April 2007). His work was also shown in a retrospective exhibition at the Whitechapel Gallery in London, which ran from August – September 1955. Mondrian's flowers While Mondrian's theories of abstraction have been his enduring legacy, he was also a painter of flowers. He began to paint flowers at the turn of the century, creating portraits of individual blooms that blended his strict artistic training and powers of observation to his spiritual and romantic yearnings. Mondrian continued to paint flowers in a secretive manner into the 1920's, claiming to friends that he did so for commercial reasons alone. The flower paintings were created under the taboo that was cast upon traditional genre and representational painting by an entire age swept up by the triumph of abstraction. Nevertheless, the Mondrian flowers contribute to a broader view of the life and work of Mondrian - a view that diverges sharply from the traditional reading of his artistic evolution. Death and legacy Piet Mondrian died of pneumonia on 1 February 1944 and was interred at the Cypress Hills Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York. On 3 February 1944 a memorial was held for Mondrian at the Universal Chapel on Lexington Avenue and 52nd Street in Manhattan. The service was attended by nearly 200 people including Alexander Archipenko, Marc Chagall, Marcel Duchamp, Fernand Léger, Alexander Calder and Robert Motherwell. The Mondrian / Holtzman Trust functions as Mondrian's official estate, and "aims to promote awareness of Mondrian's artwork and to ensure the integrity of his work". Mondrian was described by critic Robert Hughes, in his 1980 book The Shock of the New, as "one of the supreme artists of the 20th century." Likewise in his television documentaries of The Shock of the New, Hughes referred to Mondrian considered again as "one of the greatest artists of the 20th century (...) who was one of the last painters who believed that the conditions of human life could be changed by making pictures". Dutch art historian Carel Blotkamp, an authority on De Stijl, reaffirmed the same belief that he was "one of the great artists of the twentieth century". On November 14, 2022, Mondrian's Composition No. II was sold at Sotheby's Auction for US $51 million, which beat a previous record of US $50.6 million for his work. Composition No. II features a 20-inch by 20-inch canvas with a large red square in the upper right corner, a small blue square in the bottom left corner, and a yellow block with all outlined by black. Claims for Nazi looted art In October 2020, Mondrian's heirs filed a lawsuit in a U.S. court against the Kaiser Wilhelm Museum in Krefeld, Germany, for the return of four paintings by Mondrian. In December 2021, Mondrian's heirs sued the Philadelphia Museum of Art for the return of Mondrian's Composition with Blue (1928) which had been seized by the Nazis, and passed through the art dealers Karl Buchholz and Curt Valentin before being gifted to the museum by Albert E. Gallatin. References in culture The National Museum of Serbia was the first museum to include one of Mondrian's paintings in its permanent exhibition. Along with Klee and Kandinsky, Mondrian was one of the main inspirations to the early pointillist musical aesthetic of serialist composer Pierre Boulez, although his interest in Mondrian was restricted to the works of 1914–15. By May 1949 Boulez said he was "suspicious of Mondrian", and by December 1951 expressed a dislike for his paintings (regarding them as "the most denuded of mystery that have ever been in the world"), and a strong preference for Klee. In the 1930s, the French fashion designer Lola Prusac, who worked at that time for Hermès in Paris, designed a range of luggage and bags inspired by the latest works of Mondrian: inlays of red, blue, and yellow leather squares. Fashion designer Yves Saint Laurent's Fall 1965 Mondrian collection featured shift dresses in blocks of primary color with black bordering, inspired by Mondrian. The collection proved so popular that it inspired a range of imitations that encompassed garments from coats to boots. The 1970–1974 American television serial The Partridge Family featured a musical family who purchase an (already-old at the time) 1957 Chevrolet Superior Coach Series 6800 school bus for use as their tour bus, and then repaint it in a colored geometric pattern heavily inspired by Mondrian's grid-based paintings. The reason for this choice of pattern is never discussed in the TV series. The La Vie Claire cycling team's bicycles and clothing designs were inspired by Mondrian's work throughout the 1980s. The French ski and bicycle equipment manufacturer Look, which also sponsored the team, used a Mondrian-inspired logo for a while. The style was revived in 2008 for a limited edition frame. 1980s R&B group Force MDs created a music video for their hit "Love is a House", superimposing themselves performing inside of digitally drawn squares inspired by Composition II. Piet is an esoteric programming language named after Piet Mondrian in which programs look like abstract art. Mondrian is a software for interactive data visualization named after him. Mondrian is a functional scripting language designed by Microsoft Research for the .NET platform. Mondrian is a web-based code review system written in Python and used within Google. Mondrian is an open source OLAP (online analytical processing) server written in Java. An episode of the BBC TV drama Hustle entitled "Picture Perfect" is about the team attempting to create and sell a Mondrian forgery. To do so, they must steal a real Mondrian (Composition with Red, Yellow, Blue, and Black, 1921) from an art gallery. In 2001–2003 British artist Keith Milow made a series of paintings based on the so-called Transatlantic Paintings (1935–1940) by Mondrian. The Mondrian is a 20-story high-rise in the Cityplace neighborhood of Oak Lawn, Dallas, Texas, US. Construction started on the structure in 2003 and the building was completed in 2005. In 2008, Nike released a pair of Dunk Low SB shoes inspired by Mondrian's neo-plastic paintings. The front cover to Australian rock band Silverchair's fifth and final album Young Modern (2007) is a tribute to Piet Mondrian's Composition II in Red, Blue, and Yellow. The cover art of American psychedelic pop indie rock band The Apples in Stereo's second album, Tone Soul Evolution (1997), was inspired by Piet Mondrian. The character Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation has a copy of Tableau 1 in his quarters. An episode of Arthur involved a painting resembling Mondrian's works being displayed sideways in a museum, which was fixed after Binky Barnes pointed out the error to art experts. The mathematics book An Introduction to Sparse Stochastic Processes by M.Unser and P.Tafti uses a representation of a stochastic process called the Mondrian process for its cover, which is named because of its resemblance to Piet Mondrian artworks. The Hague City Council honored Mondrian by adorning walls of City Hall with reproductions of his works and describing it as "the largest Mondrian painting in the world." The event celebrated the 100th year of the Stijl movement which Mondrian helped to found. The Jersey Surf Drum & Bugle Corps performed a show based on Piet Mondrian in their 2018 production titled [mondo mondrian]. In collaboration with the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum in Madrid, Swatch created a watch called the "Red Shiny Line (SUOZ297)" which pays tribute to Mondrian's "New York City, 3". This was followed in 2022 by the watch "RED, BLUE AND WHITE, BY PIET MONDRIAN (SUOZ344)" which celebrates the painting Composition in Red, Blue and White II as part of a collaboration between Swatch and Centre Pompidou. Chun Yeung Estate is the only public housing estate in Fo Tan, Hong Kong. Its name prefix "Chun" means "horse" in English since Sha Tin Racecourse is located in Fo Tan. It was completed in 2019. According to the Housing Department's architectural project team, the building facades and design details of Chun Yeung Estate was inspired by geometric elements from Mondrian's work. In 2021, LH Games released a video game inspired by the works of Piet Mondrian entitled Mondrian Squares. The Wikipedia Stub template 20C-painting-stub uses Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow for the icon. Season 2 Episode 8 of the Netflix series Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt features Jacqueline's prized Mondrian being returned to the Jewish family that claimed it's rightfully theirs. In Jennifer Egan's novel The Candy House, Chris Salazar's organization is named Mondrian. It is likely named to honor his grandmother who had an authentic Mondrian painting in her modest house. In 2022, Tecno, in Partnership with Museum of Fine Arts, released a Special Edition of their Camon 19 Pro smartphone, incorporating his paintings into its design. Commemoration From 6 June to 5 October 2014, the Tate Liverpool displayed the largest UK collection of Mondrian's works, in commemoration of the 70th anniversary of his death. Mondrian and his Studios included a life-size reconstruction of his Paris studio. Charles Darwent, in The Guardian, wrote: "With its black floor and white walls hung with moveable panels of red, yellow and blue, the studio at Rue du Départ was not just a place for making Mondrians. It was a Mondrian – and a generator of Mondrians." He has been described as "the world’s greatest abstract geometrist". See also Fourth dimension in art List of refugees List of claims for restitution of Nazi-looted art Mondrian and Theosophy Notes References Apollonio, Umbro (1970). Piet Mondrian, Milano: Fabri 1976. Bax, Marty (2001). Complete Mondrian. Aldershot (Hampshire) and Burlington (Vermont): Lund Humphries. (cloth) (pbk). Larousse and Co., Inc. (1976). Mondrian, Piet. In Dictionary of Painters (p. 285). New York: Larousse and Co., Inc. Hajdu, István (1987). Piet Mondrian. Pantheon. Budapest: Corvina Kiadó. . Faerna, José María (ed.) (1997). Mondrian Great Modern Masters. New York: Cameo/Abrams. . Gooding, Mel (2001). Abstract Art. Movements in Modern Art. London: Tate Publishing; Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. (Tate); (Cambridge, cloth); (Cambridge, pbk). Janssen, Hans (2008). Mondriaan in het Gemeentemuseum Den Haag. [The Hague]: Gemeentemuseum Den Haag. Locher, Hans (1994) Piet Mondrian: Colour, Structure, and Symbolism: An Essay. Bern: Verlag Gachnang & Springer. Mondrian, Piet (1986). The New Art – The New Life: The Collected Writings of Piet Mondrian, edited by Harry Holtzman and Martin S. James. Documents of 20th-Century Art. Boston: G. K. Hall and Co. . Reprinted 1987, London: Thames and Hudson. . Reprinted 1993, New York: Da Capo Press. . Schapiro, Meyer (1995). Mondrian: On the Humanity of Abstract Painting. New York: George Braziller. (cloth) (pbk). Welsh, Robert P., Joop J. Joosten, and Henk Scheepmaker (1998). Piet Mondrian: Catalogue Raisonné, translated by Jacques Bosser. Blaricum: V+K Publishing/Inmerc. Further reading External links Mondrian Trust – the holder of reproduction rights to Mondrian's works Piet Mondrian Papers. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. RKD and Gemeentemuseum Den Haag website – functions as a portal to information on the life and work of Mondrian Many sourced quotes of Piet Mondrian and biography-facts in De Stijl 1917–1931 – The Dutch Contribution to Modern Art, by H. L. C. Jaffé. J. M. Meulenhoff, Amsterdam 1956. Piet Mondrian: The Transatlantic Paintings at harvardartmuseums.org Mondrian collection at Guggenheim, New York 1872 births 1944 deaths Abstract painters Modern painters De Stijl Dutch expatriates in France Dutch expatriates in the United States Dutch male painters People from Amersfoort School of Paris Burials at Cypress Hills Cemetery Deaths from pneumonia in New York City 19th-century Dutch artists 20th-century Dutch artists 19th-century Dutch painters 20th-century Dutch painters Dutch Theosophists
4865824	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard%20Weinberg	Gerhard Weinberg	Gerhard Ludwig Weinberg (born 1 January 1928) is a German-born American diplomatic and military historian noted for his studies in the history of Nazi Germany and World War II. Weinberg is the William Rand Kenan, Jr. Professor Emeritus of History at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He has been a member of the history faculty at UNC-Chapel Hill since 1974. Previously he served on the faculties of the University of Michigan (1959–1974) and the University of Kentucky (1957–1959). Youth and education Weinberg was born in Hanover, Germany, and resided there the first ten years of his life. As Jews living in Nazi Germany, he and his family suffered increasing persecution. They emigrated in 1938, first to the United Kingdom and then in 1941 to New York State. Weinberg became a U.S. citizen, served in the U.S. Army during its Occupation of Japan in 1946–1947, and returned to receive a BA in social studies from the State University of New York at Albany. He received his MA (1949) and PhD (1951) in history from the University of Chicago. Weinberg recounted some of his childhood memories and experiences in a two-hour long oral history interview for the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Early career Weinberg has studied the foreign policy of National Socialist Germany and the Second World War for his entire professional life. His doctoral dissertation (1951), directed by Hans Rothfels, was "German Relations with Russia, 1939–1941," subsequently published in 1954 as Germany and the Soviet Union, 1939–1941. From 1951 to 1954 Weinberg was a Research Analyst for the War Documentation Project at Columbia University and was Director of the American Historical Association Project for Microfilming Captured German Documents in 1956–1957. After joining the project to microfilm captured records at Alexandria, Virginia, in the 1950s, Weinberg published the Guide to Captured German Documents (1952). In 1958, Weinberg made the discovery of Hitler’s so-called Zweites Buch (Second Book), an unpublished sequel to Mein Kampf, among captured German files. His find led to his publication in 1961 of , later published in English as (2003). In 1953–1954, Weinberg was involved in a scholarly debate with and Andreas Hillgruber on the pages of the Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte journal over the question of whether Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, was a preventive war forced on Hitler by fears of an imminent Soviet attack. In a 1956 review of Hillgruber's book Hitler, König Carol und Marschall Antonescu, Weinberg accused Hillgruber of engaging at times in a pro-German apologia such as asserting that World War II began with the Anglo–French declarations of war against Germany on September 3, 1939, rather than the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939. In his 1980 monograph The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II 1937–1939, Weinberg noted that about the question of the war's origins that "my view is somewhat different" from Hillgruber's.<ref>Weinberg, Gerhard. 'The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II 1937–1939, Chicago: University of Chicago Press (UCP), 1980 page 657.</ref> In his 1981 book World in the Balance, Weinberg stated that "Hillgruber's interpretation is not, however, followed here". In his 1994 book A World At Arms, Weinberg called Hillgruber's thesis presented in his book Zweierlei Untergang – Die Zerschlagung des Deutschen Reiches und das Ende des europäischen Judentums (Two Kinds of Ruin – The Smashing of the German Reich and the End of European Jewry) "... a preposterous reversal of the realities". Weinberg sarcastically commented that if the German Army had held out longer against the Red Army in 1945 as Hillgruber had wished, the result would not have been the saving of more German lives as Hillgruber had claimed, but rather an American atomic bombing of Germany. Another scholarly debate involving Weinberg occurred in 1962–1963 when Weinberg wrote a review of David Hoggan's 1961 book Der Erzwungene Krieg for the American Historical Review. The book claimed that the outbreak of war in 1939 had been due to an Anglo–Polish conspiracy against Germany. In his review, Weinberg suggested that Hoggan had probably engaged in forging documents (the charge was later confirmed). Weinberg noted that Hoggan's method comprised taking of all Hitler's "peace speeches" at face value, and simply ignoring evidence of German intentions for aggression such as the Hossbach Memorandum. Moreover, Weinberg noted that Hoggan often rearranged events in a chronology designed to support his thesis such as placing the Polish rejection of the German demand for the return of the Free City of Danzig (modern Gdańsk, Poland) to the Reich in October 1938 instead of in August 1939, thereby giving a false impression that the Polish refusal to consider changing the status of Danzig was due to British pressure. Weinberg noted that Hoggan had appeared to engage in forgery by manufacturing documents and attributing statements that were not found in documents in the archives. As an example, Weinberg noted during a meeting between Neville Chamberlain and Adam von Trott zu Solz in June 1939, Hoggan had Chamberlain saying that the British guarantee of Polish independence given on March 31, 1939 "did not please him personally at all. He thereby gave the impression that Halifax was solely responsible for British policy". As Weinberg noted, what Chamberlain actually said was: Do you [(vonTrott zu Solz)] believe that I undertook these commitments gladly? Hitler forced me into them! Subsequently, both Hoggan and his mentor Harry Elmer Barnes wrote a series of letters to the American Historical Review protesting Weinberg's review and attempting to rebut his arguments. Weinberg in turn published letters rebutting Barnes's and Hoggan's claims. Major works Weinberg's early work was the two-volume history of Hitler's diplomatic preparations for war: The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany (1970 and 1980; republished 1994). In this work, Weinberg portrayed a Hitler committed to his ideology, no matter how inane or stupid it might seem to others, and therefore as a leader determined to use foreign policy to effect a specific set of goals. Weinberg thus countered others, such as British historian A.J.P. Taylor, who had argued in The Origins of the Second World War (1962) that Hitler had acted like a traditional statesman in taking advantage of the weaknesses of foreign rivals. The first volume of The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany received the George Louis Beer Prize of the American Historical Association in 1971. Weinberg's attention then turned to the Second World War. He published dozens of articles on the war and volumes of collected essays such as World in the Balance: Behind the Scenes of World War II (1981). All of that work was preparation for the release in 1994 of his 1000-page one-volume history of the war, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II, for which he won a second George Louis Beer Prize in 1994. Weinberg continued his studies of the era of the war even after the publication of his general history by examining the conceptions of World War II's leaders about the world that they thought they were fighting to create. It was published in 2005 as Visions of Victory: The Hopes of Eight World War II Leaders. In that book, Weinberg looked at what eight leaders were hoping to see after the war ended. The eight leaders profiled were Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, General Hideki Tōjō, Chiang Kai-shek, Joseph Stalin, Winston Churchill, General Charles de Gaulle, and Franklin D. Roosevelt. Weinberg has continued to be a critic of those who claim that Operation Barbarossa was a "preventive war" forced on Hitler. In a review of Stalin's War by , Weinberg called those who promote the preventive war thesis as believers in "fairy tales". In 1996, Weinberg was somewhat less harsh in his review of Topitsch's book but was still very critical in his assessment of the Czech historian R.C. Raack's Stalin's Drive to the West. (The latter book did not accept the preventive war thesis, but Raack still argued that Soviet foreign policy was far more aggressive than many other historians would accept and that Western leaders were too pliant in their dealings with Stalin.) In the globalist versus continentalist debate, concerning whether Hitler had ambitions to conquer the entire world or merely the continent of Europe, Weinberg takes a globalist view, arguing Hitler had plans for world conquest. On the question of whether Hitler intended to murder Europe's Jews before coming to power, Weinberg takes an intentionalist position, arguing that Hitler had formulated ideas for the Holocaust by the time he wrote Mein Kampf. In a 1994 article, Weinberg criticized the American functionalist historian Christopher Browning for arguing that the decision to launch the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question" was taken in September–October 1941. In Weinberg's view, July 1941 was the more probable date. In the same article, Weinberg praised the work of the American historian Henry Friedlander for arguing that the origins of the Holocaust can be traced to the Action T4 program, which began in January 1939. Finally, Weinberg praised the thesis put forward by the American historian Richard Breitman that planning for the Shoah began during the winter of 1940–1941 but argued that Breitman missed a crucial point: because the T4 program had generated public protests, the Einsatzgruppen massacres of Jews in the Soviet Union were intended as a sort of "trial run" to gauge reaction of the German people to genocide. A major theme of Weinberg's work about the origins of the Second World War has been a revised picture of Neville Chamberlain and the Munich Agreement. Based on his study of German documents, Weinberg established that the demands made by Hitler on the cession of the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia were not intended to be accepted but were rather to provide a pretext for aggression against Czechoslovakia. Weinberg has established that Hitler regarded the Munich Agreement as a diplomatic defeat, which deprived Germany of the war that was intended to begin on October 1, 1938. Weinberg has argued against the thesis that Chamberlain was responsible for the failure of the proposed putsch in Germany in 1938. Weinberg has argued that the three visits to London in the summer of 1938 of three messengers from the opposition, each bearing the same message (if only Britain would promise to go to war if Czechoslovakia was attacked, then a putsch would remove the Nazi regime, each ignorant of the other messengers' existence), presented a picture of a group of people apparently not very well organized and that it is unreasonable for historians to have expected Chamberlain to stake all upon uncorroborated words of such a badly-organized group. In a 2007 review of Ian Kershaw's Fateful Choices, Weinberg, though generally favorable to Kershaw, commented that Chamberlain played a far more important role in the decision to fight on despite the great German victories in the spring of 1940 and in ensuring that Churchill was his successor, instead of the peace-minded Lord Halifax, than Kershaw gave him credit for in his book. Weinberg's picture of Chamberlain has led to criticism; the American historian Williamson Murray condemned Weinberg for his "... attempts to present the British Prime Minister in as favorable a light as possible". Hitler diaries controversy In 1983, when the German illustrated weekly magazine Der Stern reported its purchase of the alleged diaries of Adolf Hitler, the U.S. weekly magazine Newsweek asked Weinberg to examine them hurriedly in a bank vault in Zürich, Switzerland. Together with Hugh Trevor-Roper and Eberhard Jäckel, Weinberg was one of the three experts on Hitler asked to examine the alleged diaries. Squeezing the visit into just a few hours so as not to miss any of his teaching assignments at Chapel Hill, Weinberg reported in Newsweek that "on balance I am inclined to consider the material authentic." Weinberg also noted that the purported journals would likely add less to our understanding of the Second World War than many might have thought and that more work would be needed to "make the verdict [of authenticity] airtight." When that work was undertaken by the German Federal Archives, the "diaries" were deemed forgeries. Professional accomplishments Weinberg was elected president of the German Studies Association in 1996. Weinberg has been a fellow of the American Council of Learned Societies, a Fulbright professor at the University of Bonn, a Guggenheim Fellow, and a Shapiro Senior Scholar in Residence at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum among many other such honors. In June 2009, Weinberg was selected to receive the $100,000 Pritzker Military Library Literature Award for lifetime excellence in military writing, sponsored by the Chicago-based Tawani Foundation. As part of his acceptance, he gave a webcast lecture at the library on "New Boundaries for the World: The Postwar Visions of Eight World War II Leaders." He was awarded the 2011 Samuel Eliot Morison Prize, a lifetime achievement award given by the Society for Military History. Works BooksGermany and the Soviet Union, 1939–1941, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1954.The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany: Diplomatic Revolution in Europe, 1933–36, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970, . (editor) Transformation of a Continent: Europe in the Twentieth Century. Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Pub. Co., 1975, .The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany: Starting World War II, 1937–1939. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980, .World in the Balance: Behind the Scenes of World War II, Hanover, New Hampshire: Published for Brandeis University Press by University Press of New England, 1981, .A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II, Cambridge [Eng.]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994, revised edition 2005, . online editionGermany, Hitler, and World War II: Essays in Modern German and World History. Cambridge [England] ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1995, . Hitler's Second Book: The Unpublished Sequel to Mein Kampf, Enigma Books, 2003 .Visions of Victory: The Hopes of Eight World War II Leaders. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005, . with Hugh Trevor-Roper, Hitler's Table Talk 1941–1944: Secret Conversations. New York: Enigma Books, 2007, .Hitler's Foreign Policy, 1933–1939: The Road to World War II. New York: Enigma Books, 2010 . World War II: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. . Articles "A Critical Note on the Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918–1945" pages 38–40 from The Journal of Modern History, Volume 23, Issue # 1, March 1951.Guide to Captured German Documents. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air University, Human Resources Research Institute, 1952. "Der deutsche Entschluß zum Angriff auf die Sowjetunion" pages 301-318 from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte Volume 1, Issue # 4 1953.The Partisan Movement in the Yelnya-Dorogobuzh Area of Smolensk Oblast, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air Research and Development Command, Human Resources Research Institute Headquarters, United States Air Force, 1954. "A Proposed Compromise over Danzig in 1939?" pages 334-338 from Journal of Central European Affairs, Volume 14, Issue 4, January 1955. "Hitler's Private Testament of May 2, 1938" pages 415-419 from The Journal of Modern History, Volume 27, Issue # 4, December 1955. "Deutsch-japanische Verhandlungen über das Südseemanddat, 1937–1938" pages 390-398 from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Volume 4, Issue 4, October 1956. "German Recognition of Manchoukuo" pages 149-164 from World Affairs Quarterly, Volume 28, Issue #2, July 1957. "The May Crisis, 1938" pages 213-225 from The Journal of Modern History Volume 29, Issue # 3 September 1957.Supplement to the Guide to Captured German Documents. Washington D.C.: National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration, 1959. "Secret Hitler-Beneš Negotiations in 1936-37" pages 366-374 from Journal of Central European Affairs, Volume 19, Issue 4, January 1960. Review of Operationsgebiet Ostliche Ostsee und der Finnisch-Baltische Raum, 1944 page 366 from The Journal of Modern History, Volume 34, Issue # 3, September 1962 "Schachts Beusch in den USA im Jahre 1933" pages 166-180 from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Volume 11, Issue #2, April 1963. "German Colonial Plans and Policies, 1938-1942" pages 462-491 from Geschichte und Gegenwartsbewusstsein Festschrift für Hans Rothfels, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruphrect, 1963. "Hitler's Image of the United States" pages 1006-1021 from American Historical Review, Volume 69, Issue #4, July 1964. "National Socialist Organization and Foreign Policy Aims in 1927" pages 428-433 from The Journal of Modern History, Volume 36, Issue # 4, December 1964. "The Defeat of Germany in 1918 and the European Balance of Power" pages 248-260 from Central European History, Volume 2, Issue 3, September 1969. "Germany and Czechoslovakia 1933-1945" pages 760-769 from Czechoslovakia Past and Present edited by Miloslva Rechcigl, The Hauge: Moution, 1969. "Recent German History: Some Comments and Perspectives" pages 358-368 from Deutschland-Russland-Amerika: Festschrift für Fritz Epstein, Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1978. "Stages to War: Response" pages 316-320 from The Journal of Modern History, Volume 57, Issue # 2, June 1985. "Hitler's Memorandum on the Four-Year Plan: A Note" pages 133-135 from German Studies Review, Volume 11, Issue # 1, February 1988. "Munich After 50 Years" pages 165-178 from Foreign Affairs Volume 67, Issue # 1 Fall 1988. "The Munich Crisis in Historical Perspective" pages 668-678 from International History Review Volume 11, Issue #4, November 1989. "Hitlers Entschluß zum Krieg" pages 31–36 from 1939 An der Schwelle zum Weltkrieg. Die Entfesselung des Zweiten Weltkrieges edited by Klaus Zernack, Jurgen Schmadeke & Klaus Hildebrand, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1990 . "Some Thoughts on World War II" pages 659-668 from The Journal of Military History, Volume 56, Issue # 4, October 1992. Co-written with Edwin Bridges, Gregory Hunter, Page Putnam Miller, David Thelen "Historians and Archivists: A Rationale for Cooperation" pages 179-186 from The Journal of American History, Volume 80, Issue # 1, June 1993. "Comments on the Papers by Friedlander, Breitman, and Browning" pages 509-512 from German Studies Review, Volume 17, Issue # 3, October 1994. "Changes in the Place of Women in the Historical Profession: A Personal Perspective" pages 323-327 from The History Teacher, Volume 29, Issue # 3, May 1996. "Germany's War for World Conquest and the Extermination of the Jews" pages 119-133 from Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 10, 1996. "World War II Scholarship, Now and in the Future" pages 335-345 from The Journal of Military History, Volume 61, Issue # 2, April 1997. "Reflections on Two Unifications" pages 13–25 from German Studies Review, Volume 21, Issue # 1, February 1998. "Unexplored Questions about the German Military during World War II" pages 371-380 from The Journal of Military History, Volume 62, Issue # 2, April 1998. "German Plans and Policies regarding Neutral Nations in World War II with Special Reference to Switzerland" pages 99–103 from German Studies Review, Volume 22, Issue # 1, February 1999. "Reflections on Munich after 60 Years" pages 1–12 from The Munich Crisis, 1938 Prelude to World War II edited by Igor Lukes and Erik Goldstein, London: Frank Cass, 1999, . (editor & translator) Hitler's Second Book: The Unpublished Sequel to Mein Kampf, New York: Enigma Books, 2003 . "Some Issues and Experiences in German-American Scholarly Relations," The Second Generation. Émigrés from Nazi Germany as Historians. , ed. Andreas W. Daum, Hartmut Lehmann, and James J. Sheehan. New York: Berghahn Books 2016, 97–101. See also List of books by or about Adolf Hitler References Croan, Melvin. Review of The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany: Starting World War II, 1937-1939 pages 114-115 from Slavic Review, Volume 42, Issue # 1, Spring 1983. Daum, Andreas W., Hartmut Lehmann, and James J. Sheehan, eds., The Second Generation. Émigrés from Nazi Germany as Historians. New York: Berghahn Books, 2016, Dawidowicz, Lucy S. Review of The Foreign Policy Of Hitler's Germany pages 91–93 from Commentary, Volume 52, Issue # 2, August 1971. Diehl, James. Review of A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II pages 755-756 from The Journal of Military History, Volume 58, Issue # 4, October 1994. Dorn, Walter. Review of Germany and the Soviet Union, 1939-1941 pages 295-297 from The Journal of Modern History, Volume 28, Issue # 3, September 1956. Eckert, Astrid M. The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German archives after the Second World War. Cambridge University Press, 2012. , Fisher, H.H. Review of Germany and the Soviet Union, 1939-1941 pages 152-153 from Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Volume 302, November 1955. Harris, Robert. Selling Hitler: The Story of the Hitler Diaries. London: Faber and Faber, 1986 . Hauner, Milan. Review of A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II pages 873-874 from The American Historical Review, Volume 100, Issue # 3, June 1995 Kershaw, Ian. The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation. London: Arnold; New York: Oxford University Press, 2000 . Kulski, W.W. Review of Germany and the Soviet Union, 1939-1941 pages 417-419 from American Slavic and East European Review, Volume 14, Issue # 3, October 1955. Krammer, Arnold, Review of World in the Balance: Behind the Scenes of World War II pages 341-342 from German Studies Review, Volume 6, Issue # 2, May 1983. Lewin, Ronald. Review of World in the Balance: Behind the Scenes of World War II page 107 from International Affairs, Volume 59, Issue # 1, Winter 1982–1983. Snell, John. Review of The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany: Diplomatic Revolution in Europe, 1933-36 pages 891-892 from Slavic Review, Volume 30, Issue # 4, December 1971. Steinweis, Alan E. and Daniel E. Rogers, eds., The Impact of Nazism: New Perspectives on the Third Reich and Its Legacy. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 2003 . "Stages to War: An Examination of Gerhard Weinberg's "The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany"" by Radomír V. Luža, F. Gregory Campbell and Anna M. Cienciala pages 297-315 from The Journal of Modern History, Volume 57, Issue # 2, June 1985. Parker, R.A.C. Review of A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II pages 792-793 from International Affairs, Volume 70, Issue # 4, October 1994 Reynolds, P.A. Review of Germany and the Soviet Union 1939–1941 page 229 from International Affairs, Volume 31, Issue # 2, April 1955. von Riekhoff, Harald. "Continuity and Change in German Détente Strategy Toward Poland: Comments on Professor Weinberg's Paper" pages 24–29 from Polish Review, Volume 20, Issue # 1. Robbins, Keith. Review of The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany: Diplomatic Revolution in Europe, 1933–36 pages 672-672 from The English Historical Review, Volume 88, Issue # 348, July 1973. Stone, Dan. "The Course of History: Arno J. Mayer, Gerhard L. Weinberg, and David Cesarani on the Holocaust and World War II." Journal of Modern History 91.4 (2019): 883–904. Taylor, A.J.P. Review of The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany: Diplomatic Revolution in Europe, 1933–36 pages 140-143 from The Journal of Modern History, Volume 44, Issue # 1 March 1972. Watt, D.C. Review of The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany: Starting World War II, 1937–1939 pages 411-414 from The Journal of Modern History, Volume 54, Issue # 2, June 1982. Wesson, Robert. Review of Germany and the Soviet Union, 1939–1941 pages 218-219 from Russian Review, Volume 32, Issue # 2, April 1973 Wiskemann, Elizabeth. Review of Hitlers Zweites Buch: Ein Dokument aus dem Jahr 1928 pages 229-230 from International Affairs, Volume 38, Issue # 2, April 1962 Notes External links On Weinberg Dr. Gerhard Weinberg: World War II Scholar and Teacher (Metro Magazine, January 2006) Revealed: The Amazing Story behind Hitler's Second Book Over There, and There, and There Review of A World In Arms He Meant What He Said: Review of Zweites Buch Review of Germany, Hitler, and World War II: Essays in Modern German and World History Oral history interview with Gerhard L. Weinberg, USHMM 2012 By Weinberg No Road From Munich To Iraq Review of Der Holocaust und die westdeutschen Historiker by Nicolas Berg The United States in World War II Review of Fateful Choices by Ian Kershaw. Review of Dagmar Barnouw's The War in the Empty Air: Victims, Perpetrators, and Postwar Germans Review of Hitler: The Rise of Evil Statement of Gerhard L. Weinberg before the U.S. House of Representatives Banking Committee Lecture by Weinberg on New Boundaries for the World: The Post-War Visions of Eight World War II Leaders'' 1928 births Living people American military historians Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States Jewish historians Jewish American writers Historians of Nazism People from the Province of Hanover University of Chicago alumni University of Michigan faculty University of Kentucky faculty University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill faculty Columbia University faculty University at Albany, SUNY alumni 20th-century American historians 21st-century American historians 21st-century American male writers 20th-century American male writers American male non-fiction writers United States Army personnel Military personnel from Hanover
4865936	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/They%20Think%20It%27s%20All%20Over%20%28TV%20series%29	They Think It's All Over (TV series)	They Think It's All Over is a British comedy panel game with a sporting theme produced by Talkback and shown on BBC1. The show's name was taken from Kenneth Wolstenholme's famous 1966 World Cup commentary line, "they think it's all over...it is now!" and the show used the phrase to sign off each episode. In 2006, the show's run ended after 11 years on air. Overview The show was originally presented by comedian Nick Hancock. Retired England football team captain Gary Lineker and former England cricket team captain David Gower were team captains from 1995 until they announced their retirement from the show in 2003. They were replaced as team captains by former England football goalkeeper David Seaman and former England cricketer Phil Tufnell. Former footballer Ian Wright took over from David Seaman in autumn 2004. From October 2005, Boris Becker replaced Tufnell and Lee Mack took over from Hancock as host. Occasionally, a team captain was unable to appear on the show due to other commitments so guest captains were drafted in. Six times World Snooker Champion Steve Davis was a regular choice as guest captain, while Matthew Pinsent, Mark Lawrenson, Mick McCarthy, Sam Torrance, Steve Backley, Sharron Davies, Linford Christie and Michael Johnson also appeared in this role. Additionally, Ian Wright was a guest captain before becoming a permanent team captain. Each team also had a regular panellist. For the team which was originally captained by Gary Lineker this was Rory McGrath for the show's entire run. David Gower was originally teamed up with Lee Hurst. Hurst left the show in 1997 (although he made a reappearance in 2004 on David Seaman's team) and was replaced for the next two series by Jonathan Ross, Jo Brand, Alan Davies, Julian Clary and Phill Jupitus. Despite regularly admitting to having limited sporting knowledge, Ross became the permanent panellist until leaving the show in 2006, and was replaced by Sean Lock for the World Cup and summer sports special editions. The third member of each team varied from week to week, and would typically be a notable sportsperson, broadcaster or comedian. The show was originally produced for BBC Radio 5, where it was hosted by Des Lynam. The devisers, Simon Bullivant and Bill Matthews, started work on a TV version in 1993 but it was two years before it made it to air. Des Lynam did record a pilot in early 1994 but decided not to do the already commissioned series, which was then put on hold. In 1999 and 2001, as part of the BBC's Comic Relief broadcasts, one-off special programmes were made called Have I Got Buzzcocks All Over. They combined elements of the show with Have I Got News for You and Never Mind the Buzzcocks, with Angus Deayton as host. In 2002 and 2004, as part of the BBC's Sport Relief broadcasts, one-off special programmes were made called They Think It's All A Question of Sport. They combined elements of the show with A Question of Sport, with Stephen Fry as host. Kenneth Wolstenholme was unhappy with the use of the phrase for the title of the show. He wrote in his autobiography that he had contacted the BBC to find out what relevance the title had to his most famous line, uttered 30 years earlier. However, when the show was first commissioned, he did accept a fee to re-record his famous commentary for the opening titles, as the original was unusable. Rounds Throughout the series, the rounds varied each week. Examples include: Excuses, where the teams are shown a clip of a sportsperson or a team, and are asked what excuse they gave for a sporting or personal misdemeanour. Examples include Tommy Docherty explaining that Scotland lost 7–0 in the 1954 World Cup to Uruguay because "they were shattered just standing for the National Anthem", and Scottish tennis player Andy Murray claimed that he vomited on the court at the US Open in 2005 because he'd been drinking an isotonic drink to stop him from cramping, but he drank too much too quickly. On a special edition video-only episode of No Holds Barred, Gary's team was asked for Tommy Docherty's excuse for Manchester United's infamous relegation of 1973–74, with Lineker's answer "He wanted to bring pleasure to millions?", with the answer being that the teams bus was late and so missed pre match training. Another edition of the excuses round saw Manchester United fans blame Rod Stewart for costing their team the 1991-92 League title to Leeds United by ruining their Old Trafford pitch at a concert in the pre-season delaying vital pitch maintenance. Celebrations, where the teams are shown a clip of a sportsperson celebrating in a fanciful way, and are asked what the celebration is in aid of. Examples include Arsenal striker Thierry Henry celebrating a goal by recreating the Budweiser "Whassup?" advert, American sprinter Maurice Greene paying tribute to WWE wrestler The Rock, Swedish tennis player Jonas Björkman referencing a comedy routine by Galenskaparna and After Shave, and Manchester United forward (and future manager) Ole Gunnar Solskjaer celebrating a goal by recreating a pose of his boyhood hero Elvis Presley. Sporting Bluff, in which the teams are given three statements about a sportsperson and have to guess which one is true. What's Going On?, where the teams are shown a sporting clip and are asked to decipher what's going on, quite literally. Examples include former cricket umpire Dickie Bird taking part in a photo opportunity with the Yorkshire players picked for the England cricket team, dressed in a chef's outfit and cooking them Yorkshire puddings, the annual Wife Carrying World Championships in Finland, and Scottish Youth Dance Company dancer Andy Howitt recreating Michael Owen's goal against Argentina in the 1998 FIFA World Cup as a ballet dance. Photo Opportunities, where each team is shown a photo of a sportsperson in an unfamiliar pose and asked what the circumstances behind the photos were. Examples include swimmer Sharron Davies beside two men dressed as chips to promote National Chip Week, Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson partnering with The Wombles for a campaign against litter in Manchester, and serial practical joker (and Eric Cantona lookalike) Karl Power joining the Manchester United team for a photo before a Champions League match in 2001. Photo-fit, where the teams are shown a picture of three sportspersons merged into one. The teams then have to guess who they are. Sometimes after the sportspersons are revealed, they are asked for the connection between them for a bonus point. In early series, Rory McGrath joked that he recognised the person in the photo as an ex-girlfriend he'd previously had sexual encounters with. Author Author, in which the teams hear an extract from a sporting autobiography or interview and attempt to identify the author. Quotes include former Liverpool F.C. manager Gérard Houllier on why he turned down offers of international coaching, cricket umpire Shakoor Rana offering his opinion on Mike Gatting following their infamous 1987 on-pitch argument, and a quote from athlete Roger Black's autobiography on his admiration of David Gower. Sing When You're Winning, in which the teams must complete the lyrics to a sporting song, poem or chant performed by football fans or the Barmy Army. A memorable moment from this round saw Chris Eubank complete a poem by Barnsley-supporting poet Ian McMillan, with the line "I'm having a laugh", when the line was "We'll be champions come May". One of the more memorable reactions to not winning this round occurred when Matthew Corbett and Sooty were guests and when denied points, Sooty went on to squirt Nick in the face with a water pistol, followed by Nick emptying his water bottle over Corbett's head in retaliation. Handbags, where the teams must work out the reasons for a rift between sportspersons. Examples of rifts include football team Peterborough United F.C. and Victoria Beckham over the rights to use the nickname "Posh", and athlete David Bedford and communications company InfoNXX over the 118 118 runners looking like him. Grandstand, in which the teams are shown a bizarre multi-sport event and are asked to come up with events played in them. These include the Eskimo Olympics, the Naked Olympics and the Tough Guy Sports. Electronic Pencil, where the teams are shown a brief sporting clip, which is then paused, or a doctored photo of a sportsperson with items removed. The teams use the electronic pencil to predict the direction of the athlete or the ball, or what the missing items were. The round was dropped after series 2 but revived for the 100th show in 2001. Half-Time, where each team is shown a clip of sporting footage with the sound removed and asked to provide their own dub over the clip. The teams were not awarded points for this segment, which was dropped after series 2. Clips used include vintage footage of the Eton wall game (which David's team overdubbed as David Gower's Schooldays) and coverage of the O. J. Simpson low-speed police chase (with Alistair McGowan dubbing over it as Trevor Brooking and Alan Hansen on Match of the Day). Injury Board, in which the teams pick a number between 1 and 12. Behind each number is a sports person and another person or item. The teams try to work out how the latter injured the former. Examples include Newbury rugby club and some Vaseline (to which guest Julian Clary suggested "maybe there was sand in it") and Dennis Wise and a toilet seat. This round was also a parody of A Question of Sport, another BBC TV quiz show. Temper, Temper, where the teams are shown a clip of a sporting star losing their temper, and are asked to explain the source of their ire. Examples include English cricketer Darren Gough's heated argument with Sri Lankan cricketer Roshan Mahanama after their run-in on the pitch, and tennis player Venus Williams' tearful rant at the umpire when he ruled that her beaded hair coming apart during a match in the 1999 Australian Open against Lindsay Davenport was ruled to have created a disturbance on the court. Rules of the Game, where the teams are shown a sporting event such as the Eton wall game or a clip of football mascots fighting, and are asked to guess what the main rules of the games or associated codes of conduct are. The Treble, where the teams are shown three sportspersons and three items, and have to link each sportsperson to an item. The Beckham Challenge, where the teams are asked an on-the-buzzer question about David Beckham and his family. The first team to get the answer right gets further bonus questions, similar to University Challenge. This was later changed to having separate questions for each team. Variants to this round include Sven-Mania (with questions about then-England manager Sven-Göran Eriksson), Wayne-Mania (with questions about Wayne Rooney) and Gaffer-Mania (with questions about football managers in general). Feel The Sportsman, one of the most popular rounds of the show, in which the regular panellists have to try to identify a mystery guest, or their sporting notability, by touch whilst blindfolded. Guests subjected to a groping include Will Carling, Ashia Hansen, Henry Cooper, Lucinda Green, Geoff Capes, Victor Ubogu, Jonah Lomu (who infamously appeared minutes after Chris Eubank had been goaded into calling him "a big poof"), Andy Fordham, Manc Union Paintball Team, Arsenal Women's Football Team (which Rory guessed right on the whistle), Aylesbury United F.C. in their infamous 1995 FA Cup duck conga goal celebration, a preserved Mick the Miller, the Subbuteo Gary Lineker, a cardboard cutout of Roy of the Rovers, Tony Bullimore, Stirling Moss and the aforementioned Karl Power. One notable variant in 2001 saw the regulars feeling an animal, having been shown a clip of Sven-Göran Eriksson on Italian television trying to identify animals by touch alone. David Gower and Jonathan Ross correctly guessed their animal (a zebra) but Gary Lineker and Rory McGrath failed to get theirs (an alligator – they failed to even touch it), with McGrath and Lineker removing their blindfolds and running off the set in panic. Occasionally, the guests get to play in lieu of one of the regulars; a notable example was Sharron Davies, when the sportsman was her then husband Derek Redmond, whom she recognised. Claim To Fame, introduced in 2005, saw a sportsperson subjected to a line of questioning by the panel to determine their claim to fame. Mystery people include Paul Barber (a member of the gold medal-winning British 1988 Olympic hockey team), Judy Grinham (gold medal-winning 100m backstroke swimmer at the 1956 Olympics) and Tommy Gemmell, from the Celtic European Cup winning team of 1967. The Physical Challenge, where the teams are subject to displaying their physique on an exercise bike, tricycle or other exercise apparatus. The harder they pedal, the faster an image appears on screen, and the teams must name the image before moving onto the next one. The team captain starts off before a klaxon is sounded, then the regular sidekick takes over. The guests occasionally had a turn as well. The Name Game, in which the regular sidekick has to give clues about a famous sportsperson for the other team members to guess. Variants include the sidekick having to draw out the clues, giving clues as to team names and performing impressions, or miming of the sportsperson. One famous incident in this round saw Rory get a point deduction for giving clues like "Same first name as Ian Rush, same last name as Ian Botham". Rory also got away with pretending Gary gave an answer when he had not, by saying "That's right, speak up!". He also criticised the media hype over Ryan Giggs's winning FA Cup semi-final goal against Arsenal, by giving the clue "Welsh football player, scored what is probably the most overrated goal of the season". Sporting Vogue, introduced in 2005, where the team captain has to strike a famous pose by a sportsperson for their teammates to guess. School Sports Day, shown only on the video-exclusive No Holds Barred episode, was a pre-recorded segment featuring the regulars participating in a school sports day at King's College School as though it was covered by Grandstand, with Nick as the presenter and Gerald Sinstadt as the commentator. The events were the Egg-and-spoon race, the Three-legged race, the Egg Catching (with England cricketer Nasser Hussain throwing the eggs), the Obstacle course and the Sack race. Although Gary won the individual contest, David's team earned more points in the sports day and back in the studio were awarded one point for their efforts. Grand Prix, shown only on the video-exclusive Full Throttle episode, was another pre-recorded segment featuring the regulars participating in a six-lap race in "Formula 27 dinky cars" at Silverstone, using similar on-screen graphics to Formula 1 coverage on ITV at the time (even breaking into a "commercial break" for the No Holds Barred video near to the climax of the race, only to return just before Lee span off the track, which was ripping on ITV holding commercial breaks during key moments in the races), and a commentator imitating Murray Walker. Lee and David raced in Williams-coloured cars, while Gary and Rory raced in Jordan-liveried cars. Lee span out on the final lap and was disqualified. David won the race, winning 10 points for his team. Gary and Rory finished joint second, winning 5 points each, thus leading to Nick back in the studio declaring the race "a complete waste of a day". Sporting Chicken, also shown only on the video-exclusive Full Throttle episode, saw the teams watching a fiercely-contested women's doubles tennis match. It was up to the individual members of each team to press their buzzers before the rally ended, with three points going to the person to buzz in last, but anyone who failed to buzz before the end of the rally would be deducted a point. In the end, David's team won two points as Lee failed to buzz before the ball went out of play. Tie-Breakers All episodes ending with a tie score or series ending with the number of episodes tied finish with a tie-breaker. Sometimes, the tie-breaker refers to incidents from previously in the episode. These have included: A sports general knowledge question, sometimes from the quiz books endorsed by team captains Gary Lineker or David Gower. An episode featuring England cricket captain Nasser Hussain ended with Nick tossing a coin and getting Nasser, who had previous bad luck with coin tosses, to call Heads or Tails. He got it wrong, saying '&$%£ing Tails' as Nick showed him the result. A game of musical chairs featuring the regulars. A mechanical bull or surfboard, which the panellists (usually Jonathan Ross versus Rory McGrath, or Jonathan versus his brother Paul in the surfboard example) ride, with the panellist who stays on for the longest before falling off winning. A game of round-the-table table tennis between all the panellists. A game of Paper-Scissors-Stone between David and Gary. (Gary and Rory were spotted by Nick discussing tactics.) An arm-wrestling match between David and Gary. A "pseudo sumo" match between David and Gary, with the two captains in inflatable sumo suits. A race between David and Gary on tea trays with wheels, in honour of British Winter Olympic bronze medalist skeleton racer Alex Coomber A pre-recorded race between two hamsters in moving wheels - David picked the 'winner' first; Gary's hamster was shown travelling backwards. A "black ball fight" (first to pot the only ball) on a miniature snooker table between guest captain Steve Davis and Ronnie O'Sullivan. Ronnie was required to wear a facsimile of Dennis Taylor's glasses to give him a psychological advantage. A wrestling match in a pool of mashed potato between David and Gary, with the audience cheering for who they thought won. A coconut shy-type game where, following a dressing room incident between Alex Ferguson and David Beckham where Ferguson reportedly kicked a football boot which hit Beckham in the head, all the panelists took turns to kick a football boot at cardboard cut-outs of Beckham's face. A toy fishing game between Phil Tufnell and David Seaman. A game of blow football between Boris Becker and Ian Wright. Episodes Controversy In May 2020, Luke Chadwick spoke openly to the media on how being mocked for his looks on the show repeatedly had affected his mental health. He said how the show commented on "spots on my face, teeth sticking out, that sort of thing" and how the repetition of the comments wore him down and made him anxious. Nick Hancock was interviewed by BBC Breakfast and apologised saying: "I’m appalled for him and at myself. When I hear him speaking, I’m full of admiration for the present Luke Chadwick and full of sympathy for the young Luke Chadwick, and personally I just feel a great deal of responsibility and shame, which I do accept and have to hold my hands up to." Upon the story breaking, Gary Lineker took to Twitter to apologise to Luke. Chadwick accepted both of their apologies. Merchandise VHS DVDs References External links 1990s British comedy television series 2000s British comedy television series 1995 British television series debuts 2006 British television series endings BBC panel games BBC television comedy British panel games 1990s British game shows 2000s British game shows 1990s British sports television series 2000s British sports television series Television series by Fremantle (company) English-language television shows
4865950	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenoble%20Alpes%20University	Grenoble Alpes University	The (UGA, French: meaning "Grenoble Alps University") is a public research university in Grenoble, France. Founded in 1339, it is the third largest university in France with about 60,000 students and over 3,000 researchers. Established as the University of Grenoble by Humbert II of Viennois, it split in 1970 following the wide-spread civil unrest of May 1968. Three of the University of Grenoble's successors—Joseph Fourier University, Pierre Mendès-France University, and Stendhal University—merged in 2016 to restore the original institution under the name . In 2020, the Grenoble Institute of Technology, the Grenoble Institute of Political Studies, and the Grenoble School of Architecture also merged with the original university. The university is organized around two closely located urban campuses: Domaine Universitaire, which straddles Saint-Martin-d'Hères and Gières, and Campus GIANT in Grenoble. UGA also owns and operates facilities in Valence, Chambéry, Les Houches, Villar-d'Arêne, Mirabel, Échirolles, and La Tronche. The city of Grenoble is one of the largest scientific centers in Europe, hosting facilities of every existing public research institution in France. This enables UGA to have hundreds of research and teaching partnerships, including close collaboration with the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) and the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA). After Paris, Grenoble as a city is the largest research center in France with 22,800 researchers. In April 2019, UGA was selected to host one of the four French institutes in artificial intelligence. UGA is traditionally known for its research and education in the natural sciences and engineering, but also law, institutional economics, linguistics, and psychology. It has been cited among the best and most innovative universities in Europe. It is also renowned for its academic research in the humanities and political sciences, hosting some of the largest research centers in France in the fields of political science, urban planning and the sociology of organizations. History Early history (1339–1800) The University of Grenoble was founded on 12 May 1339 by Humbert II of Viennois, the last independent ruler of Dauphiné, a state of the Holy Roman Empire. Its purpose was to teach civil and canon law, medicine, and the liberal arts. It was considered a leader in the Renaissance revival of the classics and development of liberal arts. Humbert's actions were inspired by his granduncle Robert, King of Naples, at whose royal court Humbert spent his youth. King Robert, known as the Wise, skillfully developed Naples from a small port into a lavish city and had a reputation of a cultured man and a generous patron of the arts, friends with such great minds as Petrarch, Boccaccio, and Giotto. Such rich experience contributed to Humbert's intention to create a university in his own state, and to do so he visited Pope Benedict XII to get a papal bull of approval. Humbert cared deeply about his students, offering generous aid, protection, and even providing a hundred of them with free housing. Humbert's financial losses during the Smyrniote crusades, Black Death, and Dauphiné's attachment to France greatly decreased the activity of the university leading to its closure, since a small mountainous town couldn't support its activity on its own. It was reopened again by Louis XI of France in 1475 in Valence under the name University of Valence, while the original university was restored in Grenoble in 1542 by Francis de Bourbon, Count of St. Pol. The two universities were finally reunited in 1565. At that point Grenoble was an important center of law practice in France, thus law practice was at the center of the university education. The French Revolution, with its focus on the end to inherited privilege, led to the suppression of most universities in France. To revolutionaries, universities embodied bastions of corporatism and established interests. Moreover, lands owned by the universities represented a source of wealth and therefore were confiscated, just as property possessed by the Church. Modern period (1800–1968) In 1805–1808, Napoleon reestablished faculties of law, letters, and science. The Bourbon Restoration had temporarily suppressed the Faculty of Letters and the Faculty of Law, but by the 1850s the university's activity had begun rapidly developing again. The development of the sciences at the university was spearheaded by the transformation of Grenoble from a regional center to a major supplier of industrial motors and electrical equipment in 1880s. The faculties were formally inaugurated as the University of Grenoble in 1879 in the newly constructed Place de Verdun. There were around 3000 students in 1930. Significant enrollment growth in the 1960s created pressures on the academic infrastructure of the university; the Suzanne Dobelmann library helped expand facilities, especially those relating to science and medicine. Recent history (1968–present) Following riots among university students in May 1968, a reform of French education occurred. The Orientation Act (Loi d’Orientation de l’Enseignement Superieur) of 1968 divided the old faculties into smaller subject departments, decreased the power of the Ministry of National Education, and created smaller universities, with strengthened administrations. Thus, sharing the fate of all French universities in 1970s, the University of Grenoble was split into four institutions. Each university had different areas of concentration of study and the faculties were divided as follows: The Scientific and Medical University of Grenoble, which in 1987 was renamed Joseph Fourier University (UJF), for sciences, health, and technology The University of Economics and Law, which in 1987 was renamed Pierre Mendès-France University (UPMF), for social sciences and humanities The Grenoble Institute of Political Studies, affiliated with UPMF and focusing on political science The University of Languages and Letters, which in 1987 was renamed Stendhal University, for arts and languages The Grenoble Institute of Technology (Grenoble-INP) for engineering On 1 January 2016, the first three institutions reunited to restore the original common institution under the name Université Grenoble Alpes. Although Grenoble-INP remains separate, it is an active member of the Community Université Grenoble Alpes and cooperates very closely with the university not only in research projects, but also by sharing labs, offering mutual courses and training for students and researchers. On 1 January 2020, the Grenoble Institute of Technology (Grenoble-INP), together with the Grenoble Institute of Political Studies, the ENSAG School of Architecture, and the Community Université Grenoble Alpes merged with the University Grenoble Alpes. Campus UGA facilities are mainly located in the Grenoble Agglomeration, centered around the Domaine Universitaire campus, GIANT campus, and La Tronche medical campus. However, there are many facilities that are located in other places in and outside of Grenoble, including the Valence campus and an important number of laboratories and research centres. Domaine Universitaire (Grenoble) The Domaine Universitaire, also known as the University Campus and Campus de Saint-Martin-d'Hères, is the main UGA campus covering an area of 175 hectares. It is an autonomous part of the Grenoble-Alpes Métropole agglomeration and a part of Saint-Martin-d'Hères commune. The Domaine Universitaire hosts a major part of educational facilities and an important part of research laboratories of the university. The Domaine Universitaire campus has a distinct feature of being an isolated part of the agglomeration dedicated solely to academics and student activities. This is an exemption from the typical model of French universities where university facilities are scattered throughout the city. Such organization was an experimental model applied in 1960s to accommodate the rapidly growing university. Over the years, due to such a distinct form of organization it earned the reputation of an "American campus". Another French university that follows this model is Paris-Saclay University although it is located 20 km away from Paris and not in a direct proximity to the city. The campus boast 3 000 trees, including Arboretum Robert Ruffier-Lanche with over 250 different species of trees and shrubs from around the world. Due to its rich vegetation, surrounded by Isère (river), in proximity of three mountain chains, and in immediate adjacency to the city, the campus is known for student quality of life. The university is ranked among the most beautiful universities and campuses in France and Europe. The campus has a rich network of public transport, including the Grenoble tramway, several bus lines, easy access the main highway and a network of bike lines. Grenoble is traditionally recognized as one of the best student cities in France. La Tronche campus is located one tramway stop away from the Domaine Universitaire campus. It is primarily specialized in medical studies and is home to the Grenoble Alpes University Hospital. Campus GIANT (Grenoble) Campus GIANT (Grenoble Innovation for Advanced New Technologies) is an inter-organizational campus located on the old military grounds of a presque-isle between Isère and Drac that formed Polygone Scientifique. The Campus hosts several educational institutions, primarily UGA (particularly the INPG) and the Grenoble School of Management. Among other members of the campus are also large state research organizations CNRS and CEA. The GIANT campus hosts Minatec, as well as several European large scale Instruments including European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, and Institut Laue–Langevin. Major industrial companies have facilities on campus, including bioMérieux, Schneider Electric, Siemens, and STMicroelectronics. Contrary to the Domaine Universitaire campus, which hosts UGA and shares both educational and research roles in a wide variety of disciplines, the GIANT Campus is inter-organizational and leans heavily towards research-industry collaboration in natural and applied sciences. Valence Campus The Valence campus is home to over 4000 students in undergraduate and post-graduate programs. It is located in the department of Drôme, 90 km away from Grenoble. The Valence campus is the successor of the Université de Valence founded in 1452 by Dauphin Louis, future King Louis XI. The University of Valence was closed in 1792 sharing the fate of most French universities during the French Revolution. Other locations University facilities are also located outside of main campuses, including Grenoble INP facilities, Grenoble IUT, as well as multiple laboratories and research centers. An alpine botanical garden Jardin botanique alpin du Lautaret spans over a 2 hectares area in Col du Lautaret. Governance The Université Grenoble Alpes is a Public Institution of Scientific, Cultural, and Professional Relevance (French: Établissement public à caractère scientifique, culturel et professionnel"). It is governed by a board of directors and an academic council elected every four years. The president of the university is elected by the board of Directors after each renewal, and is eligible for re-election once. On 3 December 2015, staff and students from Joseph Fourier University, Pierre Mendès-France University, and Stendhal University voted to elect representatives to the central councils of the new university. On 7 January 2016, the Board of Directors of the Université Grenoble Alpes elected Lise Dumasy as president. It was the first time a woman has been elected to head a merged university in France. The university was one of the central members of the Community Université Grenoble Alpes, a COMUE under the presidency of Patrick Lévy. The association allowed the humanities and social sciences and natural and formal sciences to be represented in the governance of the entire university system of Grenoble. On 1 January 2020 the ComUE merged with the university, together with the Grenoble Institute of Technology, the Grenoble Institute of Political Studies, and the Grenoble School of Architecture ENSAG. The merger was organized using the newly created legal form of "établissements expérimentaux" created by the French government to promote the development of leading national universities. Yassine Lakhnech became the President of the newly merged university. Academics The Université Grenoble Alpes is made up of multiple departments, schools and institutes. Faculty of sciences Department of Chemistry and Biology IM2AG - Department of Computer Science, Mathematics and Applied Mathematics of Grenoble (IM2AG) PhITEM - Department of Physics, Engineering, Earth & Environmental Sciences, Mechanics OSUG - Grenoble Observatory for Sciences of the Universe DLST - Department for Undergraduate Degree of Sciences and Technology Grenoble INP Ense3 - Engineering school of Energy, Water and Environmental sciences Ensimag - Engineering school of Applied mathematics and Computer Science Esisar - Engineering school of Advanced Systems and Networks Génie industriel - School of Industrial engineering and Management Pagora - Engineering school of Paper, Print media and Biomaterials Phelma - Engineering school of Physics, Electronics and Materials Science Grenoble IAE - Graduate School of Management Polytech Grenoble - Polytechnic Engineering School Faculty of humanities, health, sports, society (H3S) ARSH - Department of Arts and Humanities LE - Department of foreign languages LLASIC - Department of Languages, Literature, Performing Arts, Information and Communication SHS - Department of Humanities and Social Sciences STAPS - Department of physical and sports activities Faculty of Medicine Faculty of Pharmacology Faculties and departments outside of regrouping Institute of Urban Planning and Alpine Geography (IUGA) Grenoble Law School Grenoble Faculty of Economics Sciences Po Grenoble - Grenoble Institute of Political Studies ENSAG - Grenoble School of Architecture University Institutes of Technology IUT Grenoble 1 - University Institutes of Technology 1 IUT Grenoble 2 - University Institutes of Technology 2 IUT de Valence - Valence University Institutes of Technology Transverse structures DSDA - Drôme Ardèche Department of Sciences CUEF - University Centre for French Studies INSPE - Institute of Education and Teaching SDL - Languages Office Doctoral College Research Covering all disciplinary fields, the Université Grenoble Alpes has 106 research departments spread out in six centres bringing together different types of organizations (joint research departments, host teams, platforms, etc.) in the same scientific field. Humanities and Social Science Centre (Pôle SHS) Chemistry, Biology and Health Centre (Pôle CBS) Mathematics, Information and Communication Sciences and Technologies Centre (Pôle MSTIC) Particle Physics, Astrophysics, Geosciences, the Environment and Ecology Centre (Pôle PAGE) Physics, Engineering and Materials Centre (Pôle PEM) Social Sciences Centre (Pôle SS) Multiple research labs are attached to the university. University Grenoble Alpes, though Grenoble INP, cofounded Minatec, an international center on micro-nano technologies, uniting over 3000 researchers and 1200 students. The university hosts one of 4 French national Institutes of Artificial Intelligence. PhD training is administered and governed by the Doctoral College, which creates rules and standards for UGA's 13 doctoral schools. Notable people UGA has a considerable number of notable alumni in several different fields, ranging from academics to political leaders, executives, and artists. Politics Many European politicians have studied law, economics, and languages at UGA, including: Reinhold Maier, Helene Weber, Walther Schreiber, Michel Destot, Louis Besson, Bernard Accoyer, Marlène Schiappa, Thierry Repentin, André Vallini and Geoffrey Acland. Other political leaders include: Gaétan Barrette, Minister of Health and Social Services of Canada; Paul Kaba Thieba, Prime Minister of Burkina Faso; Abderrahmane Benkhalfa, Minister of Finance of Algeria; Hazem El Beblawi, Prime Minister of Egypt; Richard E. Hoagland, US Ambassador; Abdoulaye Wade, President of Senegal; Driss Basri, Interior Minister of Morocco; Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah, Ambassador for Mauritania; Şenkal Atasagun, Chief of the National Intelligence Organization of Turkey; Ignas Jonynas, Lithuanian diplomat; Bill Morneau, Canadian Minister of Finance; Souvanna Phouma, Prime Minister of Laos; Ali Al Shami, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Lebanon; Fathallah Sijilmassi, Moroccan politician and economist; Mohammed al-Dairi Minister of Foreign Affairs of Libya. UGA alumni also include American journalist Warren D. Leary, French journalists Éric Conan, Olivier Galzi, Mélissa Theuriau Françoise Joly, Laurent Mauduit, Marc Dugain, Philippe Robinet, Caroline Roux, British Joanna Gosling and Safia Shah, and German Jona von Ustinov, who worked for MI5 during the time of the Nazi regime. Among social activists who attended UGA, one could find Léo-Paul Lauzon, Léa Roback, Austin Mardon, and the former CEO of the Chicago Urban League James Compton. Mathematics and sciences Numerous prominent scientists have studied at the Université Grenoble Alpes since the development of the hydro-power in the region in 1880s. Prominent fields include physics, material sciences, and computer sciences with alumni like Yves Bréchet, member of the French Academy of Sciences; Rajaâ Cherkaoui El Moursli, who worked on the Higgs Boson discovery; Patrick Cousot, French computer scientist; Joseph Sifakis, Turing Award laureate; Claude Boutron, French glaciologist; Jean-Louis Coatrieux, French researcher in medical imaging; Michel Cosnard, French computer scientist; Paul Trendelenburg, German pharmacologist; Yousef Saad, computer scientist; Gérard Mourou Nobel Prize laureate, Maurice Nivat, Catherine Ritz, French Antarctic researcher; Eric Goles, Chilean mathematician; Pierre Colmez, French mathematician; René Alphonse Higonnet, French engineer; Marlon Dumas, Honduran computer scientist; Claire Berger, French physicist and Michel Campillo, French seismologist. References External links 01 Universities and colleges in Grenoble Public universities in France Science and technology in Grenoble 1339 establishments in Europe 1330s establishments in France Educational institutions established in the 14th century
4866122	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic%20scarf%20controversy%20in%20France	Islamic scarf controversy in France	In France, there is an ongoing social, political, and legal debate concerning the wearing of the hijab and other forms of Islamic coverings in public. The cultural framework of the controversy can be traced to France's history of colonization in North Africa, but escalated into a significant public debate in 1989 when three girls were suspended from school for refusing to remove their headscarves. That incident, referred to in France as l'affaire du foulard (the scarf affair) or l'affaire du voile (the veil affair), initially focused the controversy on the wearing of the hijab in French public schools. Because of the wide-ranging social debates caused by the controversy, l'affaire du foulard has been compared to the Dreyfus affair in its impact on French culture. Since 1989, the debate has grown to include the wearing of Islamic coverings on public beaches, when playing sports, and by politicians. The larger debate involves the concept of laïcité (secularism), the place of Muslim women in French society, differences between Islamic doctrine and Islamic tradition, the conflict between communitarianism and the French policy of minority assimilation, discussions of the "Islamist threat" to French society, and Islamophobia. According to several researchers, the 2004 headscarf ban "reduces the secondary educational attainment of Muslim girls and affects their trajectory in the labor market and family composition in the long run." History The initial affaire du foulard was sparked on 18 September 1989 when three female Moroccan students were suspended for refusing to remove their head scarves in class at Collège Gabriel Havez (a middle school) in Creil. The students reached an agreement with the school on 9 October 1989, under which they wore the headscarves on school grounds but removed them once they entered their classrooms. On 10 October 1989, the girls again refused to take off their scarves when in class. The girls' actions received more and more press coverage, and Muslim advocacy organizations became involved. In November 1989, the Conseil d'État ruled that the scarf's quasi-religious expression was compatible with the laïcité of public schools, as secularism statutes applied to the schools themselves, not the pupils. That December, minister of education Lionel Jospin issued a statement declaring that educators were responsible for allowing or banning the wearing of the scarf in classes on a case-by-case basis. In September 1994, a new memorandum, the "François Bayrou memo", was issued, delineating the difference between "discreet" religious symbols able to be brought into classrooms, and "ostentatious" religious symbols (including the hijab), which were to be forbidden in public establishments. In October of that year, students at Lycée Saint-Exupéry (a high school) in Mantes-la-Jolie organized a protest in favor of the right to wear the veil in classrooms. In November, 24 veiled students were suspended from the same high school as well as from Lycée Faidherbe in Lille. Between 1994 and 2003, around 100 female students were suspended or expelled from middle and high schools for wearing the scarf in class. In nearly half of these cases, their exclusions were annulled by the French courts. Scholars have drawn connections between France's regulations on headscarves and historical colonialism, as well as France's difficulties in assimilating the Muslim population into society. Joan Scott argued that right-wing parties (including Jean-Marie Le Pen's National Front) used the controversies to conflate North African immigrants with Islamic fundamentalism. Political and cultural context Political positions The most debated point is whether or not students have the right to wear the scarf in classes in public establishments such as primary and secondary schools, as well as universities. Meanwhile, the controversy has contributed to discussions of the principle of secularism, which is the foundation of the 1905 law of separation of church and state in France. The two principal positions that have emerged are: A complete preservation of the "principle of secularism" as an element of freedom. This is the position taken most notably by Jacques Chirac as well as by certain leftists such as Jean-Pierre Chevènement. An abandonment of the principle of secularity for the benefit of total religious freedom, and for the recognition of religious communities. This Anglo-Saxon-based community model was defended most notably by Nicolas Sarkozy, as well as some leftists and certain Greens. This debate has thus contributed in blurring the limits between the left and right on the traditional spectrum in France, and has revealed divergences on new political levels, especially between "republicans" (proponents of intervention by the secular Republic) and "liberals" (in an older sense of the French term referring to those who support the liberties of the individual). Muslim tradition The tradition of the headscarf itself has been in existence since before the advent of Islam, and depictions of Mary, mother of Jesus, show her wearing a hair covering. In Orthodox Judaism, many married women cover their hair with a form of headscarf, called a "tichel". The importance assigned to head covering varies, from that of colorful head scarves that do not conceal much hair in sub-Saharan Africa, to head scarves that cover the hair and neck to the extent that it should cover all hair, as worn in much of the world, to clothes that cover parts of the face (Yemen), and in Saudi Arabia, the entire body, must be covered by the veil (burqa), as is the case in some areas of Pakistan. In most Muslim societies, this obligation is not enforced by law. In Egypt and Turkey, for example, wearing the scarf is controversially forbidden in certain professional contexts. Motivations of French Muslims who wear the scarf The wearing of the scarf or hijab in France, and in the main countries of origin of French Muslims (Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Turkey), is a relatively recent phenomenon which has been coined "the new veiling" by A.E. MacLeod. France-centered arguments were voiced at the time of this controversy in order to justify students' wearing of the scarf in public schools: "Respectability" and "discretion." News, movies, and music aimed at young men often contain stereotypical "easy girl" characters who are sexually taken at will and who are always un-scarfed. This leads many to entertain the idea that women who show their hair are not respectable and are offered (or are offering themselves) sexually to everyone. More generally, advertising and the media present a standard model of how Western women may be assumed to be. This vision of Western women offered by media may lead French Muslim women to wear the veil to affirm their respectability and gain independence from their families who might otherwise be hesitant to allow them that freedom. Some veiled women, while very independent, are using the traditional argument for discretion in order to insist on their right to wear the veil at school. Muslim identity in the face of what is considered French bigotry against Muslims. Wearing the scarf is also a way for French Muslim women to guard their identity. Avoidance of violence in poor neighborhoods, where unveiled women are not safe since they may be targeted for attack by Islamic morality patrols (a concept of the Wahhabi school of thought, a minority which is criticized by other schools of Islam). According to a 2008 study by Stephen Croucher in the Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, "Muslims deem the Islamic veil or hijab to be a fundamental part of their identity." Muslims believe that the hijab or veil is symbol of Islam that should not fall under the French idea of secularism. Thus, many French-Muslims claimed that the law banning the veil in public schools was aimed at "forcefully integrating" the Muslim population by restricting their identity. There also exists a notable minority of French non-Muslims who have expressed support for the right to wear the veil in public schools. Motivations of French people opposed to allowing hijabs to be worn in schools Feminist arguments According to some feminist groups, as well as some human rights advocacy groups, wearing the scarf can symbolize a woman's submission to men. It is feared that permitting the veil in schools risks opening the door to other practices that exist in the Muslim world. It is often speculated that forbidding the hijab would limit freedom. Rather, the argument put forward by some feminists is that the hijab is not a free choice, but a result of social pressures (i.e., if a law does not forbid the practice of wearing the hijab, social pressure may render it obligatory). These arguments are shared by some Islamic feminists. Thus, Fadela Amara, the former president of the organisation Ni Putes Ni Soumises, stated that: "The veil is the visible symbol of the subjugation of women, and therefore has no place in the mixed, secular spaces of France's public school system." Another francophone Muslim influential for his work on public welfare, , shares the view of these Islamic feminists and similarly expressed support for Tunisia's ban on the veil in public workplaces in those terms: "If today we accept the headscarf, tomorrow we'll accept that women's rights to work and vote and receive an education be banned and they'll be seen as just a tool for reproduction and housework." Secularism arguments Certain individuals and associations consider the scarf to be a symbol of belonging to the Muslim community. According to this line of reasoning, women who wear the veil display their religious and community affiliation, which harms the unity and secularism of the French Republic. The position of the French government is that secularism in schools is incompatible with wearing ostentatious religious articles, whatever they be. However, in December 2003, President Chirac extended this policy for all public secondary education establishments, risking fanning the tensions between communities within the multicultural French society. France is home to both the largest Jewish and Muslim minorities in Western Europe. Educators In the mid-2000s, a majority of French educators opposed the veil in general, and particularly in classes. General public The majority of French people, according to a survey conducted in the last four months of 2003, responded that they would be in favor of a law forbidding the veil in schools. In 2013, 86% of respondents in a poll for i-Télé were in favour of a ban for headscarfs and other religious and political symbols in both public and private institutions for children. The poll was made after the Court of Cassation ruled that a private crèche did not have the right to fire a woman who wore an Islamic headscarf. Motivations of French people who do not oppose the hijab According to the same surveys, more than 30% (about 10% of the population of France is Muslim) of the French do not want a law forbidding the veil in schools. Many individuals and organizations have been opposed to the idea of a law forbidding the veil since it was first proposed. The collective "Les Blédardes" sees the controversy over the veil as a manifestation of colonialist sentiments. In 2003, they demand: "Give the veiled girls back their status as students - democracy and the State of justice will come out of this more mature, just as they matured through the rehabilitation of the Dreyfus Affair." Furthermore, some Islamic feminists have expressed offense at double standards implicit in some (non-Muslim) feminist arguments. Thus, when some feminists began defending the headscarf on the grounds of "tradition", Fadela Amara countered: "It's not tradition, it's archaic! French feminists are totally contradictory. When Algerian women fought against wearing the headscarf in Algeria, French feminists supported them. But when it's some young girl in a French suburb school, they don't. They define liberty and equality according to what colour your skin is. It's nothing more than neocolonialism." Some would argue that the government attempting to protect Muslim women from the supposed repressiveness of the hijab is a form of paternalism. The banning of the hijab can be viewed as just another way of controlling how women dress by a patriarchal society. A third interpretation of the principle of secularity based on its original formulation recalls that, according to the law, "all are equal to show and express their religious opinions in public as well as in private", and that the French state has the responsibility to guarantee access to free, public education to all Frenchmen. Another argument is that making it illegal sends a message that hate crimes may be more tolerable. An obvious concern that arises is what would qualify as an offensive scarf. The Islamic requirement for a 'Hijab' is to cover the hair and neck in combination to not wearing tight fitting clothing. As such, Muslim women could wear a combination of a hat and scarf which would qualify as a 'Hijab' but would not be obviously religious. 2004 French headscarf ban In July 2003, President Jacques Chirac appointed a commission to examine the interaction between secularism and religious symbols in schools. The Commission released its report in December, endorsing a law that would ban "ostentatious" religious symbols, including the Islamic veil, the Jewish kippa, and large Christian crosses. Chirac adopted these findings "in the spirit of secularism", and the law, sometimes referred to as "the veil law", was voted in by the French parliament in March 2004. The law permits discreet signs of faith, such as small crosses, Stars of David, and the palm-shaped amulets representing a hand of Fatima. Application in education In many cases, the exact extent of possible application of the law is hard to ascertain, and has led to further complications: For example, is the law applicable to something other than the Islamic veil which covers the hair, such as a bandana, which does not outwardly indicate religious affiliation? Eventually, the case was settled in court (see below). Would veiled parents be able to enter their children's schools? Former education minister François Fillon has stated that the law does not apply whatsoever to the parents of students. The Mediator of the Republic has agreed with this stance. However, in some cities, such as Montreuil, Seine-Saint-Denis, where integration of large numbers of Muslims is an acute problem, veiled parents are frequently denied entry. In May 2005, the mother of a student was denied permission to run a stand at her son's school festival. After much publicity, the interdiction was lifted. On 14 May 2007, the High authority for the struggle against discrimination and for equality (HALDE) affirmed that veiled parents should be allowed to attend school activities. While the law forbidding the veil applies to students attending publicly funded primary schools and high schools, it does not refer to universities. Applicable legislation grants them freedom of expression as long as public order is preserved. However, veiled students are sometimes denied attendance. In 2019, controversy surrounding the law erupted when a Muslim woman chaperoning her son's school field trip was told to remove her veil, sparking a debate regarding the right of private citizens to wear the scarf while taking part in school activities. Far Right politicians pushed for a ban on the scarf in such situations, citing the fact that students had to adhere to a ban on all religious head-coverings, and thus mothers should abide by the same rules. French Prime Minister Édouard Philippe defended the right of mothers to wear the hijab, claiming that secularism meant defending the religious freedoms of the people. However, French Education Minister Jean-Michel Blanquer, despite acknowledging the right of women to wear as they pleased, expressed his wish that mothers would not wear the hijab on school trips. Others from Emmanuel Macron's centrist party also expressed some support for a ban on the hijab on school trips. Others within the party expressed their opposition to those sentiments. Public personalities also came out against the statements. In an open letter, 90 public personalities signed an open letter calling on Macron to come out in support of Muslim mothers wearing the hijab on school trips. Application in other situations In public hospitals, employees are expected to respect the principle of secularism. In nursing schools, interviews are an official requirement for entry, during which applicants may be asked if they are willing to remove their veil either altogether or for the purpose of wearing a disposable cap, such as those worn in operating rooms. As far as patients are concerned, the rule is to respect religious preferences. Legal challenges Some later court decisions have clarified issues that remained open. These decisions were issued by the highest French administrative court, the Conseil d'Etat, and by the European Court of Human Rights. The Conseil d'État affirmed on 5 December 2007 that the ban also apply to clothing elements that were not inherently religious, but had a religious affiliation because of the behaviour of the student. Through this holding, the court upheld expulsions of students wearing a Sikh Keski and a bandana. On 4 December 2008, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) affirmed the legality of the ban. Although the cases dated prior to the 2004 law, the Court rationale was consistent with the law: the ECHR held that the national authorities were obliged to take great care to ensure that (...) the manifestation by pupils of their religious beliefs on school premises did not take on the nature of an ostentatious act that would constitute a source of pressure and exclusion. In 2012, UN Human Rights Committee has found a violation of ICCPR in case of expulsion of a Sikh from a school based on the 2004 law. Controversies over legal prohibition On 12 August 2016, the mayor of Cannes in southern France banned full-body swimsuits, also called "burkinis", from the beach, arguing that it was considered a symbol of Islamic extremism and might spark tensions. Shortly after, on a Nice beach, four armed police officers forced a Muslim woman to take off her burkini. A photo of the incident spread quickly and led to criticism of the ban. The woman was fined 38 euro for wearing the burkini, and four other women were fined 38 euros for wearing their burkinis on the beach in Cannes. On 25 August 2016, the Human Rights League and anti-Islamophobia groups described the ban as a dangerous and illegal threat on basic freedoms, particularly freedom of belief and religion. The UN, Spain, Italy, Germany, and Canada have criticised and ruled out France's ban on the burkini, claiming it is a very clear violation of human rights, and it does not respect Muslim women's dignity or modesty. At least two other cities in France followed with similar bans, and one of these laws was appealed to the Conseil d’Etat, who overturned the bans. Immediately after, the burkini ban in Cannes was overturned by a court in Nice. Alma and Lila Lévy Alma and Lila Lévy are sisters who rose to fame at the centre of the French controversy over the veil in 2003 when they were expelled from school. The controversial expulsion of the Lévy sisters from Lycée Henri-Wallon, in the suburb of Aubervilliers of Paris, ignited an international debate. The Lévy sisters were expelled for wearing the hijab. The girls' father, Laurent Lévy, a Jewish French lawyer, was quick to point out the antisemitic furore regarding the media's focus on his ethnicity, "I am Jewish by Vichy rules." In an interview with the BBC, he explained that his ex-wife, his daughters' mother, is a Muslim from Kabyle, Algeria. The sisters wrote a book about their experience. Athletics Although FIFA allows women to play in hijab, the French Football Federation has banned women from wearing hijab in competitive matches. In 2022 the French Senate passed a law that would have codified this ban, although it failed in the National Assembly. Les Hijabeuses, a collective of Muslim soccer players, protested the bill and are now challenging the FFF ban. Practical consequences The veil controversy and its legislative consequences have revealed problems associated with the practice of the Islamic faith insofar as religion in French society and institutions (as opposed to the problems of integration of individuals). Partially fueled by the fear of a "communitarization" or "Islamization" of French society, the controversy has also fed off fears in certain sections of the Muslim community in France of "forced assimilation" and a slippery slope that would seek to ban more and more expressions of the Muslim faith. The controversy has also, however, brought the issue of the place of Islam in French society to the forefront of debate. The veil controversy has been used opportunely to promote the expression of a French form of Islam, distinct from the Islam in the French Muslims' countries of origin. The presence of Muslim Frenchwomen wearing tricolour veils and shouting, "I am French!" in protests in Paris against the law forbidding the veil is one example thereof. A survey conducted by the French polling organization CSA in January 2004, revealed that more than 90% of French Muslims claim to subscribe to culturally French principles such as the importance of the Republic and equal rights among men and women. The figure falls to 68% for respondents who believe in the separation of church and state. In contrast, a majority (50–60%) of those surveyed responded unfavorably to the law of laïcité, and would prefer to see their wife or daughter free to wear the veil. In 2004, a year after the law was voted in, one organization opposed to it, called the "Committee of the 15th of March and Liberty", published a report on the law's effects. The report cites the files of 806 students affected by the law. Of the 806 students, 533 have accepted the law and no longer wear their veils in class. The report also gives an assessment of students who have left the French school system because of this issue. Among them, 67 have pursued their studies abroad. Another 73 of those 806 suspended or expelled from schools over the veil have chosen to take government-run correspondence courses in order to finish their studies. The number of those who have chosen to study via other, non-government forms of correspondence schools is unknown. The opening of the 2005 school year passed largely without incident, and opposition to the law seems to have given way to broader public opinion. However, the actual number of those who no longer attend French junior high and high schools over their veils is unknown. Banning of full face covering in public In 2010, a public debate arose and France passed a law that bans the wearing of full-face covering, including but not limited to burqas and niqābs, in public. The law was constitutionally cleared so that it came into force in April 2011. That debate and ban are separate from the above-discussed debate on the hijab in public schools, in that the new law does not pertain to Islamic scarves but rather to the much rarer full-face versions, as well as other full-face coverings (such as masks and balaclavas), and in that the new law applies to all citizens in public spaces regardless of religion or claimed tradition (and regardless of gender). See also Anti-mask laws British debate over veils French ban on face covering French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools Ni Putes Ni Soumises Islamic dress in Europe References External links Reflections on laïcité Islam and laïcité Reflections of a French citizen on the application of the law of laïcité Press review on the veil in schools, on an atheist website Associations opposed to the veil Sisyphus Associations opposed to religious signs in French public schools League for Human Rights and the Rights of the Citizenry Left Presentations of Laurent Fabius and Jean Glavany in the National Assembly Presentation of Marie Georges Buffet in the National Assembly "Integration" of Muslims in other countries Islam in the UK Advice from the Human Rights Commission in Québec on the Muslim veil in public schools Independent voices Burka Ban in France: The New Fashion in Civil Rights by Ian Buruma 1989 controversies 1989 in France 1989 in Islam Islamic clothing controversy in France
4866655	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Clapton	Richard Clapton	Richard Clapton (born 18 May 1948) is an Australian singer-songwriter-guitarist and producer. His solo top 20 hits on the Kent Music Report Singles Chart are "Girls on the Avenue" (1975) and "I Am an Island" (1982). He reached the top 20 on the related albums chart with Goodbye Tiger (1977), Hearts on the Nightline (1979), The Great Escape (1982) and The Very Best of Richard Clapton (1982). Clapton's highest-charting album, Music Is Love (1966–1970) (April 2021), peaked at number 3 on the ARIA Chart. As a producer he worked on the second INXS album, Underneath the Colours (1981). In 1983, he briefly joined the Party Boys for a tour of eastern Australia and their live album, Greatest Hits (Of Other People) (1983), before resuming his solo career. Australian rock music historian Ian McFarlane described Clapton as "one of the most important Australian songwriters of the 1970s." On 12 October 1999, Clapton was inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) hall of fame. In August 2014 he published his memoirs, The Best Years of Our Lives. Career Early years Richard Clapton was born on 18 May 1948, however his birth name is elusive. When the artist changed his birth name in the mid-1960s, he used the last names of two of his music heroes, Keith Richards and Eric Clapton. Speculation over his age has varied: an article in Who magazine (1996) gives his birth year as 1951, while Ian McFarlane's Encyclopedia of Australian Rock and Pop (1999) has 1949. In a 2002 interview with The Ages Warwick McFadyen, he described himself as being 50-something. Clapton's mother was a night nurse at a Sydney hospital and his Australian-Chinese father was a doctor—they had a volatile relationship and divorced when Clapton was two years old. During his childhood, Clapton had no contact with his father and lived with his mother, who had mental health problems. She would periodically place him in care until she committed suicide when he was aged ten. Clapton met his father at her funeral and was subsequently enrolled in a Sydney boarding school, Trinity Grammar, at Summer Hill. As an adolescent he listened to the Rolling Stones and Bob Dylan, and was given his first electric guitar by a school friend's father. He cites Richard Wherrett—his house master and English teacher at Trinity who later became a theatre director—as an early mentor. In 1965, Clapton formed Darktown Strutters with Ross Andreasen, Mick Bradley, Will Fowler, Dennis Hunter, Ross Lamonde and Ian Peepman. He left school in his final year without completing his mathematics examination. He played guitar while training as a commercial artist in the 1960s. He raised enough money to board ship, in late 1967, to London where he played with three locals in a pre-punk group. This was followed by a group with four North Americans who were raided by the police for marijuana importing. His visa had expired and he moved to Germany, where he played in a band, Bitch; he worked solo in folk clubs and on streets busking. Clapton, as guitarist and vocalist, was a member of Sopwith Camel (not the United States band of same name), with Burghard Rausch on drums and Michael Günther on bass guitar (both members of krautrock group Agitation Free). Clapton emerged in the early 1970s as a singer-songwriter in the "troubadour" style of Neil Young and Jackson Browne. 1972–74: Debut album: Prussian Blue In March 1972, Clapton returned to Australia from Rotterdam via SS Orcades. He signed a publishing deal with Essex Music and a recording deal with Infinity Records, a subsidiary of Festival Records. His debut single, "Last Train to Marseilles", was released in October of that year. Clapton was backed by Red McKelvie on guitar (ex-the Flying Circus), Kenny Kitching on pedal steel, John Capek on piano (ex-Carson) with John Bois on bass guitar and Tony Bolton on drums, both from Country Radio (see Greg Quill). At the end of the year he briefly joined a jazz-rock group, Sun, for six weeks into early 1973—he replaced their previous lead singer, Renée Geyer. Clapton's debut solo album, Prussian Blue, appeared in November 1973—it included "Last Train to Marseilles" from a year earlier—and was produced by Richard Batchens (Blackfeather, Sherbet). Two more singles were issued, "All the Prodigal Children" in October and "I Wanna Be a Survivor" in July 1974. On "Hardly Know Myself" and "I Wanna Be a Survivor" Clapton was backed by the La De Das, with other tracks variously featuring McKelvie, Glenn Cardier on guitar, Russell Dunlop on drums, Mike Perjanik on organ, Trevor Wilson and Mike Lawler on bass guitar and Ian Bloxham on percussion. According to rock historian Noel McGrath, the album suffered from lack of radio exposure—Australian commercial pop radio was overtaken by a local version of the Drake-Chenault "More Music" format—with a drastically restricted play list shutting out many Australian performers. Garry Raffaele of The Canberra Times observed, "[he] sounds as though he's involved with the real issues of our time—pollution, man's inhumanity to those who share Spaceship Earth with him, communication difficulties. He writes of these things but his words are not likely to convince anybody. It's the simplistic trap again." Due to grass-roots support, Prussian Blue sold steadily and four years later it was still selling 200–500 copies per week. Critics praised the album, which contained songs written while in Europe and Festival kept him on their books. He described the title track in Rolling Stone Australia as "the only song I ever contrived" and "came about when I was going through my 'wanna-write-me-a-masterpiece' stage, which everyone goes through". It took, "six weeks getting all the right clever rhymes and all". 1975–77: Girls on the Avenue to Main Street Jive Clapton's commercial breakthrough came with his single, "Girls on the Avenue", issued in January 1975. Although Festival had little faith in the song—initially releasing it as the B-side of "Travelling Down the Castlereagh"—it was picked up by radio and reached No. 4 on the Australian Kent Music Report Singles Chart in March. According to Clapton:"Not only did I not feel that 'Girls on the Avenue' was the perfect song, but Festival Records rejected that song six times. They'd say to me, 'What's the chorus, is it "Don't you slip" or "Friday night ..."?' I don't know! Why does a song have to have a hook or a chorus? You either like the song or you don't!" The song was written about his observations of women from and around the Avenue, Rose Bay, although it was seen as a paean to prostitutes by the record label, radio commentators and the prostitutes themselves. According to Clapton, it took half an hour to write. He said the only real money he ever made out of "Girls on the Avenue" was when it became available "on one of those bargain Explosive Hits (compilations) and they sell about 400,000 each time". According to him, in 1976 there were three cover versions of it: one by Mike McGear, another by ex-Fairport Convention member Trevor Lucas and an obscure Greek version. The album Girls on the Avenue, also produced by Batchens, appeared in April 1975. For touring and session work he formed the Richard Clapton Band with John Carr on guitar, Ken Firth on bass guitar, Ace Follington on drums, McKelvie on guitar and Tony Slavich on keyboards. The album cover depicted Clapton with three women—one was a prostitute. Other tracks dealt with similar themes to his debut album. Because of the commercial nature of the song, he was accused of selling out by deliberately writing a commercial song, a claim he refuted. A second single, "Down the Road", was released in June but did not chart. Clapton moved to Melbourne to write new material for his third album, Main Street Jive, which released in July 1976, again produced by Batchens. He contributed six tracks to the film soundtrack for Highway One (1976). It provided the single, "Capricorn Dancer", which reached No. 40 in early 1977 and remains a concert staple. Other contributors to the soundtrack, produced and engineered by Batchens, were the Dingoes, Bilgola Bop Band, Skyhooks and Ol' 55 with one track each. Clapton toured Europe at the end of 1976 with his band including Slavich, Michael Hegerty on bass guitar (ex-Stars), Kirk Lorange on lead guitar and Jim Penson on drums (ex-Blackfeather). 1977–79: Goodbye Tiger The song, "Goodbye Tiger", was written after Clapton and his friend were in Sydney to see Hunter S. Thompson. The singer-songwriter was referred to as "Tiger" by "[his] 'beat poet' buddies." They got drunk and the binge continued as he got on a flight to Germany before crashing out at a friend's place in Frankfurt. Clapton described how it was the only time he had ever written a song and not gone back to change something, "It seemed like it had been the end of our innocence or something." He was later snowed in at a resort in Denmark. He said there was a blizzard and they were trapped, "but we had enough beer so it didn't really matter". It was there he wrote the bulk of what became his fourth studio album, Goodbye Tiger. It was released in August 1977 and was acclaimed by McFarlane as "his most celebrated work, an album full of rich, melodic and accessible rock with a distinctly Australian flavour. It established Clapton's reputation as one of the most important Australian songwriters of the 1970s." It reached No. 11 on the albums chart in November 1977. It was the final album he recorded for Infinity Records and produced by Batchens. Many Clapton fans regard the melancholic record as his masterpiece: it included two of his popular tracks, the anthem, "Deep Water", which reached No. 43 in November and "Down in the Lucky Country" released in January 1978. His backing band for Goodybe Tiger was: Hegerty, Lorange, Gunther Gorman on guitar, Diane McLennan on backing vocals, Cleis Pearce on viola (ex-MacKenzie Theory) and Greg Sheehan on drums (ex-Blackfeather, MacKenzie Theory). Additional musicians included Tony Ansell on keyboards, Tony Buchanan on saxophone and Penson. Australian rock music historian, Chris Spencer, cites the album as one of his favourites, "[It] represents one of the pinnacles of Australian rock music. Clapton, essentially a singer-songwriter, working within the security of numerous band line-ups, wrote his best lyrics on this album. He never reached the same heights again, particularly with his melodies, visions and observations of urban Australia." Clapton said working on the album was the worst year of his life, "but I guess that's the record I will always be remembered for." During 1978 he toured nationally with Ansell, Hegerty, Lorange, McLennan and Sheehan. Late in that year he travelled to Los Angeles to record his fifth studio album, Hearts on the Nightline. Released in April 1979, it was produced by Dallas Smith for the Interfusion label on Festival. The album peaked at No. 17 but failed to attract international attention, it was supported by a 75-date national tour. 1980s: Dark Spaces to Glory Road Clapton returned to Sydney in 1980 to record and produce his sixth studio album, Dark Spaces (August 1980). His session musicians included Ansell, Andrew Durant on rhythm guitar (Stars), Clive Harrison on bass guitar (ex-Kush, Avalanche), Mark Moffatt on lead guitar and Kerry Jacobsen on drums (Dragon). It peaked in the top 30 and was dedicated to Durant who had died of cancer in May, before its release. Members of Stars, and various artists including Clapton, performed at the Andrew Durant Memorial Concert in August, which was released as a live double-album in February 1981. During the decade he consolidated his career, working with other artists and as a record producer. In May of that year he produced the third single, "The Loved One", for new wave band, INXS, which was recorded at Studios 301 in Sydney. It was a cover of a 1966 song by the Loved Ones and peaked in the Top 20. In July–August, he produced their second album Underneath the Colours, which reached the Top 20 after its October release. In 1982 Clapton signed with WEA and the Mark Opitz-produced, The Great Escape (March 1982), had contributions from members of Cold Chisel and INXS. The album, which peaked at No. 8 in March, provided three singles. The hard-rocking "I Am an Island", with Cold Chisel's Ian Moss on guitar and Jimmy Barnes on backing vocals, reached the top 20. Two other singles, "Spellbound" (April) and "The Best Years of Our Lives" (September) did not chart in the top 50. In May, WEA released a compilation album, The Very Best of Richard Clapton, which reached No. 18 with The Great Escape still in the top 20. In 1983 Clapton joined the Party Boys, replacing James Reyne (Australian Crawl) on lead vocals, the live album Greatest Hits (Of Other People) and a single, "I Fought the Law"—a cover of the Sonny Curtis song—resulted from an extensive tour of the east coast of Australia. Clapton left that band to re-focus on his solo career and was replaced on vocals by Shirley Strachan (ex-Skyhooks). In September 1984 he released his eighth studio album, Solidarity, on Mushroom Records which was produced by Opitz, Ricky Fataar, Tim Kramer and Moffatt. For the album he used Graham Bidstrup on drums (ex-The Angels, the Party Boys), James Black on keyboards (ex-Mondo Rock), Kevin Borich on guitar (ex-La De Das, the Party Boys), Fataar on drums, Allan Mansfield on keyboards (Dragon), Graham Thompson on bass guitar (ex-Stars), and backing vocals from Mary Bradfield, Venetta Fields and Mark Williams. Clapton and Borich released a duet single, "Spirit of Sydney", in 1986. Clapton rejoined WEA in 1987 for his ninth album, Glory Road, released in October, and its three singles, which were produced by Jon Farriss of INXS as a return favour for the production of Underneath the Colours. A live album, The Best Years of Our Lives was recorded on 16 April 1989 and released in September. His band were Hegerty, Lorange, Moffatt on guitar, Jeff Bartolomei on keyboards, Ben Butler on guitar, and Steve Sowerby on drums. The album peaked in the top 30 on the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Albums Chart. 1990s–2010: Continued success and ARIA Hall of Fame Clapton was without a recording contract from 1989 to 1992 and had four changes of management until he signed with Sony Music/Columbia Records for the release of Distant Thunder in May 1993. It provided four singles and was produced by Clapton. It charted in the top 40 but no single reached the top 50 on ARIA's Singles Chart. His second album for Sony, Angeltown appeared in May 1996 with a single, "Dixieland", in March—neither reached their respective top 50 charts. In October 1999 Clapton released a compilation Richard Clapton – The Definitive Anthology, which peaked in the top 30. The album was released to coincide with his ARIA Hall of Fame induction at the ARIA Music Awards of 1999 alongside Jimmy Little. Clapton was inducted by INXS member, Andrew Farriss, he observed, "That's very apt. Especially since I wrote a really good song with Andrew a few months ago." At the Gimme Ted benefit concert on 9 March 2001 Clapton was backed by surviving members of INXS on four of his songs, Clapton spent four years writing and recording his twelfth studio album, Diamond Mine, at his home studio, a process he described as the most creatively liberating experience of his recording career. It was released in May 2004—eight years after his previous studio album—but did not chart. On his 2006 album, Rewired, also recorded in the home studio, Clapton provided "unplugged" or acoustic versions of his early songs. Clapton had appeared on Countdown—an Australian pop music show on national broadcaster, ABC-TV—during the late 1970s and early 1980s. He toured with other artists in the Countdown Spectacular two series of concerts in Australia between late-August and early-September 2007. He sang three of his songs, including the crowd favourite, "Girls on the Avenue". In 2008 on Australia Day (26 January) Clapton performed at Parliament House, Canberra. To celebrate 35 years of recording, Clapton held a one-off concert at the Sydney State Theatre on 28 June. The event included a line-up of Australian musicians who had played with him including Jon Farriss from INXS. The performance was recorded for a live album, Live at the State Theatre, which was released in October. Clapton showcases his 1977 album, Goodbye Tiger, at that same venue in September 2009. The first concert sold out in less than an hour and a second was added. The entire album was performed as well as an eclectic mix of old and new tracks played in the second set. On the second night Clapton and band were joined by Moss (Cold Chisel) who played a rendition of "I Am an Island". Clapton inducted one of his favourite bands, the Dingoes into the ARIA Hall of Fame on 29 August 2009. Clapton's portrait by Alexander McKenzie was a finalist in 2009 for the Archibald Prize. McKenzie explained his choice of subject, "He's got great a personality and face for painting. He himself admits he's no beauty but he's a lovely man and I've always liked what he does." In October 2010, Goodbye Tiger was listed at No. 15 in the book, 100 Best Australian Albums. 2010–present: Later years In August 2012 Clapton's first studio album in eight years, Harlequin Nights, was issued on his own label and distributed by MGM. He was assisted on the album by Danny Spencer on guitar, who also co-wrote some tracks. The Australians reviewer noted that Clapton "hasn't lost his touch as a songwriter" as the album "veers between the heady optimism of opening track 'Sunny Side Up' and the poignant autumnal reflection of the beautiful 'Blue Skies'" while Clapton is a "troubadour buffeted by uncertain winds and still searching for answers in songs such as the epic 'Vapour Trails' but pushing on regardless in the folksy 'Run Like a River'". In August 2014, a retrospective album titled Best Years 1974–2014: The 40th Anniversary Collection was released and peaked at number 36 on the ARIA Charts. He issued his fifteenth studio album, House of Orange, in April 2016, which was recorded in Nashville with Moffatt co-producing. Brooke Hunter of girl.com.au noticed, "Working with [Moffatt] in the U.S. has put a country – soul twang into [Clapton]'s band that spills out into classics like 'Deep Water", 'The Best Years of Our Lives", 'Goodbye Tiger' and so many other songs that have made [him] a national treasure." In April 2021 Clapton released his 16th studio album, Music Is Love (1966–1970), which was preceded by the lead single, The Lovin' Spoonful's "Summer in the City" (February 2021). All 15 tracks are cover versions of works from the late 1960s – his formative years – and were recorded with Terry Blamey as executive producer for Bloodllines/Mushroom Group labels. Clapton described these songs as being relevant to recent events, "As the world dealt with Trump, COVID-19 and racial unrest." Music Is Love (1966–1970) peaked at number 3 on the ARIA Albums Chart–his highest position. In April 2023, it was announced that Clapton has signed with Concord Music Publishing. Personal life Clapton's mother was a nurse who died when he was ten; his father was a doctor who died in c. 2004. Clapton has pterygiums and his eye surgeon recommended he wear dark glasses. Clapton met Susie, a fashion model, in the mid-1980s. They married and had a set of twins. In March 2008 he appeared on ABC-TV's Talking Heads where he told Peter Thompson about his early life. He described the impact of his mother's erratic lifestyle prior to her suicide when he was ten; he then met his father for the first time and was enrolled in a private boarding school: "My mother was sort of the antithesis of my father, because she had always aspired to... more the Bohemian artistic side of life" and "it was a bit of a shock when my father came to collect me... we just never got on. It was a fiery clash from the very start. My father obviously wanted me to become a doctor or some similar sort of career". Clapton started writing his autobiography in mid-2010, which he hoped would appear later that year. He told Moran of The Sunday Telegraph, "I have no regrets about anything in my life. It has been a very colourful ride. I don't want to homogenise and pasteurise this book because I don't have any regrets about anything I've done in my life". Clapton and Susie were divorced by July 2012. He told Paul Cashmere of Noise11.com, "I went through a really miserable divorce ... I wrote a couple of songs like 'Over the Borderline' which was a last ditch attempt to make amends with my ex-wife. The divorce got very long and drawn out. It went on for about five years which is just absurd". On 1 August 2014 Clapton published his memoirs, The Best Years of Our Lives, via Allen & Unwin. The Observers Tammy Lewis felt, "[it] begins from the late 60s and continues to 1990, as he was forced to keep the word limit down... it continues to touch on intrigue, excitement and some rather PG related stories." James Rose of Daily Review, observed, "He writes vernacular very well. Lot’s of swearing and sexual exploits (mostly others, less his own). For Oz Rock fans, there’s plenty of behind the scenes dirt and goss on big names..." As of November 2018 Clapton's domestic partner is Meegan White. Bibliography Discography Prussian Blue (1973) Girls on the Avenue (1975) Main Street Jive (1976) Goodbye Tiger (1977) Hearts on the Nightline (1979) Dark Spaces (1980) The Great Escape (1982) Solidarity (1984) Glory Road (1987) Distant Thunder (1993) Angeltown (1996) Diamond Mine (2004) Rewired (2006) Harlequin Nights (2012) The House of Orange (2016) Music Is Love (1966–1970) (2021) Awards and nominations Australian Record Awards \|- \| 1975 \| Girls on the Avenue \| Male Vocal Album \| \|} Australian Songwriter's Hall of Fame The Australian Songwriters Hall of Fame was established in 2004 to honour the lifetime achievements of some of Australia's greatest songwriters. \|- \| 2010 \| himself \| Australian Songwriter's Hall of Fame \| \|} Countdown Australian Music Awards Countdown was an Australian pop music TV series on national broadcaster ABC-TV from 1974 to 1987, it presented music awards from 1979 to 1987, initially in conjunction with magazine TV Week. The TV Week / Countdown Awards were a combination of popular-voted and peer-voted awards. \|- \| 1984 \| himself \| Best Songwriter \| \|- References General Note: Archived [on-line] copy has limited functionality. Specific External links 1948 births Living people ARIA Award winners ARIA Hall of Fame inductees Australian people of Chinese descent The Party Boys members Musicians from Sydney Australian rock guitarists Australian male guitarists Australian male singer-songwriters Australian singer-songwriters
4867434	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Ace%20Lightning%20characters	List of Ace Lightning characters	This articles lists and describes characters from the BBC and Alliance Atlantis-produced children's television series Ace Lightning, which involved characters from a video game materialising in a small American town. The series was told from the point of view of Mark Hollander, a British teenager who is enlisted as the sidekick of superhero of Ace Lightning and do battle against Lord Fear and his minions. The series combined live actors with computer-animated characters. Protagonists The series' protagonists were its principle teenage cast, and a group of superheroes known as the Lightning Knights, who come from the game world the Sixth Dimension. The main character is Mark Hollander, who shares the role of protagonist with Ace Lightning. Teenage Protagonists Mark Hollander (Thomas Wansey): The main protagonist and point of view character, Mark is a 13-year-old British teenager who moves to Conestoga Hill in the United States with his parents. His life is turned upside-down when a bolt of lightning strikes his house, and the characters from his game come to life. He reluctantly agrees to be a sidekick to Ace Lightning, whom he develops a strong, trusting friendship with. Mark wears the central piece of the Amulet of Zoar as a necklace. He juggles the two sides to his life, which has severe effects on his grades and social life. He wants to return to normality, but displays bravery and daring around the villains. He dates Samantha Thompson through half the first season, and then Heather Hoffs, but both break up with him due to his constant excuses when running off to help Ace. In the second season, he falls in love with Kat Adams, but remains on good terms with Samantha. He lacks superpowers, but gains his own arm-mounted gauntlet which can fire out lightning. Chuck Mugel (Marc Minardi): Mark's best friend. An overweight, jovial nerd and avid fan of the game, Chuck has an optimistic view on life and would like to beat the game. He is often bullied by Wayne Fisgus, and has a nasty habit of projectile vomiting. However, he is very intelligent, constructing his own working robot to win a science competition. He dates Wayne's cousin Jessica towards the end of the first season. He becomes Ace's secondary sidekick in the second season, wears glasses, and works as a delivery boy for Rick Hummel. Chuck provides his computer technical skills and knowledge of the game to upgrade Ace and Sparx. Samantha Thompson (Shadia Simmons): Mark's next door neighbour and girlfriend for most of the first season. She is a popular girl in school, is a cheerleader, and dates Brett Ramirez early in the series but breaks up with him to date Mark, though they remain friends. Samantha is a pragmatic, sensible and forward girl who has a determined attitude. She is fascinated Mark's odd behaviour and pursues an answer, though never gets one. They break up after a disguised Lady Illusion ruins their relationship, though by the end of the first season they reunite. However, Samantha goes to a boarding school in the second season and dates a boy named Jeremy. She returns home and supports Mark dating Kat, ending their romance on good terms. Kat Adams (Ashley Leggat): The lead heroine of the second season, Kat replaces Samantha after she moves to a boarding school. Kat moves into town with her parents but is not thrilled to leave the city life and considers running away. She can be moody, brash, and argumentative, but is chatty and inquisitive, pursuing a career as editor of the school newspaper. She strikes up a friendship with Mark, perplexed by his odd behaviour and they eventually start dating. She shows talent in playing basketball and commonly wears flatcaps. She decides to investigate the mysterious events in the carnival, and discovers the existence of Ace and co., taken prisoner by the villains in the finale but is rescued by Mark. Lightning Knights The heroes of the video game, the Lightning Knights are a group of superheroes who guard the Sixth Dimension from evil. The Lightning Knights operate from the Thunder Tower, an unoccupied observatory in Conestoga Hills. They need to constantly recharge their energy using a transformer or will fade away back to the Sixth Dimension. The Lightning Knights search for the Amulet of Zoar's fragments, a triangular-shaped magic artefact which can open portals and summon characters from the game. (Michael Riley): The titular hero of the series and the main hero of the video game. Ace is 32 years old, and has a courageous and witty demeanour, but is confused by the human world. Early in the series, he often enters Mark's house and destroys appliances after accidentally turning them on. He is able to fly, has superhuman strength, and can project blasts of lightning from the wrist cannons he wears. In combat, he can wield the Lightning Lance, and the Shield of Justice which can absorb an attack and redirect it. In the second season, he gains a new pyrokinetic ability called "Ring of Flame". As the series progresses, he develops more a personality and begins secretly dating Lady Illusion. In the second season, Lady Illusion infects Ace with actual human emotions, destroying his original programming, and making him emotionally unstable. However, he manages to adapt and develops an intuition that Kilobyte is controlled by someone. In the last episode, he discovers that he is from the video game, but Mark brings him around. He and Lord Fear join forces and banish Kilobyte to the Sixth Dimension, only for Lord Fear to mortally wound him. It is revealed that the wounded Ace is Lady Illusion in disguise, the real Ace chasing off Lord Fear. Lady Illusion dies in Ace's arms, with Ace expressing sorrow with a single tear. (Deborah O'Dell): A young, enthusiastic Lightning Knight, Sparx is summoned midway through the first season by Mark, but her arrogant and rude attitude causes him to briefly quit the hero business. Sparx is a very gung-ho hero, often charging into battle without a plan, leading to her defeat and capture. Hot-headed, fearless, but loyal to her friends, Sparx is a skilled gymnast and martial artist. She wields the double-edged Sword of Jacob which can emit pink-coloured lightning, and travels around on the Lightning Flash, an aircraft resembling a jetski. She has an aggressive rivalry with Lady Illusion throughout the series. (Cathal J. Dodd): A 35-year-old cyborg who is Ace's old friend and teammate. Six years prior to the game's storyline, Random was wounded in an accident of some kind that cost him much of his body and damaged his programming. His new body included caterpillar tracks for legs and a large claw in place of his right arm. Random has a split personality with a good and evil side that interswitched, based on the colour of his right eye (red being evil, green being good). His good side fears he will harm his friends, so he hides away in Conestoga Hills' junkyard, while his evil side wants to wipe out everything he considers weak like kindness and heroes. Ace and Lord Fear often vie to recruit him, though he can go so out of control that the two join forces to defeat him. Random was summoned by Dirty Rat using two stolen Amulet pieces. His cybernetic parts allow him superhuman strength and power over machinery. Antagonists The villains of Ace Lightning, referred to as the "Evil Gang" in some materials all originate from the Sixth Dimension, save Kilobyte. Led by Lord Fear, the villains operate in the Carnival of Doom, an eerie amusement park. Their goal is to conquer the world using the Amulet of Zoar, though Lord Fear would prefer to destroy the human world. Unlike the Lightning Knights, the villains are blasted into an item located around the carnival that symbolise them, until they recover and emerge again. In the show, they take over the rundown Kent Bros. Carnival. (Juan Chioran): The main antagonist of the series, Lord Fear is Ace's nemesis. A 352-year-old lich, Lord Fear is an intelligent but temperamental supervillain who wants to take over the world. He is able to extend his neck and arms like a boa constrictor, and is a powerful magician. He was accidentally crippled by Ace years ago, walking with a limp, and he uses his minion Staff Head as a walking stick and weapon. In his spare time, he plays a pipe organ in the carnival's haunted house and miniature golf. He has a romantic relationship with Lady Illusion, referring to her as "snookums", but she has an affair with Ace that is exposed at the end of the first season. He is defeated after Mark breaks the Amulet, but returns in the second season where his position of power is usurped by Kilobyte. He torments Lady Illusion throughout the season. Kilobyte gives Lord Fear a mode of transport called the Doom Wagon, a motorcycle-hovercraft with a chainsaw mounted on the hood. In the series finale, he joins forces with Ace to defeat Kilobyte but turns against him, mortally wounding Lady Illusion before going on the run. Staff Head (Michael Lamport): Lord's Fear loyal minion, Staff Head is a frog-like gargoyle who sits on the end of a bone-shaped stick holding a crystal ball than can shoot energy blasts. He received a character redesign in the second season, becoming an actual frog. He speaks with a Cockney accent, and has a snobbish, cruel personality. He learns of Lady Illusion's relationship with Ace and blackmails her to serve Lord Fear in exchange for his silence. (Ted Atherton): The main antagonist of the second season, Kilobyte is known as the Cyber Stalker, and was created by Rick Hummel to defeat Ace and prove his genius. Kilobyte is a bald, tattooed man who can extend four octopus tentacles from his back, which can absorb another character's energy or even upgrade them with new powers as he does with Lady Illusion, giving her the ability to infect Ace with human emotions. He has a cold, grim mind who thinks like a hunter and plots to destroy Ace slowly and painfully. He materializes from the carnival's ferris wheel. Needing a mode of transport, Kilobyte allows a wasp to sting him and take on his powers, causing it to mutate into a giant which Kilobyte can fly on. Kilobyte names it Fred, and is the only character he shows genuine affection for. Kilobtye is eventually freed of Rick's control, and plots to remove humanity from the world and trap them in the game. Ace and Lord Fear join forces and blast Kilobyte into the Sixth Dimension, where he plots to use the imprisoned Rick to escape and return to the real world. (Tamara Bernier Evans): Lady Illusion is introduced as Lord Fear's evil partner and lover. A green-skinned, elf-like woman with an actual spider for hair, she is able to shapeshift into any person or animal. She can also teleport, create bombs resembling crystal balls, and has spider-like agility and reflexes. At first she is obedient and quiet, but quickly grows to hate Earth and strikes out on her own. She is found by Ace, and they quickly fall in love, keeping their relationship a secret with only Mark knowing. Staff Head witnesses Lady Illusion kissing Ace, and blackmails her into stealing Mark's Amulet pieces. She ultimately betrays Lord Fear for Ace in the season one finale. In the second season, she is left behind by Ace when he returns to game, leading her to believe he has abandoned her, so she returns to Lord Fear and steals the Amulet pieces from Mark's house, disguised as a housekeeper named Felicity Fury. Kilobyte gives her the ability to infect Ace with human emotions, which she later comes to regret. Her loyalties are tested throughout the season, until she disguises herself as Ace in the finale and is mortally wounded by Lord Fear after defeating Kilobyte, dying in Ace's arms. Anvil (Howard Jerome): The muscle of the group, Anvil is an anthropomorphic rhinoceros dressed in medieval-styled clothes and has a large anvil in place of a right hand. Anvil speaks in third person, is not very intelligent, and has a short temper. He possesses superhuman strength and is on par with Ace when it comes to physical power. However, he is afraid of the dark and becomes cowardly. He is often seen in the company of Pigface. Anvil materializes from the carnival's high striker game. Pigface (Keith Knight): A grotesque anthropomorphic boar or warthog, Pigface is 12 years old and a common enemy of Ace. He is able to devour anything, and despite his weight, is fast and strong. He gains an ability to fire a spray of snot from his nose in the second season. Pigface is childlike, unintelligent, and is often seen eating anything he can, usually from the carnival's trash cans. He is sensitive to Ace's wisecracks, and often the first to attack and be defeated. Pigface materializes from a trash can in the carnival. Dirty Rat (Adrian Truss): A winged rat dressed as a clown, Dirty Rat acts as Lord Fear's spy, and is the most recurring antagonist after Lord Fear. Sneaky and deceptive, Dirty Rat enjoys spying on others, but is cowardly by nature, hiding behind other antagonists during battles or avoiding conflict all together. Along with flight, he has enhanced senses of smell and hearing, and can create bombs identical to Lady Illusion's. He materializes from a gargoyle that sits outside the haunted house. He strikes up a friendship with Duff Kent, and enjoys Earth's technology. Lord Fear often abuses him, to the point he starts a rebellion against him after he obtains the last piece of the Amulet, but rejoins Lord Fear when he obtains the other fragments. He becomes Kilobyte's minion, but is abused by him as well. In the finale, Dirty Rat flees the carnival with Lord Fear after Kilobyte's defeat. (Richard Binsley): A 33-year-old insane, maniacal jester, Googler is summoned by Lord Fear after obtaining an Amulet fragment in the first season's seventh episode "Only Human". Imprisoned in a place called White Hot Oblivion by Ace, Googler seeks revenge against Ace. He speaks in third person and creates his own vocabulary of words like "googlerize" (an alternate use of "pulverise"). He wears a spiked shell on his back, which he can curl into, turning him into a dangerous, fast-moving bouncing ball. Googler wears two talking sock puppets named Zip and Snip (voiced by the series' character designer Matt Ficner), who are able to fly, can chew through any surface, absorb powers, and zombify Ace in one episode. Googler materializes from the carnival's puppet show theatre. Rotgut (Robert Tinkler): An undead but stereotypical cowboy introduced in the second season, Rotgut is a fairly useless and clumsy villain. His body parts often fall off, forcing Rotgut to crawl around after them. He speaks with a Southern accent, and has a sensitive nature, preferring to be called the "walking dead" rather than a zombie. He materializes from the carnival's miniature golf course. Rotgut develops a one-sided friendship with Chuck, and stalks him so he can turn him into a zombie. Rotgut shows an ability to possess people, hijacking Chuck's body, forcing Mark to babysit him until he is removed. He becomes friends with Dirty Rat and Duff. Duff Kent (Philip Williams): The owner of the Kent Bros. Carnival, Duff becomes a slave of Lord Fear after they invade the funfair. He tolerates Lord Fear's presence, often grovelling in front of him for his own safety, and only wants to run his business normally. He forms a close friendship with Dirty Rat, bonding over their misery in life and desire to make money. Duff drives an ice cream truck called the "Dairy Wagon", which the villains use for transport. Duff rebels against Lord Fear in the season one finale, aiding in the fight against him, but ends up working with him again in the second season, though on a more even level. He refers to the game characters as cartoons. Giant George Wayne: A large cowboy-like golem who appears in the series' tie-in video game and the second season. In the series, Sparx encounters him when trapped in the game but defeats him with help from Chuck. In the PC and PlayStation 2 version of the game, he acts as part of a boss battle with Dirty Rat. Supporting characters Pete Burgess (Devon Anderson): Mark's best friend who lives in England. They communicate through webcam messages at the start of most episodes, and he is the first person who learns about Ace Lightning after Mark and Duff. Pete often gives advice to Mark regarding his social life and superhero work. He visits Mark in the first season, but is captured by Lord Fear as a hostage, and decides it would be better to remain as a bystander in the characters' conflict. Wayne Fisgus (Jorgan Hughes): A teenager in Mark's class who bullies Chuck. He maintains an intimidating attitude but is easily frightened, wears a baseball cap at all times, and refers to Chuck as "Upchuck" due to his nauseous nature. Wayne's father appears in the first season, being a boastful hunter who exaggerates his adventures in the wild. Wayne often goes looking for Lord Fear, who he refers to as the "Bone Man", and is frightened by him. Jessica Fisgus (Megan Park): Wayne's cousin who debuts near the end of the first season. She and Chuck meet at a school gathering of the Ace Lightning fanclub, revealing they have unknowingly been in contact for months under internet aliases. They start dating in the second season, Jessica wishing for a sturdy relationship and often refer to Chuck by his full name when he does something wrong. She is talented with computers. Brett Ramirez (Brandon Carrera): Samantha's boyfriend in the first season. He is a popular boy in school, on the soccer team, and is implied to come from a rich family. He is shown to be a friendly, understanding guy and listens to Samantha when she expresses her concerns for Mark, even after Samantha and he break up. He dates Heather in the second season, putting up with her snobbish attitude, but eventually breaks up with her due to her vendetta against Mark. Heather Hoffs (Petra Wildgoose): Samantha's best friend. She is a chatty, enthusiastic girl who pursues Mark after Samantha breaks up with him. Heather attends karate lessons, and enjoys martial art films starring Jackie Chan. Heather is not as forgiving towards Mark as Samantha, and dates Brett in the second season. However, she maintains a grudge against Mark, becoming very snobbish and mean until Brett breaks up with her in the season finale. Simon and Fiona Hollander (Ned Vukovic and Susan Danford): Mark's parents who moved from England to America. Simon is an excitable man who is fascinated by America's gadgets but has a habit of damaging them or ruining his wife's garden with them. He works as an accountant. Fiona works as a real estate agent, and is very protective of her garden, believing something in their life should remain British. She is particularly fond of her garden gnomes. Ashley Hollander (Kayla Perlmutter): Mark's young cousin. She learns of Ace's existence early on in the series, promising to keep her discovery a secret. In the second season, she wants to get involved in Mark's adventures but is rejected, but she helps Chuck escape from the game world. Rick Hummel (Brett Heard): A central figure in the second season, Rick Hummel runs a computer repair store in Conestoga Hills and employs Chuck. Rick is actually a programmer on the game who developed an ability to bring the characters to life, only to be mocked and fired from the development company. Beforehand, he programmed the software into one of the game discs, namely the one Mark purchased. He appears in the second season, observing the characters as the Master Programmer, operating from the backroom of his store where he owns a large mainframe that contains the Sixth Dimension. Rick creates Kilobyte after Lord Fear's defeat, intending to use him to defeat Ace and prove to the world of his apparent genius. Mark and Chuck discover Rick's actions, but a blackout causes him to lose control of Kilobyte. Kilobyte then imprisons Rick in the game, where he joins him in the finale, plotting to use him to escape the game world. Mr. Cheseborough (R.D. Reid): Horace Cheseborough is a science teacher who teaches Mark. He is a grouchy man who has little faith in his students, taking pleasure in marking their daily quizzes incorrectly and wears badges flattering himself. He is kidnapped by Lord Fear as part of a plot to defeat Mark, and replaced temporarily by Lady Illusion. He is released but has his memory erased. However, he recalls his imprisonment and becomes convinced he was abducted by aliens. In the second season, he encounters Lord Fear again, who manipulates him into creating a formula that can drain Ace of his powers. Mark convinces him he has been tricked, and they make an agreement that Mark must protect him from the "aliens". Kilobyte captures Mr. Cheseborough and traps him in the game, but Chuck manages to free him. Mr. Cheseborough is so terrified he goes on a panicked rampage around the carnival, and is declared a madman by the authorities. Nettie Kutcher (Diane Douglass): The lunchlady at the middle school, Mrs. Kutcher is very motherly towards Chuck, often creating for him special meals since he is the only one who appreciates her cooking. Coach (David Huband): The unnamed gym teacher and soccer team coach at the middle school. He strives to train his team well, is easily impressed, but a bit bumbling at times. He is a secret fan of Ace Lightning. References Ace Lightning Ace Lighting characters Ace Lightning Ace Lightning
4867788	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th%20New%20York%20Infantry%20Regiment	5th New York Infantry Regiment	The 5th New York Infantry Regiment, also known as Duryée's Zouaves, was a volunteer infantry regiment that served in the U.S. Army during the American Civil War. Modeled, like other Union and Confederate infantry regiments, on the French Zouaves of Crimean War fame, its tactics and uniforms were different from those of the standard infantry. Organization The regiment was formed on April 12, 1861, by a group of military enthusiasts in Manhattan, under authority issued to Col. Abram Duryée, and trained at Fort Schuyler at Throgs Neck, New York Harbor. On Tuesday, April 23, 1861, its companies were mustered into service of the State, and on Thursday, April 25, the State Board confirmed the election of its field officers. The regiment was mustered into Federal service of the United States at Fort Schuyler for a term of two years by Capt. T. Seymour, USA two weeks later on May 9. The next day, Friday, the State Military Board formally accepted the 10th. The majority of the soldiers were educated and above average height. The companies were recruited principally: A and B — New York city and Brooklyn C — New York city, Astoria and Poughkeepsie D — Fifth Ward Volunteers of New York city E — New York city, Brooklyn and Williamsburg F — New York city, Brooklyn, Fordham and Yonkers G — New York city, Brooklyn and New Rochelle H — New York city, Brooklyn, Flushing, Greenpoint, Tarrytown and West Point I — New York city, Brooklyn, Jamaica, Long Neck and Williamsburg, and at Perth Amboy, Plainfield and Orange, N. J. K — New York and Jersey City. On Monday, April 29, 1861, the regiment withdrew 800 Model 1842 Springfield Muskets .69 caliber, smoothbore muskets from state stocks. During training the regiment acquired the following field officers: Colonel Abram Duryée, Lieut. Colonel Gouverneur K. Warren, Major J. Mansfield Davies, Adjutant Joseph E. Hamblin, Quartermaster John H. Wells, Surgeon Rufus H. Gilbert, Assistant Surgeon B. Ellis Martin, and Chaplain Rev. Gordon Winslow. The line officers were elected as well and resulted in the following: Company A — Capt. Harmon Daniel Hull, 1st Lt. William T Partridge, and 2nd Lt. Charles W. Torrey Company B — Capt. Robert S. DuMont, 1st Lt. Gouverneur Carr, and 2nd Lt. Theodore S. DuMont Company C — Capt. Henry G. Davies, 1st Lt. J. Francis Evans, and 2nd Lt. Charles H. Seaman Company D — Capt. James L. Waugh, 1st Lt. Wilbur F. Lewis, and 2nd Lt. John A. Cochrane Company E — Capt. Hiram Duryea, 1st Lt. George Duryea, and 2nd Lt. Henry H. Burnett Company F — Capt. Henry A. Swartwout, 1st Lt. Oliver Wetmore, Jr., and 2nd Lt. Carlile Boyd Company G — Capt. Abraham Denike, 1st Lt. Jacob Duryée, and 2nd Lt. Joseph H. Bradley Company H — Capt. Judson Kilpatrick, 1st Lt. Churchill J. Cambreleng, and 2nd Lt. James Miller Company I — Capt. Charles G. Bartlett, 1st Lt. Joseph S. York, and 2nd Lt. John H. Whitney Company K — Capt. Cleveland Winslow, 1st Lt. Prescoyy Tracey, and 2nd Lt. William H. Hoyt. Service Initial duty On May 24, the regiment boarded a transport to reach the Virginia Peninsula. The regiment camped for a few days near Hampton Bridge, then moved to Camp Butler, Newport News, and was attached to Pierce's brigade. The troops of the 5th led the force at the battle of Big Bethel on Monday, June 10. Captain Judson Kilpatrick took Companies E and H in advance with Colonel Duryée following with the rest the command. The 5th lost 5 killed, 16 wounded (including Kilpatrick) and 2 missing. Immediately after the battle, the regiment began making scouting expeditions. Railroad Security On Friday, July 26, the regiment moved to Baltimore, Maryland, to join Dix's Division which was tasked with protecting the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad in and out of Baltimore from Washington to Philadelphia. The 5th provided security within the city and built and garrisoned an earthen fort at the summit of Federal Hill. On Thursday, August 15, Maj. Davies resigned to take command of the 2nd New York Cavalry, and two days later, Capt. Hiram Duryea of Company was promoted as his replacement. On August 31, Duryée was promoted to general rank, so Gouverneur Kemble Warren took over command of the regiment. Duryea moved up to Lt. Colonel, and on September 3, Hull of Company A replaced Duryea as Major. At Federal Hill, the regiment guarded the railway and the city and continuously drilled. The 5th's duty in Baltimore was marked by occasional clashes with pro-secessionist locals, patrolling the rail lines and yards, and improving the fort on Federal Hill. With the exception of a short expedition to the Eastern Shore of Virginia, the regiment used this garrison time to continue honing its skill at its manual of arms and regimental field movements. For twenty-three days from Wednesday, November 13 to Thursday, December 5, six companies, A, B, C, D, E, F, of the 5th left Baltimore on the steamer Pocahontas. They took part in an expedition south to the Delmarva Peninsula into Accomac and Northampton Counties. The purpose was to reassert state and Federal control over those two counties where there had been reports of secessionist activity. Despite the many Unionists in the two counties, the secessionists, who were in a slight majority in Northampton County had been actively recruiting for the Confederate army and taking reprisals against Unionists. About three thousand militia had gathered to oppose any Federal advance (some were Unionists forced into ranks), and Gen. Dix intended to send a much larger force of 5,000 to intimidate them and give support to the local Unionists. The force landed above the state line on Wednesday, November 13, a proclamation calling on the militia to lay down their arms, promising protection for Unionists, and punishment for continued disloyal activities. On Sunday, November 17, the force crossed into Virginia. Within five days, all armed units melted away, and the 5th's companies and its colleagues in the force spread out to some of the towns to show the flag. The six companies returned to Fort Federal Hill on Thursday, December 5. The 5th remained in garrison over the new year and on Thursday, February 6, it received a garrison flag from an association of ladies of South Baltimore. The locals around the fort had warmed to the 5th and took pride in it. To maintain discipline, punishments in garrison were harsh and in February, six members of the regiment who were chronic violators of army regulations were paraded to the "Rogue's March," and sent off in chains to the Washington Penitentiary and the military prison in the Dry Tortugas. The Peninsula campaign In preparation for his upcoming offensive in the Peninsula campaign to capture Richmond, Virginia, General George McClellan ordered the regiment to join the Army of the Potomac. McClellan said that, upon seeing the colorful New York regiment, "the Fifth is the best disciplined and soldierly regiment in the Army." After a farewell ceremony at the Fort on Friday evening, March 28, the 5th made ready to depart Baltimore. On Monday, March 31, 1862, the 5th sailed out of Baltimore, down the Chesapeake, and landed at Hampton Roads. Upon arrival, they were attached to Sykes’ Infantry (Reserve), Army of the Potomac. At the Battle of Hanover Courthouse on May 27, 1862, the regiment played only a minor role. However, they fought in a more major role in the Battle of Gaines' Mill of the Seven Days Battles. As McClellan moved his base to the James River on June 27, 1862, the regiment fought against Gregg's South Carolina brigade. In a bayonet counterattack, the regiment defeated the initial Rebel attack driving back and routing two of the brigade's regiments. The Virginia campaign In August 1862, the regiment fell under the control of General John Pope. At the Second Battle of Bull Run (also known as the Second Battle of Manassas), the 5th New York Volunteer Infantry regiment was forced to withstand the advancing forces of General James Longstreet. In underestimating the size of the Confederate army, Pope ordered the regiment to support Hazlett's Battery. Longstreet's soldiers easily outnumbered the small regiment, met by the 5th Texas Vol. Of the famous Texas Brigade's who elite soldiers accurate musket volleys quickly inflicted massive casualties in the regiment. In just 10 minutes of fighting, the 5th New York lost 332 men of the approximately 525 engaged. At least 119 of the casualties were killed outright or died of their wounds. The addition of two missing who were never accounted for would bring the death total to 121. It was the greatest battle fatality sustained by any Federal infantry unit in the war. The entire Color Guard was killed, except for one man. The only officer to survive the battle was Captain Cleveland Winslow. The regiment was effectively removed as a combat regiment, never again serving in the battle line. The Maryland, Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville campaigns Later, at the Battle of Antietam, September 17, the unit was held in reserve. On December 15, the unit fought at the Battle of Fredericksburg, covering the Union retreat. At the Battle of Chancellorsville under Joseph Hooker, the unit saw its final combat. It returned to New York on May 8, 1863, and was mustered out on the next day, its three years' men having been transferred to the 146th regiment. During its term of service the Regiment had 2,164 men on its rolls, viz : two years' men, of original organization, 1,026, of whom 260 were with the regiment after the battle at Chancellorsville; recruits and volunteers on reorganization, 1,138, of whom 730 returned, including only about 100 of the original members of 1861. Affiliations, battle honors, detailed service, and casualties Organizational affiliation Attached to: Attached to Pierce's Brigade, Newport News, Va., Dept. of Virginia, to July 1861. Dix's Command, Baltimore, MD, to March 1862. Sykes' Infantry (Reserve), Army of the Potomac, to May, 1862 3rd Brigade, Sykes' 2nd Division, V Corps, Army of the Potomac, to May 1863. List of battles The official list of battles in which the regiment bore a part: Battle of Big Bethel Siege of Yorktown Battle of Hanover Court House Battle of Gaines Mill Battle of Malvern Hill Second Battle of Bull Run Battle of Antietam Battle of Fredericksburg Battle of Chancellorsville Detailed service 1861 Departed New York May 23 Occupation of Newport News May 25-July26 Action at Big Bethel, VA, June 10 Moved to Baltimore, MD, July 26, and duty there till April 11, 1862. Expedition through Accomac and Northampton Counties, Va., November 14–22, 1861 1862 Moved to the Peninsula, Va., April 11, 1862 Siege of Yorktown, Va., April 15-May 4 Reconnaissance to near Hanover Court House May 26 Hanover Court House May 27 Operations about Hanover Court House May 27–29 New Bridge June 5. Operations against Stuart June 13–15 Old Church June 13 Seven days before Richmond June 25-July 1 Battle of Mechanicsville June 26 Battle of Gaines Mill June 27 White Oak Swamp and Turkey Bend June 30. Malvern Hill July 1 Duty at Harrison's Landing till August 15 Movement to Fortress Monroe, thence to Centreville August 15–28 Pope's Campaign in Northern Virginia August 28-September 2 Battle of Bull Run August 30 Maryland Campaign September 6–22 Battle of Antietam September 16–17 Shepherdstown Ford September 20 Duty in Maryland to October 29 Movement to Falmouth, Va., October 29-November 19 Battle of Fredericksburg December 12–15 1863 "Mud March" January 20–24, 1863 At Falmouth till April Chancellorsville Campaign April 27-May 6 Battle of Chancellorsville May 1–5 Mustered out May 14, 1863, expiration of term Recruits assigned to 146th New York Infantry. Total strength and casualties During its service the regiment lost by death, killed in action, 4 officers, 126 enlisted men; of wounds received in action, 2 officers, 47 enlisted men; of disease and other causes, 37 enlisted men; total, 6 officers, 210 enlisted men; aggregate, 216. Commanders Colonel Abram Duryée — May 14 - September 10, 1861 Colonel Gouverneur K. Warren — September 10, 1861 - September 26, 1862 Colonel Hiram Duryea — September 17 - November 30, 1862 Colonel Cleveland Winslow — December 5, 1862 - May 14, 1863 Armament The 5th New York were issued the Model 1842 Springfield Muskets .69 caliber, smoothbore when accepted by the state on Monday, April 29, 1861. At Fortress Monroe, companies E and K exchanged, with the Commissary General, their muskets for Sharps Model 1859 breech-loading rifles (.52 caliber). At some time prior to the Fredericksburg campaign, the regiment exchanged their 1842 Springfield smoothbores for a mix of model 1855, 1861 National Armory (NA) and contract rifle-muskets, a handful of Enfield Rifled Muskets, (.577 caliber, rifled) from stocks already in the State of New York's possession. The regiment reported the following surveys: Fredericksburg A — 35 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.) B — 32 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.); 1 P53 Enfield Rifled Muskets (.58 and .577 Cal.) C — 43 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.) D — 34 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.); 2 P53 Enfield Rifled Muskets (.58 and .577 Cal.) E — 21 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.); 22 Sharps Model 1859 breech-loading rifles, triangular bayonet, (.52 caliber) F — 41 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.) G — 38 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.) H — unreported, probably Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.) I — unreported, probably Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.); probably Sharps Model 1859 breech-loading rifles, triangular bayonet, (.52 caliber) K — unreported, probably Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.) Chancellorsville A — 39 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.) B — 37 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.); 3 P53 Enfield Rifled Muskets (.58 and .577 Cal.) C — 38 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.); 9 P53 Enfield Rifled Muskets (.58 and .577 Cal.) D — 37 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.); 3 P53 Enfield Rifled Muskets (.58 and .577 Cal.) E — 22 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.); 20 Sharps Model 1859 breech-loading rifles, triangular bayonet, (.52 caliber) F — 43 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.); 3 P53 Enfield Rifled Muskets (.58 and .577 Cal.) G — 38 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.) H — 34 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.); 4 P53 Enfield Rifled Muskets (.58 and .577 Cal.) I — 1 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.); 40 Sharps Model 1859 breech-loading rifles, triangular bayonet, (.52 caliber) K — 40 Springfield Rifled Muskets, model 1855, 1861, NA and contract, (.58 Cal.); 3 P53 Enfield Rifled Muskets (.58 and .577 Cal.) Shoulder Arms Uniform Col. Duryée had previously commanded the 7th New York Militia and under his command had earned a national reputation for its drill and uniforms, ergo, he was determined to ensure that his regiment of volunteers would also be very well-trained and equipped. At the outset, he decided to model the regiment's uniforms on the Zouaves of the French army. The enlisted men's uniforms of the 5th New York's were modeled closely on those of French Zouaves: a dark blue Zouave jacket with red trim, a dark blue shirt with red trim, a red Zouave sash with sky blue trim, extremely baggy red pantaloons, a red fez with a yellow tassel, white gaiters and leather jambières ("leggings"). The fezzes were usually worn with the white turban wrapped around them. Officers wore the regulation dark blue frock coat with shoulder straps in infantry blue. They wore large, red trousers with unstriped outseam. Officers wore French-style red kepis with blue bands, and gold lace indicating rank. The 165th New York Volunteer Infantry was regarded as a sister regiment and known as the "Second Battalion, Duryee Zouaves". The 165th wore the same uniform as the 5th with the exception of the tassel of the fez, which was dark blue instead of yellow-gold. Photographic evidence suggests that later in the war the 165th was given replacement sashes that were a solid red color without the light blue trim. Notable personnel Judson Kilpatrick — Captain commanding Company H from May 9 - August 12, 1861 James Webb — Received the Medal of Honor on September 17, 1897, for actions as a Private with Company F during the Second Battle of Bull Run, August 30, 1862. Legacy Colonel Cleveland Winslow of the 5th organized the 5th New York Veteran Volunteer Infantry after the original 5th mustered out. After a long and difficult recruiting period, the 5th Veterans joined the V Corps and fought in the final campaigns of the Virginia front. In the fall of 1862, officers of the 5th detailed on recruiting duty had organized the 165th New York Volunteer Infantry, or "Second Battalion Duryee's Zouaves." The 165th served with the XIX Corps in Louisiana, in Virginia's Shenandoah Valley, and on occupation duty in Charleston, South Carolina, at war's end. The 3rd Annual Report Of The Bureau Of Military Statistics stated "...no other New York regiment gave so many officers to other commands." Following the conclusion of the war, members of the 5th New York Veterans Association continued to hold monthly meetings. The veterans' association funded the creation of a statue to General Warren, their first commander, on Little Round Top at Gettysburg. They also erected a monument to the regiment at the scene of their greatest sacrifice on the battlefield of Second Bull Run (Manassas). The association also contributed to a monument to the Army of the Potomac's 5th Corps in Fredericksburg National Cemetery in Virginia. See also List of New York Civil War regiments Notes/References Footnotes Citations References External links New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center - 5th Infantry Regiment - Civil War History, table of battles and casualties, Civil War newspaper clippings, historical sketch, national flag and regimental flag for the 5th New York Infantry Regiment. 5th NY - Duryee's Zouaves Retrieved April 23, 2006, from Civil War Zouave Database. Infantry 005 1861 establishments in New York (state) Military units and formations established in 1861 Military units and formations disestablished in 1863
4867859	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How%20the%20Grinch%20Stole%20Christmas%20%282000%20film%29	How the Grinch Stole Christmas (2000 film)	How the Grinch Stole Christmas (also known as Dr. Seuss' How the Grinch Stole Christmas, The Grinch, and sometimes Grinch 2000) is a 2000 American Christmas fantasy comedy film directed by Ron Howard, who also produced with Brian Grazer, from a screenplay written by Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman. The film was based on Dr. Seuss's 1957 children's book of the same name, as the first Dr. Seuss book to be adapted into a full-length feature film and the first of only two live-action Dr. Seuss films, followed by The Cat in the Hat in 2003. This was also the second adaptation of the book, after the 1966 animated TV special of the same name. Narrated by Anthony Hopkins, it stars Jim Carrey as the eponymous character, with Taylor Momsen, Jeffrey Tambor, Christine Baranski, Bill Irwin and Molly Shannon in supporting roles. The film centers on the Grinch, a misanthropic green creature who lives in a cave on nearby Mount Crumpit and despises the celebrations, as he attempts to sabotage their holiday plans in Whoville. Produced by Imagine Entertainment, How the Grinch Stole Christmas was released by Universal Pictures in the United States on November 17, 2000. It received mixed reviews from critics, though Jim Carrey's performance received praise. The film spent four weeks as the #1 film in the United States and grossed $345.8 million worldwide, making it the sixth-highest grossing film of 2000. At the time, it also became the second-highest-grossing holiday film of all time, behind Home Alone (1990), until both films were surpassed in 2018 by the third film adaptation of the story. It won the Academy Award for Best Makeup, being nominated for Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design. Plot As the inhabitants of Whoville are getting ready for Christmas, the Grinch, a misanthropic green creature who lives in a cave on nearby Mount Crumpit, despises the celebrations and attempts to sabotage their holiday plans. Six-year-old Cindy Lou Who believes that everyone is too focused on gifts and festivities and not enough on personal relationships. She encounters the Grinch at the post office, where he is scrambling the delivery of Christmas cards and packages. Surprised by his sinister appearance, Cindy falls into the giant mail-sorting machine and gets stuck, but the Grinch grudgingly saves her. This convinces her that he cannot be as completely evil as the townsfolk believe, and she starts researching into his past. Cindy learns that the Grinch arrived in Whoville as a baby, and was adopted by two elderly women. In school, the timid Grinch was infatuated with Martha May Whovier, a girl in his class who secretly reciprocated his feelings. However, jealous classmate Augustus MayWho bullied the Grinch and made fun of his hairy face. That Christmas, the young Grinch made an angel as a gift for Martha, then attempted to shave his face, accidentally cutting himself several times. When MayWho, the teacher, and the rest of the class saw the result, all but Martha laughed at him. This caused the Grinch to lose his temper, declare his hatred for Christmas, and flee to Mount Crumpit, where he has lived a solitary, scheming life ever since. Cindy nominates the Grinch as the town's Holiday Cheermeister, outraging MayWho, who is now the mayor. She climbs Mount Crumpit to invite the Grinch to the celebration, and he eventually accepts, realizing he could potentially encounter Martha (now the Lou Whos' neighbor) and upset MayWho. As Cheermeister, he participates in various events and begins enjoying himself, until MayWho gives him an electric razor as a gift, reminding him of his childhood humiliation. MayWho then offers Martha a new car while publicly proposing to her. Enraged, the Grinch snaps and berates the Whos for their avaricious "love" of Christmas. He shaves MayWho's head, burns down the town's Christmas tree with a makeshift flamethrower, and goes on a rampage before returning home. Learning that the Whos have a spare Christmas tree, and disgusted with the continuing festivities, the Grinch vows to crush the town's spirit by stealing all of their presents, decorations and food while they sleep. He disguises himself as Santa Claus and his pet dog Max as a reindeer, and descends into Whoville on a hi-tech sleigh. The first house he enters is Cindy's, and when she catches him stealing their tree, he lies to her to facilitate his escape. He singlehandedly strips the entire town of Christmas cheer, stuffing everything into a giant sack, then climbs back to the summit of Mount Crumpit to hurl the sack off of the mountain. Awakening on Christmas morning, the people are horrified to discover the theft, and MayWho blames Cindy for enabling the Grinch to ruin the town's spirit. However, her cheerful father, postmaster Lou Lou Who, defends her, declaring that she has tried to tell them that Christmas is not about decorations and gifts, but about spending time with family and friends. The townsfolk agree, join hands, and begin Christmas carolling. Just as he is about to push the sack off the top of Mount Crumpit, the Grinch hears the people singing; realising he has failed to prevent the festivities, he understands the true meaning of Christmas. As he breaks down in tears, the sleigh full of gifts, Christmas trees and decorations begins to slide over the edge of the cliff, along with Cindy, who had come to visit the Grinch and climbed aboard. The Grinch saves Cindy and the sliegh, and they ride down the mountain to return everything. He apologizes for his scheme and surrenders to the police, who spare him and ignore MayWho's demand to arrest and pepper spray him. Realising MayWho's cruelty, Martha returns his engagement ring and declares her love for the Grinch. Later, the reformed Grinch invites the townsfolk over for the Christmas feast, where he personally carves the Roast Beast himself in his cave. Cast Jim Carrey as the Grinch, a bad-tempered, devious and misanthropic green-furred creature who despises Christmas and the Whos of Whoville. Before Carrey was cast as the Grinch, Jack Nicholson and Eddie Murphy were both considered. Josh Ryan Evans as the eight-year-old Grinch (his final film role before his death in 2002). Taylor Momsen as Cindy Lou Who (in the film, she is six years old, while in the 1957 book and the 1966 TV special she is "no more than two") Jeffrey Tambor as Mayor Augustus MayWho, Whoville's arrogant and judgmental mayor Ben Bookbinder as eight-year-old Augustus MayWho, who bullies Grinch as an attempt to get Martha to notice him instead. Christine Baranski as the grown-up Martha May Whovier, who is mutually in love with the Grinch. Mayor Augustus Maywho also has feelings for her, but Martha does not like him because of his arrogance. Landry Allbright as 8-year-old Martha May Whovier, who shows affection for the Grinch and dislikes when kids at school pick on him. Bill Irwin as Louie Lou Who, Cindy's father Molly Shannon as Betty Lou Who, Cindy's mother Anthony Hopkins as the narrator Kelley as Max, the Grinch's pet dog and sole companion Frank Welker performs the vocal effects for Max. Welker had previously provided the vocal effects for Max in The Grinch Grinches the Cat in the Hat. Clint Howard as Whobris, the mayor's sycophantic aide and servant Reid Kirchenbauer as eight-year-old Whobris Mindy Sterling as Clarnella Who, one of the Grinch's adoptive mothers Rachel Winfree as Rose Who, the Grinch's other adoptive mother Jeremy Howard as Drew Lou Who, one of the mischievous sons of Louie and Betty and brother of Cindy T. J. Thyne as Stu Lou Who, the other mischievous son and brother of Cindy Jim Meskimen as Officer Wholihan, the chief of police Mary Stein as Miss Rue Who, the Grinch's school teacher who later becomes Cindy's teacher Deep Roy as Post Office Clerk Rance Howard as Elderly Timekeeper Verne Troyer as Band Member Bryce Dallas Howard as Surprised Who Production Before his death in 1991, Dr. Seuss refused offers to sell the film rights to his books. After his death, his widow Audrey Geisel agreed to several merchandising deals, including clothing lines, accessories and CDs. In July 1998, her agents announced via letter that she would auction the film rights of How the Grinch Stole Christmas. To pitch their ideas to Geisel, the suitors had to be willing to pay $5 million, 4% of the box-office gross, 50% of the merchandising revenue and music-related material, and 70% of the income from book tie-ins. The letter also stated that "any actor submitted for the Grinch must be of comparable stature to Jack Nicholson, Jim Carrey, Robin Williams and Dustin Hoffman." Additionally, it was stipulated that the estate would not consider a director or writer who had not earned at least $1 million on a previous picture. 20th Century Fox pitched its version with director Tom Shadyac and producers Dave Phillips and John Davis in attendance, with Nicholson in mind to play the Grinch. The Farrelly brothers and John Hughes pitched their own versions. Universal Pictures held its presentation with Brian Grazer and Gary Ross in attendance. Geisel refused each offer. Grazer then enlisted his producing partner Ron Howard to help with the negotiations. At the time, Howard was developing a film adaptation of The Sea-Wolf. Despite being an avid fan of the animated Grinch special, he did not express interest in a live-action version. However, Grazer talked him into traveling to Geisel's residence for the pitch meeting. While studying the book, Howard became interested in the character Cindy Lou Who, and pitched a film in which she would have a larger role, as well as a materialistic representation of the Whos and an expanded backstory for the Grinch. In September 1998, Howard signed to direct and co-produce the film, with Jim Carrey in the lead role. It was also reported that Universal Pictures paid $9 million for the film rights for Grinch and Oh, the Places You'll Go! to Geisel. Before Howard signed on, Tim Burton was asked to direct, but turned it down due to a scheduling conflict with Sleepy Hollow. Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman (of both Who Framed Roger Rabbit and Doc Hollywood fame) wrote the final screenplay after eight drafts, but Geisel also had veto power over the script. She objected to several of its jokes and sexual innuendos, including one about a family who did not have a Christmas tree or presents, jokingly called the "Who-steins"; and the placement of a stuffed trophy of the Cat in the Hat on the Grinch's wall. Alec Berg, David Mandel and Jeff Schaffer (who were also writers on the television series Seinfeld) did an uncredited rewrite. Principal photography took place from September 1999 to January 2000. Geisel visited the set in October. Most of the Whoville set was built on the Universal Studios Backlot, behind the Bates Motel set from Psycho. Rick Baker designed and created the prosthetic makeup for Carrey and the rest of the cast. It took a number of tests, and ultimately Carrey admiring a photo of Baker in his first test makeup, for the decision to use Baker's original design. The Grinch suit was covered in yak hair, dyed green, and sewed onto a spandex suit. Application of the makeup took up to two and a half hours; Carrey regularly and repeatedly described the costume "akin to being buried alive;" after one such session, a frustrated Carrey kicked a hole in the wall of his trailer. Carrey's makeup artist Kazu Hiro recounted, "On set, [Carrey] was really mean to everybody, and at the beginning of the production they couldn't finish. After two weeks we only could finish three days' worth of shooting schedule, because suddenly he would just disappear, and when he came back, everything was ripped apart. We couldn't shoot anything." Hiro left the production until Baker and Howard had a discussion with Carrey on how important he was to the project. Carrey agreed to keep his anger in check, and Brian Grazer hired a consultant who trained Carrey on "methods of enduring torture," and Hiro returned. Josh Ryan Evans, who played the eight-year old Grinch, wore the same style of makeup and bodysuit Carrey wore. In total, Carrey spent 92 days in the Grinch make-up and became adept at remaining calm during its application. Most of the appliances the actors wore were noses that connected to an upper lip along with some dentures, ears and wigs. To cheer up Carrey, Howard once wore a Grinch suit, and on another day, brought Don Knotts onto the set, knowing that Carrey was a fan of Knotts' work. Music The soundtrack for the album was released on November 7, 2000. It features a collection of music performed by several artists, including Busta Rhymes, Faith Hill, Eels, Smash Mouth, and NSYNC. An expanded edition of the soundtrack featuring more cues from Horner's score was released on November 1, 2022 on La-La Land Records. All song lengths via Apple Music. Release Theatrical How the Grinch Stole Christmas was released by Universal Pictures in the United States on November 17, 2000. Television It premiered on television on ABC on November 25, 2004 and aired there until 2014 (with the exception of 2009). From 2010 to 2014, it was coupled with the animated television special. It currently airs annually on Freeform's (formerly ABC Family) 25 Days of Christmas. The American television airings include deleted footage which was not included on the original, theatrical, or VHS/DVD releases. The scenes include Cindy's dad maxing out his credit card on Christmas gifts, Cindy asking her dad who the Grinch was before heading off to school, Lou visiting Cindy being made to stay after school after mentioning the Grinch, extended scenes of the post office, the Grinch in his cave, Cindy inviting the Grinch to the Christmas party, Martha May and Betty Lou competing in the Christmas Lights Contest, the Grinch trying out different outfits to wear at the Christmas party, the Grinch drinking eggnog, the Whos passing out gifts to each other, and Cindy's family getting ready for Christmas morning at night. Since 2015 (like the 1966 cartoon), it has aired on NBC during Christmas night after the animated television special. It was not aired in 2022 due to an NFL game between the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and the Arizona Cardinals. It aired on FX to promote the television broadcast premiere of the 2018 animated film in 2020. Marketing In the summer of 2000, a trailer for How the Grinch Stole Christmas premiered in theaters. It was hooked up to screenings of Mission: Impossible 2, in which Paramount Pictures agreed to screen the trailer if Universal included a trailer to a Paramount film in front of Nutty Professor II: The Klumps. The next trailer debuted on October 6, 2000 with the release of Meet the Parents. Meanwhile, Toys "R" Us began promoting the film, transforming their locations into Whobilation Headquarters with the most aggressive visual merchandising display in the company's history. Shoppers would be wowed from the moment they entered the store by the unbelievable displays and visual elements featuring the Grinch. The Herald Square location in New York City featured floor-to-ceiling themed window graphics of the film's main characters. Moreover, the entrances featured 3D film characters at numerous stores. Wendy's would even begin selling kids meal toys at their restaurants. Other promotional partners included Kellogg's, Nabisco, Hershey's, Visa, Coca-Cola and United States Postal Service. To coincide with the release of the film, Universal Studios Hollywood and Universal's Islands of Adventure began hosting a holiday event called Grinchmas. Home media The film was released on VHS and DVD on November 20, 2001. Within its first week of release, the film sold a combined total of 8.5 million home video units, selling 3 million DVD copies and 4 million VHS copies, making it the best-selling holiday home video title at the time. It would go on to join Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace, Shrek and The Mummy Returns as one of the only four films to sell more than 2 million DVD copies during their opening weeks. Overall, it was ranked as the second-highest opening week home video sales for any live-action film, after Titanic. In December 2001, Variety reported that it was the second biggest selling home video release of 2001, selling 16.9 million copies and earning $296 million in sales revenue. A Blu-ray/DVD combo pack was released on October 13, 2009, then later given a separate Blu-ray release on October 13, 2015. It was also remastered in 4K and released on Ultra HD Blu-ray on October 17, 2017. Reception Box office How the Grinch Stole Christmas grossed $260 million domestically and $85.1 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $345.1 million, becoming the sixth highest-grossing film of 2000. In the United States, the film opened at #1 on its opening day, making $15.6 million, with a weekend gross of $55.1 million, for an average of $17,615 from 3,127 theaters. Upon its release, it had the sixth-highest three-day opening weekend of any film, behind Toy Story 2, X-Men, Mission: Impossible 2, Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace and The Lost World: Jurassic Park. Moreover, the film surpassed Batman Forever to achieve the largest opening weekend for a Jim Carrey film. How the Grinch Sole Christmas had the biggest opening weekend for a Ron Howard film, smashing the previous record held by Ransom. It was the first non-Disney film to win the Thanksgiving weekend box office since Mrs. Doubtfire in 1993. It held the record for the highest opening weekend for a Christmas-themed film for 18 years, until the 2018 film version of The Grinch surpassed it with $67.6 million. In its second weekend, the film grossed $52.1 million, dropping only 5.1%, setting a new record for highest-grossing second weekend for any film at the time, beating The Phantom Menace. It stayed at the top of the box office for four weekends until it was overtaken by What Women Want and Dude, Where's My Car? in mid-December. How the Grinch Stole Christmas continued to draw holiday crowds while defeating another family-oriented film, The Emperor's New Groove. By this point, it surpassed Mission: Impossible 2 to become the year's top-grossing film. The film closed on March 1, 2001, with a final domestic gross of $260,044,825. Box Office Mojo estimates that it sold over 48.1 million tickets in North America. Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, How the Grinch Stole Christmas holds an approval rating of based on reviews and an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "Jim Carrey shines as the Grinch. Unfortunately, it's not enough to save this movie. You'd be better off watching the TV cartoon." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 46 out of 100 based on 29 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale. Roger Ebert gave the film two out of four stars, referring to it as "a dank, eerie, weird movie about a sour creature" and said, "There should be ... a jollier production design and a brighter look overall ... It's just not much fun." Ebert observed that Carrey "works as hard as an actor has ever worked in a movie, to small avail". Nevertheless, he decided that "adults may appreciate Carrey's remarkable performance in an intellectual sort of way and give him points for what was obviously a supreme effort". Paul Clinton of CNN declared that Carrey "was born to play this role" and noted that "Carrey carries nearly every scene. In fact, if he's not in the scene, there is no scene." Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly began his review of the film analyzing the Grinch's "mischievously divided, now-I'm-calm/ now-I'm-a-raving-sarcastic-PSYCH-o! personality" and summed up Carrey's Grinch as "a slobby, self-loathing elitist ruled by the secret fear that he's always being left out of things." Gleiberman expressed surprise at "how affecting Carrey makes the Grinch's ultimate big-hearted turnaround, as Carrey the actor sneaks up on Carrey the wild-man dervish. In whichever mode, he carreys the movie." Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle said, "Nobody could play the Grinch better than Jim Carrey, whose rubbery antics and maniacal sense of mischief are so well suited to How the Grinch Stole Christmas. Dr. Seuss himself might have turned to Carrey as a model for the classic curmudgeon had the actor been around in 1957." However, he wondered why Carrey "made himself sound like Sean Connery" and warned that the character's intensity may frighten small children. James Berardinelli of ReelViews wrote that Carrey's "off-the-wall performance is reminiscent of what he accomplished in The Mask, except that here he never allows the special effects to upstage him. Carrey's Grinch is a combination of Seuss's creation and Carrey's personality, with a voice that sounds far more like a weird amalgamation of Sean Connery and Jim Backus (Bond meets Magoo!) than it does Karloff." He concluded that Carrey "brings animation to the live action, and, surrounded by glittering, fantastical sets and computer-spun special effects, Carrey enables Ron Howard's version of the classic story to come across as more of a welcome endeavor than a pointless re-tread." Some reviews were more polarized. Stephanie Zacharek of Salon in a generally negative review of the film, wrote that "Carrey pulls off an admirable impersonation of an animated figure ... It's fine as mimicry goes – but mimicry isn't the best playground for comic genius. Shouldn't we be asking more of a man who's very likely the most gifted comic actor of his generation?" She concluded that in spite of "a few terrific ad-libs ... his jokes come off as nothing more than a desperate effort to inject some offbeat humor into an otherwise numbingly unhip, nonsensical and just plain dull story". Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote, "Carrey tries out all sorts of intonations, vocal pitches and delivery styles, his tough guy posturing reminding at times of Cagney and his sibilant S's recalling Bogart. His antic gesturing and face-making hit the mark at times, but at other moments seem arbitrary and scattershot. Furthermore, his free-flowing tirades, full of catch-all allusions and references, are pitched for adult appreciation and look destined to sail right over the heads of pre-teens." Accolades See also Grinch The Grinch (film) The Grinch (video game) List of Christmas films References External links 2000s American films 2000 films 2000 comedy films 2000 fantasy films 2000s Christmas comedy films 2000s children's fantasy films 2000s children's comedy films 2000s English-language films 2000s fantasy comedy films American films with live action and animation American Christmas comedy films American children's fantasy films American children's comedy films American fantasy comedy films American films about revenge Children's Christmas films Films about orphans Films about bullying Films about consumerism Films based on children's books Films based on works by Dr. Seuss Films directed by Ron Howard Films produced by Ron Howard Films produced by Brian Grazer Films with screenplays by Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman Films scored by James Horner Films shot in Los Angeles County, California Films shot in Utah Films that won the Academy Award for Best Makeup The Grinch (franchise) Imagine Entertainment films Universal Pictures films English-language Christmas comedy films
4868637	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20T.%20Stearn	William T. Stearn	William Thomas Stearn (; 16 April 1911 – 9 May 2001) was a British botanist. Born in Cambridge in 1911, he was largely self-educated and developed an early interest in books and natural history. His initial work experience was at a Cambridge bookshop, but he also had a position as an assistant in the university botany department. At the age of 29 he married Eldwyth Ruth Alford, who later became his collaborator, and he died in London in 2001. While at the bookshop, he was offered a position as a librarian at the Royal Horticultural Society in London (1933–1952). From there he moved to the Natural History Museum as a scientific officer in the botany department (1952–1976). After his retirement, he continued working there, writing, and serving on a number of professional bodies related to his work, including the Linnean Society, of which he became president. He also taught botany at Cambridge University as a visiting professor (1977–1983). Stearn is known for his work in botanical taxonomy and botanical history, particularly classical botanical literature, botanical illustration and for his studies of the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus. His best known books are his Dictionary of Plant Names for Gardeners, a popular guide to the scientific names of plants, and his Botanical Latin for scientists. Stearn received many honours for his work, at home and abroad, and was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1997. Considered one of the most eminent British botanists of his time, he is remembered by an essay prize in his name from the Society for the History of Natural History, and a named cultivar of Epimedium, one of many genera he produced monographs on. He is the botanical authority for over 400 plants that he named and described. Life Childhood William Thomas Stearn was born at 37 Springfield Road, Chesterton, Cambridge, England, on 16 April 1911, the eldest of four sons, to Thomas Stearn (1871 or 1872–1922) and Ellen ("Nellie") Kiddy (1886–1986) of West Suffolk. His father worked as a coachman to a Cambridge doctor. Chesterton was then a village on the north bank of the River Cam, about two miles north of Cambridge's city centre, where Springfield Road ran parallel to Milton Road to the west. William Stearn's early education was at the nearby Milton Road Junior Council School (see image). Despite not having any family background in science (though he recalled that his grandfather was the university rat-catcher) he developed a keen interest in natural history and books at an early age. He spent his school holidays on his uncle's Suffolk farm, tending cows grazing by the roadside where he would observe the wild flowers of the hedgerows and fields. Stearn's father died suddenly in 1922 when Stearn was only eleven, leaving his working-class family in financial difficulties as his widow (Stearn's mother) had no pension. That year, William Stearn succeeded in obtaining a scholarship to the local Cambridge High School for Boys on Hills Road, close to the Cambridge Botanic Garden, which he attended for eight years till he was 18. The school had an excellent reputation for biology education, and while he was there, he was encouraged by Mr Eastwood, a biology teacher who recognised his talents. The school also provided him with a thorough education in both Latin and Greek. He became secretary of the school's Natural History Society, won an essay prize from the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and spent much of his time at the Botanic Garden. Stearn also gained horticultural experience by working as a gardener's boy during his school holidays, to supplement the family income. Stearn attended evening lectures on paleobotany given by Albert Seward (chair of botany at Cambridge University 1906–1936), and Harry Godwin. Seward was impressed by the young Stearn, giving him access to the herbarium of the Botany School (now Department of Plant Sciences—see 1904 photograph) and allowing him to work there as a part-time research assistant. Later, Seward also gave Stearn access to the Cambridge University Library to pursue his research. Later life Stearn was largely self-educated and his widowed mother worked hard to support him while at school but could not afford a university education for him, there being no grants available then. When not at the Botany School, he attended evening classes to develop linguistic and bibliographic skills. His classes there included German and the classics. He obtained his first employment at the age of 18 in 1929, a time of high unemployment, to support himself and his family. He worked as an apprentice antiquarian bookseller and cataloguer in the second-hand section at Bowes & Bowes bookshop, 1 Trinity Street (now Cambridge University Press), between 1929 and 1933 where he was able to pursue his passion for bibliography. During his employment there, he spent much of his lunchtimes, evenings and weekends, at the Botany School and Botanic Garden. This was at a time when botany was thriving at Cambridge under the leadership of Seward and Humphrey Gilbert-Carter. On 3 August 1940, he married Eldwyth Ruth Alford (1910–2013), by whom he had a son and two daughters, and who collaborated with him in much of his work. Ruth Alford was a secondary school teacher from Tavistock, Devon, the daughter of Roger Rice Alford a Methodist preacher and mayor of Tavistock. When their engagement was announced in The Times, Stearn was vastly amused to see that he was described as a "Fellow of the Linen Society", a typographical error for Linnean Society. Stearn was brought up an Anglican, but was a conscientious objector and after the Second World War he became a Quaker. In his later years, following official retirement in 1976 he continued to live in Kew, Richmond. His entry in Who's Who lists his interests as "gardening and talking". He died on 9 May 2001 of pneumonia at Kingston Hospital, Kingston upon Thames, at the age of 90. His funeral took place on 18 May at Mortlake crematorium. He left three children (Roger Thomas Stearn, Margaret Ruth Stearn and Helen Elizabeth Stearn) and an estate of £461,240. His wife, whose 100th birthday was celebrated at the Linnean Society in 2010, lived to the age of 103. Professor Stearn had a reputation for his encyclopedic knowledge, geniality, wit and generosity with his time and knowledge, being always willing to contribute to the work of others. He had a mischievous sense of fun and was famous for his anecdotes while lecturing, while his colleagues recalled that "he had a happy genius for friendship". He was described as having a striking figure, "a small man, his pink face topped with a thatch of white hair", and earned the nickname of "Wumpty" after his signature of "Wm. T. Stearn". Career Cambridge years (1929–1933) Stearn began his career as a gardener at Sidney Sussex College after leaving school at 13. He then became a bookseller at Bowes & Bowes. While working at the bookshop he made many friends among the Cambridge botanists and participated in their activities, including botanical excursions. In addition to Professor Seward, those influencing him included the morphologist Agnes Arber, Humphrey Gilbert-Carter the first scientific director of the Botanic Garden, John Gilmour then curator of the university herbarium and later director of the Garden (1951–1973), the horticulturalist E. A. Bowles (1865–1954), who became his patron, Harry Godwin, then a research fellow and later professor and Tom Tutin who was working with Seward at that time. Seward gave him full research facilities in the herbarium. He continued his research, visiting the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, in 1930, at the age of 19, and also spent two weeks at the herbarium of the Musée National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, with the aid of a £15 grant from the Royal Society to study Epimedium. Also in 1930, the Fifth International Botanical Congress was held at Cambridge, and Stearn was able to attend. During this time he commuted between the bookshop, the Botany School, Botanic Garden and home by bicycle, his preferred means of transportation throughout his life. Lindley Library, Royal Horticultural Society (1933–1952) In 1933, H. R. Hutchinson, who was the Librarian at the Lindley Library, Royal Horticultural Society's (RHS) in London, was due to retire. John Gilmour, now assistant director at the Kew Gardens, put forward Stearn's name, together with Bowles, a vice-president of the Society, who had discovered Stearn at the bookshop. Stearn was 22 when he began work at the library, initially as assistant librarian, before taking over Hutchinson's position after six months. He later explained his appointment at such a young age as being the result of World War I: "All the people who should have had those jobs were dead." There he collaborated with Bowles on a number of plant monographs, such as Bowles' Handbook of Crocus and their work on Anemone japonica (Anemone hupehensis var. japonica). Written in 1947, it is still considered one of the most comprehensive accounts of the origins and nomenclature of fall-blooming anemones. Stearn was one of the last people to see Bowles alive, and when Bowles died, Stearn wrote an appreciation of him, and later contributed the entry on Bowles to the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Much of his spare time was spent studying at the Kew Gardens. The Lindley Library, the largest horticultural library in the world and named after the British botanist John Lindley (1799–1865), was established in 1868 by the acquisition of Lindley's 1,300 volumes upon his death. It had recently undergone considerable change. In 1930, the library had been rehoused in a new floor added to the society's Vincent Square headquarters, but the role of the library was somewhat downgraded. Frederick Chittenden had been appointed as Keeper of the Library (1930–1939), and Hutchinson reported directly to him. Stearn related that when he reported for duty, Hutchinson was completely unaware of the appointment of his new assistant. Lindley was one of Stearn's inspirations, also being a librarian who had a long association with the RHS. Lindley also bequeathed his herbarium to the Cambridge University Herbarium, where it now forms the Lindley Collection. As Stearn remarked "I came to know his numerous publications and to admire the industry, tenacity and ability with which he undertook successfully so many different things". Later Stearn would publish a major work on Lindley's life and work. Lindley's contributions to horticultural taxonomy were matched only by those of Stearn himself. Stearn soon set about using his antiquarian knowledge to reorganise the library, forming a pre-Linnean section. Not long after his arrival the library acquired one of its largest collections, the Reginald Cory Bequest (1934), which Stearn set about cataloguing on its arrival two years later, resulting in at least fifteen publications. While at the library he continued his self-education through evening classes, learning Swedish, and travelling widely. Stearn used his three-week annual leaves in the pre-war years to visit other European botanical libraries, botanic gardens, museums, herbaria and collections, as well as collecting plants, with special emphasis on Epimedium and Allium. His travels took him to Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, and Sweden. War years (1941–1946) The only break from this employment was the war years 1941–1946, leaving his assistant Ms. Cardew as acting librarian. Initially Stearn served as an air raid warden, before enlisting. As a conscientious objector, he could not serve in a combatant role, but was accepted into the Royal Air Force (RAF) Medical Services, as he had previously worked with the St John Ambulance Brigade. He served in the RAF in both England, and Asia (India and Burma, where he worked in intelligence, and was awarded the Burma Star). While there he undertook studies of Indo-Malayan and Sikkim-Himalayan tropical vegetation, carried out botanical explorations, taught biology to troops and began work on his Botanical Latin. His wartime observations led to collaborative publications such as An enumeration of the flowering plants of Nepal (1978–1982), Beautiful Indian Trees (2nd ed. 1954), as well as works on Himalayan species of Allium. On returning from the war, Stearn and his new wife, Eldwyth Ruth Stearn, were obliged to live in the Lindley Library for a while till they found a more permanent home, due to the acute housing shortage in London. Natural History Museum (1952–1976) From the Lindley Library, Stearn (see 1950 Photograph) moved to the Botany Department at the Natural History Museum, South Kensington in 1952, and by the time he retired in 1976, he was the Senior Principal Scientific Officer there. He had now achieved his aim of becoming a research scientist, despite lack of formal qualifications, enabling him to spend more of his time collecting and studying plants. During this time the museum was undergoing steady expansion, with new staff and programmes. At the museum he was put in charge of Section 3 of the General Herbarium (the last third of the Dicotyledons in the Bentham & Hooker system, i.e., Monochlamydae) and floristic treatment of the regions of Europe, Jamaica, the United States, Australia and Nepal, including work on the museum's Flora of Jamaica and the Nepal flora he started work on during the war. Seven volumes of the Flora of Jamaica had appeared prior to the Second World War. Although the project was revived after the war, and Stearn carried out six months of field work in Jamaica, it never came to fruition; no further volumes appeared. In Jamaica, Stearn followed in the footsteps of Sir Hans Sloane (1660–1753), whose collection had been left to the Natural History Museum. Stearn's generic work at the museum concentrated on Allium, Lilium and Paeonia. He continued to travel widely, with field work in Europe (particularly Greece), Australia, and the United States, and published 200 papers during his twenty-four years at the museum, and although the library was not his responsibility, he spent much time there adding written notes to many of the critical texts. While at the museum, Stearn became increasingly involved in the work of the Linnean Society during his Kensington years. He was also offered the George A. Miller professorship of botany at the University of Illinois (1966), but felt he would be unable to leave his commitments in London. At the time of his retirement in 1976, he was still using a fountain pen as his only means of communication and scholarship, a fact commemorated by his retirement present of a Mont Blanc pen capable of writing for long periods without refills. Retirement (1976–2001) Following his retirement on 30 November 1976 he continued to work, both at the museum and at the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, where his home at 17 High Park Road, Kew Gardens, Richmond (see image), gave him access to the herbarium and library, a short bicycle trip away. Indeed, 35 percent of his total publications appeared in the quarter century of his retirement. He was commissioned to write a history of the museum for its centenary (1981), although he did so with some difficulty, due to deadlines and budget constraints. The task, which took three years, was made more difficult for him by the museum's decision to censor his critical comments. He continued his association with the Lindley Library all his life, being an active committee member and regularly attended RHS flower shows even after he was barely able to walk. Sojourn in Greece As a student of the classics he was passionate about Greece, its mountains and plants (such as Paeonia) and all things Greek, both ancient and modern. The Stearns had formed a friendship with Constantine Goulimis and Niki and Angelos Goulandris, founders of the Goulandris Museum of Natural History in Kifissia, Athens. Stearn first met the Goulandris' in 1967, and offered practical help with their museum. He also stayed with them when he and his wife visited Greece. Niki Goulandris illustrated both Wild Flowers of Greece that Goulimis and Stearn wrote in 1968, as well as his Peonies of Greece (1984). The latter work typified Stearn's encyclopedic approach, including topics such as mythology and herbalism in addition to taxonomy. Stearn then took on the editorship of Annales Musei Goulandris, the scientific journal of the museum (1976–1999), succeeding Werner Greuter, the first editor, having been instrumental in getting the journal launched in 1973. Eldwyth Ruth Stearn took on the job of compiling the indexes. When he retired from this position he was 88, and was succeeded by John Akeroyd. He was a liberal contributor to the journal, and during this time he and Eldwyth Ruth Stearn undertook their translation of The Greek Plant World in Myth, Art, and Literature (1993). Societies and appointments Stearn was a member of the Linnean Society for many years, becoming a fellow as early as 1934. He served as botanical curator 1959–1985, council member 1959–1963 and as vice-president 1961–1962 and president 1979–1982, producing a revised and updated history of the society in 1988. He also served as president of the Garden History Society and the Ray Society (1975–1977). The Royal Horticultural Society had made him an honorary fellow in 1946 and in 1986 he became a vice-president. Stearn became a member of the Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland (BSBI) in 1954, joining the Maps Committee the following year to prepare their Atlas of the British Flora (1962). He remained on that committee till 1968, when it became the Records Committee. For 40 years he was the BSBI referee for Allium. While at the Lindley Library, he became a founding member of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History (later, the Society for the History of Natural History) in 1936, was one of its most active publishing members based on his cataloguing work at the library, and published a history of the society for their 50th anniversary in 1986. Other societies on which he served include the British Society for the History of Science (vice-president), the British Society for the History of Medicine (Council), the Garden History Society (president 1977–1982) and was a corresponding member of the Botanical Society of America. Stearn was appointed Sandars Reader in Bibliography, University of Cambridge in 1965 and from 1977 to 1983 he was visiting professor at Cambridge University's Department of Botany, and also visiting professor in botany at Reading University 1977–1983, and then Honorary Research Fellow (1983–). He was also a fellow of the Institute of Biology (1967) and was elected an Honorary Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge in 1968. Work William Stearn was the author of nearly 500 publications, including his autobiography. These included monographs, partial floras, books on botanical illustration, scholarly editions of historical botanical texts, dictionaries, bibliographies and botanical histories. Early years During Stearn's initial four years in Cambridge (1929–1933), he published twenty-four papers, predominantly in the Gardeners' Chronicle and Gardening Illustrated and the Journal of Botany, his first in 1929. While working as a gardener's boy during school holidays he had observed a specimen of Campanula pusilla (Campanula cochleariifolia) with a distorted corolla. He then described and published the first appearance of the causative agent, the mould Peronospora corollaea, in Britain, using the facilities of the Botany library. At the Botanic Garden he developed a special interest in Vinca, Epimedium, Hosta and Symphytum, all of which he published monographs on. A series of botanical publications followed, starting with a new species of Allium (A. farreri Stearn, 1930). Stearn repeatedly returned to the genus Allium, and was considered a world expert on it; many species bear his name. 1930 would also see his first bibliographic work, on the botanist Reginald Farrer, whom he named Allium farreri after, and also described Rosa farreri (1933) and other species named after Farrer. It was while he was compiling Farrer's works in 1930 that he came across the latter's work, The English Rock-Garden (1919) and its account of Barren-worts (Epimedium), and kindled a lifetime interest in the genus. From 1932, he produced a series of papers on this genus, studying it at Cambridge, Kew and Paris. It became one of the genera which he was best known, and many species of which now bear his name. Epimedium and the related woodland perennial Vancouveria (Berberidaceae) would be the subject of his first monograph (1938) and were genera to which he would return at the end of his life. At the time the taxonomy of this genus was very confused, and with the help of the Cambridge Herbarium he obtained specimens from all over Europe to produce a comprehensive monograph. The work was so thorough that it was mistakenly considered a doctoral thesis by other botanists. He also began a series of contributions to the catalogue of the Herbarium, together with Gilmour and Tutin. Later work After moving to London, Stearn produced a steady output of publications during his years at the Royal Horticultural Society's Lindley Library (1933–1952). These covered a wide range of topics from bibliography to plant nomenclature, taxonomy and garden plants, with a particular emphasis on Vinca, Epimedium and Lilium. Within two years of joining the library in 1933, he had produced his first major monograph, Lilies (1935), in collaboration with Drysdale Woodcock and John Coutts. This text, in an expanded and revised edition, as Woodcock and Stearn's Lilies of the World (1950) became a standard work on the Liliaceae sensu lato. While at the library he also continued his collaboration with his Cambridge colleagues, publishing catalogues of the Herbarium collections, including the Catalogue of the Collections of the Herbarium of the University Botany School, Cambridge (1935). The second task imposed on him at this time involved the RHS role in maintaining revision of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (see Botanical taxonomy). After his return to London in 1946, at the end of the Second World War, a number of major publications ensued, including Lilies of the World in 1950. The RHS also imposed two major tasks on their librarian. In 1950, Frederick Chittenden, a previous director of RHS Wisley and Keeper of the Library, died leaving unfinished the four volume RHS Dictionary of Gardening that the society had commissioned from him before the war. The war had interrupted the work as many of the expected contributors were unavailable. Stearn, together with Patrick Synge, the RHS Publications Editor, undertook to complete the work, particularly volume IV (R–Z), a task he completed within six months, with 50 new articles. The finished work was published in 1951 and not only did he undertake the role of editing this large work but his contributions covered 50 genera, 600 species and complex identification keys such as Solidago and Viola. Since Stearn's entries in volume IV extended from Soldanella to Zygotritonia, he would jest that he was but "a peculiar authority on plants from 'So-' onwards". He issued a revised version in 1956 with Synge in which he added a further 86 articles. His recollection of this task was that he acquired "that occupational hazard of compilers of encyclopaedias", encyclopedic knowledge. Many of Stearn's collaborative works used his bibliographic skills. While his genus monographs largely concentrated on Mediterranean flora, notably Epimedium, Allium and Paeonia, he was also the author of species articles both popular and technical as well as a number of classical treatises. In addition he produced floristic treatments of a number of regions such as Jamaica and Nepal. He also contributed to many national Florae as diverse as Bhutan and Greece, as well as major regional florae including the Flora Europaea and European Garden Flora. While his output covered a wide range of topics, he is best known for his contributions to botanical history, taxonomy, botanical bibliography, and botanical illustration. Botanical Latin (four editions 1966–1992), is his best known work, having become a standard reference and described as both the bible of plant taxonomists and a philological masterwork. It was begun during the war years and the first edition was basically a guide to Latin for botanists with no or limited knowledge of the language, which he described as a "do-it-yourself Latin kit" for taxonomists. Later, the work evolved into an etymological dictionary, but then Stearn learned that such a work had already been published in the Netherlands before the war. He then continued to expand it with the assistance of his wife and son, systematically collecting botanical terms from botanical texts. It is said that only he could have written this work, which explains not just the derivation of plant names but also the philological principles involved in forming those names. The work is considered responsible for the continued survival of Latin as the lingua franca of botany. In addition to this seminal text, he frequently delighted in the illumination that the classics could add to understanding plants and plant lore, such as his Five Brethren of the Rose (1965). His best known popular work is his Dictionary of Plant Names, which found its way into the libraries of most horticulturalists. One of the focuses of his work at the Natural History Museum was the flora of the Caribbean, where he carried out field work. Stearn continued to return to the Cambridge Botanic Garden, cared for his own garden and worked with the RHS to become an authority on horticulture as well as botany. William Stearn collaborated with his wife, Eldwyth Ruth Stearn, on a number of his most important works, including Botanical Latin and Dictionary of Plant Names and translating German botanical history into English. Just before his death he completed a revision of his original Epimedium monograph. Botanical history William Stearn wrote extensively on the history of botany and horticulture, from Ancient Greece to his own times. He collected together J. E. Raven's 1976 J. H. Gray Lectures, editing and annotating them as Plants and Plant Lore in Ancient Greece (1990). In 1993, he and Eldwyth Ruth Stearn translated and expanded Baumann's Die griechische Pflanzenwelt in Mythos, Kunst und Literatur (1986) as The Greek Plant World in Myth, Art, and Literature. Stearn compiled a major work on the life of John Lindley and produced an edited version of the classic book on herbals by Agnes Arber, one of the influences of his Cambridge years, and whose obituary he would later write for The Times. He also wrote a number of histories of the organisations he worked with as well as a number of introductions and commentaries on classic botanical texts such as John Ray's Synopsis methodica stirpium Britannicarum (1691), together with historical introductions to reference books, including Desmond's Dictionary of British and Irish Botanists (1994). In his Botanical Gardens and Botanical Literature in the Eighteenth Century (1961), Stearn provides some insight into his interpretation of botanical history: The progress of botany, as of other sciences, comes from the interaction of so many factors that undue emphasis on any one can give a very distorted impression of the whole, but certainly among the most important of these for any given period are the prevailing ideas and intellectual attitudes, the assumptions and stimuli of the time, for often upon them depends the extent to which a particular study attracts an unbroken succession of men of industry and originality intent on building a system of knowledge and communicating it successfully to others of like mind. Linnaeus Stearn's historical research is best known for his work on Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), which he began while at the Natural History Museum, and which won him a number of awards at home and abroad. Between 1953 and 1994 he produced more than 20 works describing Linnaeus' life and work. Of Stearn's writings on Linnaeus, the most well known is his edition of the 1753 Species plantarum, published in facsimile by the Ray Society in 1957, for which he wrote both a 176-page introduction and an appendix. Concerned that Linnaeus' methods were imperfectly understood by his contemporaries, Stearn wrote that his introduction "provided concisely all the information about his Linnaeus' life, herbaria, publications, methodology etc. which a botanical taxonomist needs to know". The Times stated that no other botanist possessed the historical knowledge and linguistic skills to write, what is considered one of the classic studies of the Swedish naturalist and a highpoint of 20th century botanical scholarship. Subsequently, Stearn became a recognised authority on Linnaeus. Stearn produced similar introductions to a number of other editions of Linnaeus' works, including Genera Plantarum, Mantissa plantarum and . Later, he would produce a bicentenary guide to Linnaeus (1978) for the Linnean Society. Although Stearn spent much of his life studying and writing about Linnaeus, he did not admire the man's character, describing him as mean—"a jealous egoist, with a driving ambition". When asked which botanists in history he did admire, he cited John Lindley, Carolus Clusius (1526–1609) and Olof Swartz (1760–1818). Botanical taxonomy Stearn made major contributions to plant taxonomy and its history. In 1950 the Seventh International Botanical Congress was held in Stockholm, and the RHS would have been represented by Chittenden, but he had been taken ill. Bowles then arranged for Stearn and Gilmour to represent the society in his stead. The congress appointed a special committee to consider nomenclatural issues related to cultivated plants, which became known as the Committee for the Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants (the "Stockholm Committee"), with Stearn as secretary (1950–1953). Stearn then proposed an International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (the "Cultivated Code"), producing the first draft that day. The code was accepted in principle by the committee, conditional on its approval by a parallel committee of the International Horticultural Congress (the Horticultural Nomenclature Committee), which would next meet in London in 1952 (the "London Committee"). Later that year Stearn was also appointed secretary of the London Committee so that he now represented both organisations. The two committees then met jointly on 22–24 November 1951 at the RHS building in London to draft a final joint proposal that was published by Stearn as secretary of an editorial committee and adopted by the 13th International Horticultural Congress the following year. The resulting code was formulated as a supplement to the existing International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. Stearn introduced two important concepts, the terms "cultivar" and "grex". Cultivar, a term first proposed by L. H. Bailey in 1923, refers to a distinctive genus or species variety raised or maintained in cultivation, such as Euphorbia dulcis "Chameleon". Grex (Latin for "flock" or "herd") refers to a group of hybrids of common parentage, such as Lilium Pink Perfection Group. These concepts contributed a similar clarity to the nomenclature of garden or agricultural plants that Linnaeus had brought to the naming of native plants two centuries earlier. Stearn continued to play an active part in the International Botanical Congresses over many years, where he was remembered for his rhetorical persuasion on nomenclatural matters. He was also a pioneer in the application of computer-aided technology to (numerical taxonomy), as in his work on Columnea (1969). Botanical bibliography Motivated by his interest in botanical history and taxonomy, Stearn devoted a considerable part of his output to botanical bibliography, including numerous papers and catalogues establishing the exact publication dates of books on natural history, particularly from the early nineteenth century, including William Herbert's work on Amaryllidaceae (1821, 1837) and complete bibliographies of botanists such as John Gilmour (1989). At the RHS library he transformed the minimalist card indexing by introducing British Museum rules and adding extensive bibliographic information. He quickly realised that one of the major deficits in contemporary taxonomic nomenclature was a lack of precise dates of all the names, and set about rectifying this over a fifteen-year period, resulting in 86 publications, which was a major step in stabilising nomenclature. The importance of this lay in the rules of botanical nomenclature, which gives botanical names priority based on dates of publication. He considered his most important contribution in this regard to be his elucidation of the dating of the early 19th century collection of studies of Canary Islands flora by Webb and Berthelot (1836–1850). Another important work from this period was on Ventenat's Jardin de la Malmaison (1803–1804), also published in the new Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History. In a number of instances his contributions to others' work went unacknowledged, particularly when he was younger, even though his introductions (often with the title "Revised and enlarged by W. T. Stearn") could be as lengthy as the texts they preceded. His contributions to botanical bibliography and in particular the correct interpretation of historical texts from Linnaeus to Arber are considered of central importance to the field of taxonomy. Botanical illustration Within a few years after Stearn returned from the war, his Art of Botanical Illustration (1950) was published, remaining the standard work on the subject to this day. There was, however, some bibliographic confusionCollins, the publisher, had planned a book on botanical art for its New Naturalist series, but mistakenly commissioned both Stearn and the art historian Wilfred Blunt independently to produce the work. After the error was discovered the two decided to collaborate; Blunt wrote the work while Stearn edited and revised it. When it was published, Blunt's name was on the title page, while Stearn was only acknowledged in the preface. The omission was not rectified till he prepared the second edition in 1994, although the preface reveals Stearn's extensive contribution. His continuing interest in botanical illustration led him to produce work on both historical and contemporary artists, including the Florilegium of Captain Cook and Joseph Banks from their first voyage to the Pacific on the Endeavour, the similar account of Ferdinand Bauer's later botanical expedition to Australia with Matthew Flinders on the Investigator (1801–1803), and the work of illustrator Franz Bauer (the brother of Ferdinand). Stearn's studies of Ferdinand Bauer's Flora Graeca (1806–1840) enabled him to combine his passion for Greece with that of illustration. Other illustrators of this period that he wrote about included William Hooker. Awards William Stearn received three honorary doctorates during his lifetime, from Leiden (D.Sc.1960), Cambridge (Sc.D.1967), and Uppsala (Fil.Dr.1972). He was the Masters Memorial Lecturer, Royal Horticultural Society in 1964. In 1976 the Linnean Society awarded him their Gold Medal for his contributions to Linnean scholarship and taxonomic botany. In 1985 he was the Wilkins Lecturer of the Royal Society, entitled Wilkins, John Ray, and Carl Linnaeus. In 1986 he received the Founder's Medal of the Society for the History of Natural History and in 1993 he received the Engler Gold Medal from the International Association for Plant Taxonomy. The Royal Horticultural Society awarded him both their Veitch Memorial Medal (1964) and Victoria Medal of Honour (VMH, 1965). In 2000 he received the Asa Gray Award, the highest honour of the American Society of Plant Taxonomists. Stearn was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1997 Birthday Honours for services to horticulture and botany. He was well regarded in Sweden for his studies on Linnaeus, and possessed a good grasp of the language. In addition to his honorary doctorate from Uppsala, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded him their Linnaeus Medal in 1972, he was granted the title of Commander of the Swedish Order of the Star of the North (Polar Star) in 1980 and admitted to membership of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1983. Stearn was also elected to membership of the Swedish Linnaeus Society. Legacy Stearn is considered a preeminent British botanist, and was once likened to botanical scholars such as Robert Brown, Darwin, the Hookers (William and Joseph) and Frans Stafleu. He has been variously described as a Renaissance man, a polymath, "the modern Linnaeus", "the great Linnaean scholar of our day", "one of the world's greatest botanists" and a giant among botanists and horticulturalists. On his death, The Times noted his encyclopedic grasp of his field, stating that he was "acknowledged as the greatest botanical authority of the twentieth century". One description that Stearn rejected, however, was "the complete naturalist"an allusion to the title of his biography of Linnaeus. His contribution to his field was far greater than his extensive bibliography suggests, since he was known for his input into many of his colleagues' work, leading Professor P. B. Tomlinson to observe "he left no tome unstearned". The Society for the History of Natural History of which he was a founding member has created the William T. Stearn Student Essay Prize in his honour. Eponymy Stearn is the botanical authority for over 400 taxa that bear his name, such as Allium chrysonemum Stearn. Many plants have been named (eponymy) after him, including the orchid nothogenus hybrid ×Stearnara J. M. H. Shaw. A number of species have been designated stearnii after William Stearn, including: Allium stearnii Pastor & Valdés Berberis stearnii Ahrendt Epimedium stearnii Ogisu & Rix Justicia stearnii V.A.W. Graham Schefflera stearnii R.A.Howard & Proctor In light of his work on Epimedium, a cultivar was named in his honour in 1988, Epimedium 'William Stearn'. Selected publications see and See also History of botany Cambridge Botanic Garden Notes References Bibliography General books, articles and chapters Books (see Valerie Finnis) (see Flora Europaea) (see front matter) Historical sources (see Philosophia Botanica) also available here Articles Chapters , in , in , in , in Articles about Stearn Stearn bibliography Works by Stearn cited Articles Books Chapters , in , in vol. 2 , in vol. 1 , in vol. 3 , in , in vol. 5 , in vol. 3 (vol. 2: pp. 390, 410ff in 2nd. ed.) , in , in vol. 4 (vol. 2: pp. 444ff in 2nd. ed.) , in Collaborative and edited work Books and articles (see Banks' Florilegium) (see Species plantarum) (see Genera plantarum) (see Mantissa plantarum) Reviews: Review: Massachusetts Horticultural Society (see Ferdinand Bauer) , in (see William Hooker) Chapters , in vol. 2 (vol. 1: pp. 133–146 in 2nd. ed.) , in Websites Images Bibliographic notes Citations for bibliographic notes External links 1911 births 2001 deaths British botanists Employees of the Natural History Museum, London Presidents of the Linnean Society of London Linnean Medallists Veitch Memorial Medal recipients Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Victoria Medal of Honour recipients Commanders of the Order of the Polar Star People from Chesterton, Cambridge People associated with the University of Cambridge British taxonomists Deaths from pneumonia in England
4868810	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Settlers%20IV	The Settlers IV	The Settlers IV (), released as The Settlers: Fourth Edition in North America, is a real-time strategy video game with city-building elements, developed by Blue Byte and published by Ubi Soft. Released in Germany for Microsoft Windows in February 2001, in the United Kingdom in March, and in North America in August, it is the fourth game in The Settlers series, following The Settlers (1993), The Settlers II (1996) and The Settlers III (1998). In August, Blue Byte released an expansion, The Settlers IV Mission CD, featuring new single-player campaign missions, new maps for both single-player and multiplayer modes, a random map generator and map editor, gameplay improvements, and bug fixes. In December, they released a second expansion, The Settlers IV: The Trojans and the Elixir of Power (), containing new single-player campaigns, additional single and multiplayer maps, improved graphics, and additional gameplay tweaks. In March 2002, The Settlers IV: Gold Edition was released, containing the original game and both expansions, plus fan-made maps for multiplayer mode, and two minigames. In November 2009, Gameloft ported the original game to iOS, under the title The Settlers. Although featuring updated graphics and utilising touch controls, the gameplay, game mechanics and storyline are identical to the original. In April 2010, The Settlers was released for webOS, specifically optimised for the Palm Pre. Gameloft later released HD versions for iPad, bada, Symbian and Android. In 2013, the Gold Edition was released on GOG.com. In 2018, the game was re-released as The Settlers IV: History Edition. In the game's single-player campaign, the player controls three races (Romans, Vikings and Mayans) as they initially fight one another, before joining forces to combat the much greater threat posed to each of them by the exiled god Morbus, who has been banished to Earth after instigating a failed rebellion against the great god, HE. Unable to bear touching foliage, Morbus leads the mysterious Dark Tribe as he sets about attempting to erase all natural greenery from the planet's surface. The Trojans and the Elixir of Power takes place many centuries later, when the war against the Dark Tribe has faded from memory, and the three victorious civilisations have returned to fighting with one another. However, when Morbus once more proves a threat, attempting to permanently cure his allergy of greenery by creating a powerful elixir, it falls to the Trojans to unite the others, and stand against him and the Dark Tribe. Acting on feedback from fans who had felt Settlers III was too focused on combat, the designers aimed for a return to the core supply and demand-based gameplay of the first two titles in the series. As a result, the game was designed to strike a balance between economic planning and military conquest. Although the basic gameplay remains relatively unchanged from Settlers III, some of the game mechanics have been altered. For example, for the first time in the series, the offensive strength of the player's military is tied to the economic value of their settlement; the player has access to each rank of soldier from the beginning of each mission, with the ability to select the rank of every soldier prior to recruitment; the game's single-player campaign focuses on a race that cannot be defeated solely by military means; and specialty units and squad leaders have been added to enhance the tactical aspects of combat, with warships also made available, allowing for combat at sea. The Settlers IV received mixed reviews, with most critics feeling it was too similar to The Settlers III, and many opining that Blue Byte had failed to steer the gameplay away from an over-reliance on combat. Although the graphics and animations were generally praised, the AI, mission variety, and limited combat strategy were criticised, with reviews comparing the game unfavourably to titles such as Age of Empires II and Zeus: Master of Olympus. The handheld version received more positive reviews, and was lauded for replicating the original game on a portable device, and for successfully adapting the controls to a touchscreen. The most common criticism concerned the lack of free play and multiplayer modes. Gameplay The Settlers IV is a real-time strategy game with city-building elements, controlled via a point and click interface. The general gameplay and game mechanics are very similar to The Settlers III, and the primary goal on most maps is to build a settlement with a functioning economy, producing sufficient military and/or specialist units so as to conquer rival territories. To achieve this end, the player must engage in economic micromanagement, construct buildings, and generate resources. Game modes The game can be played in one of two modes; single-player or multiplayer. In single-player mode, the player can play either campaign missions or individual non-campaign games ("Free Maps"). In campaign mode, the player must complete a series of missions, the goal of most of which is to defeat the computer controlled opponent or opponents by gaining possession of their territory, or, in the case of the Dark Tribe, by destroying their temple using gardeners. In the original release of the game, there were three separate campaigns of three missions each (one campaign each for the Romans, Vikings, and Mayans), and a fourth campaign of twelve missions in which the player controls all three races as they fight against the Dark Tribe. The Mission CD expansion added three additional campaigns of five missions for each race, plus three "Settlement" missions and three "Conflict" missions. The Trojans and the Elixir of Power expansion added three campaigns of four missions for each of the original three races, four Settlement missions, and a new campaign of twelve missions in which the player controls the Trojans against the Dark Tribe. In Free Maps and multiplayer mode, which can be played via a LAN or online, the player chooses the map on which to play, and then refines the game in various ways, such as adjusting the number of computer controlled opponents, the amount of raw materials available at the start of the game, and/or the victory conditions. The player can also select the type of game to be played, choosing from "Conflict Mode" (each player/race competes against one another), "Ranking List" (players receive points at the end of the game for ranking on Blue Byte's online league table); "Cooperation Mode" (players combine forces to achieve a predetermined objective against computer controlled races), "Economic Mode" (the winner is the player to produce the most goods in at least four out of seven categories within a time limit), "Settlefest" (players compete on separate, but identical, single-player maps to be the first to reach a given objective), or "Free Settle Mode" (one player/race). Settlers and transportation Whether playing single-player or multiplayer mode, each game begins the same way; the player has a small settlement, a set amount of raw materials and tools, and a predetermined number of settlers. The basic gameplay revolves around serfs (the titular "settlers"), who transport materials, tools and produce, and who populate and perform the requisite task of each building. As in The Settlers III, new settlers can only be acquired by the construction of residences. At no point does the player directly control any normal settler - instead, general orders are issued (such as ordering the construction of a building), with the AI handling the delegation of orders to specific settlers. However, the player can control specialist settlers, of which there are four types; pioneers (extend the player's territory by digging at the border), thieves (scout enemy territory and steal resources), geologists (test mountainous ground for raw materials), and gardeners (reclaim terrain corrupted by the Dark Tribe). When playing a multiplayer game, the player also has access to a fifth specialist unit; the Saboteur, who can attack and destroy all enemy buildings, not just military installations. As in The Settlers III, players do not have to construct a road network. Instead, settlers can walk freely around the player's territory, with the AI handling pathfinding. Like all previous games in the series, The Settlers IV has an adjustable goods priority system, which determines the order in which items are transported. Players can also build marketplaces, which allow for the establishment of trade routes between areas on the same geographical region, and shipyards, which allow for the manufacture of warships, ferries (can transport specialist settlers, soldiers and war machines) and trade ships (can transport items from a landing dock to a different geographical region). Races and economy In the original game, the player controlled three races; Romans, Vikings and Mayans. The Trojans and the Elixir of Power added the Trojans as a fourth race. As in Settlers III, each race has a slightly different economic model. For example, the Romans' and Trojans' construction industries require roughly equal amounts of wood and stone, the Vikings' more wood than stone, and the Mayans' more stone than wood. Each race also has specific skills; for example, only the Romans can produce manna using only two buildings; only the Vikings can build war machines and warships which use manna rather than physical ammunition; and only the Mayans can utilise desert terrain (to grow agave plants necessary for the production of tequila). The economy is under the player's control throughout the game. For example, the player can control the distribution of goods by selecting which percentage of a given resource is transported to a given building. In a similar manner, the player can select what tools are made when. Tool production is important insofar as all buildings require raw materials and a worker with the right tool. For example, if the player has built a mine, and the building is still empty despite the presence of idle settlers, a pickaxe will need to be manufactured in the toolsmith. The game also uses a notification system that alerts the player if a building cannot be occupied either due to a lack of the right tool or the absence of available settlers. As in The Settlers III, the game features magic, whereby each race can call upon their deities for economic and/or military assistance. Once the player has both manna and priests, they have finite access to a number of spells, the nature of which depends on the race. These spells include tuning fish to stone, turning enemy soldiers to allies (Romans), turning stone to iron, temporarily freezing enemies (Vikings), turning wood to gold, turning enemy bowmen into butterflies (Mayans), turning sulphur to iron, and turning enemy soldiers into normal settlers (Trojans). Military The player's territory can only be expanded by using pioneers or building a military complex near the territory border. Each complex must have at least one soldier garrisoned for the territory to expand. To recruit soldiers, the player must build a barracks, with each individual soldier requiring their requisite weapon to transition from settler to soldier. The player can also build lookout towers, which are manned by regular settlers, and which can see for great distances, but don't grant new territory. There are three classes of soldier common to all races: swordsmen, bowmen and squad leaders. The level of swordsmen and bowmen is set by the player prior to recruitment, with both types of soldier having three ranks, determined by the amount of gold necessary for recruitment (no gold for Level 1, one gold bar for Level 2 and two gold bars for Level 3). Squad leaders are available in only one rank, and require a sword, a suit of armour and three gold bars to recruit. As well as being stronger and having more health than a Level 3 swordsman, they also affect the troops around them; improving their formations, increasing their combat strategy, and enhancing their abilities. Additionally, if the player assigns a squad leader to a group of soldiers, orders need to be issued to the squad leader only; the squad will automatically follow him to the destination ordered by the player. Each race can also produce warships, war machines (catapults for the Romans, magical lightning generators for the Vikings, canons for the Mayans, and ballistae for the Trojans), and special military units (medics for the Romans, axe warriors for the Vikings, blowgun warriors for the Mayans, and backpack catapultists for the Trojans). As with swordmen and bowmen, special military units have three levels of recruitment. In order for the player to attack an enemy building, they must click near that building with soldiers selected. If the player's units defeat all soldiers stationed in the building, they will occupy it, with the player's territory increasing according to the building's radius. Defense of the player's military buildings is automatic; as enemies attack, any soldiers stationed in the building defend. Any nearby soldiers will also defend the building, unless ordered not to. When soldiers are fighting within their own territory, their strength is always 100%. When they are fighting outside, their strength is tied to the economic value of the settlement itself. Of especial importance in improving the strength of one's army are "Eyecatchers" (decorative monuments), which are worth double their construction value in relation to the player's military strength. Plot The game begins shortly after the failure of a rebellion instigated by the dark god Morbus against the great god HE. For his treachery, HE banishes Morbus to Earth, Morbus's most hated place in the universe, due to its vast amounts of greenery. Unable to bear touching foliage, Morbus determines to destroy all of Earth's plant life. His dark gardener eventually develops a substance known as shadow-weed, which sucks the energy out of the land, killing all nearby foliage, and transforming the terrain into a blackened wasteland: the Dark Lands. Meanwhile, unaware of the presence of Morbus, a war is raging between three races who have recently come into contact with one another; the Romans, the Vikings and the Mayans. The first to encounter the Dark Lands are the Romans, whose scouts return word of the effects of shadow-weed, which they initially believe to be a new Mayan weapon. As a result, the Romans attack and destroy a nearby Mayan colony, but quickly realise the Dark Lands are not the Mayans' doing. When the Mayans, who have also encountered the Dark Lands, suggest a temporary alliance, the Romans reluctantly agree. However, as they begin to investigate the Dark Lands further, the Mayans turn on them. Elsewhere, the Vikings also encounter the effects of shadow-weed, when they discover one of their most sacred burial grounds surrounded by the Dark Lands. Setting out to reclaim their territory, they are attacked by an army of mindless soldiers. Nearby, the Romans learn the secret of how the Dark Army is created - human settlers are converted by Shamans into servants of Morbus, thus forming the Dark Tribe. They are then put to work on mushroom farms, converting mushroom spores into manna, which is transported to the nearest Dark Temple, where it is used to create the Dark Army. With this clearer understanding of the Dark Tribe, the Romans ally with the Vikings, and determine to destroy the farms. However, the Mayans see the alliance between the Romans and the Vikings as a direct threat. Only after attacking colonies belonging to both do they realise the alliance was not focused on attacking them, but on combating the Dark Tribe. By this time, however, they find themselves surrounded by the Dark Lands. Despite their previous animosity, the Romans and the Vikings save the Mayans, and the three unite, going on the offensive in an effort to wipe out the Dark Tribe. Eventually, the Vikings locate what they believe to be the final Dark Temple. They destroy it, but the remnants of the Dark Tribe survive, and rally for a final battle. Secure in the knowledge that one more victory is all that is required, the Mayans launch an attack. They prove victorious, and with all of the Dark Tribe's temples and farms eradicated, and no way of breeding new troops, Morbus retreats to his lair. Begging HE for mercy, Morbus is horrified to see vines infesting the building, quickly wrapping themselves around him, and turning him to stone. The Trojans and the Elixir of Power The Trojans and the Elixir of Power begins many centuries after the events of the main game. Morbus remains in a petrified state in territory now controlled by the Trojans, who are unaware of the other races, of Morbus's identity, or of the war against the Dark Tribe. The story begins when Morbus's assistant, Q'nqüra, spreads shadow-weed around the statue, releasing him. When the Trojans discover the statue gone and the effects of shadow-weed spreading, they elect to abandon the area. Landing on a new island, they encounter friendly Romans and hostile Mayans. Allying with the Romans, the Trojans tell them of the disappearance of Morbus's statue, and the Romans tell them the history of the war, and call a meeting of all four races. They are all shocked, however, when they learn the Dark Tribe are now using aerial vehicles, dubbed manacopters, to easily infiltrate their lines and inflict huge losses. After the Romans, Vikings, and Mayans are all attacked, the Trojans are tasked with destroying the Dark Tribe's research lab and, with it, the manacopter blueprints. When they raid the lab, they discover Morbus's plan; his dark gardeners are attempting to create an elixir to cure his inability to touch greenery by using a complex combination of herbs, and are only one herb from a final breakthrough. The four races divide the land up into sectors to search for the final herb, and shortly thereafter, the Vikings locate it. Their priests begin to harvest it, but the Dark Tribe soon arrive, and the Trojans develop a poison to use on the herb should the Vikings be unable to harvest it in time. The Viking priest is ambushed and killed, and the Dark Tribe acquire the herb, but it remains unclear if the priest was able to use the poison before his death. Meanwhile, Morbus's temple is located, and the Trojans lead an assault. They succeed in destroying it, but not before Morbus is able to create and drink the elixir. Emerging from the ruins of his temple to see the greenery surrounding it, he laughs and declares "nothing can stop me now". Suddenly, he sneezes, leading to him being engulfed by mist and also revealing that the Vikings succeeded The game then cuts to some time later; on the site of the temple now stands a small cottage with a garden full of blooming flowers. Morbus then emerges from the cottage and happily attends to his garden, fully cured of his hatred of foliage. Development Announcement and gameplay The Settlers IV was announced by Blue Byte at the ECTS in August 1999. Volker Wertich, who had created The Settlers series, and designed and programmed both the original Settlers and The Settlers III, was not involved in development, because, as he later explained, "Blue Byte wanted to have it ready for release by Christmas 2000, which, in my opinion, was not sufficient time to create a worthy title". The game was first shown at the E3 event in May 2000, where Blue Byte stated that gameplay would emphasise economic planning over military conquest. Citing negative feedback from fans who felt Settlers III was too combat-orientated, the designers intended the new game as a return to the core supply and demand-based gameplay of The Settlers and The Settlers II. They also revealed the game would feature three playable races (Romans, Vikings and Mayans) and a new non-playable race (the Dark Tribe). Speaking of the importance of the Dark Tribe to the economic-based gameplay, project manager and co-designer Hans-Jürgen Brändle explained: In an interview with GamesZone, Brändle further stated, "we have made sure there is a balance between settling and combat with virtually every rule change and new feature". Addressing why the game would feature nearly identical economic processes as Settlers III despite the refocused gameplay, he explained: "The majority of the feedback gave us a clear understanding that the economy in Settlers is simply great as it is, and that the game should not be artificially inflated with new goods or people. The fun, the ease of playing, should not be overwhelmed by unnecessarily complex contexts". Speaking to IGN later in the year, Brändle reiterated the designers' hopes that the game would more fully integrate economic-based settling with combat than had the previous title: Of the three races in the game, Brändle explained the developers chose the Romans as they were a "traditional" Settlers race, the Vikings as they were the most fan-requested race, and the Mayans as they needed a race than used more stone than wood in their construction industry, and because the developers felt that the Mayans are a somewhat historically mysterious culture. Graphics In the GamesZone interview, Brändle also addressed the issue of the similarity in graphics between the new game and Settlers III: "We have deliberately programmed an engine that is very much like the previous one. We wanted to make the fans feel like they were back in the familiar world of The Settlers". As with Settlers III, the buildings in the game were created using 3D Studio Max, with Adobe Photoshop used to create the textures. Each race was assigned their own specific artist, who worked on nothing except the buildings for that particular race. According to lead artist/co-designer/co-writer Torsten Hess, this was done "so that the style of the buildings within a people is uniform". However, there were certain overriding rules to which the individual artists had to adhere. One of the most important was a technique Hess had employed on Settlers III; after the textures were applied, they were "dirtied" so as to create a lived-in, real-world sense. Hess explains, was: "Rigid and straight edges should be avoided. Beautiful curves and moving lines are instead used to suggest life in the settlers world. For the textures, this means stronger colours, a slightly higher contrast than the figures, as well as a lot of detail and the use of many different colour families. We definitely want to avoid a sterile look. We also draw all the textures by hand". For the settlers themselves, the designers also used the same basic techniques as developed on Settlers III; the figures couldn't be too graphically complex, since small details would be lost, given their size (32 pixels in height). At the same time, the designs had to be detailed enough so as to seem at least somewhat realistic, even at such a small size. To solve this problem, the settlers' proportions were exaggerated, and their weapons and tools designed so as to be proportionally too big, as correctly sized implements would be far too small to be seen. For the process of animating the settlers, character animator/co-writer Thorsten Wallner explains, "We place a skeleton behind each settler, which controls the movement sequences. Each skeleton dictates the standard movements, such as bending, running or standing. Additional animations can then be added to individual characters. With this technology, we do not need to animate every settler anew, but only add additional animations". Promotion and delay In July 2000, Blue Byte advertised for 5,000 participants for an online closed beta. However, the beta was postponed in early August, due to "technical issues related to the lobby software causing disruption to Battle Isle: The Andosia War". In late August, Blue Byte revealed it would be at least mid-September before the beta began. In October, Blue Byte released "Smack a Thief", a minigame designed to promote the main game. A variation on Whac-A-Mole, in "Smack a Thief", the player must click on Viking thieves before they can raid the Roman stores and escape. Available as a free download from Blue Byte's website, the game allowed players to upload their high scores to a global high score table. In early November, the online beta was cancelled, with Blue Byte's stating, "We have decided to take this step to concentrate on completing the game. Conducting a large, public beta test requires a lot of additional resources, which we now want to invest more specifically in development. Quality assurance will instead be ensured by our own internal testing department". In an interview with Planet of Games, Brändle clarified: "We do not have the resources to filter and sort all of the anticipated feedback from a beta test. We are currently concentrating exclusively on completion of the product". The following week, Blue Byte announced the slated December release had been pushed back to January 2001, with Thomas Hertzler (Blue Byte CEO and the series producer) explaining, "we know that many gamers were particularly looking forward to The Settlers IV this year and, of course, we understand if Settlerss fans are disappointed. In the end, however, we made our decision with the players in mind. The Settlers IV will not be on shelves before Christmas, but fans will receive a game that corresponds to Blue Byte's high quality standard". Release and Ubisoft takeover In January, the German release date was pushed back to February 15. On February 6, Ubi Soft acquired Blue Byte, revealing their plans to publish the game internationally, with president and CEO, Yves Guillemot, stating: On February 15, the game was released in Germany as planned. However, it suffered from numerous bugs, leading to a negative reaction from fans, and criticism of both the game and Blue Byte in the German gaming press. Although Blue Byte issued a patch the same day the game was released, it introduced additional problems, leading to further negative press. A second patch was released four days later to correct the problems introduced by the first patch. According to German magazine PC Games, 76% of players experienced technical difficulties with the release version of the game. Co-designer Thorsten Mutschall later admitted it had not been ready for release in February and should have been held back for additional playtesting and programming. On March 19, Ubi Soft announced the game would be released throughout Europe at the end of the month, explaining "the reasons behind the unfortunate delay of the product were essentially quality assurance issues". Portable versions In November 2009, working in conjunction with Blue Byte, under license from Ubisoft, Gameloft ported the game to iOS, released under the title The Settlers. In April 2010, the game was ported to webOS, specifically optimised for use with the Palm Pre. In September, Gameloft released HD versions for iPad and bada (optimised for the Wave S8500). The Settlers HD was later released for Symbian in January 2011, and for Android in May. Although the handheld versions of the game feature updated graphics, the gameplay and game mechanics are identical to the original, with the storyline including the full twenty-one single-player missions from the original release (three Roman missions, three Viking missions, three Mayan missions, and a twelve mission Dark Tribe campaign). The main change to the game involves the HUD, which was redesigned so as to accommodate touchscreen controls. For example, rather than the building menu always present onscreen, it is accessed by pressing an icon which opens the "Build Menu". From within this menu, the player then has access to various submenus, such as "Basic Buildings", "Food Buildings" and "Military Buildings". Similarly, to access the menu to control specialist settlers, the player touches another icon, which is only available if the player has any such settlers available. Pressing down on any icon for two seconds brings up a brief help screen for that icon, and pausing the game allows the player to access a full help menu, replacing the "Extended tool tips" which appeared on-screen in the original. Reception The Settlers IV received "mixed or average" reviews, with an aggregate score of 74 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on five reviews, and 71% on GameRankings, based on seventeen reviews. The iOS version was received more positively, with an aggregate score of 79% on GameRankings, based on six reviews. PC Players Damian Knaus scored the original game 85 out of 100, giving it a "Gold Player" award. Although he was impressed with the Dark Tribe, he criticised the integration of gardeners into the gameplay, calling them an "unnecessary extravagance". He was also critical of the lack of any "real innovations" and the absence of female settlers. However, despite these reservations, he felt the game was the best Settlers title thus far, and was especially impressed with the graphics. PC Games Rüdiger Steidle scored it 77%, the lowest score the magazine had ever given to a Settlers title. The issue in which the review appeared had both an editorial justifying the score, and a text box within the review, titled "Why only 77%", in which the magazine wrote: In his review, Steidle criticised the game's similarity to Settlers III, writing that "Blue Byte has not altered the concept at all". Although he praised the graphics, the tutorials, and the variety of mission objectives, he was critical of the bugs, writing, "in typical Blue Byte fashion, the game has appeared in time for the first patch". He concluded that "anyone who is, like me, a fan of the series, will be disappointed". PC Gamers Jim Preston scored it 72%. Although he praised the economic system on which the game is built, he criticised the lack of variety within it, writing, "you're forced to create the entire supporting infrastructure for your settlement the same way every time." He also referred to the gameplay as "complication masquerading as depth". IGNs Dan Adams scored it 7 out of 10, comparing it unfavourably to Zeus: Master of Olympus. His biggest criticism concerned the lack of differentiation from Settlers III, writing that "aside from some improved graphics and small additions, it's hard to tell this is really a new game". He was also critical of the AI, pathfinding, and repetitive missions, and he felt the designers had failed to steer the gameplay away from an over-reliance on combat. While praising the graphics, animations, and the game's "great personality", he concluded: "Blue Byte hasn't managed to find [any] new ideas that might keep the series from becoming the serious pool of stagnant gaming that it is quickly becoming". GameSpys Bernard Dy scored it 67 out of 100, comparing it unfavourably to Age of Empires II. Like Adams, he felt it was too similar to Settlers III, and although he praised the "appealing" graphics and "fascinating" animations, he felt Blue Byte had failed to return the gameplay to an economic focus, writing "nearly every scenario is a race to build a military". He also criticised the AI, lack of combat strategy, and mission variety. He did, however, praise Free Settle and multiplayer modes, concluding that "Settlers: Fourth Edition has charming moments, but has been long surpassed by games with better character and superior combat". GameSpots Ron Dulin scored it 6.4 out of 10, finding similar problems to Adams and Dy, and comparing it unfavourably to Impressions Games' City Building series. Finding it too similar to Settlers III, he felt Blue Byte had failed to move away from a reliance on combat. He also criticised the mission variety and the lack of combat strategy, writing, "it's never more complex than moving all of your units slowly through enemy territory, hoping you'll have some left after your opponent doesn't". Although praising the basic supply and demand-based gameplay and the graphics, he wrote "The Settlers: Fourth Edition is really just the same old game with the same old problems". Computer Gaming Worlds Mark Asher scored it 3 out of 5, criticising "scenarios that differ in only minor ways", and arguing the best part of the game was Free Settler mode. Although he praised the graphics, and called the game a "pleasant enough experience", he noted it offered no major differences from previous Settlers titles, and would interest only the existing fanbase, who, he opined, may be getting bored of the same formula. Sales The game was a commercial success, and 2001's highest selling German-developed game. In February 2002, it was awarded the "Platinum Award" by the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland e.V. (VUD); an award given to titles costing DM55 or more, which sell over 200,000 units nationally within the first twelve months of their release. By August 2002, the game had sold over 300,000 units in Germany. Portable AppSpys Andrew Nesvadba scored the iOS version 5 out of 5, praising the graphics and touchscreen controls: "The Settlers is everything great about strategy games. It's easy enough to jump in and muck around while progressing, but ultimately there's a complex and amazingly detailed set of interactions for players to learn". Arron Hirst of 148Apps scored it 4 out of 5. Although he was critical of the lack of free play and multiplayer modes, he praised the controls and the replication of the original game mechanics, saying "the game is both immersive and addicting". TouchArcade also scored it 4 out of 5, criticising the lack of free play, but praising the graphics and sound effects, and calling the game "a solid experience". Pocket Gamers Tracy Erickson scored it 4 out of 5, giving it a "Silver Award", and calling it "surprisingly good" and "largely positive". Although he was critical of the lack of free play and multiplayer modes, and felt the playing area was oftentimes too cluttered with icons and menus, he concluded by praising the "deep economic strategy gameplay". Pocket Gamers Wayne Turton scored the bada version of The Settlers HD 3.5 out of 5, giving it a "Bronze Award" and praising the tutorials, controls, and graphics. In contrast, he was critical of the absence of non-campaign missions and multiplayer mode, and of the combat system, writing victory "usually comes down to which side can field the most units". He concluded, "there's a magical quality to The Settlers HD that draws you in, and a depth that will keep you playing". All About Symbians Ewan Spence scored the Symbian version 76%. Although critical of the AI, and feeling that the screen becomes too cluttered, especially during combat, he concluded that "it hits all the required marks in a game like this". Pocket Gamers Brendan Caldwell scored the Android version 4 out of 5, giving it a "Silver Award", and calling it "an almost resounding victory". Although critical of the tutorials, which he felt didn't adequately explain the intricacies of the game, and the controls, which he argued "don't quite have the accuracy or speed to truly emulate the traditional mouse and keyboard setup," he concluded, "with a depth not often enjoyed by Android titles, Settlers HD can be an enthralling game". Expansions Mission CD The game's first expansion was The Settlers IV Mission CD, released in Germany in August 2001, and featuring three five-mission single-player campaigns, three "Settlement" missions (focusing on building up the player's settlement and achieving economic goals, as opposed to military conquest), three "Conflict" missions (focusing on combat), sixteen new maps for single-player mode, and eighteen new maps for multiplayer mode. In terms of gameplay, the Mission CD features improved AI, more varied mission objectives, more sophisticated scripting within missions, and higher difficulty in single-player games. The expansion also features a random map generator, and map editor, and numerous bug fixes and stabilisations. The Trojans and the Elixir of Power Blue Byte released a second expansion, The Settlers IV: The Trojans and the Elixir of Power, in December, featuring thirteen new maps for single-player mode, thirteen new maps for multiplayer mode, three new four-mission single-player campaigns for each of the original three races, four Settlement missions, and a new twelve-mission campaign, in which the player controls a new race, the Trojans. The expansion also features improved graphics, adjustable difficulty, and the random map generator and map editor included with the Mission CD. In terms of gameplay, the importance of eyecatchers has been modified. Whereas in the original game, the player could increase their offensive strength beyond 100% by building enough eyectachers, or by building large numbers of a single eyectacher, in The Trojans and the Elixir of Power the maximum offensive strength achievable is 100%, which can only be reached if the player builds at least one of every eyecatcher. Gold Edition Released in March 2002, The Settlers IV: Gold Edition contains the original game, the Mission CD and The Trojans and the Elixir of Power. It also features fan-made maps for multiplayer mode, the "Smack a Thief" minigame, a new minigame ("The Dark Side"), Microsoft Windows wallpapers, and Settlers-themed skins for Winamp and ICQ. In 2013, the Gold Edition was released on GOG.com. Die Neue Welt and Community Pack Blue Byte later released two German-language expansions. In November 2002, they released Die Siedler IV: Die Neue Welt (). Set shortly after the Vikings discover America, the game begins with the Mayans organising a feast for the Vikings, before travelling to Europe with the aim of taking possession of the Wonders of the World, beginning with the Colossus of Rhodes. The Vikings, meanwhile, discover a map amongst the Mayans' possessions leading to a mythological island inhabited only by women, which they promptly set out to find. The Trojans, having been expelled from Troy by the Romans, are searching for a new homeland, and so head west. At the same time, the Romans are attempting to reconquer the world, beginning with the newly discovered continent. The expansion features four five-mission single-player campaigns (one for each of the three original races, and one for the Trojans), each with multiple objectives, many of which are optional, and most of which are economic-based rather than military-based. There are also two new single-player maps, and three new multiplayer maps, all with enhanced graphics and textures. In November 2003, they released Die Siedler IV: Community Pack. The expansion features four fan-created single-player campaigns based on real historical conflicts; the Roman attack on Carthage during the Third Punic War, the Viking invasion of England, the Huaxtec resistance against Spanish Conquistadors, and the battle for Troad during the Wars of the Diadochi. History Edition In November 2018, Ubisoft re-released the game as both a standalone History Edition and as part of The Settlers: History Collection. Optimised for Windows 10, the re-release contains the original game, the Mission CD, The Trojans and the Elixir of Power, Die Neue Welt, Community Pack, and the "Smack a Thief" minigame, and features autosave, 4K monitor support, dual monitor support, adjustable resolutions and texture quality, vertical synchronization, and online multiplayer. Available only on Uplay, the History Collection also includes re-releases of The Settlers, The Settlers II, The Settlers III, The Settlers: Heritage of Kings, The Settlers: Rise of an Empire, and The Settlers 7: Paths to a Kingdom. References External links (site dead; ) (site dead; ) () 2001 video games Android (operating system) games Bada games Blue Byte games City-building games Gameloft games IOS games Multiplayer and single-player video games Multiplayer online games Real-time strategy video games Symbian games The Settlers Ubisoft games Video game sequels Video games developed in Germany Video games set in antiquity Video games set in the Roman Empire Video games set in the Viking Age Video games with historical settings Video games with expansion packs Video games with isometric graphics WebOS games Windows games
4868935	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability%20of%20IQ	Heritability of IQ	Research on the heritability of IQ inquires into the degree of variation in IQ within a population that is due to genetic variation between individuals in that population. There has been significant controversy in the academic community about the heritability of IQ since research on the issue began in the late nineteenth century. Intelligence in the normal range is a polygenic trait, meaning that it is influenced by more than one gene, and in the case of intelligence at least 500 genes. Further, explaining the similarity in IQ of closely related persons requires careful study because environmental factors may be correlated with genetic factors. Early twin studies of adult individuals have found a heritability of IQ between 57% and 73%, with some recent studies showing heritability for IQ as high as 80%. IQ goes from being weakly correlated with genetics for children, to being strongly correlated with genetics for late teens and adults. The heritability of IQ increases with the child's age and reaches a plateau at 14-16 years old, continuing at that level well into adulthood. However, poor prenatal environment, malnutrition and disease are known to have lifelong deleterious effects. Although IQ differences between individuals have been shown to have a large hereditary component, it does not follow that disparities in IQ between groups have a genetic basis. The scientific consensus is that genetics does not explain average differences in IQ test performance between racial groups. Heritability and caveats Heritability is a statistic used in the fields of breeding and genetics that estimates the degree of variation in a phenotypic trait in a population that is due to genetic variation between individuals in that population. The concept of heritability can be expressed in the form of the following question: "What is the proportion of the variation in a given trait within a population that is not explained by the environment or random chance?" Estimates of heritability take values ranging from 0 to 1; a heritability estimate of 1 indicates that all variation in the trait in question is genetic in origin and a heritability estimate of 0 indicates that none of the variation is genetic. The determination of many traits can be considered primarily genetic under similar environmental backgrounds. For example, a 2006 study found that adult height has a heritability estimated at 0.80 when looking only at the height variation within families where the environment should be very similar. Other traits have lower heritability estimates, which indicate a relatively larger environmental influence. For example, a twin study on the heritability of depression in men estimated it as 0.29, while it was 0.42 for women in the same study. Caveats There are a number of points to consider when interpreting heritability: Heritability measures the proportion of variation in a trait that can be attributed to genes, and not the proportion of a trait caused by genes. Thus, if the environment relevant to a given trait changes in a way that affects all members of the population equally, the mean value of the trait will change without any change in its heritability (because the variation or differences among individuals in the population will stay the same). This has evidently happened for height: the heritability of stature is high, but average heights continue to increase. Thus, even in developed nations, a high heritability of a trait does not necessarily mean that average group differences are due to genes. Some have gone further, and used height as an example in order to argue that "even highly heritable traits can be strongly manipulated by the environment, so heritability has little if anything to do with controllability." A common error is to assume that a heritability figure is necessarily unchangeable. The value of heritability can change if the impact of environment (or of genes) in the population is substantially altered. If the environmental variation encountered by different individuals increases, then the heritability figure would decrease. On the other hand, if everyone had the same environment, then heritability would be 100%. The population in developing nations often has more diverse environments than in developed nations. This would mean that heritability figures would be lower in developing nations. Another example is phenylketonuria which previously caused mental retardation for everyone who had this genetic disorder and thus had a heritability of 100%. Today, this can be prevented by following a modified diet, resulting in a lowered heritability. A high heritability of a trait does not mean that environmental effects such as learning are not involved. Vocabulary size, for example, is very substantially heritable (and highly correlated with general intelligence) although every word in an individual's vocabulary is learned. In a society in which plenty of words are available in everyone's environment, especially for individuals who are motivated to seek them out, the number of words that individuals actually learn depends to a considerable extent on their genetic predispositions and thus heritability is high. Since heritability increases during childhood and adolescence, and even increases greatly between 16 and 20 years of age and adulthood, one should be cautious drawing conclusions regarding the role of genetics and environment from studies where the participants are not followed until they are adults. Furthermore, there may be differences regarding the effects on the g-factor and on non-g factors, with g possibly being harder to affect and environmental interventions disproportionately affecting non-g factors. Polygenic traits often appear less heritable at the extremes. A heritable trait is definitionally more likely to appear in the offspring of two parents high in that trait than in the offspring of two randomly selected parents. However, the more extreme the expression of the trait in the parents, the less likely the child is to display the same extreme as the parents. At the same time, the more extreme the expression of the trait in the parents, the more likely the child is to express the trait at all. For example, the child of two extremely tall parents is likely to be taller than the average person (displaying the trait), but unlikely to be taller than the two parents (displaying the trait at the same extreme). See also regression toward the mean. Estimates Various studies have estimated the heritability of IQ to be between 0.7 and 0.8 in adults and 0.45 in childhood in the United States. It has been found that estimates of heritability increase as individuals age. Heritability estimates in infancy are as low as 0.2, around 0.4 in middle childhood, and as high as 0.8 in adulthood. The brain undergoes morphological changes in development which suggests that age-related physical changes could contribute to this effect. A 1994 article in Behavior Genetics based on a study of Swedish monozygotic and dizygotic twins found the heritability of the sample to be as high as 0.80 in general cognitive ability; however, it also varies by trait, with 0.60 for verbal tests, 0.50 for spatial and speed-of-processing tests, and 0.40 for memory tests. In contrast, studies of other populations estimate an average heritability of 0.50 for general cognitive ability. In 2006, David Kirp, writing in The New York Times Magazine, summarized a century's worth of research as follows, "about three-quarters of I.Q. differences between individuals are attributable to heredity." Shared family environment There are some family effects on the IQ of children, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance. However, adoption studies show that by adulthood adoptive siblings aren't more similar in IQ than strangers, while adult full siblings show an IQ correlation of 0.24. However, some studies of twins reared apart (e.g. Bouchard, 1990) find a significant shared environmental influence, of at least 10% going into late adulthood. Judith Rich Harris suggests that this might be due to biasing assumptions in the methodology of the classical twin and adoption studies. There are aspects of environments that family members have in common (for example, characteristics of the home). This shared family environment accounts for 0.25-0.35 of the variation in IQ in childhood. By late adolescence it is quite low (zero in some studies). There is a similar effect for several other psychological traits. These studies have not looked into the effects of extreme environments such as in abusive families. The American Psychological Association's report "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" (1996) states that there is no doubt that normal child development requires a certain minimum level of responsible care. Severely deprived, neglectful, or abusive environments must have negative effects on a great many aspects of development, including intellectual aspects. Beyond that minimum, however, the role of family experience is in serious dispute. There is no doubt that such variables as resources of the home and parents' use of language are correlated with children's IQ scores, but such correlations may be mediated by genetic as well as (or instead of) environmental factors. But how much of that variance in IQ results from differences between families, as contrasted with the varying experiences of different children in the same family? Recent twin and adoption studies suggest that while the effect of the shared family environment is substantial in early childhood, it becomes quite small by late adolescence. These findings suggest that differences in the life styles of families whatever their importance may be for many aspects of children's lives make little long-term difference for the skills measured by intelligence tests. Non-shared family environment and environment outside the family Although parents treat their children differently, such differential treatment explains only a small amount of non-shared environmental influence. One suggestion is that children react differently to the same environment due to different genes. More likely influences may be the impact of peers and other experiences outside the family. For example, siblings grown up in the same household may have different friends and teachers and even contract different illnesses. This factor may be one of the reasons why IQ score correlations between siblings decreases as they get older. Malnutrition and diseases Certain single-gene metabolic disorders can severely affect intelligence. Phenylketonuria is an example, with publications demonstrating the capacity of phenylketonuria to produce a reduction of 10 IQ points on average. Meta-analyses have found that environmental factors, such as iodine deficiency, can result in large reductions in average IQ; iodine deficiency has been shown to produce a reduction of 12.5 IQ points on average. Heritability and socioeconomic status The APA report "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" (1996) also stated that: "We should note, however, that low-income and non-white families are poorly represented in existing adoption studies as well as in most twin samples. Thus it is not yet clear whether these studies apply to the population as a whole. It remains possible that, across the full range of income and ethnicity, between-family differences have more lasting consequences for psychometric intelligence." A study (1999) by Capron and Duyme of French children adopted between the ages of four and six examined the influence of socioeconomic status (SES). The children's IQs initially averaged 77, putting them near retardation. Most were abused or neglected as infants, then shunted from one foster home or institution to the next. Nine years later after adoption, when they were on average 14 years old, they retook the IQ tests, and all of them did better. The amount they improved was directly related to the adopting family's socioeconomic status. "Children adopted by farmers and laborers had average IQ scores of 85.5; those placed with middle-class families had average scores of 92. The average IQ scores of youngsters placed in well-to-do homes climbed more than 20 points, to 98." Stoolmiller (1999) argued that the range of environments in previous adoption studies was restricted. Adopting families tend to be more similar on, for example, socio-economic status than the general population, which suggests a possible underestimation of the role of the shared family environment in previous studies. Corrections for range restriction to adoption studies indicated that socio-economic status could account for as much as 50% of the variance in IQ. On the other hand, the effect of this was examined by Matt McGue and colleagues (2007), who wrote that "restriction in range in parent disinhibitory psychopathology and family socio-economic status had no effect on adoptive-sibling correlations [in] IQ" Turkheimer and colleagues (2003) argued that the proportions of IQ variance attributable to genes and environment vary with socioeconomic status. They found that in a study on seven-year-old twins, in impoverished families, 60% of the variance in early childhood IQ was accounted for by the shared family environment, and the contribution of genes is close to zero; in affluent families, the result is almost exactly the reverse. In contrast to Turkheimer (2003), a study by Nagoshi and Johnson (2005) concluded that the heritability of IQ did not vary as a function of parental socioeconomic status in the 949 families of Caucasian and 400 families of Japanese ancestry who took part in the Hawaii Family Study of Cognition. Asbury and colleagues (2005) studied the effect of environmental risk factors on verbal and non-verbal ability in a nationally representative sample of 4-year-old British twins. There was not any statistically significant interaction for non-verbal ability, but the heritability of verbal ability was found to be higher in low-SES and high-risk environments. Harden, Turkheimer, and Loehlin (2007) investigated adolescents, most 17 years old, and found that, among higher income families, genetic influences accounted for approximately 55% of the variance in cognitive aptitude and shared environmental influences about 35%. Among lower income families, the proportions were in the reverse direction, 39% genetic and 45% shared environment." In the course of a substantial review, Rushton and Jensen (2010) criticized the study of Capron and Duyme, arguing their choice of IQ test and selection of child and adolescent subjects were a poor choice because this gives a relatively less hereditable measure. The argument here rests on a strong form of Spearman's hypothesis, that the hereditability of different kinds of IQ test can vary according to how closely they correlate to the general intelligence factor (g); both the empirical data and statistical methodology bearing on this question are matters of active controversy. A 2011 study by Tucker-Drob and colleagues reported that at age 2, genes accounted for approximately 50% of the variation in mental ability for children being raised in high socioeconomic status families, but genes accounted for negligible variation in mental ability for children being raised in low socioeconomic status families. This gene–environment interaction was not apparent at age 10 months, suggesting that the effect emerges over the course of early development. A 2012 study based on a representative sample of twins from the United Kingdom, with longitudinal data on IQ from age two to age fourteen, did not find evidence for lower heritability in low-SES families. However, the study indicated that the effects of shared family environment on IQ were generally greater in low-SES families than in high-SES families, resulting in greater variance in IQ in low-SES families. The authors noted that previous research had produced inconsistent results on whether or not SES moderates the heritability of IQ. They suggested three explanations for the inconsistency. First, some studies may have lacked statistical power to detect interactions. Second, the age range investigated has varied between studies. Third, the effect of SES may vary in different demographics and different countries. A 2017 King's College London study suggests that genes account for nearly 50 per cent of the differences between whether children are socially mobile or not. Maternal (fetal) environment A meta-analysis by Devlin and colleagues (1997) of 212 previous studies evaluated an alternative model for environmental influence and found that it fits the data better than the 'family-environments' model commonly used. The shared maternal (fetal) environment effects, often assumed to be negligible, account for 20% of covariance between twins and 5% between siblings, and the effects of genes are correspondingly reduced, with two measures of heritability being less than 50%. They argue that the shared maternal environment may explain the striking correlation between the IQs of twins, especially those of adult twins that were reared apart. IQ heritability increases during early childhood, but whether it stabilizes thereafter remains unclear. These results have two implications: a new model may be required regarding the influence of genes and environment on cognitive function; and interventions aimed at improving the prenatal environment could lead to a significant boost in the population's IQ. Bouchard and McGue reviewed the literature in 2003, arguing that Devlin's conclusions about the magnitude of heritability is not substantially different from previous reports and that their conclusions regarding prenatal effects stands in contradiction to many previous reports. They write that: Chipuer et al. and Loehlin conclude that the postnatal rather than the prenatal environment is most important. The Devlin et al. (1997a) conclusion that the prenatal environment contributes to twin IQ similarity is especially remarkable given the existence of an extensive empirical literature on prenatal effects. Price (1950), in a comprehensive review published over 50 years ago, argued that almost all MZ twin prenatal effects produced differences rather than similarities. As of 1950 the literature on the topic was so large that the entire bibliography was not published. It was finally published in 1978 with an additional 260 references. At that time Price reiterated his earlier conclusion (Price, 1978). Research subsequent to the 1978 review largely reinforces Price's hypothesis (Bryan, 1993; Macdonald et al., 1993; Hall and Lopez-Rangel, 1996; see also Martin et al., 1997, box 2; Machin, 1996). Dickens and Flynn model Dickens and Flynn (2001) argued that the "heritability" figure includes both a direct effect of the genotype on IQ and also indirect effects where the genotype changes the environment, in turn affecting IQ. That is, those with a higher IQ tend to seek out stimulating environments that further increase IQ. The direct effect can initially have been very small but feedback loops can create large differences in IQ. In their model an environmental stimulus can have a very large effect on IQ, even in adults, but this effect also decays over time unless the stimulus continues. This model could be adapted to include possible factors, like nutrition in early childhood, that may cause permanent effects. The Flynn effect is the increase in average intelligence test scores by about 0.3% annually, resulting in the average person today scoring 15 points higher in IQ compared to the generation 50 years ago. This effect can be explained by a generally more stimulating environment for all people. The authors suggest that programs aiming to increase IQ would be most likely to produce long-term IQ gains if they taught children how to replicate outside the program the kinds of cognitively demanding experiences that produce IQ gains while they are in the program and motivate them to persist in that replication long after they have left the program. Most of the improvements have allowed for better abstract reasoning, spatial relations, and comprehension. Some scientists have suggested that such enhancements are due to better nutrition, better parenting and schooling, as well as exclusion of the least intelligent people from reproduction. However, Flynn and a group of other scientists share the viewpoint that modern life implies solving many abstract problems which leads to a rise in their IQ scores. Influence of genes on IQ stability Recent research has illuminated genetic factors underlying IQ stability and change. Genome-wide association studies have demonstrated that the genes involved in intelligence remain fairly stable over time. Specifically, in terms of IQ stability, "genetic factors mediated phenotypic stability throughout this entire period [age 0 to 16], whereas most age-to-age instability appeared to be due to non-shared environmental influences". These findings have been replicated extensively and observed in the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Netherlands. Additionally, researchers have shown that naturalistic changes in IQ occur in individuals at variable times. Influence of parents genes that are not inherited Kong reports that, "Nurture has a genetic component, i.e. alleles in the parents affect the parents' phenotypes and through that influence the outcomes of the child." These results were obtained through a meta-analysis of educational attainment and polygenic scores of non-transmitted alleles. Although the study deals with educational attainment and not IQ, these two are strongly linked. Spatial ability component of IQ Spatial ability has been shown to be unifactorial (a single score accounts well for all spatial abilities), and is 69% heritable in a sample of 1,367 pairs of twins from the ages 19 through 21. Further only 8% of spatial ability can be accounted for by shared environmental factors like school and family. Of the genetically determined portion of spatial ability, 24% is shared with verbal ability (general intelligence) and 43% was specific to spatial ability alone. Molecular genetic investigations A 2009 review article identified over 50 genetic polymorphisms that have been reported to be associated with cognitive ability in various studies, but noted that the discovery of small effect sizes and lack of replication have characterized this research so far. Another study attempted to replicate 12 reported associations between specific genetic variants and general cognitive ability in three large datasets, but found that only one of the genotypes was significantly associated with general intelligence in one of the samples, a result expected by chance alone. The authors concluded that most reported genetic associations with general intelligence are probably false positives brought about by inadequate sample sizes. Arguing that common genetic variants explain much of the variation in general intelligence, they suggested that the effects of individual variants are so small that very large samples are required to reliably detect them. Genetic diversity within individuals is heavily correlated with IQ. A novel molecular genetic method for estimating heritability calculates the overall genetic similarity (as indexed by the cumulative effects of all genotyped single nucleotide polymorphisms) between all pairs of individuals in a sample of unrelated individuals and then correlates this genetic similarity with phenotypic similarity across all the pairs. A study using this method estimated that the lower bounds for the narrow-sense heritability of crystallized and fluid intelligence are 40% and 51%, respectively. A replication study in an independent sample confirmed these results, reporting a heritability estimate of 47%. These findings are compatible with the view that a large number of genes, each with only a small effect, contribute to differences in intelligence. Correlations between IQ and degree of genetic relatedness The relative influence of genetics and environment for a trait can be calculated by measuring how strongly traits covary in people of a given genetic (unrelated, siblings, fraternal twins, or identical twins) and environmental (reared in the same family or not) relationship. One method is to consider identical twins reared apart, with any similarities that exist between such twin pairs attributed to genotype. In terms of correlation statistics, this means that theoretically the correlation of tests scores between monozygotic twins would be 1.00 if genetics alone accounted for variation in IQ scores; likewise, siblings and dizygotic twins share on average half alleles and the correlation of their scores would be 0.50 if IQ were affected by genes alone (or greater if there is a positive correlation between the IQs of spouses in the parental generation). Practically, however, the upper bound of these correlations are given by the reliability of the test, which is 0.90 to 0.95 for typical IQ tests If there is biological inheritance of IQ, then the relatives of a person with a high IQ should exhibit a comparably high IQ with a much higher probability than the general population. In 1982, Bouchard and McGue reviewed such correlations reported in 111 original studies in the United States. The mean correlation of IQ scores between monozygotic twins was 0.86, between siblings 0.47, between half-siblings 0.31, and between cousins 0.15. The 2006 edition of Assessing adolescent and adult intelligence by Alan S. Kaufman and Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger reports correlations of 0.86 for identical twins raised together compared to 0.76 for those raised apart and 0.47 for siblings. These numbers are not necessarily static. When comparing pre-1963 to late 1970s data, researches DeFries and Plomin found that the IQ correlation between parent and child living together fell significantly, from 0.50 to 0.35. The opposite occurred for fraternal twins. Every one of these studies presented next contains estimates of only two of the three factors which are relevant. The three factors are G, E, and GxE. Since there is no possibility of studying equal environments in a manner comparable to using identical twins for equal genetics, the GxE factor can not be isolated. Thus the estimates are actually of G+GxE and E. Although this may seem like nonsense, it is justified by the unstated assumption that GxE=0. It is also the case that the values shown below are r correlations and not r(squared), proportions of variance. Numbers less than one are smaller when squared. The next to last number in the list below refers to less than 5% shared variance between a parent and child living apart. Another summary: Same person (tested twice over time) .85 or above Identical twins—Reared together .86 Identical twins—Reared apart .76 Fraternal twins—Reared together .55 Fraternal twins—Reared apart .35 Biological siblings—Reared together .47 Biological siblings—Reared apart .24 Biological siblings—Reared together—Adults .24 Unrelated children—Reared together—Children .28 Unrelated children—Reared together—Adults .04 Cousins .15 Parent-child—Living together .42 Parent-child—Living apart .22 Adoptive parent–child—Living together .19 Between-group heritability In the US, individuals identifying themselves as Asian generally tend to score higher on IQ tests than Caucasians, who tend to score higher than Hispanics, who tend to score higher than African Americans –– despite the fact that greater variation in IQ scores exists within each ethnic group than between them. Yet, although IQ differences between individuals have been shown to have a large hereditary component, it does not follow that between-group differences in average IQ have a genetic basis. The scientific consensus is that genetics does not explain average differences in IQ test performance between racial groups. Growing evidence indicates that environmental factors, not genetic ones, explain the racial IQ gap. Arguments in support of a genetic explanation of racial differences in average IQ are sometimes fallacious. For instance, some hereditarians have cited as evidence the failure of known environmental factors to account for such differences, or the high heritability of intelligence within races. Jensen and Rushton, in their formulation of Spearman's Hypothesis, argued that cognitive tasks that have the highest g-load are the tasks in which the gap between black and white test takers is greatest, and that this supports their view that racial IQ gaps are in large part genetic. However, in separate reviews, Mackintosh, Nisbett et al. and Flynn have all concluded that the slight correlation between g-loading and the test score gap offers no clue to the cause of the gap. Further reviews of both adoption studies and racial admixture studies have also found no evidence for a genetic component behind group-level IQ differences. Hereditarian arguments for racial differences in IQ have been criticized from a theoretical point of view as well. For example, the geneticist and neuroscientist Kevin Mitchell has argued that "systematic genetic differences in intelligence between large, ancient populations" are "inherently and deeply implausible" because the "constant churn of genetic variation works against any long-term rise or fall in intelligence." As he argues, "To end up with systematic genetic differences in intelligence between large, ancient populations, the selective forces driving those differences would need to have been enormous. What's more, those forces would have to have acted across entire continents, with wildly different environments, and have been persistent over tens of thousands of years of tremendous cultural change." In favor of an environmental explanation, on the other hand, numerous studies and reviews have shown promising results. Among these, some focus on the gradual closing of the black–white IQ gap over the last decades of the 20th century, as black test-takers increased their average scores relative to white test-takers. For instance, Vincent reported in 1991 that the black–white IQ gap was decreasing among children, but that it was remaining constant among adults. Similarly, a 2006 study by Dickens and Flynn estimated that the difference between mean scores of black people and white people closed by about 5 or 6 IQ points between 1972 and 2002, a reduction of about one-third. In the same period, the educational achievement disparity also diminished. Reviews by Flynn and Dickens, Mackintosh, and Nisbett et al. all accept the gradual closing of the gap as a fact. Other recent studies have focused on disparities in nutrition and prenatal care, as well as other health-related environmental disparities, and have found that these disparities may account for significant IQ gaps between population groups. Still other studies have focused on educational disparities, and have found that intensive early childhood education and test preparation can diminish or eliminate the black–white IQ test gap. In light of these and similar findings, a consensus has formed that genetics does not explain differences in average IQ test performance between racial groups. See also Notes and references Works cited Further reading Books Review articles Online articles External links Free Massively Open Online Course on human behavior genetics by Matt McGue of the University of Minnesota, including unit on genetics of human intelligence Race and intelligence controversy Factors related to intelligence Medical genetics Behavioural genetics Intelligence quotient Quantitative genetics
4868977	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce%20Kison	Bruce Kison	Bruce Eugene Kison (February 18, 1950 – June 2, 2018) was an American professional baseball pitcher, who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Pittsburgh Pirates (1971–79), California Angels (1980–84) and Boston Red Sox (1985). Kison won two World Series championships with the Pirates, both over the Baltimore Orioles, and is perhaps best remembered for throwing scoreless innings of relief to win Game 4 of the 1971 World Series. He batted and threw right-handed. Kison grew up in Pasco, Washington, and was drafted by the Pirates in the 14th round of the 1968 Major League Baseball draft. He reached the major leagues in 1971 and relieved Luke Walker in the first inning of Game 4 of the World Series, throwing scoreless innings as he enabled the Pirates to come from behind to win the game, and ultimately the Series. Bothered by a sore shoulder the next two years, Kison adjusted his delivery in the 1973–74 offseason, becoming a full-time starter by the middle of 1974. In 1976, he set career highs in wins (14) and earned run average (ERA) (3.08). He had a disappointing 1977 season, partly because of hangnail problems, and in 1978, he was moved back to the bullpen to start the year. He regained his rotation spot halfway through the season, though, and proved an important member of the Pirates' rotation once again in 1979, winning the season's final game to send the Pirates to the playoffs. He struggled in his only start of the World Series but won his second World Series ring as the Pirates defeated the Orioles again. A free agent after the 1979 season, he signed a five-year contract with the Angels, but struggled with injuries his first couple of seasons and even tried to give the team back some of his contract money. In 1982, though, he helped the Angels reach the playoffs and won a game for them in the American League Championship Series against the Milwaukee Brewers. A herniated disk suffered in 1983 threatened to end his career, but he returned to the Angels late in 1984 and pitched one final season for the Boston Red Sox in 1985 before retiring. During a 15-year career, Kison compiled 115 wins with 88 losses, 1,073 strikeouts, and a 3.66 ERA. After his playing days were over, he served as a coach for the Kansas City Royals and the Baltimore Orioles, with whom he later served as a scout. He died June 2, 2018, at the age of 68. Early life Kison was born February 18, 1950, in Pasco, Washington. His father, Fred, worked as a building supplier, while his mother, Bertha, focused on homemaking. Kison started playing baseball in elementary school and was a pitcher and outfielder by the age of 12. At 14, an injury in a PONY League game caused him to start throwing sidearm. At Pasco High School, Kison threw three no-hitters, before getting selected by the Pittsburgh Pirates in the 14th round of the 1968 Major League Baseball draft. Career Pittsburgh Pirates (1971–79) Kison credited Harvey Haddix, a coach he had in the Gulf Coast League, as his most influential mentor. While pitching for the Waterbury Pirates of the Double-A Eastern League in 1970, Kison was picked by Sports Illustrated to be the subject of an article (released the following year) on life in the minor leagues. He had a 4–4 record at the time; he would not lose another game for Waterbury in 1970. An infected tendon in his pitching hand kept him from throwing in spring training in 1971, but he won 10 of 12 starts for the Charleston Charlies of the Triple-A International League. That strong start earned him a call-up to Pittsburgh for the first time in July, when Bob Moose had to serve a two-week stint in the United States Army Reserve. Kison made his debut on July 4 at Wrigley Field, allowing four runs over six innings in a no-decision against the Chicago Cubs. On July 23, he threw a complete game shutout against the San Diego Padres; Ed Spiezio remarked after the game that "Kison had the best stuff I've seen this season." He ended his rookie season 6–5 with a 3.40 earned run average (ERA) in 18 games (13 starts) and was part of the Pirates' playoff roster as a relief pitcher. Though not used as a starter during the playoffs, Kison earned a couple of victories. During Game 4 of the National League Championship Series (NLCS) against the San Francisco Giants, Kison relieved Steve Blass after Blass had given up five runs in the first two innings. He threw scoreless innings of relief, then picked up the win as the Pirates prevailed 9–5, earning a spot in the World Series. "Chills ran down my back," he said after the game. "If you don’t go out to the mound scared, you better get out of the game.” Kison then went on to be the winning pitcher in the first night game ever played in the Fall Classic. After Luke Walker gave up three runs to the Orioles in the first inning of Game 4, Kison entered, retired Davey Johnson on a groundout to end the inning, and threw six more scoreless innings as the Pirates came from behind to win the game 4–3, before ultimately winning the Series in seven games. Earl Weaver, manager of the Orioles, said of Kison's performance, "Kison turned the Series around." After the 1971 season, Kison threw 92 innings for San Juan in the Puerto Rican Winter League. This led to a "tired arm," which caused him to begin the 1972 season on the disabled list for the Pirates. After returning, he joined the bullpen for the Pirates, posting a 2.22 ERA through the end of May. In June, he replaced Bob Johnson in Pittsburgh's starting rotation. In 32 games (18 starts) for the Pirates, he had a 9–7 record and a 3.26 ERA. Again used as a reliever in the playoffs, he made two appearances in the 1972 NLCS, earning the win in Game 3 by pitching scoreless innings over the Cincinnati Reds. However, the Reds would win the series over the Pirates in five games. Shoulder troubles continued to plague Kison in 1973, and he started the season on the 21–day disabled list. Sent to Charleston to get used to pitching again, Kison was optimistic after throwing against the Pirates in a charity benefit game on July 3: "I definitely think I can come back this season." In 20 starts at Charleston, he had an 8–6 record and a 4.66 ERA. Kison was called back up in September and, in his first start back on September 1, threw eight shutout innings in a no-decision, 1–0 Pirate victory over the Chicago Cubs. He would make seven starts for the Pirates to finish the year, going 3–0 with a 3.09 ERA. Hoping to help his shoulder troubles out, the Pirates had Kison work with Don Osborn in the offseason. With Osborn's help, Kison adopted a three-quarter delivery instead of the sidearm approached, which gave him better control and relieved tension on his shoulder. He was back on the Pirates' roster in 1974, but in the bullpen; supposedly, Pirates' manager Danny Murtaugh wanted to protect Kison's arm from the early-season cold weather. He joined the Pirates' rotation on May 23, replacing Moose, who moved to the bullpen. After going 0–2 in three starts with a 6.28 ERA, though, he went back to the bullpen in favor of Larry Demery. He rejoined the rotation July 14, though, and stayed in it for most of the rest of the year. The 1974 season saw Kison set what would be a career-high in games (40, only 16 of which were starts). He had a 9–8 record and a 3.49 ERA, though blister problems during the year started affecting him in the sixth inning of his starts. Pittsburgh won the NL East, and Kison started Game 3 of the NLCS against the Los Angeles Dodgers, pitching shutout innings in Pittsburgh's 7–0 victory. The win was Pittsburgh's lone victory of the series, as the Dodgers defeated them in four games. In 1975, Kison was the third starter for the Pirates. Through July 17, he had a 9–4 record and a 3.23 ERA. After that, he lost seven starts in a row before getting moved to the bullpen at the end of August. In one of those losses, on August 17 to Cincinnati, Kison allowed Pete Rose's 2,500th career hit. While in the bullpen, he snapped his losing streak on August 31 in a 9–6 victory over the Houston Astros. Used as a starter again in September, he won two more games, finishing the year with a 12–11 record and a 3.23 ERA in 33 games (29 starts). He had more walks (92) than strikeouts (89) on the season. The Pirates reached the playoffs again, but Kison made no starts for them, his lone appearance in the series coming in relief of Game 2 of the NLCS, as the Pirates were swept in three games by the Reds. The relief appearance snapped a streak of scoreless innings in the playoffs for Kison. Kison was the Pirates' number two starter in 1976, behind Doc Medich. After posting an ERA close to 6.00 in his first five starts, he changed his position on the mound. "I used to pitch from the third-base side of the rubber. My fastball was tailing away from left-handed hitters. The good ones were taking the pitch because it wasn’t a strike.” Through August 20, he had a 9–8 record. Then, on August 25, he threw a complete-game shutout against the Padres, the first of six wins in a row for him. In 1976, Kison posted the best numbers of his career. He had the most wins (14, with 9 losses) and his lowest ERA (3.08). Once again, Kison was the Pirates' number two starter in 1977, this time behind Jerry Reuss. On July 8, Kison hit Mike Schmidt with a pitch during a game. Schmidt charged the mound, started a fight, and broke a finger, while Kison escaped without injury. He was bothered by a hangnail that year and tried numerous remedies to alleviate it, even resorting to fan mail suggestions such as packing it in salt and ice—"It gave me frostbite," was how he described the effectiveness of that remedy. The nail trouble made it difficult for him to throw his fastball and slider, and he had to rely more on slower pitches, which limited his effectiveness. He had a losing record for the first time in his career in 1977, going 9–10 as his ERA ascended to 4.90, well below the league average. He summarized his season, "It was not an exceptionally good year." However, Kison did have a career-high 122 strikeouts that season. The Pirates' additions of Bert Blyleven and Don Robinson relegated Kison to the bullpen for the first time since 1974. His first start of the season did not come until July 17, but it was not until the middle of August that he got back into the rotation regularly. From August 17 through the end of the season, he had a 4–3 record and a 2.50 ERA in seven starts. He finished the season with a 6–6 record and a 3.19 ERA in 28 games (11 starts). Though not expected to make the rotation in 1979, Kison began the year as a starter after Reuss was traded. He had a 1–1 record and a 3.94 ERA in his first six games, but in the middle of May, he lost his rotation spot to Ed Whitson. Moving to the bullpen, he had an 0.84 ERA in six games. Then, on June 3, Don Robinson had trouble warming up, and Kison had to make a spot start against the Padres; the start would be one of the best of his career. He pitched a one-hitter against the Padres, losing his no-hit bid when San Diego's Barry Evans doubled down the left field line with two out in the eighth. The Pirates won 7–0. After the game, Kison complained publicly about Charley Feeney and Dan Donovan's decision to give Evans a double; the incident led to the resignation of both Feeney and Donovan, and a new policy by Pittsburgh newspapers that their sportswriters would not serve as official scorers. He had another memorable game against San Diego on August 26, when he hit a grand slam against Bob Shirley in a 7–0 victory. From July 6 through the end of the year, he had a 9–3 record and a 2.93 ERA, finishing up with a 13–7 record and a 3.19 ERA. His most important start of the season came in the Pirates' last game of the year, a contest against the Cubs that had been scheduled because of an earlier tie against the New York Mets; the game was needed to determine whether the Pirates needed to play a tie-breaker against the Montreal Expos. Kison allowed one run over six innings, winning the game and the NL East pennant for the Pirates. "This is the most emotional situation I’ve ever been in, because we had to work so hard to get there,” Kison said about returning to the playoffs. “Other years we ran away with it, but not this year. And it’s even more meaningful because the last two years we played our hearts out and came up empty.” Because Kison started the final game of the season, he did not make an appearance in the NLCS against the Reds, which the Pirates won in three games. He was the Pirates' choice for Game 1 of the World Series, which was postponed for a day because of snow at Memorial Stadium. Kison struggled in the game, giving up five runs in less than an inning in a 5–4 loss to the Orioles, his only loss in his postseason career. Developing forearm trouble during the game (perhaps because of the cold weather), Kison did not pitch again in the series, his rotation spot for Game 5 taken by Jim Rooker. However, he earned his second World Series ring as the Pirates defeated the Orioles in seven games. After the season, he became a free agent. California Angels (1980–84) and Boston Red Sox (1985) Multiple teams were interested in Kison over the offseason. Rich Gossage, closer and future Hall of Famer for the New York Yankees, tried to convince Kison to sign with his team, while the California Angels needed a replacement for Nolan Ryan, who had signed with the Houston Astros. Angels' general manager Buzzie Bavasi said that the team could replace Ryan with a couple of 8–7 pitchers. Both teams were reported to offer over $2 million, and Kison ultimately chose the Angels, signing a five-year contract with them. Kison opened 1980 as the number two starter in the Angels' rotation (behind Dave Frost). He had a second no-hit bid broken up in the ninth on April 23. With his team leading the Minnesota Twins 17–0 at Metropolitan Stadium, Kison had the no-hit bid broken up by a Ken Landreaux double with one out; the hit was the only one Kison would allow. A nerve problem in his pitching elbow limited him to one game after June 11, and he finished the year 3–6 with a 4.91 ERA in 13 games (all starts). The elbow injury required surgery; Kison was so embarrassed at being unable to fully fulfill his contract, he went to Bavasi and tried to give the money back. Initially, Kison complained of paralysis in his hand and a lack of feeling in three of his fingers after undergoing surgery on his ulnar nerve. Though the injury jeopardized his career, he managed to return to the Angels' bullpen in August 1981. In September, he was used for four starts. In 11 games (four starts), he had a 1–1 record and a 3.48 ERA. Entering 1982, Kison was the fifth starter in the Angels' rotation. He won his first four decisions of the year and had a 2.06 ERA through May 25, then had a 6.75 ERA over his next five starts. After Johnny Grubb of the Texas Rangers hit a line drive off his shin on June 22, the Angels moved Kison to the bullpen in favor of Dave Goltz. Used as a reliever for much of the rest of the season, he did not rejoin the rotation until September 14, but when he did, it was similar to the time he rejoined the Pirates' rotation in 1979. Kison threw nine shutout innings in a 7–0 victory over the Chicago White Sox, then held on to his rotation spot for the remainder of the year. He finished the season 10–5 with a 3.17 ERA in 33 games (16 starts) and made the playoffs for the sixth time as the Angels won the American League West. Tabbed to start in Game 2 of the ALCS against the Milwaukee Brewers, Kison allowed two runs over nine innings in a 4–2 Angel victory. He also started Game 5, giving up two runs (one earned) in five innings and leaving with the Angels ahead, but the Brewers came back and won 4–3 to win the Series in five games. In 1983, Kison was the Opening Day starter for the Angels, the first time in his 13 seasons he got a chance to start his team's first game of the year. His season started strong, as he won six of his first seven decisions. He missed a month from May 27 to June 27, then was moved to the bullpen in August after posting an 8.31 ERA in July. Shut down in September with injuries, he had surgery on September 26 to repair a herniated disk in his back; manager John McNamara feared his career was over. In 26 games (17 starts), he had an 11–5 record and a 4.05 ERA. Kison's career was not over; though he spent the beginning of 1984 on the disabled list, he returned to the team on June 13 as a reliever. In August, he rejoined the team's rotation after Geoff Zahn had surgery on bone chips in his knee. In 20 games (seven starts), he had a 4–5 record and a 5.37 ERA, the highest of his career. After the season, he became a free agent. Kison joined the Boston Red Sox in 1985, rejoining McNamara, who had managed him the previous two seasons with the Angels. He began the year in Boston's starting rotation but pulled a hamstring and went on the disabled list after his first start. He returned to the rotation in May, then was moved to the bullpen at the end of June after relinquishing six runs in three starts in a row. In 22 games (9 starts), he had a 5–3 record and a 4.11 ERA. McNamara praised the veteran Kison's influence on Boston's young pitchers. Diagnosed with a torn rotator cuff, he retired after the season. "I think what I will miss most is the competitiveness of the game," Kison said upon retiring. "I’ll also miss the camaraderie of my teammates.” During a 15-year career, Kison compiled 115 wins with 88 losses, 1,073 strikeouts, and a 3.66 ERA. In postseason games, he had a 5–1 record with 27 strikeouts and a 1.98 ERA in innings. Coaching Following his playing career, Kison rejoined the Pirates as a minor league pitching instructor. He later spent time as the Kansas City Royals' bullpen coach (1992–93), the Royals' pitching coach (1994–98), and the Baltimore Orioles' pitching coach (1999). He was later a scout for the Orioles for more than ten years, retiring after the 2017 season. Pitching style Kison threw a fastball, a hard slider, and offspeed pitches, though he was at his best when he could rely on the fastball and slider. When he first reached the major leagues, he had a sidearm delivery. However, after he battled injuries from 1971 through 1973, he changed to a three-quarter delivery, which gave him better control and relieved pressure on his shoulder. He was not a strikeout pitcher; in a 15-season career, he only had more than 100 strikeouts three times in a season, and in 1975, he had more walks (92) than strikeouts (89). Despite that, Kison had an ERA above the league average most years, and he finished his career with more than a hundred more innings pitched () than hits allowed (1693). He tended to hit a lot of batters in his career; once, in the minor leagues, he hit seven in a game. Pat Jordan of Sports Illustrated attributed the hit-by-pitches to a late-breaking fastball and the need to throw inside pitches to keep his curveball effective. Personal life Kison married the former Anna Marie Orlando after Game 7 of the 1971 World Series, flying straight from the game to the wedding in a helicopter and a Learjet. The couple had two children, Robbie and Jennifer. During his time with the Pirates, Kison became good friends with Rich Gossage. Some of Kison's hobbies were hunting and fishing. In the early morning of June 2, 2018, Kison died at age 68 after a battle with cancer. References External links Baseball Almanac Bruce Kison - Baseballbiography.com 1950 births 2018 deaths Baltimore Orioles coaches Baltimore Orioles scouts Baseball players from Washington (state) Boston Red Sox players Bradenton Explorers players California Angels players Charleston Charlies players Deaths from cancer in Florida Geneva Pirates players Gulf Coast Pirates players Kansas City Royals coaches Major League Baseball bullpen coaches Major League Baseball pitchers Major League Baseball pitching coaches Pittsburgh Pirates players People from Pasco, Washington Salem Rebels (baseball) players Waterbury Pirates players
4869494	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ares%20%28DC%20Comics%29	Ares (DC Comics)	Ares (also sometimes Mars) is a character appearing in DC Comics publications and related media. Based on the eponymous Greek mythological figure, he is the Olympian god of war and major recurring adversary of the superhero Wonder Woman. He has been featured significantly as a persistent foe throughout every era of Wonder Woman's comic book adventures, and in many adaptations of her stories in other media. Ares first appeared in Wonder Woman #1, published in the summer of 1942, written by Wonder Woman creator William Moulton Marston. His introductory panels name him as Ares, though the narration goes on to note that he is "now called" by his Roman name Mars. He would be known by that name (with sporadic exceptions) for the next 45 years, until creative team George Pérez and Greg Potter restored the Greek name Ares as part of their reboot of the Wonder Woman comic book mythos in 1987. As the narrative continuity of Wonder Woman comics has been adjusted by different writers and artists throughout the years, various versions of Mars/Ares (with various personalities and physical appearances) have been presented, though most have been depicted wearing Greek hoplite or Roman gladiator armor. The character's longest-running look, designed by George Pérez, is that of a red-eyed Greek warrior clad in black and indigo battle armor, face hidden by an Attic helmet. After DC's continuity was rebooted in 2011 (an event known as The New 52), the character cycled through several divergent visual interpretations (including one inspired by the physical appearance of then-writer of Wonder Woman, Brian Azzarello) before returning to his Pérez-inspired warrior design. The character has appeared in various forms of media. He has been voiced in animated TV and film by actors Alfred Molina, Fred Tatasciore and Michael York, and portrayed on-screen in the DC Extended Universe by David Thewlis in the films Wonder Woman (2017) and Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021). Fictional character biography Pre-Crisis During most of the Golden Age, Silver Age, and Bronze Age of Comic Books, Ares was called Mars. His visual depiction remained faithful to Harry G. Peter's original design throughout the Golden and Silver Ages: a brawny, clean-shaven figure in Greco-Roman battle armor, a pair of entwined serpents emblazoned across the breastplate. In the character's first appearance, his armor was gold. Subsequent Golden Age appearances vary the armor's coloration, rendering it as bronze with green filigree, and later as pale violet with bronze filigree. Mars' Silver Age appearances maintained Peter's character design, but altered the color once again, this time to gray. His debut appearance sees Mars seeking to realize his vision of eternal war and conflict in the world of man. He is chiefly opposed by Aphrodite, goddess of love, who seeks to realize a contrary vision of loving civilization. The men who worship Ares kill each other and their weaker brothers, selling women cheaper than cattle. When Ares taunts Aphrodite with his successful plans, Aphrodite creates a new race of women, the Amazons, from clay. They build a city-state called Amazonia, where they create a women-centered civilization for spreading the gospel of Aphrodite's Way. They are stronger than Ares's men. Hippolyta is granted a golden girdle that makes her invincible. Mars eventually creates a home base on the planet of Mars and enslaves its superpowerful population to serve him and his chief deputies, the Duke of Deception, the Count of Conquest and the Earl of Greed. Mars' aide-de-camp is General Destruction. He uses Mars as an interplanetary headquarters, supplementing the enslaved Martian population with the spirits of the dead he collects from war zones on multiple planets, including Saturn and Earth. Slave spirits become embodied after being ferried to the planet Mars, where they are subjected to strength tests to determine their best use, whether as gladiators, personal slaves, or factory workers. The very strongest are trained and given new bodies to be sent to wage future wars on Earth. He also sets up the Injustice Court for humiliating slaves and meting out punishments. Mars' Earth base was beneath Mount Olympus and run by the Count of Conquest. From this base, he seeks to defeat the Allied cause in World War II, sending thoughts of conquest, deception, and greed into the Axis leaders via astral projection, but he finds himself repeatedly thwarted by the Amazon champion Wonder Woman. When Wonder Woman rescues Steve Trevor from Mars, the War God orders his three lieutenants to capture her. The Earl of Greed is sent and enlisted German aid, along with convincing the Dean of Holiday College to rob it, but was imprisoned after failing. The Duke of Deception gains Japanese help and captures Wonder Woman, but she escapes before she leaves Earth, and he is imprisoned. The Count of Conquest gains Italian help and, by trickery, succeeds in shackling Wonder Woman and Steve Trevor and brings them to Mars. Greed and Deception are released while Wonder Woman is imprisoned in the dungeons. However, with the help of Etta Candy's spirit form, Wonder Woman escapes and overpowers Mars, whose Iron Palace is destroyed by his weapons, though he survives. The Duke of Deception tries many times to defeat Wonder Woman, but fails despite his cunning and incredible technology, and Mars finally strips him of his mighty appearance, showing him to be a weak, toothless man. The Duke of Deception, after being set with the female slaves, causes them to rebel and briefly rules Mars. Mars repeatedly tangles with Wonder Woman on Earth-One and Earth-Two. During a period when Diana abandons her powers to live among the world of men, as the Amazons retreat temporarily to another dimension, Mars (calling himself Ares this time) and his children Phobos, Deimos, and Eris battle the Amazons to secure from Hippolyta the secret to domination of all dimensions of existence. Later, he enlists his descendant Helen Alexandros to become the Silver Swan. His final scheme before the history-changing battle of the Crisis on Infinite Earths is to ally himself with Hades and the Anti-Monitor to subdue the Gods of Olympus. As Wonder Woman engages him in final battle, Steve Trevor frees the gods, and Hades' wife Kore appeals to her husband with a message of love, leaving Mars isolated. Post-Crisis Despite being Zeus's son, Ares never fit in with the other gods of Olympus and creates his own realm, the Areopagus. Aphrodite, the patron of the Amazons, swears that her women will save the world with love from the hatred and warfare of Ares. Through his deceit and manipulations, Ares deposes Hades and becomes ruler of the underworld. Ares attempts to destroy the Amazons, using Hercules against them, who sacks the island, but Diana is born and raised just in time to fight Ares as Steve Trevor's plane, driven by one of Ares's human puppets, crashes into Paradise Island. His plot is to instigate a nuclear war between the United States and Russia, but Diana traps him in her magic lasso and shows how this would lead to his own disappearance, with no one to worship him. Ares tasks her with "saving mankind from themselves", promising to return if she fails. Although Ares abandons his plans, he possess an unimportant criminal Ari Buchanan and changes his name to "Ares Buchanan". He climbs the business ladder by providing high-tech weapons for gang wars. As Buchanan, he has a relationship with his lawyer, Donna Milton, who is Circe in disguise, although not even she knows it. Milton conceives a daughter, Lyta Milton, who possesses a great amount of magic. Ares did not care much about Donna, shooting her while she was pregnant. Circe, as Donna, later tries to help Diana out of a trap laid by Ares. She uses the last of her forces to shoot a gun that produces a sort of mini-black hole that absorbs Ares. Diana, the child, and she survive. As opposed to ancient times, the roles of various gods are shown to have altered somewhat according to modern practices and beliefs. Accordingly, the faith-based power Ares's father Zeus receives proves to be very much diminished. Other gods such as Athena, Aphrodite, and Ares began to gain more power due to the appearance of the computer age, love never diminishing, and conflict remaining consistent. Thus, the three godly siblings eventually take over Olympus. Realizing that conflict proves to maintain his strength over the output of war, Ares changes his title to the God of Conflict. To celebrate this change, he alters his appearance to a more approachable visage. His rule under this name proves to be short-lived, though, as Hades is overthrown and Ares is all too eager to take up the mantle of God of the Dead. Family reunited Realizing that a crossroads for the gods of Olympus is at hand, Ares confides in his half-sister Cassie Sandsmark about a future war. In exchange for additional powers, he asks only for her love. He travels to Themyscira and kidnaps his daughter Lyta, who is under the protection of the Amazons. Circe confronts Ares and is surprised to learn of his new godly title. She agrees to remain as his consort and to raise their daughter in the Underworld. During Ares' family bonding with Cassie, he blesses her with a powerful lasso able to expel Zeus's lightning in times of anger. Ares appears to Cassie repeatedly to warn her about "the coming war". In one story, the Teen Titans are thrown 10 years into the future, where Cassie has inherited the mantle of Wonder Woman after Diana's death. She is also referred to as "Ares's champion". Ares later appears to Cassie, informing her that the gods are leaving this plane and Zeus is taking the power he had granted Cassie. In exchange for acknowledging their siblinghood and becoming his champion, he offers her some of his power, saying only that she would be "more powerful than [she has] ever been". The full extent of Cassie's powers has not been revealed, though some indication exists that she has retained all of her former powers at this point. During the events of Amazons Attack!, it is discovered that Ares left Circe and kidnapped their daughter to raise on his own. As Lyta and he were only spoken of during the storyline, their presence is yet unknown. Cassie is confronted by Ares' son, Lord Lycus, whom Ares has sent to interfere with Cassie's powers. Death Shifting himself into the future, Ares steals the dead body of Wonder Woman and brings it back into the present. He manipulates several villains to use the body to create his bride and chief agent Genocide. He imbues this new creature with his own magical dominance, causing the new being's persona to be not only more deadly but completely obedient to him. Ares's plans to destroy the present-day Wonder Woman go awry when Diana destroys Genocide, leaving the monster's dead body to drown in the ocean. Angered, Ares commands a son of Poseidon to cause a swarm of deadly sea creatures to attack Themyscira and the new island nation of Thalarion. During this battle, Diana deduces that Ares is the grand manipulator and confronts him. Not allowing Ares much time to gloat in his latest masterpiece of war, Diana takes a battle axe and strikes Ares's head, splitting his helmet in two. After death Despite being gone from the mortal world, Ares is still manipulating events to destroy the Amazons. His next plot involves the birth of five male children by five random Amazons. Once they are born, he takes them under his wing before Ares is banished from Themyscira both in body and spirit by his father Zeus. The New 52: Wonder Woman (2011–2016) In The New 52 continuity, Ares is commonly referred to as War. His first appearance in this new continuity is in Wonder Woman (vol. 4) #4, where he is depicted as a bald, aged man with a white beard. Due to the revelation that Diana is the demigoddess daughter of Zeus, their new dynamic is that of half-brother and half-sister. War's calves and feet are permanently smeared with blood. He appears in a bar in Darfur, where his brother Apollo tries to convince him to side with him in his quest to take over the rein of Olympus. He is revealed to be Diana's former mentor in Wonder Woman vol. 4 #0, a stand-alone issue published in September 2012 set in the past. He takes Diana under his tutelage because of her vast potential in combat, and teaches her the ways of the warrior. Their relationship is like a father-daughter relationship. However, they part ways when Diana is asked by Ares to slay the Minotaur, but is unable to bring herself to kill it. This show of mercy makes her a failure in Ares' eyes. Over time, Diana learns she can trust Ares to protect their youngest brother, the infant Zeke, and his mother Zola. Alongside their British brother Lennox, Hera, and the New God Orion, they form a dysfunctional family unit that seeks to protect the baby from the First Born, their eldest brother, who had been imprisoned by Zeus eons ago. In Wonder Woman vol. 4 #23, Wonder Woman's group clashes with First Born in London, where Ares raises an army of soldiers and fights First Born himself after Wonder Woman is temporarily incapacitated. First Born overpowers Ares and prepares to kill him to usurp his position of God of War. Wonder Woman regretfully drives a spear through both of them, as it is the only way to stop First Born. In his last breath, Ares forgives and commends his former pupil, stating that she did what he would have done. Hades manifests to take Ares to his afterlife, and announces that Wonder Woman has taken on his position as God of War. Appearing to Wonder Woman in an apparition, counselling her on the ongoing conflict with the First Born, he tells her not to call him War anymore, as that is her name—she refers to him instead as Ares. DC Rebirth: Wonder Woman (2016–present) In the DC Rebirth reboot, Wonder Woman's origin is retold in the "Year One" storyline. A group of people called the "Sear" terrorizes a mall where Diana and her friends are exploring. They have been infected with the Maru virus, which causes them to lash out in homicidal rage, though Diana and Steve Trevor defeat them, and Barbara Ann Minerva discovers Sear is an anagram of Ares. The god of war attacks shortly after this discovery. He reveals his desire to spread the virus across the world in major locations with the hope of turning most of the human population into warring killers to fuel his power. Diana offers him Themyscira's location in exchange for him sparing everyone, though Ares discovers she has no memory of its location; as a sacrifice of leaving the island, Diana was barred from returning by losing knowledge of how to return. Accepting her new role to save mankind, Diana, with the help of the patron gods in animal form, subdues Ares with the Lasso of Truth. Diana and her friends are given the locations where Ares has the virus sent and Diana is christened as Wonder Woman for her heroics. Soon after, Ares' sons Phobos and Deimos conspire to free Ares from his imprisonment on Themyscira. They coerce Veronica Cale into aiding them by kidnapping the soul of her daughter, Isadore. Several years later, Cale and her associate Doctor Cyber still have no luck finding the island. Cale plots against Phobos and Deimos, and he recruits the sorceress Circe into trapping the twins into the bodies of two Doberman Pinschers. Years later, the mysterious tree that had been growing on Themyscira is teleported to the false island that Wonder Woman had originally thought was her home. During a battle with the Cheetah, a drop of Wonder Woman's blood opens a portal to inside the tree. There, Wonder Woman and Veronica Cale encounter both Isadore Cale and an attractive, nude man who introduces himself as Ares. Diana had not faced Ares in Year One, but his sons in disguise. Themyscira serves as Ares' prison once he is calmed of his bloodlust with the love of Aphrodite, and Phobos and Deimos plot to gain access to kill their father and take his role, gaining his power. The gods alter Diana's memories to make her think she has returned to the island so she could never try to find the real Themyscira, thereby granting access to darker forces. Isadore becomes his ward in the meantime. He gives her the clue to how to defeat his sons: with love, not hatred. Once his sons have been defeated and bound by the Lasso of Truth, Ares reveals Isadore cannot leave without being split from her physical and astral forms. She can live with the Amazons, however, and thus have a life where she will not age. Later, Darkseid's daughter Grail is imprisoned in the tree with Ares. Ares, inspired by the hope of justice, manipulates Grail into killing him with the Godkiller sword. This frees him of his imprisonment. Soon after, Wonder Woman encounters Ares, this time resembling the missing Steve Trevor, on a battlefield in Durkovia. Powers and abilities As do all Olympian gods, Ares possesses tremendous strength, though he is now perhaps the strongest of them, rivaled only by his half-brother Hercules. Moreover, he is a master of conflict and strategy with centuries of experience in the field, and has complete telekinetic command and mastery over any weapon or armor. He also possesses speed equal to that of Hermes once he absorbs massive amounts of the violent energies that give him his powers. Pertaining to his being a war god, violent actions and emotions such as anger, hate, death and bloodshed make him stronger and heal any wounds he may receive, as his soul is able to absorb the psychic energy created by such events. His armor is virtually indestructible and his weapons are greater than mortal ones. He can shapeshift into any form he wishes and can teleport himself and others. At one time, he was also recognized as the Death God of the Greek Pantheon, having control over the dead and able to resurrect and command a whole army of undead from the Underworld to do his will, and then send them back whenever he wished. Being a god, he is immortal and can only be harmed by magical weapons. In The New 52 continuity, the character's mere presence invokes battle and slaughter in his surroundings. This is seen in Wonder Woman vol. 4 #4, where Ares is sitting in a bar in Darfur; all the men inside are dead and a riot is breaking out outside the bar – even children are taking part in the gunfire. In Wonder Woman vol. 4 #9, Ares is present at a café in Damascus, where a fatal blast takes place as he is leaving. Other versions Earth-One In the Wonder Woman: Earth One continuity, the Armored Response Environment Suit called A.R.E.S. is featured in Volume Two as a U.S. military contingency plan for General Phil Darnell and Maxwell Lord. Ares himself is hinted at the end of the book as well. It is subsequently revealed that Maxwell Lord is actually Ares in disguise and seeks to eliminate the Amazons in retaliation for his daughter Hippolyta turning against him centuries ago. During the fight between the Amazons and their allies and his A.R.E.S. machines, Ares himself mentally links himself with one of the drones to battle his granddaughter Diana. However, Diana defeats him by using her lasso to compel the machine to self-destruct, which also causes him to "self-destruct" as well due to being linked with it. Sensation Comics Featuring Wonder Woman Ares appears in two different stories in this anthology series featuring Wonder Woman. In the first, "Casualties of War", Wonder Woman is attacked by a dragon that is later revealed to have been a pawn of Ares. In the second story, "Vendetta", Ares ambushes Wonder Woman in a small African city. He summons his Spartoi, reptilian soldiers, to aid in his battle, but he is inevitably defeated by Wonder Woman. Dark Nights: Metal In Dark Knights: The Merciless, part of a series looking at dark alternate versions of Batman who have the powers of other members of the Justice League, one Batman comes from a reality where Ares acquired a new helmet that enhanced his powers to induce conflict. After Wonder Woman and other members of the League had been apparently killed in battle with Ares, Batman donned Ares' discarded helmet to use it against him, only to succumb to the helmet's power to the point that he not only defeated Ares, but even killed Diana when it was revealed that she had survived the attack because he was already so far under the helmet's influence. In other media Television Ares appears in the Justice League Unlimited episode "Hawk and Dove", voiced by Michael York. He commissions Hephaestus to forge the Annihilator, a living suit of armor fueled by violence, so he can incite conflict between North and South Kasnia and destabilize the region. However, Justice Leaguers Wonder Woman and Hawk and Dove intervene, forcing Ares to flee while the Leaguers confiscate the Annihilator. Ares makes a non-speaking appearance in the Harley Quinn episode "Bachelorette" as an exotic dancer on Hedonikka, an island near Themyscira. Film Ares appears in Wonder Woman (2009), voiced by Alfred Molina. This version sports long platinum hair. In ancient times, he and his son Thrax waged war against Queen Hippolyta, though it resulted in Thrax's death while Ares had his powers restricted by mystical armbands placed by Hera before he was imprisoned in Themyscira. In the present, he seduces an Amazon named Persephone into freeing him before he visits Hades to remove his bands. Upon regaining his full strength, he intends to wage war on all of humanity and feed on the resulting chaos so he can challenge his fellow Olympians, but is opposed by Wonder Woman and the Amazons. Despite transforming into a giant, Wonder Woman eventually decapitates Ares, reuniting him with Thrax in the Underworld, where they are forced to serve Hades. Ares appears in films set in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU), portrayed by David Thewlis. First appearing in Wonder Woman (2017), this version is the treacherous son of Zeus and half-brother of Diana Prince / Wonder Woman. In the past, Ares attempted to influence mankind towards destruction and slaughtered his fellow Olympians, but a dying Zeus cast him from Mount Olympus, stranding him in the mortal world, and gave the Amazons the "god-killer" sword so they can slay Ares should he ever return. Despite what happened, Ares spent the intervening centuries orchestrating wars and conflicts to cause mankind's self-destruction. During World War I, he masquerades as Imperial War Cabinet speaker "Sir Patrick Morgan" (also portrayed by Thewlis) to manipulate the Allies and the Central Powers into entering more conflicts. Upon learning of Ares' actions, Prince confronts Ares, who destroys the god-killer and attempts to persuade her to join him. However, she realizes love, not hate, is the only way to prevent conflict and eventually kills Ares. Ares appears in a flashback in Justice League, physically portrayed by uncredited stuntman Nick McKinless with Thewlis' face superimposed on top of his. He and the Olympians join forces with the Amazons, Atlanteans, mankind, and Earth's then-active Green Lantern to battle Steppenwolf's forces. In the director's cut, Ares defeats a young Darkseid. Video games Ares appears in DC Universe Online. Ares appears as a playable character in Injustice: Gods Among Us, voiced by J. G. Hertzler. Ares appears as a character summon in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure. Ares appears as a playable character in DC Legends. Ares appears as a playable character in DC Unchained. Ares appears as a playable character in Lego DC Super-Villains, voiced by Fred Tatasciore. Miscellaneous Ares appears in DC Super Hero Girls, voiced by Fred Tatasciore. The Injustice incarnation of Ares appears in the Injustice: Gods Among Us prequel comic. He mocks Wonder Woman's decision to join Superman's Regime, though she counters with her knowledge that the alliance will weaken Ares. He attacks her, but is defeated by Superman and loses a hand to her. Years later, Ares secretly forms an alliance with Darkseid before striking a deal with Batman's Insurgency, promising help from the Olympians in the latter's war against Superman and freeing Billy Batson to join the ensuing fight. Following this, Ares convinces Superman to form an alliance with Poseidon, who nearly destroys Themyscira. However, Batman travels to New Genesis and convinces Highfather to intervene, leading to the latter in turn convincing Zeus to end his and the Olympians' involvement in Batman and Superman's war. Afterward, Superman takes Ares to Apokolips and leaves him to be tortured by Darkseid. The Injustice incarnation of Ares makes a cameo appearance in the Injustice 2 prequel comic, in which he taunts an imprisoned Wonder Woman with the future events of the game. Merchandise Ares received an action figure in DC Direct's Amazons and Adversaries line in 2001. Ares received an action figure in Mattel's DC Universe Classics line in 2008. Ares received an action figure in the Wonder Woman (2017) tie-in toy line. Ares received a figure in Lego's "Wonder Woman Warrior Battle" set. See also Ares (Marvel Comics) Children of Ares (comics) References External links Bio at World's Finest Ares at Titans Tower.com Ares at Wonder Woman Yesterday, Today, & Beyond Marston, William Moulton. Emotions Of Normal People. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co, Ltd. 1928. Action film villains Characters created by H. G. Peter Characters created by William Moulton Marston Comics characters introduced in 1942 DC Comics characters who are shapeshifters DC Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds DC Comics characters who can teleport DC Comics characters who use magic DC Comics characters with accelerated healing DC Comics characters with immortality DC Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability DC Comics characters with superhuman senses DC Comics characters with superhuman strength DC Comics deities DC Comics film characters DC Comics male supervillains DC Comics characters who have mental powers DC Comics telekinetics DC Comics telepaths Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities Fictional characters with weather abilities Fictional characters who can manipulate reality Fictional characters who can manipulate time Fictional characters with elemental transmutation abilities Fictional characters with death or rebirth abilities Fictional characters with fire or heat abilities Fictional characters with precognition Fictional characters who can manipulate darkness or shadows Fictional characters who can change size Fictional characters with X-ray vision Fictional empaths Fictional mass murderers Fictional necromancers Fighting game characters Golden Age supervillains Classical mythology in DC Comics Greek and Roman deities in fiction Male film villains Wonder Woman characters Ares in popular culture
4869583	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josep%20Pla	Josep Pla	Josep Pla i Casadevall (; 8 March 1897 – 23 April 1981) was a Spanish journalist and a popular author. As a journalist he worked in France, Italy, England, Germany and Russia, from where he wrote political and cultural chronicles in Catalan and Spanish. Biography The son of rural business owners of modest means from Baix Empordà, he obtained his high school diploma in Girona, where, beginning in 1909, he was a boarding student at the Colegio de los Maristas (Marist School). In his last academic year (1912–13), he had to take his final exams without having taken the courses because he was expelled from the boarding school. In 1913 he registered to study science at the University of Barcelona and began his studies in medicine but in the middle of his first course, he changed his mind and registered to study law. The emptiness that he felt in his life at the university did not prevent him from involving himself in another environment that would focus the intellectual disorientation of his youth – the Barcelona Ateneu Club, with its library and above all the daily tertulia (discussion group) led by Dr. Joaquim Borralleras and attended by celebrities such as Josep Maria de Sagarra, Eugenio d'Ors and Francesc Pujols. His admiration for Pío Baroja came from this period – a constant reference for his generation — as well as the influence of Alexandre Plana, a childhood friend and teacher, whom he credits with his decision to distance himself from the pretentious style of the 19th century and to support “a literature for the whole world” based on “intelligibility, clarity, and simplicity”, ideas which would be constant features through his literary career. In 1919 he graduated with a degree in Law and began to work in journalism, first in Las Noticias (The News) and soon after in night publication of La Publicidad (Publicity). He started his journey as a correspondent in various European cities (Paris, Madrid, Berlin). A modern Catalan nationalist, in 1921 he was elected as a diputado (Member of Parliament) of the Commonwealth of Catalonia (Commonwealth of Catalonia) by the Lliga Regionalista (Regionalist League) in his native region, Baix Empordà. En 1924, under the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, he underwent a military trial and was condemned to exile because of a critical article about the Spanish military policy in Morocco, published in Majorca's El Día (The Day). During the years of his exile he liaised with some of the principal Catalan opponents of the dictatorship such as Francesc Macià. He continued travelling through Europe (Paris, Russia, England), and in 1925 he published his first book, Coses Vistes which was a great success and sold out in a week. It was a good preview of his aesthetic: "to write about the things which one has seen". In 1927 he returned to Spain, left La Publicidad and began to collaborate with La Veu de Catalunya, the Lliga Regionalista's newspaper of a liberal-conservative tendency, under the orders of Francesc Cambó – leader of moderate Catalan nationalism, whose famous tertulias he attended regularly. In April 1931, on the same morning as the proclamation of the Republic of Spain, he was invited to Madrid by Cambó as parliamentary correspondent of La Veu and became a witness to the first days of the Republic. His book of the notable events of those months - of great historic value - is El advenimiento de la República (The coming of the Republic). He remained in Madrid during nearly all of the Republican period writing features about Parliament which allowed him to mix with the Spanish political and cultural elite. Pla, who was neither an anti-republican nor an anti-monarchist but a pragmatist who wanted to see a modernisation of the State, at first expressed a certain sympathy for the Republic. He believed that the new political system could get off the ground in Spain if it consolidated itself according to the French Republican model. In due course he slowly became disillusioned with the course of events until he eventually considered it “a frantic and destructive madness”. Claiming health reasons, he abandoned a fractious and dangerous Madrid a few months before the beginning of the Spanish Civil War. As not even Barcelona seemed safe to him he fled in a boat from Catalonia to Marseille in September 1938 in the company of Adi Enberg, a Norwegian citizen born in Barcelona who worked for the Francoist espionage service. She was the only person from his secretive and often meagre romantic life with whom we can be certain that he was involved. He continued his exile in Rome, where he wrote a good part of the immense Historia de la Segunda República Española (History of the Second Spanish Republic) - an assignment for Francesc Cambó, one of the financiers of the military uprising - which Pla would refuse to re-publish during his lifetime despite its great historical value. In the autumn of 1938, Enberg and Pla traveled to Biarritz and from there they managed to reach San Sebastián where they entered the Francoist-controlled part of Spain. In January 1939 he, Manuel Aznar and other journalists entered Barcelona along with the victorious Francoist troops. Between February and April 1939 when the war ended, he became the assistant manager of the newspaper La Vanguardia under the direction of Aznar. Overwhelmed by the course of events of the immediate post-war period and before the unexpected failure of his project at La Vanguardia, he moved to the Empordà (Girona) and separated from Adi Enberg. In September 1939 he published his first article in Destino, the weekly publication his Catalan friends created in Burgos and for which he started to write weekly a few months later, from February 1940. These are the years he spent travelling around his native region, discovering its landscapes and people, small towns and, of course, the sea. He also finally accepted his role of lower rural bourgeois and never again lived in Barcelona. Due to his regular work with Destino, although he was no longer one of its principal driving forces, he returned to travelling the world, not as a correspondent but as a journalistic observer, which allowed him to write magnificent travel reports: he visited France, Israel, Cuba, New York, the Middle East, South America, and Russia. Of Israel for instance, he left a unique testimony of its first years of existence as a State – he visited it in 1957, arriving in Tel Aviv in a boat from Marseille full of displaced Jews. He arrived during the enthusiastic construction of the cities and Hebrew infrastructures in the middle of the desert. Curiously, Pla liked to travel in very slow oil tankers, which allowed him to write his works peacefully and without distractions from contact with tourists. In the 1970s Pla dedicated himself fully to the preparation of his complete works. This was not mere collation but involved almost total re-writing of his oeuvre and the development of his own unique style. In order to publish these works he counted on invaluable support of his fellow countryman Josep Vergés, editor of Destino. Meanwhile, culture in the Catalan language was reappearing little by little. After Francoism ended with the Spanish Constitution of 1978 and despite his already being the most-read writer in the Catalan language, fellow Catalan authors (overwhelmingly of the Left) did not forgive him for his support of the Francoists during the Civil War and his later coexistence with the régime (Pla had counted on a peaceful and ordered evolution towards democracy). He was also criticised by Catalan authors because of his disdain for fiction as a literary form. Even so, in 1980, near the end of his life, Josep Tarradellas gave him the Medalla d'Or de la Generalitat de Catalunya (The Gold Medal of the Autonomous Government of Catalonia). It is worth mentioning, as it represented a minor fissure in the so-far monolithic rejection of Pla by writers in Catalan, that Joan Coromines, a fundamental Catalan etymologist, supported Pla in his own acceptance speech for the gold medal Coromines that was also granted. Pla died in 1981 in his native Empordà, leaving thirty-eight volumes (over twenty-five thousand pages) of Obra Completa (Complete Works) published, and many unedited papers that have been published since his death. Notability of his work Pla had to live under censorship for much of his life: first during Primo de Rivera's dictatorship, later in Italy and Germany (where he worked as a correspondent during the rise of the Falange), and during Francisco Franco's long rule. Although he initially sympathised with the dictatorship (he wrote in 1940 that it was "in the general interest"), his support only lasted a few months. He soon began to feel scepticism, especially as it became impossible to publish in Catalan. Although he always maintained a moderate political stance to allow him to publish, he was deeply uncomfortable with Franco's tireless censorship (he wrote in one of his diaries that it was "the worst that [I] have known", carried out by "servants of fanaticism"). He hated the regime's disdain for Catalan language and culture and its stubborn inability to turn itself into a democracy, not even a tutelary one. The most important characteristics of the "Planian" literary style are simplicity, irony, and clarity. Extremely modest and sensitive to ridicule, he detested artifice and empty rhetoric. Throughout his literary life he remained faithful to his own rubric: “the necessity of a clear, precise, and restrained writing”. He maintained a lack of interest in literary fiction, cultivating a dry, apparently simple, practical style, devoted to that which is real. He was an acute observer of reality in its smallest details and he gave a faithful testimony of the society of his time. His works show a subjective and colloquial vision, anti-literary, though in which he exhibits enormous stylistic effort in calling things by their names and "coming up with the precise adjective", one of his most persistent literary obsessions. An untiring writer, his viewpoint was that life is chaotic, irrational, and unjust, while the longing for equality and revolutions are a delusion that incites worse wrongs than those that it tries to put a stop to. Conservative and rational, he was not inclined to action but to voluptuousness and sensuality: the pleasure of putting the world down on paper. A good conservative, he ate well and drank better (as an old man, whisky made up a good part of his diet), an inveterate smoker, he wore a bowler hat from his youth and later was inseparable from his country beret. He hated banality, cultural affectations (he never included quotations in his works, despite being a reader of the classics) and "people who talk just to hear themselves." So he wrote: "It is more difficult to write than to think, much more difficult: so everyone thinks." Works Pla lived a life completely dedicated to writing. The extent of his Obres Completes (Complete Works, 46 volumes and nearly 30,000 pages), which is a collection of all his journals, reports, articles, essays, biographies, novels, and some poems gives an idea of its daunting work schedule while complicating its chronological classification. Many of these pages are the fruit of a hard process of rewriting texts from his youth and weekly articles that were published in Destino for nearly 40 years, as well as hundreds of articles published in different newspapers and an abundance of correspondence. Thematic classification is not easy either: many articles appeared in different locations with some changes; his thematic repertoire is extensive and, above all; the boundaries between the genres that he developed are not always clear. We can however make an attempt at organizing into genres (the years outlined correspond to the original publication, not to the translation or the reissue of Complete Works). Narratives: Coses vistes (1925), Linterna mágica (1926), Relaciones (1927) are books in which narration predominates but foreshadows and hints at other genres which later will be fundamental in his work. Life Embitters (La vida amarga), El estret (1952) and Aigua de mar are later narratives. Books of notable events and memories: the book of notable events gives Pla great liberty in the combined use of different genres – the personal diary, description, narration, dialogue, personal reflections, advice to the reader, the portrait and analysis of the customs of people and towns. El quadern gris is a book of notable events that was devoted to Pla. It was not an authentic diary, but a “literary” book of notable events, compiled later. The central themes of the book of notable events are the countryside and geography of Empordà, descriptions of daily life and the narrator-author's obsession with writing. Anthropological and folkloric essays: El payés y su mundo (1990) and Les hores (1953). Biography: Vida de Manolo (1928), Santiago Rusiñol y su tiempo (1955), Francesc Cambó (1928–1930), Homenots, Retrats de passaport and Tres senyors. Other apparently biographical works are Girona, un llibre de records (1952), Primera Volada, Notes disperses and Notes del capvesprol. Travel writing: Les illes, Viatge a la Catalunya Vella, Itàlia i el Mediterrani, Les Amèriques, Sobre París i França, Cartas de lejos and Israel, 1957 (1957) Political writing: Madrid. El advenimiento de la República (1933), Crónicas (1933–1934) and (1934–1936) During the first years of the Francoist regime, due of the complete restriction of the Catalan edition, the following works were published in Spanish: Guía de la Costa Brava (1941), Las ciudades del mar (1942), Viaje en autobús (1942) – considered one of his greatest works, and which proves his skillful grasp of the Spanish language -, Rusiñol y su tiempo (1942), El pintor Joaquín Mir (1944), Un señor de Barcelona (1945) and La huida del tiempo (1945). In 1947, as soon as censorship was lifted, he returned to publishing in Catalan (Cadaqués, one of his most successful books). After 1956 he started the first series of his Complete Works, which extended to 29 volumes and in which he began to publish his extraordinary portrayals Homenots (Great men). In 1966, Ediciones Destino began the publication of this series. The first volume was an unpublished work, El quadern gris, a book of notable events initially written when he was only a little over 20 years of age (although rewritten and substantially expanded later). It was translated into Spanish as El cuaderno gris by Dionisio Ridruejo and into English as The Gray Notebook by Peter Bush. It was considered a before and after in the public consideration of Pla, much more than as a journalist, as the best narrator of contemporary Catalan literature. The success of the criticism and publicity of this work convinced Vergés to continue publishing the complete work, which has reached volume XLVI, with unpublished manuscripts (such as his Notas para un diario, written in the mid-1960s), not free from controversy, by the supposed amendments and manipulations to which Vergés himself was subjected (apparently, in order to suppress certain obscene passages). Later Keerl, his heir, became much more preoccupied with economically exploiting the documents than putting them at the disposal of investigators or the Josep Pla Foundation. Even though he did not write plays, his life and work inspired various significant works after his death, among which are: Ara que els ametllers ja estan batuts (Now that the almond trees have been knocked down) 1990, in which Josep Maria Flotats creates a portrait of Pla through a collage of his texts. Also La increíble historia del Dr. Floït & Mr. Pla (1997), a production by Els Joglars, which recreates the work of Robert Louis Stevenson where the characters Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde are, respectively, a Catalan industrialist obsessed with wealth and, on the other side, an educated and indulgent writer which personifies the opposed values of industrial bourgeoisie, based on Pla. His liberal-conservative thought, sceptical and uncompromising, filled with irony and common sense, still resounds today even though it seems to contradict the current cultural establishment the same as it did the previous establishment. His books remain in print, and both Spanish and Catalan critics have unanimously recognised him as one of the greatest writers of the 20th century. Since 1968, the Josep Pla Award has been given in his honour, for works written and published in Catalan. References Bibliography Josep Pla, "Life Embitters", translated by Peter Roland Bush. Archipelago Books, New York, 2015. Josep Pla Foundation: Biography, List of Complete Works, etc. (in Catalan, Spanish, English and French.) Espada, Arcadi: Josep Pla. Editorial Omega, Barcelona, 2004, (in Spanish). (A biography of the writer, based on the reading and interpretation of his Complete Works). Josep Pla, Cristina Badosa, Lletra UOC. Valentí Puig, Introduction to The Gray Notebook, NYRB Classics, New York, 2014. External links Page about Josep Pla, from the Association of Catalan Language Writers. . Josep Pla Foundation Essay on Josep Pla by Valerie Miles in The Paris Review, March 24, 2014. El naufragio del "Douaumont" (A short story of a shipwreck in Spanish) 1897 births 1981 deaths People from Baix Empordà Catalan-language writers Writers from Catalonia Spanish male writers Spanish people of the Spanish Civil War (National faction) 20th-century travel writers Spanish travel writers Journalists from Catalonia
4870188	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VertiBird	VertiBird	For the real-life aircraft known as a Vertibird, see Tiltrotor VertiBird was the name of a line of toy helicopter products made by Mattel between 1971 and the early 1980s. Description General The Mattel VertiBird helicopter flies around a central base containing an electric motor, spring lift assist, pitch control, batteries, and a throttle. A 21-inch arm with pitch control rod and the spindle that transfers the power to helicopter via drive springs and drive rod, is connected from the central base to the helicopter. The original VertiBird playset has a space theme appropriate for the Space Age attitude of the 1970s. The first set was reminiscent of the Project Mercury program. Later versions of the VertiBird would continue to revisit the space theme as well as other popular television and movie themes of the 1970s and early 1980s time frames. Box contents The box contents of the average VertiBird playset consisted of the following items: Cardboard packing for the Vertibird. Holds the VertiBird and rotor Also has punchouts as noted below. VertiBird with base and controls and helicopter mostly preassembled (except as noted in version list below). Cardboard skill accessories. (cardboard punchout Landing Platform) - Accessory bag with the following items. VertiBird Instructions. Label stickers for the VertiBird and accessories. Two-bladed plastic rotor with safety rubber tips. Skyhook. Pickup accessories. (Astronaut, Space Capsule) Plastic skill accessories. (Life raft) Other versions of the VertiBird also included: Molded forms for the base and controls that were set theme specific. (Rescue Ship, Polar Adventure) Punch-out cardboard buildings that are playset theme specific. (Airborne Rescue) Glow-in-the-dark luminous Label stickers for the Vertibird and accessories. (Night Patrol) Play mats. (Paramedic Rescue) Site accessories that are playset theme specific. (Polar Adventure, Battlestar Galactica) Various other pickup items that were set theme specific. Power Power was provided by 4 'D' sized alkaline batteries in the base. They also doubled as the weight to hold down the base. Flight The helicopter is controlled using a two-lever control unit. The controls operate similarly to a real helicopter. The throttle control provides proportional control of the blade speed. The pitch control provides for tilting the Vertibird forward or backward. During the flight, the VertiBird is subject to the same physical flight characteristics as a real helicopter. This included ground effects for low-level hovering, plus altitude gains and losses when changing direction. Overall the VertiBird is easy to learn how to pilot for basic flight, but precision flying will require some patience and time on the controls as in a real helicopter. As noted there is a spring assist to lift the VertiBird. However, in actual operation, the assist is not enough to lift the VertiBird off the ground. Most of the lift comes from the spinning rotor itself. Subsequently, dropping heavy items during a flight will result in a very rapid ascension of the VertiBird unless the pilot has good flight skills. Mattel designed the set with the young flyer in mind. The VertiBird can take quite a beating during crashes and toybox storage. This design has resulted in a toy that has survived over 38 years and remains as fun today as it was when VertiBird first came on the market back in 1971. The one exception to the required VertiBird flight skills was the introduction of the Space: 1999 themed playset, which did not feature the "VertiBird" branding on its packaging elements. The Space: 1999 version was the one playset that (more or less) abandoned the VertiBird concept in favor of a look and feels to match television series. The set had controls that were radically different from the standard VertiBird controls. The Eagle (helicopter) was fully supported by controls. The set used only two C-cell-sized batteries. The throttle provided nothing more than a switch to spin the rotor. Effectively there was no lift provided by the rotor and instead, all lifting is performed with the controls using hand strength. This set would not be a good version for the first-time VertiBird pilot wanting to have a true VertiBird experience. Considered notable only for its Space: 1999 theme tie-in and high collector value. But otherwise a poorly performing VertiBird set. The later Battlestar Galactica playset successfully blended the VertiBird concept with a science fiction space theme and uses the actual power of the thrust from the rotor to lift other playset objects. Popularity The average retail price for most VertiBirds back during the 1970s was between $8.00 and $20.00(USD). Today, with more and more people collecting and restoring them, collectors are willing to pay over $400 for a working Vertibird. On July 31, 2006, a "mint in box" Vertibird sold for $500 on eBay, with 4 individual bidders bidding at least $400. Earlier eBay sales were also noted for final sale prices in excess of $1200.00 for the extremely rare Space: 1999 themed playset in unplayed, brand new, (C-10) condition. In 2005, a complete, near-mint condition set of the German "Libelle 12 Polizeihubschrauber" (considered by some collectors to be the second-rarest worldwide VertiBird variant after the "Space: 1999" model, although other internationally issued sets - in particular the Canadian "Okanagan Logging 'Copter" - appear to be much less common than the "Libelle") changed hands for $850 in a private sale. Distribution and licensing Distribution was not limited to the United States. Mattel produced international versions of the VertiBird playset for various markets including Canada, Brazil, the UK, Germany, Italy, and Japan. Just when it seems the final international VertiBird version has been found, another is reported. To date, it is unknown just how many markets and languages Mattel distributed the VertiBird into. The most recent "new" variant to the surface is a Mexican version of the "Polar Adventure" set, offered on eBay in mid-November 2008. Mattel also licensed the VertiBird for production by other companies. At least three are known (see the list below). In the media Several Mattel VertiBird commercials were made in the 1970s and early 1980s. One of the advertising agencies used for production was Ogilvy & Mather. In a Christmas-themed episode of That '70s Show, Eric Forman can be seen playing with the VertiBird in a basement scene. Tiltwing aircraft called "Vertibirds" (although different in appearance, it resembles a cross between a Dragonfly and a V-22 Osprey), appear in the games Fallout 2, Fallout 3, Fallout: New Vegas, and Fallout 4. Similar VertiBird toys and games In addition to the VertiBird itself, there are several other pre-VertiBird and post-VertiBird units covering various eras, global regions and business lines. Some units like the Dan Dare (see list below) were home-usage toy sets. Others such as the WhirlyBird were skill games meant for arcade distribution or another location-based business usage. All units share VertiBird's basic premise of fun by allowing the user to actively control the helicopter, while still providing a safe and easily controllable experience. VertiBird versions There are 13 known different US versions of the VertiBird playsets. The original VertiBird had an early manufacturing change that modified the drive spring to drive rod coupling. The first version had the end of the drive rod screwed into the drive spring on the helicopter. The production modification resulted in the drive rod being permanently soldered to the drive spring and packaged the base, controls, rods, and helicopter (except the rotor) into one complete unit. In addition to the different US versions, other international versions were produced. These international VertiBird versions were localized as needed for language, playset graphics, pictures, and local service depot information as required. There were also some contracted production runs of the Mattel VertiBird for other companies. Grouped all together, there are currently 23 different known variations. Every year or so it seems a new variation is discovered somewhere around the globe. In February 2015, an American eBay seller with immaculate feedback offered several pieces of supposedly original conceptual art by former Mattel designer Tom Hodges, which featured graphic layouts for a number of unproduced VertiBird variants from the mid-to-late 1970s. These included a "Spacehawk X7" intergalactic probe model (undated), a "Medivac" military-themed set (1975), a "Disaster Air Rescue" version (1975), a "Space War" sci-fi model (1978), and a 1979 MAS*H -a themed set that was obviously meant to tie in with the successful TV series. USA versions 1971 - Set No. 5972 - - VertiBird. (Version 1, screw-connected drive spring) 1971 - Set No. 5972 - - VertiBird. (Version 2, drive spring soldered in place. All subsequent USA and International versions) 1973 - Set No. 7604 - - VertiBird Air Police. (themed to tie into police TV shows of the 1970s) 197? - Set No. 7646 - - VertiBird Polar Adventure. 1973 - Set No. 8243 - - VertiBird Rescue Ship. (Another space-themed set tying into the Apollo program) 1975 - Set No. 9040 - 79-58256C - VertiBird Paramedic Rescue. (Themed to tie into the Emergency! TV series) 197? - Set No. 9780 - - VertiBird Airborne Rescue. 1976 - Set No. 8997 - - VertiBird Okanagan Logging 'Copter. (Also released in Canada) 1976 - Set No. 9637 - - Space: 1999 Flying Eagle. (Not branded as "VertiBird" on its packaging elements; tie-in to Space: 1999 TV series.) 1978 - Set No. 2898 - VertiBird S.W.A.T. Patrol. (Themed to tie into the S.W.A.T. TV series.) 1979 - Set No. 1675 - 1675-0970 - VertiBird Night Patrol (included phosphorescent plastic parts and stickers) 1979 - Set No. 2983 - 2983-0970 - VertiBird Battlestar Galactica. (Battlestar Galactica TV series tie-in) 1981 - Set No. 5306 - - VertiBird Megaforce. (Megaforce Movie tie-in) International versions Localized for language and/or graphics. Brazil (Brasil) Manufactured under the Brazilian Brand "Brinquedos Estrela" (Toys Star) 1984 - Set No. 22.13.13 (Brazilian Issue) - VertiPlano. (Brazilian, original version VertiBird). 1984 - Set No. 22.13.15 (Brazilian Issue) - VertiPlano. (Brazilian, original version VertiBird). 2000 - Set No. 22.03.66 (Brazilian Issue) - Vertiplano Estrela C/ Caixa - Helicóptero De Resgate. (Brazilian, Vertiplano Star C / Box - From Helicopter Rescue version VertiBird. Reissued series version with new colors.). Canada 1971 - Set No. 5972 (Canadian Issue) - VertiBird. (Canadian version set) 1973 - Set No. 7604 (Canadian Issue) - VertiBird Air Police/Police De L'Air. (Canadian version Air Police set) 1976 - Set No. 8997 - VertiBird Okanagan Logging 'Copter. (also released in the USA) Germany 1978 - Set No. 2677-0919 - Libelle 12 Polizeihubschrauber (German version of "Air Police" set). This much sought-after model did not feature any reference to the "VertiBird" series on its packaging elements despite being a genuine Mattel product. Collectors should take note that two different versions exist of the "Libelle 12" set; the more common one contains the getaway car, road barrier, and radar receiver made of red plastic, while the much scarcer second variant had these same accessory pieces molded from clear plastic instead. Also, a rare early packaging artwork variation featured Mattel's "Hot Wheels" logo added to the lid of the box and employed a smaller, less prominent "Libelle 12" logo. Whereas the original German retail price for the "Libelle 12" was in the range of around DM 35, near-mint/unplayed sets auctioned off on eBay.de between January 2009 and May 2012 realized final bids from €90 to €150. Italy 1978 - Set No. 2675-0920 - VertiBird Elicottero Carabinieri (Italian version of "Airborne Rescue Mission" set). It is of note that the initial version of this set featured the original US "Airborne Rescue Mission" packaging (containing two different instruction manuals in both English and Italian), while the second version - in a different red box - was fully adjusted for the domestic market and came with the Italian-language manual only. Also, early Mattel ads published in Italy promoted the toy as "Elicottero S.O.S. Mattel" and utilized a picture of the US model (yellow helicopter and white base/control unit), although the actual "Elicottero Carabinieri" set consisted of a black helicopter and red operating elements. 1980 - Set No. 3017-0926 - VertiBird Veicolo Spaziale Mazinga "Z" (Battlestar Galactica TV series theme). This is basically the same set as the 1979 US "Battlestar Galactica" version, adapted (and renamed) for the Italian market. Japan Manufactured under the Japanese Brand "Takara". 19?? - Set No. ???? (Japanese Issue) - VertiBird Helicopter Technic. Likely the Japanese market version of the Air Police version. The graphics and colors included in this set are very different. Also, the radar antenna has a different shape and is attached to the motor base in a completely different method. Also, the control handles functions are reversed as compared to the USA sets. Direction is on the left side and power is on the right side. Also, the control handle shape for the power control does not have the right-angle extension as seen in the USA set controls. Otherwise, the Takara-branded set flies the same. Mexico 1973 - Set No. ???? - VertiBird Estacion Polar (Mexican version of "Polar Adventure" set), manufactured and distributed by domestic toy company "CIPSA (Compania de Plasticos S.A.)" with original "VertiBird" branding. United Kingdom 1976 - Set No. 9780 (UK Issue) - VertiBird Airborne Rescue. Contracted Vertibird versions Bluebird Air Police contracted set by Mattel 197? - Set No. PT-681 - Bluebird Air Police. Distribution in Canada and Europe. Produced during the same period as the Mattel branded set. Burbank Toys contracted set by Mattel 1973 - Set No.7604 - Burbank Toys Issue Air Police. Produced during the same period as the Mattel branded set. Takara Co Ltd Japan Licensed Design 197? - Set No. ?? - Helicopter Technic. Vertibird design licensed from Mattel by Takara Co Ltd for production and sale in Japan. Produced in the late 1970s to the early 1980s era. Other VertiBird-like toys and games Pre-VertiBird Era similar sets Childs and Smith (Atherstone, Warwickshire, England): 195? - Set No. ???? - Dan Dare (aka Nulli Secundus) Landing Mat Game. European release. Electric tin toy set similar to VertiBird, probably from the 1950s. Knickerbocker (North Hollywood, California): 195?/196? - Set No. ???? - Fly It Yourself Remote Control Helicopter. Early battery-operated flight toy with aluminum helicopter and paper landing mats. Maline: 195? - Set No. ???? - MARX-A-COPTER, Ship version. Made by Louis Marx and Company 195? - Set No. ???? - MARX-A-COPTER, Space Version. Many accessories. A space-themed playset from the pre-Apollo era. Made by Louis Marx and Company VertiBird Era similar sets, spin-offs and knock-offs Amusement Engineering Inc.: 1968 - Model No. ???? - Helicopter Trainer. Coin-operated arcade and location-based skill game. Direction and speed controlled. Also included scoring posts that were electrically operated by contact. Sega Enterprises Inc.: 1968 - Model No. ???? - Helicopter. Coin-operated arcade and location-based skill game. Direction and speed controlled. Also included scoring pads that were electrically operated by contact. Also had an 8-track tape for sound effects. Midway: 1969 - Model No. 601 - Whirly Bird. Coin-operated arcade and location-based skill game. Direction and speed controlled. Also included scoring posts that were electrically operated by contact. 1974 - Model No. 583 - Chopper. Coin-operated arcade and location-based skill game. Direction and speed controlled. Also included scoring target that were light sensor operated. Also had an 8-track tape for sound effects. Mattel: 1973 - Set No. 8263 - Snoopy & His Flyin' Doghouse. An original Mattel product that utilized their VertiBird concept, but instead of a helicopter featured Peanuts cartoon character Snoopy as the "flying ace" on his doghouse (with horizontally attached front propeller). Accessories included "Red Baron" and "German Balloon" cardboard cutout targets and a Charlie Brown & Woodstock flying pylon. A version for the Canadian market (same set number, with the toy actually made in Mexico) also exists featuring a bilingual (English/French-language) box and instructions. 1978 - Set No. 2433 (US) / 2433-0980 (Europe) - Dareplane Wingwalker Stunt Set. A completely re-designed version of Mattel's earlier (1972) "Dareplane Stunter" flight toy that had worked on thin, flexible cables (which made it difficult for young kids to properly navigate the plane) and was prone to quick damage, with countless sets being returned for exchange to toy stores and Mattel itself within just a few days after purchase. Having the original cable connections replaced by a solid plastic arm that no longer allowed to do "loops" and the like, the later "Wingwalker" version generally operated in a way that was a lot more similar to the VertiBird concept (even including a sky-hook retractable from the plane, as well as several pick-up items) - in fact, the only thing these two toys had in common was the name. Other than the 1972 "Dareplane," which had been available in North America only, the "Wingwalker" set also was released in Europe, but enjoyed little success on either market and thus disappeared from shelves rather quickly. Simpsons-Sears (Canada): 197? - Set No. ???? - Helicopter. This set contained a yellow chopper, control unit, operating unit, connection gear, cardboard landing mat (with assembly instructions printed on the back), and various pick-up items. Made in Hong Kong. Good Play (Germany): 197? - Set No. ???? - Super Helicopter. Contained a white chopper, control/operating unit (one piece), connection gear, and plastic landing mat. Remco Controlled Space Flight (CSF): 1976 - Set No. 602 - Star Trek CSF. 1976 - Set No. ??????? - Batman CSF. 197? - Set No. 6140901 - Spider-Man CSF. Post-Vertibird Era similar sets, spin-offs and knock-offs BlueBird Toys: 19?? - Set No. ???? - Chopper Ace. Twin Rotor design but otherwise similar to VertiBird operation and control. European and Canadian Sales. Milton Bradley Company (Canada): 1993 - Set No. ???? - Flying Thunder. This helicopter bore a physical resemblance to "Blue Thunder" from the 1983 action film of the same name. Contained numerous "target" pick-up items and military-themed vinyl play-mat. Galoob Micro Machines: 1994 - Set No. ???? - Micro Machines Chopper Command Base. Kool Toyz, contracted for Target Stores and KayBee Toys by Jasman Toys: 2000 - Set No. 087 07 1039 - Chopper Command Helicopter Set. 2000 - Set No. 087 07 1039 - Chopper Command Helicopter Set. This Chopper Patrol with a safety ring three-bladed rotor shipped to stores in a Chopper Command box. A two-bladed rotor was mistakenly shown in the picture on the box. Jasman Toys Chopper Command: 2000 - Set No. 16810-015 - Chopper Command Police (with play-mat). 2000 - Set No. 16810-016 - Chopper Command Military (with play-mat). 2000 - Set No. 16812-001 - Chopper Command Police (with play-mat, sound, flashing strobe). 2000 - Set No. 16812-002, UPC 738708168127, C16812053 - Chopper Command Military (with play-mat, sound, flashing strobe). 2000 - Set No. 16812-001 (2nd Printing) - Chopper Command Police (with play-mat, sound, flashing strobe) 2000 - Set No. 16812-002 (2nd Printing) - Chopper Command Military (with play-mat, sound, flashing strobe). Jasman Toys Chopper Patrol: 2001 - Set No. 16810-??? - Chopper Command Police (with play-mat). 2001 - Set No. 16810-??? - Chopper Command Military (with play-mat). 2001 - Set No. 16812-??? - Chopper Command Police (with play-mat, sound, flashing strobe). 2001 - Set No. 16813-??? - Chopper Command Military (with play-mat, sound, flashing strobe). 2001 - Set No. 16816-??? - Chopper Command Sea Rescue (with play-mat, sound, flashing strobe). 2001 - Set No. 16871-??? - Chopper Command Rega (with play-mat, sound, flashing strobe) Swiss Rega contracted the set from Jasman. Jasman Toys Command Force Chopper Patrol: 200? - Set No. 16963-??? - Command Force Chopper Patrol, Micro Series, Apache. 200? - Set No. 16964-??? - Command Force Chopper Patrol, Micro Series, Cobra. 200? - Set No. 16992-??? - Command Force Chopper Patrol, Mini Series, Patrol AH-64 Apache. (with play-mat, light-up base, sounds, flashing strobe) 200? - Set No. 16993-??? - Command Force Chopper Patrol, Mini Series, Patrol AH-1 Super Cobra. (with play-mat, light-up base, sounds, flashing strobe) 200? - Set No. 16994-??? - Command Force Chopper Patrol, Mini Series, AH-6 Little Bird. (with play-mat, light-up base, sounds, flashing strobe) 2007 - Set No. 1????-??? - Spider-Man 3 12" Chopper Chopper. (Command Force sized AH-6 Little Bird. (with play-mat, light-up base, sounds, flashing strobe) 2??? - Set No. 255590-??? - Command Force Chopper Countdown. (with play-mat, light-up base, sounds, flashing strobe, countdown timer) Jasman Toys Spider-Man 3: 2007 - Set No. 23530-??? - Spider-Man 3 12" Chopper. (Command Force size) 2007 - Set No. 2????-??? - Spider-Man 3 Flying Figure. (Command Force size) 2007 - Set No. 2????-??? - Spider-Man 3 18" Chopper. (with play-mat)(Command Force size) 2007 - Set No. 2????-??? - Spider-Man 3 Amazing Spider-Man Chopper. (with play-mat, sound, light-up base)(Chopper Patrol size) RoboFly custom Set: 2000 - Set No. ???? - RoboFly. Custom-produced all aluminum, CNC machined, super-powered VertiBird knock-off. Magnetic pickup instead of SkyHook. The set includes numbered and personalized plates for the owner. The RoboFly maker also sent out a free customized keychain fob to the owners and all others who requested them. Draganfly Innovations. Acquired RoboFly production rights: 2000 - Set No. ???? - Skybot. Same as the RoboFly except no owner personalization. No longer manufactured. References VertiBird links VertiSim - Free Vertibird Simulator for Windows Stuff We Love - 1970s Nostalgia site featuring many toys from the era VertiBird videos 1973 Vertibird commercial - USA Air Police 1970s toys Helicopters Mattel Products introduced in 1971 Space Age
4870300	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics%20of%20California	Politics of California	The recent and current politics of the U.S. state of California are complex and involve a number of entrenched interests. (For historical politics, see Politics of California before 1900). The first presidential election the state participated in was 1852. For the next few decades after the Civil War, California was a Republican-leaning but a very competitive state in presidential elections, as in voted for the nationwide winner all but thrice between statehood and 1912, with the exceptions of 1880, 1884, and 1912. Beginning with the 1916 election, the state shifted into a bellwether. Between 1916 and 1948, it voted for the nationwide winner every time, and was critical to Democratic victories in 1916 and 1948, as well. Franklin Roosevelt carried all but one county in the state in 1932, and in 1936 all counties. Roosevelt's third and fourth presidential elections saw him win by smaller margins. In 1948, the state narrowly voted for Truman. Beginning with the 1952 presidential election California became a Republican-leaning battleground state, as it only voted Democratic once (in 1964) over the next 36 years. Beginning with the 1992 presidential election, California has become increasingly Democratic. The state has voted Democratic in every presidential election since then, usually by lopsided margins, and starting in 2008, Democrats have consistently gotten at least 60% of the vote. Voting patterns since 1992 have remained consistent by and large, with Democratic presidential candidates carrying the coastal counties and Republicans the inland counties, though Democrats have gained in many Southern counties as well. At the state level, California has had more mixed voting tendencies until more recently. Six of the state's first seven governors were Democrats; during subsequent decades, control of the governorship frequently shifted between the two parties. From 1862 to 1998, almost all governors were Republican, but since that time the governorship has switched parties regularly. The 2018 election marked the first time Democrats won more than two consecutive gubernatorial elections in the state's history. Government The Big Five is an informal institution of the legislative leadership role in California's government, consisting of the governor, the Assembly speaker, the Assembly minority leader, the Senate president pro tempore, and the Senate minority leader. Members of the Big Five meet in private to discuss bills pending in the legislature. Because the party caucus leaders in California's legislature also control the party's legislative campaign funds, the leaders wield tremendous power over their caucus members. They are thus able to exert some influence in their caucus's votes in Big Five meetings. Electoral system Only the Democratic Party and Republican Party currently have representation in the State Legislature. However, for a brief period around the turn of the 21st century, one member of the Green Party was a member of the State Assembly , representing the eastern San Francisco Bay Area. California currently uses the nonpartisan blanket primary in its elections, where candidates regardless of party, including multiple nominees from a single party, contest the ballot and the candidates with the two highest numbers of votes are entered into a general election, but some municipalities such as San Francisco and Berkeley have opted to use a system of preferential voting, currently used in Maine, Australia and Ireland, more popularly known in the United States as instant-runoff voting or ranked choice voting. Local elections in California at the county and city level are officially non-partisan and political party affiliations are not included on local election ballots, and if one candidate fails to have a majority on the first ballot, a runoff between the two highest-scoring candidates occurs. Political parties The two major political parties in California that currently have representation in the State Legislature and U.S. Congress are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. There are four other parties that qualify for official ballot status: the American Independent Party, Green Party, Libertarian Party, and Peace and Freedom Party. There are also other minor parties in California that are not ballot qualified including the American Solidarity Party, National Party and Reform Party. Political issues Many of California's governmental agencies, institutions, and programs have been established in the Constitution of California. Additionally, the state constitution establishes mandatory funding levels for some agencies, programs and institutions. This issue came to the forefront when Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and the California Legislature attempted to cut spending to close the state's multibillion-dollar budget deficits during the 2000s. Consequently, affected agencies with support from special interest groups, successfully pressed the California Supreme Court to order the restoration of funding to a number of agencies and programs which had been cut. There have been several events, many dubbed "constitutional crises" by their opponents, over the last thirty-two years including: the passage of term limits for the California legislature and elected constitutional officers, which was hotly argued statewide, and debated in the Supreme Court of California; a test of the ratification process for the Supreme Court, in which a liberal chief justice, Rose Bird, and two liberal associate Justices, Joseph Grodin and Cruz Reynoso, were ousted; a full-fledged tax revolt, "Proposition 13", which resulted in the freezing of real estate tax rates at 1% of the property's last sale price (plus a modest 2% maximum annual inflator); a test of the state recall provision, in which Governor Gray Davis was recalled in a 2003 special election. a failure to pass a budget until almost three months after the constitutional deadline (2008). Northern California's inland areas and the Central Valley are mostly Republican areas. Historically, parts of Southern California, such as Orange County and Riverside County were Republican bastions, however, they have continued to trend Democratic in recent decades, with all five congressional districts flipping Democrat in 2018. Coastal California, including such areas as the Bay Area, Los Angeles, San Diego and Sacramento areas are mostly Democratic areas. As most of the population is in Southern California and the San Francisco Bay Area, California as a whole tends to be liberal. California was once a Republican-leaning swing state in presidential elections from 1952 until 1992. During this period, the Republicans won California in every election except the election of 1964, often by a margin similar to the national one. In these years, the GOP nominated a couple of Californians as presidential candidates during four presidential elections: Richard Nixon in 1960 and 1972, and Ronald Reagan in 1980 and 1984. Since then, however, the Democrats have carried the electoral rich state since 1992. The immigration of Hispanic Americans and Asian Americans along with the migration of Anglo-American liberals from the Midwest and Northeast, who tend to vote Democratic, shifted the balance in favor of the Democratic Party. Among the state's divisive issues are water and water rights, resulting in the California Water Wars. Lacking reliable dry season rainfall, water is limited, and available surface sources are extensively developed through dams, canals, and pipelines. The principal water sources are mountain runoff from wet season rains and higher altitude snowpack (70%), wells (limited by salt-water incursion and overuse), and some Colorado River water supplying Southern California (strictly limited by treaties with the other western states and Mexico). Waste water reclamation in California is already routine (for irrigation and industrial use). Most water is in the north of the State, while agriculture, the largest user of stored water in California, is most prevalent in the central and southern areas. Additionally, the majority of the state's population is in the south. Water viewed as excess by the south is viewed by the north as environmentally essential for agriculture, fisheries, and wildlife. While the southern electorate has a greater portion of the population it is not as unified in its viewpoint as is that of the north, so ballot propositions such as those promoting a Peripheral Canal to transport water to the south have failed. Land use is also divisive. High land prices mean that ordinary people keep a large proportion of their net worth inland. This leads them to agitate strongly about issues that can affect the prices of their home or investments. The most vicious local political battles concern local school boards (good local schools substantially raise local housing prices) and local land-use policies. In built-up areas, it is extremely difficult to site new airports, dumps, or jails. Many cities routinely employ eminent domain to make land available for development. A multi-city political battle was fought for several years in Orange County concerning the decommissioning of the huge El Toro Marine airbase. Orange County needs a new airport (pilot unions voted the existing airport, John Wayne, the least safe in the U.S.), but the noise could reduce land prices throughout the southern part of the county, including wealthy, politically powerful Irvine. Gun control is another divisive issue, which stems at least partially from the fact that California's constitution does not explicitly guarantee the right for ordinary citizens to keep and bear arms. In the cities, California has one of the U.S.'s most serious gang problems, and in some farming regions, some of the highest murder rates. The state also contains many individuals who desire to keep and bear arms in defense of themselves, their families, and property. The legislature has passed restrictive gun control laws. Private purchase of assault weapons (generally, semi-automatic rifles that look like military rifles) without prior approval from the state Department of Justice (which rarely grants such approval) is a felony. The law does not, however, prohibit sales of semi-automatic hunting-style civilian weapons, leading many to question the effectiveness of the cosmetic distinction. Pistols may be purchased and kept in one's home or place of business (however, they are required to be registered to the state and must be considered a "safe" handgun (see AB 1471), but it is illegal to carry weapons or ammunition outside these areas without a concealed weapons permit, except in a locked area (car trunk) to licensed practice ranges or other legitimate uses (hunting, repair, collection, etc.) Open carry of an unloaded firearm in some areas is legal but very uncommon due to the confusing web of state and federal laws, such as the Federal Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990, which makes it a felony to carry a gun within 1000 feet of a school, even without malicious intent. As of 2012, open carry of firearms is for the most part banned, with exceptions made for law enforcement, hunters, and individuals in rural areas of the state. Except in a handful of rural counties, most people find it impossible to get concealed weapons permits since they are issued at the discretion of the local law enforcement officials; California is not a "shall issue" state for concealed weapons permits. Because of the importance of local law enforcement's discretion, some counties are nevertheless virtually "shall issue" while others are de facto "no issue", leading to the peculiar situation of rural residents of one jurisdiction being able to legally carry their handguns in areas where the local residents cannot. For more see gun laws in California. Influence of special-interest groups Because California is the most populous state in the United States, legislation and policies that are enacted by the government of California often have significant implications on major political issues at the national level. Throughout the twentieth century, political decisions in California have wielded substantial influence with Congress while considering legislation at the federal level. Because of the potentially nationwide implications for political decisions made in California, special-interest groups, many of which are based outside of California, play a greater role in California politics than in most other states, by contributing large amounts of money into lobbying, litigation, and producing media advertisements to influence voters and elected officials on major political issues. The California Fair Political Practices Commission regulates campaign finance and lobbying in California. Federal representation The most populous state, California has the largest Congressional delegation of any state, with 52 representatives and two senators. In the 118th Congress, 40 of California's seats are held by Democrats and 12 are held by Republicans. There are as follows: California's 1st congressional district represented by Doug LaMalfa (R) California's 2nd congressional district represented by Jared Huffman (D) California's 3rd congressional district represented by Kevin Kiley (R) California's 4th congressional district represented by Mike Thompson (D) California's 5th congressional district represented by Tom McClintock (R) California's 6th congressional district represented by Ami Bera (D) California's 7th congressional district represented by Doris Matsui (D) California's 8th congressional district represented by John Garamendi (D) California's 9th congressional district represented by Josh Harder (D) California's 10th congressional district represented by Mark DeSaulnier (D) California's 11th congressional district represented by Nancy Pelosi (D) California's 12th congressional district represented by Barbara Lee (D) California's 13th congressional district represented by John Duarte (R) California's 14th congressional district represented by Eric Swalwell (D) California's 15th congressional district represented by Kevin Mullen (D) California's 16th congressional district represented by Anna Eshoo (D) California's 17th congressional district represented by Ro Khanna (D) California's 18th congressional district represented by Zoe Lofgren (D) California's 19th congressional district represented by Jimmy Panetta (D) California's 20th congressional district represented by Kevin McCarthy (R) California's 21st congressional district represented by Jim Costa (D) California's 22nd congressional district represented by David Valadao (R) California's 23rd congressional district represented by Jay Obernolte (R) California's 24th congressional district represented by Salud Carbajal (D) California's 25th congressional district represented by Raul Ruiz (D) California's 26th congressional district represented by Julia Brownley (D) California's 27th congressional district represented by Mike Garcia (R) California's 28th congressional district represented by Judy Chu (D) California's 29th congressional district represented by Tony Cárdenas (D) California's 30th congressional district represented by Adam Schiff (D) California's 31st congressional district represented by Grace Napolitano (D) California's 32nd congressional district represented by Brad Sherman (D) California's 33rd congressional district represented by Pete Aguilar (D) California's 34th congressional district represented by Jimmy Gomez (D) California's 35th congressional district represented by Norma Torres (D) California's 36th congressional district represented by Ted Lieu (D) California's 37th congressional district represented by Sydney Kamlager-Dove (D) California's 38th congressional district represented by Linda Sánchez (D) California's 39th congressional district represented by Mark Takano (D) California's 40th congressional district represented by Young Kim (R) California's 41st congressional district represented by Ken Calvert (R) California's 42nd congressional district represented by Robert Garcia (D) California's 43rd congressional district represented by Maxine Waters (D) California's 44th congressional district represented by Nanette Barragán (D) California's 45th congressional district represented by Michelle Steel (R) California's 46th congressional district represented by Lou Correa (D) California's 47th congressional district represented by Katie Porter (D) California's 48th congressional district represented by Darrell Issa (R) California's 49th congressional district represented by Mike Levin (D) California's 50th congressional district represented by Scott Peters (D) California's 51st congressional district represented by Sara Jacobs (D) California's 52nd congressional district represented by Juan Vargas (D) California is currently represented by Democratic senator Alex Padilla, serving since 2021. California's class I senate seat is currently vacant following the death of Dianne Feinstein. California is part of the United States District Court for the Northern District of California, the United States District Court for the Central District of California, the United States District Court for the Southern District of California, and the United States District Court for the Eastern District of California in the federal judiciary. The district's cases are appealed to the San Francisco-based United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Notable people Stephen C. Bowers, served in the California legislature John T. Campbell, served in the California legislature John T. Crenshaw, served in the California legislature Robert Desty, served in the California legislature John M. James, a member of the 1867-1869 California State Assembly Charles H. Johnson, a member of the 1861–1862 California State Assembly Frank D. Laughlin, served in the California legislature James H. Lawrence, served in the California legislature Smyth M. Miles, served in the California legislature Joseph C. Montague, served in the California legislature Miguel D. Pedrorena, served in the California legislature Paul Shirley, served in the California legislature Frederick A. Snyder, served in the California legislature Jacob R. Snyder, served in the California legislature Bruce R. Stannard, served in the California legislature William H. Stone, served in the California legislature David C. Williams, served in the California legislature See also Politics of California before 1900 Government of California California locations by voter registration Political party strength in California Electoral reform in California League of California Cities, a lobbying group representing most of the city governments Student Senate for California Community Colleges, a lobbying organization, authorized by state statute References External links Archival collections Guide to the California Political Publication and Ephemera Collection. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California. Other Deep Cuts Threaten to Reshape California by Jennifer Steinhauer, The New York Times, May 30, 2009 TotalCapitol.com California political news and database of people in California politics History of California
4870843	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian%20Wilson%20%28baseball%29	Brian Wilson (baseball)	Brian Patrick Wilson (born March 16, 1982), nicknamed "The Beard" and "B-Weezy", is an American former professional baseball relief pitcher. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the San Francisco Giants and Los Angeles Dodgers. He stands tall and weighs . Wilson is known for his large black beard, which he began growing during the 2010 pennant race. Wilson's entrance at home games accompanied by the song "Jump Around" was popular with fans. Wilson also portrayed Peterson, a pitcher in the 2019 film Bottom of the 9th. Wilson pitched collegiately at Louisiana State University. His college career ended during his junior season, when he injured his elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery. The San Francisco Giants selected him in the 2003 draft. He reached the major leagues in 2006 and had become the Giants' regular closer by the end of 2007. In 2010, he led the Majors with 48 saves which tied the franchise single season record while posting a 1.81 ERA, and he saved clinching games at every level of the playoffs, including the 2010 World Series over the Texas Rangers. In the first week of the 2012 season, Wilson injured his elbow and subsequently underwent his second Tommy John surgery. He completed his recovery midway through the 2013 season and signed with the Los Angeles Dodgers, pitching effectively with them as a late-inning reliever through the playoffs. However, he was not able to continue his success in 2014, and the Dodgers released him after that season. Early life Wilson was born in Winchester, Massachusetts on March 16, 1982. While he was in second grade, he moved to Londonderry, New Hampshire. Today, he talks little of his childhood except to discuss his father, Mike Wilson, who was an Air Force veteran and a demanding perfectionist. During fall, he would have Brian bag leaves and bury them in the woods; and in winter, he would have Brian spend seven hours shoveling snow on weekends. Brian said in a 2011 interview, "I think that's how you need to be raised. It's not your friend, it's your dad. And he's going to be strict. And one day you're going to understand why. And sometimes, it's a little too late. They might pass away, and you might not get that chance to say thanks or understand why you did those things. But when you become a man, you understand why." When Wilson was 12 years old, his father was diagnosed with cancer. His father fought the disease for five years before dying while Wilson was attending Londonderry High School; Wilson today says he had to become a man when his father was diagnosed. In a 2011 story, ESPN.com writer Elizabeth Merrill said about Wilson's high school years, "He was an honor roll student at Londonderry, but clashed with various authority figures who didn't appreciate his occasional lack of a filter." In the same story, a number of Londonderry faculty speculated that some teachers didn't understand Wilson's life situation at the time. Art Psaledas, an assistant principal at the school, added, "It happened at probably the worst time anybody could lose your dad. Watching his dad deteriorate over the years was probably the singular thing that formed his personality." Bob Napolitano, Wilson's coach at Londonderry High School, noticed Wilson's ability to concentrate on baseball. Napolitano specifically remembered the first home game of Wilson's senior year, which happened shortly after his father's death. No fewer than 29 professional scouts, all with radar guns, showed up to see him pitch. According to Napolitano, Wilson was completely oblivious to their appearance; he ate and drank in the dugout, warmed up, and pitched a two-hitter while apparently not noticing that scouts were there. The Cleveland Indians offered him a contract straight out of high school, but he did not sign, opting to attend college instead. College career After a coach saw Wilson pitch well at a tournament in California, he was offered a scholarship to Louisiana State University (LSU), where he played for the LSU Tigers baseball team, eventually becoming their No. 2 starter. In his time at LSU, Wilson pitched in 51 games (22 starts) and accumulated 18 wins, 10 losses, and five saves. In 2002, he played collegiate summer baseball with the Hyannis Mets of the Cape Cod Baseball League. He was in the middle of his third season on March 28, 2003, when he injured his elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery. He also played for the Keene Swamp Bats of the New England Collegiate Baseball League, a summer league for collegiate prospects. Despite facing extensive rehabilitation, Wilson chose to enter the 2003 Major League Baseball draft. Professional career Draft and minor leagues Coming off his surgery, Wilson was drafted by the San Francisco Giants in the 24th round in 2003. He began his career with the Hagerstown Suns of the Class-A South Atlantic League in 2004. In 23 games, he had a 2–5 record, a 5.34 earned run average (ERA), 41 strikeouts, and 22 walks in innings pitched. He made three starts that year, the only time he ever started games professionally. The Giants switched single-A affiliates the next year and Wilson began pitching for the Augusta GreenJackets. In 26 games, he had a 5–1 record, a 0.82 ERA, 30 strikeouts, and seven walks in 33 innings pitched while notching 13 saves, good for second in the league behind Brett Campbell's 19. His performance with Augusta caused Mark Camps of the San Francisco Chronicle to mention him in his "Minor Report" on May 15. He also pitched for the Norwich Navigators of the double-A Eastern League (posting no record, eight saves, a 0.57 ERA, 22 strikeouts, five walks, and innings pitched in 15 games) and the Fresno Grizzlies of the Triple-A Pacific Coast League (posting a 1–1 record, no saves, a 3.97 ERA, 13 strikeouts, eight walks, and innings pitched in nine games). San Francisco Giants (2006–2012) 2006 season Wilson began 2006 with the Grizzlies before getting called up to the majors on April 23 to replace Tyler Walker, who was designated for assignment after struggling to begin the season. He made his major league debut that day in relief, pitching two innings, surrendering two hits and no runs while striking out three. He later revealed that he hurt himself during his first inning but continued pitching through the second without informing anyone of his injury. Afterward he was placed on the disabled list for a month. On May 23, he returned from the DL. He was optioned to Fresno on June 7 when Tim Worrell was activated from the DL; Giants' manager Felipe Alou said Wilson was not getting enough playing time. Wilson would go on to have three more stints with the Giants in 2006. On July 2, he got his first career save, stranding three inherited runners in the eighth inning and throwing scoreless innings in a 6–2 victory over the San Diego Padres. In 31 games, he had a 2–3 record, a 5.40 ERA, 23 strikeouts, and 21 walks in 30 innings pitched. In 24 games with Fresno, he had a 1–3 record, a 2.89 ERA, 30 strikeouts, and 14 walks in 28 innings pitched. 2007 season Wilson competed for the closer role with Armando Benítez in 2007 spring training. After he struggled and posted a 7.71 ERA, the Giants optioned him to the minors to start the season. After building a 1–2 record, 2.10 ERA, 37 strikeouts, 24 walks, 11 saves, and innings pitched in 31 games with Fresno, Wilson was called up on August 11 when Jonathan Sánchez was demoted. He was initially used as the setup man for closer Brad Hennessey, but he took over as closer on September 11 when Hennessey lost the role due to ineffectiveness. He went on to pitch in 24 games, recording a 1–2 record, a 2.28 ERA, 18 strikeouts, six walks, innings pitched, and six saves. 2008 season Wilson remained the Giants' closer in 2008 and kept the role all season. He recorded 24 consecutive saves from May 3 through August 17, the longest streak by a Giant since Robb Nen had 28 straight in 2000. Wilson was named to the All-Star Game after leading the NL in saves with 25 in the first half of the season. He gave up no hits and struck out one in innings in a 4–3 loss to the American League. He continued to lead the league in saves until José Valverde passed him at the end of August. Despite posting a 4.04 ERA through September 6, Wilson converted 37 of 40 save opportunities. In his final seven games of the year, however, he posted a 9.56 ERA while converting just four out of seven opportunities. In 63 games, he had a 3–2 record, a 4.62 ERA, 67 strikeouts, and 28 walks in innings pitched. He converted 41 saves in 47 attempts; his 41 saves were tied with Brad Lidge's total for second in the league behind Valverde's 44. 2009 season On June 5, 2009, Wilson saved Randy Johnson's 300th win. Johnson, searching for his 300th win, gave up one unearned run in six innings in Game 1 of a doubleheader against the Washington Nationals; the Giants had a 2–1 lead in the eighth inning. With runners on first and second for the Nationals and two outs, Wilson was called on to get the save. He walked Ryan Zimmerman to load the bases and bring up Adam Dunn. He then loaded the count against Dunn before throwing a called strike three to end the inning. Wilson then pitched a scoreless ninth, preserving the victory for Johnson. On September 24, with two outs and two strikes in the ninth inning and the Giants leading the Chicago Cubs by a 2–1 score, Wilson gave up a two-run home run to Jeff Baker. The loss hurt the Giants' chances of reaching the playoffs. In 68 games, Wilson had a 5–6 record, a 2.74 ERA, 83 strikeouts, and 27 walks in innings pitched. He blew seven saves, but his 38 saves tied for third in the NL with Ryan Franklin's total behind Heath Bell's 42 and Francisco Cordero's 39. He led the league in saves requiring four outs or more, with eight. 2010 season In 2010 spring training, Wilson was asked whether or not he thought himself one of baseball's elite closers. In what would turn out to be a very prophetic quote, he replied: On March 25, Wilson agreed to a contract extension with the Giants. He struck out five batters in innings on May 9 while recording a save in a 6–5 victory over the New York Mets. On May 15, against the Houston Astros with the bases loaded, two outs, and the Giants leading 2–1 in the ninth inning, Wilson struck out Kazuo Matsui in a 15-pitch at bat to end the game. The next day, against Houston with runners on first and second, two outs, and the Giants leading 4–3 in the ninth, Wilson retired Matsui to end the game. On June 12, Wilson entered in the eighth inning with one out, the bases loaded, and the Giants leading the Oakland Athletics 5–4. Wilson struck out Adam Rosales and retired Rajai Davis to end the inning; he then pitched a scoreless ninth to earn the save. He recorded 22 saves in his first 24 chances and was named to the All-Star Game in which he threw a scoreless eighth inning in the contest, a 3–1 victory over the AL. On October 3 (the final day of the regular season), the Giants faced the Padres, whom they led by one game in the NL West. Wilson threw a scoreless inning to earn the save and clinch the division for the Giants. Wilson converted his 48th save that day, tying the Giants' single season save record of 48 held by Rod Beck. He finished the season with a 3–3 record, a 1.81 ERA, 93 strikeouts, 26 walks, and inning pitched in 70 games. He converted 48 of 53 save opportunities and led the majors in saves as well as leading the major leagues in saves of four outs or more (10). He was named the This Year in Baseball Closer of the Year after the season. He finished 13th in NL Most Valuable Player (MVP) voting. 2010 postseason Wilson made his playoff debut in Game 2 of the NL Division Series against the Atlanta Braves; he blew a save, but that was partly because of an error by Pablo Sandoval. He earned saves in Games 3 and 4 as the Giants defeated the Braves in four games. In the NL Championship Series, the Giants faced the Philadelphia Phillies. In Game 4, Wilson threw a scoreless inning and earned the win in the 6–5 victory. In Game 6, Wilson entered with one out in the eighth inning, runners on first and second, and the Giants leading 3–2. He got Carlos Ruiz to line into a double play. He then pitched the ninth inning, striking out Ryan Howard with two runners on base, clinching the series for the Giants. He joined Dennis Eckersley, Mitch Williams, and John Wetteland as the only pitchers since 1969 to win or save four games in a postseason series. (In 2014 Greg Holland of Kansas City matched this feat.) The Giants faced the Texas Rangers in the World Series. Wilson appeared in three games, allowing no runs. He recorded the save in the series-clinching Game 5 as the Giants won their first World Series since 1954. 2011 season Wilson strained an oblique muscle in 2011 spring training and opened the season on the DL. He was activated from the DL on April 6. After posting a 3.75 ERA in his first two games, Wilson posted a 1.26 ERA in his next 35 outings. During a game against the Detroit Tigers on July 1, Wilson blew a save for a second straight game and was taken out of the game by Bruce Bochy. Upon entering the dugout, Wilson took out his frustrations by throwing a Gatorade cooler and smashing it with a bat. The Giants still won the game 4–3 as Jeremy Affeldt got the save. Wilson was elected to his third All-Star Game; he earned the save in a 5–1 victory over the AL. Wilson was placed on the DL on August 21 due to inflammation in his right elbow. At the time of his injury, he was third in the NL in saves, behind Craig Kimbrel and John Axford. On September 18, the Giants reactivated him from the DL. After two games back, Bochy decided to shut down Wilson for the final two games of the season. In 57 games, he had a 6–4 record, a 3.11 ERA, 54 strikeouts, and 31 walks in 55 innings pitched. He converted 36 of his 41 save opportunities, which tied Juan Carlos Oviedo for eighth in the NL. 2012 season Wilson's 2012 season would be short-lived. With the Giants leading the Colorado Rockies 4–1 entering the bottom of the ninth inning on April 12, he made his second appearance of the season to get the save for the Giants. He walked in a run to make it 4–2, but retired Marco Scutaro with the bases loaded to earn the save. He injured his elbow during the game and underwent Tommy John surgery for the second time in his career on April 19, causing him to miss the remainder of the season. During his injury shortened season, Wilson made only 2 appearances with an ERA of 9.00 and 1 save. The Giants went on to win their second World Series in three years. Wilson expressed confidence in an interview on April 15 that he would return to the Giants in 2013. However, because he was coming off an injury and would be owed at least $6.8 million for 2013, he was non-tendered after the season, which made him a free agent for the first time in his career. At the end of the 2012 season, he ranked third all-time in saves as a Giant with 171, behind only Robb Nen (206) and Rod Beck (199). Los Angeles Dodgers (2013–2014) Wilson chose not to sign with any team before the 2013 season because he wanted to be fully recovered from surgery when he attempted his comeback. On July 25, he threw a bullpen session in front of various teams' scouts with the hope to sign with a contender. On July 30, 2013, Wilson agreed to a contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers for the remainder of the 2013 season. After a few weeks at the Dodgers training facility in Arizona, he began a minor league rehab assignment. He joined the Dodgers active roster on August 19 and made his debut with the team on August 22 against the Miami Marlins at Marlins Park. He appeared in 18 games for the Dodgers with a 2-1 record and a 0.66 ERA. Regardless of signing for the team late in the season, Wilson made 3 relief appearances in the postseason without giving up an earned run until the Dodgers lost in the 2013 NLCS to the St. Louis Cardinals. On December 5, 2013, Wilson agreed to a one-year, $10 million contract to return to the Dodgers. The deal also contained a player option for the 2015 season. His numbers were not as good in 2014, as he had a 4.66 ERA in 61 appearances. On October 8, 2014, he announced that he would be exercising his player option for 2015. However, the Dodgers designated him for assignment on December 16, 2014. He was released by the Dodgers on December 19 and became a free agent. Wilson did not play in the MLB in 2015 or 2016, but announced in early 2017 that he would be attempting a comeback as a knuckleball pitcher. Scouting report Wilson was a power pitcher. He had a repertoire of four pitches. He threw a straight four-seam fastball around 92-95 mph; this was one of his main pitches. He also had a slider, a cut fastball, and a two-seam fastball. His slider traveled around 89 mph. His cut fastball allowed him to use fewer four-seam fastballs. In 2011, he started throwing the two-seam fastball as well. The two-seamer started away on a right-handed hitter (or in to a left-handed hitter) and had dramatic inward (or outward) movement over the plate. He also experimented with curveballs, screwballs, and knuckleballs. Wilson has said that when pitching, players cannot be worried about the potential outcome. Personal life Wilson is noted for his flamboyant personality. In the 2010 MLB All-Star Game, Wilson debuted a pair of bright orange cleats and continued to wear them throughout the season. On July 27, Marlins' manager Edwin Rodríguez complained that the shoes were too bright. Wilson received a $1,000 fine from MLB the next day, and he responded by coloring half of the shoes black with a marker. He said afterwards, "The fact that he (Rodríguez) thinks these shoes throw 97–100 with cut might be a little far-fetched. I guess we should probably have these checked for performance-enhancing cleats." He also stated that he was punished "for having too much awesome on my feet." In addition to his mohawk hairstyle, Wilson has a large black beard, which he began growing and presumably dyeing during the Giants' playoff run in 2010. He never admitted to dyeing it, saying in 2010, "It's dark because we play a lot of day games. It's tanned. It's focused." He decided he would not shave until the Giants' season was over, and only if they failed to win the World Series. During the Giants' playoff run in 2010, Giants' fans began growing their own beards or wearing fake beards. Many fans chanted "Fear the Beard", and held up signs bearing the same motto. Teammate Sergio Romo also began growing a beard in 2010; he has had it intermittently ever since. Wilson has a number of tattoos. On his left shoulder, he has a dragon to honor his father, which represents the "protection from fear" that Wilson's dad gave him. Across his chest, he has the words "In nomine patris" ("In the name of the father"), and on his right wrist he has a Celtic cross with lettering that says "All Honor To Him" in Gaelic; both of these tattoos symbolize his Christian faith. Finally, he has Japanese Kanji characters on his arm, which symbolize his faith; they say, "Father. Son. Eternal Strength." Wilson has enjoyed a great deal of media attention during his career. He once had a locally produced, self-filmed reality show called Life of Brian. He has often been on The Cheap Seats. Following the World Series in 2010, a photo of Wilson celebrating with teammate Buster Posey appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated. Wilson also appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and Lopez Tonight. He has frequently starred in commercials. Wilson became a Christian at the age of 23. He has adopted a gesture of crossing his arms, with his left hand in his glove and his right hand underneath pointing with the index finger while looking at the sky, which both honors The Holy Trinity as well as his late father who died of cancer when Wilson was 17. He performs it when he records a save or closes out a game. On May 30, 2011 (Memorial Day), Wilson announced that in memory of his father, an Air Force veteran, he would endow two scholarships for LSU Air Force ROTC cadets. The scholarship will be a need based scholarship available to any college junior or senior. Later that year, on July 7, Wilson gave away 1,000 baseball gloves to members of the Giants Community Fund's Junior Giants baseball program. Frequently, Wilson has made references to "The Machine", a character from the movie 8mm. In an episode of The Cheap Seats, he had someone dressed as "The Machine" walk past in the background in full BDSM leather fetish apparel, supposedly unknown to him (but almost certainly teammate Pat Burrell). Another time, in an interview with Rome, Wilson appeared to receive a call from "The Machine" and pulled a leather mask (allegedly "The Machine's") out of his pocket to show to Rome. See also List of Major League Baseball annual saves leaders List of San Francisco Giants team records References Further reading External links 1982 births Living people People from Winchester, Massachusetts Baseball players from Middlesex County, Massachusetts Sportspeople from Rockingham County, New Hampshire Major League Baseball pitchers National League All-Stars National League saves champions Baseball players from New Hampshire People from Londonderry, New Hampshire San Francisco Giants players Los Angeles Dodgers players LSU Tigers baseball players Hyannis Harbor Hawks players Hagerstown Suns players Mesa Solar Sox players Augusta GreenJackets players Norwich Navigators players Fresno Grizzlies players San Jose Giants players Rancho Cucamonga Quakes players Albuquerque Isotopes players
4871021	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Americans%20of%20Irish%20descent	List of Americans of Irish descent	This is a list of Americans of Irish descent, including both original immigrants who obtained American citizenship and their American-born descendants. To be included in this list, the person must have a Wikipedia article and/or references showing the person is Irish American. List Actors Arts Jean Butler – dancer; mother is from County Mayo Kurt Cobain – songwriter and musician, lead singer of Nirvana Auliʻi Cravalho – singer and actress Colleen Doran – cartoonist, illustrator, writer Michael Flatley – dancer, musician, businessman, William Harnett – painter, Irish immigrant best known for trompe-l'œil renderings of still life Carrie Ann Inaba – dancer, actress; mother of Chinese and Irish descent Gene Kelly – dancer, actor, singer, director, choreographer Nancy Jewel McDonie – singer, dancer, member of the South Korean group Momoland; mother is Korean and father is of Irish ancestry Dorothy Miner – art historian and curator Georgia O'Keeffe – painter; of Irish and Hungarian ancestry Eileen O'Meara – animator, artist; of Irish and Italian ancestry Christopher Ross, sculptor and designer; grandfather is from Dublin Augustus Saint-Gaudens – sculptor; Irish mother Astronauts Neil Armstrong – first man on the moon Eileen Collins – commander for STS-93 and STS-114; pilot for STS-63 and STS-84 Michael Collins – Command Module Pilot for Apollo 11, 1969 James Irwin – Lunar Module Pilot for Apollo 15 Mark Kelly – commander for STS-124 and STS-134; pilot for STS-121 and STS-108 Scott Kelly – NASA astronaut; he and his brother Mark are the only twins and the only siblings who have both traveled in space Business Diamond Jim Brady – financier and philanthropist Edward Creighton – Omaha businessman and philanthropist John A. Creighton (1831–1907) – Omaha businessman and philanthropist Marcus Daly (1841–1900) – A "Copper King" of Butte, Montana, United States Henry Ford – founder of Ford Motor Company; Anglo-Irish Paul Galvin – inventor of the car radio; founder of Motorola Franklin B. Gowen – lawyer; president of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad; prosecuted the trial against the Molly Maguires William Russell Grace (1832–1904) – mayor of New York City and founder of W. R. Grace and Company Herb Kelleher – Southwest Airlines chairman Joseph P. Kennedy Sr – SEC Chairman, US Ambassador to the UK, bootlegger John Leahy – COO of Airbus; commercial pilot Richard and Maurice McDonald – founders of McDonald's Tom Monaghan – founder of Domino's Pizza Bill Rancic – entrepreneur Vinny Smith – software executive, billionaire, and philanthropist Jack Welch – former CEO of GE Edmund McIlhenny Inventor of hot sauce. Film directors and producers Roy E. Disney (1930–2009) – senior executive for The Walt Disney Company; son of Roy O. Disney Roy O. Disney – Walt Disney's brother Walt Disney Thom Fitzgerald – known for independent films including The Hanging Garden; grandparents were immigrants from County Kerry and County Cavan John Ford – best known for stylish Westerns and The Quiet Man Alfred Hitchcock – mother of Irish descent John Huston – became an Irish citizen in 1964; father of Irish descent Leo McCarey – Irish father Michael Moore John Sayles (1950– ) – independent film director and writer, frequently takes a small part in his own and other indie films; both parents are half Irish Gangsters and mobsters Journalists, news producers, talk show hosts Mike Barnicle Nellie Bly Jimmy Breslin William F. Buckley, Jr. (1925–2008) Howie Carr Ann Coulter John Devoy (1842–1928) – editor of the Gaelic American 1903–1928 Phil Donahue Maureen Dowd Roger Ebert Jimmy Fallon Austin E. Ford (1857–1896) – editor of the New York Freeman Patrick Ford (1837–1913) – founded the Irish World in New York Pete Hamill Sean Hannity Magee Hickey Greg Kelly Mary McGrory – Washington political reporter and columnist James McMaster (1820–1886) – editor of Freeman's Journal (New York) Chris Matthews John Mitchel (1815–1875) – editor of leading Confederate newspaper Peggy Noonan (1950– ) – author, political analyst and columnist Conan O'Brien Soledad O'Brien – journalist and producer Norah O'Donnell John Boyle O'Reilly (1844–1890) – editor of Boston Pilot Bill O'Reilly John L. O'Sullivan Dennis Roddy Tim Russert (1950–2008) – hosted NBC's Meet the Press 1991–2008 Mark Shields (1937–2022) Ed Sullivan Elizabeth Vargas – ABC News anchor Brian Williams – NBC News anchor Ellen DeGeneres – talk show host Law enforcement John O. Brennan – Director of the CIA Raymond W. Kelly – former New York Police Commissioner Francis O'Neill – Chicago Police Chief Bernard Kerik former NYPD commissioner (Irish mother) Bat Masterson Law William J. Brennan, Jr. – Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States Wayne M. Collins – civil rights attorney James B. Comey - former United States Deputy Attorney General Charles Patrick Daly - Chief Justice New York Court of Common Pleas Patrick Fitzgerald – United States Attorney for the Northern District of Illinois Anthony Kennedy – Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States Frank Murphy – Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States Roger I. McDonough – Chief Justice of the Utah Supreme Court Dorothy Miner – chief counsel for the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission Roger J. Traynor – Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of California Literature Philip K. Dick - His Grandparents were of Irish Quaker Ancestry Philip Barry – playwright; author of The Philadelphia Story Ted Berrigan – poet, part of the second generation of the New York School; author of The Sonnets John Berryman – poet; a founder of the confessional school of poetry Louise Bogan – poet, translator, and critic; Poet Laureate of the United States 1945–1946 T. Coraghessan Boyle – novelist and short story writer; awarded the 1988 PEN/Faulkner Award for novel World's End Bill Bryson – travel writer; awarded an honorary OBE for his contribution to literature William F. Buckley, Jr. (1925–2008) John Horne Burns – novelist and travel writer; author of The Gallery Jim Carroll – author, poet, and punk musician; author of The Basketball Diaries Neal Cassady – author and poet; the basis for the character Dean Moriarty in Jack Kerouac's novel On the Road Raymond Chandler – novelist and short story writer; author of the Philip Marlowe detective series that shaped the modern "private eye" story Mary Coyle Chase – playwright and screenwriter; awarded the 1945 Pulitzer Prize for Drama for Harvey Kate Chopin – novelist and short story writer; The Awakening (1899) is considered a proto-feminist precursor to American modernism Tom Clancy – author of many bestselling novels, including The Hunt for Red October and Clear and Present Danger Mary Higgins Clark – bestselling author of suspense novels Billy Collins – poet; twice Poet Laureate of the United States, 2001–2003 Joe Connelly – novelist; author of Bringing Out the Dead Michael Connelly – crime novelist; author of the bestselling Harry Bosch detective series Pat Conroy – novelist and memoirist; author of The Great Santini and The Prince of Tides Robert Creeley – poet and author associated with the Black Mountain poets; awarded a 2000 American Book Award Lifetime Achievement Award Maureen Daly – novelist and short story writer; Seventeenth Summer (1942) is considered the first young adult novel J.P. Donleavy – novelist; author of The Ginger Man, named on the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels Kirby Doyle – poet and novelist; associated with the New American Poetry movement and "third generation" American modernist poets Alan Dugan – poet; winner of the 1961 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for his volume Poems James T. Farrell – novelist; author of the Studs Lonigan trilogy, named on the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels F. Scott Fitzgerald – novelist and short story writer; The Great Gatsby was named on both the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels and the TIME 100 Best English-Language Novels from 1923 to 2005 Robert Fitzgerald – poet, critic, and translator; Poet Laureate of the United States 1984–1985 Thomas Flanagan – novelist and academic; winner of the 1979 National Book Critics Circle Award for The Year of the French Vince Flynn – political thriller novelist; author of bestselling Mitch Rapp series Alice Fulton – poet and short story writer; awarded the 2002 Bobbitt National Prize for Poetry for Felt Tess Gallagher – poet, short story writer, essayist, and playwright Lucy Grealy – poet, memoirist, and essayist; author of Autobiography of a Face Pete Hamill – journalist, columnist, novelist, and short story writer George V. Higgins – novelist, columnist, and academic; known for bestselling crime novels including The Friends of Eddie Coyle Robert E. Howard (1906-1936) - poet, novelist, epistolean and author for Conan the Barbarian, Solomon Kane and Kull the Conqueror Fanny Howe – poet, novelist, and short-story writer; awarded the 2001 Lenore Marshall Poetry Prize for Selected Poems Marie Howe – poet; winner of the 1987 Open Competition of the National Poetry Series for The Good Thief Susan Howe – poet and literary critic; American Book Awards in 1981 for The Liberties and 1986 for My Emily Dickinson Brigit Pegeen Kelly – poet; finalist for the 2005 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for The Orchard Robert Kelly – poet associated with the deep image group; awarded a 1980 American Book Award for In Time William Kennedy – novelist and author; winner of the 1983 National Book Critics Circle Award for Fiction, 1984 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for Ironweed, and 1984 American Book Award for O Albany! X. J. Kennedy – poet, translator, anthologist, editor, and children's author Richard Kenney – poet and academic Jean Kerr – author and Tony Award-winning playwright Galway Kinnell – poet; awarded the 1983 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry and 1983 National Book Award for Poetry for Selected Poems R. A. Lafferty – Hugo and Nebula-nominated science fiction author Michael Lally – poet and author; awarded a 2000 American Book Award for It's Not Nostalgia: Poetry and Prose James Laughlin – poet and publisher; winner of the 1989 National Book Critics Circle Award Lifetime Achievement Award and the 1992 National Book Awards Medal of Distinguished Contribution to American Letters; namesake of the annual James Laughlin Award administered by the Academy of American Poets Dennis Lehane – novelist, author of A Drink Before the War and Mystic River John Logan – poet and academic; awarded the 1982 Lenore Marshall Poetry Prize for Only the Dreamer Can Change the Dream William Logan – poet, critic, and scholar; awarded the 2005 National Book Critics Circle Award for Criticism for The Undiscovered Country: Poetry in the Age of Tin Thomas Lynch – poet and essayist; awarded a 1998 American Book Award for The Undertaking: Life Studies from the Dismal Trade Michael Patrick MacDonald – memoirist; winner of a 2000 American Book Award for All Souls: A Family Story From Southie George R. R. Martin – author of the epic fantasy novel series A Song of Ice and Fire Cormac McCarthy – novelist and playwright; author of Blood Meridian and winner of the 2007 Pulitzer for The Road Frank McCourt – memoirist; winner of the 1996 National Book Critics Circle Award and the 1997 Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography for Angela's Ashes Alice McDermott – novelist; awarded the 1998 National Book Award and a 1999 American Book Award for Charming Billy Campbell McGrath – poet Thomas McGrath – poet; awarded a 1984 American Book Award for Echoes Inside the Labyrinth and the 1989 Lenore Marshall Poetry Prize for Selected Poems: 1938–1988 Thomas McGuane – novelist, screenwriter, and short story writer; nominated for a National Book Award for Ninety-Two in the Shade Jay McInerney – novelist; author of Bright Lights, Big City James McMichael – poet; awarded the 1999 Arthur Rense Prize Terrence McNally – playwright; winner of six Tony Awards and nominated for the 1994 Pulitzer Prize for Drama for A Perfect Ganesh Maile Meloy – novelist and short story writer; awarded The Paris Review's 2001 Aga Khan Prize for Fiction for her story "Aqua Boulevard" Margaret Mitchell – novelist; awarded the 1937 Pulitzer Prize for Gone with the Wind Helen Curtin Moskey – poet Robert C. O'Brien – journalist and children's author; awarded the 1972 Newbery Medal for Mrs. Frisby and the Rats of NIMH Tim O'Brien – novelist and short story writer; prominent author of fiction about the Vietnam War, including The Things They Carried, a finalist for both the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Critics Circle Award Edwin O'Connor – novelist, winner of the 1962 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for The Edge of Sadness Flannery O'Connor – novelist and short story writer; notable author in the Southern Gothic style Frank O'Hara – poet, prominent member of the New York School John O'Hara – novelist; author of Appointment in Samarra, named one of the TIME 100 Best English-Language Novels from 1923 to 2005 Charles Olson – poet and critic, associated with the second generation American Modernist poets; author of The Maximus Poems Eugene O'Neill – playwright; awarded the 1936 Nobel Prize for Literature; four-time winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Drama J.F. Powers – novelist and short story writer; winner of the 1963 National Book Award for Morte d'Urban Anne Rice – horror novelist; author of bestselling Interview with a Vampire series Nora Roberts – romance novelist; first inductee into the Romance Writers of America Hall of Fame Kay Ryan – poet and academic; Poet Laureate of the United States Michael Ryan – poet; awarded the 1990 Lenore Marshall Poetry Prize for God Hunger John Patrick Shanley – playwright and screenwriter; winner of the 2005 Pulitzer Prize for Drama for Doubt: A Parable Mickey Spillane – crime novelist; author of bestselling Mike Hammer detective novels John Kennedy Toole – novelist; posthumously awarded the 1981 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for A Confederacy of Dunces Michael Walsh – novelist and screenwriter; awarded a 2004 American Book Award for And All The Saints John Wieners - poet, student of Charles Olson, associated with the Beats and the Boston School. Roger Zelazny – fantasy and science fiction author; winner of three Nebula Awards and six Hugo Awards Military John Barry – Irish-born Revolutionary War Navy Captain. Michael Corcoran – United States Army general James Hickey – leader of Operation Red Dawn; son of Irish immigrants Stephen W. Kearny – US Army officer, noted for action in the southwest during the Mexican–American War Andrew Lewis – Continental Army general Alfred Thayer Mahan – naval officer and author whose work, including Sea Power, inspired the creation of the modern United States Navy Dennis Hart Mahan – guiding light and head of faculty at West Point for decades prior to the Civil War; influential author whose published works were the keystone for spreading engineering knowledge throughout the antebellum US; his Napoleon seminar at West Point informed Civil War strategies, North and South George Gordon Meade – commanding general of the Army of the Potomac who led the Union forces to victory at Gettysburg in 1863 Thomas Francis Meagher – United States Army general, Fenian Richard Montgomery – Continental Army general Audie Murphy – most decorated combat soldier of World War II Lt. Michael Patrick Murphy – Navy Seal, Medal of Honour Timothy Murphy – marksman, Continental Army; parents were Irish immigrants Thomas Macdonough, Jr. 19th-century Irish-American naval officer Jeremiah O'Brien – captain in Continental Navy Joseph T. O'Callaghan – Medal of Honour John O'Neill – United States Army general, Fenian John P. O'Neill – high ranking anti-terrorism expert Molly Pitcher – Revolutionary War heroine John Reynolds – general commanding the right wing of the Army of the Potomac who surprised Lee and committed the Union Army to battle at Gettysburg in July 1863; killed in the front lines while personally rallying troops for counterattacks during the first day of fighting Philip Sheridan – United States Army, General of the Army, Cavalry John Fitzgerald established the first catholic church of Virginia and Aide-De-Camp to George Washington George Crawford Platt - Irish Immigrant, served during Civil War, Medal of Honor recipient. Musicians Politicians Presidents At least 22 presidents of the United States have some Irish ancestral origins, although the extent of this varies. For instance, President Clinton claims Irish ancestry despite there being no documentation of any of his ancestors coming from Ireland, but Kennedy on the other hand has strong documented Irish origins. Also Ronald Reagan's great-grandfather was an Irish Roman Catholic, and his mother had some Scots-Irish ancestry. James K. Polk also had Scots-Irish Ancestry. Kennedy and Joe Biden were raised as practicing Catholics. Andrew Jackson (Scotch-Irish and English) 7th President 1829–37: He was born in the predominantly Ulster-Scots Waxhaws area of South Carolina two years after his parents left Boneybefore, near Carrickfergus in County Antrim. A heritage centre in the village pays tribute to the legacy of 'Old Hickory', the People's President. Andrew Jackson then moved to Tennessee, where he served as Governor James Knox Polk (Scotch-Irish) 11th President, 1845–49: His ancestors were among the first Ulster-Scots settlers, emigrating from Coleraine in 1680 to become a powerful political family in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina. He moved to Tennessee and became its governor before winning the presidency. James Buchanan (Scotch-Irish) 15th President, 1857–61: Born in a log cabin (which has been relocated to his old school in Mercersburg, Pennsylvania), 'Old Buck' cherished his origins: "My Ulster blood is a priceless heritage". The Buchanans were originally from Deroran, near Omagh in County Tyrone where the ancestral home still stands. Buchanan also had pre-plantation Irish ancestry being a descendant of the O'Kanes from County Londonderry. Andrew Johnson (Irish & English) 17th President, 1865–69: His grandfather supposedly left Mounthill, near Larne in County Antrim around 1750 and settled in North Carolina he was of English ancestry. Andrew worked there as a tailor and ran a successful business in Greeneville, Tennessee, before being elected Vice-President. He became President following Abraham Lincoln's assassination. His Mother was Mary “Polly” McDonough of Irish ancestry 1782 Ulysses S. Grant (Possibly Irish, Scotch-Irish, English & Scottish) 18th President, 1869–77: The home of his maternal great-grandfather, John Simpson, at Dergenagh, County Tyrone, is the location for an exhibition on the eventful life of the victorious Civil War commander who served two terms as President. Grant visited his ancestral homeland in 1878. His grandmother was Rachel Kelley, the daughter of an Irish pioneer. Surname Kelly Chester A. Arthur (Scotch-Irish & English) 21st President, 1881–85: His election was the start of a quarter-century in which the White House was occupied by men of Ulster-Scots origins. His family left Dreen, near Cullybackey, County Antrim, in 1815. There is now an interpretive centre, alongside the Arthur Ancestral Home, devoted to his life and times. Grover Cleveland (Irish, Anglo-Irish) 22nd and 24th President, 1885–89 and 1893–97: Born in New Jersey, he was the maternal grandson of merchant Abner Neal, who emigrated from County Antrim in the 1790s. He is the only president to have served non-consecutive terms. Stephen Grover Cleveland was born to Ann (née Neal) and Richard Falley Cleveland. Ann Neal was of Irish ancestry and Richard Falley Cleveland was of Anglo-Irish and English ancestry Benjamin Harrison (Scotch-Irish & English) 23rd President, 1889–93: His mother, Elizabeth Irwin, had Ulster-Scots roots through her two great-grandfathers, James Irwin and William McDowell. Harrison was born in Ohio and served as a brigadier general in the Union Army before embarking on a career in Indiana politics which led to the White House. William McKinley (Scotch-Irish & English) 25th President, 1897–1901: Born in Ohio, the descendant of a farmer from Conagher, near Ballymoney, County Antrim, he was proud of his ancestry and addressed one of the national Scotch-Irish congresses held in the late 19th century. His second term as president was cut short by an assassin's bullet. Theodore Roosevelt (Irish, Scotch-Irish, Dutch, Scotch, English & French) 26th President, 1901-09: His mother, Mittie Bulloch, had Ulster-Scots ancestors who emigrated from Glenoe, County Antrim, in May 1729. Roosevelt praised "Irish Presbyterians" as "a bold and hardy race." However, he is also the man who said: "But a hyphenated American is not an American at all. This is just as true of the man who puts "native" before the hyphen as of the man who puts German or Irish or English or French before the hyphen." William Howard Taft (Irish & English) 27th President 1909–13: His great-great-great-grandfather, Robert Taft, was born in 1640 in Ireland and immigrated to America during the mid 17th century. Robert Taft was from County Louth and died in Mendon, Worcester, Massachusetts. Woodrow Wilson (Scotch-Irish) 28th President, 1913–21: Of Ulster-Scot descent on both sides of the family, his roots were very strong and dear to him. He was a grandson of a printer from Dergalt, near Strabane, County Tyrone, whose former home is open to visitors. Throughout his career, he reflected on the influence of his ancestral values on his constant quest for knowledge and fulfillment. Warren G. Harding (Scotch-Irish & English) 29th President 1921–23 Harry S. Truman (Scotch-Irish & German) 33rd President 1945–53 John F. Kennedy (Irish) 35th President 1961–63 (ancestors from County Wexford, County Limerick, County Cork, County Clare and County Fermanagh) Richard Nixon (Irish, Scotch-Irish, English & German) 37th President, 1969–74: The Nixon ancestors left Ulster in the mid-18th century; the Quaker Milhous family ties were with County Antrim and County Kildare and County Cork. Jimmy Carter (Scotch-Irish & English) 39th President 1977–1981 (County Antrim) Ronald Reagan (Irish, English & Scottish) 40th President 1981–89: He was the great-grandson, on his father's side, of Irish migrants from County Tipperary who came to America via Canada and England in the 1850s and 1870s. His mother was of Scottish and English ancestry. George H. W. Bush (Irish and English) 41st President 1989–93: County Wexford historians have found that his now apparent ancestor, Richard de Clare, Earl of Pembroke (known as Strongbow for his arrow skills) – is remembered as a desperate, land-grabbing warlord whose calamitous foreign adventure led to the suffering of generations. Shunned by Henry II, he offered his services as a mercenary in the 12th-century invasion of Wexford in exchange for power and land. He would die from a festering ulcer in his foot, which his enemies said was the revenge of Irish saints whose shrines he had violated. The genetic line can also be traced to Dermot MacMurrough, the Gaelic king of Leinster reviled in history books as the man who sold Ireland by inviting Strongbow's invasion to save himself from a local feud. Bill Clinton (Irish, Scotch-Irish & English) 42nd President 1993–2001: According to a census document, his paternal great-grandmother Hattie Hayes had two Irish parents and his paternal great-grandfather had an Irish father. Clinton's mother's maiden name, Cassidy, also suggests Irish ancestry on the maternal side, although there is no documentation to substantiate that claim. George W. Bush (Irish, Scottish, Dutch, Welsh, French, German & English) 43rd President 2001–09: One of his five times great-grandfathers, William Holliday, was born in Rathfriland, County Down, about 1755, and died in Kentucky about 1811–12. One of the President's seven times great-grandfathers, William Shannon, was born somewhere in County Cork about 1730 and died in Pennsylvania in 1784. Barack Obama (Kenyan, English & Irish) 44th President 2009–2017: His paternal ancestors came to America from Kenya and his maternal ancestors came to America from England. His ancestors lived in New England and the South and by the 1800s most were in the Midwest. His father was Kenyan and the first of his family to leave Africa. His great great grandfather, Falmouth Kearney, was born in the Irish town of Moneygall. Joe Biden (Irish and English) 46th President 2021-present: His closest link to Ireland is his great-grandfather James Finnegan who was born in County Louth, Ireland in 1840, as well as various other relatives born on the West Coast in Mayo. His family are practicing Roman Catholics. Science Jim Collins – Rhodes Scholar, MacArthur genius, bioengineer and inventor John Philip Holland – inventor of the submarine, Fenian Charles Brian Montagu McBurney – medical pioneer, known for early reports about appendicitis John Murphy (engineer) – invented ARCNET, the first commercial networking system Joseph John O'Connell – electrical engineer and inventor, invented the circuit breaker, the coin return, and the "invisible wire" which was the first time more than one telephone conversation could occur on the same wire O. Timothy O'Meara – mathematician, University of Notre Dame Charles Townes – physicist, Nobel Prize in Physics laureate James Watson – molecular biologist, discoverer of double helix structure DNA, laureate Sports Brendon Ayanbadejo – American football player Obafemi Ayanbadejo – American football player Laila Ali – former professional boxer Muhammad Ali – legendary professional boxer; descended from the Abe O'Grady, Ennis, County Clare James J. Braddock – champion boxer Kyle Brady – American football player Tom Brady – American football quarterback Tom Cahill – Major League Baseball player Mark Calaway – pro wrestler with the WWE, known as the Undertaker Jim Calhoun – NCAA men's basketball coach Ryan Callahan – Ice hockey player Matt Cavanaugh – American football coach and former NFL player John Cena – WWE professional wrestler; mother is of Irish descent Gerry Cooney – heavyweight boxer John Daly – professional golfer in PGA Tour Jack Dempsey – World Heavyweight Champion 1919–1926 Pat Duff – Major League Baseball player John Elway – Hall of Fame NFL quarterback Whitey Ford – Hall of Fame pitcher for the NY Yankees Jeff Hardy – ROH professional wrestler Matt Hardy – professional wrestler Ben Hogan – Hall of Fame PGA golfer AJ Styles – WWE professional wrestler Derek Jeter – five-time World Series champion shortstop for NY Yankees Patrick Kane – Ice hockey player Jason Kidd – NBA point guard Marie Mahoney – All-American Girls professional baseball player McKayla Maroney – double Olympic medalist for gymnastics in London 2012; parents of Irish descent Dave McCloughan – American football defensive back Kent McCloughan – American football scout, father of Scot and Kent Scot McCloughan – American football general manager John McEnroe – professional tennis player Kevin McHale – NBA Hall of Famer Johnny "Blood" McNally – American football player Ryan Meara – NY Red Bulls goalkeeper Shannon Moore – professional wrestler Troy O'Leary – Boston Red Sox outfielder for six years Kelley O'Hara – Professional Soccer player; Currently with United States Women's National Soccer Team Player and the National Women's Soccer League Utah Royals FC; FIFA Women's World Cup champion (2015) and Olympic soccer gold medalist (2012); Hermann Trophy winner 2009 Heather O'Reilly – Professional Soccer player; Former United States Women's National Soccer Team Player, Currently with Arsenal Ladies; FIFA Women's World Cup champion (2015) and Olympic soccer gold medalist (2008, 2012) Michael Phelps CM Punk – Father is of Irish descent John Quinlan – pro wrestler Ryan Max Riley – humorist and national champion skier Freddie Roach – former boxer and current boxing trainer Kelly Slater – professional surfer John L. Sullivan – last bare-knuckle boxing heavyweight champion of the world; first gloved heavyweight champion of the world; first American athlete to become a national celebrity and to earn over $1 million Mickey Ward – WBA champion boxer Lenny Wilkens – NBA player Vince McMahon – professional wrestling promoter and executive, American football executive, and businessman. Derrick Williams Others "The Unsinkable Molly Brown" – born Molly Tobin; Irish father R. Nicholas Burns – diplomat, Harvard professor, columnist and lecturer; 19th Undersecretary of State for Political Affairs; 17th United States Permanent Representative to NATO; US Ambassador to Greece 1997–2001 Eileen Collins – first female commander of a Space Shuttle George Croghan - colonial Irish American Indian trader Pamela Kyle Crossley – historian Ann Dunham – anthropologist and mother of Barack Obama John Dunlap – printer, printed the first copies of the Declaration of Independence Thomas Fitzpatrick -mountain man Henry Louis Gates – professor at Harvard University Ann Glover – hanged as a witch in Boston Sasha Grey – pornographic actress Dan Harrington – world poker champion James Healy – Bishop of Portland America's first African-American bishop; born a slave according to the laws of Georgia to an Irish immigrant and his African wife; first graduate and valedictorian of Holy Cross College in Massachusetts Michael Healy – Captain of the Revenue Cutter Bear; defender of Alaska's Native Americans; inspiration for Jack London's The Sea Wolf; prominent figure in James Michener's Alaska; younger brother of James and Patrick Healy Patrick Healy – President of Georgetown University, considered its second founder; brother of James Healy; first African-American president of an American university; priest in the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) James Hoban – architect of the White House Mary Jemison – frontierswoman; born on board ship as her parents were emigrating to the US Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis – former First Lady; her mother, Janet Lee Bouvier, is of mostly Irish descent Martin Luther King Jr. – African-American civil rights leader, activist, and pastor; his paternal line traces directly back to Ireland Bat Masterson – lawman Christa McAuliffe – teacher and astronaut who was killed in the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster Dwight C. Miner – historian and professor Paul Charles Morphy (1837–1884) – chess player Michael Patrick Mulroy – Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Jim Mattis, CIA officer, U.S. Marine, documentary film maker and Irish American. Michael Patrick Murphy – U.S. Navy SEAL, Medal of Honor recipient, U.S. Navy Ship named in his honor the USS Michael Murphy Richard T. Nolan – writer, Episcopal Church canon, retired philosophy and religion professor Frank Sheeran – WWII army vet, hitman, topic of 2019 movie The Irishman Ellen Ewing Sherman – stepsister and wife of William Tecumseh Sherman David Steele – Presbyterian minister Kathleen Willey – a major figure in the Paula Jones and Monica Lewinsky scandals involving President Bill Clinton; mother is of Irish descent Indigo Vinson - a person with 20% Irish heritage See also Knights of Equity American Irish Historical Society Footnotes References Further reading Byrne, James Patrick, Philip Coleman, and Jason Francis King, eds. Ireland and the Americas: culture, politics, and history: a multidisciplinary encyclopedia (3 vol. ABC-CLIO, 2008) Delaney, John J. Dictionary of American Catholic biography (Doubleday, 1984), 625pp; 1500 short biographies, about half Irish Glazier, Michael, ed. The encyclopedia of the Irish in America (University of Notre Dame Press, 1999) External links The Irish-born signatories of the American Declaration of Independence The American Irish Historical Society Americans American Irish
4872690	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution%20of%20North%20Korea	Constitution of North Korea	The Socialist Constitution of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea () is the constitution of North Korea. It was approved by the 6th Supreme People's Assembly at its first session on 27 December 1972, and has been amended and supplemented in 1998, 2009, 2012, 2013, 2016, 2019 (twice), and in 2023. It replaced the country's first constitution which was approved in 1948. The constitution consists of seven chapters and 172 articles and codifies North Korea's basic principles on politics, economy, culture and national defense, the basic rights and duties of the country's citizens, the organization of the North Korean government and the country's national symbols. North Korea is also governed by the Ten Principles for the Establishment of a Monolithic Ideological System, which some claim have come to supersede the constitution and in practice serve as the supreme law of the country. History 1948 Constitution North Korea began to draft its first constitution following the convention of the South Korean Interim Legislative Assembly on 12 December 1946 which began to draft an interim constitution for South Korea and the failure to establish a unified provisional government in Korea due to the collapse of the US-Soviet Joint Commission on 21 October 1947. In November 1947, the People's Assembly of North Korea organized a 31-member committee to enact a provisional constitution. A draft provisional constitution was presented to the People's Assembly of North Korea in February 1948, and it was decided to submit it to an "all-people discussion" that was held from 11 February until 25 April 1948. On 10 July 1948, the People's Assembly of North Korea adopted the draft constitution as the Constitution of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, which was implemented by the Supreme People's Assembly throughout the Korean peninsula on 8 September 1948. According to Andrei Lankov, the 1948 constitution was personally edited by Joseph Stalin alongside Terentii Shtykov, the head of the Soviet occupation of North Korea, in Moscow, with some of its articles being rewritten later by Soviet supervisors. The 1948 constitution consisted of 10 chapters and 104 articles. It codified the reforms being implemented in North Korea since the establishment the Provisional People's Committee of North Korea in 1946, such as land reforms, the nationalization of industries and resources, and the provision of various freedoms and rights to Koreans. The constitution instituted the Supreme People's Assembly as the highest government institution in North Korea with various powers such as the passing of laws and the election of the Cabinet, the Supreme Court and the Procurator General. The Standing Committee of the Supreme People's Assembly was tasked with exercising the powers of the assembly during its recess, as well as to represent the country in its foreign relations. The Cabinet was instituted to be the highest executive institution, with its Premier being designated as head of government. The 1948 constitution was amended five times in April 1954, October 1954, 1955, 1956 and 1962. Socialist Constitution North Korea began drafting the present Socialist Constitution as there was a need to set into law the expanding socialist policies and the political, economic and social changes in the country, which are no longer being reflected in the 1948 constitution. The need for a new constitution had been discussed since the mid-1960s. In the 1970s, the creation of a new constitution was made into an urgent matter. On 23 October 1972, a committee to draft the Socialist Constitution was organized during the 5th plenary meeting of the 5th Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea. Kim Il Sung said in a report during the meeting that there was a need to codify the "socialist revolution and construction" and their achievements in the constitution. The Socialist Constitution of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea has been amended nine times in 1992, 1998, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2016, April 2019, and August 2019. Structure The Socialist Constitution of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea consists of a preamble and 172 articles organized into seven chapters as of 11 April 2019. The constitution is considered as unique for combining strong socialist and nationalist tendencies as well as referencing the country's Juche ideology. Preamble The preamble describes North Korea, which has the official name of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, as the "socialist state of Juche" that applies the ideas and achievements of Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il on state construction. Kim Il Sung is credited as the "founder of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and father of socialist Korea" who founded the Juche idea and turned North Korea into a socialist country. Kim Jong Il is credited as the "peerless patriot and defender of socialist Korea" who had kept Kim Il Sung's policies and turned North Korea into a politico-ideological power, a nuclear state and a military power through Songun politics. Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il were described by the preamble to have always worked for the people under their motto of "the people are heaven," and are credited for making North Korea as a unique country in the world for accomplishing the tasks for building a prosperous and independent state. The preamble also praises both leaders as the "saviors of the nation" who have worked for Korean reunification, and as "veteran world statesmen" for developing North Korea's foreign relations. The preamble states that Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il's ideas and achievements are "lasting treasures of the Korean revolution" and the basic guarantee for North Korea's prosperity, while setting up the Kumsusan Palace of the Sun as a monument to the leaders' immortality and a national symbol for Korea. The preamble concludes by enshrining Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il as the eternal leaders of North Korea, and that the constitution would consist of their ideas and achievements which makes it the Kim Il Sung-Kim Jong Il Constitution. Chapter 1 – Politics Chapter 1 of the Socialist Constitution consists of 18 articles that outline the political structure of North Korea. Article 1 states that North Korea, which has an official name of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, is an independent socialist state, with Article 2 also stating it as a revolutionary state. Article 3 makes Kimilsungism-Kimjongilism as the country's guide for its activities, while Article 11 makes the Workers' Party of Korea lead all of the country's activities. Article 4 gives the sovereignty of the country to the working people consisting of workers, peasants, soldiers and talented personnel who exercise it through their representatives in the Supreme People's Assembly and the local people's assemblies. Article 6 and 7 states that these representatives are elected by the people based on universal, equal and direct suffrage, and are responsible to them. Article 5 states that government institutions are created and operated based on democratic centralism. Article 8 provides a "people-centered" social system for North Korea that turns "workers into masters of everything" and "everything in society serve the workers," and tasks the state to respect and defend the people's human rights. Article 9 provides North Korea with the task to achieve "the complete victory of socialism" in the northern half of Korea and the reunification of Korea. Article 10 states that North Korea is based on the "political and ideological unity" of the people who are in a working class-led worker-peasant alliance, and that the people will be revolutionized and assimilated by the state into a single united society. Article 12 adds that the North Korean state will "adhere to the class line" and "defend the people's power and the socialist system" from "hostile elements" through the "dictatorship of people's democracy." Article 13 states that North Korea will resolve the country's issues by finding solutions from the masses through the revolutionary work system, while Article 14 institutionalizes mass movements such as the Three-Revolution Red Flag movement to push socialist construction in the country. Article 15 provides representation for overseas Koreans by North Korea, and Article 16 guarantees that the interests of foreigners within North Korea are guaranteed by the state. Article 17 establishes the principles of independence, peace and friendship as the basis for North Korea's foreign relations, and declares that the country will support foreign struggles for independence and liberation. Article 18 states that the laws of North Korea are the "reflection of the wishes and interests" of the people, and that it should be observed by every institution, enterprise, organization and person in the country. The state is tasked with perfecting the socialist law system and strengthening the socialist law-abiding life. Chapter 2 – Economy Chapter 2 of the Socialist Constitution consists of 19 articles that outline the economic structure of North Korea. Article 19 states that North Korea relies on the socialist relations of production and the foundation of an independent national economy. Articles 20 to 23 states that the means of production are owned by the state and social cooperatives, and lists provisions for state and social cooperative properties. Article 24 allows for citizens to have private property, which the state shall protect and guarantee its inheritance. Article 25 states that North Korea shall continually increase the living standards of its people who shall be provided by the state with food, clothing and housing. Article 26 states that North Korea has an independent national economy in which Article 27 states that science and technology will have a leading role. Article 30 provides for an eight-hour work day for workers which the state will fully utilize, while Article 31 prohibits work for those who are below 16 years old. Article 33 states that the North Korean economy will be managed by the producer masses under the Cabinet based on the "socialist system of responsible business management" and on economic levers such as cost, price and profit. Article 34 states that North Korea has a planned economy which the state shall develop based on socialist principles. Article 35 provides a requirement for a state budget based on North Korea's plans for economic development. Article 36 states that foreign trade in North Korea is conducted by state institutions, state enterprises and social cooperatives with the objective of maintaining credibility in foreign trade, improving trade structure and developing trade relations with foreign countries. Article 37 encourages joint ventures with foreign corporations and individuals and the creation of businesses in special economic zones. Article 38 establishes a tariff policy to protect the North Korean economy. Chapter 3 – Culture Chapter 3 of the Socialist Constitution consists of 18 articles that outline the cultural structure of North Korea. Article 39 states that North Korea has a socialist culture, which in Article 40 states to be training the people into builders of socialism. Article 41 provides that this socialist culture is popular and revolutionary. Article 44 provides for public education, cadre training, technological education and education in work. Article 45 provides for a universal compulsory 12-year education, with Article 46 providing scientific and technical training. Articles 47, 48 and 49 provides for free education, allowances for university and college students, social education, conditions for study to all workers and nurseries and kindergartens for preschool children from the state. Articles 50 and 51 emphasizes that North Korea should develop its science and technology. Article 52 states that North Korea has a Juche-oriented, revolutionary art and literature that has nationalist form and socialist content that allows for the production of ideological and artistic works and the broad participation of the masses in literary and artistic activities. Article 53 requires the state to provide cultural facilities for the people for their mental and physical improvement. Article 54 requires the state to protect and develop the national language. Article 55 requires the state to prepare the people for work and national defense through sports. Article 56 provides the people with access to free healthcare to protect their health, while Article 57 provides them with access to hygienic living and working conditions through environmental protection efforts by the state. Chapter 4 – National Defense Chapter 4 of the Socialist Constitution consists of four articles that outline the national defense structure of North Korea. Article 58 states that North Korea has an all-people and nationwide national defense system. Article 59 lists the mission of the North Korean armed forces as to defend the Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea headed by Kim Jong Un, as well as the interests of the working people, the socialist system, the gains of the revolution and the freedom, peace and independence of the country from foreign aggression. Article 60 states that North Korea's defense is based on the line of self-reliant defense, with Article 61 requires the state to establish a revolutionary command system and military climate, strengthen military discipline and maintain military traditions. Chapter 5 – Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens Chapter 5 of the Socialist Constitution consists of 24 articles that list the rights and duties of citizens(gongmin) in North Korea. Article 62 states that North Korean citizenship is regulated by a nationality law. Article 63 states that the rights and duties of North Korean citizens are based on the collectivist principle of "one for all and all for one", with Article 64 guaranteeing the rights and well-being of citizens as well as expanding their rights and freedom based on the consolidation and development of the socialist system. Article 65 provides that all North Korean citizens have equal rights. Citizens have the right to elect and be elected (Article 66), freedom of speech, the press, assembly, demonstration and association (Article 67), freedom of religious belief (Article 68), right to submit complaints and petitions (Article 69), right to work (Article 70), right to relaxation (Article 71), right to free medical care (Article 72), right to free education (Article 73), freedom in scientific, literary and artistic pursuits (Article 74), freedom of residence and travel (Article 75) and inviolability of the person and home and privacy of correspondence (Article 79). Article 76 provides special protection from the state and society to revolutionary fighters, families of revolutionary and patriotic martyrs, families of Korean People's Army soldiers and disabled soldiers. Article 77 provides women with the same social status and rights as men, as well as special protection for mothers and children. Article 78 provides state protection for marriages and families. Article 80 provides foreigners fighting for peace, democracy, independence, socialism and freedom of scientific and cultural pursuits with the right to seek asylum in North Korea. Citizens have the duty to defend "the political and ideological unity and solidarity of the people" and to work for the good of society and the people (Article 81), observe state laws and the socialist standards of life and defend the honour and dignity of being North Korean citizens (Article 82), participate in work and observe work discipline and working hours (Article 83), take care of state and social cooperative properties and manage the national economy (Article 84), increase their revolutionary vigilance and fight for state security (Article 85) and to defend the country and serve in the armed forces (Article 86). Chapter 6 – State Organization Chapter 6 of the Socialist Constitution consists of 80 articles organized into eight sections that outline the organization of the government of North Korea. Section 1 describes the Supreme People's Assembly as the highest institution of state power that exercises legislative power. It consists of deputies elected through universal, equal and direct suffrage through secret ballot for a five-year term. It has the power to amend the constitution, adopt or amend laws, elect or recall the President of the State Affairs Commission, the members of the State Affairs Commission, the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Supreme People's Assembly, the members of the Standing Committee of the Supreme People's Assembly, the Premier, the members of the Cabinet, the Prosecutor General of the Central Public Prosecutors Office, the President and Chief Justice of the Central Court, approve the state plan for national economic development, approve the state budget, and ratify or annul treaties presented to it. Section 2 describes the President of the SAC-DPRK as the supreme leader of the country, as well as the head of state and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The President directs overall state affairs, guides the work of the State Affairs Commission, appoint or remove important state officials, ratify or rescind major treaties with foreign countries, grant special pardons, proclaim a state of emergency, a state of war and mobilization order, organize the National Defense Committee in wartime, and issue orders. Section 3 describes the State Affairs Commission as the supreme policy-oriented leadership institution consisting of the President, vice-president and members. The commission decides on important state policies, issue decisions and directives, and supervise the fulfillment of the orders of the president of the Commission and the SAC decisions and directives. Section 4 describes the Standing Committee of the Supreme People's Assembly as the highest institution of state power when the Supreme People's Assembly is in recess. The SC-SPA consists of the Chairman of the Standing Committee, vice-chairmen of the committee and members and has the power to exercise legislative power, convene the Supreme People's Assembly, interpret the constitution, supervise the observance of the laws, organize elections, appoint or remove members of the Cabinet and judges and people's assessors of the Central Court, approve or nullify treaties, decide on the appointment and recall of diplomatic representatives to the Republic, institute and confer decorations, medals and honors in the name of the Republic and grant general amnesty. The Chairman of the Standing Committee of the SPA is tasked to receive the credentials and letters of recall of foreign diplomatic representatives to the Republic upon full consent of the office of the presidency of the SAC. Section 5 describes the Cabinet as the administrative and executive institutions of state power responsible for overall state management. It is headed by the Premier, and consists of vice-premiers, chairmen, ministers and other required members. It is responsible for implementing state policies, drafting the state plan for national economic development and compiling the state budget. Section 6 describes the local people's assemblies as the local organs of state power in provinces, municipalities, cities, district and counties, while Section 7 describes the local people's committees as local organs of state power when the local people's assemblies are not in session and as local administrative and executive institutions of state power. Section 8 provides the power of investigation and prosecution to public prosecutors offices under the Central Public Prosecutors Office, and the judicial power to the courts under the Central Court. Chapter 7 – Emblem, Flag, Anthem and Capital Chapter 7 of the Socialist Constitution consists of four articles that designate the national symbols of North Korea. Article 169 provides descriptions for the national emblem, while Article 170 provides descriptions for the national flag. Article 171 states that Aegukka as the national anthem. Article 172 states that Pyongyang is the national capital. Amendments According to Chapter 6, Section 1, Article 97 of the Socialist Constitution of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the constitution can be amended through the approval of more than two-thirds of the total number of deputies in the Supreme People's Assembly. Since its adoption in 1972, the Socialist Constitution has been amended eight times in 1992, 1998, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2016 and 2019. Amendments to the North Korean constitution are usually considered as an entirely new constitution due to the extent of the changes made to the original document. 1992 amendment The Socialist Constitution of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was first amended at the 3rd session of the 9th Supreme People's Assembly on 9 April 1992. The amendment solidified Kim Jong Il's position as the successor to Kim Il Sung by making the National Defence Commission a separate institution from the Central People's Committee. It also no longer made the President the supreme commander of the armed forces and the chairman of the National Defense Commission. This made the chairman of the National Defense Commission the highest military authority. These provisions allowed for Kim Jong Il to assume the positions of supreme commander of the Korean People's Army on 24 December 1991 and chairman of the National Defense Commission on 9 April 1993. The amendment's introduction was also a response to the Revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. It removed mentions of Marxism–Leninism in the constitution, and constitutionalized the philosophical principle of Juche with the Workers' Party of Korea being stated to have a leading role in the country's activities. It also removed the foreign policy clause of international cooperation with socialist states and adopted independence, peace and solidarity as the basis for North Korea's foreign policy. The amendment hinted at co-existence between North Korea and South Korea by changing its stance of revolutionary unification into peaceful unification. The amendment also introduced economic provisions aimed at emphasizing an independent national economy and developing science and technology. It also introduced provisions for joint ventures between the country's institutions, enterprises and organizations and foreign corporations and individuals. The amendment revised the national emblem to include Mount Paektu, and recognized Aegukka as the national anthem. 1998 amendment The Socialist Constitution was amended for the second time at the 1st session of the 10th Supreme People's Assembly on 5 September 1998. The amendment was approved to introduce changes to North Korea's government system following the death of Kim Il-Sung in 1994. The amendment included a preamble that enshrined Kim Il Sung as the eternal President and named the constitution as the "Kim Il-sung Constitution" that is based on the former leader's ideas and achievements. It also abolished the office of the President and the Central People's Committee with the President's powers as head of state being transferred to the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly (with the President of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly being designated as head of state) while the President's powers on state administration being transferred to the Cabinet. The amendment expanded the authority of the National Defense Commission to include general control of national defense. The amendment also attempted to address North Korea's economic difficulties by introducing provisions on the reduction of objects that can be owned by the state, the expansion of social cooperative properties and private properties, the legalization of citizens earning income through legal economic activities, the recognition of cost, price and profit as basis of economic management, and the establishment of special economic zones. 2009 amendment The Socialist Constitution was amended for the third time at the 1st session of the 12th Supreme People's Assembly on 9 April 2009. The amendment was seen as an attempt to cement Kim Jong Il's position as concerns were raised following his suffering of a stroke in August 2008. It designated the chairman of the National Defense Commission as the supreme leader of North Korea and was expanded his powers to guide overall state affairs. It also designated the military to defend the "headquarters of the revolution". The amendment removed any mention of communism in the constitution and recognized North Korea as a socialist state that is also guided by Kim Jong Il's policy of Songun alongside Juche. 2010 amendment The Socialist Constitution was amended for the fourth time at the 2nd session of the 12th Supreme People's Assembly on 9 April 2010. The amendment renamed the Central Court as the Supreme Court and the Central Public Prosecutors Office as the Supreme Public Prosecutors Office. 2012 amendment The Socialist Constitution was amended for the fifth time at the 5th session of the 12th Supreme People's Assembly on 13 April 2012. The amendment was approved to introduce changes to North Korea's government system following the death of Kim Jong-il in 2011. The preamble was revised to include Kim Jong Il, who was credited with defending Kim Il Sung's policies and turned North Korea into a politico-ideological power, a nuclear state and a military power through Songun politics. It enshrined Kim Jong Il as the eternal Chairman of the National Defense Commission and also recognized that his ideas and achievements were also the basis for the constitution which is now known as the Kim Il Sung-Kim Jong Il Constitution. The position of Chairman of the National Defense Commission was replaced with the First Chairman of the National Defense Commission. 2013 amendment The Socialist Constitution was amended for the sixth time at the 7th session of the 12th Supreme People's Assembly on 1 April 2013. The preamble was revised to include the Kumsusan Palace of the Sun, which has been designated as a monument to the immortality of Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il and a national symbol for Korea. Compulsory education was revised from 10 years to 12 years following the approval of the law on extending North Korea's compulsory education at the 6th session of the 12th Supreme People's Assembly on 25 September 2012. 2016 amendment The Socialist Constitution was amended for the seventh time at the 4th session of the 13th Supreme People's Assembly on 29 June 2016. The preamble was revised to enshrine Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il as the eternal leaders of Juche Korea. The First Chairman of the National Defense Commission was replaced with the President of the State Affairs Commission, while the National Defense Commission was replaced with the State Affairs Commission which is designated as the supreme policy-oriented leadership body of the Republic, with its duties now expanded to cover other matters of national concern, making it a de facto successor to the Central People's Committee. The Supreme Court was renamed as the Central Court, while the Supreme Public Prosecutors Office was renamed as the Central Public Prosecutors Office. 2019 amendments The Socialist Constitution was amended for the eighth and ninth times, respectively, at the 1st and 2nd plenary sessions of the 14th Supreme People's Assembly on 11 April and 29 August 2019. The President of the State Affairs Commission was designated as the head of state, cannot stand as a candidate for election as a deputy to the SPA, and is elected and relieved by a majority vote in its plenary sessions. The Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Supreme People's Assembly is still tasked to receive the credentials and letters of recall of foreign diplomatic representatives to the Republic, with the President of the SAC now having the responsibility to appoint and relieve these diplomats. The orders of the President of the SAC were made superior to the ordinances of the Supreme People's Assembly save for more important ordinances which the President may now enact, alongside the decrees and decisions made by the State Affairs Commission. National defense is no longer emphasized on the role of the State Affairs Commission. Intellectuals are no longer referred in Korean as 근로인테리 kŭllo int'eri (or working intellectuals) but as 지식인 chisigin (or talented personnel). The Chongsanri spirit and the Chongsanri method were replaced with the revolutionary work method as the principle for North Korea's activities. The Cabinet is given a leading role in economic management. The Taean work system of economic management is replaced with the socialist system of responsible business operation. Provisions on foreign trade were expanded to include the maintenance of foreign trade credibility, the improvement of trade structure and the expansion of foreign trade relations. The defense of the Party Central Committee headed by Kim Jong Un was included in the mission of the Korean People's Army and its reserve organizations. 2023 amendment In September 2023, the SAC unanimously adopted a new amendment to enshrine the country's ongoing nuclear program into its constitution, citing the program and right as a deterrent against United States provocation. See also Charter of the Workers' Party of Korea Law of North Korea National symbols of North Korea Socialist law Ten Principles for the Establishment of a Monolithic Ideological System References Works cited Further reading Original texts 1972: 1998: 2009: 2013: 2016: External links PDF booklet of the 2016 Constitution Text of the Latest Constitution at Naenara Text of the 2009 Constitution Law of North Korea North Korea Socialism in North Korea
4873434	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel%20Isa%C3%ADas%20L%C3%B3pez	Manuel Isaías López	Manuel Isaías López (May 20, 1941 - November 29, 2017) was a prominent child psychiatrist, trained in Philadelphia. Many consider Manuel Isaías López to be the father of Mexican Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. In 1972, he founded the first Child and Adolescent Psychiatry subspecialty program in Mexico, at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM). He also founded and was the first president of AMPI (Mexican Child Psychiatry Association) in 1975. He was the training director of the only child and adolescent psychiatry training program in Mexico, at UNAM, from 1972 until 1998. In the last quarter of the twentieth century, Manuel Isaías López was considered the most influential psychiatrist in Mexico. In the early 1980s, he was simultaneously president of the Mexican Psychoanalytic Association; secretary general of the Mexican Board of Psychiatry; director of child and adolescent psychiatry at UNAM; and main consultant to the System for the Integral Development of the Family (DIF), a nationwide government funded system of child and family guidance centers. His later contributions were in Bioethics, and he evolved into a researcher within this field and an International Psychoanalytic Association officer. Early life Manuel Isaías López was born into a middle-class family on 20 May 1941. Raised as an only child in downtown Mexico City, López's father, Isaías López Suárez, was a Spanish prestigious downtown "abarrotero" (grocer) who owned his own food store. López's mother, Carmen Gómez Alatriste (de López), came from a Mexican family with historical lineage in Puebla. Her family had been much involved in the Mexican Liberal Movement of the 19th Century. Carmen's cousin, Aquiles Serdán Alatriste, was a notable figure of the Mexican Revolution of 1910. Carmen was also great-granddaughter of Miguel Cástulo Alatriste, a Governor of Puebla who fought as a liberal and was slayed during the "Guerra de Reforma" (Reform War). Manuel Isaías López was exposed to eminent Mexican intellectuals since he was a child. The influence of his academician uncle, Sealtiel L. Alatriste, and the writer and painter Dr. Atl (Gerardo Murillo) early on promoted his interest of the in-depth study of ideas and emotions. López's mother and grandmother often invited famous members of the Mexican cultural circles to their apartment in San Juan de Letrán Avenue, in downtown Mexico City. The building where López grew up housed the "Café Súper Leche", which later gained national prominence when the building collapsed in the 1985 Mexico City earthquake. Many of López's friends from childhood and their families died in the event. Education López attended the Medical School at UNAM, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, with the idea of later training in Psychiatry and Psychoanalysis. As a medical student he developed strong relationships with the psychoanalytic group at UNAM, the psychiatrists at General Hospital of Mexico, and - through his father's Spanish connections - to the Hospital Español de México. These relationships would later support his efforts of integrating differing groups into the training program he developed at UNAM. López then graduated as a psychiatrist from the Medical College of Pennsylvania, and as a child and adolescent psychiatrist from the Eastern Pennsylvania Psychiatric Institute (EPPI). He studied psychoanalysis and child psychoanalysis at the Institute of the Mexican Psychoanalytic Association. Psychiatric practice López lived and practiced from 1972 to 2009 in a suburb of Mexico City. From 2009 to 2013 he practiced in Barcelona, Spain, and in New York from 2013 to 2017. During his last years, López helped organize the first program in child psychoanalytic training at IPTAR (The Institute For Psychoanalytic Training and Research), in New York City. Academic life López published more than 150 original articles and two books: "La Encrucijada de la Adolescencia ("The Crossroads of Adolescence") and "Ética en Psiquiatría, Psicoanálisis y Psicoterapia" ("Ethics in Psychiatry, Psychoanalysis, and Psychotherapy"). In 2018, the Manuel Isaías López Foundation published posthumously his book "Desarrollo de la Identidad y Nacionalismo Mexicanos: A Quinientos Años" ("The Development of Mexican Identity: A Psychological Perspective"). Mann de Dayán describes the "Sensory Oversaturation Syndrome" as López's main contribution to the psychodynamics of adolescence. According to this phenomenon, the adolescent manages to move away from his own narcissistic needs by overstimulating himself, as a first step before he projects his needs to outside sources. Death Manuel Isaías López died in New York City on November 29, 2017. Publications Compiled books Monografìa No. 1, MONOGRAFÍAS DE LA ASOCIACION MEXICANA DE PSIQUIATRÍA INFANTIL: Desarrollo Infantil Normal, 1976. México. ÉTICA Y RELACIÓN MÉDICO PACIENTE. CÓDIGO DEONTOLÓGICO DE LA ASOCIACIÓN PSIQUIÁTRICA MEXICANA. Pac Psiquiatría-2. México: Intersistemas. 1999. Published books LA ENCRUCIJADA DE LA ADOLESCENCIA I. PSICOLOGÍA DE LA ADOLESCENCIA NORMAL. México: Ediciones y Distribuciones Hispánicas, 1988. Segunda edición: 1990. LA ENCRUCIJADA DE LA ADOLESCENCIA. PSICOLOGIA DE LA ADOLESCENCIA NORMAL. Tercera edición revisada, aumentada y actualizada. México: Editorial Fontamara. 2008. ÉTICA EN PSIQUIATRÍA, PSICOANÁLISIS Y PSICOTERAPIA. Primera Edición. Editorial Palibrio. 2013. DESARROLLO DE LA IDENTIDAD Y NACIONALISMO MEXICANOS: A QUINIENTOS AÑOS. Primera Edición. Fundación Manuel Isaías López, 2018 (publicación póstuma). Chapters in published books Consecuencias Psiquiátricas del Síndrome del Niño Golpeado. En: Marcovich, (ed): EL MALTRATO A LOS HIJOS, pp. 111–118, 1978. México. El Desarrollo Psicosexual. En: Dulanto, E. (ed) EL ADOLESCENTE, pp. 73–79. México: McGrow-Hill Interamericana, 1989. Las Representaciones Mentales de los Padres: Su Papel en el Desarrollo Psicológico del Niño. La Transmisión de Características Específicamente Humanas. En “LA TEORÍA PSICOANALÍTICA DE LAS RELACIONES DE OBJETO: DEL INDIVIDUO A LA FAMILIA”, Eds. L. Estrada-Inda y J.L. Salinas. México: Ediciones y Distribuciones Hispánicas, 1990. (Con León N.A.). Historia y Orientación del Tratamiento Psicoanalítico de Niños y Adolescentes. En: Salles, M., MANUAL DE PSICOANÁLISIS Y PSICOTERAPIA DE NIÑOS Y ADOLESCENTES, pp. 9–40, 1992. México: Grupo Editorial Planeta. (Con León N.A.). La Terapia Psicoanalítica del Adolescente. En: Salles, M. MANUAL DE PSICOANÁLISIS Y PSICOTERAPIA DE NIÑOS Y ADOLESCENTES, pp. 189–214, 1992, México: Grupo Editorial Planeta. Desarrollo prenatal. En: Dallal, E.; CAMINOS DEL DESARROLLO PSICOLÓGICO. Vol. I: De lo Prenatal al Primer Año de Vida. México: Plaza y Valdés Eds., 1998. (Con León, N.A.) Consideraciones Éticas. En Dupont M A: MANUAL CLÍNICO DE PSICOTERAPIA. México: JGH editores, pp. 161–172, 1999. Presentación. Introducción. Fundamentación del Código Deontológico. En López, M.I.: ÉTICA Y RELACIÓN MÉDICO PACIENTE. CÓDIGO DEONTOLÓGICO DE LA ASOCIACIÓN PSIQUIÁTRICA MEXICANA. Pac Psiquiatría-2. México: Intersistemas, 1999. La Adolescencia como autoconstrucción. Desarrollo del autoproyecto de vida. En: Dallal, E. (coordinador): CAMINOS DEL DESARROLLO PSICOLÓGICO Volumen III. México: Plaza y Valdés. 2001. Desarrollo y Conciencia. Con Norma A. León. En: Dallal, E. (coordinador): CAMINOS DEL DESARROLLO PSICOLÓGICO Volumen IV. De la Edad Adulta a la Vejez. México: Plaza y Valdés, 2003. Repercusiones en el desarrollo psicológico de las técnicas de fecundación asistida. En: Dallal, E. (coordinador): CAMINOS DEL DESARROLLO PSICOLÓGICO Volumen IV. De la Edad Adulta a la Vejez. México: Plaza y Valdés, 2003. El aspirante a psicoterapeuta. En: Gómez, A. (coordinadora) ÉTICA EN EL DIVÁN. Buenos Aires: Lumen, 2003. El adolescente como mortal. En: Dallal, E. (coordinador): CAMINOS DEL DESARROLLO PSICOLÓGICO Volumen V. La Muerte. México: Plaza y Valdés, 2005. Ética, Ciencia y Psiquiatría en: Asociación Psiquiátrica Mexicana: MANUAL DE TRASTORNOS MENTALES. México: Asociación Psiquiátrica Mexicana: Noviembre de 2005. Con: López-Munguía, F. y Tarasco-Michel, M. Aspecto emocional: relación médico-paciente en los comités hospitalarios de bioética. En: Tarasco, M. (coordinadora): COMITÉS HOSPITALARIOS DE BIOÉTICA. México: Manual Moderno, 2007. Published articles Child Rearing Practices in Mexico. PENNSYLVANIA PSYCHIATRIC QUARTERLY, 9:52-60, EUA., 1969. (Con León, N.A.). Procedimientos Para la Evaluación Psiquiátrica. DIAGNÓSTICO CLÍNICO EN PEDIATRÍA, Pediatría Clínica: Shor, Bastien, Herrera; Eds. Dirección General de Servicios Médicos del Departamento del Distrito Federal, 1972. México. El Síndrome del Niño Golpeado (Resumen). VII CONGRESO DE LOS SERVICIOS MÉDICOS DEL DEPARTAMENTO DEL DISTRITO FEDERAL, MEMORIA, pp. 828, Noviembre de 1972. México. Emergencias Psiquiátricas en la Infancia y en la Adolescencia. REVISTA DE LA CLÍNICA DE LA CONDUCTA, 6:10-15, junio, 1973. México. Effectos de la Marihuana sobre las Funciones del Sensorio de los Adolescentes. NEUROLOGIA - NEUROCIRUGÍA - PSIQUIATRÍA, 14:33-40, 1973. México. CUESTIONARIO DE PSICOLOGÍA GENERAL COMO BASE AL CURSO DE DESARROLLO Y PSICOLOGÍA INFANTIL. Colegio de Maestras de Educación Preescolar. A.C., 1973. México. Teoría General del Desarrollo Psicológico. BOLETÍN DEL COLEGIO DE MAESTROS DE EDUCACION PREESCOLAR, 1974–1975. México. Violencia en la Infancia y en la Adolescencia. PSIQUIATRÍA, 5:30-34, 1975. México. La Psicodinamia de las Psicosis Infantiles. NEUROLOGÍA - NEUROCIRUGÍA - PSIQUIATRÍA, 16:167-175, 1975. México. El Estado Actual de la Psiquiatría Infantil en México. Concepto de Psiquiatría Infantil Como Especialidad. PSIQUIATRÍA, 6:65-70, 1976. México. (Con Katz, G). Terapia Estructural. Modelo Integral para el Manejo del Niño Psicótico. NEUROLOGÍA - NEUROCIRUGÍA - PSIQUIATRÍA, Vol. XVII, No. 3, p. 181-186, 1976. México. (Con León N.A.). Proyecto Para el Servicio de Psiquiatría Infantil de la Dirección General de Servicios Médicos del Departamento del Distrito Federal. REVISTA MEXICANA DE PEDIATRIA, 45:179-194, 1976. México. El Síndrome del Niño Golpeado. PSIQUIATRÍA, 6:44-47, 1976. México. (Con Escamilla, A). Introducción al primer número de MONOGRAFÍAS DE LA ASOCIACION MEXICANA DE PSIQUIATRÍA INFANTIL: Desarrollo Infantil Normal. p. 7-9, 1976. México. Teoría General del Desarrollo Psicológico en el Niño. MONOGRAFÍAS DE LA ASOCIACION MEXICANA DE PSIQUIATRIA INFANTIL: Desarrollo Infantil Normal, Monografía I, pp. 11–34, 1976. México. La Reactivación de Restos Edípicos en la Adolescencia. CUADERNOS DE PSICOANÁLISIS, 9:83-94, 1976. México. La Muerte de Uno de los Padres como Factor Precipitante del Material Inconsciente en el Niño y Consecuente Aparición de Psicopatología. CUADERNOS DE PSICONÁLISIS, 10:137-183, 1977. México. Consecuencias Psiquiátricas del Síndrome del Niño Golpeado. EL MALTRATO A LOS HIJOS, Marcovich, ed., pp. 111–118, 1978. México. La Representación Mental que los Padres tienen del Hijo por Nacer y su Importancia como Determinante en el Desarrollo Psicológico. CUADERNOS DE PSICOANÁLISIS, 11:178-197, 1978. México. Discurso Inaugural del I Congreso de Psiquiatría Infantil. MONOGRAFÍAS DE LA AMPI, 2:7-9. México. El Niño Diabético. Implicaciones Psicológicas al Tratamiento. PSIQUIATRÍA, 9:20-24, 1979. México. Psicosis Simbiótica o Follie a Deux. Presentación de Un Caso. CUADERNOS DE PSICOANÁLISIS, 12:113-123, 1979. México. (Con León, N.A.). Trastornos de la Conducta en los Niños (Mesa redonda coordinada por el Dr. Jaime Segura del Castillo, Editor de la Revista de la Facultad de Medicina, UNAM.). REVISTA DE LA FACULTAD DE MEDICINA, UNAM., 22:8-29, 1979. México. (Con Segura, J.; Cuevas, L.; Martínez, D.; Rodarte, M. y Toscano S.) Determinantes de la Representación Mental que los Padres Desarrollan de su Futuro Hijo y sus Repercusiones Posteriores. SALUD MENTAL, 2:12-14, 1979. México. Formalización del Adiestramiento en Psiquiatría Infantil. MONOGRAFÍAS DE LA ASOCIACION MEXICANA DE PSIQUIATRÍA INFANTIL, Monografía 3, pp. 21–30, 1980. México. La Psicoterapia como Parte del Manejo Integral de la Psicosis Infantil. MONOGRAFÍAS DE LA ASOCIACION MEXICANA DE PSIQUIATRÍA INFANTIL, Monografía 3, pp. 168–176, 1980. México. (Con León N.A.). La Fantasía en el Niño. Estudio de la Fantasía a Través de la Psicoterapia Infantil. 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Sueño y Fantasía en la Adolescencia. MEMORIAS, V CONGRESO NACIONAL DE LA ASOCIACIÓN MEXICANA DE PSICOTERAPIA PSICOANALÍTICA DE LA INFANCIA Y DE LA ADOLESCENCIA, pp. 220–228, septiembre de 1995. Comentario al libro de Juan Vives y Teresa Lartigue “Apego y Vínculo Materno-Infantil”. Revista Mexicana de Psiquiatría Infantil, Sección Bibliográfica, Volumen 3, N. 4, Volumen 4, N 1, pp. 35–39, 1995. La violencia en la interacción del adolescente y su familia. REVISTA MEXICANA DE PSIQUIATRÍA INFANTIL, 4: 18–26, 1995, México. La ética del psiquiatra frente a las convicciones del paciente. REVISTA MEXICANA DE PSIQUIATRÍA INFANTIL, 3,4, 1994 y 4,1:32, 1995. Los indicadores de futuras transgresiones mayores a la ética. REVISTA MEXICANA DE PSIQUIATRÍA INFANTIL, 3,4, 1994 y 4,1:33-34. 1995. ¿Quién es doctor? REVISTA MEXICANA DE PSIQUIATRÍA INFANTIL, 4,2 y 3:36-37, 1995. ¿...Y qué hay de los diplomas? REVISTA MEXICANA DE PSIQUIATRÍA INFANTIL, 4,4:32-33, 1995. Las parafilias. PSIQUIATRÍA, 12:14-17, 1996, México. Actividades recreativas en los establecimientos especializados. REVISTA MEXICANA DE PSIQUIATRÍA INFANTIL, 5,1:25-26, 1996. Trastornos de atención e hiperactividad. BOLETÍN DE NEUROCIENCIAS, Hospital ABC, 1:3, 1996. El sueño y la fantasía en la adolescencia. CUADERNOS DE PSICOANÁLISIS, 29:55-63, 1996. ¿Qué es la ética? REVISTA MEXICANA DE PSIQUIATRÍA INFANTIL, 5,2:20-22, 1996. Comentario oficial al libro del Dr. Lauro Estrada-Inda ¿Por qué deja de amarnos nuestra pareja? Leído durante la presentación del libro en la Asociación Psicoanalítica Mexicana el 26 de abril de 1996. CUADERNOS DE PSICOANÁLISIS, 29:237-239, 1996. El Secreto Profesional. PSIQUIATRÍA, 13-51-52, 1997. Comentario al trabajo de la Dra. Paulina Kernberg: On a Particular Form of Identity Diffusion: The Quiet "Borderline". CUADERNOS DE PSICOANÁLISIS, 30:151-154, 1997. Cualquier actuación erótica con un paciente psiquiátrico implica siempre una transgresión ética. 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Investigación de Actitudes de los Profesionales de la Psicoterapia en Relación a la Actuación Erótica dentro de la Relación Psicoterapéutica. Psiquiatría 21:1-11. (2005) con Tarasco Michel, M.; Cuevas Covarrubias C.; León Robles, N.; López-León, S. Aspecto emocional: relación médico-paciente en los comités hospitalarios de bioética. En: Tarasco, M. (coordinadora): COMITÉS HOSPITALARIOS DE BIOÉTICA. México: Manual Moderno, 2007. El Acto Humano: Libertad y Determinismo. PSIQUIATRÍA, 24:5-16, 2008 La Encrucijada de la Adolescencia, Tercera Edición. Corregida, aumentada y actualizada. Editorial Fontamara, 2008 Psicología de la sexualidad en el desarrollo humano. En: J. Kuthy, J.J. Villalobos, O. Martínez, M. Tarasco Introducción a la Bioética, pp. 197–212 (Con Tarasco, M.) 2009. La relación médico-paciente. En: J. Kuthy, J.J. Villalobos, O. Martínez, M. Tarasco Introducción a la Bioética, pp. 197–212 (Con Tarasco, M.). El proceso adolescente, 2009. https://slideplayer.es/slide/4050472/ La libertad como fundamento del acto humano. En: García Fernandez, D. y Tarasco, M. :BIOETICA. UN ACERCAMIENTO MÉDICO Y JURÍDICO. México: Purrua-Anáhuac, 2011 Investigación de Actitudes de los Profesionales de la Psicoterapia en Relación a la Actuación Erótica dentro de la Relación Psicoterapéutica. Con Tarasco Michel, M.; Cuevas Covarrubias C.; León Robles, N.; López-León, S. CUADERNOS DE PSICOANALISIS, 43, 2010. Aspectos psicosociales de la depresión. Con Sandra López León. CUADERNOS DE PSICOANALISIS, Enero-Junio de 2011, Volumen XLIV,44, 2011. Psychotropic medication in children and adolescents in the United States in the year 2004 vs 2014. With López León, S.; Warner, B.; Ruiter-López, L. DARU JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, 2018. <https://doi.org/10.1007/s40199-018-0204-6> External links Manuel Isaías López narrates the history of Mexican Child Psychiatry in this video made from photos of the pioneers of this specialty from the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s A Preview of his latest book "Desarrollo de la identidad y nacionalismo mexicanos" A Preview of his book "Ética en Psiquiatría, Psicoanálisis y Psicoterapia" The chapter Manuel Isaías López wrote, with Martha Tarasco, MD, on the Relationship Between Doctor and Patient, at the "Encyclopedia of Bioethics" "Desarrollo Psicológico" ("Psychological Development"), slides to a conference by Manuel Isaías López A list of his publications at the Mexican Psychoanalytic Association Web site A description of one of the books from the series "Caminos del Desarrollo", written with other child psychiatrists A description of a Bioethics Textbook where he was a major contributor Complete Google version of the first edistion of his book "La Encrucijada en la Adolescencia" Mexican self-help writers Academic staff of the National Autonomous University of Mexico Mexican psychiatrists American child psychiatrists Psychoanalysts National Autonomous University of Mexico alumni Mexican male writers 1941 births Writers from Mexico City 2017 deaths
4873795	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max%20Lowenthal	Max Lowenthal	Max Lowenthal (1888–1971) was a Washington, DC, political figure in all three branches of the federal government in the 1930s and 1940s, during which time he was closely associated with the rising career of Harry S. Truman; he served under Oscar R. Ewing on an "unofficial policy group" within the Truman administration (1947–1952). Background Mordechai Lowenthal was born on February 26, 1888, in Minneapolis, Minnesota. In the 1870s, his parents Nathan (Naphtali) Lowenthal and Gertrude (Nahamah) Gitel, both Orthodox Jewish, emigrated from Kovno (now Kaunas), Lithuania, to Minnesota. At a young age, he started using the more "American" name of Max. He had two older siblings, of whom only one survived childhood. He graduated from North High School in 1905, first in his class. He also attended Talmud Torah, where he learned Hebrew. He received a BA in 1909 from the University of Minnesota and graduated in 1912 from Harvard Law School, where he began a lifelong friendship with Felix Frankfurter. Career Many of Lowenthal's accomplishments are presumed unknown as some are being discovered through historical research. Lowenthal had an incredibly discreet personality and often refused to take credit for his accomplishments. A memo in Lowenthal's FBI file reveals the following chronology (supplemented): 1907–1909: Reporter at Minneapolis Journal 1912–1913: Law clerk for Judge Julian Mack at $1,800 per annum 1913–1914: Law clerk for Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft (AKA Strong & Cadwalader) at $1,800 per annum 1915: Starts own law firm in New York City 1917: Clerk or assistant at U.S. Department of State 1917–1918: Assistant secretary to U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's Mediation Commission (Morgenthau Mission, recommended by Felix Frankfurter)) 1918: Informal aid at U.S. Department of War 1918–1919: Assistant chairman for War Labor Policies Board to Felix Frankfurter 1919–1920: Returns to private practice; defends Sidney Hillman and Amalgamated Clothing Workers in "landmark injunction case" 1920–1921: Assistant secretary to Second President's Industrial Congress 1920–1929: Partners in Szold Branwen [sic] law firm and becomes a "very wealthy New York lawyer" in Lowenthal, Szold and Brandwen of 43 Exchange Place, New York City. (FTC commissioner John J. Carson later mistakenly recalled one partner as "Max Bramblin" of "Lowenthal & Bramblin") Lowenthal knew Walter Weyl (father of Ware Group member Nathaniel Weyl), who recommended Adelaide Hasse as a researcher for the War Labor Policies Board. Private law practice Lowenthal ran a private law practice from 1912 to 1932. Cases involved workers rights, defense of right-to-strike legislation and shareholder rights in receivership cases. In the early 1920s, Lowenthal seems to have had a law office in New York City. While Ann Fagan Ginger does not mention him as a mentor of Carol Weiss King in her biography of King, Ginger does say that King formed a "loose partnership" with radical attorneys, who included Joseph Brodsky, Swinburne Hale, Walter Nelles, and Isaac Shorr as well as a long-term association with Walter Pollak (once partner of Benjamin Cardozo), whom she met through her brother-in-law Carl Stern. Nevertheless, newspaper accounts of King (in the 1950s) mention Lowenthal as not only an associate but her employer. The Saturday Evening Post went even further in 1951 in a long article on Carol Weiss King: Lowenthal is of special interest. A product of Harvard Law, he has been described by a New Deal associate as "self-effacing and ubiquitous." Shuttling between New York and Washington, he has maintained a New York office while holding a variety of Government posts dating back to World War I. On one hand, he has been an assiduous cultivator of high-level friendships, including Presidents Roosevelt and Truman and Supreme Court Justices Felix Frankfurter and Louis Brandeis. On the other, he has been an equally assiduous collector of proteges for whom he has found many Government jobs. Alger Hiss and Lee Pressman benefited by his friendship, and, for a time, did one George Shaw Wheeler, a young lawyer who became so carried away by communism that he denounced his United States citizenship to make a new career bebind the Iron Curtain. Back in 1920, at the time of her admission to the New York bar, Carol also was a Lowenthal protégée, and it was in his office that she served her first and only legal clerkship. Another important protege of Lowenthal's (and his partner Robert Szold) was Benjamin V. Cohen, later known as one of Felix Frankfurter's Hotdogs in the New Deal. Lowenthal and Cohen both knew Judge Julian W. Mack, who was one of Cohen's professor at Harvard (and was uncle of Lowenthal's wife). In October 1920, Cohen first worked for Lowenthal on a bankruptcy case involving E.F. Drew & Company. In 1923, Lowenthal was general counsel for the Russian-American Industrial Corporation (RAIC) of 31 Union Square, New York City, launched by the Amalgamated Clothing Workers union in 1922, following a 1921 visit to the Soviet Union by union president Sidney Hillman. He was also one of the original directors of the Amalgamated Bank of New York, as advertised in the Liberator magazine. The ad mentions that the bank is owned and operated by the Amalgamated Clothing Workers. It lists chairman Hyman Blumberg, president R. L. Redheffer, vice president Jacob S. Potofsky, cashier Leroy Peterson, and other directors: Hillman, August Bellanca, Joseph Gold, Fiorello H. La Guardia, Abraham Miller, Joseph Schlossberg, Murray Weinstein, Max Zaritzky, and Peter Monat. The Amalgamated relationship seems to have started when Lowenthal defended Hillman in 1920 in a labor dispute in Rochester, New York. As late as 1929, Lowenthal still had a close relationship with the Amalgamated Bank, as after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 he recommended that the bank sell its securities for cash; throughout the Great Depression, the bank held its assets in cash or cash-equivalents. "It was the advice of Max Lowenthal that helped more than anything else to keep our banks open during the Hoover banking collapse," Hillman later noted. Advising Lowenthal in this period was Benjamin V. Cohen. Government service During his early days in politics, Lowenthal served as advisor to several United States senators. In 1929, he served as pro bono secretary on U.S. President Herbert Hoover's National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement (later called the Wickersham Commission) to investigate gang-related crimes and Prohibition enforcement through July 1930, when he resigned. He assisted Ferdinand Pecora with Senate committee hearings investigating the causes of the Wall Street Crash of 1929. The hearings launched a major reform of the American financial system. Around 1930, "another job that I was given in connection with the charge that in the Government that men were taking positions in the Government who had private investments," connected (unclearly recounted later by Lowenthal) to his Harvard Law School friend, U.S. Solicitor General Charles Hughes, Jr. (1929–1930), son of 11th Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes, Sr. In 1933–1934, he consulted for the U.S. Senate Banking and Currency Committee. "I can't remember that I had worked for any congressional committee before that, but this I would not want to affirm categorically." Railroad reorganization In 1933, Lowenthal began advocating railroad reform by republishing his original Harvard Law Review argument The Railroad Reorganization Act in book form along with a second book, The Investor Pays (1933) (Felix Frankfurter attributed much of the work on The Investor Pays to Benjamin V. Cohen.) Abuses he cited included: control of receivership and of reorganization by owners prior to acknowledgement of insolvency, inadequate administration of properties prior to reorganization, inadequate regulatory supervision, and conflicts of interest. While making the rounds "as agents of the President" with Tommy Corcoran (one of Felix Frankfurter's "Happy Hotdogs"), Lowenthal told any and all that nothing would happen "without the help of railway labor." On July 5, 1935 Federal Coordinator Joseph Bartlett Eastman wrote to Senator Wheeler (committee chair), with Lowenthal as committee counsel, to recommend 18 railroads (including Van Sweringen Lines, Pennsylvania Railroad, Wabash Railway, and Delaware & Hudson Company) plus financiers (J.P. Morgan & Company, and Kuhn, Loeb & Company) for investigation, as reported in the New York Times and Railway Age. Only in December 1936 did Lowenthal manage to obtain enough subpoenaed documentation to begin actual investigation, according to Railway Age. By 1939, the Senate had introduced a "Lowenthal Bi\|ll" to create a special "Railroad Reorganization Court" for bankrupt railroads and downsizing of capitalization and reduction of fixed charges. In April 1939, ICC commissioner Walter M. W. Splawn and committee counsel Lowenthal testified. Lowenthal explained changes in the new Reorganization Act of 1939 (passed and signed into law on April 3, 1939). Its special court would make for "sounder reorganizations" thanks to judges trained in railroads. Truman In 1935, Lowenthal met Harry S. Truman, after Truman joined a subcommittee of the U.S. Senate Interstate Commerce Committee, investigating railroads and holding companies, which resulted in U.S. Senate Resolution 71 on February 4, 1935. Senator Robert F. Wagner had to withdraw from the subcommittee, and Senator Burton K. Wheeler filled his place with Truman. Senators on that subcommittee included: Wheeler (chair), Truman, Alben Barkley, Victor Donahey, Wallace White, and Henrik Shipstead. Heading the legal counselors for that subcommittee was Telford Taylor, assisted by Lowenthal and Sidney J. Kaplan, who later headed the Claims Division in the Solicitor General's office of the U.S. Department of Justice during World War II, George Rosier, Lucien Hilmer, and John Davis. According to close Truman's Appointments Secretary Matthew J. Connelly, "Lowenthal served as counsel for Senator Truman during the hearings on the setting up of the Civil Aeronautics Board." According to daughter Margaret Truman, Truman relied on Lowenthal to keep up pressure on the Missouri Pacific Railroad and Alleghany Corporation over the "Alleghany-Missouri Pacific matter." Lowenthal later recollected, "Until we went into World War II, I may have been doing some work for the Interstate Commerce Committee. I was for a number of years, in that category which was referred to as dollar-a-year men, but, when we went into the war, I had a talk with Senator Wheeler and suggested that probably I ought to be available on some wartime work, and Chairman Wheeler thought that was right." Thus, Lowenthal did not serve with Truman on the so-called "Truman Committee" (1941-1944) (formally, the Senate Special Committee to Investigate the National Defense Program, 1941-1948, from 1948 the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations or "PSI," and current the "United States Senate Homeland Security Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations"). "I attended one or two hearings out of interest, but I was completing work for the Interstate Commerce Committee at that time and then I was involved in some work in the war effort which was pretty absorbing -- it was day and night work," he later recalled. From 1944 to 1946, Lowenthal left official government service. In 1944, Lowenthal attended the 1944 Democratic National Convention in Chicago. In 1944, Truman wrote to his daughter that Lowenthal, William M. Boyle, and Leslie Biffle "were on my trail... Yes, they are plotting against your dad" along with many others "trying to make him VP against his will." Truman told Lowenthal that FDR had included him on his shortlist of candidates for vice president. Lowenthal went with Truman to meet with Philip Murray, head of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) union federation, for support. "I think that someone in his organization had been urging another name on Phil Murray, but I believe in time he swung behind Mr. Truman." In Fall 1946, Lowenthal had lunch with Bob Patterson, newly promoted from Assistant Secretary of War to Secretary of War, whom he had known "for many years": Patterson told Lowenthal he was sending him to Berlin for a "war job, or a wartime-produced task... I think that was the last official position I held in government." The job was restitution of property stolen by Nazis. Lowenthal spent six weeks in Germany to collect evidence so he could draw up a report, reporting to the U.S. High Commissioner of Germany, General Lucius D. Clay. Upon his return to the States, Lowenthal "had a good deal of work" on Nazi-related cases of "heirless" property. In that period, the U.S. Attorney General (Tom C. Clark at that time) made recommendations that included "relaxing the universal ban on wire tapping"–at which time, Lowenthal "noticed that that was in the list." In 1948, Truman felt (according to Lowenthal in 1967) that the Mundt-Nixon Bill that year was "to punish sedition." FBI and HUAC investigations During 1947-1948, the FBI investigated Lowenthal. They used wiretaps, as evidenced in later-FOIA-ed FBI files. FBI files on Lowenthal also include draft versions of his 1948 book on the FBI. In 1950, Lowenthal published a book critical of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (see Works, below), which led to him being called before the House Un-American Activities Committee, where he denied he had "aided and abetted" Communist in government service . The book and negative press helped end a 38-year career in public service. On August 28, 1950, Lee Pressman testified that he had not recommended Lowenthal for a job at the War Production Board. On September 1, 1950, Charles Kramer refused to answer questions as to whether he was acquainted with Lowenthal. That same day, U.S. Representative George A. Dondero called Lowenthal a "menace to the best interests of America." Dondero said that his government career was "replete with incidents where he aided and abetted Communists" starting in 1917. On September 15, 1950, Lowenthal appeared before the House Un-American Activities Committee AKA "HUAC" (two of whose members were Mundt and Nixon–of the Mundt-Nixon Bill). Already in August 1950, HUAC had re-subpoenaed four witness who had been part of Whittaker Chambers's Ware Group: Lee Pressman, Nathan Witt, Charles Kramer and John Abt. The committee had asked both Pressman and Kramer whether they knew Lowenthal; both confirmed. Lowenthal brought former U.S. Senator Burton K. Wheeler as counsel. After reviewing his curriculum vitae, the committee tried to link him with known or alleged Communist Party members and organizations, some of which he confirmed, others not, all without admitting any wrongdoing. Names mentioned included: Alger Hiss, Donald Hiss, David Wahl, Bartley Crum, Martin Popper, Allan Rosenberg, Lee Pressman, the Russian-American Industrial Corporation, the Twentieth Century Fund, and the International Juridical Association. On November 19, 1950, the government published Lowenthal's closed-session testimony from September 15, 1950. During testimony, Lowenthal had denied aiding or abetting Communists in government service. Specifically, he denied any involvement in the employment or sponsoring of George Shaw Wheeler, a former US government employee who had defected to Czechoslovakia in 1947 and publicly requested political asylum there in 1950. He noted that Wheeler had been transferred to his division on the Board of Economic Warfare from the War Production Board "toward the end of my service with the board" He also said that Wheeler had not worked with him in Germany." He also claimed to have advised Lee Pressman in 1944 against naming Henry A. Wallace as Democratic candidate for vice president. On November 27, 1950, Senator Bourke B. Hickenlooper noted, "In the Washington Post of November 26, 1950, there are published two reviews of a recent book entitled The Federal Bureau of Investigation, by Max Lowenthal, New Deal mystery man of Washington." The first ("A Lawyer's Indictment in Mood of Prosecutor") was by Rev. Edmund A. Walsh S.J., of Georgetown University, which Hickenlooper read into the record. The second by Joseph L. Rauh Jr., a former civil servant, whom Hickenlooper denounced for criticizing the FBI, for chairing the National Committee for Democratic Action, and for affiliations with Alger Hiss, Donald Hiss, Felix Frankfurter, William Remington, and James L. Fly of Americans for Democratic Action. Hickenlooper stated "I have the greatest admiration and respect for the integrity of the director, Mr. J. Edgar Hoover, and his staff personnel" at the FBI. Unofficial policy group member During the 1950s, Lowenthal supervised "an operation... conducted... to prepare answers to the charges that Senator McCarthy was making." This followed McCarthy's claim that he possessed "a list" of Communists within the State Department. Lowenthal was later unable to recall clearly the names of anyone who helped him: Truman Library oral historian Jerry N. Hess suggested that they might have included Herbert N. Maletz, Lowell Mellett, and Franklin N. Parks. The White House was supportive: when Lowenthal came to Washington to work, sometimes he would be provided office space there. In May 1951, White House Appointments Secretary Matthew J. Connelly asked Lowenthal to help General Harry H. Vaughan in "setting up testimony", after Vaughan admitted repeated episodes of trading access to the White House for expensive gifts. Later, he also helped Connelly himself (who was convicted of bribery charges in 1956). (When asked whether Lowenthal served on that counter-McCarthy committee, Connelly, however, said, "Not that I recall. He had nothing to do with the White House.") In mid-summer 1951, Truman wrote Lowenthal to thank him for a letter and respond regarding Senator Joseph McCarthy's speech of Jun 14, 1951, attacking George Marshall. They discussed the need for the U.S. government to support international security. "I certainly did appreciate your good letter," Truman ended. In 1952, when Truman announced he would not seek re-election, Vice President Alben Barkley could not secure the presidential nomination from the Democratic Party due to a lack of endorsement from labor leaders. Connelly later recalled: Hess: Do you recall the difficulty that Mr. Barkley had at the 1952 convention with the labor delegates? Connelly: I remember it very well because I had Max Lowenthal–I believe you know Max Lowenthal–I had him out there and Max was very close to the labor boys. I had a room at the Mayflower Hotel with two TV sets watching the convention, and I used to get calls from Max, from Chicago, and the day Barkley arrived–unfortunately he had very bad eyes–and he walked through the lobby of the hotel and he didn't recognize the labor boys who were there. So they thought they were snubbed. So I then got Les Biffle on the phone and Les had always been very close to Barkley and he was out there at the convention, as a matter of fact, he was sergeant at arms of the convention, and I told Les what happened. So then they made a strategic mistake, because labor leaders are all prima donnas, and I suggested to Les that Barkley set up a meeting with these fellows and talk to them individually. So instead of that they set up a breakfast the next morning and invited all the labor leaders. Well, they are very jealous of each other. So, all that achieved was one more snubbing for the prima donnas, so they sat on their hands as far as Barkley was concerned. Lowenthal introduced Truman to U.S. Supreme Justice Louis Brandeis. In 1953, Lowenthal was "member" of the Truman Administration, according to the papers of American evangelist Billy James Hargis (who also lists him among "Alleged Reds" 1950–1954). Lowenthal's best known accomplishment occurred during his term as the chief adviser on Palestine to Clark Clifford, an advisor to President Truman, from 1947-1952. President Truman credited Lowenthal as being the primary force behind the United States recognition of Israel. ) On the other hand, Matthew J. Connelly pointed to David Niles, an associate of Harry Hopkins from the WPA, as "very effective in the problems we had in connection with the recognition of Israel" because of his contacts in the Jewish community: "David Dubinsky, Abraham Feinberg. You name any leader in the Jewish faction, and he had intimate contacts with him." Connelly denoted Lowenthal as one of contacts–"oh, very much so, very much so." When Niles died in 1951, Connelly chose Feinberg to succeed him in that liaison role.) Historian Michael J. Cohen argues that Clark Clifford relied on Lowenthal for advice on Israel, and Lowenthal in turn on Benjamin V. Cohen. In the late 1950s, Norman Thomas criticized Bertrand Russell for citing Lowenthal and Cedric Belfrage as authorities on wrongdoings by the FBI. Russell responded in "The State of Civil Liberties" in The New Leader, published on February 18, 1957. Russell retorted, "You seem to imply that criticisms of the FBI can be ignored if they come from Communists or Fellow-travellers. In particular, you point out that Mr. Lowenthal had a grievance against the FBI. It is, however, an almost invariable fact that protests against injustice originate with those who suffer from them." Russell recommended that Thomas go buy and read Lowenthal's book. As late as 1967, Lowenthal denied ever even discussing Israel with President Truman and claimed to have only heard of the partition of Palestine through a secondhand source in the White House. Personal life and death Lowenthal was married to Eleanor Mack, niece of Judge Julian Mack. They had three children: David (1923), John (1925) and Elizabeth (Betty). His sons were David Lowenthal and John Lowenthal. On September 15, 1950, Lowenthal told HUAC that he kept homes at 467 West Central Park in Manhattan and in New Milford, Connecticut. During World War II, he resided at 1 West Irving Street, Chevy Chase, Maryland. Regarding Truman overall, late in life Lowenthal told Truman Library oral historian Jerry N. Hess: I was deeply sold on Mr. Truman's usefulness to America. I haven't been a hero worshipper but I have had deep affection for some men in public affairs whom I got to know, and that was certainly true in the case of Mr. Truman. During the same interview, however, Lowenthal remembered only one Truman staff member by name (Victor Messall). Regarding Truman's views on red scares in the United States, Lowenthal commented: He died age 83 on May 18, 1971, at home (444 Central Park West) of heart ailment. Lowenthal was a trustee of the Twentieth Century Fund from 1924 to 1933. Recollections about him Recollections of Lowenthal from Truman Library oral histories are mixed. Some are favorable: "Disciple of Louis Brandeis": Margaret Truman "A famous investigator" in 1935: Roswell L. Gilpatric, Deputy Secretary of Defense (1961–64) Others are less favorable: "(Truman said)... I have two Jewish assistants on my staff, Dave Niles and Max Lowenthal. Whenever I try to talk to them about Palestine they soon burst into tears because they are so emotionally involved in the subject" in 1948: : Oscar R. Ewing, organizer and member of unofficial political policy group during Truman administration (1947–52) " I know they thought he was a Communist. And I never could figure that out. They came around to me about it. Max was a far-out liberal. He was a very good investigator on the railroads.": Raymond P. Brandt, St. Louis Post-Dispatch Washington Bureau Chief (1934–1961) Stephen J. Spingarn, Federal Trade Commission Commissioner (1950–1953), recalled, Max Lowenthal was a good friend of the President's from the days in the '30s... They became friends at that time, and he had total access to the White House. During the McCarthy period he was there all the time, almost daily; he used to hang out in Matt Connelly's rear office. I had had an encounter early in my White House career with Max Lowenthal. Clark Clifford told me that Max was worried about an Internal Security bill (of 1950). However, Spingarn also suspected that Lowenthal (and Connelly) "stuck the knife in me." Phileo Nash told Spingarn it was Connelly, influenced by Lowenthal: I mentioned that Max Lowenthal had once told Niles, and possibly others that I was a Fascist, that was in 1949, because I told Lowenthal I favored wiretapping under proper controls... Nash said it was quite possible that Max Lowenthal was very vindictive, and he mentioned that Max Lowenthal is currently spending much time in Matt's office with L's son. Spingarn further recalled: After the FBI book came out, Westbrook Pegler, a right‐wing columnist, called Lowenthal "the mysterious New York lawyer, who now appears to have picked Harry Truman for President." In the early 1930s, claimed Whittaker Chambers in his 1952 memoir Witness, Lowenthal (Max "Loewenthal" in Witness) was a member of the International Juridical Association (IJA), along with Carol Weiss King, Abraham Isserman, and Lee Pressman. In the inaugural issue of the Monthly Bulletin of the International Juridical Association (May 1932), "Max Lowenthal, member of the New York bar" appears in an article called "Protest Meeting." During his 1950 HUAC testimony, Lowenthal admitted that he had helped organize the "National Lawyers Guild" in the 1930s. He was also a member of the American Bar Association and the New York Bar Association. Lowenthal's correspondents included fellow Minnesotan George B. Leonard. Works In 1950 he wrote a book about the FBI, in which he dealt with issues he felt were still unresolved "although they were brought to light and discussed by statesmen in 1908 and 1909 when the police force now known as the FBI was created." The New York Times announced the book a day in advance of its publication on November 21, 1947, with a subtitle that read "Lawyer Says Hoover Policies Set Up Secret Police." In New York Times Sunday Book Review, Cabell Phillips said the book showed "immense research and careful documentation" and "almost for the first time... it pulled aside the self‐righteous cloak in which the FBI has wrapped itself." Writing for the University of Chicago Law Review in 1952, however, T. Henry Walnut (member of the Pennsylvania Bar) noted "From Mr. Lowenthal's review of the FBI's political activities they would appear negligible between the years 1924 and 1946, when the Bureau picked up the trail of the Communist. This period, however, was not a political vacuum. It was filled with differences as bitter as any the country has ever known... If Mr. Lowenthal is still looking for evidence as to what can be done through the FBI, under its present centralized direction from Washington, to oppress dissenting individuals and groups, it would be well for him to study the period from December 8, 1941 to the end of 1945. George M. Elsey, Administrative Assistant to the President (1949–1951) felt that "Lowenthal had a passionate dislike of the FBI and J. Edgar Hoover in particular." Asked to read galley proofs for his book on the FBI, he later commented, "The book was so unfair, so grossly biased, so sloppily done in every respect that it couldn't possibly influence anybody about the FBI. Any serious reader would just lay the thing aside in disgust... The President was just tolerant, shrugged his shoulder, tended to laugh it off and say, 'Oh, Max is that way'." Books: The Investor Pays (1933) (1936) The Railroad Reorganization Act (1933) Uncredited speeches for Harry S. Truman The Federal Bureau of Investigation (1950) (1971) Police methods in crime detection and counter-espionage (1951) (paper) See also Felix Frankfurter Julian W. Mack Carol Weiss King Benjamin V. Cohen Sidney Hillman Harry S. Truman Oscar R. Ewing Robert Szold John Lowenthal David Lowenthal References External sources Truman Library - Max Lowenthal Papers Michael J. Cohen, Truman and Israel, (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990.) Ronald Radosh and Allis Radosh, A Safe Haven: Harry S. Truman and the Founding of Israel (HarperCollins, 2009) Library of Congress: Donald S Dawson papers, 1944-1993 Library of Congress: Felix Frankfurter papers, 1846–1966 Library of Congress: Photo of Truman and Lowenthal (October 20, 1937) Yad Vashem: Max Lowenthal Collection EHRI Collection of Max Lowenthal Duke University - Max Lowenthal box 1888 births 1971 deaths Lawyers from Minneapolis Writers from Minneapolis Harvard Law School alumni Jewish American attorneys People associated with Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent Jewish socialists 20th-century American lawyers University of Minnesota alumni The Century Foundation
4874166	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House%20of%20Burnett	House of Burnett	The House of Burnett (Burnet, Burnette, Burnard, Bernard) is a Lowland and Border Scottish family composed of several branches. The Chief of the Name and Arms of Burnett is James Comyn Amherst Burnett of Leys. Origins of the name It remains uncertain if the name of Burnett is of Saxon or Norman origins. It has been suggested that the name Burnett is derived from the Old French burnete, brunette, which is a diminutive of brun meaning "brown", "dark brown". Another proposed origin of the name is from burnete, a high quality wool cloth originally dyed to a dark brown colour. There is also evidence which suggests that Burnett stems from the English surname of Burnard, a derivative of the Anglo-Saxon name "Beornheard". Spelling variations of the name in early documents show Burnet and Burnard/Bernard being used interchangeably for the same family and at times for the same person. It is likely that the family of de Bernard first came to Scotland with the return of David I of Scotland and that they settled in Roxburghshire. Early Burnetts in Scotland There is documented evidence of the family of Burnard in England from the Norman Conquest in 1066, but not before. These are found in the Domesday Book, the Chartulary of St Neots Priory and in charters concerning the Waltham Abbey. Roger Burnard was the Domesday tenant of Alrichesey and also held a manor in Rodedie hundred, Hampshire and the manors of Celdretone and Coteford in Wiltshire; all of which were held of William De Ow. He, his wife Margaret and his son Odo were named in several charters of St. Neot's and in one there is a mention of a daughter, Magilia Burnard. Among the English who came north in the train of David I of Scotland were Burnards who settled in the County of Roxburgh and owned the considerable barony of Farningdoun (aka. Fairnington). They were benefactors of Melrose Abbey and other religious houses. They soon move on to the Northeast of Scotland, where Alexander Burnard settled near Banchory. This Alexander Burnard is considered "The first of the Deeside Burnards, or Burnetts as they were later called". Burnets of Farningdoun Roger Burnard of Faringdoun gave two grants of land of that barony; one being witnessed by his sons Geoffrey, Walter, Ralph and Richard. Ralph, his son and heir appears in the Episcopal Records of Glasgow in 1208 as providing fuel in the form of peat to the Bishop of Glasgow. In 1252 Richard Burnard of Farningdoun sold the Eastmeadow of Faringdoun to the Abbey of Melrose, confirmed in a charter of Alexander III of Scotland that same year. After 1381 the link between the Burnards and Fairingdoun seems to have been lost. Burnets of Burnetland and Barns The Burnards or Burnets owned lands in Peeblesshire named for them, Burnetland. A Robert de Burnetland () was a witness to the foundation charter of Selkirk Abbey by David I prior to his becoming king, and to several charters afterwards. An indicator of when this family became of Barns is from the will of William Burnet of Barns, Treasurer-Clerk of Scotland, dated 30 April 1656 stating that his predecessors had held Barns for three hundred years. This would date the family's connections to Barns to at least 1356. The genealogy of the Burnet family of Burnetland and Barns traces down to when the estate was sold in 1838. At times the family of Burnet of Barns and that of Leys have contended for the chiefship of the House of Burnet. Burnard of Ardross and Currie Thought to be originally of the Burnards of Farningdoun, John Burnard owned part of the lands of Ardross in Fife and of a part of those in Currie in Midlothian. He accompanied king David II of Scotland on his journey south in 1346 and in the attack on the fort of Liddell where John Burnard was severely wounded and left at Roxburgh Castle where he later died of his wounds. But before he died Roxburgh surrendered to the English and it was assumed John Burnard was a traitor who joined the English. As a result, his lands were forfeited and given to Alexander Maitland. When David II was released from captivity the truth was known and the lands were restored by royal charter to John Burnard's nearest kinsman, William of Dishington. The Dishington's continued ownership until about 1700 when the lands were sold. Burnetts in north-east Scotland Burnetts who settled in the north-east of Scotland are primarily located in Kincardineshire and Aberdeenshire. These branches stemmed from the family of Leys, the ancestors of the present Chief of the Name of Burnett, James C. A. Burnett of Leys. Burnett of Leys Alexander Burnard, almost certainly of Farningdoun, is considered "The first of the Deeside Burnards, or Burnetts as they were later called". Alexander was an adherent of Robert the Bruce and for his services to the king he was rewarded in 1323 with land in Banchory and a position as the Royal Forester of Drum. He also received a charter of that king of the lands of Kilhenach, Clerech, and other lands in Aberdeenshire dated 28 March 1324. This was about the time the Burnard or Burnett family first took up residence on an artificial island called a crannog, on the Loch of Leys. The history of the family from this time onward is recorded in detail. During the next three centuries the Burnetts came to gain prominence in the area by making connections with the church, granting lands and other endowments. John Burnet "of Leyis", the fifth laird, was the first in this family to bear the distinction "of Leys" which from this time onward was applied both to the lands and to the family who held them. His son, Alexander Burnet of Leys was the first 'Baron of Leys' during the reigns of James II of Scotland, James III and James IV. In 1553, Alexander Burnet of Leys, the ninth lord of Leys began construction on Crathes Castle, which was finished by his great-grandson, another Alexander, the twelfth lord, in 1596. Alexander Burnett, 12th Laird of Leys (d. 1619), Laird of Crathes Castle, acquired Muchalls Castle about 1600 and commenced its early 17th-century reconstruction. Having died in 1619, the completion of Muchalls Castle was carried out by Alexander Burnett's son, Sir Thomas Burnett, 1st Baronet. Ownership of Muchalls Castle passed from the Burnett of Leys family about 1882. Crathes remained in the ownership of the Burnett family descendants for over 350 years, until 1952 when Sir James Burnett, 13th Baronet gave it to the National Trust for Scotland as part of Scotland's heritage. Heraldic history There were no known seals for Burnett of Leys before 1621. In 1550 Burnet of Burnetland (later Barns) appealed to the then Lord Lyon King of Arms to change his motto to that already in use by Burnett of Leys, Virescit vulnere virtus (strength draws vigour from an injury). Apparently successful, the Burnett of Leys lord then began using the motto Alterius non sit qui potest esse suus (he would not be another's who could be his). The earliest arms for Burnett of Leys was found on a carved panel dated to some thirteen years later showing the impaled arms of Burnett and Hamilton commemorating the marriage between Alexander Burnett (1500–1574) and Janet Hamilton (d.1557). The arms of Burnett of Leys in 1553 used a shield, charged with three holly leaves and a hunting horn, blazoned: Argent, three holly leaves in chief vert and a hunting horn in base sable stringed Gules. The crest, a hand holding a knife shown pruning a vine had the motto: Alterius non sit qui potest esse suus (same meaning as above) or a variant: Alterius non sit qui suis esse potest (who can be his would not be another's). The next progression was that of Thomas Burnett of Leys, knighted in 1620, whose seal of Bore a shield with holly leaves and hunting horn, set within foliage decoration with his name and rank but no crest or motto. By 1627 and upon completion of Muchalls Castle, the impaled arms of Sir Thomas Burnet and his second wife Janet Moncreiffe now had supporters. On the dexter side was a huntsman in contemporary dress with a hunting horn suspended from his shoulder while the sinister supporter was a greyhound with a collar. In addition to the current motto, displayed beneath the supporters, was the motto above the hand, knife and crest, apparently ignoring the ruling of 1550 by the Lord Lyon Sir David Lindsay, the previous Burnett motto: Virescit vulnere virtus. In 1672 the Scottish Parliament decided to record every coat of arms in Scotland, a project that took over twenty years to complete just the first volume. Appearing in folio 122 in the first volume were the arms of Sir Thomas Burnett, 3rd Baronet (1663–1714). This version had no supporters and only one motto: virescit vulnere virtus.. In 1822 King George IV visited Scotland and encouraged by Sir Walter Scott highland chiefs were to appear before the king in their appropriate tartan. Many of these chiefs had no idea what their tartan was and a Mr. Wilson, a weaver of Bannockburn near Stirling was quick to come up with numerous designs which was the start of the commercial tartan industry in Scotland. In a petition to the Lord Lyon, Sir Thomas, the head of an established lowland house decided the Burnetts should be considered highlanders, possibly to impress the king, and petitioned the Lord Lyon to change the huntsman supporter to a highlander with kilt. This achievement was recorded in Folio 33, in the fourth volume of the Public Register of All Arms and Bearings in Scotland (24 October 1838). The next significant change came one hundred and twenty-nine years later when the current head of the House of Burnett, James Comyn Amherst Burnett of Leys, Baron of Kilduthie, petitioned the Lord Lyon to confirm him as heir of the undifferenced arms of Burnett of Leys. The third matriculation of the Burnett arms were granted to him on 22 May 1967 with changes: a silver shield with three holly leaves, black hunting horn decorated in gold with a red strap, and the crest is a hand with a knife pruning a vine. The crest sits on a red baronial chapeau, symbolising the baronies of Leys and Kilduthie. Above the crest is the established motto: Verescit vulnere virtus and the kilt of the highlander supporter is the official Burnet of Leys tartan. The two supporters stand on a compartment (in the form of a grassy mound) with a ribbon bearing the motto: Alterius non sit qui suus esse potest not used since 1550. Following a meeting of Burnett kin in 1993 the title was formally changed to the House of Burnett. A fourth petition was made to the Lord Lyon for a Standard and a Pinsel recognising the head of the house of Burnet which was duly granted. The current Chief of the Name and Arms of Burnett, James C. A. Burnett, Baron of Kilduthie, arranged with the National Trust for Scotland for a room on the top floor of Crathes Castle to display items of interest for members of the Burnett family worldwide including armorial bearings. Ramsays of Balmain Through a marriage between Sir Thomas Burnett, 6th Baronet of Leys and the sister of Sir Alexander Ramsay, 6th Baronet of Balmain, the Burnetts became heirs of the line of Ramsay of Balmain. When Sir Alexander died in 1806 s.p. his estates passed to the immediate younger brother of his heir of that line, Alexander, second son of Sir Thomas Burnett of Leys. Alexander resigned the Sheriffdom of Kincardineshire on his succession to Balmain and after some time traveling he returned and built an elegant mansion called Fasque House. By Royal licence he assumed the name and arms of Ramsay and on 13 May 1806 he was created a Baronet of the United Kingdom as Sir Alexander Ramsay of Balmain. He died at Fasque on 17 May 1810 and his descendants retained the name of Ramsay dropping the surname of Burnett altogether. Burnetts of Craigmyle James Burnett, son of Alexander Burnett of Leys and next younger brother of Sir Thomas Burnett, 1st Baronet of Leys. Upon his marriage in 1608 to Elizabeth Burnet, daughter of Thomas Burnett of Craigmyle and Tillihaikie, the grandson of William Burnett of Craigour, Campbell and Tillihaikie who fell at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh in 1547. He and his wife had sasine of the lands of Craigmyle, Pitmedden and the Mill of Craigmyle. By this marriage he became almost as considerable a laird as his brother Sir Thomas. He was known as a peacemaker and negotiator in his time. The cadet line of Craigmyle died out in the male line after 1750. Burnetts of Crimond This branch descends from Robert Burnet, Lord Crimond, another brother of Sir Thomas Burnett, 1st Baronet. He was the third son of Alexander Burnet, above-mentioned, and Katherine Gordon. Robert studied law in France for several years and in 1617 was admitted to the Scottish Bar. He was a Scottish advocate and Judge of the Court of Session in 1661 as Lord Crimond. His heir was his third son Alexander Burnett. His fifth son was Gilbert Burnet, Bishop of Salisbury. Burnetts of Kemnay James Burnett, the next younger brother of Sir Thomas Burnett, 1st Baronet, married Elizabeth Burnett as mentioned above. Their second son, Thomas Burnett of Kemnay was the first laird of Kemnay. Thomas was a writer in Edinburgh and married Margaret Pearson, daughter of John Pearson, a merchant in Edinburgh. He purchased Kemnay from Sir George Nicolson, Lord Kemnay, a Lord of Session in 1688. Thomas died in November 1688 and is buried in Kemnay parish church. The older residence that the newer mansion replaced, was built by Sir Thomas Crombie, had been owned previously by the Auchinlecks and the Douglases of Glenbervie. The current laird of Kemnay is Susan Letitia Burnett, 9th of Kemnay. Burnetts of Monboddo This branch stems from James Burnet of Lagavin, the third son of James Burnett of Craigmyle and his wife Elizabeth Burnett. In 1642 James married Isobel Forbes who died a short time later after which James married secondly Elizabeth Irvine, daughter of Robert Irvine of Monboddo and Elizabeth Douglas of Glenbervie. About 1671 James purchased Monboddo from his brothers-in-law. In addition to Monboddo, which became the seat of this branch, James acquired Kair, Whitefield, Sillyflat, Hallgreen, Johnshaven and Ballandro in Kincardineshire and Aberdeenshire. His grandson, James Burnett, the third laird of Monboddo supported the Stuart cause and was captured at the Battle of Falkirk Muir. He was held prisoner for some time but was liberated through the influence of powerful friends. But subsequent events caused him to have to sell all but Monboddo and Lagavin, which he sold to his eldest son, James Burnett, Lord Monboddo, the fourth laird who rose to become an eminent scholar and judge. Burnetts of Camphill This branch is apparently descended from William Burnett of Craigour, Wester Camphill and Tillihaikie who fell at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh in 1547. His son Andrew Burnett succeeded him to the lands of Camphill. In 1605 these lands were part of the Leys estate and at that time William Burnett, the son of Andrew Burnett held Camphill as a tenant. A Thomas Burnett of Camphill, mentioned in the Aberdeenshire Poll Book of 1696, was at the time living in Aberdeen. Burnetts of Elrick The eldest son of the abovementioned Andrew Burnett of Camphill, John Burnett (1625–1666) was the 1st of Elrick John Burnett acquired these lands by assignation from William Innes of Kinnermonie who had a charter for Elrick in 1663. The barony of Elrick included the lands of that estate, along with the mill and croft, Smiddieland and Broomiebrae of Elrick, the lands and town of Monacabback, Ord and Scrogley of Monacabback and the lands of Snellen. The lands were still in this family after the death of Peter Burnet of Elrick in 1870. Burnetts of Kirkhill The first of Kirkhill, in the parish of Dyce near Aberdeen, was Alexander Burnett (1620–1685), the son of Thomas Burnett, merchant, and his wife Margaret Johnston. As a Baillie of Aberdeen Alexander Burnett was designated Polls or Poles indicating a merchant with strong trading ties to Poland, a designation his son, the 2nd laird Thomas took as a nickname. The great granddaughter of the first laird, Margaret Burnett (born 1719) eventually succeeded to Kirkhill and by her marriage to Alexander Bannerman of Frendraught, also a merchant in Aberdeen, the lands of Kirkhill passed to the Bannerman family. Notable Burnet(t)s Gilbert Burnet (1643–1715), a Scottish historian, author, theologian and the Bishop of Salisbury. He was educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen where he studied law, divinity and history. In 1663 he was a probationer of the Scottish church and in 1664 he studied Hebrew in Amsterdam. Burnett was a professor of divinity at Glasgow in 1669 and was the king's chaplain to Charles II of England until he was dismissed by that monarch . He was appointed the Bishop of Salisbury in 1689. The Bishop died in 1715. James Burnett, Lord Monboddo (1714–1799), a member of the Scottish bar he was appointed to the Court of Session where he assumed the title Lord Monboddo in 1767. He was the author of Of the Origin and Progress of Language (6 vol., 1773–92). Also the Decisions of the Court of Session 1738–60. His pre-Darwinian theories traced the origins of man to the orangutan earning him a reputation as an eccentric. Yet he was regarded as a cultured original thinker of great intellect. George Burnett (1822–1890), born at Kemnay, admitted to the Scottish bar in 1845, and appointed Lyon Depute at the Court of the Lord Lyon in 1863. In 1866 he became the Lord Lyon King of Arms which office he held until his death on 23 January 1890. Major-General Sir James Burnett, 13th Baronet was a colonel of the Gordon Highlanders and commanded a brigade during the World War I. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order twice, mentioned in dispatches eleven times and was invested as a companion of the Order of the Bath by Britain and the Légion d'honneur by France. Charles Burnett (1940–), a Scottish antiquarian, museum curator, and officer of arms at the Court of the Lord Lyon. In 1983 he was appointed Dingwall Pursuivant of Arms, and from 1988–2010 he served as Ross Herald of Arms. In 2011 he became the Ross Herald of Arms Extraordinary which post he holds currently. Rear Admiral Philip Whitworth Burnett (10 October 1908 - 6 October 1996) was a Senior British Military Commander who served in the Royal Navy during the Second World War. Nicholas Ridley (c. 1500 – 16 October 1555) was an English Bishop of London and Westminster, related to the Burnett Family Clan. Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Stuart Burnett (3 April 1882 - 9 April 1945), was a senior commander in the Royal Air Force during the first half of the 20th century. He was Air Officer Commanding Iraq Command during the early 1930s. During the Second World War, he served as Chief of the Air Staff of the Royal Australian Air Force Admiral Sir Robert Lindsay Burnett was an officer in the Royal Navy. Notable Descendants Diana, Princess of Wales (1961-1997) William, Prince of Wales (b.1982) Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex (b.1984) Family castle The Burnett family of the chiefly line now resides in the House of Crathes, close to Crathes Castle. In the early 17th century the Burnetts acquired Muchalls Castle. See also Burnett Baronets Crathes Castle Notes References Scottish families Scottish surnames Scottish Lowlands
4874430	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugly%20Betty	Ugly Betty	Ugly Betty is an American comedy-drama television series developed by Silvio Horta, which was originally broadcast on ABC. It premiered on September 28, 2006, and ended on April 14, 2010. The series is based on Fernando Gaitán's Colombian telenovela Yo soy Betty, la fea, which has had many other international adaptations. It revolves around the character Betty Suarez (America Ferrera), whodespite her lack of stylelands a job at a prestigious fashion magazine. It was produced by Silent H, Ventanarosa, and Reveille Productions partnered with ABC Studios, with Salma Hayek, Horta, Ben Silverman, Jose Tamez, and Joel Fields serving as executive producers. The pilot was filmed in New York City; seasons one and two were filmed in Los Angeles and seasons three and four were filmed in New York City. During its first three seasons, it aired on Thursday nights, where it was mostly successful. However, viewership dropped significantly in the show's third season, particularly in the 18–49 age group. In October 2009, the series was moved to Fridays, where it had trouble finding an audience. The backlash from its fans prompted ABC to move the show to Wednesdays at 10:00 pm Eastern/9:00 pm Central starting January 6, 2010, where it was thought to better complement its Wednesday hits Modern Family and Cougar Town. Despite this, on January 27, 2010, ABC announced it was cancelling the series due to low ratings. In the years since, it has gained a cult following. For a time, there was discussion of a reboot or Ugly Betty movie. Production The idea to bring Ugly Betty to American TV screens began in 2001 when NBC was planning to adapt Betty as a half-hour comedy, which would be produced by Columbia TriStar Television (now Sony Pictures Television) but it did not get past the planning stages (three writers were needed to come up with a concept based around the character) until ABC and Hayek's company came on board in 2004 and retooled it as an hour-long comedy drama. Two years later, on May 16, 2006, ABC announced that Ugly Betty would be part of the 2006–2007 North American season lineup as a weekly hour-long series; the initial order was for 13 episodes. ABC had announced the title of the series would be Betty the Ugly, a change from its developmental title, but changed it back to Ugly Betty on July 14, 2006, although the Ugly Betty title was already being used in promotions prior to this date on Citytv. Speculation indicated the show would be a daily serial that would have debuted as a summer 2006 or midseason 2007 entry, but given the buzz and growing interest in the show, the network decided to make it a weekly series, instead. On August 8, 2006, ABC decided at the last minute to make a schedule change to move Ugly Betty from its previously announced Friday 8 pm (ET) time period to Thursday at 8 pm, replacing sitcoms Notes from the Underbelly and Big Day as a lead-in to top-rated program Grey's Anatomy, due to the growing interest in the show. The program's pilot was tested on several cable providers to gauge interest and feedback from viewers, most notably the Hispanic community, including those who are fans of the original Betty, who hoped that ABC would maintain the integrity of the original. ABC also allowed its affiliates to show free off-air screenings to the public at various events ahead of the show's debut. In addition, the network screened the debut episode on the web and made the episodes available for download on iTunes after their initial airings on January 5, 2007. The encore episodes also have run on ABC Family and SOAPnet, both of which have aired marathons of the show. On October 13, 2006, ABC ordered a full season pick-up for the series, beyond the original 13 ordered at the May Upfronts due to its premiere ratings. ABC originally announced 22 episodes for season one, but increased the number of episodes by one to 23. The season finale is the episode called "East Side Story". On March 21, 2007, ABC renewed the series for a second season. Although he subsequently joined NBC as their new entertainment head, Ben Silverman remained co-executive producer on the show, but in a limited role. In November 2007, the cast of the series made headlines when they threw their support behind the 2007 Writers' Strike by joining them on the picket line in solidarity. Ferrera commented on the reason they did this: "The issues coming up with the actors' contracts are very similar to what the writers are dealing with right now, and we have to stay united and stand strong within the creative community for what we believe is fair." On November 25, the cast appeared in a 38-second video for "Speechless Hollywood" in which a black & white camera pulled away from a close up of Ferrera to show her co-stars sitting next to her as they look directly at the camera without speaking. On February 11, 2008, ABC picked up Ugly Betty for the 2008–09 television season, along with nine other shows. On the same day the renewal was announced, two of the show's executive producers, Marco Pennette and James Hayman, were let go. Their departure added to the constant off-camera turnovers on the series, including the exiting or firing of five writers. In a Q&A from TV Guide, Michael Ausiello criticized the decision, saying, "someone saw fit to fix what wasn't broken" and praised the two men for writing several of the show's best episodes. These turns of events may have also contributed to Rebecca Romijn's decision to no longer be a full-time regular on the series in the third season, citing the move by new writers to make changes in the direction of several characters, especially Romijn's role as Alexis. With the strike over as of February 12, the possibility existed for seven new episodes to be completed by April, bringing the number of second-season episodes produced to 20, but only 18 episodes were eventually produced. As a result of the strike, creator Silvio Horta delayed plans for a musical episode and having Lindsay Lohan on board for a possible storyline until the third season. Four days later on February 16, 2008, ABC picked up Ugly Betty for the 2008–09 television season. On March 12, 2008, Horta signed a two-year, seven-figure deal with ABC Studios, which guaranteed the show's future and gave Horta a chance to produce other projects aside from Betty. On April 17, 2008, the show's podcast, which was usually presented in audio and hosted by stars Urie and Newton, became available on video for the first time. On May 6, 2008, ABC announced that starting with the third season, Ugly Betty would return to New York City and start production there. The move was done to bring the authenticity of the great series' setting into the show and to take advantage of a tax credit offered by the State of New York's Governor's Office of Motion Picture and Television Development. The production returned to Silvercup Studios in Queens, where the original pilot was produced. The move resulted in several Los Angeles crew members being let go. These events led California Assemblyman Paul Krekorian to introduce bill AB X315, the "Ugly Betty Bill", which would keep television and film production from leaving the state by using tax incentives. The bill was passed by the assembly and Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed it into law on February 19, 2009. In January 2009, ABC announced that it was putting Ugly Betty on hold to make room for the new comedies In the Motherhood and Samantha Who? in the Thursday night time slot. The series' aired one more original episode on March 19, 2009. On Sunday, March 15, 2009, ABC announced that, after a five-week break, Ugly Betty would return for its final five episodes of the season on Thursday, April 30, 2009. Ugly Bettys return was originally planned for May 7, but due to low ratings for Motherhood, ABC moved it up a week. The two-episode season finale aired on Thursday, May 21 from 8–10 pm. The move by ABC and the show's declining ratings led viewers to believe that ABC would cancel the show, but on February 17, 2009, Becki Newton stated that the show has been picked up for a fourth season. That statement would later be confirmed on March 5, 2009, when Stephen McPherson, president of ABC Entertainment Group, announced that ABC planned to renew Ugly Betty. On April 23, 2009, ABC gave an early fourth season renewal to Betty. Ugly Betty began airing on Friday nights starting October 16, 2009, at 9:00 pm Eastern/8:00 pm Central, although it was originally scheduled to start a week earlier on October 9. This caused fans and critics to worry that ABC wished to end the show, since that time slot is perceived as the Friday night death slot.ABC's Official Sked Welcomes "V", Moves "Betty", Says Adieu to "Who?" , TV Guide, May 19, 2009ABC Puts "Ugly Betty" In An Ugly Timeslot , Business Insider, May 19, 2009 On July 24, 2009, TV Guide Network announced that it had acquired the exclusive cable rights to the show and would air the fourth-season episodes two weeks after their ABC run with an option to strip the show daily, with plans to air it weekly starting in the fall of 2010. With Eastwick recently cancelled, ABC began considering moving Ugly Betty to the Wednesday night 10:00 pm Eastern/9:00 pm Central timeslot,AfterElton Reports That "Ugly Betty"'s Move to Wednesdays is Confirmed , TV By the Numbers, November 10, 2009 although talks arose of moving Lost to that same time slot. On December 1, 2009, ABC, sensing a backlash from viewers over its decision to move Ugly Betty to Fridays, its sliding ratings, and praises from critics over the improved storylines, made the move to Wednesday official by announcing that it would start airing new episodes on its new night starting January 6, 2010. Plot Betty Suarez is a quirky, 22-year-old Mexican American woman from Queens, New York, who is sorely lacking in fashion sense. She is known for her adult braces, rather unusual wardrobe choices, sweet nature, and slight naïveté. She is abruptly thrust into a different world when she lands a job at Mode, a trendy, high-fashion magazine based in Manhattan that is part of the publishing empire Meade Publications owned by the wealthy Bradford Meade. Bradford's son, Daniel, has been installed as editor-in-chief of Mode following the death of Fey Sommers (Bradford's longtime mistress). Bradford hires the inexperienced Betty as his womanizing son's newest personal assistant to curb his habit of sleeping with his assistants. As time goes by, Betty and Daniel become friends and help each other navigate their individual professional and personal lives. Life at Mode is made difficult for both Betty and Daniel by their co-workers. Their most serious threat comes from creative director Wilhelmina Slater, a vindictive schemer who devises numerous plots to steal Daniel's job and seize control of the Meade empire. In addition, Wilhelmina's loyal assistant Marc St. James and Mode receptionist Amanda Tanen continually mock and humiliate Betty for her lackluster physical appearance, awkward nature, and initial lack of taste in fashion, though they both ultimately warm to Betty in later seasons. However, not everyone at Mode is against Betty; she gains loyal friends in Scottish seamstress Christina McKinney and nerdy accountant Henry Grubstick. She also receives strong support from her father, Ignacio, older sister, Hilda, and nephew, Justin. Season 1: 2006–2007 Season one premiered in the United States on September 28, 2006, and aired 23 episodes. Major plot lines during the first season include: Betty and Daniel settling into their respective roles as personal assistant and editor-in-chief at Mode fashion magazine; Betty's relationships with pre-Mode boyfriend Walter and new love interest Henry; Daniel's numerous sexual relationships and his relationship with fellow editor Sofia Reyes (Salma Hayek); Wilhelmina's plots with the "Mystery Lady" to undermine Bradford and Daniel's positions at Meade Publications; Christina's temporary switch to Wilhelmina's side in an attempt to boost her career; the truth behind the murder of Fey Sommers and the death of Daniel's older brother Alex; Ignacio's immigration status and health problems; and Hilda's struggle to find a new career and salvage her relationship with Justin's dad, Santos. Season 2: 2007–2008 The season's theme was "Brighter, Bolder, Bettyer" with a reworked version of Mika's "Hey Betty (You Are Beautiful)" being used as the featured song in its promos. Nine new recurring characters, played by Freddy Rodríguez, Illeana Douglas, Alec Mapa, David Blue, John Cho, Gabrielle Union, Gene Simmons, and Eddie Cibrian were introduced. Lorraine Toussaint continued in her role as Claire's fellow prison escapee, Yoga, as a recurring character. Production was halted in November 2007 due to the Writers Guild of America strike; ultimately, the season episode order was cut to 18 instead of a proposed 23. New episodes did not air on U.S. television until April 24, 2008, starting with "Twenty Four Candles", and ending on May 22, 2008, with "Jump". This was the last episode to be produced in Los Angeles. Major plotlines this season include the love triangle between Betty, Henry, and a deli shop worker named Giovanni "Gio" Rossi; Claire's escape from prison, recapture, and trial for the murder of Fey Sommers; the aborted wedding of Wilhelmina Slater and Bradford Meade; Hilda and Justin's reaction to the murder of Santos in the season-one finale; Daniel and Alexis's power struggle for Mode after their father's death; Amanda's search for her biological father; Marc's relationship with fashion photographer Cliff St. Paul; Hilda's attempt to start her new beautician career and a relationship with Justin's gym teacher; Christina's reunion with her recovering alcoholic husband; and Wilhelmina's scheme to conceive an heir to the Meade fortune using Bradford's sperm. Season 3: 2008–2009 ABC renewed the series for a third season on February 11, 2008. In addition, production was moved to New York City from Los Angeles to make the series more realistic and to take advantage of increased tax incentives in New York. The third season premiered on September 25, 2008. This season added 10 new recurring regulars, played by Grant Bowler, Mark Consuelos, Heather Tom, Val Emmich, Ralph Macchio, Sarah Lafleur, Bernadette Peters, Lauren Velez, and Daniel Eric Gold. Lindsay Lohan, Julian De La Celle, Derek Riddell, and Eddie Cibrian returned from the second season for more appearances. "The Show" by Australian singer Lenka was used as the promo theme for the season. The season begins with Betty moving to an apartment in the city, after rejecting both Henry and Gio. Major plotlines include Daniel and Wilhelmina's respective relationships with Molly and Connor—a former couple; Betty and Marc both competing in the YETI program, a series of classes for aspiring editors; Betty's new relationship with Matt Hartley, a wealthy sports editor also taking part in YETI; Christina's surrogate pregnancy for Wilhelmina, and later belief that the baby is in fact her own; Molly developing terminal cancer and Ignacio's heart problems resulting in Betty having to return home, resulting in Marc and Amanda taking on Betty's apartment. The season was the last that featured Rebecca Romijn and Ashley Jensen as regulars, with Romijin's character, Alexis, moving to France to be with her son early in the season and Jensen's character, Christina, returning to Scotland with her family in episode 21. Season 4: 2009–2010 Following dropping ratings in season three, Ugly Betty was moved from its Thursday night slot to the "Friday night death slot", resulting in further ratings decreases and protests from fans. Despite moving the show to a new Wednesday night slot in January, ratings failed to improve, and on January 27, 2010, ABC confirmed that the series would end in April, at the same time reducing the season length from 22 to 20 episodes. Following the events of the season-three finale, Betty is promoted to editor at Mode, but faces increased pressure when her former boyfriend Matt is named as her boss, in addition to hostility from Marc, who was passed over for promotion by Betty. Further storylines include Justin being bullied upon starting high school and subsequent relationship with male classmate Austin; Daniel struggling to adapt following Molly's death; Claire tracking down her long-lost son Tyler and his subsequent alcoholism; Hilda renewing her relationship with Bobby Telercio (Adam Rodriguez) and subsequent engagement and marriage. The series concludes with the Suarez sisters leaving home, with Betty accepting a new job in London and Hilda and Justin moving out to live with Bobby. Daniel gives up his position at Mode, handing the reins to Wilhelmina, not wanting to lose Betty in his life; Marc's efforts are finally vindicated via promotion and Amanda is successful in finding her birth father. In the final scene, Daniel follows Betty to London and bumps into her, informing her that he is looking for his passion, and asks her out to dinner. Following news of the show's cancellation, a number of former cast members returned to reprise their roles in guest appearances, including Ashley Jensen, Christopher Gorham, Freddy Rodríguez, and Grant Bowler. Cast and characters Episodes Cancellation On January 27, 2010, ABC announced that Ugly Betty would cease production after the fourth-season finale, which aired in April 2010. "We've mutually come to the difficult decision to make this Ugly Bettys final season," said executive producer Silvio Horta and ABC Entertainment president Steve McPherson in a joint statement. The show had struggled in the ratings in the US, falling from an average 8.1 million to 5.3 million viewers between the third and fourth seasons. Future On April 16, 2010, it was reported that an Ugly Betty film could be in the works. In an interview, Ortiz stated, "[t]here may be a movie. It's something that we've been talking about and it's something that America Ferrera would really love to do. That woman has so much determination that I can't imagine anything she puts her mind to not getting done." On September 15, 2010, Ferrera stated that she knows of no plans for an Ugly Betty movie and that she thinks "the rumor is well and alive—it's always a possibility I suppose!" On September 29, 2010, Entertainment Weekly writer Michael Ausiello reported that a movie would not happen. On November 9, 2011, Ferrera stated on Perezhilton.com that "[i]t's so wonderful that the fans care so much that this question about the movie just keeps coming up. It's not anything that's actually in the works but is something that's always a possibility, and it's wonderful to know that the fans want it." On April 10, 2013, Urie was asked about his stance on a potential movie. He stated, "Oh my god, absolutely! Everyone would jump right back on that! ... [Working on Ugly Betty] was the best and I'm still in close contact with all of those people." On April 16, 2013, a Facebook Kickstarter campaign was started in the hopes of getting Silvio Horta's attention to create a movie. The campaign's goal was to follow in the footsteps of Veronica Mars, a series where the creators and fans had funded a follow-up movie through the same crowdsourcing website. Spin-off Mode After HoursMode After Hours is a spin-off web series that chronicles the adventures of Marc and Amanda when all (excluding security) staff members have left Mode for the night. The two usually plan on what to do in the future, dressing up as co-workers and mocking them, prepare for a date, going onto online dating sites, competing in certain activities, and inadvertently annoying security. Though the show mainly features Marc and Amanda, a few other characters are seen whose faces are never shown. Perhaps the only other main character of the show is Marc and Amanda's only nemesis, who is, by far, the only mentioned Meade Publications security officer, named Sander, who is in charge of watching the Mode hallways. Sander would be a judge of some competitions between the two such as dancing, but on a negative note, he collects tapes of Marc and Amanda and is making a collection of the two fooling around. Competition with other "Betty" offshoots The series has been sold to TV networks and broadcasters in over 130 countries, making this version the most successful of the Betty La Fea franchise, but in the Guinness World Records 2010 El Libro De La Década, it stated that Yo Soy Betty La Fea is the most successful soap opera in the world, upstaging Ugly Betty. In the U.S., Univision aired the Mexican counterpart La fea más bella, which ran weeknights at 8 p.m. (E/P), including Thursdays during the same time Ugly Betty airs. The star of the Mexican version, Angélica Vale, was anticipated to make a cameo in the 22nd episode, playing Betty's "counterpart" from the series, Leticia 'Lety' Padilla Solís; Vale instead appeared in the season finale playing Angelica, an orthodontist's assistant who looks exactly like Lety (pre-makeover). Inspired versions A version of Yo soy Betty, la fea made by Bosnian Federalna Televizija, Croatian RTL Televizija and Serbian Fox Televizija began airing in October 2007. The title of the show was Ne daj se, Nina ("Don't give up, Nina"). After a long audition, newcomer Lana Gojak was cast in the role of Nina (Betty). Other cast members were established actors such as Robert Kurbaša, Edvin Livarić, Bojana Ordinačev, Petar Ćiritović, Andrija Milošević, Kristina Krepela and Sloboda Mićalović. The first, and only, season consisted of just over 50 episodes. Although the storyline followed that of Yo soy Betty, la fea, Lana Gojak's appearance as Nina was based more on the heroine of Ugly Betty than on that of Yo soy Betty, la fea. The series had other elements that were directly borrowed from Ugly Betty. The series did well in ratings, but was too expensive to produce, so a second season was never ordered. In 2007, an Arabic version of Ugly Betty was mentioned, which would have been produced and shot in Dubai. This would have been the first Betty, la Fea–inspired series to be directly adapted from the American version, but the project never came to fruition. On May 24, 2010, the first (and so far only) direct adaptation of Ugly Betty, Georgia's გოგონა გარეუბნიდან (Gogona Gareubnidan, which means "suburban girl") premiered, a mere month and a half after Ugly Betty aired its series finale. The first season consisted of 10 episodes and concluded in August 2010. On January 1, 2014, the first Arabic (Egyptian) version was set to air on OSN ya hala under the name هبة رجل الغراب (Heba Regl El Ghorab, which means "Heba the Leg of the Crow"). Colombian criticism In November 2007, Sony Entertainment Television began airing Ugly Betty in South America with Spanish and Portuguese subtitles. However, in Colombia, criticisms about the American version were made, calling it a pale imitation and counterfeit copy of the original version. The series differ greatly; the Colombian version aired as a soap opera with daily cliffhangers, while Ugly Betty airs as a weekly comedy, with occasional cliffhangers. Syndication The TV Guide Network has purchased the rights to air reruns of Ugly Betty on cable television. In addition to its cable run, Ugly Betty is also seen on local stations in the United States as a double-run weekend offering, which began in September 2010. Home media Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment (under the ABC Studios label) has released all four seasons of Ugly Betty on DVD in region 1, 2, 4. The Ugly Betty: The Complete Collection was released on March 28, 2011, in United States, United Kingdom and various parts of the world. The complete series was not released in Region 4. International broadcasts Australia Its debut episode on the Seven Network pulled in 2.03 million viewers, beating Nine's airing of 60 Minutes and Ten's airing of The Biggest Loser in the same time period. Since its debut the series has remained in the top five in the Australian TV ratings. The season one finale aired August 5, 2007, and received the lowest rating of the year – 1.051 million and only in the 13th slot of the night. This was predominantly because it aired in the same time-slot as the season premiere of rival program Australian Idol. After holding off on the 2nd season, it was announced in April 2008 that Seven would begin Ugly Betty's second season in a new 7:30 pm Wednesday time slot, beginning on May 7 The show has lost its large following, only drawing around 900,000 viewers despite strong advertising attempts by Channel Seven. The show was "shelved" after the ninth episode was shown on July 2, and will resume airing the remaining episodes until after the Olympics. It was replaced by "RSPCA Animal Rescue". Ugly Betty returned to Seven on August 28, 2008, at a new and later time slot of 9:30 pm Thursdays. The episode aired, "Bananas For Betty" was viewed by only 597,000 viewers and was removed. Seven later announced that Ugly Betty will return twice a week, every Tuesday and Thursday at 7:30 pm, starting when Summer begins. It was then moved to only once a week at Thursday 7:30 pm. Soon after, the show was pulled from screening (after finishing the second season) due to moderately low ratings. It was later confirmed on October 23, 2009, that Ugly Betty would return to Australian screens on Seven's new secondary digital channel 7Two. It will resume with the premiere of Season 3, "The Manhattan Project", starting Tuesday, November 3, 7:30 pm. Canada Citytv owns the English-language rights to the series, which aired in the same timeslot as the American broadcast until December 2009, when only the stations in Manitoba and British Columbia started airing it Wednesdays at 7 pm (same time as Eastern ABC where it would be 10 pm, aired earlier than US air in Manitoba), for Ontario and Alberta, OMNI simulcasted Betty Wednesdays at 10PM. In March 2010, Citytv aired Ugly Betty across Canada due to the cancellation of The Jay Leno Show, airing Wednesdays at 10 pm on Citytv, simulcasting ABC's broadcast up until final airing. France The first two episodes aired on TF1 on January 7, 2008, at late-night time, averaging about 3.8 million viewers (28.4% share) and 3.3 million viewers (39.4% share). Ugly Betty did well in key demos 15–24 (First episode: 46.8%, second episode: 56.7%) and 18–49 (First episode: 39.7%, second episode: 56.6%). But week after week, the show lost more than 1 million viewers, in part due to the late night schedule. In an effort to attract more viewers, two weekly TV magazines, Arthelius and Series TV Magazine, included Ugly Betty on their covers for their February 12, 2008, issues. South Africa Ugly Betty premiered in South Africa on Pay Channel, M-Net on Tuesday July 17, 2007. It later was re-broadcast on sister channels, GO and M-Net Holiday. The first season fared well with audiences and was a hit for the channel with strong buzz surrounding the show. Due to heavy promotions for the show across all media spectrums by M-Net, the premiere episode of Ugly Betty attracted 80% more viewers than Smallville which was the previous occupant of the time slot. M-Net marketing General Manager, Koo Govender, said the first episode was watched by about 432,000 viewers. United Kingdom The premiere on Channel 4 on January 5, 2007, attracted 4.89 million viewers. Two weeks later, Ugly Betty hit a new high with 5.5 million viewers watching the third episode. The figures and shares were similar each week, around 2–3 million viewers with 10–15% share; however, the finale rated less than the premiere episode, attracting 3.1 million viewers with 15% share. Due to the show's success and the fanbase it achieved in the United Kingdom, Channel 4 decided to move up the second-season premiere to Friday, October 5, 2007, thus allowing viewers to watch episodes one week after their U.S. airing. Merchandising On April 15, 2008, Hyperion Books, a Disney-owned publisher, released a companion book to the series, titled Ugly Betty: The Book, a 175-page softcover about the show in general, which covers the first season and portions of the second, complete with interviews from the cast and crew, tips and quotes from the characters, and mock ads for Fabia Cosmetics and Atlantic Attire. Around the same time, Random House's children's books division published a "magazine"-inspired book tied into the series, complete with photos and mock ads as if they were published by Betty herself, targeted for younger readers. In addition, a 2008 calendar for Ugly Betty was released using stills from the first season, while a series of greeting cards was issued in January 2008. These photos were edited to enhance her facial features. A 2009 calendar was also released. Even the main character has been immortalized into a doll, as Angelic Dreamz, Inc's Madame Alexander collection introduced two different versions of Betty Suarez that were featured on their website in February 2008. In July 2009, Coca-Cola UK unveiled a special limited edition Diet Coke bottle created by Patricia Field called "The Betty" for sale in the United Kingdom as an exclusive for customers at Selfridges. Reception American ratings Television parodies and references The show has been parodied and referenced in other television shows. In the October 7, 2006, episode of Saturday Night Live, cast member Fred Armisen spoofed the character of Betty by playing a look-alike named Fugly Betsy. Not to be outdone, a February 17, 2007, episode of MADtv has Nicole Parker playing Ellen DeGeneres interviewing an actress on her talk show who plays Ugly Betty, with Salma Hayek (played by LisaNova) always pointing out how ugly she is. The Ugly Betty actress (played by Crista Flanagan) claims it is only makeup and costume but is ignored. Crista later reprised her Betty role in the poorly reviewed parody film Meet the Spartans. On April 22, 2007, the 2007 TV Land Awards parodied the series with a spoof aptly titled "Ugly Betty White", with White playing Betty Suarez, Charo playing Hilda, Erik Estrada playing Ignacio, Joan Collins playing Wilhelmina, Peter Scolari playing Alexis, and George Hamilton playing Daniel. Thanks to her performance in that parody, the producers cast White as a guest star in the second season. Even the cast poked fun at their alter egos. On October 30, 2006, three of the series' cast members, appearing in character (Ferrera as Betty, Mabius as Daniel, and Newton as Amanda), gave New England Patriots head coach Bill Belichick a "makeover" to make him look more like quarterback Tom Brady in a spoof that was featured on ESPN's Monday Night Countdown. The program was also referenced in other shows, most notably in "Up All Night", the February 8, 2007, installment of the NBC sitcom 30 Rock, in which Liz Lemon (Tina Fey) says "this would've worked on Ugly Betty" when she fails to crawl out a door without being seen. The scene was patterned after the Ugly Betty episode "Swag" in which Betty crawled through a fashion show. In an episode of the TV sitcom Scrubs, Christopher Turk (played by Donald Faison) has a picture taken of "Ugly Betty" with his daughter, only for it to be torn up by best friend and main character John Dorian. In March 2009, a spoof of Ugly Betty, called Ugly Yeti was made by Take180. Take180, like ABC, is a Disney company and the parody was featured on ABC's website. Ugly Betty has also been referenced on television shows in the United Kingdom. In the series finale of BBC One hotel-based drama series Hotel Babylon, aired in August 2009, Ben Trueman (played by Michael Obiora) asks fellow front desk employee Melanie Hughes (played by Amy Nuttall) "How long have you had those Ugly Betty braces?" while giving Hughes a makeover, to which she replies: "About 18 months". In a 2010 episode of medical drama series Holby City, which also aired on BBC One, Jac Naylor (played by Rosie Marcel) refers to a patient as "the one with the Ugly Betty braces". In 2013, Ortiz returned to television in the Lifetime dramedy Devious Maids, which like Ugly Betty was also based on a telenovela. In the series, Ortiz plays Marisol Duarte, a newly hired maid who is determined to find out who framed her son for the murder of a maid. Ironically, it was revealed in the series' seventh episode "Taking a Message" that Marisol's true identity was that of a professor and her real last name was Suarez. It is not known if this was done intentionally but it does give Ortiz the homage of playing characters with the same last name on two different shows. Promotion abroad The buildup to "Bettymania" by various broadcasters also began to take shape overseas, most notably in the United Kingdom. On December 6, 2006, Channel 4 began to advertise the show. The ad shows seemingly attractive models gathered around a pool, but as the camera angle changes a model comes out of the pool wearing Betty's glasses, then as the models smile, they are all wearing Betty's braces. Another ad parodies Marks and Spencer's successful fashion advertising campaign, as well as Dove and Gap campaigns. A voice over then says, "Fashion has a new face. 'Ugly Betty' Coming Soon To 4." After a week of these teasers, clips from the actual program were included in the trailers. In mid-January, Davina McCall, host of Celebrity Big Brother dressed up as Betty live on Channel 4 before the titles of the second eviction show of the evening. On February 16, 2007, Ashley Jensen (Christina) also dressed up as Betty during an airing of Channel 4's Friday Night Project, where she was the guest host. The children's channel CBeebies also parodied the title sequence, with one variation mixing faces of regular CBeebies characters until finally settling with Tiny from Little Robots. In Australia, during the week leading up to the Sunday premiere of Ugly Betty, February 12 to 17, 2007, Channel Seven devoted a week of Deal or No Deal to the show by having the models dress like Betty, complete with the Guadalajara poncho. Channel Seven also used the series to promote its successful "Beautiful Sundays" schedule. In South Africa, M-Net teamed up with Ogilve Johannesburg to hype up its campaign for the show, which included a picture of Betty on the mock cover of Elle magazine. New Zealand TV2 also hyped-up Ugly Betty by promoting Tuesday nights as "True Beauty Tuesday", and when the show moved to Sunday nights, it promoted them as "Beautiful Sunday". TV2 also launched competitions for a replica of Betty's poncho. Cultural impact Following the show's debut, the main characters, especially the title character, quickly became fixtures in the lexicon of pop media culture, with the show and its characters getting referenced in parodies, news media stories, and art-imitating-life situations. The show's impact on issues and culture also attracted the attention of the United States Congress, where on January 17, 2007, California congresswoman Hilda Solis (D-32nd, El Monte) saluted Ferrera on both her Golden Globe win and for bringing a positive profile to the Latin and Hispanic communities. In addition to that recognition, on May 8, 2007, star America Ferrera was honored by TIME on the magazine's annual list of the 100 most influential people. The event took place at New York's Lincoln Center and the actress was recognized for defying stereotypes with the show. The success of Ugly Betty and how it dealt with body imaging among women in general inspired a series of reports on Entertainment Tonight, in which reporter Vanessa Minnillo went undercover in a fatsuit to see if women were discriminated on the basis of appearance. LGBT awareness groups like GLAAD have also noted the positive impact the show has had particularly in regard to the coming out storyline of Betty's teenaged nephew Justin. Female education activist Malala Yousafzai has cited Ugly Betty as an early and important source on her development as a feminist. She was encouraged by her father to watch the show to improve her English and was struck by the freedom Betty and her friends had "as they walked freely down the streets of New York--with no veils covering their faces and no need for men to company them." Malala revealed in her memoir she dreams of moving to New York City and working at a magazine, much like the show's titular character. Awards and nominations The series won two Golden Globe Awards on January 15, 2007, for "Best Leading Actress in a Comedy Series" (America Ferrera) and Best Comedy Series. Ferrera also won a SAG Award on January 28, 2007, for "Best Actress in a Comedy Series". On June 4, 2007, the series was honored with a Peabody Award "for demonstrating that wit and humanity never go out of style." Ugly Betty won the Outstanding Comedy Series award by the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation in April 2007. Judith Light also won a Prism Award for her portrayal of Claire Meade. On July 19, 2007, the series received 11 nominations at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards in the Comedy category (the most of any comedy series), including Outstanding Comedy Series, Best Actress (Ferrera), Best Supporting Actress (Williams), and Best Guest Starring Actress (Hayek for her role as Sofia; Light for her role as Claire. Both lost to Elaine Stritch). It won three awards — Best Casting in a Comedy Series, Best Direction in a Comedy Series (for the show's pilot episode), and Best Actress in a Comedy Series (Ferrera). For its second season, it received six other Primetime Emmy Award nominations, going home empty handed. Overall, Ugly Betty has been nominated for eighteen Emmy Awards. Although The NAACP Image Awards honors African Americans in the entertainment industry, the series won five of the Image Awards' eight major TV categories, a rarity among television series with a multicultural cast. In addition to winning an Image award for the TV series in 2007 and Ferrera for best actress in 2008, Vanessa Williams won back-to-back honors (in 2007 and 2008) in the Supporting Actress category for her portrayal of Wilhelmina Slater. Owing to the massive success of "Ugly Betty" in the United Kingdom, Ugly Betty was nominated for Most Popular Comedy Programme at the National Television Awards in October 2008, but lost to domestic ITV comedy series Benidorm. The ALMA Awards honors the Hispanic entertainment community. During its first season, Ugly Betty won four of its first seven nominations, and in the second season took home three more, along with a Chevrolet Entertainer of the Year Award for Ferrera for her work on the show. Overall, the series has received 162 nominations. See also List of Ugly Betty episodes Notes References External links Reviews Ugly Betty reviews at Metacritic first-look in USA Today (August 15, 2006) Review in USA Today (September 28, 2006) Comparisons between Ugly Betty and The Devil Wears Prada in USA Today (September 26, 2006) "It's a 'Bettification' project" from USA Today (October 4, 2006) from Pittsburgh Post-Gazette (September 27, 2006) from Seattle Post-Intelligencer (September 28, 2006) "Ugly, The American" from TIME (November 27, 2006) "Be Ugly '07" campaign announced in USA Today (December 20, 2006) "The Ugly Truth Behind the Beauty Premium" (January 9, 2013) 2006 American television series debuts 2010 American television series endings 2000s American comedy-drama television series 2000s American LGBT-related comedy television series 2000s American LGBT-related drama television series 2000s American romantic comedy television series 2000s American workplace comedy television series 2000s American workplace drama television series 2000s romantic drama television series 2010s American comedy-drama television series 2010s American LGBT-related comedy television series 2010s American LGBT-related drama television series 2010s American romantic comedy television series 2010s American workplace comedy television series 2010s American workplace drama television series 2010s romantic drama television series American Broadcasting Company original programming American romantic drama television series American television series based on Colombian television series American television series based on telenovelas Best Musical or Comedy Series Golden Globe winners Comedy telenovelas English-language television shows Fashion-themed television series Gay-related television shows Hispanic and Latino American sitcoms Mass media portrayals of the working class Peabody Award-winning television programs Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series Television series about families Television series about journalism Television series by ABC Studios Television series by Reveille Productions Television shows filmed in Los Angeles Television shows filmed in New York City Television shows set in Manhattan Television shows set in Queens Transgender-related television shows Works about fashion magazine publishing Yo soy Betty, la fea
4875080	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-care	Self-care	Self-care has been defined as the process of establishing behaviors to ensure holistic well-being of oneself, to promote health, and actively manage illness when it occurs. Individuals engage in some form of self-care daily with food choices, exercise, sleep, reading and dental care. Self-care is not only a solo activity as the community—a group that supports the person performing self-care—overall plays a large role in access to, implementation of, and success of self-care activities. Routine self-care is important when someone is not experiencing any symptoms of illness, but self-care becomes essential when illness occurs. General benefits of routine self-care include prevention of illness, improved mental health, and comparatively better quality of life. Self-care practices can greatly vary from individual to individual as it is a very personal act. Self-care is seen as a partial solution to the global rise in health care costs that is placed on governments worldwide. A lack of self-care in terms of personal health, hygiene and living conditions is referred to as self-neglect. The use of caregiver and personal care assistant maybe needed. There is a growing body of knowledge related to these home care workers. There exists a close overlap between the term self-care and self-management introduced by Lorig and Holman. In their spearheading paper, they defined three self-management tasks: medical management, role management, and emotional management; and six self-management skills: problem solving, decision making, resource utilization, the formation of a patient–provider partnership, action planning, and self-tailoring. History While the concept of self care has received increased attention in recent years, it has ancient origins. Socrates has been credited with founding the self-care movement in ancient Greece, and care are of oneself and loved ones has been shown to exist since human beings appeared on earth. Self-care has also been connected to the Black feminist movement through civil rights activist and poet Audre Lorde. Self-care was used to preserve black feminist's identities, energize their activism, and preserve their minds during the civil rights movement. Self-care remains a primary form of personal and community healthcare worldwide; self-care practices vary greatly around the world. Self-Care and Illness Chronic illness (a health condition that is persistent and long lasting, often impacts one's whole life, e.g., heart failure, diabetes, high blood pressure) requires behaviors that control the illness, decrease symptoms, and improve survival such as medication adherence and symptom monitoring. An acute illness like an infection (e.g., COVID) requires the same types of self-care behaviors required of people with a chronic illness, but the medication adherence and symptom monitoring behaviors associated with an acute illness are typically short lived. Routine health maintenance self-care behaviors that individuals engage in (e.g., adequate sleep) are still required of those dealing with acute or chronic illness. For the majority of people with a chronic illness, time spent having that illness managed by a health professional is vastly outweighed by time spent in self-care. It has been estimated that most people with a chronic illness spend only about 0.001% or 10 hours per year of their time with a healthcare provider. In people with chronic illness, self-care is associated with fewer symptoms, fewer hospitalizations, better quality of life, and longer survival compared to individuals in whom self-care is poor. Self-care can be physically and mentally difficult for those with chronic illness, as their illness is persistent and treated in a vastly different manner from an acute illness. Factors influencing self-care There are numerous factors that affect self-care. These factors can be grouped as personal factors (e.g., person, problem, and environment), external factors, and processes. Personal factors: Lack of motivation: when one doesn’t have enough energy. This can be caused by stress, anxiety, or other mental health illnesses. Cultural beliefs: this includes traditional gender roles, family relationships, collectivism. This can also affect self care behaviors. Self-efficacy or confidence: one’s confidence can positively or negatively affect their mental state. Functional and cognitive abilities: by not being perfect humans, one tends to focus on their weakness. Support from others: such as from family or friends can be crucial to have a healthy and positive mindset to do self-care. Access to care: depending on the self-care some require specific resources or objects in order to carry out. External factors: Living situation: can greatly affect an individual’s self-care. Surrounding environment: must be safe and promote self-care for all residents. Proximity of health care facilities: are important to have at a close radius from one’s household. As well as office/clinic opening hours and affordability must be taken into consideration. Processes: Experiences Knowledge Skill Values Self-care practices are shaped by what are seen as the proper lifestyle choices of local communities. Social determinants of health play an important role in self-care practices. Internal personal factors such as motivation, emotions, and cognitive abilities also influence self-care maintenance behaviors. Motivation is often the driving force behind performing self-care maintenance behaviors. Goal setting is a practice associated with motivated self care. A person with depression is more likely to have a poor dietary intake low in fruits and vegetables, reduced physical activity, and poor medication adherence. An individual with impaired cognitive or functional abilities (e.g., memory impairment) also has a diminished capacity to perform self-care maintenance behaviors such as medication adherence which relies on memory to maintain a schedule. Self-care is influenced by an individual's attitude and belief in his or her self-efficacy or confidence in performing tasks and overcoming barriers. Cultural beliefs and values may also influence self-care. Cultures that promote a hard-working lifestyle may view self-care in contradictory ways Personal values have been shown to have an effect on self-care in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Social support systems can influence how an individual performs self-care maintenance. Social support systems include family, friends, and other community or religious support groups. These support systems provide opportunities for self-care discussions and decisions. Shared care can reduce stress on individuals with chronic illness. There are numerous self-care requisites applicable to all individuals of all ages for the maintenance of health and wellbeing. The balance between solitude or rest, and activities such as social interactions is a key tenet of self-care practices. The prevention and avoidance of human hazards and participation in social groups are also requisites. The autonomous performance of self-care behaviors is thought to aid elderly patients. Perceived autonomy, self-efficacy and adequate illness representation are additional elements of self-care, which are said to aid people with chronic conditions. Measurement of self-care behaviors A variety of self-report instruments have been developed to allow clinicians and researchers to measure the level of self-care in different situations for both patients and their caregivers: These instruments are freely available in numerous languages. Many of these instruments have a caregiver version available to encourage dyadic research. Self-Care Heart Failure Index Self-Care of Hypertension Inventory Self-Care of Diabetes Inventory Self-Care of Coronary Heart Disease Inventory Self-Care of Chronic Illness Inventory Self-care of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Middle-range theory of self-care of chronic illness According to the middle-range theory of chronic illness, these behaviors are captured in the concepts of self-care maintenance, self-care monitoring, and self-care management. Self-care maintenance refers to those behaviors used to maintain physical and emotional stability. Self-care monitoring is the process of observing oneself for changes in signs and symptoms. Self-care management is the response to signs and symptoms when they occur. The recognition and evaluation of symptoms is a key aspect of self-care. Below these concepts are discussed both as general concepts and as specific self-care behaviors are (e.g., exercise). Self-care maintenance Self-care maintenance refers to those behaviors performed to improve well-being, preserve health, or to maintain physical and emotional stability. Self-care maintenance behaviours include illness prevention and maintaining proper hygiene. Specific illness prevention measures include tobacco avoidance, regular exercise, and a healthy diet. Taking medication as prescribed by a healthcare provider and receiving vaccinations are also important specific self-care behaviors. Vaccinations provide immunity for the body to actively prevent an infectious disease. Tobacco use is the largest preventable cause of death and disease in the US. Overall health and quality of life have been found to improve, and the risk of disease and premature death are reduced due to the decrease in tobacco intake. The benefits of regular physical activity include weight control; reduced risk of chronic disease; strengthened bones and muscles; improved mental health; improved ability to participate in daily activities; and decreased mortality. The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends two hours and thirty minutes of moderate activity each week, including brisk walking, swimming, or bike riding. Another aspect of self-care maintenance is a healthy diet consisting of a wide variety of fresh fruits and vegetables, lean meats, and other proteins. Processed foods including fats, sugars, and sodium are to be avoided, under the practice of self-care. File:USDA Food Pyramid.gif\|Food pyramid Hygiene is another important part of self-care maintenance. Hygienic behaviors include adequate sleep, regular oral care, and hand washing. Getting seven to eight hours of sleep each night can protect physical and mental health. Sleep deficiency increases the risk of heart disease, kidney disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, excess weight, and risk-taking behaviour. Tooth brushing and personal hygiene can prevent oral infections. Health-related self-care topics include; General fitness training and physical exercise Healthy diet, meals, diet foods and fasting Smoking cessation and avoiding excessive alcohol use Personal hygiene Life extension Pain management Stress management Self-help and personal development Self-care portals and the use of health apps Objective Measures of Specific Self-Care Maintenance Behaviors: Interventions to improve maintenance behaviors Self-care is considered to be a continuous learning process. Knowledge is essential but not sufficient to improve self-care. Multifaceted interventions that tailor education to the individual are more effective than patient education alone. "Teach-back" is used to gauge how much information is retained after patient teaching. Teach-back occurs when patients are asked to repeat information that was given to them. The educator checks for gaps in the patient's understanding, reinforces messages, and creates a collaborative conversation with the patient. It is important for individuals with a chronic illness to comprehend and recall information received about their condition. Teach-back education can both educate patients and assess learning. For example, a provider can initiate teach-back is by asking, "I want to make sure that I explained everything clearly. If you were talking to your neighbor, what would you tell her/him we talked about today". This phrase protects the patient's self-esteem while placing responsibility for understanding on both the provider and patient. One study performed showed that patients with heart failure who received teach-back education had a 12% lower readmission rate compared to patients who did not receive teach-back. Although the teach-back method is effective in the short-term, there is little evidence to support its long-term effect. Long-term knowledge retention is crucial for self-care, so further research is needed on this approach. Habits are automatic responses to commonly encountered situations such as handwashing after restroom use. A habit is formed when environmental cues result in a behavior with minimal conscious deliberation. Behavioral economics is a subset of the study of economics that examines how cognitive, social, and emotional factors play in role in an individual's economic decisions. Behavioral economics is now influencing the design of healthcare interventions aimed at improving self-care maintenance. Behavioral economics takes into account the complexity and irrationality of human behavior. Motivational interviewing is a way to engage critical thinking in relation to self-care needs. Motivational interviewing uses an interviewing style that focuses on the individual's goals in any context. Motivational interviewing is based on three psychological theories: cognitive dissonance, self-perception, and the transtheoretical model of change. Motivational interviewing is intended to enhance intrinsic motivation for change. Health coaching is a method of promoting motivation to initiate and maintain behavioral change. The health coach facilitates behavioral change by emphasizing personal goals, life experiences, and values. Monitoring Self-care monitoring is the process of surveillance that involves measurement and perception of bodily changes, or "body listening". It can be helpful to understand the concept of bodymind when monitoring self-care. Effective self-care monitoring also requires the ability to label and interpret changes in the body as normal or abnormal. Recognizing bodily signs and symptoms, understanding disease progression, and their respective treatments allow competency in knowing when to seek further medical help. Self-care monitoring consists of both the perception and measurement of symptoms. Symptom perception is the process of monitoring one's body for signs of changing health. This includes body awareness or body listening, and the recognition of symptoms relevant to health. Changes in health status or body function can be monitored with various tools and technologies. The range and complexity of medical devices used in both hospital and home care settings are increasing. Certain devices are specific to a common need of a disease process such as glucose monitors for tracking blood sugar levels in diabetic patients. Other devices can provide a more general set of information, such as a weight scale, blood pressure cuff, pulse oximeter, etc. Less technological tools include organizers, charts, and diagrams to trend or keep track of progress such as the number of calories, mood, vital sign measurements, etc. Barriers to monitoring The ability to engage in self-care monitoring impacts disease progression. Barriers to monitoring can go unrecognized and interfere with effective self-care. Barriers include knowledge deficits, undesirable self-care regimens, different instructions from multiple providers, and limitations to access related to income or disability. Psychosocial factors such as motivation, anxiety, depression, confidence can also serve as barriers. High costs may prevent some individuals from acquiring monitoring equipment to keep track of symptoms. Lack of knowledge on the implications of physiological symptoms such as high blood glucose levels may reduce an individual's motivation to practice self-care monitoring. Fear of outcomes/fear of using equipment such as needles may deter patients from practicing self-care monitoring due to the resulting anxiety, or avoidant behaviors. Lack of family support may affect consistency in monitoring self-care due to the lack of reminders or encouragement. The presence of co-morbid conditions makes performing self-care monitoring particularly difficult. For example, the shortness of breath from COPD can prevent a diabetic patient from physical exercise. Symptoms of chronic illnesses should be considered when performing self-care maintenance behaviors. Interventions to improve monitoring behaviors Because self-care monitoring is conducted primarily by patients, with input from caregivers, it is necessary to work with patients closely on this topic. Providers should assess the current self-care monitoring regimen and build off this to create an individualized plan of care. Knowledge and education specifically designed for the patient's level of understanding has been said to be central to self-care monitoring. When patients understand the symptoms that correspond with their disease, they can learn to recognize these symptoms early on. Then they can self-manage their disease and prevent complications. Additional research to improve self-care monitoring is underway in the following fields: Mindfulness: Mindfulness and meditation, when incorporated into a one-day education program for diabetic patients, have been shown to improve diabetic control in a 3-month follow-up in comparison to those who received the education without a focus on mindfulness. Decision-making: How a patient's decision making capacity can be encouraged/improved with the support of their provider, leading to better self-care monitoring and outcomes. Self-efficacy: Self-efficacy has been shown to be more closely linked to a patient's ability to perform self-care than health literacy or knowledge. Wearable technology: How self-care monitoring is evolving with technology like wearable activity monitors. Management Self-care management is defined as the response to signs and symptoms when they occur. Self-care management involves the evaluation of physical and emotional changes and deciding if these changes need to be addressed. Changes may occur because of illness, treatment, or the environment. Once treatment is complete, it should be evaluated to judge whether it would be useful to repeat in the future. Treatments are based on the signs and symptoms experienced. Treatments are usually specific to the illness. Self-care management includes recognizing symptoms, treating the symptoms, and evaluating the treatment. Self-care management behaviors are symptom- and disease-specific. For example, a patient with asthma may recognize the symptom of shortness of breath. This patient can manage the symptom by using an inhaler and seeing if their breathing improves. A patient with heart failure manages their condition by recognizing symptoms such as swelling and shortness of breath. Self-care management behaviors for heart failure may include taking a water pill, limiting fluid and salt intake, and seeking help from a healthcare provider. Regular self-care monitoring is needed to identify symptoms early and judge the effectiveness of treatments. Some examples include: Inject insulin in response to high blood sugar and then re-check to evaluate if blood glucose lowered Use social support and healthy leisure activities to fight feelings of social isolation. This has been shown to be effective for patients with chronic lung disease Barriers to management Access to care Access to care is a major barrier affecting self-care management. Treatment of symptoms might require consultation with a healthcare provider. Access to the health-care system is largely influenced by providers. Many people with a chronic illness do not have access to providers within the health-care system for several reasons. Three major barriers to care include: insurance coverage, poor access to services, and being unable to afford costs. Without access to trained health care providers, outcomes are typically worse. Financial constraints Financial barriers impact self-care management. The majority of insurance coverage is provided by employers. Loss of employment is frequently accompanied by loss of health insurance and inability to afford health care. In patients with diabetes and chronic heart disease, financial barriers are associated with poor access to care, poor quality of care, and vascular disease. As a result, these patients have reduced rates of medical assessments, measurements of Hemoglobin A1C (a marker that assesses blood glucose levels over the last 3 months), cholesterol measurements, eye and foot examinations, diabetes education, and aspirin use. Research has found that people in higher social classes are better at self-care management of chronic conditions. In addition, people with lower levels of education often lack resources to effectively engage in self-management behaviors. Age Elderly patients are more likely to rate their symptoms differently and delay seeking care longer when they have symptoms. An elderly person with heart failure will experience the symptom of shortness of breath differently than someone with heart failure who is younger. Providers should be aware of the potential delay in provider-seeking behavior in elderly patients which could worsen their overall condition. Prior experience Prior experience contributes to the development of skills in self-care management. Experience helps the patient develop cues and patterns that they can remember and follow, leading to reasonable goals and actions in repeat situations. A patient who has skills in self-management knows what to do during repeated symptomatic events. This could lead to them recognizing their symptoms earlier, and seeking a provider sooner. Health care literacy Health care literacy is another factor affecting self-care management. Health care literacy is the amount of basic health information people can understand. Health care literacy is the major variable contributing to differences in patient ratings of self-management support. Successful self-care involves understanding the meaning of changes in one's body. Individuals who can identify changes in their bodies are then able to come up with options and decide on a course of action. Health education at the patient's literacy level can increase the patient's ability to problem solve, set goals, and acquire skills in applying practical information. A patient's literacy can also affect their rating of healthcare quality. A poor healthcare experience may cause a patient to avoid returning to that same provider. This creates a delay in acute symptom management. Providers must consider health literacy when designing treatment plans that require self-management skills. Co-morbid conditions A patient with multiple chronic illnesses (multimorbidity) may experience compounding effects of their illnesses. This can include worsening of one condition by the symptoms or treatment of another. People tend to prioritize one of their conditions. This limits the self-care management of their other illnesses. One condition may have more noticeable symptoms than others. Or the patient may be more emotionally connected to one illness, for example, the one they have had for a long time. If providers are unaware of the effect of having multiple illnesses, the patient's overall health may fail to improve or worsen as a result of therapeutic efforts. Interventions to improve management There are many ways for patients and healthcare providers to work together to improve patients and caregivers' self-care management. Stoplight and skill teaching allow patients and providers to work together to develop decision-making strategies. Stoplight Stoplight is an action plan for the daily treatment of a patient's chronic illness created by the healthcare team and the patient. It makes decision making easier by categorizing signs and symptoms and determining the appropriate actions for each set. It separates signs and symptoms into three zones: Green is the safe zone, meaning the patient's signs and symptoms are what is typically expected. The patient should continue with their daily self-care tasks, such as taking daily medications and eating a healthy diet. Yellow is the caution zone, meaning the patient's signs and symptoms should be monitored as they are abnormal, but they are not yet dangerous. Some actions may need to be taken in this zone to go back to the green zone, for instance taking additional medication. The patient may need to contact their healthcare team for advice. Red is the danger zone, meaning the patient's signs and symptoms show that something is dangerously wrong. If in this category the patient needs to take actions to return to the green category, such as taking an emergency medication, as well as contact their healthcare team immediately. They may also need to contact emergency medical assistance. The stoplight plan helps patients to make decisions about what actions to take for different signs and symptoms and when to contact their healthcare team with a problem. The patient and their provider will customize certain signs and symptoms that fit in each stoplight category. Skills teaching Skills teaching is a learning opportunity between a healthcare provider and a patient where a patient learns a skill in self-care unique to his or her chronic illness. Some of these skills may be applied to the daily management of the symptoms of a chronic illness. Other skills may be applied when there is an exacerbation of a symptom. A patient newly diagnosed with persistent asthma might learn about taking oral medicine for daily management, control of chronic symptoms, and prevention of an asthma attack. However, there may come a time when the patient might be exposed to an environmental trigger or stress that causes an asthma attack. When unexpected symptoms such as wheezing occur, the skill of taking daily medicines and the medicine that is taken may change. Rather than taking oral medicine daily, an inhaler is needed for quick rescue and relief of symptoms. Knowing to choose the right medication and knowing how to take the medicine with an inhaler is a skill that is learned for the self-care management of asthma. In skills teaching, the patient and provider need to discuss skills and address any lingering questions. The patient needs to know when and how a skill is to be implemented, and how the skill may need to be changed when the symptom is different from normal. See the summary of tactical and situational skills above. Learning self-care management skills for the first time in the care of a chronic illness is not easy, but with patience, practice, persistence, and experience, personal mastery of self-care skills can be achieved. Support can include: Self-care information on health and human body systems, lifestyle and healthy eating. Support to capture, manage, interpret, and report observations of daily living (ODLs), the tracking of trends, and the use of the resulting information as clues for self-care action and decision making. Information prescriptions providing personalised information and instructions to enable an individual to self-care and take control of their health Self-care and self-monitoring devices and assistive technology. Medication therapy management Self-care skills and life skills training programmes and courses for people. Advice from licensed counselors, clinical social workers, psychotherapists, pharmacists, physiotherapists and complementary therapists. Self-care support networks which can be face to face or virtual, and made up of peers or people who want to provide support to others or receive support and information from others (including a self-care primer for provider/consumer convergence). Self-care in philosophy Black feminist philosophy The notion of self-care as a revolutionary act in the context of social trauma was developed as a social justice practice in Black feminist thought in the US. Notably, civil rights activist and poet Audre Lorde wrote that in the context of multiple oppressions as a black woman, "caring for myself is not self-indulgence, it is self-preservation, and that is an act of political warfare." Lorde’s philosophy states that as an oppressed community member, the preservation of her identity through acts that energize and sustain her is a form of activism and resistance. This self-care focuses on any acts which are healing and beneficial to one’s survival and thereby enable resistance. This initial interpretation of self-care differs from the popularized version seen today. With the rise in social media and capitalist marketing, a more whitewashed and commercialized interpretation has shifted what is normally considered self-care. Differing from Lorde’s definition, new self-care interpretations center on the indulgence of self in accordance with white beauty standards and trends. Examples of this can be the purchasing of feminine beauty goods or sharing of activities or dietary fads. In addition to this difference, modern day self-care as advertised on social media ignores the communal aspect of care which Lorde thought to be essential. With the rise of the term in the medical usages, for instance, to combat anxiety, as well as the commercialization of products with linkages with self-care, the association of the term with black feminism has fallen away in clinical and popular usage. However, in feminist and queer theory, the link to Lorde and other scholars is retained. Western philosophy In one interpretation, French philosopher Michel Foucault understood the art of living (French art de vivre, Latin ars vivendi) and the care of self (French le souci de soi) to be central to philosophy. The third volume of his three-volume study The History of Sexuality, published in 1976, is dedicated to this notion. For Foucault, the notion of care for the self (epimeleia heautou,) following a traditionally Western (Ancient Greek and Roman) interpretation of self-care comprises an attitude towards the self, others, and the world, as well as a certain form of attention. For Foucault, the pursuit of the care for one's own well-being also comprises self-knowledge (gnōthi seauton). Later on, the self-care deficit nursing theory was developed by Dorothea Orem between 1959 and 2001. This popular Western theory centers on the medical facet of self-care, and explores the use professional care and an orientation towards resources. Under Orem's model self-care has limits when its possibilities have been exhausted therefore making professional care legitimate. These deficits in self-care are seen as shaping the best role a nurse may provide. There are two phases in Orem's self-care: the investigative and decision-making phase, and the production phase. Under this theory, Orem begins to assess the importance of others and support in a more communal form of self-care, while still centering on the physical and medical aspects of care as opposed to the more spiritual or radical political resistance theories. This idea of communal care was pioneered by the Black feminist community in an effort to preserve themselves and resist oppression. See also Executive functioning Integrative medicine Audre Lorde References External links Self-care in England COMPAR-EU, EU funded project (Horizon2020) on self-management Global Self-Care Federation Association of the European Self-Care Industry Self
4875198	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sector%20%28instrument%29	Sector (instrument)	The sector, also known as a proportional compass or military compass, was a major calculating instrument in use from the end of the sixteenth century until the nineteenth century. It is an instrument consisting of two rulers of equal length joined by a hinge. A number of scales are inscribed upon the instrument which facilitate various mathematical calculations. It was used for solving problems in proportion, multiplication and division, geometry, and trigonometry, and for computing various mathematical functions, such as square roots and cube roots. Its several scales permitted easy and direct solutions of problems in gunnery, surveying and navigation. The sector derives its name from the fourth proposition of the sixth book of Euclid, where it is demonstrated that similar triangles have their like sides proportional. Some sectors also incorporated a quadrant, and sometimes a clamp at the end of one leg which allowed the device to be used as a gunner's quadrant. History The sector was invented, essentially simultaneously and independently, by a number of different people prior to the start of the 17th century. Fabrizio Mordente (1532 – ca 1608) was an Italian mathematician who is best known for his invention of the "proportional eight-pointed compass" which has two arms with cursors that allow the solution of problems in measuring the circumference, area and angles of a circle. In 1567 he published a single sheet treatise in Venice showing illustrations of his device. In 1585 Giordano Bruno used Mordente's compass to refute Aristotle's hypothesis on the incommensurability of infinitesimals, thus confirming the existence of the "minimum" which laid the basis of his own atomic theory. Guidobaldo del Monte developed a "polymetric compass" c. 1670, including a scale for constructing regular polygons. The Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei added further scales in the 1590s, and published a book on the subject in 1606. Galileo's sector was first designed for military applications, but evolved into a general purpose calculating tool. The two earliest known sectors in England were made by Robert Beckit and Charles Whitwell, respectively, both dated 1597. These have a strong resemblance to the description of the device given by English mathematician Thomas Hood's 1598 book. The sector Hood described was intended for use as a surveying instrument and included sights and a mounting socket for attaching the instrument to a pole or post, as well as an arc scale and an additional sliding leg. In the 1600s, the British mathematician Edmund Gunter dispensed with accessories but added additional scales, including a meridian line with divisions proportional to the spacing of latitudes along a meridian on the Mercator projection, privately distributing a Latin manuscript explaining its construction and use. Gunter published this in English as De Sectore et Radio in 1623. Galileo's sector Galileo first developed his sector in the early 1590s as a tool for artillerymen. By 1597 it had evolved into an instrument that had much broader utility. It could be used, for example, to calculate the area of any plane figure constructed from a combination of straight lines and semi-circles. Galileo was determined to improve his sector so that it could be used to calculate the area of any shape discussed in Euclid's Elements. To do this, he needed to add the capability to calculate the area of circular segments. It took him more than a year to solve this problem. The instrument we know today as Galileo's sector is the version with this added capability that he began to produce in 1599 with the help of the instrument maker Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni. Galileo provided Mazzoleni and his family with room and board, and paid him two-thirds of the 35 lire selling price; Galileo would charge 120 lire for a course teaching the use of the instrument, about half the annual wage of a skilled craftsmen. Most of his customers were wealthy noblemen, including Archduke Ferdinand, to whom Galileo sold a sector made of silver. More than a hundred were made in all, but only three are known to exist today: one in the Putnam Gallery at Harvard University, one in the Museum of Decorative Art in Milan's Castello Sforzesco, and one in the Galileo Museum in Florence. Galileo described how to perform 32 different calculations with the sector in his 1606 manual. In the introduction, Galileo wrote that his intention in producing the sector was to enable people who had not studied mathematics to perform complex calculations without having to know the mathematical details involved. The sector was used in combination with a divider, also called a compass. Each arm of the sector was marked with four lines on the front, and three on the back, and the pivot had a dimple that would accept the point of a divider. The lines and scales on each arm where identical, and arranged in the same order as you moved from the inner edge to the outer edge, thus forming seven pairs of lines. All the calculations could be performed with some combination of five very simple steps: measuring some length, separation or object width with the divider; opening the arms of the sector and setting the crosswise distance between two corresponding points on a pair of lines to the divider separation; measuring the crosswise distance between two corresponding points on a pair of lines once the sector had been set to some separation; reading a value from one of the scales at a point where the crosswise distances matches a divider separation; and reading a value off a scale where the distance from the pivot matches a divider. Galileo did not describe how the scales where constructed, he considered that a trade secret, but the details can be inferred. Scale markings were placed with an accuracy of about 1%. The arithmetic lines The innermost scales of the instrument are called the arithmetic lines from their division in arithmetic progression, that is, a linear scale. The sector in the Galileo Museum is marked from 16 to 260. If we call the length from the pivot then given two marks with values and the ratios of their lengths are in proportion to the ratios of the numbers. In modern notation: Galileo describes how to use these scales to divide a line into a number of equal parts, how to measure any fraction of a line, how to produce a scaled version of a figure or map, how to solve Euclid's Golden Rule (also called the Rule of Three), how to convert a value in one currency into the value in another currency, and how to calculate the compounded value of an investment. As an example, the procedure for calculating the compounded value of an investment is as follows. If the initial investment is P0, set the divider to the distance from the pivot to the point marked at P0 on the arithmetic lines. Open the instrument and set the crosswise distance at the point 100–100 on the arithmetic lines to the distance just measured to P0. If the interest rate for the period is say 6%, then set the divider to the crosswise distance at 106-106. Place the divider at the pivot, and see where the other end falls on the arithmetic lines. This is the value of the investment at the end of the first period. Now set the crosswise distance at 100-100 again to the current divider separation and repeat the procedure for as many periods as needed. The geometric lines The next set of lines are called the geometric lines, which have a scale numbered from 1 to 50, with lengths proportional to the square root, called geometric because they are used for finding the geometric mean and working with areas of plane figures. If we call the length from the pivot then: Galileo describes how to use these lines to scale a figure such that the new figure has a given area ratio to the original, how to measure the area ratio of two similar figures, how to combine a set of similar figures into another similar figure such that the resulting figure has the combined area of the set, how to construct a similar figure that has area equal to the difference in area of two other similar figures, how to find the square root of a number, how to arrange N soldiers into a grid where the ratio of rows to columns is some specified value, and how to find the geometric mean of two numbers. As an example, the procedure for producing a similar figure that has the combined area of a set of similar figures, is as follows: Choose a side in the largest figure and measure its length with a divider. Open the sector and set the crosswise distance at some intermediate value on the geometric lines to the divider separation, any number will do, say 20. Then measure the length of the corresponding side in each of the other figures, and read the Geometric Line scale value where the crosswise distance matches these lengths. Add together all the scale readings, including the 20 we originally set. At the combined value on the geometric lines, measure the crosswise distance. This will be the length of the side of the figure that has the combined area of the set. You can then use the arithmetic scale to scale all the other side lengths in the largest figure to match. This procedure will work for any closed figure made from straight lines. The procedure for calculating a square root varies depending on the size of the radicand. For a "medium" number ("in the region of 5,000"), start by measuring the distance from the pivot to the point marked 40 on the arithmetic lines, and setting the crosswise distance of the sector at 16–16 on the geometric lines to this distance. Next take your number and divide by 100, rounding to the nearest integer. So for example 8679 becomes 87. If this number is greater than 50 (the largest value on the geometric lines scale) then it must be reduced, in this example perhaps divided by 3 to make 29. Next measure the crosswise distance on the geometric lines at 29, this distance on the arithmetic lines represents Because our number was reduced to fit on the sector, we must scale the length up by We can choose any convenient value, e.g. 10, setting the sector crosswise distance at 10 to the divider separation, and then measure the crosswise distance at 30 on the geometric lines, then place the divider against the arithmetic lines to measure which is close enough to The procedure for calculating the square root of a “small” number, a number “around 100”, is simpler: we don't bother dividing by 100 at the beginning but otherwise perform the same procedure. At the end, divide the resulting square root estimate by 10. For "large" numbers ("around 50,000"), set the sector crosswise at 10–10 on the geometric lines to the distance from the pivot to the point at 100 on the arithmetic lines. Divide the number by 1000 and round to the nearest integer. Then follow a similar procedure as before. Galileo provides no further guidance, or refinement. Knowing which procedure to use for a given number requires some thought, and an appreciation for the propagation of uncertainty. The stereometric lines The stereometric lines are so called because they relate to stereometry, the geometry of three-dimensional objects. The scale is marked to 148, and the distance from the pivot is proportional to the cube root. If we call the length then These lines operate in an analogous way to the geometric lines, except that they deal with volumes instead of areas. Galileo describes how to use these lines to find the corresponding side length in a similar solid where the solid has a given volume ratio to the original, how to determine the volume ratio of two similar solids given the lengths of a pair of corresponding sides, how to find the side lengths of a similar solid that has the combined volume of a set of other similar solids, how to find the cube root of a number, how to find the two values intermediate between two numbers and such that , and for a given scaling factor , and how to find the side of a cube that has the same volume as a rectangular cuboid (square-cornered box). To cube a rectangular cuboid of sides , and amounts to computing Galileo's method is to first use the geometric lines to find the geometric mean of two of the sides, He then measures the distance along the arithmetic lines to the point marked using a divider, and then sets the sector crosswise to this distance at the point marked on the stereometric lines, calibrating the sector so that the distance from the pivot to the point on the stereometric lines represents the side of a cube with the volume of a cuboid with sides and He then measures the distance from the pivot to the point marked on the arithmetic lines, and sees at what value on the stereometric lines this distance fits crosswise, thus multiplying the previous result by resulting in as desired. The procedure for calculating cube roots is like that used for square roots, except that it only works for values of 1,000 or more. For “medium” numbers we set the sector crosswise at 64–64 on the stereometric lines to the distance from the pivot to the point marked 40 on the arithmetic lines. We then drop the last three digits from our number, and if the number we dropped was more than 500, we add one to the remainder. We measure the crosswise distance on the stereometric lines at the remainder value, and place this against the arithmetic lines to find the cube root. The largest number that can be handled without rescaling here is 148,000. For “large” numbers we set the sector crosswise at 100–100 on the stereometric lines to the distance from the pivot to the point 100 on the arithmetic lines, and instead of dropping three digits, we drop four. This can handle numbers from 10,000 up to 1,480,000 without rescaling. For practical use, you should use the medium number procedure for all values up to 148,000 that are not within about 2% of a multiple of 10,000. The metallic lines The metallic lines, the outermost pair on the front face, are marked with the symbols "ORO" (for , gold), PIO (for , lead), "AR" (for , silver), "RA" (for , copper), "FE" (for , iron), "ST" (for , tin), "MA" (for , marble), and "PIE" (for , stone). These symbols are arranged by decreasing specific weights or densities, with distance proportional to the inverse cube root. Given two materials of density and if we call the length from the pivot The ratio of lengths on this scale is proportional to the ratio of diameters of two balls of the same weight but different materials. These lines were of interest to artillerymen to solve the problem of “making the caliber”, that is how to figure out the correct powder charge to use for a cannonball of some size and material, when the correct charge is known for a cannonball of a different size and material. To do that, you would measure the diameter of the cannonball with the known charge and set the sector crosswise at this cannonball's material mark on the metallic lines to that diameter. The crosswise distance at the second cannonball's material type gives you the diameter of a cannonball in this material that is the same weight as the first ball. We need to scale this length down stereometrically to the given diameter of the second ball to get the correct charge, so we set the crosswise distance on the stereometric lines at 100–100 to the crosswise distance we just measured from the metallic lines, and then see where the crosswise distance on the stereometric lines matches the actual diameter of the second ball. The charge required is then in the ratio of this scale reading to 100 compared to the ball with known charge. You could then use the arithmetic lines to scale the charge weight in this ratio. The polygraphic lines The polygraphic lines, innermost scale on the back of the instrument, is labelled from 3 to 15, and the distance from the pivot is inversely proportional to the side length of a regular polygon of sides inscribed in a given circle, or directly proportional to the circumradius of a regular polygon of sides of a given length. If is the length on the polygraphic scale and represents the trigonometric chord length of a circular arc measured in degrees, then Using functional notation in terms of the modern sine function, where is the circumradius for a hexagon, These lines can be used to aid in the construction of any regular polygon from the 3-sided equilateral triangle to the 15-sided pentadecagon. Galileo describes how to use these lines to find the radius of an enclosing circle for a polygon of n sides of a given length or in the other direction how to find the length of a chord that divides the circumference of a circle into parts. The procedure for finding the radius of the enclosing circle is as follows: Open the sector and set the crosswise distance at the point 6–6 on the polygraphic lines to the desired side length. The distance measured crosswise at on the polygraphic lines is the radius of the enclosing circle. The tetragonic lines The tetragonic lines are marked from 13 down to 3 as you move away from the pivot, and the distance from the pivot can be inferred to be , where is the distance from the pivot to the point marked 3. There is a circle on the scale that lies nearly midway between 6 and 7. The name comes from tetragon (quadrilateral), as the main purpose of these lines is the quadrature of regular polygons, that is, finding the side of a square whose area is the same as the given regular polygon. They can also be used to square the circle. The area of a regular polygon with sides is , where is the side length of the polygon. The radius of the circle with equal area is . The value of at which the radius of the circle is the same as the side length of the polygon, is . There is, of course, no such polygon, but this gives us a reference point on the Tetragonic Lines, the indicated circle, where it is easy to read off crosswise the radius of the circle that is equal in area to the polygon with sides if we set the sector at on the Tetragonic Lines crosswise to the polygon side length. Squaring the circle is then just using . To square the polygon, all we do is set the sector crosswise at to the side length, and measure crosswise at . It is just as easy to find the required side lengths for any two polygons of equal area with different number of sides. The added lines The outermost set of lines on the back have a double scale, an outer and an inner scale. The outer scale is linear and runs from 18 down to 0 as you move away from the pivot, and the zero point is marked with a ⌓, the symbol for a circular segment. This zero point is about 70% of the way out along the arm. The inner scale is also described to run from 18 down to 0, but the sector in the Galileo Museum is only marked from 17. The zero point on the inner scale lies further out on the arm, at a distance of where is the distance from the pivot to the zero on the outer scale, and the zero is marked with a small square. The outer scale zero lies close to the point marked 6 on the inner scale. The inner scale at first glance also appears linear, but its point spacings are actually determined by a fairly complex formula which we have to infer as Galileo does not describe how this scale was constructed. The name of these lines derives from the fact that they were added by Galileo to an earlier version of his sector. These lines are used for squaring circular segments, that is finding the side length of a square that is equal in area to a circular segment with a given chord length and height, where the segment is at most a semicircle. The procedure for square a circular segment is as follows. Measure the half-length of the chord, . At the chord midpoint, measure the length of the line perpendicular to the chord to where it intersects the circle, the height . Set the sector crosswise on the added lines at the zero of the outer scale to the half-chord length, . Find the point on the outer scale, , where the crosswise distance is ; must be less than or equal to . Move to the point on the inner scale that is also marked . The crosswise distance between the points n-n on the inner scale is the side length of the square equal in area to the circular segment. To see how this works, we start by noting (as can be seen in the figure in circular segment), that the area of the segment is the difference between the area of the pie slice defined by where the chord cuts the circle, and the triangle formed by the chord and the two radii that touch the ends of the chord. The base of the triangle has length , and the height of the triangle is , so the area of the triangle is . Using Pythogras' theorem, we can show that . The area of the pie slice is the fraction of the area of the circle covered by the angle . For in radians, this area is , where is the inverse sine function. If we define , and , then we can write the area of the segment as . The distance from the pivot to the point marked on the outer scale is where is the distance from the pivot to the zero point on the outer scale. When we set the sector crosswise to at the zero point and find the point on the outer scale where the crosswise distance is , we set up a pair of similar triangles that share the angle made by the arms of the sector at the pivot, so that . If we set the distance of the point from the pivot on the inner scale to , with , and defined as before, then the crosswise distance measured at on the inner scale will be the side length of the square with area equal to that of the segment. Other uses The sector came with a plumb bob and a detachable quadrant which, when in place, would lock the arms at 90° to each other. The sector could then be used for sighting and distance measurements using triangulation, with applications in surveying and ballistics. The sector could also be used to easily determine the elevation of a cannon by inserting one arm into the barrel and reading the elevation from the location of the plumb bob. Notes References 1st English edition published by John Senex, 1723. Revised and expanded English translation of English translation of First published in The Description and Use of the Sector, Crosse-staffe, and Other Instruments (1624, 1636). Kern, Ralf, Wissenschaftliche Instrumente in ihrer Zeit. Vom 15. – 19. Jahrhundert. Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König 2010, Catalogue of Surveying and Related Instruments, Jim Bennett, Sillabe Srl, Livorno, Italy, 2022. External links The Proportional Compass or Sector and its History, Kochi Arts & Science Space. The Scales of the Galilean Sector quotations from: "The Geometric and Military Compass” by G. Galilei (archived 2008) Cole Military Sector at the IBM Archives A typical sector and how to use it by Christopher J. Sangwin "Slide Rule and Sine Plate have a common ancestor" by IMSAI Guy on YouTube "Cabinetmaker's Sector Tour and Tutorial" by Brendan Bernhardt Gaffney on YouTube "Acer-Ferrous Toolworks Sector" at Red Rose Reproductions, including several videos demonstrating uses of the sector Galileo Galilei Mechanical calculators Italian inventions
4875952	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank%20corps%20%28Soviet%20Union%29	Tank corps (Soviet Union)	A tank corps () was a type of Soviet armoured formation used during World War II. Pre-war development of Soviet mechanized forces In Soviet Russia, the so-called armored forces (броневые силы) preceded the Tank Corps. They consisted of the motorized armored units (автобронеотряды) made of armored vehicles and armored trains. The country did not have its own tanks during the Civil War of 1918–1920. In January 1918, the Red Army established the Soviet of Armored Units (Совет броневых частей, or Центробронь), later renamed to Central Armored Directorate and then once again to Chief Armored Directorate (Главное броневое управление). In December 1920, the Red Army received its first light tanks, assembled at the Krasnoye Sormovo Factory. In 1928, it began the production of the MS-1 tanks (Малый Сопровождения -1, where M stands for "small" and S – for "convoy"). In 1929, it established the Central Directorate for Mechanization and Motorization of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army. Tanks became a part of the mechanised corps at this point. During this time, and based on the experience of the Civil War with its sweeping movements of horse-mobile formations, Soviet military theorists such as Vladimir Triandafillov and Konstantin Kalinovsky elaborated the principles of combat use of armored units, which envisioned a large-scale use of tanks in different situations in cooperation with various army units. In the mid-1930s, these ideas found their reflection in the so-called Deep Operation and deep combat theories. From the second half of the 1920s, tank warfare development took place at Kazan, where the German Reichswehr was allowed to participate. In 1930, the First Mechanised Brigade had its tank regiment of 110 tanks. In 1932, the first Mechanised Corps had over 500 tanks, and it was probably the first armoured unit of operational significance anywhere in the world. That same year, the Red Army established the Military Academy of Mechanisation and Motorisation of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army (which became the Malinovskiy Mechanised Force Academy and is today part of the Combined Arms Academy of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation). In 1931–1935, the Red Army adopted light, medium, and later heavy tanks of different types. By the beginning of the 1936, it had already had four mechanised corps, six separate mechanised brigades, six separate tank regiments, fifteen mechanised regiments within cavalry divisions and considerable number of tank battalions and companies. The creation of mechanised and tank units marked the dawn of a new branch of armed forces, which would be called armored forces. In 1937, the Central Directorate of Mechanisation and Motorisation was renamed to Directorate of Automated Armored Units (Автобронетанковое управление) and then to Chief Directorate of Automated Armored Units (Главное автобронетанковое управление, Габту, GABTU). Soviet armored units gained some combat experience during the Battle of Lake Khasan (1938), Battle of Khalkhin Gol (1939) and Winter War with Finland (1939–1940). In August 1938, the four mechanised corps were converted into tank corps. Each was authorized 12,710 men, between 560 and 600 tanks, and 118 artillery pieces. The corps included two light tank brigades (equipped with BT and T-26 tanks), a motor rifle and machine gun brigade, and a communications battalion. The 5th Mechanized Corps became the 15th Tank Corps, the 7th Mechanized Corps became the 10th Tank Corps, the 11th Mechanized Corps became the 20th Tank Corps, and the 45th Mechanized Corps became the 25th Tank Corps. In the summer of 1939, all three brigades of the 20th Tank Corps were detached from the corps and sent into combat during the Battles of Khalkhin Gol. The 15th and 25th Tank Corps fought in the Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939. As a result of the Soviet assessment of the tank corps as being unwieldy and difficult to control, shown by repeated traffic jams caused by the tank corps in Poland, the Main Military Council ordered their disbandment on 21 November, replacing the tank corps with 15 motorized divisions, each with two motorized rifle regiments, an artillery regiment, and a tank regiment. The tank corps were not actually disbanded until January 1940, by which time the 10th Tank Corps had seen brief service in the Winter War in December 1939. Besides the operational armoured and mechanised formations, separate tank battalions within rifle divisions existed. These were meant to reinforce rifle units for the purpose of breaching enemy defenses. They had to act in cooperation with the infantry without breaking away from it and were called tanks for immediate infantry support (танки непосредственной поддержки пехоты). With the fall of France, the People's Commissariat for Defense authorized formation of new mechanized corps. Unlike the corps formed in the 30's (which consisted of brigades), these corps (with over 1000 tanks each on paper) would consist of two tank and one mechanized division plus support units (Red Army Handbook 1939–1945, Zaloga and Ness, pp. 65–68). These would be the armored formations which would attempt counter strikes against the German invasion. The performance of these corps was generally not good and they were officially disbanded in mid-July, 1941 (Ibid., p. 70). Additional information on these formations can also be found in Soviet Order of Battle World War II, Vol. I, by Charles C. Sharp. Eastern Front of World War II On 31 March 1942, orders were given for the reformation of the tank corps, as a result of the Soviet need for massed armored units so that the small tank brigades, which were now the basic armored formation, could be capable of decisive actions. The 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Tank Corps were to consist of a headquarters, two tank brigades, and a motor rifle brigade, authorized a total of 5,603 men with 20 KV heavy tanks, 40 T-34 medium tanks, and 40 T-60 or T-70 light tanks. The new tank corps lacked artillery, reconnaissance and engineer units, and rear support elements, although its component brigades included such formations. They were the equivalent of small Western armored divisions. The motor rifle brigade was a new unit type intended to retain captured positions and to neutralize enemy infantry and anti-tank weapons. It was determined that this was too weak, and a third tank brigade was added to increase the offensive power. The final organisation as published in 1944 included an additional heavy tank or heavy self-propelled gun regiment, plus a medium and a light self-propelled gun regiment. A total of 31 tank corps were formed during the war, with 12 of them earning the designation of a Guards Tank Corps. Due to the destruction of the 21st Tank Corps at the Second Battle of Kharkov and the use of some tank corps to form mechanised corps, no more than 24 of them actually saw combat. The tank corps were the basic building block of the Tank Armies (see List of Soviet armies#Tank Armies). Most tank corps were converted to Tank Divisions in 1945–6. See List of Soviet Army divisions 1989-91. List of tank corps (19411945) 1st Tank Corps 2nd Tank Corps 3rd Tank Corps – renamed 9th Guards Tank Corps after Battle of Radzymin (1944). 4th Tank Corps – March 1942 – February 1943 – converted to 5th Guards Tank Corps 5th Tank Corps – formed April 1942. Equipped largely with British-built Valentine tanks, 5 TC was badly handled in the early stages of the 1943 Smolensk operation, being mauled both from the air and from the ground. However the deflection of German units necessitated by the sacrifice of 5 TC meant that Spas Demensk fell on 13 August 1943. 6th Tank Corps – see 11th Guards Tank Corps 7th Tank Corps - by a Prikaz of the NKO USSR No. 413 of 29 December 1942 the 7th Tank Corps became the 3rd Guards Tank Corps. 8th Tank Corps – Formed May 1942 in the Moscow Military District. Assigned to Western Front for virtually its entire career. After being nearly destroyed the brigades were reassigned and the Corps HQs used to form 3rd Mechanized Corps in September 1943. 9th Tank Corps – the 9th Tank Division can trace its history back to 12 May 1942 when the 9th Tank Corps (:ru:9-й танковый корпус (СССР)) was formed in the Moscow Military District. It took part in the Battle of Kursk, then across Ukraine with the Central, Belorussian, and 1st Belorussian Fronts. It ended the war in Berlin. As part of the occupation forces, it was assigned to the 1st Guards Tank Army (also 1st Guards Mechanised Army). In 1957, it was reorganized into a Heavy Tank Division and re-designated the 13th Heavy Tank Division. This lasted until 1965, when it was returned to its original 9th Tank Division designation. This it retained until its withdrawal from the GDR in 1991 when it was disbanded. Its divisional headquarters was at Riesa. 10th Tank Corps (Soviet Union) 11th Tank Corps 12th Tank Corps 13th Tank Corps – began in April 1942 with 65th, 85th, and 88th Tank Brigades and 20th Motor Rifle(?) Brigade. In July 1942 brigades assigned were the 85th, 158th, and 167th Tank and 20th Motor Rifle(?) Brigade. It was "an oddball in the Soviet Army. 13th Tank Corps had been so shot up that most of its tank brigades were removed in September–October 1942, and when Mechanised Brigades were substituted at the beginning of November, it should have been redesignated as a Mechanised Corps with a new number, as had happened to other tank corps in similar situations. Instead, the corps retained the number '13' and even the Soviet sources get confused on what to call it: a tank corps or a mechanised corps. It had the subordinate units of a mechanised corps when it went into battle in late November and December 1942. It fought as a mechanised corps with 57th, 51st and 2nd Guards Armies during December in the mobile battles against German Panzers south of Stalingrad, and in recognition of its actions there on 9 January 1943 the 13th Mechanised Corps was redesignated as the 4th Guards Mechanised Corps." See . Later 4th Guards Mechanised Division, and 4th Guards Motor Rifle Division. 14th Tank Corps 15th Tank Corps – Formed May 1942, became 7th Guards Tank Corps July 1943. 16th Tank Corps – was part of 2nd Tank Army on formation. Became 12th Guards Tank Corps (1943) and 12th Guards Tank Division (1946). 17th Tank Corps – became 4th Guards Tank Corps after Operation Little Saturn. 18th Tank Corps 19th Tank Corps 20th Tank Corps – the 20th Tank Division can trace its history back to 12 December 1942 when the 20th Tank Corps was formed in the Moscow Defense Zone. It took part in the counter-offensives in the winter of 1942/43 and the summer 1943 offensives in the southern Ukraine. After taking part in the offensives in 1944 and early 1945, it was in the Reserve of the Supreme High Command when the war ended. It was allocated to the Northern Group of Forces by Directive No. 11096, where it remained through the Cold War. In later 1945, it was reorganized into the 20th Tank Division. Between 1949 and 1955, it was known as the 7th Tank Division, although as a cadre unit. In 1955, it was restored to full strength and renamed the 20th Tank Division. It would remain in southern Poland until 1991 when it was disbanded. 21st Tank Corps 22nd Tank Corps 23rd Tank Corps - became 23rd Tank Division, Ovruch, Zhitomir Oblast, Carpathian Military District in July 1945. 24th Tank Corps 25th Tank Corps – formed June 1942 in the Moscow Defence Zone. Originally formed previously as 25th Mechanised Corps in Kiev MD, 1941. Participated in the 'Liberation of Western Ukraine” and fought at Stalingrad, Kursk, Belgorod-Kharkov, Zhitimir-Berdichev, Rovno-Lutsk, Lvov, Vistula-Oder, Czestochowa, Berlin, Prague and other operations and actions. Converted to 25th Tank Division after the end of the war. Postwar assignment to 4th Guards Mechanised Army in the 1940s and 1950s; Withdrawn From Group of Soviet Forces, Germany/ Western Group of Forces, 20th Guards Army. Regiments (formerly brigades) designated “Novgorod.” Deactivation site: Kiev MD. 26th Tank Corps 27th Tank Corps – formed in the Moscow Defense Zone. The 27th was never committed to combat, but instead on 8 September 1942 it was reorganized into the 1st Mechanised Corps. 28th Tank Corps 29th Tank Corps 30th Tank Corps 31st Tank Corps – eventually became 31st Tank Division. Raised in the Moscow Military District, 1943. Associated with 1st Tank Army. Participated in fighting at Kursk, Belgorod-Kharkov, Lvov-Sandomir, Carpathian-Dukla, Sandomir bridgehead, Vistula-Oder, Prague and other operations and actions. Withdrawn From Central Group of Forces, Czechoslovakia. Eventually amalgamated with 47th Guards Tank Division at Mulino to become 3rd Motor Rifle Division after the fall of the Soviet Union. Guards tank corps 1st Guards Tank Corps 2nd Guards Tank Corps 3rd Guards Tank Corps 4th Guards Tank Corps – now 4th Guards Tank Division 5th Guards Tank Corps 6th Guards Tank Corps – Raised in the Baltic MD, 1941, re-formed in Moscow MD, 1942. Formed as 12th Tank Corps and successively redesignated as 6th Guards Tank Corps (1943) and 6th Guards Tank Division (1946). Participated in fighting at Ostrogozhsk, Rossosh, Kharkov, Krasnograd, Orel and other operations and actions. Past-war assignment to 3rd Guards Mechanized Army in the 1940s and 1950s. Honorifics and Awards included "Kiev" and “Berlin.” Orders of Lenin, Red Banner, Suvorov and Bogdan Khmelnitsky. Withdrawn from Group of Soviet Forces in Germany, 1st Guards Tank Army in 1982. Now 6th Guards Kiev-Berlin Mechanised Brigade of the Armed Forces of Belarus. 7th Guards Tank Corps – Withdrawn from Group of Soviet Forces in Germany Western Group of Forces, 1st Guards Tank Army. Formed in Moscow MD, 1942. Initially designated as 15th Tank Corps, becoming successively the 7th Guards Tank Corps (1943) and 7th Guards Tank Division (1946). Participated in "Liberation of Western Ukraine" and fighting at Ostrogozhsk, Rossosh, Kharkov, Orel and other operations and actions. Postwar assignment to 3rd Guards Mechanised Army in the 1940s and 1950s. Honorifics and Awards: "Kiev." "Berlin," Order of Lenin, Twice Red Banner, Suvurov and Kutuzov. Deactivated in the Moscow MD. 8th Guards Tank Corps 9th Guards Tank Corps – 3rd Tank Corps was formed at Tula in the Moscow Military District. It took part in the winter counter-offensives in 1942/1943, the Battle of Kursk, then across Ukraine and then the summer offensive in 1944, Operation Bagration, with the Central, Belorussian, and 1st Belorussian Fronts. On 20 November 1944, after the Battle of Radzymin, it was awarded ‘Guards’ status and re-designated the 9th Guards Tank Corps. 10th Guards Tank Corps: ex 30th Tank Corps. Now 10th Guards Uralsko-Lvovskaya Tank Division. 11th Guards Tank Corps – The 11th Guards Tank Division can trace its history back to 10 April 1942 when the 6th Tank Corps was formed in the Moscow Defense Zone. It took part in the Battle of Kursk, then across Ukraine with the Central, Belorussian, and 1st Belorussian Fronts. On 23 October 1943, it was awarded ‘Guards’ status and redesignated the 11th Guards Tank Corps. It ended the war in the Berlin area. As part of the occupation forces, it was reorganized as the 11th Guards Tank Division and assigned to the 1st Guards Tank Army (also called 1st Guards Mechanised Army during 1946–1957). For the occupation period and post-war era, it was mainly uneventful until 1968 when it took part in the invasion of Czechoslovakia. In 1992 it was withdrawn from Germany and landed in Slonim the newly independent Belarus. It would eventually be reorganized into the 11th Guards Mechanised Brigade. Division Headquarters was at Dresden in the 1980s. 12th Guards Tank Corps – former 16th Tank Corps. 16 TC was formed on 1 June 1942 in the Moscow Defense Zone. On 20 November 1944, it was awarded ‘Guards’ status and re-designated the 12th Guards Tank Corps. In later 1945, it was reorganized into the 12th Guards Tank Division. Composition of a tank corps 29 May 1942 Corps HQ Signal Company AAMG (anti-aircraft machine gun) Section Heavy Tank Brigade with KV-1 or KV-2 tanks (Replaced by a third 'medium' tank brigade in July 1942) 2 (Medium) Tank Brigades with two battalions of T-34 and one of T-70 tanks each. Motorized Rifle Brigade Anti-aircraft Battalion Guards Mortar Battalion with Katyusha rocket launchers Motorcycle Battalion (for reconnaissance) Engineer-Mine Company Truck Company Motorized Vehicle Repair Battalion Armored Vehicle Repair Battalion Snipers See also Cavalry corps (Soviet Union) Mechanised corps (Soviet Union) Rifle corps (Soviet Union) References Citations Bibliography Through the Furnace of War – Article on the development of Red Army armoured formations Dupuy Institute Forum Discussion on Tank/Mech Corps Article on the History of Red Army Mechanised Forces Books David Glantz, The Initial Period of War on the Eastern Front, 22 June – August 1941, 19 Page, J. and Bean, Tim 'Russian Tanks of World War II', Zenith Press Charles Sharp, Soviet Order of Battle in World War II Vol 1: The Deadly Beginning: Soviet Tank, Mechanized, Motorized Divisions and Tank Brigades of 1940–1942, Internet sites Charles Sharp Book on Soviet armoured tactics Conversion dates for Guards Tank Corps (in Russian) Graphic showing OOB of a 1943 Tank Corps
4876257	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buta%20Kola	Buta Kola	Būta Kōlā, also referred to as Daiva Kōlā or Daiva Nēmā, is a shamanistic dance performance prevalent among the Hindus of Tulu Nadu and parts of Malenadu of Karnataka and Kasargod in northern Kerala, India. The dance is highly stylized and performed as part of 'Bhootaradhane' or worship of the local deities worshipped by the Tulu speaking population. It has influenced Yakshagana folk theatre. Būta kōlā is closely related to Theyyam of North Malabar region. List of Daivas Koragajja, is the most worshipped Daiva by the Tulu people and is prayed to for help in solving any problem, to get back something lost, or to get any work done on time. Panjurli A boar spirit that is worshipped to ward off the menace of wild boars in order to protect the crops. According to Tulu mythology, a wild boar died in Lord Shiva's pleasure garden. The boar's offspring was adopted by Goddess Parvati. The young boar became destructive as he grew older and began destroying the plants and trees in Lord Shiva's garden. Lord Shiva became upset by this and decided to kill him. Goddess Parvati, however, defended the boar and asked her husband to pardon him. So instead of killing him, Lord Shiva banished the boar to earth as his gana and tasked him with protecting the people of earth and assured him that he will be revered by the people as a protector god. This particular boar became a Bhoota (Divine Spirit) known as Panjurli. But some people syncretise Panjurli with Varaha, the boar incarnation of Lord Vishnu, since the two deities are boars. He's also a Rudransh because of it he is also known as Shiva Shambhootha Or one who has the powers of Mahadev. Panjurli Daiva is also the one of the earliest daivas who is worshipped in all over Tulunad his earliest worship dates back to 700 BCE-800 BCE along with Bermer Daiva (Brahma). Panjurli worship scientific concept is that boars destroyed crops so farmers started worshipping a boar king who is known as Panjurli and in demand they believe that panjurli protects the crops. Bobbarya, the God of the seas, is worshipped mostly by members of the fishing community. Kalkuda and Kallurti, are Daivas who are brother and sister. According to legend, Kalkuda was a great sculptor who built the Gommateshwara statue in Shravanabelagola. After he completed building beautiful temples and monumental statues, the ruler of Karkala cut off his left arm and right leg so that he could not create such beautiful sculptures for any other king. On seeing her brother's state, Kallurti vowed to take revenge and requested Lord Shiva to turn them into deities. Shiva agreed and the pair then took violent revenge on the king, his family, and his kingdom. Their destruction was only stopped when a master magician promised them that they would be worshipped as and how they wanted. Guliga As per legend, he was born out of a stone. The Goddess Parvati discovered this stone in a pile of ash. Guliga was created when Lord Shiva flung this ash into the water and was sent to Lord Vishnu after his birth so that he may serve him. However, Guliga was extremely destructive and this greatly annoyed Lord Vishnu. Lord Vishnu exiled Guliga to Earth as a result and tasked him with protecting the people on Earth. Kōṭi Cennayya, Koti and Chennayya are twin heroes who are worshipped as martial Gods. Etymology and History The word is derived from būta (Tulu for ‘spirit’, ‘deity’; in turn derived from Sanskrit भूत for ‘free elements’, 'which is purified', 'fit', 'proper', ‘true’, 'past', 'creatures'; Anglicized: ‘bhūta’, ‘bhoota’, ‘bootha’) and kōla (Tulu for ‘play, performance, festival’, or 'shape/form'). A bhūta kōlā or nēmā is typically an annual ritual performance where local spirits or deities (bhūtas, daivas) are being channelised by ritual specialists from certain scheduled castes such as the Nalike, Pambada, or Parawa communities. The bhūta cult is prevalent among the Tuluvas of Tulu Nadu region. The word kōla is conventionally reserved for the worship of a single spirit whereas a nēma involves the channelising of several spirits in hierarchical order. In kōlas and nēmas family and village disputes are referred to the spirit for mediation and adjudication. In feudal times, the justice aspect of the ritual included matters of political justice, such as the legitimation of political authority, as well as aspects of distributive justice. The produce of land directly owned by the būta (commons) as well as certain contributions from the leading manors was redistributed among the villagers. The history of Bhuta Kola is unknown but some scholars suppose that this tradition was probably originated during 700 BCE by the migration of early tulu tribes introducing the worship of Bermer (Brahma), Panjurli (the boar spirit) and other spirits although Bhuta Kola is a modified form of prehistoric religious rituals. Bhuta Kola incorporates many practices such as Animal worship and Ancestor worship it also adopted the worship of Hindu deities in its Pantheon. The Bhutas are worshipped who are believed to embody various types of animals such as Panjurli (Boar), Pili (Tiger), Maisandya (Bull) and Naga (Snake) as well as several Bhutas are also worshipped who have their origins as human beings such Kalkuda Kallurti, Koti Chennaya, Koragajja, Bobbarya and Kordabbu etc. Though this tradition is itself a combination of several cultures which existed in Coastal Karnataka. Bhūta worship types The Bhūta worship of South Canara is of four kinds, kōla, bandi, nēma, and agelu-tambila. Kōla: Demi god dancing, is offered to the Bhūtas in the sthana of the village believed that which they are supposed to reside. Bandi: Bandi is the same as kōla, with the addition of dragging about a chariot, on which the one who is representing the Bhūta is seated; most often, he is from the nalke, pambada or ajala communities. Nēma: Nēma is a private ceremony in honour of the Bhūtas, held in the house of anyone who is so inclined. It is performed once in every year, two, ten, fifteen, or twenty years by well-to-do families. Agelu-tambila: is a kind of worship offered only to the family people, wherein rice, dishes, meat, alcohol are served on plantain leaves and offered to spirits, deities, departed forefathers annually or once wishes are completed. Performance The ritual performance at a būta kōla or daiva nēma involves music, dance, recital, and elaborate costumes. Recitals in Old Tulu recount the origins of the deity and tell the story of how it came to the present location. These epics are known as pāḍdanas. Types of daivas Thurston counts among the best known deities "Brahmeru, Kodamanitaya, Kukkintaya, Jumadi, Sarala Jumadi, Pancha Jumadi, Lekkesiri, Panjurli (a divine boar), Kuppe Panjurli, Rakta Panjurli, Jarandaya, Urundarayya, Hosadēvata (or Hosa Bhūta or Posa appe), Dēvanajiri, Kalkuḍa, Tukkateri, Guliga, Babbariya (or Bobbarāyā), Neecha, Duggalaya, Mahisandaya, Varte, Koragajja, Chāmundi, Baiderukulu, Ukkatiri, Kallurti, Shiraadi, Ullalthi, Okkuballala, Korddabbu, Ullaya, Korathi, Siri, Mantridevathe, Rakteshwari, Istadevathe and Odityay. The Bhūtas are supposed to belong to different castes. For example Okkuballala and Dēvanajiri are Jains, Kodamanitaya and Kukkinataya are Bunts, Kalkuḍa is a smith, Bobbariya is a Māppilla, and Nicha a Koraga." Some of them are ancestral spirits such as Bobbariya, Kalkuḍa, Kallurti, Siri, Kumār Koti and Chennayya. Some are deified wild animals such as the boar - (the female counterpart is ) or the tiger - . Some būtas are Androgynous such as some instances of Jumadi who is represented as female below the neck (breasts), but with a male head sporting a mustache. There are anthropomorphic būtas, zoomorphic ones, and mixed forms (such as the Malarāya of Kodlamogaru, Kasargod, who has the head of a wild boar and the body of a woman). Depending on the significance of the people who worship them, or can be family deities (), local or village deities (, ), or deities associated with administrative units such as manorial estates (), groups of estates (), districts () or even small kingdoms (royal būtas or rājandaivās). Cosmology According to the ethnographer Peter Claus, the Tulu reveal a cosmology which is distinctly Dravidian and thus different from the Puranic Hindu cosmology. Importantly, priesthood is not the preserve of a caste learned in scriptures but is shared between the ruling aristocracy on one hand and ritual specialists from the lower strata of society on the other hand. The world is divided in two three realms: firstly, the realm of cultivated lands (), secondly the realm of wastelands and forests (/), and thirdly the realm of spirits (). Grāmya and / form part of the tangible world, whereas is their intangible counterpart. As grāmya is constantly threatened by encroachment, disease, hunger and death form and , so is the tangible world under constant threat from the intangible world of the spirits. The world of the forest is the "world of the wild, unordered, uncontrolled, hungry beings of destruction". The world of the forest and the world of the spirits are therefore seen as mirror images of each other. The wild animals threatening the human cultivator and his fields such as the tiger, the snake, the wild-boar, and the bison, find their mirror images in their corresponding būtas Pilli, Naga, Paňjurli and Maisandaya. The relationship between these three worlds is one of balance and moral order. If this order is upset by the humans, it is believed that the spirits become vicious. If the order is maintained, the spirits are believed to be supportive and benevolent. Thus, the spirits of Tulu culture are neither "good" nor "bad" as such; they are "neither cruel nor capricious. They methodically and persistently remind a lax humanity of the need for morality and the value of solidarity". Nobody is believed to be above the moral and cosmological norms of this threefold universe, not even the spirits or the gods. Thus the būtas are not whimsical or arbitrary in their judgement. The būtas are their patron's protectors with regard to a system of moral norms, not despite them. Feudal relations of tribute and fealty mark the relations among the humans in the tangible world, among spirits in the intangible world and between humans and spirits across tangible and intangible worlds. While the world of humans is ruled by a mortal king, the world of the spirits is ruled by Bermeru, the lord of the forest and of the būtas. And just as the landed aristocracy depended on protection and support from their king, the world of humans depends on protection and support from the spirits. Thus once in a year at the time of kōla or nēma, the lord of the human world (patriarch, landlord, king) has to be reconfirmed in his authority by reporting to the spirit to which he is accountable. While the temporal lord's authority is dependent on the spirit; the authority of the spirit is guaranteed by the active participation of the villagers in the ritual. Thereby a certain degree of political legitimacy is upheld by the active participation of the villagers. Their withdrawal from the ritual can seriously affect the authority of the landlord. As Claus observes, the principal mediators in this network of feudal transactions are communities who once upon a time may have led a liminal life between and /. Tribal communities living in and off the forest and trading in forest products were predestined to serve as spirit impersonators as their life world, the forest, is only the tangible side of the world of the spirits. In pursuit of their livelihood they regularly transgress structural boundaries between village and forest. They live on the margins of the village, in the wasteland between forest and field, thus they are themselves, in a sense, liminal. That such liminal people should be mediums for the spirits seems entirely apt. Today communities like Nalike, Parava or Pambada who impersonate different kinds of and can no longer be characterised as tribal. They are mostly landless agricultural labourers in the wet season and spirit impersonators in the dry season. Worship Today feudal relations no longer obtain and thus former ruling families no longer hold any political or judicial office. But still the village demands that they sponsor their annual kōla or nēma to honour the village deity. The people believe that the neglect of the spirits will make their life miserable. Even though they may have changed, būta kōla and daiva nēma still serve secular as well as religious purposes. In fact the two cannot be separated in a world where the tangible is suffused with the intangible. As the cosmology underlying the pāḍdanas suggests, the very order of the human world and the order of the spirit world are interdependent. Būtas and daivas are not worshipped on a daily basis like mainstream Hindu gods. Their worship is restricted to annual ritual festivals, though daily pūjās may be conducted for the ritual objects, ornaments, and other paraphernalia of the būta. Unlike with the better-known Hindu gods of the purāṇic variety, būta worship is congregational. Secular function The secular function of the kōla or nēma has been described as a "sacred court of justice" where traditional (feudal) moral ideals are brought to bear on difficult real-life situations. Būta kōlas and daiva nēmas are assemblies of the entire village. Thus they become an occasion to resolve conflicts in the village. The royal daiva (rājan-daiva) rules over a former small kingdom or large feudal estate. He or she is mostly the family deity of rich land-owning patrons of the Baṇṭ caste whose position and power they reflect, confirm and renew. The relationship between the būtas, manor heads, and the villagers forms a transactional network which reaffirms the caste hierarchy and power relations in a village. The duty assigned to every category is differential but based on mutuality. The manor head by staging the nēma seeks to symbolically proclaim himself to be the natural leader of the community. The villagers offer sēva during the nēma in the form of service and prostrations and in doing so also offer their support to the nēma and their recognition of the leader's status. In return, the villagers expect justice and resolution of disputes by the daiva during the nēma. In the nēma, the leading manors offer a part of their farm products to the daiva, which are then redistributed to the villagers. The nēma thereby underlines the mutuality on which feudal relations used to be based and, in a limited way, takes care of the problem of social (distributive) justice. The būtas receive these offerings and in return give oracles and blessings to ensure the future prosperity of the village (humans, animals, fields). Finally, a part of these offerings will be distributed as prasāda among the heads of the guṭṭus and other villagers according to their ranks. The system of entitlements is constituted in, or embodied by, the mutual gifting activity between the būtas, as the ultimate owner of the land, and people in rituals, creating a transactional network among them. Ritual script The script of the ritual changes from one nēmā to another, thus the following description is somewhat ideal-typical. The ritual begins with the paraphernalia of the būta being brought to the shrine which serves as a venue for the festival. They are placed on an altar or on a swinging cot, which is the insignium of a royal būta (rajan-daiva). The Nalike, Parava or Pambada medium prepares for the impersonation of the spirit with a recital of from the pāḍdana of the būta or daiva. After this, the medium starts putting on make-up and dressing up in his costume which may include an elaborate ani (a giant halo stringed to the back of the dancer). Finally, the medium is given the ornaments from the hoard of the shrine. As he enters the arena, the attendant of the spirit (pātri) gives him his sword, his bell and other paraphernalia and the patron (jajmān) gives him one or several burning torches. As the medium begins to dance, the spirit enters his body. Two people hold the torches along with the medium at all times. Thus, the entrance of spirit into this world is restrained. The medium's dance gains more force as the possession continues. He brings the torches dangerously close to his body. The jajmān now stands in a ritualistic circle on the ground with his assistants and offerings are made to the būta. These offerings often include the sacrifice of a chicken whose blood is sprinkled on the ground to enhance the fertility of the land. These sacrificial acts are followed by offerings of puffed rice, beaten rice, coconut pieces, bananas, ghee, betel leaf, and areca nut. In the subsequent court of justice the spirit is approached by the villagers for blessings or asked to help resolve conflicts. The judicial program typically starts once the initial rituals are finished. Complaints and judgements are made orally. The būta issues the judgement after hearing the sides of the plaintiff as well as the defendant, if both are present. The būta's justice must be referrable to general principles. "He may take a stand, he cannot take sides". While the būta may take the opinions of the village headman and other eminent persons into consideration, the ultimate judgement rests with the būta. Sometimes judgements are also issued by the tossing of betel leaves and the counting of flower petals (usually areca flower). Particularly difficult cases may also be adjourned to the next year by the būta. Some common disputes that come up are related to land issues, family feuds, questions of honour, robbery, debt, mortgage, breach of contract etc. In cases of theft where the offender is unknown, the būta may ask for a certain offering before finding the thief. At times the victim offers the entire value of the stolen goods to the būta. If the thief is found and penalised, the person is made to pay to the plaintiff a sum that is more than the value of the goods stolen. If the būta feels that the thief shows repentance, the gravity of the penalty could be reduced. Channel/Medium The art of being a channel/medium is learned. Young boys belonging to the Pambada, Parava, Nalike castes attend rituals where their kin is performing; and they help out with shredding the coconut leaves for the garment of the channel/medium, holding the mirror while the channel/medium is putting on the make up etc. They learn the art of the performance by observing the performance of their kin and trying to mimic it. Along with being able to mimic the way their kin performed, what is essential to be a successful channel/medium is also the aptitude of being possessed by the deity. There are certain rules the channel/medium needs to follow to prepare his body for the possession. This may include being a vegetarian and not drinking alcohol. The channel/medium feels the sudden spirit possession only for a few seconds but after that he is filled with the deity's energy that lets him behave as the deity for the entire ritual. There are two types of mediators between the spirits and the humans. The first type of mediator is known as the pātri. These are members of middle castes such as Billava (toddy tappers, formerly also bow-men). The second type of mediator ("channels/mediums") typically belong to scheduled castes such as Pambada, Parava or Nalike. While the pātri has only a sword and a bell as ritual tools, the channel/medium uses makeup, ornaments, masks etc. Both mediums are believed to channelise the deity from an altered state of consciousness. But while the channel/medium may speak as the būta (in the first person) and about the būta (in the third person, i.e. when he recounts his/her pāḍdana), the pātri only speaks as the būta in the first person. Pāḍdana Pāḍdanas are songs that form a major part of Tuluva oral literature. Much of the body of this literature has been built on the legends of the būtas and daivas. Pāḍdanas have numerous variations for the same narrative. As in other epic traditions, there is no single author. Pāḍdanas are orally transmitted and recited. The language of the pāḍdanas is old Tulu. Some famous examples are the Siri-Kumar Pāḍdanas and the Koti and Chennayya Pāḍdanas. The pāḍdanas sung by women while planting paddy are referred to as "field songs". The pāḍdanas recite the origins of the spirits and deities. This is one way for the rituals to reconstruct the past and render a legitimization to it. The singers act as the indigenous narrators of the history of the native land. The pāḍdanas also stand in opposition to the puranic, male based principles as they highlight the feminine principles of mother earth. The pāḍdanas also reflect multi-socio-cultural background shifts (for example, the move from Matrilineal system to Patrilineal system). The older sense of cosmology is retained through the pāḍdanas. The pāḍdanas also reflect processes of Hinduisation and Sanskritization. In popular culture The 1975 Kannada movie Chomana Dudi was the first movie to have a reference to the demi-god Panjurli. Koti Chennaya, a 2007 movie made in Tulu which went to win the Best Tulu Film at the 54th National Film Awards. Deyi Baidethi, a 2019 Tulu-language historical film on the life of Deyi Baideti, mother of Koti and Chennayya. The 2022 Kannada film Kantara showcases the portrayal of Buta Kola in its main storyline. As a result of the movie, the Government of Karnataka introduced a monthly allowance for performers of Buta Kola who are over 60 years of age. Gallery See also Aati kalenja Yakshagana Nagamandala Varaha Gulikan Theyyam Theyyam Notes References External links Dances of India Ritual dances Tuluva Culture of Tulu Nadu Shamanism
4876283	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20enforcement%20in%20the%20United%20States	Law enforcement in the United States	, more than 800,000 sworn law enforcement officers have been serving in the United States. About 137,000 of those officers work for federal law enforcement agencies. Law enforcement operates primarily through governmental police agencies. There are 17,985 police agencies in the United States which include municipal police departments, county sheriff's offices, state troopers,and federal law enforcement agencies. The law enforcement purposes of these agencies are the investigation of suspected criminal activity, referral of the results of investigations to state or federal prosecutors, and the temporary detention of suspected criminals pending judicial action. Law enforcement agencies, are also commonly charged with the responsibilities of deterring criminal activity and preventing the successful commission of crimes in progress. Other duties may include the service and enforcement of warrants, writs, and other orders of the courts. Law enforcement agencies are also involved in providing first response to emergencies and other threats to public safety; the protection of certain public facilities and infrastructure, such as private property; the maintenance of public order; the protection of public officials; and the operation of some detention facilities (usually at the local level). Types of law enforcement agencies Policing in the United States is conducted by "around 18,000 federal, state and local law enforcement agencies, all with their own rules". Every state has its own nomenclature for agencies, and their powers, responsibilities and funding vary from state to state. 2008 census data from the Department of Justice's Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) revealed that this constitutes: 73 federal agencies 50 primary state law enforcement agencies 638 other state agencies 1,733 special jurisdiction agencies 3,063 sheriff's offices 12,501 municipal, county, tribal, and regional police departments Federal At the federal level, there exists both federal police, which possess full federal authority as given to them under United States Code (U.S.C.), and federal law enforcement agencies, who are authorized to enforce various laws at the federal level. Both police and law enforcement agencies operate at the highest level and are endowed with police roles; each may maintain a small component of the other (for example, the FBI Police). The agencies have jurisdiction in all states, U.S. territories, and U.S. possessions for enforcement of federal law. Most federal agencies are limited by the U.S. Code to investigating only matters that are explicitly within the power of the federal government. However, federal investigative powers have become very broad in practice, especially since the passage of the Patriot Act. There are also federal law enforcement agencies, such as the National Park Service Law Enforcement Rangers, that are granted state arrest authority off primary federal jurisdiction. The Department of Justice (DOJ) is responsible for most law enforcement duties at the federal level. It includes the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF), the United States Marshals Service, and the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP). The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is another branch with numerous federal law enforcement agencies reporting to it. The United States Border Patrol (USBP), U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), United States Secret Service (USSS), United States Coast Guard (USCG), and the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) are some of the agencies that report to the DHS. The United States Coast Guard in particular is also a military branch of the United States Armed Forces and is assigned to the United States Department of Defense in the event of war. At a crime or disaster scene affecting large numbers of people, multiple jurisdictions, or broad geographic areas, many police agencies may be involved by mutual aid agreements. For example, the United States Federal Protective Service responded to the Hurricane Katrina natural disaster. The command in such situations remains a complex and flexible issue. In accordance with the federal structure of the United States government, the national (federal) government is not authorized to execute general police powers by the Constitution of the United States. The power to have a police force is given to each of the United States' 50 federated states. The Constitution gives the federal government the power to deal with foreign affairs and interstate affairs (affairs between the states). For police, this means that if a non-federal crime is committed in a U.S. state and the fugitive does not flee the state, the federal government has no jurisdiction. However, once the fugitive crosses a state line, he violates the federal law of interstate flight and is subject to federal jurisdiction, at which time federal law enforcement agencies may become involved. State Most states operate statewide law enforcement agencies that provide law enforcement duties, including investigations and state patrols. They may be called state police or highway patrol (state troopers), but there is no gendarmerie, and are normally part of the state Department of Public Safety. In addition, the Attorney General's office of each state has its own state bureau of investigation, such as in California with the California Department of Justice. The Texas Ranger Division fulfills this role in Texas, although they were founded in the period before Texas became a state. Various departments of state governments may have their own enforcement divisions, such as capitol police, campus police, state hospitals, department of corrections, water police, environmental (fish and game/wildlife) conservation officers, or game wardens (with full police powers and statewide jurisdiction). For example, in Colorado, the Department of Revenue has its own investigative branch. County Also known as parishes and boroughs, county law enforcement is provided by sheriffs' departments or offices, constables and county police. County police County police tend to exist only in metropolitan counties and have countywide jurisdiction. For places that have both county police and county sheriff, responsibilities are given to each: the county police are in charge of typical police duties such as patrol and investigations, whereas the sheriffs' department in this situation takes care of serving papers and providing security to the courts. County police tend to fall into three broad categories, full service, limited service, and restrictive service. Full service provides full police services to the entire county. Limited service provides to the unincorporated and special districts. Restricted service provide security to the county-owned parts of the county. Sheriffs' offices Sheriffs are police and have many different responsibilities. Sheriffs are elected officials where the head of police is appointed or hired in. Sheriffs are responsible for all three parts of the criminal justice system. They uphold the county jail, ensure safety within the courts, and have jurisdiction to enforce laws in the entire county. They have more responsibilities such as transporting prisoners, running crime labs, and collecting taxes. In Texas, the sheriff's office is normally the agency responsible for handling mental health calls. If the situation is dangerous, a sheriff's deputy has the power to take a person to a hospital on a mental health commitment immediately. However, if the situation is not actively dangerous, a warrant must be sought. With the rise in mental health units across the state, the Texas CIT Association was formed. Commonwealth of Virginia The Commonwealth of Virginia does not have overlapping county and city jurisdictions, whereas in most other states, municipalities generally fall within (and share jurisdiction and many other governmental responsibilities with) one (or more) county(ies). In Virginia, governmental power flows down from the state (or in Virginia's case, commonwealth) directly to either a county or an independent city. Thus, policing in Virginia is more streamlined: the county sheriff's office/department or county police department does not overlap with an independent city police department. Unincorporated townships remain part of their parent county, but incorporated townships may have town police departments to augment their county law enforcement. Town police departments are often small and may deploy a combination of paid and unpaid, full and part-time law enforcement officers, including auxiliary officers who typically serve as part-time, unpaid volunteers. If present, independent city sheriff's offices usually follow the restrictive model shown above for sheriff's departments, with limited law enforcement authority including warrant service, jail bailiff, etc. Mutual assistance compacts may exist where neighboring law enforcement agencies will assist each other, however, in addition to state (commonwealth) law enforcement resources. Like most states, Virginia also has campus police officers. Under Virginia State Code 23.1-809 and 23.1-810, public and private colleges and universities can maintain their own armed police force and employ sworn campus police officers. These sworn officers have the same authority as local police and are required to complete police academy training mandated by the Virginia Department of Criminal Justice Services. Virginia campus police officers have jurisdiction on and immediately around the campus, but police departments may petition to the local circuit court for concurrent jurisdiction with the local police. Municipal Municipal police range from one-officer agencies (sometimes still called the town marshals) to the 40,000 person-strong New York City Police Department, which has its own counterterrorism division. Most municipal agencies take the form (Municipality Name) Police Department. Most municipalities have their own police departments. Metropolitan departments, such as the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department, have jurisdiction covering multiple communities and municipalities, often over a wide area, and typically share geographical boundaries within one or more cities or counties. Metropolitan departments have usually been formed by a merger between local agencies, typically several local police departments and often the local sheriff's department or office, in efforts to provide greater efficiency by centralizing command and resources and to resolve jurisdictional problems, often in communities experiencing rapid population growth and urban sprawl, or in neighboring communities too small to afford individual police departments. Some county sheriff's departments, such as the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department, are contracted to provide full police services to local cities within their counties. Likewise, in Florida, the Duval County Road Patrol and the Jacksonville Police Department consolidated in 1968 to form the "Office of the Sheriff - Jacksonville Police," commonly known as the Jacksonville Sheriff's Office, policing all of Duval County. Puerto Rico Police The Puerto Rico Police Bureau (PRPB) traces back to 1837, when Spanish governor Francisco Javier de Moreda y Prieto created La Guardia Civil de Puerto Rico (Puerto Rico Civil Guard) to protect the lives and property of Puerto Ricans who at the time were Spanish subjects, and provide police services to the entire island, even though many municipalities maintained their own police force. The United States invaded and took possession of Puerto Rico in July 1898 as a result of the Spanish–American War and has controlled the island as a US territory since then. The Insular Police of Puerto Rico was created on February 21, 1899, under the command of Colonel Frank Thacher (U.S. Marine officer during the Spanish–American War), with an authorized strength of 313 sworn officers. As of 2009, the PRPB had over 17,292 officers. Other There are other types of specialist law enforcement agency with varying jurisdictions. Most of these serve special-purpose districts and are known as special district police. In some states, they serve as little more than security police, but in states such as California, special district forces are composed of fully sworn police officers with statewide authority. These agencies can be transit police, school district police, campus police, airport police, military police, auxiliary police, harbor police, railroad police, park police, prison officer or police detectives and animal control service responsible for protecting government property, such as the former Los Angeles General Services Police. Some agencies, such as the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department, have multi-state powers. There are also some private police agencies, such as the Parkchester Police Department and Co-op City Department of Public Safety. Police functions Textbooks and scholars have identified three primary police agency functions. The following is cited from The American System of Criminal Justice, by George F. Cole and Christopher E. Smith, 2004, 10th edition, Wadsworth/Thomson Learning: Order maintenance This is the broad mandate to keep the peace or otherwise prevent behaviors which might disturb others. This can deal with things ranging from a barking dog to a fist-fight. By way of description, Cole and Smith note that police are usually called-on to "handle" these situations with discretion, rather than deal with them as strict violations of law, though of course their authority to deal with these situations is based in violations of law. Law enforcement These powers are typically used only in cases where the law has been violated and a suspect must be identified and apprehended. Most obvious instances include robbery, murder, or burglary. This is the popular notion of the main police function, but the frequency of such activity depends on geography and season. Service Services may include rendering first aid, providing tourist information, guiding the disoriented, or acting as educators (on topics such as preventing drug use). Cole and Smith cited one study which showed 80% of all calls for police assistance did not involve crimes, but this may not be the case in all parts of the country. Because police agencies are traditionally available year-round, 24 hours a day, citizens call upon police departments not only in times of trouble but also when just inconvenienced. As a result, police services may include roadside auto assistance, providing referrals to other agencies, finding lost pets or property, or checking locks on vacationers' homes. Styles of policing Given the broad mandates of police work and the limited resources they have, police administrators must develop policies to prioritize and focus their activities. Some of the more controversial policies restrict, or even forbid, high-speed vehicular pursuits. Researchers Falcone, Wells, & Weisheit describe a historical separation of police models between small towns and larger cities. The distinction has also been defined between rural and urban policing models, which tended to function differently with separate hierarchical systems supporting each. Three styles of policing develop from a jurisdiction's socioeconomic characteristics, government organization, and choice of police administrators. According to a study in a book by James Q. Wilson (Varieties of Police Behavior, 1968, 1978, Harvard University Press), there were three distinct types of policing developed in his study of eight communities. Each style emphasized different police functions and was linked to specific characteristics of the community the department served. Watchman Emphasizes maintaining order, usually found in communities with a declining industrial base, and a blue-collar, mixed ethnic/racial population. This form of policing is implicitly less pro-active than other styles, and certain offenses may be "overlooked" on a variety of social, legal, and cultural grounds as long as public order is maintained. Cole and Smith comment the broad discretion exercised in this style of policing can result in charges of discrimination when it appears police treatment of different groups results in the perception that some groups get better treatment than others. Legalistic Emphasizes law enforcement and professionalism. This is usually found in reform-minded cities, with mixed socioeconomic composition. Officers are expected to generate a large number of arrests and citations and act as if there were a single community standard for conduct, rather than different standards for different groups. However, the fact that certain groups are more likely to have law enforcement contact means this strict enforcement of laws may seem overly harsh on certain groups. Service Emphasizes the service functions of police work, usually found in suburban, middle-class communities where residents demand individual treatment. Police in homogeneous communities can view their work as protecting their citizens against "outsiders", with frequent but often informal interventions against community members. The uniform make-up of the community means crimes are usually more obvious, and therefore less frequent, leaving police free to deal with service functions and traffic control. Wilson's study applies to police behavior for the entire department over time. At any given time, police officers may be acting in a watchman, service, or legalistic function by the nature of what they are doing at the time, their temperament, or their mood at the time. Individual officers may also be inclined to one style or another, regardless of the supervisor or citizen demands. Community policing is a shift in policing practices in the U.S. that moved away from standardization and towards a more preventative model where police actively partner with the community it serves. History Early colonial policing Policing in what would become the United States of America arose from the law enforcement systems in European countries, particularly the ancient English common law system. This relied heavily on citizen volunteers, as well as watch groups, constables, sheriffs, and a conscription system known as posse comitatus similar to the militia system. An early night watch formed in Boston in 1631, and in 1634 the first U.S. constable on record was Joshua Pratt, in the Plymouth Colony. Constables were tasked with surveying land, serving warrants, and enforcing punishments. A rattlewatch was formed in New Amsterdam, later to become New York City, in 1651. The New York rattlewatch "strolled the streets to discourage crime and search for lawbreakers" and also served as town criers. In 1658, they began drawing pay, making them the first municipally funded police organization. When the English captured New Amsterdam in 1664, they installed a constable whose duties included keeping the peace, suppressing excessive drinking, gambling, prostitution, and preventing disturbances during church services. A night watch was formed in Philadelphia in 1700. In the Southern colonies, formal slave patrols were created as early as 1704 in the Carolinas in order to prevent slave rebellions and enslaved people from escaping. By 1785 the Charleston Guard and Watch had "a distinct chain of command, uniforms, sole responsibility for policing, salary, authorized use of force, and a focus on preventing 'crime'." Development of modern policing Modern policing began to emerge in the U.S. in the mid-nineteenth century, influenced by the British model of policing established in 1829 based on the Peelian principles. The first organized, publicly-funded professional full-time police services were established in Boston in 1838, New York in 1844, and Philadelphia in 1854. Slave patrols in the south were abolished upon the abolition of slavery in the 1860s. The legal tactics of the slave patrols are reflected in the vigilante tactics of the Ku Klux Klan. In the late 19th and early 20th century, there were few specialized units in police departments. In 1905, the Pennsylvania State Police became the first state police agency established in the United States, as recommended by President Theodore Roosevelt's Anthracite Strike Commission and Governor Samuel Pennypacker. The advent of the police car, two-way radio, and telephone in the early 20th century transformed policing into a reactive strategy that focused on responding to calls for service. In the 1920s, led by Berkeley, California police chief August Vollmer, police began to professionalize, adopt new technologies, and place emphasis on training. With this transformation, police command and control became more centralized. Orlando Winfield Wilson, a student of Vollmer, helped reduce corruption and introduce professionalism in Wichita, Kansas, and later in the Chicago Police Department. Strategies employed by O.W. Wilson included rotating officers from community to community to reduce their vulnerability to corruption, establishing a non-partisan police board to help govern the police force, a strict merit system for promotions within the department, and an aggressive recruiting drive with higher police salaries to attract professionally qualified officers. Despite such reforms, police agencies were led by highly autocratic leaders, and there remained a lack of respect between police and the community. During the professionalism era of policing, law enforcement agencies concentrated on dealing with felonies and other serious crime, rather than focusing on crime prevention. Following urban unrest in the 1960s, police placed more emphasis on community relations, and enacted reforms such as increased diversity in hiring. The Kansas City Preventive Patrol study in the 1970s found the reactive approach to policing to be ineffective. The cost of policing rapidly expanded during the 1960s. In 1951, American cities spent $82 per person on policing. Adjusting for inflation, police spending increased over 300% by 2016, to $286 per person. In the 1990s, many law enforcement agencies began to adopt community policing strategies, and others adopted problem-oriented policing. In the 1990s, CompStat was developed by the New York Police Department as an information-based system for tracking and mapping crime patterns and trends, and holding police accountable for dealing with crime problems. CompStat, and other forms of information-led policing, have since been replicated in police departments across the United States. Powers of officers Law enforcement officers are granted certain powers to enable them to carry out their duties. When there exists probable cause to believe that a person has committed a serious crime, a misdemeanor in their presence, or a select-few misdemeanors not in their presence, a law enforcement officer can handcuff and arrest a person, who will be held in a police station or jail pending a judicial bail determination or an arraignment. In 2010, the FBI estimated that law enforcement agencies made 13,120,947 arrests (excluding traffic violations). Of those persons arrested, 74.5% were male and 69.4 percent of all persons arrested were white, 28.0 percent were black, and the remaining 2.6 percent were of other races. A law enforcement officer may briefly detain a person upon reasonable suspicion of involvement in a crime but short of probable cause to arrest. Merely lawfully detaining a person—in and of itself—does not deprive a person of their Fourth Amendment right against unlawful searches. Federal, state, and local laws, and individual law enforcement departmental policies govern when, where, how, and upon whom a law enforcement officer may perform a "pat down," "protective search," or "Terry frisk," based on several U.S. Supreme Court decisions (including Terry v. Ohio (1968), Michigan v. Long (1983), and Maryland v. Buie (1990)): In Terry v. Ohio, the landmark decision introducing the term "Terry frisk", or "frisk", to the broader public (italics added): Our evaluation of the proper balance that has to be struck in this type of case leads us to conclude that there must be a narrowly drawn authority to permit a reasonable search for weapons for the protection of the police officer, where he has reason to believe that he is dealing with an armed and dangerous individual, regardless of whether he has probable cause to arrest the individual for a crime. The officer need not be absolutely certain that the individual is armed; the issue is whether a reasonably prudent man in the circumstances would be warranted in the belief that his safety or that of others was in danger. Controversies Deadly force and death in custody In most states, law enforcement officers operate under the same self-defense laws as the general public. Generally, when the first responder or a member of the public is at risk of serious bodily injury and/or death, lethal force is justified. Most law enforcement agencies establish a use of force continuum and list deadly force as a force of last resort. With this model, agencies try to control excessive uses of force. Nonetheless, some question the number of killings by law enforcement officers, including killings of people who are unarmed, raising questions about alleged widespread and ongoing excessive use of force. Other non-fatal incidents and arrests have raised similar concerns. The racial distribution of victims of US police lethal force is not proportionate to the racial distribution of the US population. Whites account for the largest racial group of deaths, but are under-represented, accounting for 45% of police killings (and 60% of the population). Blacks are over-represented, accounting for 24% of police killings (and 13% of the population). Hispanics are proportionately represented, accounting for 17% of police killings (and 18% of the population). Others (including Asian, Native American, and others) are under-represented, accounting for 4% of police killings (and 8% of the population). A 2021 study published in The Lancet found that over 30,000 people have died by police violence in the United States from 1980 to 2018. Militarization of police The militarization of both rural and urban law enforcement has been attributed to the United States' involvement in wars during the 20th century, although some attribute the militarization to the more recent campaigns on drugs and terror. Historian Charles Beard argued that cultural change during the Great Depression encouraged the militarization of law enforcement, whereas Harwood argues that the creation of Special Response Teams and tactical units within law enforcement during the 1960s began such a trend. Beginning in the 1990s, the use of military equipment and tactics for community policing and for public order policing has become more widespread under the 1033 program. The program prompted discussion among lawmakers in 2014 after unrest in Ferguson, Missouri. President Obama introduced restrictions in 2015 on the transfer of surplus military equipment to police. In 2017, the Trump administration announced it would reinstate the program. No-knock warrants The use of no-knock warrants has become widespread and controversial. Their use has led to misconduct, unlawful arrests, and deaths. Qualified immunity The U.S. Supreme Court first introduced the qualified immunity doctrine in 1967, originally with the rationale of protecting law enforcement officials from frivolous lawsuits and financial liability in cases where they acted in good faith in unclear legal situations. Starting around 2005, courts increasingly applied the doctrine to cases involving the use of excessive or deadly force by police, leading to widespread criticism that it, in the words of a 2020 Reuters report, "has become a nearly failsafe tool to let police brutality go unpunished and deny victims their constitutional rights". Warren v. District of Columbia In the 1981 case Warren v. District of Columbia, the ultimate ruling was that United States law did not require law enforcement officers to protect the general population, that ordinary citizens could not be classified as persons requiring special protection, and the officers had no legal duty to protect. This and other cases have been used to establish legal precedents in many jurisdictions across the United States. Such precedents are often used to protect law enforcement officers and organizations from being charged with inaction during riots or mass shootings. Civil asset forfeiture Rules on civil asset forfeiture allow law enforcement officers to seize anything which they can plausibly claim was the proceeds of a crime. The property-owner need not be convicted of that crime; if officers find drugs in a house, they can take cash from the house and possibly the house itself. Commentators have said these rules provide an incentive for law enforcement officers to focus on drug-related crimes rather than crimes against persons, such as rape and homicide. They also provide an incentive to arrest suspected drug-dealers inside their houses, which can be seized, and to raid stash houses after most of their drugs have been sold, when officers can seize the cash. Issues with recruitment Despite safeguards around recruitment, some police departments have at times relaxed hiring and staffing policies, sometimes in violation of the law, most often in the cases of local departments and federally funded drug task forces facing staffing shortages, attrition, and needs to quickly fill positions. This has included at times the fielding (and sometimes the arming) of uncertified officers (who may be working temporarily in what is supposed to be a provisional limited-duty status prior to certification) and the hiring of itinerant "gypsy cops", who may have histories of poor performance or misconduct in other departments. Other concerns The procedural use of strip searches and cavity searches by law enforcement has raised civil liberties concerns. The practice of taking an arrested person on a perp walk, often handcuffed, through a public place at some point after the arrest, creating an opportunity for the media to take photographs and video of the event, has also raised concerns. The New York City Police Department came under scrutiny in 2012 for its use of a stop-and-frisk program. Misconduct cases Over the past decades, police departments across the country have been affected by instances of misconduct and brutality. Some prominent examples include the following: 1960s: The 1960s marked the height of the Civil Rights Movement, and much police misconduct came from protests that often turned violent. There were also planned attacks against police stemming directly from the force that was being used by the police against the protesters. President Lyndon Johnson created the Office of Law Enforcement Assistance in 1965. From that, much was done on the federal and local level, such as enhanced training for police personnel. Police officers at that time were often made up of ex-military members who had little training and were left to learn their skills during their job experiences. Law enforcement personnel were also responsible to attend college as a result. 1965: The Watts Riots of 1965 lasted six days and began following the arrest of Marquette Frye by a white California Highway Patrol officer on suspicion of driving while intoxicated. 34 people were killed, and more than 1,000 were injured. The riots also caused over $40 million in damage. 1985: On May 13, 1985, nearly five hundred police officers attempted to clear the MOVE black liberation group compound in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. After a shootout between police and MOVE members involving automatic weapons and over 10,000 rounds fired, Commissioner Gregore Sambor ordered that the compound be bombed. Two one-pound bombs made of FBI-supplied Tovex were dropped from a police helicopter targeting a fortified, bunker-like cubicle on the roof of the house. The resulting explosions ignited a fire from fuel for a gasoline-powered generator stored in the rooftop bunker. The fire spread and eventually destroyed approximately sixty-five nearby houses. Eleven people, including five children aged 7 to 13, died in the resulting fire. 1991: In March 1991, Officers from the Los Angeles Police Department, while attempting to arrest Rodney King, used what many believed was excessive force. Four LAPD officers used physical force on King after he resisted arrest. A bystander videotaped the incident and later supplied it to local media. The officers were charged with assault and using excessive force, with all officers acquitted of the assault, and three of the four officers acquitted of using excessive of force, during the initial trial. This led to the citywide 1992 Los Angeles riots, during which 63 people were killed and 2,373 were injured; it ended only after the California Army National Guard, the United States Army, and the United States Marine Corps provided reinforcements to re-establish control. 2006: Sean Bell was fatally shot on the night before his wedding. It was reported that the police had shot over 50 times at Bell and two of his friends that he was with. 2014: Michael Brown was shot by a police officer after struggling with the officer and attempting to take the officer's gun. His death prompted citywide riots and protests that lasted approximately 5 days. 2016: Philando Castile was shot by a police officer. Due to the rise of social media and cell phones, it is now easy for people to broadcast police use of force incidents that they see. The trend started with Rodney King and has grown since. In this case, Castile's girlfriend live-streamed his death on Facebook. The video gained approximately 3.2 million views by the next day. 2020: George Floyd was murdered by a Minneapolis Police Department officer in an arrest filmed and uploaded on social media. Officer Derek Chauvin spent over nine minutes with his knee on Floyd's neck, asphyxiating him, despite pleas from onlookers to stop. The incident has sparked ongoing protests and riots across the United States. Accountability Special commissions, such as the Knapp Commission in New York City during the 1970s, have been used to bring about changes in law enforcement agencies. Civilian review boards (permanent external oversight agencies) have also been used as a means for improving police accountability. Review boards tend to focus on individual complaints, rather than broader organizational issues that may result in long-term improvements. The 1994 Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act authorized the United States Department of Justice's Civil Rights Division to bring civil ("pattern or practice") suits against local law enforcement agencies, to rein in abuses and hold them accountable. As a result, numerous departments have entered into consent decrees or memoranda of understanding, requiring them to make organizational reforms. This approach shifts focus from individual officers to placing focus on police organizations. Cost of Police Misconduct Act The Cost of Police Misconduct Act (H.R.8908) is a bill introduced to the House on 9 December 2020 by Rep. Don Beyer, proposed while incoming chair of the United States Congressional Joint Economic Committee, which seeks to create "a publicly accessible federal database that would track police misconduct allegations and settlements at both the state and federal levels". Police reform There have been many initiatives for police reform in the United States, notably since the 1960s, under President Lyndon Johnson, and several more recent efforts. In the 21st century, reforms based on community dialogue, legal requirements and updating of police training are growing. Nonetheless, instances of misconduct and brutality have continued to occur. Following the murder of George Floyd at the hands of a police officer, a number of reforms were implemented. Calls for abolition While police resentment and calls for abolition of the police have existed in the United States for over a century, police abolition became more popular in 2014 following the killing of Michael Brown and the Ferguson unrest, with national attention being drawn to issues surrounding policing. The roots of police abolition stem from (and are often linked to) the prison abolition movement. Authors and activists such as Angela Davis and Ruth Wilson Gilmore, who are best known for their prison abolition work, have integrated police abolition into their work when advocating against the carceral system of the United States. In the summer of 2016, Chicago had a multitude of abolitionist actions and protests in response to the deaths of Michael Brown and Paul O'Neal, among others. This included the occupation of an empty lot across from a Chicago Police Department property, naming it "Freedom Square", as an experiment of a world without police. In 2017, sociologist Alex S. Vitale authored The End of Policing, calling for police abolition as opposed to reforms. Police abolition spiked in popularity following the murder of George Floyd by Minneapolis Police officer Derek Chauvin. A super-majority of the Minneapolis City Council (9 of 12 council members) pledged in June 2020 to dismantle the Minneapolis Police Department. Entry qualifications Nearly all U.S. states and the federal government have by law adopted minimum-standard standardized training requirements for all officers with powers of arrest within the state. Many standards apply to in-service training as well as entry-level training, particularly in the use of firearms, with periodic re-certification required. These standards often comply with standards promoted by the US Department of Justice and typically require a thorough background check that potential police recruits must take. A typical set of criteria dictates that they must: Be a United States citizen (waived in certain agencies if the applicant is a lawful resident); Have a high school diploma or a GED and if necessary a college degree or served in the United States military without a dishonorable discharge; Be in good medical, physical, and psychological condition; Maintain a clean criminal record without either serious or repeated misdemeanor or any felony convictions; Have a valid driver's license that is not currently nor has a history of being suspended or revoked; Be of high moral character; Not have a history of prior narcotic or repeated marijuana use or alcoholism; Not have a history of ethical, professional, prior employment, motor vehicle, educational, or financial improprieties; Not have a history of domestic violence or mental illness; Not pose a safety and security risk; Be legally eligible to own and carry a firearm. Repeated interviews, written tests, medical examinations, physical fitness tests, comprehensive background investigations, fingerprinting, drug testing, a police oral board interview, a polygraph examination, and a consultation with a psychologist are common practices used to review the suitability of candidates. Recruiting in most departments is competitive, with more suitable and desirable candidates accepted over lesser ones, and failure to meet some minimum standards disqualifying a candidate entirely. Police oral boards are the most subjective part of the process and often disqualifies the biggest portion of qualified candidates. Departments maintain records of past applicants under review, and refer to them in the case of either reapplication or requests between other agencies. Training Police academies exist in every state and also at the federal level. Policing in the United States is highly fragmented, and there are no national minimum standards for licensing police officers in the U.S. Researchers say police are given far more training on use of firearms than on de-escalating provocative situations. On average, US officers spend around 21 weeks training before they are qualified to go on patrol, which is far less than in most other developed countries. Similar European training programs can last more than three years. Equipment Vehicles Police use a wide range of vehicles in their duties. Police vehicles are used for patrol, responses, and pursuits, and generally carry much of an officer's equipment, including communication devices and tools. Police vehicles in the United States have traditionally been sedans produced by the Big Three (Ford, General Motors, Stellantis), though SUVs, crossovers, pickup trucks, station wagons, and a wide variety of other vehicles have seen use among police departments historically and presently, in both standard and specialized roles. Firearms All police officers in the United States carry firearms while on duty and usually carry a handgun at minimum. Many are also required to be armed off-duty, and are often required to have a concealable off-duty handgun. Among the most common sidearms are models produced by Glock, Smith & Wesson, SIG Sauer, Beretta, and Heckler & Koch, usually in 9mm, .40 S&W, .357 SIG, or .45 ACP. Until the late 1980s and early 1990s, most American police officers carried revolvers, typically in .38 Special or .357 Magnum calibers, as their primary duty weapons. At the time, Smith & Wesson, Colt, Ruger, and Taurus models were popular with police officers, the most popular being .38 caliber revolvers produced by Smith & Wesson or Colt. Since then, most agencies have switched to semi-automatic pistols due to their higher stopping power, higher rate of fire, and greater magazine capacity. Historic events influencing the switch to pistols by police included the 1980 Norco shootout, the 1986 FBI Miami shootout, and the 1997 North Hollywood shootout. Some police departments allow qualified officers to carry shotguns, semi-automatic rifles, or (very rarely) submachine guns in their vehicles for additional firepower. These are typically intended to be used when their use would be necessary or ideal compared to handguns, such as when confronting an armed or armored suspect, or when a handgun would not provide the range, accuracy, or rate of fire required for the situation, such as when engaging a suspect from a distance or in close-quarters combat. Less-lethal weapons Police officers often carry an impact weapon—a baton, also known as a nightstick. The common nightstick and the side handle baton have been replaced in many departments by collapsible batons such as the ASP baton, though some departments continue to use them either as an option or out of tradition, such as the Baltimore Police Department's wooden espantoon batons. One advantage of the collapsible baton is that the wearer can comfortably sit in a patrol vehicle while still wearing the baton on their duty belt. The side handle nightstick usually has to be removed before entering the vehicle. Many departments also use less-lethal weapons such as mace, pepper spray, and beanbag shotgun rounds. Another less lethal weapon that police officers often carry is an electroshock weapon, also known as a Taser. The handheld electroshock weapon was designed to incapacitate a single person from a distance by using electric current to disrupt voluntary control of muscles. An individual struck by a Taser experiences stimulation of their sensory nerves and motor nerves, resulting in strong involuntary muscle contractions. Tasers do not rely only on pain compliance, except when used in drive stun mode, and are thus preferred by some law enforcement over non-Taser stun guns and other electroshock weapons. Specialized weapons Most large police departments maintain special weapons and tactics (SWAT) units, police tactical units trained and equipped to handle situations such as barricaded suspects, hostage situations, terrorist attacks, and high-risk warrants that require greater force, specialized equipment, and special tactics that are unavailable to regular police officers. These units usually have submachine guns, automatic carbines or rifles, semiautomatic or pump-action combat shotguns, sniper rifles, stun grenades, smoke grenades, ballistic shields, door breaching tools, and other specialized weapons and equipment at their disposal. Some SWAT units are equipped with dedicated SWAT armored vehicles, trucks modified for police operations, or retired military vehicles acquired from the Law Enforcement Support Office. Others are capable of handling other non-combat-related tasks, such as the NYPD's Emergency Service Unit, which is capable of conducting rescue operations. Armor and vests Uniformed police officers often wear body armor, typically in the form of a lightweight Level IIA, II or IIIA vest that can be inconspicuously worn under uniforms, though some departments allow vests to be worn above uniforms with rigs and pouches installed to replace the typical duty belt. Lightweight level IIA, II or IIIa vests are generally capable of stopping most handgun rounds. SWAT teams typically wear heavier Level III or IV tactical armored vests, often with steel or ceramic trauma plates, comparable to those worn by U.S. military personnel engaged in ground operations. Level III or IV vests are more capable of protecting officers from rifle rounds. Officers trained in bomb disposal wear bomb suits designed to protect them from the effects of an explosion when working around live ordnance. Local police foundations have also initiated programs to provide law enforcement agencies with higher level vests that provide greater protection and vests for police dogs. Body-worn camera Multiple states, such as California, Washington, and Illinois, among others, have pending body-worn camera legislation that requires its police officers to be equipped with body-worn cameras when the officers are on duty. Body-worn cameras are video recording devices around three inches long that cost between $129 and $900. There are different body-worn camera models, but a standard body-worn camera includes an on and off switch that enables the image capturing technology to record and store data in the cloud. Body-worn cameras have become standard due to the rise of complaints about police brutality across the nation. Supporters argue that the use of a body-worn camera allows evidence to be viewed from an unbiased perspective. Body-worn camera models are being developed that are intended to resolve the technology's limitations, such as better audio capturing technology and battery life. Drones In recent years police have recruited unmanned surveillance devices such as small throwable robotics and flying drones to conduct reconnaissance in dangerous locations. These devices can be used to identify the presence of a hostage, locate and/or identify subjects, and reveal the layout of a room. The devices do all this by transmitting real-time audio and video to the pilot, giving police an advantage when they cannot directly see a suspect or enter a location where they are needed. Some other uses for this device may be bomb detection, crash investigations, as well as searching suspicious vehicles. Flying drones are also being enlisted to help police in dangerous situations such as a barricaded suspect or a hostage situation. These drones increase safety by providing information that can be used in mapping and planning. These devices equipped with cameras allow officers to get a bird's eye view of a scene in an emergency, allowing responders to safely get much closer to a scene than they could if they went in on foot. Police communications Radio Most American police departments are dispatched from a centralized communications center, using VHF, UHF, or, more recently, digitally trunked radio transceivers mounted in their vehicles, with individual officers carrying portable handsets or ear-worn headsets for communication when away from their vehicles. American police cars are also increasingly equipped with mobile data terminals (MDTs) or portable computers linked by radio to a network allowing them access to state department of motor vehicles information, criminal records, and other important information. Most police communications are now conducted within a regional pool of area telecommunicators or dispatchers using 9-1-1 and 9-1-1 telephone taxation. A large number of police agencies have pooled their 9-1-1 tax resources for Computer Aided Dispatching (CAD) to streamline dispatching and reporting. CAD systems are usually linked to MDTs. National Law Enforcement Telecommunications System A variety of national, regional, state, and local information systems are available to law enforcement agencies in the U.S., with different purposes and types of information. One example is the National Law Enforcement Telecommunications System (NLETS), an interstate justice and public safety network owned by the states supporting inquiry into state systems for criminal history, driver's license and motor vehicle registration, as well as supporting inquiry into federal systems, such as the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) 's U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) Law Enforcement Support Center, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) National Drug Pointer Index (NDPIX), and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Aircraft Registry and the Government of Canada's Canadian Police Information Centre (CPIC). NLETS operates primarily through a secure private network through which each state has an interface to the network that all agencies within the state operate through. The federal and international components operate very similarly. Users include all U.S. states and territories, some federal agencies, and certain international agencies. The primary operational site for the network is housed in Arizona, with a secure backup site located in the East Central U.S. Through the NLETS network, law enforcement and criminal justice agencies can access a wide range of information, from standard driver license and vehicle queries to criminal history and Interpol information. Operations consist of nearly 1.5 billion transactions a year to over one million PC, mobile, and handheld devices in the U.S. and Canada at 45,000 user agencies, and to 1.3 million individual users. Dissemination Police departments share arrest information with third-party news organizations that archive names of citizens and legal allegations in a "police blotter". However, even if the allegations are dismissed in court, a citizen may not petition the third-party for removal. Police population In 2008, federal police agencies employed approximately 120,000 full-time law enforcement officers, authorized to make arrests and carry firearms in the United States. The 2008 Bureau of Justice Statistics' Census of State and Local Law Enforcement Agencies (CSLLEA), found there were 17,985 state and local law enforcement agencies employing at least one full-time officer or the equivalent in part-time officers. In 2008, state and local law enforcement agencies employed more than 1.1 million people on a full-time basis, including about 765,000 sworn personnel (defined as those with general arrest powers). Agencies also employed approximately 100,000 part-time employees, including 44,000 sworn officers. From 2004 to 2008, overall full-time employment by state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide increased by about 57,000 (or 5.3%). Sworn personnel increased by about 33,000 (4.6%), and nonsworn employees by about 24,000 (6.9%). From 2004 to 2008, the number of full-time sworn personnel per 100,000 U.S. residents increased from 250 to 251. From 1992 to 2008, the growth rate for support personnel was more than double that of sworn personnel. Local police departments were the largest employer of sworn personnel, accounting for 60% of the total. Sheriffs' offices were next, accounting for 24%. About half (49%) of all agencies employed fewer than 10 full-time officers. Nearly two-thirds (64%) of sworn personnel worked for agencies that employed 100 or more officers. In 2019, the FBI estimated that approximately 1,003,270 law enforcement personnel were employed nationwide and distributed across more than 13,250 agencies. Of those, 697,195 were sworn officers, with 306,075 civilian employees. According to FBI UCR's the total number of agencies (including federal agencies) in the United States dropped from 19,071 to 18,794 (excluding 277 federal agencies). Demographics Law enforcement has historically been a male-dominated profession. There are approximately 18,000 law enforcement agencies at federal, state, and local level, with more than 1.1 million employees. There are around 12,000 local law enforcement agencies, the most numerous of the three types. In a 2013 survey, the Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics found that 72.8% of local police officers were white. Black or African American were 12.2% (the black population in the United States is roughly 13%) and Latino or Hispanic are 11.6%. Women made up 17% of full-time sworn officers. Women, Asian, and Hispanic officers are significantly under-represented in police forces. Many law enforcement agencies are attempting to hire a diversity of recruits to better represent their communities. Changes in personnel numbers Fifteen of the 50 largest local police departments employed fewer full-time sworn personnel in 2008 than in 2004. The largest declines were in Detroit (36%), Memphis (23%), New Orleans (13%), and San Francisco (10%). Ten of the 50 largest local police departments reported double-digit increases in sworn personnel from 2004 to 2008. The largest increases were in Phoenix (19%), Prince George's County (Maryland) (17%), Dallas (15%), and Fort Worth (14%). Salary Salary varies widely for police officers, with most being among the top third of wage-earners, age 25 or older, nationwide. The median annual wage for criminal investigators was $86,940 and $65,540 for patrol officers, in May 2020. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $38,420, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $146,000. The median wages for police and detective occupations in May 2020 were as follows: $86,940 for detectives and criminal investigators $72,580 for transit and railroad police $65,540 for police and sheriff's patrol officers $58,040 for fish and game wardens Deaths The main cause of death to law enforcement officers are roadway related incidents. This includes both crashes and struck-by incidents. Between the years of 2011 and 2020, there were a total of 1,387 officer line-of-duty deaths excluding COVID-19 related deaths. Of these deaths, 286 officers died because of crashes or 21% of total deaths. In addition, 114 officers died because of struck-by incidents or 8% of total deaths. Between 2005 and 2019, over 200 law enforcement officers died because of struck-by incidents. These deaths account for 24% of motor vehicle-related officer deaths. This can occur in many situations, but commonly occurs at traffic stops when officers are in or near roadways. According to 2017 FBI figures and stated above, the majority of officer deaths on the job were the result of accidents rather than homicides. Civilians faced a homicide rate of 5.6 per 100,000, while police faced a homicide rate of 3 per 100,000. Throughout 2021, 262 officers have died from various medical conditions, the two leading causes were contracting COVID-19 (242) and heart attack (17), with 1 death associated with responding to the September 11 attacks. As of December, 2021, line-of-duty officer deaths totaled 126 (felonious and accidental). The Officer Down Memorial Page (ODMP) has tracked approximately 26,237 officers who have died in the line of duty in the United States since 1776. A memorial is also hosted in Washington, DC, by the National Law Enforcement Officers Museum of the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund (NLEOMF). Since January 1, 2022, authorized agencies are able to submit suicide information for their officers, based on the Law Enforcement Suicide Data Collection Act, enacted by the United States Congress in June 2020. See also Slave patrol Police officer certification and licensure in the United States Police ranks of the United States Police uniforms in the United States Police brutality in the United States List of law enforcement agencies in the District of Columbia List of unarmed African Americans killed by law enforcement officers in the United States List of U.S. state and local law enforcement agencies Police academies in the United States Slave patrol Related: Crime in the United States Incarceration in the United States Terrorism in the United States General: Police References External links United States government, Department of Justice: Law enforcement in the United States, Resources Police1.com is the #1 resource for law enforcement online COPS Office: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services is a component of the United States Department of Justice. POLICE Magazine The National Sheriffs’ Association Reserve Organization of America Law Enforcement Community Relations Service - Department of Justice Law Enforcement - United States Department of State National Policing Institute National Association of Police Organizations Types of Law Enforcement Agencies - Discover Policing U.S. Customs and Border Protection U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement's (ICE) Federal Bureau of Prisons U.S. Marshals Service U.S. Secret Service ATF Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives DEA Drug Enforcement Administration FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation Homeland Security IRS:CI Internal Revenue Service Criminal Investigation Bureau of Prisons Public services of the United States
4876289	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aix-Marseille%20University	Aix-Marseille University	Aix-Marseille University (AMU; ; formally incorporated as ) is a public research university located in the Provence region of southern France. It was founded in 1409 when Louis II of Anjou, Count of Provence, petitioned the Pisan Antipope Alexander V to establish the University of Provence, making it the fourth-oldest university in France. The institution came into its current form following a reunification of the University of Provence, the University of the Mediterranean and Paul Cézanne University. The reunification became effective on 1 January 2012, resulting in the creation of the largest university in the Francophone world, with about 80,000 students. AMU has the largest budget of any academic institution in the French-speaking world standing at €750 million. It is consistently ranked among the top 200 universities in the world and is ranked within the top 4 universities in France according to CWTS and USNWR. The university is organized around five main campuses situated in Aix-en-Provence and Marseille. Apart from its major campuses, AMU owns and operates facilities in Arles, Aubagne, Avignon, Digne-les-Bains, Gap, La Ciotat, Lambesc and Salon-de-Provence. The university is headquartered in the 7th arrondissement of Marseille. AMU has produced many notable alumni in the fields of law, politics, business, science, academia, and the arts. To date, there have been four Nobel Prize laureates amongst its alumni and faculty, as well as a two-time recipient of the Pulitzer Prize, four César Award winners, multiple heads of state or government, parliamentary speakers, government ministers, ambassadors and members of the constituent academies of the . AMU has hundreds of research and teaching partnerships, including close collaboration with the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) and the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA). AMU is a member of numerous academic organisations including the European University Association (EUA) and the Mediterranean Universities Union (UNIMED). History Early history (1409–1800) The institution developed out of the original University of Provence, founded on 9 December 1409 as a studium generale by Louis II of Anjou, Count of Provence, and recognized by papal bull issued by the Pisan Antipope Alexander V. However, there is evidence that teaching in Aix existed in some form from the beginning of the 12th century, since there were a doctor of theology in 1100, a doctor of law in 1200 and a professor of law in 1320 on the books. The decision to establish the university was, in part, a response to the already-thriving University of Paris. As a result, in order to be sure of the viability of the new institution, Louis II compelled his Provençal students to study in Aix only. Thus, the letters patent for the university were granted, and the government of the university was created. The Archbishop of Aix-en-Provence, Thomas de Pupio, was appointed as the first chancellor of the university for the rest of his life. After his death in 1420, a new chancellor was elected by the rector, masters, and licentiates – an uncommon arrangement not repeated at any other French university. The rector was to be an "ordinary student", who had unrestricted civil and criminal jurisdiction in all cases where one party was a doctor or scholar of the university. Those displeased with the rector's decisions could appeal to a doctor legens. Eleven consiliarii provided assistance to the rector, being elected yearly by their predecessors. These individuals represented all faculties, but were elected from among the students. The constitution was of a student-university, and the instructors did not have great authority except in granting degrees. A resident doctor or student who married was required to pay charivari to the university, the amount varying with the degree or status of the man, and being increased if the bride was a widow. Refusal to submit to this statutable extortion was punished by the assemblage of students at the summons of the rector with frying-pans, bassoons, and horns at the house of the newly married couple. Continued recusancy was followed by the piling up of dirt in front of their door upon every Feast-day. These injunctions were justified on the ground that the money extorted was devoted to divine service. In 1486 Provence passed to the French crown. The university's continued existence was approved by Louis XII of France, and Aix-en-Provence continued to be a significant provincial centre. It was, for instance, the seat of the Parliament of Aix-en-Provence from 1501 to 1789, no doubt aided by the presence of the law school. In 1603 Henry IV of France established the Collège Royal de Bourbon in Aix-en-Provence for the study of belles-lettres and philosophy, supplementing the traditional faculties of the university, but not formally a part of it. This college de plain exercice became a significant seat of learning, under the control of the Jesuit order. Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, the college frequently served as a preparatory, but unaffiliated, school for the university. Only the university was entitled to award degrees in the theology, law, and medicine; but candidates for degrees had first to pass an examination in philosophy, which was only provided by the college. Universities basically accepted candidates who had studied in colleges formally affiliated with them, which in reality required both college and university to be situated in the same city. In 1762 the Jesuits were forced to leave France, and in 1763 the Collège Royal de Bourbon was officially affiliated with the university as a faculty of arts. The addition of the Collège Royal de Bourbon essentially widened the scope of courses provided at the University of Provence. Formal instruction in French was initially provided at the college, with texts and a structured course of study. Physics later became a part of the curriculum at the college as a part of the philosophy course in the 18th century. Equipment for carrying out experiments was obtained and the first course in experimental physics was provided at Aix-en-Provence in 1741. Classical mechanics, however, was only taught after 1755, when the physicist Paulian offered his first class and Isaac Newton's Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica and commentaries were obtained for the library. It should also be noted that much later, in 1852, Paul Cézanne entered the college where he met and befriended Émile Zola. This friendship was decisive for both men so they had successful careers – Cézanne as a painter and Zola as a writer. The French Revolution, with its focus on the individual and an end to inherited privilege, saw the suppression of the universities. To the revolutionaries, universities embodied bastions of corporatism and established interests. Moreover, lands owned by the universities and utilized for their support, represented a source of wealth to be tapped by the revolutionary government, just as property possessed by the Church had been confiscated. In 1792, the University of Provence, along with twenty-one other universities, was dissolved. Specialized ecoles, with rigorous entrance examinations and open to anyone with talent, were eventually created in order to offer professional training in specialized areas. Nonetheless, the government found it necessary to allow the faculties of law and medicine to continue in Aix-en-Provence and Marseille in the early 19th century. Modern era (1800–1968) During the 19th century, additional faculties were opened in Aix-en-Provence and Marseille to serve the changing needs of French society. For instance, Hippolyte Fortoul, later Minister of National Education and Public Worship of France, was the first dean and professor of a new faculty in French literature established in Aix-en-Provence in the 1840s. In 1896, the departmental council of the Bouches-du-Rhône founded a chair in the faculty of letters at Aix-en-Provence in the language and literature of Southern Europe; their aim was to assist the commercial exploitation of the region by French business. A new science faculty was created in Marseille to support the growing industrialization of the region. At about the same time, a special training program was created in the faculty of medicine in order to train doctors in colonial medicine for France's expanding colonial empire. The most significant development for the university in the 19th century, nevertheless, was the recreation of French universities in 1896. The various faculties in Aix-en-Provence and Marseille were grouped into the new University of Aix-Marseille. Through two world wars and a depression, the University of Aix-Marseille continued to develop. Increasing numbers of women and foreign students joined the student body, and an overwhelming majority of students majored in the science, medicine, and law. Individual faculties were almost autonomous from university administration and the Ministry of Education frequently intervened directly among the faculties. Recent history (1968–present) Following riots among university students in May 1968, a reform of French education occurred. The Orientation Act (Loi d'Orientation de l'Enseignement Superieur) of 1968 divided the old faculties into smaller subject departments, decreased the power of the Ministry of Education, and created smaller universities, with strengthened administrations. Subsequently, the University of Aix-Marseille was divided into two institutions. Each university had different areas of concentration of study and the faculties were divided as follows: University of Aix-Marseille I: law, political science, history, psychology, sociology, ethnology, philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, natural sciences, languages, literature and civilization University of Aix-Marseille II: economic science, geography, technology, medicine, pharmacy, dental surgery, topical medicine, physical education and ocean science In 1973, conservative faculty members led by Charles Debbasch, demanded and obtained the creation of the University of Aix-Marseille III, grouping law, political science, applied economics, earth science, ecology and technological studies. Nearly 40 years later, in June 2007, the three universities of Aix-Marseille expressed their intention to reunite in order to form one university. The reunification was gradually prepared, respecting a schedule which allowed for long discussions at each stage, after which it was approved by vote of the Board of Directors of each university. Thus, Aix-Marseille University was re-established by decree No. 2011–1010 of 24 August 2011 and officially opened its doors on 1 January 2012. Organization Aix-Marseille University is organized into five sectors: Law and Political Science Faculty of Law and Political Science Institute of Public Management and Territorial Governance Economics and Management Faculty of Economics and Management School of Journalism and Communication Aix-Marseille Graduate School of Management Regional Institute of Labour Arts, Literature, Languages and Human Sciences Faculty of Arts, Literature, Languages and Human Sciences Training Centre for Musicians Mediterranean House of Human Sciences Faculty of Medical and Paramedical Sciences Faculty of Dentistry Faculty of Pharmacy Sciences and Technology Faculty of Sciences Faculty of Sports Pytheas Institute – Earth Sciences and Astronomy Observatory Polytech Marseille In addition, the University Institute of Technology and Institute of Teaching and Education are part of the university. Governance AMU is governed by the President, the Vice Presidents, the General Director of Services and Deputy Directors General of Services and the Accounting Officer. They meet on a weekly basis to discuss the main affairs of the university and to devise the strategic orientations which will be examined by the university councils. A second meeting with all the deans and directors takes place immediately afterwards to discuss more specific issues regarding internal activities of the various faculties and schools. The Administrative Council comprises 30 members: academics, teaching staff, administrative and technical personnel, students and external members. Its role is to determine the university general policy. The Academic Council consists of two bodies: The Research Committee, composed of 40 members, drafts policy proposals for research, scientific and technical documentation, and the allocation of research funding. The Education and Student Life Committee, composed of 40 members, drafts policy proposals on the curriculum, on requests for authorization and projects for new programs, and on the assessment of programs and teaching. If the President of the university is the most important actor in defining the mission and the strategies of the university, he also has the necessary power to impulse or to sustain the projects that relate to these strategies. Before implementing these projects, they have to be accepted by the university council and if necessary they have to be included in the planning processes. There are two main planning processes in the definition of projects in the university that have to be followed in order to be financed or even authorised and accredited by the public (national and local) authorities. The first process takes place every six years and involves the central government, the region as well as the university. It is devoted to major investment projects, for instance building a new school, a new campus, a new library, etc. It is a catalogue of projects and for each of them it defines the financial burden accepted by each partner in the contract. The second process covers four years and has to be approved by the French Ministry of Education. In this process, the university sets its objectives at the pedagogical and research levels (new degrees, research projects). This planning process is very important because the university is free to define its own strategy, to be approved by the decision makers. Each process generates an important brainstorming period at all levels of the university in order to identify and build new ideas, new needs, and opportunities, to prioritise them, after an analysis of strengths and weaknesses. Other choices can be made after each process is closed, but they are more difficult to implement because other sources of funding and other ways of authorisation must be found. Academic profile Aix-Marseille University enrolls about 80,000 students, including more than 10,000 international students from 128 different countries. The university, with its wide range of general and vocational courses including 600 degree courses, offers teaching in fields as varied as the Arts, Social Sciences, Health, Sport and Economics, Law and Political Sciences, Applied Economics and Management, and Exact Sciences such as Mathematics, Data-processing, Physical Sciences, Astrophysical Sciences, Chemistry and Biology. Its 132 recognized research units and 21 faculties make it a centre of international excellence in social and natural sciences. With more than 500 international agreements, the university participates in the creation of European area of education and research and in the development of mobility. A policy in the direction of Asian countries has led to increase its enrollments of excellent international students. Programmes in French and/or English have been organized in order to favour the welcome and the integration of international students, in particular thanks to the presence within the university of the University Service of French as a Foreign Language (SUFLE). Its predecessor, the Institute of French Studies for Foreign Students (Institut d'Etudes Françaises Pour Etudiants Etrangers (IEFEE)) was founded in 1953 and was regarded as one of the best French-language teaching centres in the country. About a thousand students from 65 countries attend the SUFLE throughout the academic year. It is also a notable centre for teachers of French as a foreign language, and its function is to provide training and perfecting of linguistic abilities in French as a scientific and cultural means of communication. According to Harvard University's website, the university is "one of the most distinguished in France, second only to the University of Paris in the areas of French literature, history, and linguistics". The university's library system comprises 59 libraries, with 662,000 volumes, 20,000 online periodical titles, and thousands of digital resources, making it one of the largest and most diverse academic library systems in France. The overall area occupied by the libraries is equal to 37,056 m2, including 19,703 m2 public access space. The libraries offer 49.2 kilometers of open-stacks shelving and 4,219 seats for student study. In addition, there are 487 computer workstations, which are available to the public for research purposes. Political Science The university's Institute of Political Studies (Institut d'études politiques d'Aix-en-Provence), also known as Sciences Po Aix, was established in 1956. Sciences Po Aix is a separate and fully independent legal entity within the university. It is one of a network of 10 world-famous IEPs (Instituts d'Etudes Politiques) in France, including those in Bordeaux, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Paris, Rennes, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Strasbourg and Toulouse. Sciences Po Aix is a grande école in political science and its primary aim is to train senior executives for the public, semi-public, and private sectors. Although the institute offers a multitude of disciplines, its main focus is on politics, including related subjects such as history, law, economics, languages, international relations, and media studies. Its admissions process is among the toughest and most selective in the country. Sciences Po Aix has numerous exchange programs through partnerships with about 120 different universities in the world: the school therefore welcomes 200 foreign students a year. On top of these academic exchanges, students have the opportunity to do internships abroad in large international firms. Many of the institute's graduates have gone on to high positions within both the French government and in foreign governments. Among the best-known people who studied at Sciences Po Aix are the current President of the European Central Bank (ECB), Christine Lagarde, former High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and Vice-President of the European Commission, Federica Mogherini, the 5th President of Sri Lanka, Chandrika Kumaratunga, former Minister of Justice of France, Élisabeth Guigou, former Presidents of the National Assembly of France, Philippe Séguin and Patrick Ollier. Law The law school at AMU dates back to the university's foundation in 1409. The school had far-reaching influence, since written law, which in France originated in Aix-en-Provence, spread from there, eventually replacing the common law practiced throughout the rest of northern Gaul. The law school has a long tradition of self-management, with a strongly institutionalized culture and practices enrooted in the social and economic realities of the region. Today, it is one of the largest law schools in France, and is considered to be one of the nation's leading centres for legal research and teaching. The school is unique among French law schools for the breadth of courses offered and the extent of research undertaken in a wide range of fields. For 2023, the law school is ranked 3rd in France for its undergraduate studies by Eduniversal, and 4th in the country according to the THE Rankings. According to the University of Connecticut's website, "other than the Sorbonne, Aix has attracted the most prestigious law faculty in France". The teaching faculty comprises 155 professors and 172 adjunct lecturers, the latter drawn from private practice, the civil service, the judiciary and other organizations. Much of the legal research at the university is done under the auspices of its many research institutes – there is one in almost every field of law. Research activity is buttressed by a network of libraries, which holds an impressive collection of monographs and periodicals, including an important collection of 16th-century manuscripts. Moreover, the libraries have several specialized rooms dedicated to specific fields of law, in particular in International and European Law and Legal Theory. The school has produced a large number of luminaries in law and politics including the 2nd President of France, Adolphe Thiers, former Prime Minister of France, Édouard Balladur, former President of the National Assembly of France, Félix Gouin, and former Minister of Justice of France, Adolphe Crémieux. The school has also educated two Nobel laureates: René Cassin, winner of the 1968 Nobel Peace Prize, and Frédéric Mistral, winner of the 1904 Nobel Prize in Literature. Alumni also include the 3rd President of Lebanon, Émile Eddé, former Prime Minister of Bulgaria, Vasil Kolarov, former Prime Minister of Angola, Fernando José de França Dias Van-Dúnem, and former Prime Minister of Cambodia, Norodom Ranariddh. In addition, from 1858 to 1861, a prominent French artist and Post-Impressionist painter Paul Cézanne attended the school, while also receiving drawing lessons. Business and Management Studies The Aix-Marseille Graduate School of Management, commonly known as IAE Aix-en-Provence, was the first Graduate School of Management in the French public university system. According to The Independent, IAE Aix is "a prestigious, double-accredited institution, with an international approach to business combining both classic and innovative teaching methods". It is the only French public university entity to receive dual international accreditation: the European standard of excellence EQUIS in 1999, and the AMBA accreditation in 2004 for its MBA Change & Innovation, in 2005 for its master's programmes and in 2007 for its Executive Part-time MBA. The school is composed of 40 permanent faculty members, and invites more than 30 international professors and 150 business speakers each year to conduct lectures and courses within the various programmes. IAE Aix offers graduate level programmes in general management, international management, internal audit of organisations, service management, internal and external communications management, management and information technologies, international financial management and applied marketing. In 2011, the M.Sc. in General Management was ranked 2nd in France along with the M.Sc. in Services Management and Marketing being ranked 3rd and the M.Sc. in Audit and Corporate Governance also being ranked 3rd in the country by SMBG. In 1990, IAE Aix and ESSEC Business School (École supérieure des sciences économiques et commerciales) signed an agreement to unite and offer a joint Doctorate Programme, allowing ESSEC professors to teach in the Research Oriented Master programme in Aix-en-Provence. Furthermore, after Research Oriented Master graduation, students can attend the ESSEC Doctorate seminars and have an ESSEC Research Advisor (Directeur de Recherche). In the same way, ESSEC students can enroll in the IAE Aix's Research Oriented Master and Doctorate programmes. In both cases, the members of the thesis juries come from both IAE Aix and ESSEC. The Doctorate title is awarded by Aix-Marseille University. Economics Aix-Marseille School of Economics (AMSE) is a gathering of three big laboratories in economics, part of AMU: GREQAM (Groupement de Recherche en Economie Quantitative d'Aix Marseille), SESSTIM (Sciences Économiques & Sociales de la Santé & Traitement de l'Information Médicale), and IDEP (Institut D’Economie Publique). GREQAM is a research center which specializes in all areas of economics, with strong concentrations in macroeconomics, econometrics, game theory, economic philosophy and public economics. It counts two Fellows of the Econometric Society among its members, and is consistently ranked as one of the top 5 research centers in economics in France. SESSTIM consists of three teams in social and economic sciences, as well as social epidemiology, focusing on applications in the following fields: cancer, infectious and transmissible diseases, and aging. IDEP aims at federating competences in the field of Public Economics broadly defined as the part of economics that studies the causes and the consequences of public intervention in the economic sphere. AMSE has a triple aim in terms of research development about "Globalization and public action", education regarding Master and PhD degrees and valorization toward local authorities, administrations and corporations, and of information aiming at all public. The AMSE Master is a two-year Master programme in Economics jointly organized with the School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences and École Centrale de Marseille. It aims to provide high-level courses and training in the main fields of specialization of AMSE: Development Economics, Econometrics, Public Economics, Environmental Economics, Finance/Insurance, Macroeconomics, Economic Philosophy, and Health Economics. The doctoral programme of AMSE brings together more than seventy PhD students. Ten to fifteen new PhD students join the programme each year. These PhD students cover all the research topics available at AMSE. The PhD programme is a member of the European Doctoral Group in Economics (EDGE) with the University of Cambridge, the University of Copenhagen, University College Dublin, Bocconi University, and Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. Medicine The Faculty of Medicine at AMU can trace its origins to a college of medicine established in 1645 and recognized by a decree issued by the Council of State of France in 1683. During the revolution, although a faculty of medicine was created in Montpellier, Marseille was left aside, probably because of its close proximity. In 1818, École Secondaire de Médecine et de Pharmacie opened in Marseille and this later became an École de Plein Exercice in 1841. Consequently, it was not until 1930 that a faculty of medicine was formally organised in Marseille. However, the town's geographical position meant that it was able to exert a strong influence upon the Mediterranean. The most significant example of this was Antoine Clot, known as Clot Bey, who with the help of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, founded a school of medicine in Cairo in 1827. This enabled Egyptian students to travel to France and encouraged exchanges between western and eastern medicine. In Marseille, medical practices adapted to tropical diseases developed under the influence of the military department of medicine. Physiology at the faculty dates back to Charles-Marie Livon, who was named professeur suppléant (deputy professor) and then professeur agrégé (associate professor) of anatomy and physiology having presented his thesis in Paris. He conducted research on hypophysis and pneumogastric physiology, which earned him the Monthyon Prize at the French Academy of Sciences. Following his work with Louis Pasteur, he opened an anti-rabies clinic and became Mayor of Marseille in 1895. The first dean of the faculty was Leon Imbert, who arrived in Marseille in 1904 as a former interne des hôpitaux and professeur agrégé at the Montpellier faculty. Originally a surgeon, he established one of the first centers for maxillofacial prosthetics for the gueules cassées (broken faces) of the Great War. An anti-cancer center was developed by Lucien Cornill, who was originally from Vichy and studied in Paris. During the First World War, he worked at the neurological center in the 7th Military region of Besançon under the supervision of Gustave Roussy. After the war, he became a professeur agrégé of pathological anatomy. He became dean of the faculty in 1937 and held this position until 1952. His main work related to clinical neurology and medullary pathology. The Faculty of Pharmacy started its independent activity after being separated from the faculty in 1970. Subsequently, the Faculty of Dentistry also became independent from the Faculty of Medicine. Thus, these three faculties form the Division of Health of the university. Earth Sciences and Astronomy The university's Astronomy Observatory of Marseille-Provence (OAMP) is one of the French National Observatories under the auspices of the National Institute of Astronomy (INSU) of the National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), with a large financial participation by the National Centre for Space Studies (CNES). Basic research at the OAMP is organized around three priority themes: cosmology and research on dark matter and dark energy, galaxy formation and evolution, stellar and planetary system formation and exploration of the solar system. The OAMP also contributes to the area of environmental sciences and especially the study of the climatic system. The OAMP is very active in technological research and development, mainly in optics and opto-mechanics, for the development of the main observational instruments that will be deployed on the ground and in space in the coming decades. For many years OAMP research teams have had close ties with the French and European space and optical industry. The OAMP takes part in university education in astrophysics, physics and mathematics, as well as in instrumentation and signal processing from the first year of university to the doctorate level. These programs lead to openings in the fields of research and high-tech industry. The OAMP organizes many astronomy outreach activities in order to share important discoveries with the public. The OAMP consists of two establishments: the Laboratory of Astrophysics of Marseille (LAM) and the Haute-Provence Observatory (OHP), along with the Département Gassendi, which is a common administrative and technical support unit. With over 50 researchers, 160 engineers, technical and administrative personnel, plus some 20 graduate students and post-docs, the OAMP is one of the most important research institutes in the region. Engineering Polytech Marseille is a Grande École d'Ingénieurs (Graduate School of Science and Engineering), part of AMU. The School offers 8 specialist courses in New Technologies which lead to an engineering degree after 5 years of studies. Polytech Marseille is also a member of the Polytech Group which comprises 13 engineering schools of French leading universities. Polytech Marseille's advanced level courses have a strong professional focus. They include compulsory work placements in a professional organisation. These programs also benefit from a top rank scientific environment, with teaching staff drawn from laboratories attached to major French research organisations that are among the leaders in their field. Students are recruited on the basis of a selective admissions process which goes via one of two nationwide competitive admissions examinations (concours): either after the baccalauréat (national secondary school graduation examination) for admission to a five-year course or after two years of higher education for admission to a three-year course. The courses are approved by the Commission des Titres d'Ingénieur (CTI), the French authority that authorizes recognised engineering schools to deliver the Diplôme d'Ingénieur (a state-recognised title, recognised equivalent to a "Master in Engineering" by AACRAO) and thus guarantees the quality of the courses. The courses are also accredited by EUR-ACE. Rankings and reputation In the 2015 Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU), AMU is ranked joint 101st–150th in the world. In the subject tables it is ranked joint 76th–100th in the world for Natural Sciences and Mathematics, joint 151st–200th in the world for Engineering/Technology and Computer Sciences, joint 101st–150th in the world for Life and Agricultural Sciences, joint 151st–200th in the world for Clinical Medicine and Pharmacy, 25th in the world for Mathematics, and joint 101st–150th in the world for Physics. In the 2018 Times Higher Education World University Rankings (THE), AMU is ranked joint 251st–300th in the world. In the subject tables it is ranked joint 151st–175th in the world for Arts and Humanities. In the 2015/16 QS World University Rankings (QS), AMU is ranked joint 361st in the world. In the subject tables it is ranked joint 151st–200th in the world for Accounting and Finance, joint 101st–150th in the world for Earth and Marine Sciences, joint 101st–150th in the world for Environmental Studies, joint 101st–150th in the world for History and Archaeology, joint 151st–200th in the world for Law and Legal Studies, joint 151st–200th in the world for Medicine, and joint 151st–200th in the world for Psychology. In the 2016 U.S. News & World Report Best Global Universities Ranking, AMU is ranked joint 175th in the world. In the subject tables it is ranked joint 74th in the world for Biology and Biochemistry, joint 166th in the world for Chemistry, joint 149th in the world for Clinical Medicine, joint 90th in the world for Geosciences, joint 50th in the world for Immunology, joint 35th in the world for Microbiology, 98th in the world for Neuroscience and Behavior, joint 95th in the world for Physics, 82nd in the world for Plant and Animal Science, joint 134th in the world for Psychiatry/Psychology, and 34th in the world for Space Science. In the 2016 CWTS Leiden Ranking, AMU is ranked 137th in the world. In the 2015/16 University Ranking by Academic Performance (URAP), AMU is ranked 77th in the world. In the 2016 Center for World University Rankings (CWUR), AMU is ranked 151st in the world. In the 2019 Reuters - The World's Most Innovative Universities ranking, AMU is ranked 96th in the world. University presses Aix-Marseille University is affiliated with two university presses: Presses Universitaires de Provence (PUP) and Presses Universitaires d'Aix-Marseille (PUAM); the former is dedicated to the publication of works in the humanities and hard sciences, whereas the latter is devoted to the publication of legal works. Notable alumni AMU has produced many alumni that have distinguished themselves in their respective fields. Notable AMU alumni include three Nobel Prize laureates, a two-time recipient of the Pulitzer Prize, four César Award winners, four Olympic medalists and numerous members of the component academies of the . AMU has a large number of alumni who have been active in politics, including multiple heads of state or government, parliamentary speakers, government ministers, at least a hundred members of the National Assembly of France, twenty-six members of the Senate of France and eleven members of the European Parliament (EP). Notable faculty and staff Nobel laureates Sheldon Glashow – winner of the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics Pierre Agostini – winner of the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physics Politics and government Foreign politicians Chedly Ayari – Minister of Planning of Tunisia: 1969–1970/1974–1975; Minister of Youth and Sports of Tunisia: Jun–Nov 1970; Minister of Education of Tunisia: 1970–1971; Minister of Economy of Tunisia: 1972–1974 Renato Balduzzi – Minister of Health of Italy: 2011–2013 Boudewijn Bouckaert – Member of the Flemish Parliament: 2009–2014 Sadok Chaabane – Minister of Justice of Tunisia: 1992–1997; Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research of Tunisia: 1999–2004 Tullio De Mauro – Minister of Education of Italy: 2000–2001 Francis Delpérée – Member of Belgian Senate: 2007–2011 Sven Koopmans – Member of the House of Representatives of the Netherlands: 2017–2021 Nikolaos Politis – Minister of Foreign Affairs of Greece: 1916–1920 Kenneth F. Simpson – Republican member of the United States House of Representatives: Jan 1941 Michel van den Abeele – Director-General of Eurostat: 2003–2004; Ambassador of the EU to the OECD and UNESCO: 2004–2007 French politicians Joseph Barthélemy – Minister of Justice of France: 1941–1943 Hippolyte Fortoul – Minister of the Navy and Colonies of France: Oct–Dec 1851; Minister of National Education of France/Minister of Public Worship of France: 1851–1856 Hubert Haenel – French politician, member of the Constitutional Council of France: 2010–2015 Didier Maus – Councillor of State of France: 2001–2011 Jean-Paul Proust – Minister of State of Monaco: 2005–2010; Prefect of Police of Paris: 2001–2004 Joseph Jérôme Siméon – President of the National Assembly of France: Aug–Sep 1797; Minister of National Education of France: Feb–Oct 1820; Minister of the Interior of France: 1820–1821; President of the Court of Financial Auditors of France: 1837–1839 Jean-Jacques Weiss – Councillor of State of France: 1873–1879 Members of the National Assembly of France René Brunet – Deputy: 1928–1942 Joseph Comiti – Deputy: 1968–1981 Paul de Fougères de Villandry – Deputy: 1837–1839 Jean-Pierre Giran – Deputy: 1997–2002/2002–2007/2007–2012/2012–2017 François-Michel Lambert – Deputy: 2012–present Rémy Montagne – Deputy: 1958–1968/1973–1980 Ambroise Mottet – Deputy: 1835–1842/1844–1848 Paul Patriarche – Deputy: 1997–2002 Camille Perreau – Deputy: 1898–1902 Philippe Sanmarco – Deputy: 1981–1993 Henri-Emmanuel Poulle – Deputy: 1831–1834/1834–1837/1837–1839/1839–1842/1842–1846/1846–1848 Dominique Taddéi – Deputy: 1978–1981/1981–1986 Maurice Toga – Deputy: 1986–1988 Members of the Senate of France Alain Delcamp – Secretary-General: 2007–2013 Brigitte Devésa – Senator: 2021–present Claude Domeizel – Senator: 1998–2014 Michèle Einaudi – Senator: Aug–Sep 2020 Hélène Masson-Maret – Senator: 2013–2014 Diplomatic service Princess Bajrakitiyabha – Thai Ambassador to Austria: 2012–2014 Gilles-Henry Garault – French Ambassador to Nepal: 2007–2010 Jeane Kirkpatrick – United States Ambassador to the United Nations: 1981–1985 Lawyers, judges, and legal academics Sami A. Aldeeb – Head of the Arab and Islamic Law Department at the Swiss Institute of Comparative Law, and Director of the Center of Arab and Islamic Law Harry Blackmun – Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States: 1970–1994 Jay Bybee – Senior Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit: 2019–present Mirjan Damaška – Sterling Professor emeritus at Yale Law School René David – former Chair of Comparative Law at the University of Paris Louis Favoreu – French academic and jurist Barry E. Friedman – American academic with an expertise in federal courts, working at the intersections of law, politics and history Giorgio Gaja – Judge of the International Court of Justice (ICJ): 2011–2021 Alon Harel – the Phillip P. Mizock & Estelle Mizock Chair in Administrative and Criminal Law at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr. – Trustee Professor of Law at the University of Pennsylvania Law School, the Thomas E. Miller Distinguished Professor of Law at the University of California, Hastings College of the Law, and Sterling Professor Emeritus of Law at Yale Law School Ayşe Işıl Karakaş – Turkish academic, judge of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) Peter Lindseth – the Olimpiad S. Ioffe Professor of International and Comparative Law and the Director of International Programs at the University of Connecticut School of Law Ejan Mackaay – Professor of Law at the Université de Montréal Iulia Motoc – Judge at the European Court of Human Rights, former Member of the United Nations Human Rights Committee, former judge of the Constitutional Court of Romania John F. Murphy – American lawyer and a professor at Villanova University John L. Murray – Chief Justice of Ireland: 2004–2011; Judge of the Supreme Court of Ireland: 1999–present; Judge of the European Court of Justice (ECJ): 1992–1999; Attorney General of Ireland: 1982/1987–1991 Theo Öhlinger – Member of the Constitutional Court of Austria: 1977–1989 Francesco Parisi – the Oppenheimer Wolff & Donnelly Professor of Law at the University of Minnesota Law School Raymond Ranjeva – Member of the International Court of Justice (ICJ): 1991–2009; Vice-President of the International Court of Justice (ICJ): 2003–2006 Hjalte Rasmussen – former professor of EU Law at the University of Copenhagen Michel Rosenfeld – Justice Sydney L. Robins Professor of Human Rights, Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law, Yeshiva University Francisco Rubio Llorente – Judge of the Constitutional Court of Spain: 1980–1992; Vice President of the Constitutional Court of Spain: 1989–1992; President of the Spanish Council of State: 2004–2012 Eli Salzberger – Law Professor at the University of Haifa Faculty of Law Antonin Scalia – Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court: 1986–2016 Bernhard Schlink – German jurist and writer Ronald Sokol – American lawyer and writer Alec Stone Sweet – Leitner Professor of Law, Politics and International Studies at Yale Law School Symeon C. Symeonides – Dean of the Willamette University College of Law Michael Tigar – American criminal defense attorney Arts, literature, humanities, and entertainment Historians François Victor Alphonse Aulard – professor of the history of the French Revolution at Sorbonne University Gabriel Camps – French historian Georges Duby – French historian, member of the French Academy Georges Foucart – French historian and Egyptologist Douglas Johnson – British historian, an advisor to the former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher on all matters concerning France Nora Lafi – French historian Paolo Malanima – Italian economic historian George E. Mowry – American historian focusing primarily on the Progressive Era, professor at UCLA and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Jean-Rémy Palanque – professor of ancient history, member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres Serge Ricard – professor of American Civilization at the Sorbonne Nouvelle University Paris 3 Théodore Eugène César Ruyssen – French historian, President of the Peace Through Law Association Rafał Taubenschlag – Polish historian of law, a specialist in Roman law and papyrology Paul Veyne – French historian and archaeologist Catherine Virlouvet – French historian, a professor of economic and social history of ancient Rome Arundhati Virmani – Indian historian Jules Sylvain Zeller – French historian, lecturer at Sorbonne University, member of the Académie des Sciences morales et politiques Journalism Mazarine Pingeot – French journalist, writer and professor, the daughter of former President of France, François Mitterrand Lucien-Anatole Prévost-Paradol – French journalist and essayist, member of the French Academy Literature Yves Bonnefoy – French poet and essayist Paule Constant – French novelist, winner of the 1998 Prix Goncourt Louis O. Coxe – American poet, playwright, essayist, and professor Frieda Ekotto – Francophone African novelist and literary critic, professor of Afro-American and African Studies and Comparative Literature at the University of Michigan Henri Fluchère – chairman of the Société Française Shakespeare and a literary critic Raymond Jean – French writer, winner of the 1983 Prix Goncourt de la Nouvelle François Ricard – Canadian writer, professor of French literature at McGill University Émile Ripert – French academic, poet, novelist and playwright Urbano Tavares Rodrigues – Portuguese professor of literature, a literary critic and a fiction writer Affonso Romano de Sant'Anna – Brazilian poet, essayist, and professor Roselyne Sibille – French poet William E. Wilson – American writer Music André Bon – French composer André Boucourechliev – French composer Barry Conyngham – Australian composer and academic Jean-Claude Risset – French composer Scientists and academics Jean-Claude Abric – professor in social psychology Giulio Angioni – Italian writer and anthropologist, professor at the University of Cagliari, fellow of St Antony's College of the University of Oxford Nicolas Maurice Arthus – French immunologist and physiologist Anthony Barnes Atkinson – Fellow of the British Academy, a senior research fellow of Nuffield College of the University of Oxford and Centennial Professor at the London School of Economics (LSE) Sydney Hervé Aufrère – French Egyptologist, archaeologist, and director of research at CNRS Philip Augustine – Indian gastroenterologist, specialist in gastrointestinal endoscopy Henri Bacry – visiting scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study and a researcher at CERN Patrick Baert – Belgian sociologist and social theorist, reader in Social Theory at the University of Cambridge and Fellow of Selwyn College, Cambridge René Baillaud – French astronomer Ugo Bardi – professor in physical chemistry at the University of Florence Eugène Benoist – French classical philologist, member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres Reinhold Bertlmann – Austrian physicist, professor of physics at the University of Vienna Eugenio Bianchi – Italian theoretical physicist Danielle Bleitrach – French sociologist Maurice Blondel – French philosopher David E. Bloom – the Chair of Harvard University's Department of Global Health and Population, professor of Economics and Demography at the Harvard School of Public Health, and Director of the Program on the Global Demography of Aging Jean Bosler – French astronomer Svetlana Broz – Bosnian–Serbian author and physician, the granddaughter of the 1st President of Yugoslavia, Josip Broz Tito Henri Buisson – French physicist François Burgat – French political scientist and arabist, senior research fellow at the French National Centre for Scientific Research, and the Head of the French Institute of the Near East Jean Cabannes – French physicist Christian Cambillau – French scientist at the CNRS in Structural Biology Forrest Capie – professor emeritus of Economic History at the Cass Business School, City University London Carlo Carraro – President of the University of Venice, Director of the Sustainable Development Programme of the Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei, and Director of the Climate Impacts and Policy Division of the Euro-Mediterranean Center for Climate Change (CMCC) Maurice Caullery – French biologist, lecturer at Sorbonne University Jean Chacornac – French astronomer Jérôme Eugène Coggia – French astronomer Alain Colmerauer – French computer scientist and the creator of the logic programming language Prolog Henri Coquand – French geologist and paleontologist Pablo Cottenot – French astronomer Brian Lee Crowley – Managing Director of the Macdonald-Laurier Institute, and the founding President of the Atlantic Institute for Market Studies (AIMS) Boris Cyrulnik – French doctor, ethologist, neurologist and psychiatrist Jacques Daviel – French ophthalmologist, oculist to Louis XV of France, Fellow of the Royal Society, and a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Christie Davies – British sociologist, professor emeritus of sociology at the University of Reading Rajeev Dehejia – professor of public policy in the Robert F. Wagner Graduate School of Public Service at New York University Charles Depéret – French geologist and paleontologist, member of the French Academy of Sciences and the Société géologique de France August Alphonse Derbès – French naturalist, zoologist and botanist Jean Dufay – French astronomer, member of the French Academy of Sciences Jean-Yves Empereur – French archeologist and egyptologist Roger Establet – French scholar of the sociology of education Honoré Fabri – French Jesuit theologian, mathematician, physicist and controversialist Charles Fabry – Professor of General Physics at Sorbonne University and the École Polytechnique, co-discoverer of the ozone layer Charles Fehrenbach – French astronomer, member of the French Academy of Sciences, and Director of the Observatoire de Haute Provence (OHP) John F. Forester – American planning theorist with a particular emphasis on participatory planning, former Chair of the Department of City and Regional Planning at Cornell University Jean-Félix Adolphe Gambart – French astronomer Jean-Yves Girard – French logician Louis Godart – the chair of philology at the University of Naples Federico II Lucien Golvin – French university professor who specialized in the study of art from the peoples of the Maghreb Gérard Granel – French philosopher and translator Gilles-Gaston Granger – French analytic philosopher Pierre Gros – contemporary scholar of ancient Roman architecture and the Latin language Maurice Gross – French linguist and scholar of Romance languages Gene Grossman – the Jacob Viner Professor of International Economics at Princeton University Alex Grossmann – Croatian-French physicist Rudolf Haag – German physicist Bernard Harcourt – the chair of the Political Science Department, professor of political science and the Julius Kreeger Professor of Law at the University of Chicago Édouard Marie Heckel – French botanist and medical doctor, former director of the Jardin botanique E.M. Heckel, and founder of the Colonial Institute and Museum of Marseille Isao Imai – Japanese theoretical physicist Charles Joret – French literary historian, philologist and botanical author Henri Lucien Jumelle – French botanist Daniel Kastler – French theoretical physicist Joseph J. Katz – American chemist at Argonne National Laboratory, member of the US National Academy of Sciences Antoine Émile Henry Labeyrie – French astronomer Deepak Lal – the James S. Coleman Professor of International Development Studies at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Antonio Lanzavecchia – Italian immunologist Lucien Laubier – French oceanographer Laurie Menviel - Australian climate scientist & oceanographer Jean-Louis Le Moigne – French specialist on systems theory and constructivist epistemology Leigh Lisker – American linguist and phonetician Carlo Lottieri – Political Philosophy professor John Loughlin – Director of the Von Hügel Institute, and a senior fellow and affiliated lecturer in the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge Henry de Lumley – French archeologist, geologist and prehistorian John L. Lumley – professor emeritus, Graduate Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Aerospace Engineering at Cornell University Roger Malina – physicist, astronomer, Executive Editor of Leonardo Publications at the MIT Press Antoine Fortuné Marion – French naturalist Audier Marius – the founder of the Institute of Social Gerontology (Institut de Gérontologie Sociale) Octave Merlier – expert on the Modern Greek language Antoine Mérindol – French physician, doctor to Louis XIII of France Georges Mounin – French linguist, translator and semiotician Gunasekaran Paramasamy – Vice-Chancellor of Thiruvalluvar University Jules Payot – French educationist Marcin Odlanicki Poczobutt – Polish–Lithuanian Jesuit astronomer and mathematician, former Rector of Vilnius University Jean-Louis Pons – French astronomer Didier Raoult – French biology researcher Charles Rostaing – French linguist specialising in toponymy Carlo Rovelli – Italian physicist Évry Schatzman – French astrophysicist Mark Seidenberg – Hilldale and Donald O. Hebb Professor of Psychology at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and a senior scientist at Haskins Laboratories Samah Selim – Egyptian scholar and translator of Arabic literature Bernard Sellato – former Director of the Institute for Research on Southeast Asia Étienne Souriau – French philosopher, member of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques Paul Souriau – French philosopher William H. Starbuck – organizational scientist who held professorships in social relations (Johns Hopkins University), sociology (Cornell University), business administration (University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee), and management (New York University) Édouard Stephan – French astronomer Nikola Stoyanov – Bulgarian scientist, economist and financier Eero Tarasti – Finnish musicologist and semiologist Wilhelm Tempel – German astronomer Jose L. Torero – professor in fire safety engineering at the University of Edinburgh Nicolas Tournadre – professor specializing in morphosyntax and typology, member of the LACITO lab of the CNRS Benjamin Valz – French astronomer Jean Varenne – French Indologist Albert Jean Baptiste Marie Vayssière – French scientist John Waterbury – American academic, professor of politics and international affairs at Princeton University's Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs Margaret Weitz – professor emeritus at Suffolk University Dan Werthimer – co-founder and chief scientist of the SETI@home project Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński – Polish philosopher Francisco José Ynduráin – Spanish theoretical physicist Andrey Zaliznyak – Russian linguist Christoph Zürcher – professor of Political Science at the Free University of Berlin Business and economics Georges Anderla – French economist Bruce Caldwell – Research Professor of Economics at Duke University, and Director of the Center for the History of Political Economy Jean-Pierre Danthine – Swiss-Belgian economist, Vice President of the Swiss National Bank (SNB): 2012–2015 Lars Feld – Director of the Walter Eucken Institut, professor for Economic Policy at the University of Freiburg, and member of the German Council of Economic Experts Garance Genicot – Belgian-American economist, associate professor of economics at Georgetown University Rick Gilmore – President/CEO of GIC Trade, Inc. (the GIC Group), Special external advisor to the White House/USAID for the private sector/global food security and managing director of the Global Food Safety Forum (GFSF) in Beijing Victor Ginsburgh – Belgian economist Sanjeev Goyal – Indian economist, professor of economics at the University of Cambridge and Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge Nancy Hubbard – American professor of business, author, and Miriam Katowitz Chair of Management and Accounting at Goucher College Richard Lyons – the 14th Dean of the Haas School of Business, University of California, Berkeley Angus Maddison – British economist, former emeritus professor at the Faculty of Economics at the University of Groningen Gérard Mestrallet – Chairman and CEO of Engie: 2008–2016 Henry Mintzberg – academic and author on business and management, the Cleghorn Professor of Management Studies at the Desautels Faculty of Management of McGill University Abhiroop Mukhopadhyay – Indian economist Nikolay Nenovsky – Bulgarian economist Pierre Pestieau – Belgian economist George Selgin – the Director of the Cato Institute's Center for Monetary and Financial Alternatives, professor emeritus of economics at the Terry College of Business at the University of Georgia, and an associate editor of Econ Journal Watch Mark P. Taylor – the Dean of Warwick Business School (WBS) at the University of Warwick and an academic in the fields of International Finance and Economics Paul Tiffany – Senior Lecturer at the Haas School of Business, University of California, Berkeley Lawrence H. White – American economics professor at George Mason University Myrna Wooders – Canadian economist, professor of economics at Vanderbilt University and the University of Warwick Mathematics Sergio Albeverio – Swiss mathematician working in the field of differential equations and mathematical physics Peter Balazs – Austrian mathematician working at the Acoustics Research Institute Vienna of the Austrian Academy of Sciences Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat – French mathematician and physicist, who was the first woman to be elected to the French Academy of Sciences Joachim Cuntz – German mathematician, fellow of the American Mathematical Society Roland Fraïssé – French mathematical logician John H. Hubbard – American mathematician, professor at Cornell University Henri Padé – French mathematician, known for his development of approximation techniques for functions using rational functions Étienne Pardoux – French mathematician working in the field of Stochastic analysis, in particular Stochastic partial differential equations Olivier Ramaré – French mathematician Nicolas Sarrabat – French mathematician and scientist, the son of the painter Daniel Sarrabat Jean-Marie Souriau – French mathematician, known for works in symplectic geometry Masamichi Takesaki – Japanese mathematician, professor at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and fellow of the American Mathematical Society David Trotman – British mathematician, leading expert in an area of singularity theory known as the theory of stratifications André Weil – French mathematician, known for his foundational work in number theory and algebraic geometry Miscellaneous Robert Chaudenson – French linguist, a specialist in creole languages Alain Colmerauer – French computer scientist Jean-François Delmas – French librarian, chief curator of the Bibliothèque Inguimbertine and the Musées de Carpentras Michel Duc-Goninaz – member of the World Esperanto Youth Organization (TEJO), and co-editor of La Folieto Roger Duchêne – French biographer specializing in the letters of Madame de Sévigné Leonard Liggio – classical liberal author, research professor of law at George Mason University, and executive vice president of the Atlas Economic Research Foundation in Fairfax, Virginia Tuncer Őren – Turkish/Canadian systems engineer, professor emeritus of Computer Science at the School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science of the University of Ottawa Rascas de Bagarris – founder of the science of historical numismatics and one of the most notable antiquaries of his time Willy Ronis – French photographer See also List of early modern universities in Europe List of medieval universities List of oldest universities in continuous operation References External links www.univ-amu.fr Official website of Aix-Marseille University Scholars and Literati at the University of Aix (1409–1793), Repertorium Eruditorum Totius Europae – RETE Universities and colleges in Aix-en-Provence Universities and colleges in Marseille University Aix-Marseille Law schools in France Universities and colleges formed by merger in France Universities and colleges established in 1896 1896 establishments in France
4876348	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20enforcement%20in%20Canada	Law enforcement in Canada	Law enforcement in Canada is the responsibility of police services, special constabularies, and civil law enforcement agencies, which are operated by every level of government, some private and Crown corporations, and First Nations. In contrast to the United States or Mexico, and with the exception of the Unité permanente anticorruption (English: Permanent Anti-corruption Unit) in Quebec and the Organized Crime Agency of British Columbia, there are no organizations dedicated exclusively to the investigation of criminal activity in Canada. Criminal investigations are instead conducted by police services, which maintain specialized criminal investigation units in addition to their mandate for emergency response and general community safety. Canada's provinces are responsible for the development and maintenance of police forces and special constabularies, and every province except Newfoundland and Labrador downloads this responsibility to municipalities, which can establish their own police forces or contract with a neighbouring community or the province for police services. Civil law enforcement, however, is the responsibility of the level or agency of government that developed those laws — the by-laws of a transit authority, for example, are enforced by that transit authority, while federal environmental regulations are enforced by the federal government. The federal government maintains its own police force, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP, popularly known in English-speaking areas as the "Mounties"), which provides federal criminal law enforcement and contract police services to provinces and municipalities that don't maintain their own police forces. Since the 1990s, a framework has existed for First Nations to establish their own police services, funded entirely by the federal and provincial governments and regulated by provinces. These police services generally receive less funding compared to other Canadian police forces — for example, in 2016, the Nishnawbe-Aski Police Service in Ontario received only 36% of the funding that the Ontario Provincial Police estimated it would cost to police the same area. Police services Police services in Canada are responsible for the maintenance of the King's peace through proactive patrols and emergency response, the enforcement of criminal law, and the enforcement of some civil law. Constitutionally, the delivery of police services is the responsibility of provinces and territories, but every province except for Newfoundland and Labrador, which maintains the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary to police some of its urban communities, downloads this responsibility to municipalities. The federal government also maintains its own police service, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, which provinces and territories can contract to provide provincial and municipal policing. Every Canadian territory and province, with the exceptions of Ontario and Quebec, relies on the RCMP to provide at least some provincial or municipal police services. The exact duties of Canadian police forces vary significantly. Some police services are responsible for municipal by-law enforcement, and many large police forces maintain investigative units specialized in technical or financial crimes. In some provinces, police forces are obliged to investigate all traffic collisions, regardless of whether or not they resulted in injuries or serious damage. An increasing share of Canadian communities and police forces have adopted tiered police service delivery models, which reduce the responsibilities — but not powers or mandate — of police services and police officers, usually by employing unarmed peace officers to respond to lower-risk emergencies or enforce traffic regulations. Federal The federal government maintains two police forces: the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) and the Canadian Forces Military Police (CFMP). The RCMP's first responsibility is the enforcement of federal laws, although contract policing for provinces, territories, municipalities, and First Nations is at the "heart of what the RCMP does." In addition to its contracts with three territories, eight provinces, 150 municipalities, and more than 600 Indigenous communities, the RCMP is responsible for border integrity; overseeing Canadian peacekeeping missions involving police; managing the Canadian Firearms Program, which licenses and registers firearms and their owners; and the Canadian Police College, which provides police training to Canadian and international police forces. The force has faced criticism for its uniquely broad mandate, and a partially-redacted 2019 memo to then-Minister of Public Safety Bill Blair "confirmed" for the Minister that "federal policing responsibilities have been and are being eroded to meet contract demands." Between 2012 and 2020, the RCMP gradually closed its money laundering and financial crimes units in British Columbia and Ontario, and in 2019, there were no RCMP officers in B.C. dedicated to investigating money laundering. In 2021, an all-party federal parliamentary committee recommended terminating the RCMP's contract policing program, and Public Safety Minister Marco Mendicino was mandated to conduct a review of RCMP contract policing when he took office in 2022. The CFMP provides police, security, and operational support services to the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) and the Department of National Defence (DND). As a military police force, the CFMP does not have a frontline community policing role, but CFMP members are considered peace officers under the Criminal Code. CFMP officers have authority over any person subject to the Code of Service Discipline (CSD), regardless of their position or rank, and can charge members of the broader public when a crime is committed on or in relation to DND property or assets, or at the request of the Minister of Public Safety, the Commissioner of the Correctional Service of Canada, or the Commissioner of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. The ability of CFMP members to enforce provincial legislation varies, however, and in several provinces, CFMP officers can enforce neither traffic legislation nor mental health legislation — even on military bases. The CFMP maintains an investigations branch, the Canadian Forces National Investigation Service, which has the ability to investigate any crime concerning DND property or employees, except for sexual assault and intimate partner violence. Railway police Under the Railway Safety Act, any railway in Canada can request that a superior court judge appoint railway employees as police officers. These officers are hired, trained, and employed by the railway for the purposes of preventing crimes against the company and the protection of goods, materials, and public rail transit being moved through the railway network, and have nationwide jurisdiction within 500 metres of a railway line or as it relates to railway operations. As of 2023, the Canadian National Railway, the Canadian Pacific Kansas City railway, and Via Rail—a Crown Corporation—each maintain their own police service. TransLink, the transit authority for the Metro Vancouver Regional District in British Columbia, maintains a police force authorized by the province as opposed to the federal Railway Safety Act. Some smaller railways and transit authorities, such as GO Transit, also maintain provincially-regulated special constabularies to protect passengers and property. These agencies are authorized by provincial governments and are not related to federally-authorized Railway Safety Act police forces. Railway police have attracted scrutiny and criticism for their privately-funded nature and role in investigating train derailments. In 2020, a former Canadian Pacific Police Service officer alleged that he was ordered to stop investigating a fatal railway derailment to protect the railway's interests. Provincial police There are five provincial police services in Canada, maintained by four provinces, although only three are involved in frontline policing. The Ontario Provincial Police and Sûreté du Québec provide provincial police services to Ontario and Quebec, respectively, the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary provides community police services to select urban communities in Newfoundland and Labrador, and the Organized Crime Agency of British Columbia and the Unité permanente anticorruption provide specialized criminal law enforcement services to British Columbia and Quebec, respectively. The Ontario Provincial Police and Sûreté du Québec are responsible for both provincial police services, such as the policing of provincial highways and the protection of provincial leaders, and the delivery of local police services to municipalities that do not maintain their own police forces, usually under contract. In Ontario, the OPP provides police services to municipalities without independent police forces regardless of whether or not there is a contract in place for them to do so, but contracts enable municipalities to direct police service priorities, have a role in selecting detachment commanders, and review police service performance, including complaints, on a regular basis. In Quebec, contract police services are available to any municipality — outside of those in urban agglomerations — with fewer than 50,000 residents. In 2021, a provincial committee recommended that the population threshold for contract police services be raised to 130,000 residents and that police forces serving populations under this threshold be folded into the Sûreté du Québec. The Organized Crime Agency of British Columbia (OCABC) is legally defined as a designated policing unit, like the Metro Vancouver Transit Police and Stlʼatlʼimx Tribal Police Service, and is the "core agency" of the Combined Forces Special Enforcement Unit – British Columbia (CFSEU-BC). Although the OCABC still technically exists as of 2022, its officers are limited to conducting operations and investigations within the CFSEU-BC, where it has been it largely superseded by RCMP and municipal police officers seconded to the unit. Despite its status as the core agency of the combined unit, the CFSEU-BC is governed by RCMP policies and procedures rather than the policies and procedures of the OCABC. The Unité permanente anticorruption was created in 2011 and tasked with investigations into corrupt government procurement practices, but relied on secondments from other police services until 2018, when it became its own police force. It has been plagued with allegations of criminal activity since 2021, when it was revealed that members hid evidence from defence lawyers, were prepared to lie under oath, and strategically leaked information to the press to promote the unit's activities — and, in the process, interrupted and ultimately stopped legal proceedings against a former politician. The Royal Newfoundland Constabulary is a provincial police force, but does not provide provincial police services across the entire province. Instead, the responsibility for provincial police services is split between the RCMP, which provides local and provincial police services to Newfoundland and Labrador's largely rural interior, and the Constabulary, which provides local and provincial police services to the northeast Avalon Peninsula (metropolitan St. John's), the City of Corner Brook, and western Labrador (Churchill Falls, Labrador City, and Wabush). Municipal police Municipal police forces make up the bulk of Canadian police services, and are generally responsible for all criminal matters within their jurisdiction. There are municipal police services in nine provinces, with 12 in British Columbia, seven in Alberta, 12 in Saskatchewan, 10 in Manitoba, 44 in Ontario, 31 in Quebec, nine in New Brunswick, 10 in Nova Scotia, and three in Prince Edward Island. Almost every major city in Canada maintains a municipal police service, and the majority of municipal police forces serve urban areas exclusively. Many rural communities also operate police services, however, and several have only a handful of police officers. The police services in the Rural Municipality of Vanscoy No. 345, Saskatchewan, the Town of Luseland, Saskatchewan, and the Rural Municipality of Cornwallis, Manitoba have one officer each. As the delivery of police services is a provincial responsibility, each province has its own set of standards that police services must meet. In several provinces, such as Ontario, police services must be able to provide 24/7 coverage, investigate all criminal matters, and provide for specialized units such as police dogs. Beginning in the 1970s, and continuing into the 1990s, several municipal police forces were amalgamated (alongside, in many cases, the municipalities they served) into new, regional bodies in the interest of creating efficiencies and reducing costs. As of 2022, there are regional police forces in British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. The adoption of regional policing has been controversial, however, and a review of nine Canadian police services in 2016 found that there were no significant differences in cost or service quality between regional and non-regional police forces, and a separate 2015 literature review found that larger police services are less effective and more expensive than those serving about 50,000 people. As of 2022, police regionalization continues to be proposed by both provinces and municipalities, particularly for metropolitan areas where several urban municipalities that border one another each maintain independent police services. Strength In 2022, there were 70 566 active police officers in Canada, out of a total authorized strength (the maximum number of officers all the police forces in Canada combined are allowed to hire) of 74 528. Additionally, there were 32 717 non-sworn support personnel employed by police services across the country. Canadian police strength reached a peak in 1975, when there were 206 officers per 100,000 people. Although the current number reflects a significant rise in the total police strength in the country (the highest in twelve years after steady declines in the 1980s and 1990s), Canada still employs fewer police officers per capita than Wales (262/100,000). Provincially, Nova Scotia had the highest number of officers per capita (193.8/100,000) in 2019. The lowest numbers per capita were in Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick. The three territories, while having far fewer police officers in absolute terms, have around twice as many police officers per capita as the more populous, less remote provinces. Special constabularies In Canada, special constables are sworn peace officers granted police powers to enforce specific legislation in a distinct context or geographic area. Special constables are regulated differently in each province and territory, and as such, there is no consistent definition of a special constabulary in Canada. Typically, a special constabulary is any law enforcement organization composed of special constables (as opposed to police officers) with a mandate for criminal law enforcement and/or general peacekeeping and security. Civil law enforcement agencies which maintain a proactive posture and a role in frontline policing, such as conservation and commercial vehicle enforcement services, are sometimes considered special constabularies. Special constabularies are used extensively in southern Ontario, where they are maintained by transit authorities, universities, park authorities, and some social housing corporations. In Alberta, Saskatchewan, Newfoundland and Labrador, Quebec, Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, and Yukon, municipalities and other government agencies can raise special constabularies to enforce by-laws, traffic regulations, and other civil legislation, but not the Criminal Code. In those four provinces and three territories, municipal special constabularies are distinct from ordinary municipal by-law enforcement agencies in their proactive posture, role in frontline policing, and enforcement of provincial legislation. In 2021, the City of Moncton, New Brunswick, requested that the provincial government amend provincial legislation to allow municipalities in the province to maintain special constabularies able to enforce provincial legislation like those in Alberta and Quebec. Legislative security British Columbia and Ontario both maintain special constabularies for the purposes of protecting their provincial legislatures. Select special constables with both of these security services were armed with handguns in the wake of the 2014 Parliament Hill shooting. In Alberta, legislative security is provided by the Alberta Sheriffs Branch, an armed provincial law enforcement agency also responsible for courtroom security, traffic enforcement on provincial highways, and some criminal investigations. In Saskatchewan, the legislative buildings are protected by contracted security guards, but the Provincial Protective Service (responsible for the provincial highway patrol, sheriffs officers, and conservation officers) maintains a special constabulary that patrols Wascana Centre, the park that surrounds the provincial legislature. The federal parliament buildings in Ottawa are protected by the Parliamentary Protective Service, which was formed by amalgamating the House of Commons Security Services, Senate Protective Service, and the RCMP parliamentary precinct detachment. The Service, which was formed after the 2014 Parliament Hill shooting, is not a special constabulary, and only some of its members have the powers of a peace officer. Civil law enforcement Civil law enforcement agencies are responsible for the specialized enforcement of civil legislation. Civil law enforcement agencies are maintained by every level of government, a variety of government corporations and authorities, and First Nations. Federal The federal government maintains several civil law enforcement agencies, most prominent among them the Canada Border Services Agency, which manages Canadian ports of entry and enforces the Customs Act, the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, and the Quarantine Act. The Agency also operates a Criminal Investigations Unit that investigates criminal violations of CBSA-enforced legislation, such as smuggling or immigration fraud. The government of Canada also employs fishery officers, who enforce federal fishing and fishery regulations; transport inspectors, who enforce the 23 different pieces of federal transportation legislation the Minister of Transport is responsible for; and Environment and Climate Change Canada enforcement officers, who are responsible for enforcing federal environmental regulations. The Canada Revenue Agency operates a variety of compliance and enforcement divisions, but its proactive criminal enforcement unit, which collaborated with RCMP officers to break up organized crime rings, was disbanded after budget cuts in 2012. (The RCMP disbanded its various counterparts to the CRA's criminal enforcement unit between 2012 and 2020.) The federal government also operates the Competition Bureau, which enforces the Competition Act, the Consumer Packaging and Labelling Act, the Textile Labelling Act and the Precious Metals Marking Act. Parks Canada maintains a park warden service, which is responsible for the enforcement of the Canada National Parks Act, the Species at Risk Act, and park-specific legislation. Provincial and territorial Each province and territory in Canada operates or authorizes a variety of civil law enforcement agencies, including employment standards and workplace safety offices, animal cruelty organizations, and environmental enforcement services. Because of the wide-ranging regulatory powers of provinces, and the technical, specialized nature of much of civil law enforcement, many provincial civil law enforcement agencies operate in obscurity. The two most prominent uniformed civil law enforcement services operated by provinces and territories are commercial vehicle and conservation enforcement agencies, which usually maintain proactive patrols and education programs. While conservation officers in every province and territory are routinely armed, only the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and New Brunswick deploy armed commercial vehicle enforcement officers. Some provinces, such as Ontario, empower provincial corporations and authorities to establish and maintain their own civil law enforcement agencies, separate from the provincial government. Sheriffs services Almost every province and territory in Canada maintains a sheriffs service, although their role and powers vary between jurisdictions. In most provinces and all three territories, sheriffs are limited to providing courtroom security, enforcing court orders, and transporting offenders to and from court. In Quebec, sheriffs have no security function and are instead limited to enforcing court orders and selecting juries. Since 2006, the province of Alberta has gradually expanded the mandate and powers of its sheriffs service, which now maintains a highway patrol, a criminal investigations unit, and provides legislative security to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta. Ontario is the only province or territory in Canada that doesn't maintain a sheriffs service — instead, court security and prisoner transport duties are handled by local police services, and the enforcement of court orders is the responsibility of the Superior Court of Justice Enforcement Office, which was named and is still sometimes referred to as the sheriff's office. Municipal Every municipality in Canada is authorized to develop and enforce municipal by-laws, but each province and territory regulates the authority of municipal law enforcement agencies differently. In British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, municipal enforcement agencies are generally limited to the enforcement of municipal legislation and operate on an as-requested basis. In all three territories, as well as the provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador, Quebec, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, some — but not all — municipal enforcement agencies also enforce provincial legislation and control traffic. Several municipalities rely on police services or contracted commissionaires for bylaw enforcement. Indigenous law enforcement Indigenous peoples in Canada are defined in the Constitution Act, 1982 as First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples, and the law enforcement powers of Indigenous governments vary significantly between the different groups. Métis self-government exists only in eight settlements in Alberta, none of which have the authority to raise police services, but may, with provincial approval, establish bylaw enforcement agencies. The territory of Nunavut and regional government of Kativik, both of which are populated mostly by Inuit peoples, were established after Inuit land claims agreements, but are not exclusive to Inuit peoples, have authority over police services. First Nations and Inuit communities governed by the Indian Act have access to the First Nations and Inuit Policing Program operated by Public Safety Canada and can establish their own police forces, funded entirely by the federal and provincial governments, but most Inuit governments and First Nations that have completed the comprehensive land claims process can only contract police services to a third party police force (although frameworks exist for these Nations to eventually establish their own independent police services). Because of the history of the Canadian reserve system, which operated on the assumption that Indigenous families required less land than settler families and routinely gave away reserve lands to settlers without Indigenous consultation or consent, many reserves are too small to sustain independent police forces, requiring First Nations to form regional police agencies with neighbouring communities or contract with the federal or provincial governments for police services. Background The policing of Indigenous communities in Canada has long been fraught with racial tension, inequitable police service delivery, and the enforcement of colonial laws and practices. Beginning in the 1960s, the federal government began to withdraw RCMP officers from reserves in the provinces of Ontario and Quebec in favour of provincial control over First Nations policing. Between 1990 and 1995, there were several high-profile conflicts between Indigenous protesters demanding the return of lands to which they had Aboriginal title and non-Indigenous police forces, resulting in the death of a police officer — Corporal Marcel Lemay of the Sûreté du Québec — and an unarmed Indigenous protester named Dudley George. During the 1995 Gustafsen Lake standoff, an RCMP commander reportedly told a subordinate to kill a prominent Indigenous demonstrator and "smear the prick and everyone with him," and an RCMP media liaison officer was quoted as saying that "smear campaigns are [the RCMP's] specialty." The federal government created the First Nations and Inuit Policing Program in 1992, which scholars have called the first "comprehensive national policing strategy for [a country's] Aboriginal peoples." The Program was designed to allow First Nations and Inuit communities to create their own police forces that met the provincial standards for non-Indigenous police services, or establish their own RCMP detachment staffed by Indigenous officers, but has been criticized as underfunded and discriminatory by Indigenous groups, police chiefs, and the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal. Police services In 2010, there were 38 self-administered First Nation police services in Canada, with one service each in British Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba; three services in Alberta; nine in Ontario; and 23 in Quebec, although that number had decreased to 22 by 2020. First Nations police services are required to meet different standards in each province. In British Columbia, First Nations police services are considered "designated policing units" and placed in the same category as the Metro Vancouver Transit Police. In Alberta, First Nations police services cannot maintain specialized resources, such as police dogs, and must consult with the RCMP before completing investigations into major crimes. In Quebec, however, First Nations police services have the "same missions, responsibilities, and powers [as non-Indigenous police forces] under Quebec police law." First Nations police services in Ontario are considered programs, not essential services, and are not required to meet standards under that province's Police Services Act unless police leadership decides to apply for an opt-in. Many First Nations police services face serious funding shortfalls. In January 2006, two Indigenous men burned to death and an officer was seriously injured in a rescue attempt at a Nishnawbe-Aski Police Service detachment that the police force couldn't afford to bring into compliance with the fire code. (Two years later, the service had only one detachment that met provincial standards.) Other First Nations police services have struggled to pay for officers' wages and benefits or fill frontline positions because of budget shortfalls. In 2022, the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal found that the federal government, which unilaterally sets the budgets for First Nations police forces participating in the First Nations and Inuit Policing Program, engaged in discrimination when it failed to provide adequate funding to the Mashteuiatsh Innu Nation's police force. In 2022, the British Columbia Special Committee on Reforming the Police Act unanimously recommended that the First Nations and Inuit Policing Program be replaced with a "new legislative and funding framework, consistent with international and domestic policing best practices and standards," and noted that "a truly decolonized lens would see Indigenous police services as an option for neighbouring municipalities or regions." Earlier that same year, the federal government began engaging First Nations about changes to the program and Indigenous police legislation. Civil law enforcement Every form of Indigenous government has the power to enact and enforce by-laws. Métis settlements receive their authority from the Alberta Metis Settlements Act, and First and Inuit nations receive their authority either from the Indian Act or the relevant comprehensive land claim agreement. However, because the Indian Act doesn't specify whether by-law violations should be prosecuted in federal or provincial and territorial courts, some provincial courts will not prosecute Indigenous laws. The federal government ended a program that allowed Indigenous governments to appoint federal judges to enforce Indigenous laws in specialized courts in 2004, and as of 2022, few Indigenous governments exercise their powers to enact and enforce by-laws. Several First Nations, such as the Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation in northern Ontario, rely on police services to enforce by-laws, while others maintain dedicated by-law enforcement agencies. First Nations in Saskatchewan and Alberta can maintain special constabularies for the enforcement of Indigenous and provincial legislation. Some First Nations police services will not enforce Indigenous laws. Community safety organizations Several First Nations operate community safety organizations with few or no law enforcement powers. The Musqueam First Nation in British Columbia maintains a Safety and Security Department, responsible for emergency management, community patrols, and "ensur[ing] compliance" with Musqueam by-laws. The Fort McKay First Nation in the Alberta oil sands maintains a Park Ranger Program, staffed by peace officers able to enforce First Nation by-laws but only report violations of provincial or federal law, to patrol the reserve's parks and wilderness and provide assistance and education to band members and visitors. In Yukon, First Nations can hire community safety officers, who — unlike community safety officers in Saskatchewan — have no law enforcement or police powers and are instead tasked with patrolling communities, engaging with residents, and responding to emergencies. Many of these agencies are composed mostly or entirely of elders. Some First Nations in Saskatchewan operate "peacekeeper" programs, whose staff do not have law enforcement or police powers, to respond to non-violent calls for service, vehicle accidents, and fires. In Winnipeg, Manitoba, public safety services are provided to urban Indigenous populations by the all-volunteer Bear Clan Patrol, as well as other organizations, such as the Mama Bear Clan. The Patrol conducts regular patrols of Indigenous neighbourhoods, liaises with Winnipeg Police to search for missing people, and delivers food to unhoused residents. Tiered policing Tiered policing is a model of police service delivery that involves hiring non-police employees — or empowering separate organizations — to specialize in areas of a police service's mandate or assume lower-risk policing duties. The model became increasingly popular during the late 1990s, motivated by a desire to reduce costs and simplify hiring and training processes. As of 2023, two provinces (Alberta and Saskatchewan) have specific frameworks for municipalities to employ unarmed peace officers to deliver some police services, and tiered police service delivery models are practiced in three more (British Columbia, Manitoba, and Ontario). The Winnipeg Police Service and Vancouver Police Department both employ special constables to guard crime scenes, respond to some non-violent calls for service, and direct traffic at emergencies. The Saskatoon Police Service employs special constables, referred to as "alternative response officers," to guard crime scenes, direct traffic at emergencies and events, and conduct foot patrols in high-crime areas. The File Hills First Nations Police Service employs special constables to fulfill almost all community policing duties in member reserves, manage police stations and police records, conduct traffic enforcement, and respond to some calls for service. Police services in Ontario have practiced tiered policing since the 1980s, when special constables first began to assume court protection and prisoner transport duties, but several police forces including the Brantford Police Service, Cobourg Police Service, and Toronto Police Service now deploy special constables and volunteer auxiliary constables in frontline policing roles. Since 2021, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police has employed Civilian Criminal Investigators, unarmed peace officers recruited from non-police fields, to assist with technical computer science or financial crimes. In all three territories, Alberta, Saskatchewan, the Urban agglomeration of Montreal, Newfoundland and Labrador, and parts of southern Ontario, tiered police service delivery includes separate special constabularies, which provide police services to municipalities served by regional or contracted police forces and to specific organizations, such as universities or transit systems. In some communities, the adoption of tiered policing has been hampered by "outdated" perceptions that special constables and other non-police specialists are untrained, ill-equipped, or assuming less important duties compared to police. Some police services have also struggled with social rankings that result in the exclusion of non-police staff from events and workplace conversations, contributing to a sense of alienation. Tiered policing has been compared to and proposed as an alternative policy response to proposals to "de-task" and "defund" the police service. Non-police mental health crisis response In 2000, the Toronto Police Service partnered with local hospitals to create the Mobile Crisis Intervention Team, which pairs nurses with frontline police officers to respond to mental health crises. The program is only active in some parts of the City, and only during the afternoon and early evening, although it has gradually expanded since its introduction. Similar programs exist in parts of Ontario; parts of Metro Vancouver and Vancouver Island; Alberta and Saskatchewan, where they are operated by each province's respective provincial health authority; Winnipeg, Manitoba; Saint John, New Brunswick; the Halifax Regional Municipality; Newfoundland and Labrador; and some First Nations. Many of these services operate part-time, restrict their clientele to certain demographics (such as youths), and have only a few teams to cover a large area. There are no mobile mental health crisis response teams in Quebec or Canada's territories, although the Nunavut RCMP began talks with the Nunavut Justice Department in 2020 to implement a unit. Following the death of Regis Korchinski-Paquet, the Toronto Police Service expanded its Mobile Crisis Intervention Team and began dispatching members of the team through 9-1-1 calls, rather than by back-up requests from other officers. The City of Toronto also launched a new crisis response team, the Community Crisis Service, in 2022. The service, which is composed entirely of unarmed, non-police specialists, operates 24 hours a day, six days a week. Organization Governance In every province except Quebec, municipalities operating their own police service are required to establish a police commission, commonly referred to as a police board or police services board, to oversee local policing, hire the chief of police, and legally employ every police officer at an arms length of the municipal council. Ranks Canadian police ranks are largely consistent with those used by British and Commonwealth police services. Uniquely, Canadian police services use the title "staff" in place of "chief" for certain ranks, such as staff sergeant or staff inspector. Chief of Police is the title of the head of most Canadian police forces, except in British Columbia (where police executives are called Chief Constable or Chief Officer) and Quebec (where police executives are called Directors). In most provinces, police ranks and insignia are regulated by the solicitor general. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police and Ontario Provincial Police both use the title "Commissioner." Special constabularies typically use the same rank structure as police services, while civil law enforcement agencies usually use role-based rank titles, opting for ranks like "supervisor" instead of "sergeant." Equipment Weapons Frontline police officers in Canada are usually equipped with semi-automatic 9mm calibre handguns. Some special constables, most notably those employed by the Niagara Parks Police Service, federal park wardens, and conservation officers also carry handguns. Most police cruisers are equipped with carbine rifles and other long guns designed to fire less-lethal ammunition. Police officers and special constables are also usually equipped with collapsible batons and pepper spray. Police services have equipped officers with Tasers as early as 2001, but their use has been controversial. In one 2021 incident, a judge stayed all charges against a man who was repeatedly tasered by an Edmonton police officer after a brief foot chase, finding that the officer had tasered him "out of frustration" and violated their police force's Taser policies. In 2007, RCMP officers killed Robert Dziekański, a Polish citizen, with a Taser at the Vancouver International Airport. The incident prompted the Toronto Police Service and Royal Newfoundland Constabulary to put orders for Tasers on hold. (Both forces eventually acquired Tasers.) Taser deployments, and particularly their use against people experiencing mental health crises, continued to attract public scrutiny as of 2022. Body-worn cameras Compared to American police forces, Canadian police and law enforcement agencies have been slow to adopt body-worn cameras. The first police force to acquire body-worn cameras on a permanent basis was the single-officer police service in the Rural Municipality of Cornwallis, Manitoba, in 2016. In the wake of protests following the murder of George Floyd in Minneapolis, body-worn cameras were adopted by several Canadian police forces, including the Toronto Police Service, Cobourg Police Service, Kentville Police Service, and Saint John Police Force. The RCMP planned to roll body-worn cameras out starting in late 2021, but had not yet awarded a contract for supplying the cameras as of November of that year. However, as of May 2023 the RCMP is starting to roll out body-worn cameras to some detachments Some special constabularies, such as the Saskatchewan Highway Patrol, also use body-worn cameras. The Happy Valley-Goose Bay Municipal Enforcement Department, a special constabulary in Newfoundland and Labrador, equipped its officers with body-worn cameras briefly in 2021 before the province's privacy commissioner recommended that the Town stop the program because of concerns that video footage was not adequately protected. Uniforms Each law enforcement agency in Canada has its own uniform and identity, which must meet provincial or territorial regulations that ensure some consistency between different agencies. Although these regulations vary between jurisdictions, there are regional similarities in the Prairies and Atlantic Canada. Nationwide, almost every public safety and law enforcement agency equips their members with bulletproof vests, usually worn over the uniform shirt and with title boards (such as "Community Safety Officer" or "Police") that identify their legal status. In Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Ontario, and New Brunswick, municipal police officers must wear navy blue dress shirts and navy blue trousers with red trouser piping. In British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia, municipal police officers generally wear royal blue trouser piping instead of red. Blue trouser piping is required by regulation in British Columbia, but in practice, this is rarely implemented. In Quebec, police officers are not required to wear trouser piping. In British Columbia, Newfoundland and Labrador, and the territories, municipal peace officers generally wear navy blue dress shirts and navy blue trousers with red trouser piping. In Alberta, peace officers and special constables are generally required to wear light grey shirts and navy blue trousers with matching light grey trouser piping. In every other province, there are no consistent regulations for special constables and peace officers except that their uniforms be clearly distinct from those worn by police officers. Prior to the widespread use of special constables and peace officers in frontline policing roles, public safety and law enforcement officers had generally similar uniforms regardless of their legal status. In the Canadian Prairies, police and peace officers typically wore light grey shirts. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police is the only police service in Canada that still uses light grey dress shirts for frontline police officers, although Parks Canada Park Wardens also wear grey dress shirts with dark green trousers. In most other provinces, police officers typically wore light blue shirts. The adoption of navy blue shirts began in the 1990s and was primarily driven by a desire to make uniforms more professional, as police executives felt that lighter colours showed dirt and sweat too readily. Historically, police and peace officers in Canada wore their badges on their caps and were generally required to wear their forage caps at all times. In British Columbia, Alberta, and Quebec, this requirement no longer exists, although some police services still require that frontline police officers wear some form of headgear. Beginning in the mid-2010s, an increasing share of police forces in Ontario have allowed frontline officers to wear ballcaps instead of forage caps. Vehicles As part of their authority to establish, maintain, and regulate law enforcement agencies, some provinces regulate the models of vehicle that can be used by police services for frontline policing. In the late 2010s and early 2020s, many Canadian police services began ordering vehicles painted grey, navy blue, or black to replace white- and silver-coloured cruisers, sparking controversy about their accessibility to the public and visibility in low-light conditions. In every province and territory, police services are entitled to use red and blue lights on marked and unmarked emergency vehicles. More recently, in the early 2020s, some police services in Ontario began to pilot Battenburg markings. As of May 2023, the Barrie Police is the first regional police service in Canada to have officially adopted UK-inspired Battenburg markings on all of their fleets. Most special constabularies use fleets of marked police-model vehicles, and many are painted in colours that reflect the larger corporate branding scheme of their parent organization. In Alberta and Saskatchewan, vehicles maintained by special constabularies must have two blue reflective stripes, the organization's logo, and text that reads "Peace Officer" (in Alberta) or "Community Safety Officer" (in Saskatchewan) on the bottom of the passenger doors. In Quebec, special constabularies are restricted to using red emergency lights exclusively, and in Ontario, special constables can only use emergency lights or sirens if authorized by the relevant police services board. In every other province and in all three territories, including Alberta and Saskatchewan, special constabularies can use red and blue lights. Only some civil law enforcement agencies operate marked vehicles, and the exact markings vary significantly based on the role and nature of the agency. Some agencies, which are operated by police services, use vehicles that are painted in variations of the larger police force's livery, while others operated directly by municipalities or provinces may use vehicles from the larger motor pool, marked only with the parent organization's logo. In British Columbia, by-law enforcement officers are authorized to use red lights, and in Ontario, civil law enforcement officers enforcing emissions or commercial vehicle regulations may use red and blue lights and sirens. In every province and territory, civil law enforcement officers employed by conservation officer or commercial vehicle enforcement services can use red and blue lights. Civil law enforcement officers are otherwise restricted to amber lights. See also Canadian Association of Police Governance Crime in Canada Indigenous police in Canada International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol) Law enforcement by country List of law enforcement agencies List of law enforcement agencies in Canada List of countries by size of police forces Missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls (MMIWG) Terrorism in Canada References
4876378	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Partisan	The Partisan	"The Partisan" is an anti-fascist anthem about the French Resistance in World War II. The song was composed in 1943 by Russian-born Anna Marly (1917–2006), with lyrics by French Resistance leader Emmanuel d'Astier de La Vigerie (1900–1969), and originally titled "La Complainte du partisan" (English: "The lament of the partisan"). Marly performed it and other songs on the BBC's French service, through which she and her songs were an inspiration to the Resistance. A number of French artists have recorded and released versions of the song since, but it is better recognised globally in its significantly, both musically and in the meaning of its lyrics, different English adaptation by Hy Zaret (1907–2007), best known as the lyricist of "Unchained Melody". Canadian singer-songwriter Leonard Cohen (1934–2016) recorded his version, using Zaret's adaptation, and released it on his 1969 album Songs from a Room, and as a 7-inch single in Europe. Cohen's version re-popularised the song and is responsible for the common misconception that the song was written by Cohen. It has inspired many other artists to perform, record and release versions of the song, including American Joan Baez (born 1941), on her 1972 album Come from the Shadows, and with the title "Song of the French Partisan", Canadian Buffy Sainte-Marie (born 1941) and Israeli Esther Ofarim (born 1941). La Complainte du partisan Anna Marly was born in Petrograd on October 30, 1917, and after her father was murdered by the Bolsheviks, she escaped with her mother and sister to a Russian colony in Menton, south-eastern France. Her artistic talents were encouraged from an early age; she was taught guitar by Sergei Prokofiev, and by age sixteen, was dancing in the Ballets Russes in Paris. Becoming refugees upon the outbreak of World War II, her Dutch aristocrat husband and she travelled to London, arriving in 1941. Emmanuel d'Astier de La Vigerie was born in Paris on January 6, 1900, and after studying at the private high school Sainte-Geneviève in Versailles, he joined the École Navale (the French naval academy, in charge of the education of the officers of the French Navy) in 1919. Resigning the navy in 1931, d'Astier began a career in journalism, writing for Marianne and VU. With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, he was mobilised to work at the centre de renseignements maritimes de Lorient (English: maritime information center of Lorient) in north-western France, until the Fall of France in 1940. Refusing the armistice with Germany, he co-founded the Resistance movement La Dernière Colonne (English: the Last Column), publishing counter-propaganda against cooperation with Germany, and worked as an editor of the newspaper La Montagne. After the Last Column was decimated by arrests in 1941, he went into hiding under the pseudonym Bernard. By 1943, after meetings in London with Charles de Gaulle, and in Washington with the United States' President Roosevelt, to secure the formation and recognition of the Free French Forces, he again visited London as the Commissioner for Political Affairs of le Directoire des Mouvements unis de Résistance (English: the Directory of United Movements of Resistance). Jonathan H. King wrote, of d'Astier, in his article "Emmanuel d'Astier and the Nature of the French Resistance" for the Journal of Contemporary History: Few men were at the centre of the Resistance, for the reason that its centre could rarely be defined and was rarely stable. Even fewer would have the necessary literary and verbal self-consciousness to achieve the goals [of subjectively documenting historical reality]. One who was at the centre and who did have this self-consciousness was Emmanuel d'Astier. and that, in his efforts to organise the Resistance, in his own words, d'Astier was seeking the strength of "popular forces, those forces which alone can change our dreams into reality, adventure into history, aesthetics into politics". It was in London, in 1943, while Marly ran a hostel for French exiles, that she wrote the anti-fascist anthem "La Complainte du partisan", with lyrics by d'Astier, going on to perform it and her other songs on Radio Londres (English: Radio London), the French Resistance radio operated by the Free French Forces, through the British Broadcasting Corporation. It was at this time that she also wrote "The March of the Partisans", with English lyrics by the Russian ambassador's daughter, Louba Krassine. The French exiles, Joseph Kessel and Maurice Druon, also resident in London, translated it into French for play on Radio Londres and it became "Le Chant des Partisans" (English: "Song of the Partisans"), an unofficial French anthem towards the end of the war. Marly's songs, singing and whistling on Radio Londres, were an inspiration to the French Resistance and earned her the credit "troubadour of the Resistance" from General de Gaulle, leader of the French Free Forces. D'Astier was to become a Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur (English: Knight of the Legion of Honour), Compagnon de la Libération (English: Companion of the Liberation) and awarded the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945. In Paris, 1945, Raoul Breton published the "La Complainte du partisan" sheet music with lyrics by d'Astier credited to Bernard, his Resistance code name. Structure, content and context In their examination of the songs of Anna Marly, the Académie de Lyon describe "La Complainte du partisan" as "" (English: "a heartbreaking vision of the commitment of the Resistance members"), and evaluate its structure and the meaning of its words: the song's lyrics are structured as six quatrains; the first and second lines of each is formed with seven syllables, the third line with five syllables and the fourth with six. In his analysis for the University of Freiburg, Giacomo Bottà describes d'Astier's lyrics as "very straightforward", then continues: A partisan recalls, in the first person, episodes of his life ... each verse narrates a different situation: life on the run, the loss of the family, that of comrades, the killing of an old man who hid partisans, up to the ending. The first five verses (quatrains) depict scenes of Nazi occupied France, the expectation of French people to accept the occupation of their country, and the extraordinary reaction of the Resistance. The first line of the song, "" (English: "The enemy was at my house"), where "my house" can be understood as a reference to France, sets the scene. The second line, "" (English: "I was told 'Resign yourself), references the common resignation of the French people in response to Philippe Pétain's radio address, after the Fall of France, announcing his intention to ask for an armistice with Germany. In the third and fourth lines, "" (English: "But I could not / And I took my weapon"), d'Astier introduces the notion of resistance, with a risk of death, loss of family, friends and identity and leading a secretive and dangerous life on the run, evoked by the lines "" (English: "I changed name a hundred times / I lost wife and children ... Yesterday again, we were three / It remains only me / And I'm going around in circles / In the border prison"). The dangers d'Astier describes are countered by the expressions "" (English: "But I have so many friends / And I have the whole of France"), describing the support of the Resistance from the French people. In the final verse, d'Astier expresses his hope and confidence that Resistance will not be futile; "" (English: "The wind blows on the graves") evoking a cleansing wind and "" (English: "Freedom will return / We will be forgotten / We will go into the shadows") expressing the confidence that the actions of the mostly anonymous Resistance will have their desired effect. Marly performed her song self-accompanied by guitar, and introduced each verse instrumentally while whistling the melody. Adaptation to English Born in Manhattan, New York City in 1907, Hy Zaret was best known as a Tin Pan Alley lyricist, whose writing credits include those for "Unchained Melody", "One Meat Ball" and several educational and public service songs. He wrote an English version of "La Complainte du partisan" titled "Song of the French partisan", published by the Leeds Publishing Corporation, New York City, August 11, 1944. Zaret's adaptation includes three of d'Astier's original French verses, with references to (English: "The enemy") changed to (English: "The Germans"), inserted between the penultimate and final English verses. Leonard Cohen used Zaret's adaptation for his creation of "The Partisan", the cover version that popularised the song globally. Douglas Martin reported for the New York Times that Zaret "loosely translated" the French lyrics, and in his book Passion and Ambivalence: Colonialism, Nationalism, and International Law, author Nathaniel Berman compares excerpts of d'Astier's original French lyrics alongside, what he calls Zaret's English "‍(mis)translation", and notes that "the two versions reflect very different views"; that Zaret's English suggests that the partisans will "come from the shadows", while the French "", he states as "we will return to the shadow" (emphasis in quote) in English, suggests that the partisans – the Resistance – are "an artifact of the imperialism that dominates [them]", and that "reconciliation of society with its shadows is an illusion". Alex Young, for Consequence of Sound, describes the differences between the original French and Zaret's English, saying it "downplays the song's historical content – the English lyrics contain no references to France or the Nazi occupation", with an example of literal English translations of the song's first line, "The Germans were at my house" (French: ""), being unheard in his English lyrics. Young goes on to compare the literal English translation of the same verse compared by Berman: Maurice Ratcliff also noted, in his book Leonard Cohen: The Music and The Mystique, that there are differences between the original French and Zaret's English versions; he comments that Leonard Cohen's "The Partisan" is "substantially Zaret's", and while it does also contain verses sung in the original French, references to "The Germans" in the English verses, "become the more neutral 'soldiers and "the shelter-giving 'old woman' is ' (English: "an old man"). Giacomo Bottà describes Zaret's adaptation as "relatively faithful", while in the Académie de Lyon's evaluation of "La Complainte du partisan", its adaptation and cover versions, they write: (English: The version of Leonard Cohen offers a faithful translation, except the last stanza, which is much more positive: the resistant will come out of the shadows and freedom will return. The Resistance is shown more as a hero, who is placed in the light, once freedom has returned). They state that: (English: Cohen was fascinated by this song and wondered, moreover, "if music and writings alone did not overthrow Hitler"). Leonard Cohen's cover version While living at a rented farm in Franklin, Tennessee, Leonard Cohen worked on his second album Songs from a Room with Bob Johnston, its producer. In the candlelit Columbia Studio A on Music Row, Nashville, Johnston created a relaxed atmosphere for, what Mike Evans, in his book Leonard Cohen: An Illustrated Record, calls "suitable, and non-intrusive, backing" by the assembled session musicians: Charlie Daniels on bass, fiddle and guitar, Ron Cornelius on guitars, Bubba Fowler on banjo, bass, fiddle and guitar, and Johnston himself playing keyboards. Ten songs were recorded in one eight-hour session, half of which ended up on the album. The recording of "The Partisan" utilized only a classical guitar, double bass, and accordion along with vocals by Cohen and female voices. Bottà states, of Cohen's recording of Zaret's adaptation, that "the melody and chord structure is considerably different from the original" by Marly. Both writing for the Guardian, Adam Sweeting, in Cohen's obituary, and Dorian Lynskey, in his music blog article, refer to Songs from a Room as being bleak. Sweeting states that it is "another powerful but bleak collection", while Lynskey calls it "sparser and bleaker than the debut", Songs of Leonard Cohen. Cohen first learned "La Complainte du partisan" from The People's Songbook as a fifteen-year-old boy at summer-camp in 1950. Using Zaret's predominantly English adaptation to record the song, with the title "The Partisan", left Cohen dissatisfied, and he suggested to Johnston that French voices were needed on the track. Johnston reportedly arranged to fly with Cohen to Paris, for "authenticity" according to Maurice Ratcliff, to record a trio of female singers and an accordion player, whose work was overdubbed on to the track. The song fades into an intro, followed by nine verses and an outro that fades out; the first five verses are sung from Zaret's English, followed by verses six, seven and eight being sung in French, and the final verse nine being a repeat of the English verse five. In May 1969, CBS released the album track, "The Partisan", in Europe as a 7-inch single with, in the initial format, "Bird on the Wire", and in a later format, "Suzanne" on the B-side. "The Partisan" was to be Cohen's first commercial recording of a song he did not write; writing about Cohen's cover versions of other's songs, in his article for Pitchfork, published soon after Cohen's death, Marc Hogan refers to Cohen's "The Partisan" as a "wonderfully affecting ... haunting version", and Josh Jones, writing for Open Culture, describes it as having a "folk melody and melancholy lyricism", with what Ratcliff calls a "plodding bass line underpinning the simply strummed guitar and an occasional accordion" and "a rare excursion ... into political territory". Tim Nelson, in his BBC review of Cohen's albums, also refers to the song's "biting political commentary". Cultural impact Alex Young writes that "[Cohen] is often incorrectly credited as the composer of the [original] song – although he is certainly responsible for its survival", Douglas Martin states that The Partisan' gained popularity" in the United States thanks to Cohen's recording, and Josh Jones writes that the song "[has] become so closely associated with Cohen that it has often been credited to him", with Cohen reportedly remarking, "I kind of re-introduced ['The Partisan'] into the world of popular music. I feel I wrote it, but I actually didn't" (bracketed content in source). Hogan writes that Cohen's version "became one of his signature songs, leading to renditions by Joan Baez, Buffy Sainte-Marie, Electrelane, First Aid Kit, and many others." Evans writes about a Polish translation of Cohen's—Zaret's—song being adopted as an unofficial anthem of the Solidarity movement for democracy in the detention camps of communist Poland, one of the countries in which Cohen performed while on the Various Positions Tour in 1985, supporting his album that spawned "Hallelujah", Various Positions. Other cover versions Luke Reilly, reporting for an article in IGN about the creation of Australian composer Mick Gordon's version of "The Partisan" for the closing credits of the 2015 video game Wolfenstein: The Old Blood, a game in a series depicting the events of a fictionalised World War II, refers to Cohen's "The Partisan" as being "perhaps" the most famous, and reports that the audio director on Wolfenstein, Nicholas Raynor, also called Cohen's version "a famous one"; according to Gordon, it was Raynor's idea to do a cover for the game. The Australian singer-songwriter Tex Perkins was Gordon's first choice to sing his version. Reilly says "the song itself is poignant and heartrending, yet incredibly stirring and motivational. A song that simultaneously mourns what's been lost and steels listeners for a fight to come" and that Gordon and Perkin's version "begins with a softly haunting acoustic intro before escalating to stomping blasts of distorted guitar and heaving drumming". Recording their 2005 album Axes live in the studio, English group Electrelane included a version of "The Partisan" on the release. Andy Gill, reviewing the album for the Independent, described their style as "a sort of cross between Krautrock, klezmer and free jazz that thrives on the enthusiasm of performance", and that their version is "still recognisable ... despite the churning thrash they give it". Canadian group Po' Girl included a version on their 2007 album, Home to You, which Sue Keogh described, in her review for the BBC, as an "acoustic mix of guitars, banjos and violin, plus a couple of moments of clarinet and trumpet or wry comments from performance poet CV Avery to keep you on your toes", having a "gentle acoustic sound" with a "bright and breezy yet intimate and charming atmosphere". David Jeffries called the album a "layered, insightful, and achingly poignant triumph" in his review for AllMusic. Betty Clarke, for the Guardian, reviewed a live show at the Village Underground, London by American group Other Lives in 2012, where they performed a cover of "The Partisan". Clarke says the band create "indie-pop with the scope, precision and polish of Fleetwood Mac's Rumours" (emphasis added), and that their performance of "The Partisan" "encompass[ed] all the elements of Other Lives' sound". Versions of "The Partisan" have been performed, recorded and released by many other artists, with none being so widely referenced as that by Joan Baez in 1972, on her album Come from the Shadows, the name of which is derived from Zaret's English lyrics. Song of the French Partisan In 1970, Canadian singer-songwriter Buffy Sainte-Marie provided the title song for the film Soldier Blue, first released as a 7-inch single in France in 1970 by Vanguard Records with the title "Soldat Bleu", and elsewhere in 1971 by RCA Victor as "Soldier Blue", all releases featuring "Song of the French Partisan", the title as published by Zaret, a "folk tune she learned from Leonard Cohen" according to Andrea Warner in her book, Buffy Sainte-Marie: The Authorized Biography, on the B-side. Both songs were included on her 1971 album She Used to Wanna Be a Ballerina. The RCA release of "Soldier Blue" was a top-10 hit in the United Kingdom in 1971, spending eighteen weeks on the singles chart, four in the top-10, two at number seven. Another version to be produced by Bob Johnston was recorded by Israeli singer Esther Ofarim, who had previously taken second place for Switzerland in the 1963 Eurovision Song Contest and had, with her then husband Abi Ofarim, a British number one hit with the novelty song "Cinderella Rockefella" in 1968. She released the cover on her eponymous 1972 album Esther Ofarim; in his review for AllMusic, Richie Unterberger calls Ofarim's recording of the song one of the highlights, awarding the album three of a possible five stars. See also Protest song – a song that is associated with a movement for social change – the use of radio to disseminate propaganda during World War II "We'll Meet Again" – a 1939 song made famous by singer Vera Lynn which resonated with soldiers and their families during World War II "A Change Is Gonna Come" – a 1964 song by American recording artist Sam Cooke which became an anthem for African Americans and the Civil Rights Movement The Sorrow and the Pity – a two-part 1969 documentary film by Marcel Ophüls about the collaboration between the Vichy government and Nazi Germany during World War II – featuring interviews with and archival footage of Emmanuel d'Astier de La Vigerie References Groups Sources External links – a source of cover song information – uploaded by LeonardCohenVEVO – uploaded by LesstentorsVEVO – uploaded by EmilyLoizeauVEVO – uploaded by Mick Gordon – uploaded by Amoeba Music – Joan Baez – Come from the Shadows album version – provided to YouTube by Universal Music Group – Electrelane – Axes album version – provided to YouTube by Beggars Group 1943 songs Songs of World War II Songs about soldiers Songs about the military French-language songs French folk songs French Resistance Songs written by Anna Marly Songs written by Hy Zaret Buffy Sainte-Marie songs Leonard Cohen songs Joan Baez songs Song recordings produced by Bob Johnston Anti-fascist music CBS Records singles
4876558	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd%20Armoured%20Division%20%28United%20Kingdom%29	2nd Armoured Division (United Kingdom)	The 2nd Armoured Division was a division of the British Army that was active during the early stages of the Second World War. The division's creation had been discussed since the beginning of 1939, with the intent to form it by splitting the 1st Armoured Division. A lack of tanks delayed this until December 1939. For a short period after its creation, the division had no assigned units until the 1st Light Armoured Brigade was assigned to it from the 1st Armoured Division, and the 22nd Heavy Armoured Brigade from Southern Command. In early 1940, 1st Armoured Division was given priority for equipment, leaving the 2nd Armoured Division understrength and equipped largely with light tanks. After the Battle of France, with the threat of a German invasion of the United Kingdom, priority for equipment shifted to the 2nd Armoured Division, which was brought up to strength. The plan was to use the division to counter-attack the flanks of a feared German invasion force. In August 1940, an armoured regiment from the division was transported to Egypt and transferred to the 7th Armoured Division, but it was replaced by another. In October, it was decided to transfer the rest of the division to Egypt, as reinforcements for Middle East Command. Before leaving for Egypt, the division exchanged brigades with the 1st Armoured Division. Since the brigade received in exchange consisted of only one armoured regiment, division strength was reduced to three armoured regiments. Upon arriving in Egypt in December 1940, the division was further reduced in order to provide support for Operation Lustre, an expeditionary force to Greece. The detached units included two-thirds of the division's tanks, a battalion of infantry, and artillery support. The remnants of the division then moved to the province of Cyrenaica in Italian Libya, which had been conquered during Operation Compass. The division's remaining tanks were worn-out; they were supplemented by captured Italian models that were equally decrepit. In March, a German-Italian counter-attack led to the destruction of the division, and the ejection of the British from Cyrenaica, except for Tobruk. The consensus of historians is that there was little the division could have done to prevent this, given the circumstances of its being under equipped, poorly supplied, lacking proper training, and having inadequate communications and an unclear chain of command. Background During the interwar period, the British Army examined the lessons learnt from the First World War; and a need was seen for experimentation with and development of theories of manoeuvre and armoured warfare, as well as the creation of the short-lived Experimental Mechanized Force. The long-term impact was for the army to start to move towards mechanisation, to enhance battlefield mobility. By the 1930s, the army had established three types of divisions: the infantry division, the mobile division (later called an armoured division), and the motor division (a motorised infantry division). The primary role of the infantry division was to penetrate the enemy's defensive line, with the support of infantry tanks. Any gap created would then be exploited by mobile divisions, and the territory thus captured would be secured by the fast-moving motor divisions. These tactics would transform the attack into a break-through, while maintaining mobility. The Mobile Division was created in October 1937; it included six light tank regiments, three medium tank regiments, two motorized infantry battalions, and two artillery regiments. The light-tank units were intended for reconnaissance only. General John Burnett-Stuart, who was responsible for training the Mobile Division, stated that the infantry were not "to be put on to a position by tanks and told to hold it, and they are not meant to fight side by side with your tanks in the forefront"; the infantry's role was simply to protect the tanks when they were stationary. Burnett-Stuart's tactics did not conform with British doctrine, which promoted combined-arms co-operation to win battles, as did German armoured warfare doctrine, which held that tanks by themselves would not be a decisive weapon. However, Burnett-Stuart's thinking predominated within the British armoured forces until the doctrine was reformed in 1942. In the 1930s, tensions increased between Germany and the United Kingdom. During 1937 and 1938, German demands for the annexation of the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia led to an international crisis. This was resolved in September 1938 by the Munich Agreement, which allowed for German annexation. Tensions did not subside, and the British government debated how best to prepare the army for war. In January 1939, the Secretary of State for War Leslie Hore-Belisha proposed splitting the Mobile Division into two smaller formations but found no support for this move. The issue was broached again a month later, and was accepted in principle by the cabinet. Shortly after, the French were informed of a preliminary timetable for the arrival of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in the event of war: "One Regular Armoured Division will become available about the middle of 1940, the second would not be available 'till a later date. The formation of a second division during this period was complicated by the slow pace of British tank production. Formation and home service The 2nd Armoured Division was activated on 15 December 1939, with Major-General Frederick Hotblack as the first general officer commanding (GOC). Hotblack had joined the Royal Tank Corps in 1916, and by 1918 he had become the army's expert on German tanks. During the 1930s, he had been posted to Germany, where he witnessed and reported on the development of German armoured forces. Following the outbreak of the Second World War, in September 1939, he was the BEF's senior advisor on armoured vehicles. The division had no assigned fighting sub-units until the following month, when the 1st Light Armoured Brigade was transferred from the 1st Armoured Division (previously the Mobile Division), and the 22nd Heavy Armoured Brigade was transferred from Southern Command. On assignment to the division, the 1st Light Armoured Brigade comprised three armoured regiments: the 1st King's Dragoon Guards (KDG), the 3rd The King's Own Hussars (3H), and the 4th Queen's Own Hussars (4H). The 22nd Heavy Brigade consisted of the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars, and the 3rd and the 4th County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters). The 2nd Support Group, which would comprise the division's supporting arms, was formed in February. It did not have sub-units allocated until March; it was then composed of the 3rd Field Squadron, Royal Engineers; the 12th Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (12 RHA); the 102nd (Northumberland Hussars) Light-Anti-aircraft/Anti-tank Regiment; and two motorised infantry units – the 1st Battalion, The Rangers, King's Royal Rifle Corps, and the 1st Battalion, Tower Hamlets Rifles, Rifle Brigade (The Prince Consort's Own). The war establishment – the nominal full wartime strength – for a light armoured brigade was 108 light tanks and 66 cruiser tanks. A heavy armoured brigade's war establishment was 157 cruiser tanks. British doctrine defined light tanks as reconnaissance vehicles armed only with machine guns. Cruiser tanks were swift moving, more heavily armoured, and equipped with both a machine gun and an anti-tank gun. The primary role of the cruiser tank was to engage and destroy opposing armoured forces. Its main weapon, a 2-pounder anti-tank gun, was only supplied with armour-piercing rounds. This meant that cruiser tanks were ineffective against entrenched infantry, or in suppressing hostile artillery. Despite its war establishment, the division comprised a total of only 77 Vickers light tanks in January 1940. In early 1940, to bring it up to full strength, the 1st Armoured Division was given priority for equipment, to ensure it would be operationally effective when deployed to France. However, the 2nd Armoured Division strength only increased slowly; and it was not immediately issued with cruiser tanks. On 14 April, the 1st Light Armoured Brigade became the 1st Armoured Brigade, and the 22nd Heavy Armoured Brigade was renamed the 22nd Armoured Brigade. The renaming followed a change in the war establishment of an armoured regiment. The armament of regiments and brigades was to be homogeneous, with each brigade having 166 cruiser tanks. In total, including tanks assigned to headquarter units, an armoured division now had an establishment of 340 tanks, sixteen 25-pounder field gun-howitzers, and twenty-four 2-pounder anti-tank guns. By May, the division had 31 light tanks in the 1st Armoured Brigade. The 22nd Armoured Brigade had no serviceable tanks, and made do with lorries in lieu of tanks. The division had two 25-pounders, supplemented by four First World War–vintage 18-pounder field guns, four QF howitzers of similar vintage, and two anti-tank guns. On 10 May, Major-General Justice Tilly took command after Hotblack was removed following an apparent stroke. Tilly had been an armoured warfare instructor and commander of the 1st Tank Brigade prior to the outbreak of the war. During this period, the division was held in reserve in the Lincolnshire area. In June, the number of serviceable tanks fluctuated between 178 and 197. After the Battle of France, the division was moved to a position between Northampton, Northamptonshire, and Newmarket, Suffolk. The division's role was to strike into the flanks or the rear of any potential German landing in East Anglia or north of The Wash. During July, the division was given equipment priority and received new 25-pounders. By 4 August, the division had 17 new cruiser tanks, and the number of light tanks had increased to 226. During August, despite the threat of invasion, the War Office decided to reinforce Middle East Command. The 3H was transferred to Egypt to reinforce the 7th Armoured Division; it was replaced by the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment (3RTR). The division had a steady increase in tank strength, and at the end of September it had 256 light tanks and 54 cruisers. By October, the threat of a German invasion had receded. The British could now spare additional forces for the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre, including the 2nd Armoured Division. Prior to being dispatched, the 22nd Armoured Brigade was exchanged for the 3rd Armoured Brigade of the 1st Armoured Division. The 3rd Armoured Brigade consisted of only one regiment, the 5th Royal Tank Regiment (5RTR). The division departed Liverpool in late October, on Convoy W.S. 4a. Overseas service Arrival in the Middle East The convoy sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and arrived at Suez at the end of December. The division arrived in Egypt with just three armoured regiments: the 4H, the 3RTR, and the 5RTR. The KDG, which had previously been equipped with light tanks, had been made the division's armoured-car regiment. This had been intended as a stop-gap measure while the 1st The Royal Dragoons, based in Palestine, was mechanised to take on the role. In January 1941, after the division's arrival in Egypt, the KDG were outfitted with Marmon-Herrington Armoured Cars. On arrival, Tilly reported to General Archibald Wavell (in command of Middle East Command and all British land forces in the Middle East) that "the mechanical state of his two Cruiser regiments" was in question, with "the tracks ... practically worn out" and "engines [that] had already done a considerable mileage" without overhaul before being transported. The intention had been to replace the tracks once the tanks arrived in Egypt, but the available spare parts were found to be useless. On 5 January, Tilly died following an air crash. He was replaced by Major-General Michael Gambier-Parry on 12 February 1941. Gambier-Parry had served in the infantry during the First World War, transferred to the Royal Tank Corps in the 1920s, and commanded an infantry brigade in the 1930s. Prior to his appointment as GOC, he was part of a diplomatic mission to Greece. While the division was en route to Egypt, Operation Compass had been launched. This was a counter-attack against the Italian invasion of Egypt. The initial objective was limited: to destroy forward Italian forces and advance as far as Sollum, near the Libyan border, if the situation allowed. By the time the division had arrived, Compass was on the verge of defeating the Italian 10th Army. By February, the offensive had captured the Italian Libyan province of Cyrenaica. Further prosecution of the offensive was discussed, but it was believed that the province of Tripolitania would be too hard to defend or supply if captured and that the occupation of Cyrenaica would provide sufficient security for Egypt. The British believed that there would not be an Axis threat to their gains until at least May, by which time additional Allied forces would be available to reinforce the Cyrenaica garrison. British strategy shifted to supporting Greece, and to maintaining the status-quo in the Balkans, to prevent additional countries from being occupied by Germany or Italy. After discussions with the Greek government, it was decided to dispatch a substantial expeditionary force. This was partly made up by reducing the garrison in Cyrenaica. The transportation of this force was codenamed Operation Lustre. On 27 February, as a result, the 1st Armoured Brigade was detached from the division and assigned to the expeditionary force. On 18 March, it arrived in Greece with two armoured regiments, which included 52 cruisers and 52 light tanks. The division also lost the 1st Battalion, The Rangers, the 12RHA, and the 102nd (Northumberland Hussars) Regiment to the expeditionary force. These units subsequently fought in the Battle of Greece. Move to Libya In March, the remnants of the 2nd Armoured Division departed Egypt and travelled to Libya, suffering many breakdowns en route. The 5RTR began the journey with 58 cruisers, but arrived with 23. Once in Libya, the division consisted of the KDG, the 3H, the 5RTR, the 1st Tower Hamlets Rifles, and the 104th RHA. The 6th Royal Tank Regiment (6RTR), based in Cyrenaica, was assigned to the division. The 6RTR had been involved in Operation Compass, and towards the end of the operation had been stripped of its remaining serviceable tanks to reinforce other British units. It was then re-equipped with captured Italian Fiat M13/40 tanks. Although equipped with a good 47mm anti-tank gun, the M13 was slow, uncomfortable, and mechanically unreliable. The British tanks were also unreliable, having exceeded their engine lives. Other division deficiencies included a lack of transport, understaffed workshops, a lack of spare parts, and radios that lacked the required equipment to remain functional. By the end of March, the division had 102 tanks: 3H had 26 MK VI light tanks and 12 M13s; 5RTR, 25 Cruiser Mk IVs; 6RTR, 36 M13s; 3rd Armoured Brigade HQ, 3 MK VI light tanks. Benghazi was the port closest to the frontline. However, Axis bombing had rendered it unusable for landing supplies. The 2nd Armoured Division therefore had to rely on overland routes from Tobruk, which was about away via the coastal road, or via desert tracks. A lack of transport meant the British Army created a series of static stockpiles to supply their forward area. This made it impossible to supply a garrison west of El Agheila, which was the most favourable defensive position. It also restricted the mobility of the 2nd Armoured Division, which could not move beyond the range of their supply dumps. The terrain between El Agheila and Benghazi was optimal for armoured warfare, and no easily defensible infantry position existed. Lieutenant-General Philip Neame, GOC Cyrenaica Command, believed his position was untenable without a fully equipped armoured division supported by two complete infantry divisions and adequate air support. The only other major formation available to Neame was the 9th Australian Division. It was under-equipped, under-trained, and lacked direct communication with the 2nd Armoured Division. One of the 9th Australian Division's brigades remained at Tobruk. The other two were positioned north of Benghazi to hold the high ground of the Jebel Akhdar. The 3rd Armoured Brigade was based southeast of Mersa Brega, where the 2nd Support Group was located. Neame was ordered to give ground if attacked, as the conservation of his force was important. The 2nd Armoured Division had the conflicting objectives of avoiding tank losses while having to be ready to operate offensively against the flanks of any attacking Axis armoured force. Neame also predicted that once operations got underway, the 2nd Armoured Division's tank numbers would rapidly dwindle due to breakdowns. Axis offensive March After the destruction of the 10th Army, Italy dispatched reinforcements to its frontline. This included four infantry divisions, the 102 Motorised Division "Trento" and the 132nd Armoured Division "Ariete". Germany supplemented this effort with the two-division strong ( Erwin Rommel). At the end of March, the German 5th Light Division (147 tanks) and the "Ariete" Division (46 M13/40s) were on the border of Cyrenaica. The British underestimated the size of the Axis effort, believing that only four divisions would be available to them until the end of May, of which only two could be used in offensive operations due to supply constraints. Royal Air Force (RAF) aerial reconnaissance observed Axis troop movements towards Cyrenaica, and on 25 February spotted German armoured cars that were superior in speed and armament to those used by the 2nd Armoured Division. The reconnaissance elements of the latter avoided contact with their German counterparts to minimise losses. The British forward area was patrolled by one platoon from the 1st Tower Hamlets Rifles, supported by an anti-tank gun from the 9th Australian Division, and elements of the KDG. On 23 March, the division had its first action when a German reconnaissance patrol was engaged and forced to withdraw, near El Agheila, the Australians claiming three German vehicles knocked out. Axis forces took up position in an abandoned colonial fort near El Agheila and ambushed a patrol from the 1st Tower Hamlets Rifles the following day. German armoured cars also attacked and one was knocked out by the Australian gun crew, which also suffered casualties. The British screening force then withdrew to Mersa Brega, ceding El Agheila to the Axis. German tanks followed, and one or two were lost to anti-tank mines (possibly left over Italian mines, which had not been cleared). On 31 March, the Axis resumed their advance, and engaged just after dawn. Sources describe either one engagement from both the British and German perspectives or two clashes. The German 5th Light Division reported engaging up to five British tanks, in two inconclusive engagements with no losses on either side. While observing the Axis advance, the 5RTR reported a patrol of four enemy tanks, which they engaged, claiming three Italian tanks possibly destroyed, with one British tank damaged in return. By 09:00, the 3rd Armoured Brigade started a planned withdrawal. After 10:00, German forces attacked the 2nd Support Group. Fighting lasted through the day, with the British fending off several assaults, including attacks by German Junkers Ju 87 dive bombers. The 2nd Armoured Division claimed two aircraft destroyed and the Germans recorded their own tanks being subjected to friendly fire. A request for the 3rd Armoured Brigade to be deployed to reinforce the 2nd Support Group was denied. Gambier-Parry reported that there was "insufficient time to get them into action from their present position before dark". After dark, the 2nd Support Group withdrew to Agedabia. The Germans captured Mersa Brega the next morning, without further incident. The fighting cost the division 59 men, one tank, eight universal carriers and numerous other vehicles. April The Germans followed, and attacked the 2nd Support Group on 2 April. The latter withdrew a further , and lost men in rearguard actions or to being surrounded. On the desert flank, the 3rd Armoured Brigade continued to withdraw, although only at in order to match the slowest vehicles, which were towing artillery. For most of the day, their movements were shadowed by armoured vehicles they were unable to identify. During the afternoon, the withdrawal was further slowed by breakdowns, conflicting orders, and the need to rest and refuel. This allowed the shadowing armoured vehicles to gain ground. Nine tanks from the 5RTR were ordered to conduct a rearguard action and took up hull-down positions. The 5RTR believed the shadowing tanks were Italian, although they were actually German. The German tanks advanced in an arrowhead formation towards the 5RTR. When the range was between , both sides opened fire. The 5RTR suffered five tank losses and 24 casualties. The 5RTR's after action report claimed at least eight enemy tanks in return, although German records indicate that only three German tanks were destroyed, "along with an unrecorded number damaged". The remaining British tanks withdrew to friendly positions, and the regiment regrouped further back. The brigade then resumed its retreat, with no German vehicles following. During the day, Gambier-Parry, Neame, and Wavell all issued contradictory orders and queries to the division. These concerned the feasibility of withdrawal, the division's capacity to block the coastal road, and whether the division should remain concentrated or split up. The discussions were hampered by ignorance of events, and notably included Neame informing Gambier-Parry that the 3rd Armoured Brigade was not to be committed en masse without his permission. Early on 3 April, the 3rd Armoured Brigade reached Antelat (~ northeast of Agedabia, and half way to Msus), and had been located by German aerial reconnaissance. Unknown to the division, the bulk of the German 5th Light Division had halted near Bir el Ageradt and was focused on resupplying, although German and Italian detachments were ordered to probe the southern flank of the 2nd Armoured Division and reconnoitre towards Msus. In the afternoon, the movements of the 3H and the 6RTR caused alarm and confusion within the 5RTR, which at first believed them to be German. The RAF then reported Axis forces approaching Msus, the site of the main divisional supply dump. The 3rd Armoured Brigade, along with some elements of the Support Group, were ordered to move to Msus to deal with the hostile force. However, the division was crippled by a breakdown in communication, resulting in conflicting, late, and missed orders. None of the division arrived at Msus during the day. It was established late in the afternoon that the RAF had mistakenly identified friendly vehicles in the area as the enemy. By the end of the day, the 3rd Armoured Brigade had been reduced to 18 light tanks, 26 M13s, and 12 cruisers. On 4 April, Axis forces entered Benghazi, which had been abandoned by the Allies. During the day, divisional artillery fire halted German reconnaissance forces near Charruba. At midday, Lieutenant-General Richard O'Connor (GOC British Troops in Egypt) arrived at the front and held a meeting with the senior commanders in Cyrenaica, including Gambier-Parry, who opined that the Axis forces would not attempt a further advance now that Benghazi had been taken. However, the decision was made to withdraw from the Jebel Achdar, and for the 2nd Armoured Division to concentrate at Mechili to protect the withdrawal of the Australian infantry. Brigadier Edward Vaughan's recently arrived 3rd Indian Motor Brigade was ordered to secure Mechili, an old Italian stone-and-mud colonial fort ringed by trenches, to ensure it was in Allied hands when the division arrived. Communication failures impeded the division's withdrawal during the day, and further tanks were lost from breakdowns. A supply convoy dispatched for the division was attacked by 18 Axis aircraft, and destroyed with the loss of of fuel. By the end of the day, the 5RTR had nine cruiser tanks, and the 6RTR had nine M13s. The following day, alarmist reports suggested Axis armoured forces had passed Msus; but the KDG, and other Allied units, verified that this was not the case. The tank sightings turned out to be the 2nd Armoured Division. In reality, the nearest Axis unit was from Msus. General withdrawal On 6 April, Axis forces moved towards Mechili, with the intention of advancing toward the coast, and thereby encircling the retreating Allied forces. This move was reported by the KDG and the RAF. The division started the day with 8 cruiser tanks, 14 light tanks, and 2 M13s. During the day, the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade was attached to the division. Mechili was subjected to Axis artillery fire, and Indian patrols took numerous Axis prisoners around the perminter throughout the day. Neame, unaware of these events, set off into the desert to locate Gambier-Parry to deliver new instructions. At the same time, the attack on the fort prompted O'Connor to order a general withdrawal of all Allied forces towards Gazala, via Derna. Conflicting and confusing orders to withdraw were issued, which fragmented the division, the withdrawal orders failing entirely to reach the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade. At first, the division moved east towards Mechili. Following its instructions, the 2nd Support Group turned north towards the coastal road. The divisional headquarters, including Gambier-Parry and a battery of artillery, continued towards Mechili. The 3rd Armoured Brigade, which had run low on fuel, moved north to Maraura, but found little petrol there. The brigade then moved towards Derna, via Giovanni Berta. At the same time, the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade escorted a fuel convoy from Mechili towards where they expected the division to be. In the afternoon, a patrol of the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade, based at El Adem, intercepted advanced Italian troops at Acroma, near Tobruk, and took 18 prisoners. A buildup of Axis forces took place near Mechili. Towards dusk, a German officer demanded the garrison's surrender and was refused. Near Derna, German troops briefly managed to block some desert tracks, before moving to a position near the coastal road east of the town. German patrols intercepted and disrupted some Allied convoys, and captured Neame and O'Connor, but the route east remained open until the following day. Early on 7 April, Brigadier Reginald Rimington, GOC 3rd Armoured Brigade, was mortally wounded and captured after an ambush on a desert track en route to Derna. By dawn, the 2nd Support Group and the 3rd Armoured Brigade were stretched out, stuck in traffic west of Derna; Gambier-Parry and the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade had been surrounded at Mechili; and other elements of the division were positioned near Derna to control the road and desert tracks, fighting with Axis forces intermittently throughout the day. At Timimi, near Gazala, Axis armoured cars ambushed retreating Australian forces, but were repulsed by a lone cruiser tank from the 5RTR, whose remaining tanks arrived at Derna in the afternoon. By 14:30, the majority of the division had moved through Derna. To the south of Derna, German forces had captured the town's airfield and established a blocking position. The division's rearguard, now separated from the rest of the division, fought an afternoon-long battle with this German force. Several German attacks were fended off, with eight German armoured cars claimed as destroyed. Around 17:15, the 5RTR attacked the German position and lost their remaining tanks but successfully covered the withdrawal of the remainder of the rearguard. Barton Maughan, author of the Australian official history for this period of the fighting, wrote "by coincidence ... the 5th Royal Tanks ... [were] where they were most needed and could be most effectively employed that day". The British official history recorded "the action cleared the road also for any troops that remained in Derna" as well as allowing the rearguard to get away. Demise At Mechili, on 7 April, the Germans continued to build up their forces surrounding the British position. The garrison was subjected to intermittent artillery fire, and skirmishing took place around the perimeter. Two separate German envoys demanded the garrison surrender, and both demands were refused by Gambier-Parry. Around 22:00, Gambier-Parry re-established communication with Cyrenaica Command. He was informed that neither the rest of his division nor any other force would be joining him, and was ordered to break out at first light, with El Adem his destination. The planned break-out was to be led by a single cruiser tank, with infantry support from the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade. The intent was to use a small force to punch a hole through the Axis defensive positions prior to dawn, to negate the Axis anti-tank gun advantage; that would then be followed by the rest of the force east into the desert. Maughan wrote, "If the original plan had been adhered to, if it had been boldly executed, a great measure of success might have been achieved. But the operation miscarried badly". On 8 April, the tank was delayed and the cover of dark lost. Despite this, the 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry (18th Cavalry) achieved surprise when they attacked and scattered the personnel of an Italian battery. Instead of exploiting this success, the rest of the escape column waited for the cruiser tank to advance. A second attack was launched by the 11th Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (Frontier Force), which likewise broke through the Axis defenses. However, the cruiser tank was destroyed when it advanced towards the battery silenced by the 18th Cavalry; the Italians had returned to their guns. Following this Allied failure, the Axis forces attacked the garrison. Gambier-Parry decided to surrender, to spare further casualties, and fighting ceased by 08:00. Roughly 3,000 Allied troops were captured at Mechili, including Gambier-Parry and Vaughan. A force of at least 150 men, from the 3rd RHA and the 2nd Lancers (Gardner's Horse), refused to capitulate. They charged, unmolested, through Axis positions in non-armoured vehicles. The majority of this small force made it to Tobruk, taking prisoners en route. Elements of the 6RTR, which had failed to reach Derna prior to the Axis arrival, moved south into the desert to avoid contact. They continued east, before meeting British reconnaissance forces near El Adem on 10 April, and reached Tobruk just prior to midnight. On 10 May 1941, the 2nd Armoured Division was disbanded. The units that constituted the division continued the war with other formations. In October 1941, XXX Corps was formed with officers largely from the remnants of the 2nd Armoured Division HQ staff. Assessment "This division [has not] had an opportunity for adequate training... It was a collection of units, three of which had only [just] joined... rather than a trained formation. The breakdown in control and administration was largely due to this fact". – From a contemporary after action report, by 2nd Armoured Division senior officers. An unnamed officer from the division later blamed the division's fate on Gambier-Parry, whom he called "a conventional and slow minded soldier who couldn't cope with the unexpected". The historian David French wrote that some critics, such as Major-General David Belchem, blamed the poor performance of British armoured formations in the desert on officers who had cavalry backgrounds and knew little of armoured warfare. French wrote "such strictures are exaggerated", highlighted that Gambier-Parry started his career in the infantry before he transferred to the Royal Tank Corps, and stated that singling him out for blame is harsh. Several factors have been identified as key reasons for the division's rapid decline in tank strength and ineffectiveness in the face of Axis forces: tanks that were not serviceable, an inadequate logistical support system, a lack of training, a burdensome chain of command, and ineffective communications. The 5RTR lost 38 tanks in Libya, but only nine were lost to enemy action. With the exception of one that was destroyed when it hit a thermos bomb, the rest had broken down. The lack of a forward port or railhead meant that supplies had to be moved at least , but there was insufficient transport to build up a sufficient stockpile of supplies for the division. The division's staff were undertrained for the task they were asked to perform. While brave, the tank crews were inflexible and failed to follow their tactical training. British tactical doctrine encouraged ambush counter-attacks, but the formation failed to undertake any. At the squadron and regimental level, the chain of command impeded mobility, as permission was needed to move a single tank from an assigned position. This resulted in rapid tank losses once combat was underway. At the higher level, the division received instructions from Gambier-Parry, Neame, Wavell, and O'Connor. This overlapping chain of command resulted in delayed, misunderstood, mixed, and changed orders that severely impeded the division's capability. Due to these factors, the general and historian David Fraser wrote, once "the Germans chose to drive across the chord of the Cyrenaican arc there was little to stop them". At no point during the Axis advance, did the division offer a threat or hindrance. However, when they did engage, both sides lacked flexibility and acted against their own doctrines. Furthermore, the German lack of understanding of what the 2nd Armoured Division was doing resulted in their 5th Light Division having to send 83 tanks to workshops for repairs after they had chased the 2nd Armoured Division through the desert. General officer commanding Orders of battle December 1939 – October 1940 1st Light Armoured Brigade (assigned 19 January 1940, and renamed the 1st Armoured Brigade on 14 April) 3rd (The King's Own) Hussars (until 14 August 1940) 4th Queen's Own Hussars 1st King's Dragoon Guards 3rd Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment (from 11 August 1940) 22nd Heavy Armoured Brigade (assigned 15 January 1940, and renamed the 22nd Armoured Brigade on 14 April) 2nd Royal Gloucestershire Hussars 3rd County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters) 4th County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters) 3rd Armoured Brigade (assigned 5 October 1940) 5th Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment 2nd Support Group (assigned 5 February 1940) 1st Battalion The Rangers, The King's Royal Rifle Corps 1st Battalion, Tower Hamlets Rifles (Rifle Brigade (Prince Consort's Own)) 102nd (Northumberland Hussars) Light Anti-Aircraft/Anti-Tank Regiment 12th Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (until 7 August 1940) 2nd Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (from 11 July 1940) 3rd Field Squadron, Royal Engineers (until 9 June 1940) 142nd Field Park Troop (from 30 March 1940 until 9 June) Divisional troops 2nd Armoured Divisional Signals, Royal Corps of Signals Royal Engineers 3rd Field Squadron (assigned 10 June 1940) 142nd Field Park Troop (assigned 10 June 1940) Libya, 1941 3rd Armoured Brigade 3rd (The King's Own) Hussars 5th Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment 6th Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment 3rd Indian Motor Brigade (6–8 April 1941) 2nd Lancers (Gardner's Horse) 11th Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (Frontier Force) 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry 2nd Support Group 1st Battalion, Tower Hamlets Rifles, redesignated as 9th Battalion, Rifle Brigade (Tower Hamlets Rifles) from 5 January 1941 1st Company, Free French 1st Motor Marine Infantry Battalion (attached) 102nd (Northumberland Hussars) Anti-Tank Regiment 104th (Essex Yeomanry) Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery Divisional troops 1st King's Dragoon Guards (Armoured Car, divisional reconnaissance regiment until 22 March 1941) 2nd Armoured Divisional Signals See also British Army during the Second World War British Armoured formations of World War II List of British divisions in World War II Notes Footnotes Citations References Further reading External links Armoured divisions of the British Army in World War II British armoured divisions Military units and formations established in 1939 Military units and formations disestablished in 1941 Military units and formations of the British Empire in World War II
4876592	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diver%20navigation	Diver navigation	Diver navigation, termed "underwater navigation" by scuba divers, is a set of techniques—including observing natural features, the use of a compass, and surface observations—that divers use to navigate underwater. Free-divers do not spend enough time underwater for navigation to be important, and surface supplied divers are limited in the distance they can travel by the length of their umbilicals and are usually directed from the surface control point. On those occasions when they need to navigate they can use the same methods used by scuba divers. Although it is considered a basic skill, it is normally only taught to a limited degree as part of basic Open Water certification. Most North American diver training agencies only teach significant elements of underwater navigation as part of the Advanced Open Water Diver certification program. Underwater navigation is usually a core component of most, if not all, advanced recreational diver training. In the PADI Advanced Open Water Diver course, it is one of the two mandatory skills (together with Deep diving) which must be taken alongside three elective skills. Training agencies promote underwater navigation as a skill (despite the fact that it is less popular than other recreational diving specialties) on the basis that it: builds diver confidence saves energy by minimising excess swimming makes dive planning more effective keeps dive buddies together reduces air consumption Underwater compass navigation is a component of the scuba-based underwater sport, underwater orienteering. When it is critical for safety to return to a specific place, a distance line is generally used. This may be laid and left in place for other divers, or recovered on the return leg. Use of distance lines is standard in penetration diving, where the divers cannot ascend directly to the surface at all times, and it is possible to lose track of the route out to . Techniques Underwater navigation in recreational diving is broadly split into two categories. Natural navigation techniques, and orienteering, which is navigation focused upon the use of an underwater magnetic compass. Natural navigation, sometimes known as pilotage, involves orienting by naturally observable phenomena, such as sunlight, water movement, bottom composition (for example, sand ripples run parallel to the direction of the wave front, which tends to run parallel to the shore), bottom contour and noise. Although natural navigation is taught on courses, developing the skills is generally more a matter of experience. Orienteering, or compass navigation, is a matter of training, practice and familiarity with the use of underwater compasses, combined with various techniques for reckoning distance underwater, including kick cycles (one complete upward and downward sweep of a kick), time, air consumption and occasionally by actual measurement. Kick cycles depend on the diver's finning technique and equipment, but are generally more reliable than time, which is critically dependent on speed, or air consumption, which is critically dependent on depth, work rate, diver fitness, and equipment drag. Techniques for direct measurement also vary, from the use of calibrated distance lines or surveyor's tape measures, to a mechanism like an impeller log, to pacing off the distance along the bottom with the arms. Many skilled underwater navigators use techniques from both of these categories in a seamless combination, using the compass to navigate between landmarks over longer distances and in poor visibility, while making use of the generic oceanographic indicators to help stay on course and as a check that there is no mistake with the bearing, and then recognising landmarks and using them with the remembered topography of a familiar site to confirm position. Using natural features Landmarks Recognisable topographical features may be remembered or noted and used identify position and direction. This is particularly useful if the visibility is sufficient to see the next landmark on the route before leaving the last. Landmarks are ordinarily considered permanent or semi-permanent features, such as ridges, boulders, wrecks or clumps of weed, but use can also be made of temporary marks such as anchor cables, shot lines, jackstays and guide lines. Depth and depth variation The slope of the bottom is often a reliable indicator of the direction toward the shore, particularly when the bottom is of soft or loose material, and is not broken up greatly by rocky outcrops. This information can be checked for reliability on a sufficiently detailed chart of the area. Contours of depth running roughly parallel to the coastline indicate a slope dipping directly away from the shore, and can be used to maintain a sense of distance and orientation relative to the shore. In some places where the bottom is composed of predominantly rocky outcrops the slope may be in any direction and is not a reliable indicator of direction. Angle of the sun, changes in light level If circumstances of depth and water clarity allow the position of the sun to produce sufficient variation in brightness, this may indicate the direction of the sun, and be used as a cue to orientation. The effect is greater if the sun is relatively low in the sky, the water is clean, the depth fairly shallow and the surface fairly smooth. In some circumstances the diver can look up at the surface, to see in which direction the land lies. These cues will not give any precise information about position, but will allow the diver to keep a mental picture of where he or she is and is going. Current, wave and surge direction Current direction can be useful as an orientation cue as long as the direction of the current is known. In rivers it tends to be fairly consistent and reliable, though localised eddies may occur. In the sea it may depend on weather conditions and local topography, as well as the state of the tide. In estuaries and harbours the currents will usually be predominantly tidal, so the state of the tide must be known, as the difference in direction between ebb and flow is usually about 180°. Wave surge direction is essentially the same as wave direction, but may be felt at depths where the wave direction is no longer visible. It is useful if the offshore wave direction relative to the shore is known and does not change appreciably during the dive. In shallow water the wave crests will often be parallel to the shore. The important difference is that waves can be seen to travel in a definite direction, whereas surge is a back and forth motion, allowing a possible 180° error. Ripple patterns on a sand bottom A regular and distinct ripple pattern on a sand, mud or gravel bottom is an indication that it has been affected by wave action. The surge of the wave at depth causes the particles to be moved backwards and forwards in the direction the waves are travelling. This movement produces a ripple pattern on the bottom which is an indication of the wave direction on the surface. The ripple crests will be approximately parallel to the crests of the waves that formed them. It is however possible for the surface waves to change direction, and due to shorter wavelength, not reach the bottom to change the ripple pattern. When this is the case there will be no surge at the bottom. If there is a surge at the bottom, and the ripple crests are perpendicular the direction of the surge, then the wave crests will be parallel to the ripple crests. Ripple crests, like surge, may be interpreted with a 180° error. Dip and strike of bedrock Many rock formations have characteristic angles known as dip and strike. Dip is the slope of the strata from the horizontal, and strike is the general direction of the strata in the horizontal plane (very roughly). These characteristics will usually be similar in the rocks above and below the water in a locality, so they can be used to estimate direction. Ridges above and below water are often parallel, and gullies and valleys may well extend under water for considerable distances. Ecological variations Different areas may for a wide variety of reasons have different ecologies. A diver who is familiar with an area can use the diversity variations and patterns to provide orientation cues. There is often variation of ecological zoning with depth, but a diver is expected to be aware of the depth all the time anyway. In some places the seaward side of big rocks may have different species from the shoreward face because of the greater exposure to wave action. Sea fans and sponges are filter feeders, and may grow into a fan shape at right angles to the usual current or surge direction, to get the maximum volume of water flowing past them. Using a compass How a compass works The magnetic compass indicates the local direction of the ambient magnetic field, which is usually that of the Earth. This is usually a reliable and consistent feature and is very useful as a navigational aid as it is not affected by visibility, pressure, or the presence of water. An important concept is that the compass card should not turn, even though it appears to always “swing” to magnetic north. The housing that holds the compass card turns around the card, which remains pointing in the same direction (Magnetic North) all the time. There are occasions when the card does turn, but this is when it has been stuck or the compass is turned over, and the card is unable to remain aligned with the magnetic field. True or geographic north True north is the geometrically accurate direction along the surface of the earth toward the North pole of the planet’s axis of rotation. The lines of longitude on maps are in true North/South directions. Magnetic north and variation The Earth has a magnetic field which is not quite in line with the geographic directions. The difference between the magnetic and true directions is known as Variation. It differs from place to place and changes with time. Large scale charts and maps will usually include a compass rose showing variation. Compass north and deviation The compass will indicate the magnetic field direction at the place where it happens to be at the time. If there are influences other than the Earth’s magnetic field, these may change the direction indicated by the compass. These effects are called deviation, and can be caused by a whole range of things. Any magnetic object or electrical current will have an influence, some more than others. The current in a dive computer is too small to affect the compass, even when quite near, but the hull of a ship or overhead power lines may make a difference even several meters away. It is difficult and often impossible to correct for all possible deviations, but it is worth checking a dive compass for deviation caused by dive equipment. It has been known for regulators to cause deviation, steel cylinders can cause deviation, and powerful lights may be a problem. A diver propulsion vehicle with an electric motor is also a potential problem for those who use them, though divers have been known to navigate adequately using compasses mounted on the handgrip of a DPV. A magnetic clip used to secure equipment to the diver's harness has a powerful magnet in both parts, and should not be used to hold the compass, as the part attached to the compass will produce a serious error. Deviation may be checked by comparing the compass bearing as measured with a known magnetic bearing measured by a compass with no deviation. Deviation may vary with different directions and for accurate work it is necessary to make up a table of deviations. This is done for ships, but for diving it is generally not worth the trouble. Bearings of one diver's compass may vary from those of another diver even if they have both been read correctly. The difference should not be large, but it can result in being off course and not finding something. A compass is a magnet, and will affect another compass nearby, so they can not be checked by putting them together. Dip The magnetic field of the earth is tilted from the horizontal. The angle is called dip and varies with place, so compasses can be corrected for different zones. This is a factory process. A compass made for the northern parts of the northern hemisphere will tilt badly in the southern hemisphere, in some cases to the extent that it will jam if held horizontal. Using guidelines Also known as cave lines, distance lines, penetration lines and jackstays. These are permanent or temporary lines laid by divers to mark a route, particularly in caves, wrecks and other areas where the way out from an overhead environment may not be obvious. Guidelines are also useful in the event of silt out. Distance lines are wound on to a spool or a reel. The length of the distance line used is dependent on the plan for the dive. An open water diver using the distance line only for a surface marker buoy may only need 50 metres / 165 feet, whereas a cave diver may use multiple reels of lengths from 50 ft (15 m) to 1000+ ft (300 m). Reels for distance lines may have a locking mechanism, ratchet or adjustable drag to control deployment of the line and a winding handle to help keep slack line under control and rewind line. Lines are used in open water to deploy surface marker buoys and decompression buoys and link the buoy on the surface to the submerged diver, or may be used to allow easy return navigation to a point such as a shotline or boat anchor. The material used for any given distance line will vary based on intended use, nylon being the material of choice for cave diving. A common line used is 2 mm (0.08 inch) polypropylene line when it does not matter if the line is buoyant. The use of guideline for navigation requires careful attention to laying and securing the line, line following, marking, referencing, positioning, teamwork, and communication. Line markers In cave (and occasionally wreck) diving, line markers are used for orientation as a visual and tactile reference on a permanent guideline. Directional markers (commonly arrows), are also known as line arrows or Dorff arrows, and point the way to an exit. Line arrows may mark the location of a "jump" location in a cave when two are placed adjacent to each other. Two adjacent arrows facing away from each other, mark a point in the cave where the diver is equidistant from two exits. Arrow direction can be identified by feel in low visibility. Non-directional markers ("cookies") are purely personal markers that mark specific spots, or the direction of one's chosen exit at line intersections where there are options. Their shape does not provide a tactile indication of direction as this could cause confusion in low visibility. One important reason to be adequately trained before cave diving is that incorrect marking can confuse and fatally endanger not only oneself, but also other divers. Using surface control personnel In some circumstances divers may be directed by their surface control personnel. This requires a method of communication between the surface team and the diver. Both voice communications and line signals may be used to direct the movement of the diver and to provide other information. Surface direction may be used in scuba diving when diving under ice or conducting an underwater search, and in surface supplied diving for both these purposes and at any other time that it is useful or convenient for the dive controller to direct the movement of the diver. Surface direction is most useful when the surface personnel have a better idea of where the diver is relative to where he or she needs to be than the diver has, which can happen when the visibility is poor, or when the diver is following a search pattern controlled by the surface controller. Surface navigation for diving Surface applications for compass navigation include marking a position and finding the position using compass bearings. At least two position lines are required to fix a position, as only direction can be found using a compass. When two bearings are used a large angle between the bearings will minimize error. The angle should preferably be between 60 and 120 degrees, and near 90 degrees would be ideal. Three bearings are better as they will also give an indication of probable accuracy when plotted on a chart. The "cocked hat" or triangle where the lines intersect, shows the probable location of the position measured, and a small triangle indicates a small probable error. The angle between the three bearings should preferably be in the order of 60 or 120 degrees where available landmarks allow. In all cases landmarks should be as close to the diver as possible and spread over a large arc for best accuracy. Equipment Various pieces of equipment are available to assist divers navigating underwater. Magnetic compasses, set either in a diver's console or wrist mounted. Various forms exist. Scuba sextant, or Nav-finder, to enable a diver to plot an ongoing course during a dive. Compass boards Hand-held sonar Cave and wreck reels and line Jump spools Periodically reports are issued suggesting the development of underwater GPS technology, but no system is currently available on market. It is generally thought that the difficulty of locating satellite by signals from underwater at present is not capable of being overcome by existing technology. Diving compasses Construction The typical diving compass is made from a card with graduation in degrees, mounted on a pivot in a transparent housing filled with fluid which damps the movement and prevents pressure collapse of the housing. It may be wrist mounted, console mounted or carried some other way. It is desirable that the compass can operate accurately at significant tilt angles without sticking. On the card there is a magnet which will interact with the ambient magnetic field so as to align itself and the card with the field provided it is free to rotate. There will be other marks on the housing which are intended to be aligned with the direction of travel of the user, so the offset of the card to the housing will indicate the direction of the magnetic field and the orientation of the user. Important features of a diving compass are that it can easily be read in dim light, the card or needle does not easily jam if the housing is tilted slightly, and that it can be securely attached to the diver's arm or equipment and does not get lost. It is useful for any straps to be adjustable while wearing gloves, and any clips that may attached should be non-magnetic. The strap should be long enough to go round the diver's wrist over the diving suit glove, and if it is slightly elastic it will stay in place when the suit compresses. There may be a movable bezel which can be set to record a course and to help set a reciprocal course. There are also electronic compasses which can provide a digital or analogue display These are based on magnetometer technology. Several models of dive computer incorporate a compass function, but this may not be accessible at the same time as the primary decompression information, and may be limited in their precision of display information. Direct and Indirect reading compasses There are two ways in which a compass may be marked, which influence the way you would read them. These are known as direct reading compasses and indirect reading compasses. Both provide the same information to the same level of accuracy. Both types may have graduations on the card which can be read through a side window to give the bearing directly. The direct reading compass has graduations on the housing which read anti-clockwise round the face, with zero on the far side. The effect of this configuration is that if the housing is aligned with a direction, the north point of the card or needle will point directly towards the number representing the bearing. No further effort is needed on the part of the operator, you just find the number the arrow points at and read off the bearing. The bezel has no graduations, it is just a marker to align the card. The indirect reading compass has graduations on the bezel. These graduations are clockwise round the face, and the zero mark coincides with the notch. To take a bearing the compass must first be aligned with the direction, then the bezel must be turned so that the notch aligns with the north point of the card or needle, and the bearing can then be read at the far side of the compass. Electronic compasses Flux-gate compasses are built into several models of dive computer as an extra function. They may require calibration when powered up, but calibration usually lasts as long as the processor is running. They are usually insensitive to tilt as there are no moving parts to jam. The display varies, and may not be as intuitive as for a mechanical compass needle or card arrangement. They can often be calibrated to account for local deviation and give true direction. The nearby presence of a magnetic compass can cause large error, but they are not greatly affected by other electronic compasses, as can be seen from the images. Some digital cameras for underwater use also have a built in flux-gate compass (such as the Olympus TG series) which can be used for navigation as well as for recording the direction of a photograph. See also References Sources PADI Underwater Navigation Manual (2003), Underwater diving procedures Navigation
4876870	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belvoir%20%28theatre%20company%29	Belvoir (theatre company)	Belvoir is an Australian theatre company based at the Belvoir St Theatre in Sydney, Australia, originally known as Company B. Since 2016 and its artistic director is Eamon Flack. The theatre contains a 330-seat Upstairs Theatre and a 80-seat Downstairs Theatre. The Belvoir company receives government support for its activities from the federal government through the Major Performing Arts Board of the Australia Council for the Arts and the state government through Create NSW. Many Australian actors who have later found wider success both locally and internationally such as Deborah Mailman, Cate Blanchett, Jacqueline McKenzie, Richard Roxburgh, David Wenham, Toby Schmitz, Judy Davis and Brendan Cowell have appeared in Belvoir productions. History Theatre The theatre, converted from a former tomato sauce factory, opened in 1974 as the Nimrod Theatre for the Nimrod Theatre Company. The first production at the theatre was rock musical The Bacchoi. It was renamed as "'Belvoir St" in 1984 by Sue Hill and Chris Westwood when the building was purchased by a syndicate of people (Belvoir Street Theatre Pty Ltd). Renovations costing around commenced in 2005 and were delayed in 2006 with the discovery of asbestos in the building's roof. The theatre reopened in October 2006 with the Sydney season of It Just Stopped by Stephen Sewell. Formation of the company Belvoir began, in 1984, when two syndicates were established: "Company A" with shares at $1000 each, which would own the building, and "Company B", with shares at $10 each. Company B aimed to stage theatre productions which were "contemporary, politically sharp, hard-edged Australian theatre; to develop new forms of theatrical expression; work by and about "Aboriginal Australians; work created by women; radical interpretations of the classics and work that is surprising, diverse and passionate. Company Belvoir was officially launched in February 1985. Later that year, Signal Driver, written by Patrick White and directed by Neil Armfield, was 'the first play produced from the ground up by Belvoir'. In the lead roles were Kerry Walker and John Gaden. The theatre poster was designed by Martin Sharp. Armfield later recalled that White, who had purchased ten shares in the theatre, was its 'greatest shareholder'. From its foundation, Belvoir also instituted a "parity pay policy" where all employees, from actors to stage hands, received the same hourly rate of pay. This policy, which continued from 1985 to the end of the 2011 season, prompted former Australian Prime Minister Paul Keating to describe the Belvoir as "Australia’s last commune". In 2005, Belvoir temporarily moved to the Seymour Centre, Chippendale, while the theatre building underwent an $11.6 million renovation, and returned the following year. In January 2011, Ralph Myers took over from Neil Armfield as artistic director, stating 'There's a wealth of Australian playwriting and 2500 years of great plays to draw on, I don't see a need to import new plays from overseas.' In July 2014, Myers announced that he would be stepping down from his role at the end of the 2015 season. Myers said he had 'an "ideological" commitment to the regular turnover of artistic directorships'. Also in 2011, Belvoir appointed Simon Stone as the first director-in-residence. Stone's adaptation of Henrik Ibsen's The Wild Duck, with the Belvoir, went on to win both Helpmann and Sydney Theatre Awards, in 2011, before being taken to Oslo for a three night performance as part of the 2012 International Ibsen Festival. Stone resigned from his position in 2013, and was replaced by dual directors-in-residence Adena Jacobs and Anne-Louise Sarks. In 2016 Myers was succeeded as artistic director by Eamon Flack. In February 2022 Carissa Licciardello and Hannah Goodwin were appointed directors-in-residence. In 2019 Belvoir collected an unprecedented thirteen Helpmann Awards, including Best Play, Best New Australian Work and Best Direction of a Play. In the same year actors in Belvoir productions collected Best Female Actor in a Play, Best Female Actor in a Supporting Role in a Play, Best Male Actor in a Play and Best Male Actor in a Supporting Role in a Play. Shareholders There are currently 600 shareholders, including noted actors, directors, writers and performers Robyn Archer, Gillian Armstrong, Peter Carey, Judy Davis, Mel Gibson, Max Gillies, Nicole Kidman, Sam Neill, David Williamson, Neil Armfield and Colin Friels. Previous shareholders have also included Joan Sutherland, Ruth Cracknell, Gwen Plumb, Dorothy Hewett, Mike Willesee and Patrick White. Balnaves Fellowship The Balnaves Foundation is a private philanthropic organisation founded by media executive Neil Balnaves in 2006. In 2011 the Balnaves Foundation established support for two Indigenous-led works per year at Belvoir. It also created the Balnaves Award, which evolved into the Balnaves Fellowship in 2021. The fellowship is awarded to a playwright or director or writer/director, who is given over 12 months to create a new work, spending two days a week over 10 months as a resident artist at Belvoir. Past recipients of the award or fellowship include: 2022 – Dalara Williams 2021 – Thomas Weatherall 2020 – Jorjia Gillis 2019 – Nathan Maynard 2018 – Kodie Bedford 2017 – Megan Wilding 2016 – Ursula Yovich 2015 – Katie Beckett 2014 – Leah Purcell 2013 – Jada Alberts 2012 – Nakkiah Lui Seasons 2023 Blue by Thomas Weatherall, directed by Deborah Brown Blessed Union by Maeve Marsden, directed by Hannah Goodwin Into The Woods, music & lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, book by James Lapine, directed by Eamon Flack At What Cost? by Nathan Maynard, directed by Isaac Drandic, starring Luke Carroll (premiered 2022; touring to Brisbane, Adelaide, and Hobart in 2023) Scenes From the Climate Era by David Finnigan, directed by Carissa Licciardello Miss Peony by Michelle Law, directed by Courtney Stewart The Weekend by Sue Smith, based on the book by Charlotte Wood, directed by Sarah Goodes Lady Day at Emerson's Bar & Grill by Lanie Robertson, directed by Mitchell Butel Robyn Archer: an Australian Songbook devised and performed by Robyn Archer The Master and Margarita adapted from the Bulgakov by Eamon Flack, directed by Eamon Flack 2022 Black Brass by Mararo Wangai, directed by Matt Edgerton At What Cost? by Nathan Maynard, directed by Isaac Drandic, starring Luke Carroll Opening Night based on the screenplay by John Cassavetes, adapted & directed by Carissa Licciardello Wayside Bride by Alana Valentine, directed by Hannah Goodwin & Eamon Flack Light Shining in Buckinghamshire by Caryl Churchill, directed by Eamon Flack & Hannah Goodwin Tell Me I'm Here by Veronica Nadine Gleeson, based on the book by Anne Deveson, directed by Leticia Cáceres Sexual Misconduct of the Middle Classes by Hannah Moscovitch, directed by Petra Kalive The Jungle and The Sea written and directed by S. Shakthidharan and Eamon Flack Looking For Alibrandi by Vidya Rajan, based on the book by Melina Marchetta, directed by Stephen Nicolazzo 2021 Fangirls by Yve Blake, directed by Paige Rattray Stop Girl by Sally Sara, directed by Anne-Louise Sarks A Room of One's Own by Virginia Woolf, adapted & directed by Carissa Licciardello The Cherry Orchard by Anton Chekhov, directed by Eamon Flack Miss Peony by Michelle Law, directed by Courtney Stewart At What Cost? by Nathan Maynard, directed by Isaac Drandic The Boomkak Panto by Virginia Gay, directed by Richard Carroll Light Shining in Buckinghamshire by Caryl Churchill, directed by Eamon Flack Wayside Bride by Alana Valentine, directed by Hannah Goodwin (Miss Peony was rehearsed and produced but the season was cancelled due to Covid restrictions. At What Cost?, Light Shining in Buckinghamshire and Wayside Bride were likewise rehearsed but were postponed to the 2022 season.) 2020 Every Brilliant Thing by Duncan Macmillan and Jonny Donahoe, directed by Kate Champion Jesus Wants Me For a Sunbeam adapted from the Peter Goldsworthy novella by Steve Rodgers, directed by Darren Yap Dance Nation by Clare Barron, directed by Imara Savage A Room of One's Own by Virginia Woolf, adapted & directed by Carissa Licciardello Escaped Alone by Caryl Churchill, directed by Anne-Louise Sarks The Jungle and The Sea by S. Shakthidharan, directed by Eamon Flack Miss Peony by Michelle Law, directed by Sarah Giles My Brilliant Career adapted from the Miles Franklin novel by Kendall Feaver, directed by Kate Champion Cursed! by Kodie Bedford, directed by Jason Klarwein Summerfolk by Maxim Gorky, adapted & directed by Eamon Flack (Note that the outbreak of COVID-19 saw the theatre go dark after two performances of Dance Nation. The season resumed on 16 September with A Room of One's Own, followed by Cursed! and My Brilliant Career, which played into 2021. The productions of Escaped Alone and Summerfolk were cancelled.) 2019 Counting & Cracking by S. Shakthidharan, directed by Eamon Flack The Wolves by Sarah DeLappe, directed by Jessica Arthur Every Brilliant Thing by Duncan Macmillan and Jonny Donahoe, directed by Kate Champion Barbara & The Camp Dogs by Ursula Yovich & Alana Valentine, directed by Leticia Cáceres Winyanboga Yurringa by Andrea James, directed by Anthea Williams Things I Know To Be True by Andrew Bovell, directed by Neil Armfield Life of Galileo by Bertolt Brecht, translated by Tom Wright, directed by Eamon Flack Fangirls by Yve Blake, directed by Paige Rattray Packer & Sons by Tommy Murphy, directed by Eamon Flack 2018 My Name Is Jimi, by Jimi Bani, directed by Jimi Bani and Jason Klarwein My Urrwai, by Ghenoa Gela, directed by Rachael Maza Mother, by Daniel Keene, directed by Matt Scholten Single Asian Female, by Michelle Law, directed by Claire Christian Sami in Paradise, written and directed by Eamon Flack The Sugar House, by Alana Valentine, directed by Sarah Goodes Bliss, adapted from the Peter Carey novel by Tom Wright, directed by Matthew Lutton A Taste of Honey, by Shelagh Delaney, directed by Eamon Flack Random, by debbie tucker green, directed by Leticia Cáceres Calamity Jane, adapted from the Charles K. Freeman stage-play by Ronald Hanmer and Phil Park, directed by Richard Carroll An Enemy of the People, adapted from the Ibsen play by Melissa Reeves, directed by Anne-Louise Sarks The Dance of Death, by August Strindberg, directed by Judy Davis 2017 Prize Fighter, by Future D. Fidel, directed by Todd MacDonald Which Way Home, by Katie Beckett, directed by Rachael Maza Boundless Plains To Share, performed by Tom Ballard Jasper Jones, revival of the 2016 production Mark Colvin's Kidney, by Tommy Murphy, directed by David Berthold The Dog/The Cat, by Lally Katz and Brendan Cowell, directed by Ralph Myers and Anthea Williams Guru of Chai, by Jacob Rajan and Justin Lewis, directed by Justin Lewis Mr Burns, by Anne Washburn, directed by Imara Savage The Rover, by Aphra Behn, directed by Eamon Flack Hir, by Taylor Mac, directed by Anthea Williams Ghosts, by Henrik Ibsen, directed by Eamon Flack The Bookbinder, by Ralph McCubbin Howell, directed by Hannah Smith Atlantis, by Lally Katz, directed by Rosemary Myers Barbara & The Camp Dogs, by Alana Valentine and Ursula Yovich, directed by Leticia Cáceres 2016 Jasper Jones, adapted from the Craig Silvey novel by Kate Mulvany, directed by Anne-Louise Sarks The Blind Giant Is Dancing, by Stephen Sewell, directed by Eamon Flack The Great Fire, by Kit Brookman, directed by Eamon Flack The Events, by David Greig, directed by Clare Watson The Tribe, by Michael Mohammed Ahmad and Janice Muller Back at the Dojo, by Lally Katz, directed by Chris Kohn The Drover's Wife, by Leah Purcell, directed by Leticia Cáceres Twelfth Night, directed by Eamon Flack Title And Deed, by Will Eno, directed by Jada Alberts Ruby's Wish, by Holly Austin, Adriano Cappelletta and Jo Turner Faith Healer, by Brian Friel, directed by Judy Davis Girl Asleep, by Matthew Whittet, directed by Rosemary Myers 2015 Radiance, by Louis Nowra, directed by Leah Purcell Kill the Messenger, by Nakkiah Lui, directed by Anthea Williams Blue Wizard, by Nick Coyle Elektra / Orestes, by Jada Alberts and Anne-Louise Sarks, directed by Anne-Louise Sarks The Wizard of Oz, adapted by Adena Jacobs Samson, by Julia-Rose Lewis, directed by Kristine Landon-Smith Mother Courage and Her Children, translated by Michael Gow, directed by Eamon Flack The Dog / The Cat, by Lally Katz and Brendan Cowell, directed by Ralph Myers Seventeen, by Matthew Whittet, directed by Anne-Louise Sarks La Traviata, by Ash Flanders and Declan Greene, directed by Declan Greene Ivanov, written and directed by Eamon Flack (after Chekhov) Mortido, by Angela Betzien, directed by Leticia Caceres 2014 Oedipus Schmoedipus, created by Zoe Coombs-Marr, Mish Grigor and Natalie Rose Once in Royal David’s City, by Michael Gow, directed by Eamon Flack The Government Inspector, directed by Simon Stone starring Mitchell Butel. 20 Questions, with Wesley Enoch Cain And Abel, created by Kate Davis and Emma Valente, directed by Emma Valente Brothers Wreck, by Jada Alberts, directed by Leah Purcell Hedda Gabler, directed by Adena Jacobs Nora, by Kit Brookman and Anne-Louise Sarks, directed by Anne-Louise Sarks Oedipus Rex, directed by Adena Jacobs The Glass Menagerie, directed by Eamon Flack Is This Thing On?, by Zoe Coombs-Marr, directed by Kit Brookman and Zoe Coombs-Marr A Christmas Carol, adapted by Benedict Hardie and Anne-Louise Sarks, directed by Anne-Louise Sarks Cinderella, by Matthew Whittet, directed by Anthea Williams 2013 Peter Pan, adapted by Tommy Murphy, directed by Ralph Myers This Heaven, by Nakkiah Lui, directed by Lee Lewis Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, directed by Simon Stone Stories I Want to Tell You in Person, written and performed by Lally Katz, directed by Anne-Louise Sarks Forget Me Not, by Tom Holloway, directed by Anthea Williams Angels in America Part One: Millennium Approaches Angels in America Part Two: Perestroika, directed by Eamon Flack Persona, adapted and directed by Adena Jacobs The Baulkham Hills African Ladies Troupe, written and directed by Ros Horin Miss Julie, adapted by Simon Stone, directed by Leticia Caceres Small and Tired, written and directed by Kit Brookman Hamlet, directed by Simon Stone The Cake Man, by Robert J. Merritt, directed by Kyle J. Morrison Coranderrk, by Andrea James and Giordano Nanni, directed by Isaac Drandic 2012 Buried City, by Raimondo Cortese, conceived and directed by Alicia Talbot I'm Your Man, creator and director Roslyn Oades Thyestes, co-written by Thomas Henning, Chris Ryan, Simon Stone and Mark Winter after Seneca, directed by Simon Stone Babyteeth, by Rita Kalnejais, director Eamon Flack Every Breath, written and directed by Benedict Andrews Food, by Steve Rodgers, directed by Kate Champion and Steve Rodgers Strange Interlude, by Simon Stone after Eugene O'Neill, directed by Simon Stone Old Man, by Matthew Whittet, directed by Anthea Williams Death of a Salesman, by Arthur Miller, directed by Simon Stone Conversation Piece, choreographer and director Lucy Guerin Private Lives, by Noël Coward, directed by Ralph Myers starring Toby Schmitz. Medea, by Kate Mulvany and Anne-Louise Sarks after Euripides, directed by Anne-Louise Sarks Beautiful One Day, created by Paul Dwyer, Eamon Flack, Rachael Maza and David Williams Don't Take Your Love To Town, created by Eamon Flack and Leah Purcell, based on the book Don’t Take Your Love to Town by Ruby Langford Ginibi, directed by Leah Purcell 2011 The Wild Duck, written and directed by Simon Stone, after Henrik Ibsen Jack Charles v the Crown, by Jack Charles and John Romeril, directed by Rachael Maza Long Cut, by Duncan Graham, directed by Sarah John The Business, based on Vassa Zheleznova by Maxim Gorky, adapted by Jonathan Gavin with Cristabel Sved, directed by Cristabel Sved The Kiss, by Anton Chekhov, Kate Chopin, Peter Goldsworthy and Guy de Maupassant, directed by Susanna Dowling The Seagull, by Anton Chekhov, directed by Benedict Andrews Neighbourhood Watch, by Lally Katz, directed by Simon Stone Windmill Baby, by David Milroy, directed by Kylie Farmer Human Interest Story, choreographed by Lucy Guerin And They Called Him Mr Glamour, by Gareth Davies, directed by Tom Wright Summer of the Seventeenth Doll, by Ray Lawler, directed by Neil Armfield The Dark Room, by Angela Betzien, directed by Leticia Cáceres As You Like It, by William Shakespeare, directed by Eamon Flack 2010 That Face, by Polly Stenham, directed by Lee Lewis Love Me Tender, by Tom Holloway, directed by Matthew Lutton The Power of Yes, by David Hare, directed by Sam Strong Measure for Measure, by William Shakespeare, directed by Benedict Andrews Gwen in Purgatory, by Tommy Murphy, directed by Neil Armfield Namatjira, by Scott Rankin, directed by Scott Rankin and Wayne Blair The Diary of a Madman, by Nikolai Gogol (adapted by David Holman with Neil Armfield and Geoffrey Rush, directed by Armfield) The End by Samuel Beckett, directed by Eamon Flack The Bougainville Photoplay Project by Paul Dwyer, directed by David Williams Belvoir education program The Belvoir's education program for students and teachers includes practical theatre workshops at the theatre or participating school, tours of backstage and behind the scenes areas of the theatre, technical tours led by a professional theatre technician and a Theatre Enrichment Program for "senior English and Drama students in Western Sydney and regional NSW". In addition, Belvoir's Outreach Program partners with local youth support organisations such as Youth Off The Streets, The John Berne School, Twenty10 and Regenesis Youth. Through the Priority Funded Schools Program Belvoir also allows selected students to attend some performances free of charge. Limited student work experience and work placement opportunities are also available. See also NSW Philip Parsons Fellowship for Emerging Playwrights, a program formerly offered by Belvoir and Create NSW Footnotes References External links Theatre companies in Australia Performing groups established in 1984 Theatre in Sydney Theatre company production histories
4877243	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torchwood%20Institute	Torchwood Institute	The Torchwood Institute, or simply Torchwood, is a fictional secret organisation from the British science fiction television series Doctor Who and its spin-off series Torchwood. It was established in 1879 by Queen Victoria after the events of "Tooth and Claw". Its prime directive is to defend Earth against supernatural and extraterrestrial threats. It is later revealed in "Army of Ghosts" that the Torchwood Institute has begun to use their findings to restore the British Empire to its former glory. To those ends, the organisation started to acquire and reverse engineer alien technology. Within Torchwood, an unofficial slogan evolved: "If it's alien, it's ours". According to one base director, Yvonne Hartman, its nationalist attitude includes refusing to use metric units. While described as "beyond the UN", the Torchwood Institute is seen to cooperate with UNIT to some extent. There appears to have been some rapport with the Prime Minister, although it is noted by Harriet Jones in "The Christmas Invasion" that she is not meant to know the existence of Torchwood. Those who have come into contact with Torchwood primarily believe it to be a special forces team. Torchwood maintains this illusion by using false witnesses, or by sectioning any journalists who threaten to expose the truth, and via the use of memory-altering drugs. Following a major incident which led to the destruction of Torchwood One, Jack Harkness rebuilds Torchwood to become less confrontational and more secretive in honour of the Doctor. Creation The name "Torchwood" is an anagram of "Doctor Who", with which tapes of series 1 of the revived Doctor Who TV series were labelled to prevent the footage from being leaked. While writing Doctor Who series 2, head writer and executive producer Russell T Davies established the word "Torchwood"—which was the name of an institute previously mentioned in the episode "Bad Wolf" (2005)—in his script for the 2005 Christmas Special "The Christmas Invasion", both as a motif of the series similar to the "Bad Wolf" motif in series 1, and as a lead-in to the Torchwood spin-off series Davies was planning for BBC Three. Torchwood was conceived by Davies as a ruthless but professional organisation helmed by a "soulless" woman based on someone Davies had met. He originally based the Torchwood seen in the Doctor Who series 2 episodes "Army of Ghosts" and "Doomsday" (both aired 2006) over a rift in Cardiff introduced in "The Unquiet Dead" (2005), but while developing the Torchwood spin-off series over the summer of 2005, he relocated the Torchwood seen in "Army of Ghosts" and "Doomsday" to London, while maintaining the existence of a Cardiff branch for the Torchwood series he was preparing. Fictional history 1879–2006 The institute was founded by Queen Victoria in 1879, following the events of the Doctor Who episode "Tooth and Claw". While staying at Torchwood House, the Scottish estate of Sir Robert MacLeish, the Queen (Pauline Collins) was attacked by a werewolf, in reality an alien intelligence that planned to infect her with its consciousness by biting her. The werewolf was ultimately dispatched, thanks to the efforts of the Tenth Doctor (David Tennant) and the sacrifice of Sir Robert. Having discovered that "Great Britain had enemies beyond imagination," Victoria decided to establish the Torchwood Institute in memory of Sir Robert (who lived on the Torchwood Estate). She also decided that the Doctor was a potential threat and declared that if he ever returned (against her orders never to return), Torchwood would be waiting. The Doctor's name was written into the Torchwood Foundation's charter as an enemy of the Crown. Her Majesty states in the Torchwood Charter 31 December 1879 that "Torchwood is also to administer to the Government thereof in our name, and generally to act in our name and on our behalf, subject to such orders and regulations as Torchwood shall, from time to time, receive from us through one of our Principal Secretaries of State". In 1882, Victoria expanded Torchwood's role to include the acquisition of alien technology, creating the policy that "if it's alien, it's ours". In 1888, Victoria reiterated the secrecy policy of the Torchwood Institute, protecting her subjects from the "evils that [Torchwood] fight[s]". Not long after the foundation of the institute, a spacetime rift was identified in Cardiff, and, as a result, a smaller branch of the institute (Torchwood Three) was formed there to monitor and exploit the Rift. As shown in the episode "Fragments", Jack Harkness (John Barrowman) came to the attention of Torchwood Three in 1899, due to visiting the rift and talking about the Doctor. He was coerced into working for the organisation. Captured by two Torchwood agents—Alice Guppy (Amy Manson) and Emily Holroyd (Heather Craney)–Jack was subjected to torture and interrogation regarding the Doctor before being put to work for the Institute as a freelance agent for over a century. A few years later (1901), whilst this Harkness was in Torchwood's employ, Guppy and Charles Gaskell (Cornelius Macarthy) found and disinterred another Harkness on a different timeline, who instructs them to immediately "cryofreeze" and store him for 107 years to avoid him meeting his other self – they comply with his request. The activities of the Torchwood Institute during the 20th century are, for the most part, yet to be revealed. It is known that the organisation "flourished down the decades, becoming stronger" and grew "more arrogant." Some insights into the World War I-era organisation (such as their progressive policies regarding women's civil rights) were offered in Torchwood episode "To the Last Man". Torchwood Three's progressive stance is also shown in the episode "Exit Wounds", where a black Torchwood member (possibly leader) called Charles Gaskell is shown in 1901, an era of widespread racial prejudice. Other events in the 20th century have attributable dates. At the time of the British Raj, Torchwood also maintained a branch in Delhi. This was shut down in 1924, Torchwood anticipating Indian independence; agent Jack Harkness was sent to recover all their artifacts. In 1965, agent Jack Harkness was elected on behalf of the institute (along with representatives of different government agencies) to facilitate the sacrifice of twelve children to aliens known as the 456 to save the planet at large. In 1983, Torchwood became the sole proprietor of H. C. Clements, a security firm. Torchwood One owned a holding facility which was then abandoned in 1995. In 1996 a "Jathaa sunglider" flew into British airspace and was shot down by Torchwood. From its remains, an energy weapon was installed in London and later onto the UNIT aircraft carrier Valiant. On New Year's Eve 1999, the then-leader of Torchwood Three (named "Alex Hopkins" by the Torchwood website) killed all the staff apart from Jack, ending with himself. He claimed that he was "saving" them, as the 21st century was when it all changed and humanity was not ready. Left in charge of Torchwood Three, Jack began severing the links with Torchwood One and their more aggressive policy on extraterrestrial life. Over the next few years, Jack recruited his own team; Suzie Costello (Indira Varma), Toshiko Sato (Naoko Mori) and Dr. Owen Harper (Burn Gorman). By 2006, the existence of Torchwood was apparently a secret known only to the British military and police. Knowledge of Torchwood was supposedly kept even from Prime Minister Harriet Jones (Penelope Wilton) and the UN. However, Jones did know about its existence anyway, and ordered Major Richard Blake (Chu Omambala) of UNIT to prepare Torchwood for the impending arrival of the Sycorax on Christmas Day. On the command of Prime Minister Harriet Jones, Torchwood used the Jathaa sunglider weapon to destroy a Sycorax ship on Christmas Day 2006. 2007–2012 The Doctor discovered the existence of Torchwood in the 2006 series' two-part finale, "Army of Ghosts" and "Doomsday" set in 2007. At this time, Torchwood operated software which blocked access to Internet searches about UFO activity ("School Reunion"). The TARDISODE for "Army of Ghosts" showed Torchwood agents abducting a journalist who was investigating the Institute and arranging to admit him to a psychiatric institution. While investigating the manifestation of "ghosts" on Earth, the Doctor traced their origin back to Torchwood Tower, known publicly as One Canada Square, where Yvonne Hartman (Tracy-Ann Oberman) placed the Doctor in custody and confiscated the TARDIS. To Torchwood, the Doctor was a source of vast information and familiarity with alien technology, which they could exploit to further the organisation's aims. Torchwood Tower had been built to reach a spatial breach 660 feet above sea level. Unbeknownst to Torchwood, the breach had been caused by the entrance into the universe of a "void ship", a vessel designed to travel through the void between parallel universes. Torchwood had been conducting experiments on the breach, in an attempt to harness its energy and reduce Britain's reliance on Middle Eastern oil, but these experiments had caused the breach to widen. The "ghosts" turned out to be Cybermen from an alternate universe, which were using the widening breach to travel between universes. A small advance force of Cybermen infiltrated Torchwood, "upgrading" or subverting Torchwood personnel, before eventually seizing control and opening the breach wide enough for ghost-like creatures around the world to manifest fully as millions of Cybermen. However, the void ship had nothing to do with the Cybermen and had in fact been created by the Daleks (voiced by Nicholas Briggs), four of whom had used it to escape the Time War. Caught between warring Daleks and Cybermen, many Torchwood workers were either killed or "upgraded" to Cybermen (including Hartman herself—although she retained some semblance of her identity). In the wake of these events, referred to as the "Battle of Canary Wharf", the Institute feels it must "learn by heart" a lesson about its own arrogance. It was later revealed that the London branch of Torchwood, called Torchwood One, lost 796 members of staff and was ultimately ordered to close by Queen Elizabeth II. The threat is ended when the Doctor and Rose Tyler use Torchwood One's equipment to banish the Daleks and Cybermen into the Void between worlds and end the invasion. In "The Runaway Bride", it is revealed that the London-based security firm "H. C. Clements" (which employed secretary Donna Noble (Catherine Tate), who inexplicably materialised in the TARDIS just as she was about to get married) was a front company for the Torchwood Institute. On a restricted basement level of the company situated beneath the Thames Barrier was a secret laboratory which the Institute used to recreate ancient "Huon particles". Over a period of months, H. C. Clements' Human Resources Manager, Lance Bennett (Don Gilet), had courted and poisoned Donna with Huon particles, intending to sacrifice her to the Empress of the Racnoss (Sarah Parish). It would appear that Lance was not acting on behalf of the institute, and the lab was in disuse since the Battle of Canary Wharf and the Queen's official closure of Torchwood One. In 2007, following Torchwood One's closure, Torchwood Three leader Captain Jack Harkness allows former Torchwood One researcher Ianto Jones (Gareth David-Lloyd) to join his team and is no longer working under the authority of the headquarters in London; he is the de facto leader of the entire organisation. This team worked together until later the same year, when the hiring of policewoman Gwen Cooper (Eve Myles) coincided with the suicide of second-in-command Suzie Costello. In "The Sound of Drums", Jack indicates to the Doctor that, with Torchwood One gone, fewer than ten staff remain (between Wales and Scotland). He mentions that he rebuilt the Institute "in the Doctor's honour", with a new regime and a less aggressive stance. Outside the institute's small workforce, journalists such as Vivien Rook (Nichola McAuliffe) of The Sunday Mirror investigate controversial figures such as Harold Saxon (John Simm) on behalf of the institute. Saxon sent Torchwood Three on a 'wild goose chase' to the Himalayas to prevent them from helping Jack or the Doctor. Torchwood Three later fought against the Daleks in their second invasion of Earth. Torchwood used the rift to make contact with the Doctor. Although they were incapacitated in the main battle, thanks to a time lock created by Tosh some time earlier that prevented them from escaping the Hub, Torchwood Three made a contribution to the Earth's return to the Solar System by putting a lasso of temporal energy around the Earth with the help of K-9 (voiced by John Leeson) and Mr Smith (voiced by Alexander Armstrong), allowing the planet to be towed by the TARDIS. Sometime prior to the 456 incident, Torchwood Two had closed down. Torchwood Three was the only force on Earth posed to combat the threat of the 456 invasion. However, Home Office Permanent Secretary John Frobisher (Peter Capaldi) ordered the assassination of remaining Torchwood agents Harkness, Cooper and Jones to cover up the UK's history with the aliens. On receiving communication from the 456, the government orders the assassination of all Torchwood Three staff to stop them interfering with the operation. While they evade assassination, Jones dies in the line of duty, and Harkness abandons the planet after having to kill his grandson. According to Joshua Naismith (David Harewood) in "The End of Time", the institute is no longer functional in December 2009. For a time, Torchwood is nothing more than a legend; Harkness and Cooper essentially re-establish the institute with some Central Intelligence Agency agents in Torchwood: Miracle Day (2011), although new member Rex Matheson notes at one point that 'Torchwood' is essentially just a name given their current renegade status. In the Doctor Who episode "Fear Her", set in 2012, Torchwood is public enough to be mentioned in a television broadcast during the London 2012 Olympics. The future In the future seen in the novel Twilight Streets, Torchwood is no longer a private organisation and has branches all across the Torchwood Empire. At the center of the organisation's new image is the Cardiff branch, a new building in the center of the city. The Rift Manipulator has been moved to the new building and has been plugged into a permanently comatose Jack Harkness, whose immortality allows the Rift to be held open safely, thus allowing two-way travel. The radio drama "Asylum" also suggests that Torchwood might gain control over the Rift in the near future, using it to send a half-alien girl back to the present day. Torchwood was also mentioned in the Doctor Who episode "Bad Wolf" when Rose is forced to play on a game show and one of the questions is about the remains of a Torchwood location. In the 42nd century, the Torchwood Archives sent a group of explorers to investigate a mysterious power source that kept a planet in stable orbit around a black hole. By the 2002nd century, the Great Cobalt Pyramid has been built on the ruins of the Torchwood Institute. Parallel universe In "Rise of the Cybermen", a parallel Earth Torchwood Institute is referred to. It is public enough for a survey carried out by it to be reported in a news item, and for someone to be publicly asked about their work there. Prior to "Army of Ghosts", a group led by Pete Tyler (and including Jake Simmonds and Mickey Smith), which worked for the alternate world's People's Republic, took over the parallel Earth Torchwood. The people of this alternate universe discovered what was going on at Torchwood and it became a re-developed organisation run in full view of the public. In "Doomsday", it is revealed that the parallel Earth Torchwood had also been conducting experiments on the spatial breach, which led (between "The Age of Steel" and "Army of Ghosts") to it being infiltrated by the Cybermen, who used the breach to travel to Rose's universe. Following the events of "Doomsday", Rose Tyler, confined to the alternate world, goes on to work for the reformed organisation. From this accelerated parallel universe, Rose's Torchwood becomes aware of "the darkness" causing the stars to go out, mentioned in the episode "Journey's End", and returns in "Turn Left" and "The Stolen Earth" to defend London and find the Doctor in his reality. She is followed shortly by Mickey and Jackie, armed with Torchwood-developed anti-Dalek weaponry, in "Journey's End". Divisions of Torchwood Torchwood One, London Torchwood One was Torchwood's head office and operated out of Torchwood Tower, located within One Canada Square, the tallest of the three Canary Wharf skyscrapers, although it carried out operations across London, including beneath the Thames Barrier, and through front organisations such as "H. C. Clements". To those that have come in contact with Torchwood, they are primarily believed to be a special forces team. The beam which destroyed the Sycorax ship was fired from five different locations around London, suggesting a number of properties are owned by Torchwood One in the area. The tower installations were destroyed during the events of "Doomsday". According to the Torchwood website, there were 823 members of staff, of which only 27 were known to have survived. In the wake of the "Battle of Canary Wharf", Her Majesty ordered the immediate closure of Torchwood One. Some of the notable employees included: Yvonne Hartman (director) Dr. Rajesh Singh (scientist) "Samuel" (Mickey Smith) (scientist)* Lisa Hallett Adeola Oshodi (scientist) Ianto Jones (junior researcher) Torchwood Two, Glasgow All that is known about the Glasgow division of the Torchwood Institute is that it is run by a "very strange man". In the novel The Twilight Streets (set in February 2008), Jack contacts the "very strange man" whose name is revealed as Archie, and Torchwood Two's headquarters are near the River Clyde. As with all spin-off media, the canonicity of this remains unclear. An e-mail shown in part one of Children of Earth (set in September 2009) suggests that Torchwood Two disbanded some time before the events of the first encounter with the 456, and that Torchwood Three is the only branch remaining. Torchwood Three, Cardiff Torchwood Three, whose base is also known as the Torchwood Hub, primarily serves as a monitoring station for a rift in time and space that runs through Cardiff. The job of Torchwood Three is to monitor the rift and control and seize what comes through it. Whereas the London branch is originally staffed by hundreds of individuals, the Cardiff branch is considerably smaller and employs only a small team of experts, hired by Captain Jack and is described as a "renegade outpost". It is located beneath Roald Dahl Plass, and may be entered via an "invisible lift" in the Plass, which can't be seen because of the perception filter that resides on that spot, or through a run-down Tourist Information Centre nearby. Torchwood Three is the setting of the eponymous Torchwood series. It is said by Jack Harkness that the Cardiff Branch has nothing to do with London and that all links were severed. In Torchwood: Children of Earth (2009), Torchwood became a fugitive organisation, the Hub was destroyed, Ianto died, and Jack abandoned Earth, leaving pregnant Gwen the only remaining Torchwood agent left. Doctor Who two-parter "The End of Time" refers to the Institute as no longer existing. Torchwood: Miracle Day (2011) shows that Gwen similarly left Torchwood Three behind after the events of Children of Earth. The Central Intelligence Agency believes all individuals previously affiliated with Torchwood to be dead. Some notable employees include: Captain Jack Harkness (leader, alive (immortal)) Gwen Cooper (police liaison, alive) Dr Owen Harper (medical officer, deceased) Toshiko Sato (computer specialist, deceased) Ianto Jones (administrator/general support, deceased) Suzie Costello (weapons specialist, deceased) Dr Martha Jones (UNIT liaison/medical officer, alive) Whilst the Institute officially disbanded after the events of Children of Earth, Jack and Gwen work with several individuals from the United States to solve the Miracle Day phenomenon. CIA operative Rex Matheson and analyst Esther Drummond join the operation in "Rendition", but Esther dies in "The Blood Line", and Rex gets shot, only to discover that he is immortal, like Jack. Surgeon Vera Juarez allies herself to the cause in "The Categories of Life" but is killed off on her first undercover mission. Torchwood Four, location unknown Torchwood Four is described as "missing". It is not specified how this happened or where it may previously have been located before its disappearance. Some evidence suggests it is linked to an energy node on a ley line in north-west Tasmania. Captain Jack stated they would find it some day. In the novel The Twilight Streets, Jack says that in 1941, Torchwood Four was still missing. In the novel Risk Assessment, Torchwood's immortal assessor Agnes Haversham refers to Torchwood Four's disappearance as having been something of a messy business. Torchwood India, Delhi An Indian branch of Torchwood introduced in the radio play "Golden Age". Torchwood India was founded by Queen Victoria to find alien technology in the British Raj. It was led by Eleanor, Duchess of Melrose, who maintained the branch's cover as a gentlemen's club named the Royal Connaught Club. It was closed down by Captain Jack in 1924, when Torchwood realised the Raj was coming to an end, and all their alien equipment was taken to Britain. In 2009 Jack and Torchwood Three trace an alien energy field to the site of Torchwood India, and discover Eleanor and the other Torchwood India agents are using a time store to prevent time passing in the Royal Connaught Club. The store is powered by taking people's potential futures, killing them. Torchwood Three prevent the Duchess's plan to turn the whole planet back to 1924, resulting in the time store overloading. The club members refuse to leave before the building is frozen in time. Cultural influence Due to the popularity of Doctor Who and Torchwood, Torchwood has had an influence on popular culture. On the heels of being featured in Torchwood, Cardiff has become one of the most popular tourist destinations in the UK, in particular, the Wales Millennium Centre, with a resident commenting that tourists often jump on the paving slab that was used as the "magic lift" in the series. In January 2008, such was the popularity of Torchwood that being near the "Torchwood Tower" was used in advertising for local property. A January 2009 article comments on the attraction the Torchwood 'Hub' has brought to the Wales Millennium Centre, as Minister for Heritage Alun Ffred Jones announced that resultingly, "the Wales Millennium Centre building itself is now established as a symbol of modern Welsh culture". In popular culture In the Sherlock episode, "The Lying Detective" a card with the Torchwood logo on it can be seen on Sherlock's mantlepiece under a magnifying glass. References External links Torchwood Doctor Who organisations Fictional intelligence agencies
4877498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans%20Frei	Hans Frei	Hans Wilhelm Frei (April 29, 1922–September 12, 1988) was an American biblical scholar and theologian who is best known for work on biblical hermeneutics. Frei's work played a major role in the development of postliberal theology (also called narrative theology or the Yale school of theology). His best-known and most influential work is his 1974 book, The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative (Yale University Press), which examined the history of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century biblical hermeneutics in England and Germany. Frei spent much of his career teaching at Yale Divinity School. Early life Europe Hans Frei once described his early years as involving a series of "worlds left behind". He was born on April 29, 1922, in Breslau, Lower Silesia, Germany, to secularized Jewish parents (Magda Frankfurther Frei, a pediatrician; Wilhelm Siegmund Frei, a venereologist on the medical faculty of the University of Breslau). That Jewish culture did not play a huge part in his upbringing can be seen from the fact that he was baptized into the Lutheran church along with most other members of his class, and from his memory that he was forbidden from using Yiddish phrases at home. His family was reasonably well-to-do and considered themselves to have a distinguished past. Young Hans got a solid German education and read widely in the classics. As antisemitic violence rose in Germany, he was sent away from that world – away from Nazi Germany to the Quaker school in Saffron Walden, England, in January 1935. Although he found speaking English daunting and was sometimes lonely, he found England a welcoming and courteous place, and despite his own isolation and anxiety was struck by the absence in England of the pervasive fear which he thought had been a feature of life in 1930s Germany. Young Frei believed that war was on the way, and wanted to stay in England. It was at the Friends’ school that Frei saw a picture of Jesus and suddenly "knew that it was true" – this conversion experience led him to a form of Christianity which at this stage had nothing to do with attendance at church. Later in his life, even when Quaker theology ran against the grain of his own thinking, he still found their meetings more satisfying than his adopted Anglican liturgies. America After three years, in August 1938, his parents left Germany, and Frei moved with them to the United States, where he was terrified by his encounter with New York City. It was a difficult time, and Frei had trouble feeling that he belonged. The family were very short of money, and were only able to find him a scholarship to study textile engineering at North Carolina State University (after seeing an advertisement for it in a paper). He gained a Bachelor of Science degree there in 1942. Nevertheless, he took to his adopted country and made it thoroughly his own – so much so that when he went back to Germany for a visit in the 1950s he felt most definitely like a visiting American Professor rather than a German exile returned. In particular, he found a home within America in New Haven, Connecticut, at Yale University. Turning to theology While at North Carolina State, Frei heard a lecture by the prominent theologian H. Richard Niebuhr, began corresponding with him, and eventually enrolled for a Bachelor of Divinity degree at Yale Divinity School (YDS), Niebuhr's base. It was there that he found a kind of home. Despite some wanderings in the years between 1945 and 1947 and 1950 and 1956, Frei described YDS as the "world not left behind". There he was taught by Niebuhr and by R. L. Calhoun and Julian Hartt, and there some of his deepest theological attitudes were shaped, some of his deepest friendships formed, all his most important work done, and his tremendously successful teaching and administrative duties carried out. He graduated in 1945, and became a Baptist minister at the First Baptist Church, North Stratford, New Hampshire. Despite the work involved in the parish, in being a local preacher, and in some teaching work, Frei found time to read a great deal in solitude. He found himself drawn towards Anglicanism, towards what he saw as its more obviously 'generous' orthodoxy – to such an extent that in later life he was to say that Baptist ministry had always felt like a staging post on the way to somewhere else. At the same time, he developed a yearning for more academic work. Frei returned to the graduate school at Yale Divinity School in 1947, and began a lengthy doctoral dissertation under H. Richard Niebuhr, on Karl Barth's early doctrine of Revelation. This was to take until 1956 to complete – but some of that time is explained by the other things Frei was doing. On October 9, 1948, he married Geraldine Frost Nye. He landed a job as Assistant Professor of Religion at Wabash College, Indiana, in 1950. A son, Thomas, was born in 1952. In 1953 Frei became Associate Professor of Theology at the Episcopal Theological Seminary of the Southwest (with some time as Visiting Lecturer in the Southern Methodist University in 1954), and was involved with St. John's Episcopal Church in Crawfordsville, Indiana, while teaching at Wabash College. In 1955 a second son, Jonathan, was born. He completed his thesis in 1956 and was promoted to Professor of Theology. A year later, he returned to Yale Divinity School as Assistant Professor of Religious Studies, and, in the same year, his daughter Emily was born. Between 1958 and 1966 Frei worked away more or less in obscurity. As can be seen from an annotated bibliography, there are very few recorded writings from this period. After the publication of two essays for a festschrift for Niebuhr in 1957 (including extracts from his thesis), and a short article on 'Religion, Natural and Revealed' in a handbook of Christian theology published the following year, there is a great gap. Frei delivered a talk on Ludwig Feuerbach at the 1965 meeting of the American Academy of Religion, admittedly, but this does not seem to have been particularly central to his work. All the indications are that he had thrown himself into teaching, and into the slow, painstaking research that would eventually emerge as The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative. In many ways he felt that the stands he had taken in his thesis against prevailing modes of apologetical and anthropocentric theology isolated him (again), made his work a struggle against the tide. He did not have the temperament for the kind of sweeping statements and rabble-rousing clarion calls which might have pulled supporters to his side, and he produced his careful and complex writings only after taking great pains. It was during this period of obscurity that Frei received a Morse Fellowship and a Fulbright Award for research at the University of Göttingen (1959–60) . A little later, with the help of an American Association of Theological Schools Fellowship and a Yale Senior Faculty Fellowship, Frei spent some time in Cambridge, England (1966-7). His trip back to Germany was clouded by the sense that the recent past had been brushed under an inadequate rug, that it didn't matter, that Germany had re-invented itself rather than dealing with what had taken place. A meeting with Emanuel Hirsch, which was only granted when Frei agreed not to raise the question of Nazism, confirmed Frei's impressions. Frei also spent time in England, which he appears to have enjoyed, and even though he found that nothing much was going on theologically in Cambridge that interested him, he frequently referred back in later life to how much he had enjoyed his time there. Earlier theological work Frei was appointed Associate Professor in 1963. Then, between 1966 and 1968, almost as an interruption to the work which was proceeding towards Eclipse, Frei produced a 'theological proposal' – a lengthy article, expanded a little later into an adult education course, commented on in a lecture, and accompanied by a contribution to a seminar on the work of Karl Barth, after the latter's death. This 'proposal' emerged to wider scrutiny only some years later, when (in 1975) the adult education course was republished as The Identity of Jesus Christ. This strange project, an exercise in the rethinking of the structure and bases of Christology and, even though Frei soon developed doubts about various important aspects of it, it sets the tone and the themes for most of the rest of what he went on to say in theology. After that brief flurry of activity, Frei returned to honing his work on Eclipse, which was eventually published (to much wider recognition) in 1974. By that time, Frei had been Acting Master of Silliman College, Yale (1970–1971), and Master of Ezra Stiles College (from 1972), the latter a post he was to hold until 1980. The publication of Eclipse coincided with Frei's appointment to a full Professorship. Frei then entered another period of comparative silence, although this time it was not in complete obscurity: his name was out, rattling around in theological and historical circles attached to the massive and ground-breaking Eclipse, with Identity as a strange accompaniment. His silence was not so much due to the pressures of teaching or to isolated and exhaustive research, but to his commitment to his job as Master of Ezra Stiles. Frei also served as chair of the council of masters in 1975. The 1970s were a difficult decade for Frei. He found himself troubled about his links to the church. Firmly convinced theologically that he should have some kind of ecclesiastical grounding and location for his work as well as his academic setting, he nevertheless felt distanced from his adopted Anglican home, and yet committed to stay there. He found himself theologically uneasy about the places where he did feel less isolated – in particular, Quaker meetings. At the same time he found himself unable easily to call himself a theologian, particularly not a systematic theologian, and he concentrated his energies instead on the 'religious studies' (for which read 'historical') side of his work. Nevertheless, the questions he asked, the issues which interested him, the way he pursued that historical work – all were theological, and he knew it. The ambivalence seems not exactly to have haunted him, but at least to have been never far from his working mind. The major work which Frei completed in this decade (after Eclipse) was all historical. He directed a National Endowment for the Humanities summer seminar in 1976 (his title was 'Modernity as Temptation'), and he delivered various lectures including the Rice Lectures in 1974 (on Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Johann Gottfried Herder and Immanuel Kant) and the George F. Thomas Memorial Lectures in 1978 (on Lessing). He also produced a piece of work which he thought of as perhaps his finest: the essay on David Strauss which was eventually published in 1985, although Frei finished it in the very early 1980s after having worked on it throughout the last years of the 1970s. Later theological work In the late seventies, Frei's outlook began to shift. He found himself increasingly drawn away from purely intellectual history and towards social history; in tandem he found his doubts about aspects of the Identity and Eclipse phase of his work crystallizing in a shift away from more theoretical hermeneutical solutions towards more social, "cultural-linguistic" – and, we might say, more ecclesiological and pneumatological – solutions. In the 1978 George F. Thomas Lecture, he issued what can in retrospect be seen as something of a personal manifesto, using the word "sensibility" to denote the object of a kind of historical study which would look for the shape and development of religious styles, attitudes and doctrines firmly embedded in the development and interaction of social institutions of various overlapping kinds. In 1981, he spent some time in England during which he looked, on advice from Owen Chadwick, at visitation returns and sermons from the eighteenth century life of a couple of English parishes, hoping to find a way to combine the more social and cultural historical insights which these things gave him into the Christianity of the time with the insights he had hitherto gained through a more traditional study of well-known high-culture theologians and philosophers. From 1982 until 1988, his time as Master over, Frei returned to publishing and writing with a vengeance. Although still not prolific by the standards of many of his contemporaries, by his own standards his output was vast. He returned to both strands of his earlier constructive theological work: hermeneutics (which had been the subject matter of Eclipse) and Christology (the subject matter of Identity). In 1982 he delivered a paper on the interpretation of narrative, at Haverford College; in 1983 the Shaffer Lectures at Yale (in which he began to develop what has subsequently become a famous five-place typology for understanding modern theology) and delivered a long paper on hermeneutics at the University of California. His work did not even flag when he became chair of the Department of Religious Studies from 1983 to 1986. He spoke in 1985 in response to an assessment of his work by the evangelical theologian Carl F. H. Henry; in 1986 he spoke at a conference in honour of Jürgen Moltmann, delivered a lecture at Princeton University, and spoke on Barth and Friedrich Schleiermacher at a conference at Stony Point, New York. In 1987 he delivered the Cadbury lectures in Birmingham, England, and the Humanities Council lectures at Princeton. He prepared a contribution to Bruce Marshall's festschrift for George Lindbeck, and another for a conference on H. Richard Niebuhr to be held in September 1988. Most of these papers and lectures were indirectly or directly directed towards one end: a history of the figure of Jesus in popular and high culture in England and Germany since 1750. Frei seems to have found a new theological confidence bubbling up with this historical project, however: now, more than ever, the two sides of his work (which had been the source of his ambivalence in the 1970s) become inextricably linked. One moment he can be talking about the rise of the professions in Germany and the impact that had on theology in the Universities. The next moment he can be talking about the sensus literalis of scripture and theology as Christian self-description. The next moment (although this is not immediately evident from his published work) he can be talking about providence and pilgrimage. It is hard now to gauge exactly what shape the final project would have taken in which all this rich material would have been combined, but it is clear that Frei wished to pursue theological reflection through the medium of detailed historical work, and wished to hone a full-blown Christology of his own – a Christology which would have had a significant political dimension – by paying detailed attention to the ways in which Jesus had been described and redescribed in Western Protestant culture since the Enlightenment. Death The potential project of a comprehensive Christology was, however, never completed. Before he could deliver a paper he had written for a conference on H. Richard Niebuhr, he fell ill, and the paper was given in his absence. Frei died of a stroke on September 12, 1988, at the peak of his theological and historical career. Key writings The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative: A Study in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Hermeneutics, (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1974) The Identity of Jesus Christ: The Hermeneutical Bases of Dogmatic Theology, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1975) The Identity of Jesus Christ, Expanded and Updated Edition, (Cascade Books: An Imprint of Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2013) 'The "Literal Reading" of Biblical Narrative in the Christian Tradition: Does it Stretch or Will it Break?', in Frank McConnell, The Bible and the Narrative Tradition, (New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986) Types of Christian Theology, (1992) Theology and narrative:Selected Essays, (1993) References Further reading Charles Campbell, Preaching Jesus: New Directions for Homiletics in Hans Frei's Postliberal Theology, (Grand Rapids & Cambridge Wm Β Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997) John David Dawson, Christian Figural Reading and the Fashioning of Identity, (London: University of California Press, 2002) David F Ford, 'Hans Frei and the Future of Theology', Modern Theology 8:2, (April 1992) Garrett Green, ed, Scriptural Authority and Narrative Interpretation, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987) (a Festscrift produced for Frei on his 65th birthday) Mike Higton, Christ, Providence, and History: Hans W. Frei's Public Theology, (New York: T&T Clark International, 2004) George Hunsinger, 'Hans Frei as Theologian: The Quest for a Generous Orthodoxy', Modern Theology 8:2, (April 1992) Jason A. Springs, Toward a Generous Orthodoxy: Prospects for Hans Frei's Postliberal Theology, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010) John F Woolverton, 'Hans W Frei in Context: A Theological and Historical Memoir', Anglican Theological Review 79:2, (1997) External links The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative: A Study in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Hermeneutics, By Hans W. Frei Types of Christian Theology, By Hans W. Frei, George Hunsinger, William Carl Placher Theology and narrative, By Hans W. Frei, George Hunsinger, William Carl Placher Hans Frei, Unpublished Pieces: Transcripts from the Yale Divinity School Archive (ed. Mike Higton) Guide to the Hans Wilhelm Frei Papers, Yale Divinity Library Special Collections http://www.library.yale.edu/div/Freitranscripts https://web.archive.org/web/20180914222047/https://wipfandstock.com/the-identity-of-jesus-christ-expanded-and-updated-edition.html This article incorporates text from Mike Higton's online biography of Frei at http://www.people.ex.ac.uk/mahigton/Frei.html, with the author's permission American Baptist theologians 1922 births 1988 deaths Baptist writers German Christian theologians American Christian theologians 20th-century German theologians American Episcopal theologians German biblical scholars Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States Yale Divinity School faculty American biblical scholars Hermeneutists German male non-fiction writers 20th-century American non-fiction writers Anglican biblical scholars 20th-century American male writers American male non-fiction writers 20th-century American Episcopalians 20th-century Baptists
4877697	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Sturridge	Daniel Sturridge	Daniel Andre Sturridge (born 1 September 1989) is an English former professional footballer who played as a striker and is a pundit for Sky Sports. He is most well-known for his time at Liverpool where he was part of a formidable attacking trio with Luis Suárez and Raheem Sterling in the 2013–14 Premier League season when Liverpool finished close second. Sturridge was scouted by Aston Villa and played for a number of years in their younger academy sides before moving to Coventry City in 2002. He then signed for Manchester City in 2003. He continued his development at City and played in two FA Youth Cup finals. He made his first-team debut in the 2007–08 season, becoming the only player to score in the FA Youth Cup, FA Cup and Premier League in the same season. He left City in 2009 to sign for Chelsea, where he was loaned to Bolton Wanderers for the second half of the 2010–11 season. After a successful spell at Bolton, scoring eight goals in 12 appearances, he returned to Chelsea for the 2011–12 season. He left Chelsea to join Liverpool in January 2013, where he formed an attacking partnership with Luis Suárez. Liverpool scored more than 100 goals in the 2013–14 Premier League season with Sturridge scoring 21 goals, behind only Suárez on 31. The following two seasons were curtailed by injuries, limiting Sturridge to very few appearances. He scored the opening goal in the 2016 Europa League final, although Liverpool eventually lost the game to Sevilla. He featured most often as a substitute in the next seasons under manager Jürgen Klopp, but was part of the UEFA Champions League-winning squad in 2019. He subsequently had spells with Turkish Süper Lig club Trabzonspor and Australian A-League club Perth Glory. Sturridge has represented England at all levels. He made his debut for the senior team against Sweden in November 2011 and was selected for the 2014 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 2016, earning 28 England caps in total. He also represented Great Britain at the 2012 Summer Olympics. Early life Daniel Andre Sturridge was born on 1 September 1989 in Birmingham, West Midlands. Club career Youth career Sturridge began his playing career at the age of six at local club Cadbury Athletic, before being scouted, and subsequently signed by the youth academy of Aston Villa. According to Villa academy director Bryan Jones, Sturridge's father Michael was given a part-time scouting role by Villa but made demands that his role was made full-time or he would leave for Coventry City and take his son with him. Sturridge did leave Villa in 2002 to move to Coventry City, resulting in Aston Villa putting a case to the Premier League 'poaching committee' but it was refused. From Coventry, Sturridge subsequently joined Manchester City's Academy in 2003. A Football League committee later ordered Manchester City to pay Coventry £30,000 compensation, with further payments up to a maximum of £170,000 based upon appearances and international honours. The following year, he was the leading scorer and voted player of the tournament (the only other person to achieve this was Argentine footballer Carlos Tevez) as City won the Nike Cup, the world's largest under-15 tournament. At 16, he played for Manchester City Youth during their 2006 FA Youth Cup run. The youngest player in the team, he scored four goals en route to the final, and another two in the final, though they were insufficient to prevent a 3–2 aggregate defeat to Liverpool. That summer, he signed his first professional contract, which came into effect when he turned 17. Manchester City From the start of the 2006–07 season, Sturridge began to train with the City first team. A hat-trick in a reserve match was rewarded by a place on the substitutes' bench for the senior team's match with Reading in February 2007. He duly made his debut from the bench, replacing Georgios Samaras for the final quarter-hour. He made a second substitute appearance a month later, but then suffered a hip injury which sidelined him for the remainder of 2007. Sturridge scored his first goal for City on 27 January 2008 in an FA Cup match against Sheffield United, followed three days later by his first league goal on his full debut, against Derby County. However, first-team opportunities were quite sporadic, so Sturridge continued to play for the youth team in the FA Youth Cup. City again reached the final, with Sturridge the leading scorer in the competition. This time City won the final, with Sturridge scoring in the first leg. In the 2007–08 season, Sturridge became the only player ever to score in the Youth FA Cup, the FA Cup and the Premier League in the same season. Sturridge contributed in the 2008–09 season with 26 appearances and scoring 4 goals. On 28 December 2008, in a league match against Blackburn Rovers, City were trailing 2–0. Coming on as a 71st-minute substitute, Sturridge scored in the 88th minute of the match taking advantage of a header by André Ooijer. He also went on to assist Robinho's injury time goal. Manager Mark Hughes said that Sturridge was a player with great potential and had an impact in the game. He also praised his assist, saying "he picked out Robinho for the equaliser in an area where we had been struggling to find him". At the end of the season, he was voted as the club's Young Player of the Year. Chelsea 2009–10 season With Sturridge's contract at Manchester City expired, he signed for Chelsea on 3 July 2009 on a four-year contract. As Sturridge was under the age of 24, and the two clubs were unable to agree a deal, the fee for Sturridge was decided by a tribunal. The Professional Football Compensation Committee decided on 14 January 2010 that Chelsea would pay an initial fee of £3.5 million, with additional payments of £500,000 after each of 10, 20, 30 and 40 appearances. There would also be a further payment of £1 million if Sturridge made a full international appearance, and Manchester City in addition would receive 15 per cent of any sell-on fee if Sturridge was transferred, after these add ons the fee for the player reached an eventual fee of £8.3m. Sturridge made his Premier League debut for Chelsea on 18 August 2009 against Sunderland, coming on for Didier Drogba. On 28 October, he made his first start for the club in a League Cup win against Bolton Wanderers at Stamford Bridge. Sturridge made his first start in the Premier League for Chelsea away against Birmingham City on 26 December 2009 and scored his first two goals for Chelsea against Watford in the FA Cup third round on 3 January 2010. Sturridge continued to show his ability with a real poacher's effort in a 2–0 victory in the FA Cup against Preston North End, scoring his third goal for Chelsea in January. On 13 February, he netted again against Cardiff City, as Chelsea won 4–1. Sturridge scored his first League goal for Chelsea on 25 April 2010, in a 7–0 victory over Stoke City at Stamford Bridge, by latching onto a through ball, before rounding goalkeeper Asmir Begović and slotting the ball home. During the 2010 FA Cup final, he came on as a 90th-minute substitute for Chelsea as they won 1–0 against Portsmouth. Sturridge finished the 2009–10 FA Cup campaign as the leading scorer for Chelsea with four goals. 2010–11 season On 15 September 2010, Sturridge made his full UEFA Champions League debut against Slovakian team MŠK Žilina. He scored on his debut, his first Champions League tally, in a 4–1 away victory. In the Premier League, in a 1–0 loss to his former club Manchester City, Sturridge came on as a substitute for striker Didier Drogba. He scored his second goal in the Champions League against Žilina, which Chelsea went on to win 2–1 at home. Later that season, he scored two right-footed goals against Ipswich Town. On 31 January 2011, Sturridge joined Bolton Wanderers on a loan deal until the end of the season. He made his debut two days later, coming on as a substitute at home to Wolverhampton Wanderers, scoring his first goal in the process, an injury time winner. He followed this with another goal in the defeat to Tottenham Hotspur the following weekend, in which he made his first start, before scoring his third goal in three matches in the 2–0 victory over Everton. After Sturridge scored the equaliser against Newcastle United in his fourth match, he became only the sixth player to score in his first four matches for a club in the Premier League. Sturridge continued to make an impact at Bolton and finished his loan spell with eight goals in 12 appearances at the club. Having never been booked in his career, Sturridge received his first ever red card in the final match of the season against former club Manchester City. 2011–12 season Having received a red card in his final match for Bolton, Sturridge was suspended for the first three competitive matches in the 2011–12 season for Chelsea. Despite rumours linking him with a move away on deadline day, Sturridge remained in West London amidst strong support from his manager André Villas-Boas, who said, "He would have been playing if he was not suspended from last season." In his first match back from suspension, at Sunderland, Sturridge started and scored with a back-heel in the 50th minute to put Chelsea up 2–0 in an eventual 2–1 victory. Sturridge returned to the Reebok Stadium on 2 October 2011, scoring twice within the first 30 minutes, the first a header after 90 seconds from a corner and the second a long-shot from outside the box that goalkeeper Ádám Bogdán erred in saving. Sturridge also provided an assist to Frank Lampard's goal in the 15th minute of the match, which eventually ended 5–1. On 15 October 2011, Sturrdge scored against Everton in a 3–1 win, giving him four league goals in four matches. He then came on as a substitute in the League Cup match against Everton in the 90th-minute, in which he scored a 116th-minute winner, which saw Chelsea win 2–1 in extra time to put them in the last eight. Sturridge scored his seventh goal in the Premier League season in a 3–0 victory for Chelsea against Newcastle. On 13 December, during the fixture against Sturridge former club Manchester City at Stamford Bridge, Sturridge provided an assist for a Raul Meireles goal in the 34th minute. The match ended a 2–1 victory, when Frank Lampard scored a late penalty after Joleon Lescott handled Sturridge's shot in the penalty area. Sturridge scored in the away 1–1 draw against Wigan Athletic; he controlled Ashley Cole's diagonal long ball with his left foot, then scored with his right from a tight angle to give Chelsea the lead in the 59th minute. On 22 December, during Chelsea's away clash with Tottenham, he scored his ninth goal in the 2011–12 domestic season, the equaliser in a 1–1 draw away at White Hart Lane. Sturridge scored his team's first goal in a 4–2 win against Aston Villa. He scored the opener in fantastic style after 45 seconds with his 11th Premier League goal of the season against local rivals Queens Park Rangers on 29 April, which Chelsea ran out 6–1 winners to keep Champions League qualification alive. He was an unused substitute as Chelsea won the 2012 UEFA Champions League final. 2012–13 season Sturridge missed all of Chelsea's pre-season matches to begin the 2012–13 campaign, as he was on duty with Great Britain in the 2012 Summer Olympics. He did, however, play against Manchester City in the 2012 FA Community Shield, assisting Ryan Bertrand's goal, by shooting and Costel Pantilimon spilling it. Sturridge missed the first 2012–13 UEFA Champions League group stage matches against Juventus and Nordsjælland and the first League Cup match against Wolverhampton. He also missed the Premier League match against Stoke City with a hamstring injury. He scored the last Premier League goal for the club in the 4–2 win against Tottenham at White Hart Lane after coming on as a late substitute and scoring from Juan Mata's cross in stoppage time to seal victory. His last goal for Chelsea was against Manchester United in the League Cup, scoring in extra time in the 5–4 win. After Blues manager Roberto Di Matteo was sacked as manager and replaced by Rafael Benítez, Sturridge was never to play for the club again due to injury. Liverpool 2012–13 season On 2 January 2013, Sturridge completed a move from Chelsea to Liverpool, signing a long-term contract for an undisclosed fee thought to be in the region of £12 million. He made his debut on 6 January against Mansfield Town in the FA Cup third round, scoring his first Liverpool goal after just seven minutes in a match which Liverpool won 2–1. He scored on his league debut after coming on as a half-time substitute the following weekend, scoring in a 2–1 defeat against rivals and league leaders Manchester United at Old Trafford on 13 January. Sturridge scored his third goal for Liverpool in his first league start and home debut for the club, a 5–0 win against Norwich City at Anfield on 19 January. With the goal, he had scored three goals in his first three appearances for the club, becoming the first Liverpool player since Ray Kennedy in 1974 to accomplish the feat, despite not yet playing a full 90 minutes for the club. On 3 February, Sturridge scored a goal from 25 yards-out against former club Manchester City in a 2–2 draw at the City of Manchester Stadium. Sturridge continued this run of form on 17 February, with an assist for teammate José Enrique, as well as scoring a penalty against Swansea City in a 5–0 win, having missed the prior two matches due to a combination of ineligibility and injury. He also scored against former club Chelsea in a 2–2 draw at Anfield, the match of teammate Luis Suárez's biting incident with Blues defender Branislav Ivanović, which led to a ten-match ban for Suárez. Sturridge scored two goals and notched an assist in a 6–0 win over Newcastle United on 27 April at St James' Park. On 12 May, he scored his first career hat-trick, in a 3–1 win against Fulham at Craven Cottage. 2013–14 season Sturridge began the 2013–14 season by scoring the first goal of the season – which also turned out to be the only goal in Liverpool's 1–0 win over Stoke City – with a shot from outside the box. He then followed this up with a goal against Aston Villa in another 1–0 win and a brace against Notts County in the League Cup, taking his season's tally to four goals in three matches. He continued his fine form by scoring the only goal in a 1–0 win against fierce rivals and defending champions Manchester United on his 24th birthday at Anfield, and giving a man of the match performance in a 3–1 win away at Sunderland by scoring and providing two assists for Luis Suárez. These performances earned Sturridge the season's first Premier League Player of the Month award for the month of August. On 23 November, he came off the bench to score a last-minute equaliser against Everton in a thrilling Merseyside derby that finished 3–3. Sturridge's impressive goal-scoring form continued into the new year, with Sturridge becoming the first Liverpool player in the Premier League era to score in seven consecutive league matches when he found the net at Craven Cottage against Fulham. He went on to become only the second player in Premier League history to score eight matches in a row after a brace against Swansea City in a 4–3 home win. He was then named Player of the Month for the second time in the season for February, scoring five goals and earned two assists during the month. On 18 April, Sturridge was named as one of the six players on the shortlist for the PFA Players' Player of the Year award and was also nominated for the PFA Young Player of the Year award. On 27 April, he was named alongside teammates Steven Gerrard and Luis Suárez in the PFA Team of the Year. Sturridge's haul of 21 league goals made him the runner-up in the season's Premier League Golden Boot, behind strike partner Suárez. 2014–15 season Sturridge started the 2014–15 season scoring a late winner in Liverpool's opening match, a 2–1 win over Southampton. While on international duty in September 2014, Sturridge incurred a thigh injury and forced out of action for up to three weeks. On 11 September, manager Brendan Rodgers publicly criticised England's handling of Sturridge, stating his injury "could have been preventable." Despite rumours, England manager Roy Hodgson rejected talk of a rift between him and Rodgers over Sturridge's injury. Sturridge was ruled out for another three more weeks after suffering a calf strain injury during training on 17 October. On 18 November, he broke down in training with a new thigh injury which saw him miss the next six weeks. After missing close to five months, Sturridge made his return to the team on 31 January in a 2–0 win over West Ham as a 68th-minute substitute for Lazar Marković, scoring in the 87th minute after a through ball from Philippe Coutinho. On 4 March, Sturridge scored the second goal in a 2–0 win over Burnley. Sturridge's injury-plagued season continued when he picked up a hip injury on 22 March in a 2–1 loss to rivals Manchester United, despite scoring Liverpool's lone goal. On 5 May, he underwent a successful hip operation in the United States that ruled him out until September, meaning he would miss the start of the new season. 2015–16 season After missing the first five matches of Liverpool's Premier League campaign due to injury, Sturridge made his first appearance of the season against Norwich City on 20 September 2015. He scored his first two goals of the season in a 3–2 victory against Aston Villa on 26 September. On 15 October, Sturridge suffered a knee injury in training that would rule him out another four weeks. On 2 December, he scored two goals in a 6–1 away win over Southampton in the quarter-final of the League Cup. Four days later he suffered another hamstring injury in a 2–0 defeat to Newcastle United, that ruled him out for two months. He returned to the team on 14 February 2016, scoring in a 6–0 win over Aston Villa at Villa Park. 14 days later, he started in the 2016 League Cup final loss to Manchester City, playing the full 120 minutes as Liverpool were defeated in a penalty shoot-out. On 10 March 2016, he scored his first Europa League goal for Liverpool in a 2–0 win over rivals Manchester United at Anfield. He scored his 50th goal for Liverpool in all competitions on 20 April, in a 4–0 win at home in the Merseyside derby; he is the fourth fastest Liverpool player to reach that landmark, doing so in 87 appearances. On 5 May 2016, Sturridge scored his 12th goal of the season in Liverpool's 3–0 win over Villarreal in the Europa League semi-final second leg to qualify the team for the 2016 UEFA Europa League final. On 19 May, Sturridge scored the opening goal of the Europa League final, an eventual 3–1 loss to Sevilla in Basel. Sturridge ended the season as Liverpool's top scorer with 13 goals. 2016–2018 Sturridge began the season as an understudy to Roberto Firmino and generally came off the bench during the second half in league matches. On 23 August, Sturridge started the match against Burton Albion in the EFL Cup and scored a brace in the 5–0 win for Liverpool. Sturridge started in the fourth round of the EFL Cup against Tottenham on 25 October and scored a brace in a 2–1 win for Liverpool at Anfield. He scored his first league goal of the season on 27 December, scoring within one minute of coming on as a second-half substitute against Stoke. Sturridge's goal, Liverpool's fourth on the night and 86th for the year, saw the club break its record for goals scored in a calendar year. On 27 August 2017, Sturridge scored in a 4–0 win over Arsenal, just three minutes after coming on as a substitute. On 28 October, he scored the opening goal in a 3–0 win over Huddersfield Town. On 1 November, he scored in a 3–0 win over Maribor in the UEFA Champions League. On 29 January 2018, Sturridge joined West Bromwich Albion on loan for the remainder of the 2017–18 season. On 12 February, in just his third appearance for West Brom since joining on loan, Sturridge suffered a hamstring injury after three minutes of playing in a 3–0 away defeat to Chelsea. 2018–19 season Back in Liverpool colours, on 12 August 2018, Sturridge scored with his first touch after 24 seconds coming on as a substitute in a 4–0 win over West Ham United. On 18 September, he scored the opening goal of a 3–2 win over Paris Saint-Germain in the opening match of the UEFA Champions League. On 26 September, he scored the opening goal against his former club Chelsea in the EFL Cup third round, though Liverpool eventually lost the match 1–2. Three days later Sturridge scored the equalising goal – and 50th league goal of his Liverpool career – with a 25-yard curler in the 89th minute to earn a 1–1 draw with Chelsea at Stamford Bridge, which was later voted as Premier League Goal of the Month for September. Despite not playing in the 2019 UEFA Champions League final against Tottenham Hotspur on 1 June 2019, Sturridge picked up his second Champions League winner's medal and became the first Englishman to win the competition with two different English clubs. Three days later, he and Alberto Moreno were both released by Liverpool. On 18 July 2019, Sturridge was banned from football for six weeks, four of which were suspended, for breaching betting rules after instructing his brother to bet on a possible transfer to Sevilla. Later career Sturridge signed for Turkish Süper Lig club Trabzonspor on 21 August 2019 on a three-year contract. On 2 March 2020, Sturridge was released from the club after having his contract mutually terminated; he had scored seven goals in sixteen games. The same day he received a four-month worldwide ban for breaching betting rules (see previous section); an appeal board also fined him £150,000. On 1 October 2021, A-League Men club Perth Glory announced the signing of Sturridge for the 2021–22 season. Perth chairman and owner Tony Sage described the signing as one of the biggest in A-League history, while Sturridge said he hadn't joined the club for "a holiday". He only began training with his new team in mid-November due to fitness struggles, and said he could not put a timeframe on how long it would take to return to full fitness. On 20 November 2021, Sturridge made his debut for Perth Glory coming on as an 84th minute substitute against Adelaide United. A near-capacity crowd of 17,198 turned up at Perth Oval to see Sturridge make his first appearance. On 23 February 2022, Sturridge suffered a groin injury having come on as a substitute during a 1–0 defeat to Macarthur, and was subbed off after 18 minutes of game time. Perth's chief executive Tony Pignata admitted the move hadn't worked, describing it as "disappointing". On 3 June, it was announced that he had been released by new manager Ruben Zadkovich, having started just one game, scoring 0 goals in six appearances. International career Youth Sturridge has represented England at U16, U17, U18, U19, U20 and U21 levels. He scored twice against the Netherlands for the under-18 team in 2007, netting again in the Under-19 European Championships against the Netherlands. He scored the only goal for England U21 in a 1–1 draw against Greece U-21 in Greece and scored his second U-21 goal in the 1–0 win over Portugal. He was named in the England under-21 squad for the 2011 UEFA European Under-21 Championship. England was eliminated in the group stages. Sturridge was selected to the team of the tournament. Senior On 6 November 2011, Sturridge was handed his maiden England call-up by being named in the England squad for the friendlies against Spain and Sweden, after excelling for Chelsea. He was an unused substitute in a 1–0 victory against Spain, but Fabio Capello insisted that Sturridge would play against Sweden the following Tuesday and did, as he made his debut coming on as a second-half substitute for Theo Walcott. He made his second appearance against the Netherlands coming on in the first half for the injured Steven Gerrard and caused the Dutch defence problems throughout the match and earned the man of the match award for his efforts during the match. He scored his first senior goal for England in his fifth match on 22 March 2013, after coming on for Wayne Rooney in an 8–0 away win against San Marino in World Cup qualification. The goal meant he had made an appearance and scored for all levels of international football for England, from U16 to the seniors, as well as scoring for the Great Britain Olympic football team. On 11 October, he scored another goal in England's qualification campaign, an injury-time penalty in a 4–1 win over Montenegro after he had been fouled by Ivan Kecojević. He scored again in the opening match of 2014, England's March friendly with Denmark. The score was 0–0 until the eighty-second minute, when Sturridge rose to head an Adam Lallana cross into the net for a late winner. On 2 July 2012, Sturridge was named in Stuart Pearce's 18-man squad for the Great Britain Olympic football team to compete at the 2012 Summer Olympics. It was however, announced on 3 July 2012 that Sturridge was undergoing tests for suspected meningitis, and was possibly going to be unable to compete in the GB 2012 team. However, he made a full recovery meaning he could take part and he scored his first goal for Great Britain in the second group match, a 3–1 victory over the United Arab Emirates. In the final group match, Sturridge scored the only goal as Great Britain beat Uruguay to finish top of their group and progress to the quarter-final. In the quarter-final match against South Korea, Sturridge missed the fifth penalty for Great Britain. South Korea then scored theirs, knocking out Team GB. In May 2014, Sturridge was named in England's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup and assigned the number 9 shirt. He scored the team's opening goal in a 3–0 friendly victory over Peru at Wembley Stadium on 30 May. On 14 June, Sturridge started England's opening match of the tournament and scored the team's goal in a 2–1 defeat by Italy in Manaus. Despite injury keeping him out of most of UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying, Sturridge was named in England's squad for the UEFA Euro 2016 finals. In the team's second group match, after appearing as a half time substitute against Wales, Sturridge assisted Jamie Vardy's equaliser and scored the winning goal as the team recovered from a 1–0 deficit. Style of play Former Chelsea manager André Villas-Boas said, "Daniel offers a few of the characteristics I had with Hulk when I was with him in Porto... He is an extremely quick player, and he has technique at pace." Sturridge said he preferred to play as a centre-forward rather than as a winger: "I do still see myself as a striker but I am doing a job for the team and I'm enjoying doing it." As Sturridge transitioned from a wider role into a striker when he joined Liverpool, Sturridge also said that he likens himself on striker Thierry Henry, who "played wide for Juventus and then went to Arsenal and played as a centre-forward." Although he rarely played for Chelsea as a striker, Liverpool manager Brendan Rodgers played Sturridge as a striker in most matches. His ability to still drop between lines and pull wide and attack defences, similar to former strike partner Luis Suárez's playing-style, has led to Rodgers describing him as "what I call a 'nine-and-a-half". Personal life Sturridge is the son of former footballer Mike Sturridge, and the nephew of former footballers Dean and Simon Sturridge. Sturridge used to support Derby County when he was younger because his uncle, Dean, played for them. But once Dean left, Sturridge switched his allegiance to Arsenal. Sturridge is a Christian. After winning the Premier League Player of the Month award, Sturridge said, "I do all [through] Christ who strengthens me." He is actively involved in charity work, often helping young players get involved in football. In November 2012, while playing for Chelsea, he presented a cheque for €50,000 on behalf of Hyundai to Street League, a charity dedicated to helping disadvantaged players across Europe get into football. In June 2013, he presented a further cheque of £50,000 to Street League, whilst visiting their new centre in Liverpool. Later that same month, Sturridge opened his charity foundation named after him in Portmore, Jamaica, with its aim to help youngsters there get into sport and entertainment. He also owns the Sturr Class Entertainment record company. Sturridge is of Jamaican descent, all of his grandparents being Jamaican. In 2019, Sturridge's home in Los Angeles was broken into, and his Pomeranian dog, Lucci, was lost, and he offered a reward for the dog's return. Shortly after, Foster Washington of Los Angeles claimed to have found the dog and returned him to Sturridge. In March 2021, Washington filed a suit against Sturridge and was awarded $30,000 in damages on 22 December 2021. In response, Sturridge claimed that another person found and returned the dog and was rewarded for doing so. Career statistics Club International England score listed first, score column indicates score after each Sturridge goal Honours Chelsea Premier League: 2009–10 FA Cup: 2009–10, 2011–12 UEFA Champions League: 2011–12 Liverpool Football League Cup runner-up: 2015–16 UEFA Champions League: 2018–19 UEFA Europa League runner-up: 2015–16 Individual PFA Team of the Year: 2013–14 Premier League UEFA European Under-21 Championship Team of the Tournament: 2011 Premier League Player of the Month: August 2013, February 2014 Premier League Goal of the Month: September 2018 References External links 1989 births Living people Footballers from Birmingham, West Midlands English men's footballers Men's association football forwards Aston Villa F.C. players Coventry City F.C. players Manchester City F.C. players Chelsea F.C. players Bolton Wanderers F.C. players Liverpool F.C. players West Bromwich Albion F.C. players Trabzonspor footballers Perth Glory FC players Premier League players Süper Lig players UEFA Champions League winning players England men's youth international footballers England men's under-21 international footballers England men's international footballers 2014 FIFA World Cup players UEFA Euro 2016 players Olympic footballers for Great Britain Footballers at the 2012 Summer Olympics English expatriate men's footballers Expatriate men's soccer players in Australia Expatriate men's footballers in Turkey English expatriate sportspeople in Australia English expatriate sportspeople in Turkey Black British sportsmen English Christians English people of Jamaican descent Daniel Sportspeople involved in betting scandals
4877899	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Osborn%20Williams	John Osborn Williams	John Osborn Williams (28 March 1886 – 6 July 1963) was the owner of the logging and pit prop exporting business known as The Labrador Development Company limited based in Port Hope Simpson, Newfoundland and Labrador from 1934 to 1948. Early life Williams was born at 46 George Street, Cardiff, Wales, his parents' home, and was the youngest son of Silas and Mary Williams. He was one of eight children and known as "Jack" within the family. He left school at age 14 in 1900 and entered the timber exporting business. "Jayo" as he was usually known, like two of his brothers Hiram and Arthur, became a commercial clerk at the age of fifteen. The family's heavy industrial and clerical occupational experience was the background for at least two other logging, trading, and shipping agency companies he was to set up. In 1908, at 22 years of age, he moved to work for Evans and Reed, Cardiff coal exporters and importers of pit props. In 1914 during the First World War, he worked in the Baltic area, and in August of that year, he went to Montreal, spending September to December 1914 in Dominion of Newfoundland. From the end of the war, he sought to develop his business interests on the island. In 1921, he obtained £10,000 backing from Franklin Thomas and Company, Cardiff coal importer, to help him set up J. O. Williams Company in 1925. However, the liquidation of the British and North American Trading Company in which Williams had shares bankrupted him. Development of the Labrador area Before the company arrived at the present day site of Port Hope Simpson, certain events had taken place. It was on board the S.S. Sylvia en route to St. John's, Newfoundland from City of Halifax, Nova Scotia that Williams first discussed his ambitions for the Labrador with Sir John Hope Simpson, Commissioner of Natural Resources and Acting Commissioner of Justice 1934–36, and Thomas Lodge, Commissioner of Public Utilities from 1934 to 1937. He won them over with his enthusiasm, optimism and experience and convinced them he was just the sort of entrepreneurial man they were looking for. For their part, they could not believe their good luck in having met him. They viewed Williams as somebody who could help them make an impact in their new posts. Lodge described Williams to The Dominions Office in London as 1/3 visionary, 1/3 speculator and 1/3 businessman. However, time would tell that Simpson and Lodge had made a grave error of judgment about entering into a business relationship with Williams. In June 1934 the first party of managerial and administrative staff landed at the site on the Alexis River. Williams had hired 520 men; southern Inuit men from nearby communities and unemployed men from the island of Newfoundland who came on government passes to work. He showed that some sort of permanent employment in addition to the cod fishery was possible in the area, and even though he brought south Labrador Inuit and Newfoundlanders together, most Newfoundlanders did not stay for more than two or three years. However, because of southern Inuit families moving into the area to participate in the new economic projects, it was reported that there were almost 70 families in Port Hope Simpson in 1934. Within one month, however, by 26 July 1934, 225 lumbermen of the Labrador Development Company returned to St John's because they were dissatisfied with their working conditions. Although the men were keen to work they found poor accommodation and little food. The company controlled everyone through the very strict manager and because Williams prohibited any buying and selling outside his store. (Although one enterprising local did bring a boatload of goods upriver to Port Hope Simpson, Newfoundland and Labrador, moored offshore and proceeded to do a brisk trade before he was stopped.) Workers were paid from $1.75 to $2.00 per cord (48 to 55-cent/m3) of pit-props, using a bucksaw for 12 hours per day. They were put on rations of mostly beans and porridge and bought deteriorating food from the company store. Men had to go out hunting to obtain sufficient food for themselves and their families. Many of the non-Inuit, not accustomed to the way of life came with dreams of prosperity but soon realised that conditions were the same as the fishery. They were always in debt! Eventually forcing most of them to move back to Newfoundland. By 30 July 1934 Police Superintendent O'Neil had investigated the complaints of the 225 lumbermen and declared that there were no valid grounds for the strike although it was admitted that the preparations for the 500 men were inadequate when they arrived. In August 1934 the first permanent settlement started at the site of a logging camp run by the Labrador Development Company and named after Sir John Hope Simpson. The first Company Town in Labrador had been born and large scale commercial development of the woods around Alexis and Lewis Bays for the export of pit props to south Wales had begun. Building development at Port Hope Simpson, by the winter of 1935, only consisted of a community hall and a hospital or seven-room medical clinic. A general store, a hall – also used as a church and a school – had also been erected at adjacent Mill Point cove. But as early as November 1934, after Sir John Hope Simpson, who had agreed to Williams's suggestion that the settlement be named after himself, opening-up Simpson to accusations of favouritism, had returned to England over Christmas to meet with officials at the Dominions Office, it had become apparent that J. O. Williams had lost his government's support. When the Dominions Office found out that the 400 houses were not being built at Port Hope Simpson and money had effectively been borrowed under false pretences on Simpson's say–so it brought about a complete change in their attitude towards Simpson and Williams. Simpson was recalled to the Dominions Office in November 1934 not on the pretence of some constitutional issue or other but to face severe reprimand for what he and Lodge had allowed to happen. He had failed spectacularly to get Williams to toe the line in repaying his debts because he feared that Williams would carry out his threat to pull out of Labrador and Newfoundland altogether. Williams, on the other hand, made no fundamental misjudgement about his economic prospects on the Labrador, because, by using borrowed government funds he proceeded to make money hand over fist from 1934 to 1940. By the time the Public Enquiry was held into Williams' affairs in 1945 his personal qualities of drive and persistence had become more than a thorough nuisance, as the Dominions Office had failed to get to the bottom of what he was up to. They were aware they had been hoodwinked and John Chadwick, one of the civil servants, believed he had seen a way out of the mess via a proposed public enquiry that would enable the government to cut all ties with Williams once and for all despite the blunders of their representative, Sir John Hope Simpson. By 29 January 1935 it was clear that the Labrador Development Company was taking maximum advantage of the fact that exploitation of the woods could happen in an unregulated way. This state of affairs carried on from 1935 to 1940. It wasn't until after a government director was appointed to its board from 1940 and the Public Enquiry into its affairs took place in 1944 that Williams's activities were finally controlled. On 4 June 1935 in a very confidential letter marked "secret and personal", Sir John Hope Simpson wrote that 200 families were being settled at the Alexis River site. Less than two weeks after Simpson wrote the above letter, the Commission of Government had supposedly taken over complete financial control of all properties in both of Williams' companies. That Simpson had moved so quickly in making such preparations is in direct contrast to the previously supportive way in which he had dealt with the company. In a letter on 5 July 1935 to Bridges, Clutterbuck at the Dominions Office wrote that plans were in sight for a permanent settlement. Two weeks later, Simpson wrote that the loggers were earning great wages of about $3.00 per day. In fact they were only earning at the very most about $1.30 per day. By September of that year, Simpson revealed he was looking for excuses to leave the scene in Newfoundland altogether. By the end of 1936 in Port Hope Simpson, Newfoundland and Labrador, the Company had arranged for the men to build themselves about 60 small houses for rent but most Labradorians chose not to live in the company housing due to their rental costs, living instead about a quarter of a mile away on the opposite side of Black Water brook. In justification of the good works done by Williams, his counsel at the public enquiry in 1945 emphasised that the company had rendered every possible service at considerable cost to provide work for the people of Newfoundland and the needy families of Labrador. By so doing it was claimed it had adhered to the agreement made with the Commission of Government on 30 April 1934 that the government wished to do everything it could to help develop the Labrador and the company. Williams' counsel claimed that after years of work; the company had stabilised and had built up an efficient unit of workers who took an interest in their work and their employers. By March 1938 Williams felt that government policy towards him had steadily deteriorated and by the time of the public enquiry in 1945 he was fighting a long lost cause. Disaffection with the Labrador Development Company representatives on site quickly set in whilst J O Williams was 3,000 miles away in Britain living in luxury in Cardiff city centre next door to Eric by 15 March 1938. In a context of suspicious and acrimonious circumstances from his loggers and their families towards The Company, in the early hours of 3 February 1940, personal tragedy hit Williams as Eric Arthur Williams, his eldest son and Erica D'Anitoff Williams his infant daughter seemed to have died in a house fire in Port Hope Simpson. The cause of their deaths is yet to be established and foul play cannot be ruled out as part of the ongoing Royal Canadian Mounted Police R.C.M.P. Serious Crimes Unit Investigation opened in August 2002. The date not only marked the first time the case had been moved from The Department of Natural Resources to the Department of Justice in Canada but also marked the first time, albeit 62 years later, that an investigation into the circumstances around the deaths took place which found that somebody may well have been "stirring the pot" as the people felt betrayed by Williams. Eric had been sent out by his Father into a most difficult situation (where the loggers and their families had been kept in the dark about what had been going-on behind the scenes) to report on the issue of unauthorised stores having been bought for the Company Store (monopoly) operation in Port Hope Simpson. Eric ordered that excess stores be returned to St. John's and went beyond his Father's instructions by entering into the Keith Younge local contract for cutting pit props to be shipped out to South Wales although at the time this arrangement was seen as a good way of helping the Company to continue its operation in the area. But it was not to be...as Eric and his daughter were quite likely unlawfully killed. According to the original correspondence within the Public Enquiry, Keith Younge, local Labrador Development Company Limited store manager ordered that the two bodies should be quickly buried and a concrete headstone inscribed and erected. Subsequently, a granite memorial stone as first seen in 1969 cut from the Preseli Hills of South Wales and shipped out by Williams replaced the smaller headstone and significantly, all mention of Olga D'Anitoff Williams, Eric's wife, by order of J O Williams from back in South Wales, was removed from the final epitaph. The Public Enquiry into the Financial Affairs of The Labrador Development Limited (kept in UK National Archives) clearly shows within its original correspondence that J O Williams considered Olga to be of a "bad character." Williams' confidential letter to Keith Yonge in 1941 in which he admitted that he had the money but wanted to get as big a concession from the government as possible before disclosing his financial strength also indicates his level of deception. It was only after Williams and the Labrador Development Company had left Port Hope Simpson in 1948 that the people could set about bettering themselves, but by this time many had moved away in search of work. The Public Enquiry was held in St. John's, Newfoundland and reported in 1945 into the affairs of the Labrador Development Company Limited. It was engineered by a group of six civil servants at the Dominions Office who wanted to show that Williams was of unreliable character. When Chief Justice Dunfield's report on the public enquiry came out it meant the Dominions Office's plan to discredit Williams' character had seriously backfired. The government wanted the report buried after local publication. "On the whole, I should imagine that the Commission will be content to bury the main bodies of both reports as deeply as their publication locally permits."—Chadwick J. C., Dominions Office, London 29 June 1945 Judge Dunfield found that Williams had run out of liquid cash reserves that were essential to scale up the operations. He considered that the government was also responsible for the company and had pressed Williams to cut more timber to provide more work for the people. Dunfield knew that $19400 per annum of capital had to be re-paid to the government ($1.00 per cord (28-cent/m3) on limited production) plus the heavy interest on the government loan and that it was initially planned to cut 50000 cords (180000 m3) of timber per annum. Dunfield's conclusion was that neither Williams nor the government fully appreciated how much the Port Hope Simpson project would cost and so the company was under-funded right from the start. It found itself in a vicious circle where it did not have sufficient funds to expand and, without the expansion, its overheads could not be carried. Dunfield clearly implied that he was not exactly confident about the financial health of the company from the outset. His judgment was that the government went from being a supportive partner to being a strict creditor. Then the Second World War came and stopped the free export of pit props. The people from 1934 to 1939 received according to Dunfield, not less than $800,000 in wages when they might have been on the dole. Dunfield acknowledged Williams' particular line of skill, but thought that he was not experienced in other fields and that he himself had admitted so. The $250,000 reinvestment Williams made in Labrador from his Newfoundland trade, coupled with the money from his Cardiff company hid the true position according to Dunfield, which was that the Labrador enterprise needed a much greater capital investment and a larger working capital than had been provided. Dunfield laid the blame firmly on Williams and said that the government was also to blame for failing to fulfil its partnership contribution in the circumstances. Dunfield thought the government lacked the right calibre of officials, with the right training to work successfully with Williams the business person. Dunfield went so far as to say in his final report that Williams should perhaps be given another chance. Dunfield was in fact quite sympathetic towards Williams and definite that he was not entirely to blame for what had happened. He knew that the Government had gained more than it had lost on the venture and he would not swallow the vitriolic anti-Williams propaganda. He had found no evidence to justify the bad impression that other people and he had held before the start of the enquiry about Williams. Dunfield might have over-reacted against the very suggestion that he should take part in any sort of rigged public enquiry to attack Williams' character and discredit him. Instead, he recommended that the Government and Williams should try again. In 1945 the population of Port Hope Simpson had been 352 which included 119 children. However, one year later from Williams's point of view, the situation had looked desperate, "When I restarted at Hope Simpson in 1946 I was faced with a derelict township, everything that could be turned into cash was sold, or stolen, down to the office furniture....I have already spent over $20,000 putting the place right...The argument that we could not get the labour is absurd."—J. O. Williams, original correspondence 1945 Back in Britain on the one hand, the British treasury was trying to ensure that the UK taxpayer would not have to bear any loss incurred by the company if it went into liquidation. On the other hand, it also wanted to make absolutely certain the government were not going to be liable for any claim made by Williams for special compensation. Therefore, wanting to appear generous in public, within the modified terms of their final settlement, they offered to waive the interest on their loan from 30 June 1940 – 20 November 1945. The export of timber from Labrador would be free of all tax from 1946 to 1955 inclusive and then subject to an export tax of 0.25 cents per cord (0.07-cent/m3) from 1956 to 1966. Royalties on cutting were not payable and Williams was offered a fresh timber contract in 1946, which he accepted. The treasury had been consistent over the years in its unwillingness to allocate Williams any more money because of his unreliability. Nevertheless, Williams was still granted a further $100,000 loan on 15 October 1946 that included excellent terms by the British government for his last timber contract – despite the fact that about half of the final contract of wood was left behind. "...about the Labrador Development Company's contract with the Ministry of Supply to ship timbers to this country...Eales indicated that he expected production to be nearer the minimum figure of 8,000 fathoms than the maximum of 12,000; but it appears to have fallen much short of that. We seem to have been badly bamboozled."—Chadwick J. 20 January 1947 By the time the contract was completed Williams had definitely made up his mind not to continue with business in Newfoundland and Labrador any longer. Despite the very generous terms he was still claiming that the evidence entitled him to a fair settlement and he had been thinking about progressing into the fishing business in the area. He was very confident that the old Labrador crowd were ready to go back to work for him. However, in a press interview on 24 December 1945, he was quoted as saying that 165 men were logging at Port Hope Simpson, Newfoundland and Labrador but that 572 men who had been sent there in November had refused to work and had to be brought back and 20 more had demanded repatriation. Chadwick's view from the Dominions Office in the same year about the Labrador Development Company was that, "Our aim was to end this sordid history one way or the other rather than allow matters to drift on as they have done for the past five years."—Chadwick J. 1945 The original correspondence from the Public Enquiry shows Chadwick was very eager to cut his losses from the Dominions Office's long-running affair with Williams and in the end Williams did not make a claim for financial compensation against the British government. In a wider political context, Williams' efforts to keep alive the Labrador Development Company were going on when Newfoundland and Labrador were moving towards joining the Confederation of Canada in 1949. The obvious effect upon Williams was that he chose to close down his operations completely at Port Hope Simpson rather than pay federal taxes on the wood. The affairs of the Labrador Development Company at Port Hope Simpson 1934–1949 were hushed-up because it would not have been in the public and national interest to have done otherwise. In the lead up to the Second World War, a climate of trust was vital in our political leaders. The last thing the United Kingdom and its steadfast ally Newfoundland wanted was to be distracted from the war by a relatively trifling dispute about what was going on at Port Hope Simpson. Newfoundland had already suffered from a lack of available work and the low wages of the Great Depression. It needed work for its population like never before and The Labrador Development Company appeared to be offering just that. However, the effect of the political shenanigans of Sir John Hope Simpson, John Osborn Williams, the Commission of Government and the Dominions Office upon the brave crowd of southern Inuit and transient Newfoundlanders in Port Hope Simpson was to make it impossible for them to find out what was going on behind the scenes. Williams had borrowed the money from the Colonial Office's funds in London under false intentions. He subsequently failed to build the promised 400 houses for the loggers and their families and failed to pay them a reasonable living wage. They were held in poverty by the monopoly of the Company's store in the settlement as they were forced to live under its system of credit. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police investigating officer in 2003 about whether or not foul play had occurred in the early hours of 3 February 1940 stated that, "He...Williams...betrayed the people and no doubt this would have stirred the pot enough for someone to have taken drastic measures by their own hands and started the fire at the house that led to the deaths of Eric, J.O.'s eldest son and Erica his infant daughter."—21 October 2003 Thomas Lodge concluded that it had been the Secretary of State for Canada who had failed to give guidance to the commission who were a collection of individuals running their own departments. He described the commission as an experiment in dictatorship and claimed he left his post because he could no longer carry on working with people who completely failed to agree on a positive policy and because he could not convince the Secretary of State to adopt his own point of view. The Dominions Office removed Lodge from his position of commissioner early in 1937 and the publication of his book Dictatorship in Newfoundland in 1939 put him out of favour in London. Nevertheless, he became a government director of the Labrador Development Company in 1940. Lodge would have been well-placed to have handled the two deaths. Claude Fraser, Sir John Hope Simpson's loyal secretary of Natural Resources had been appointed to the post of Government Director of the Labrador Development Company Limited on exactly the same day as when the deaths occurred. RCMP investigation about the events of 3 February 1940 On the following basis, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Serious Crimes Unit based in St. John's, Newfoundland decided to open their own investigation in August 2002 into what had really happened in the early hours of 3 February 1940 in Port Hope Simpson: No pertinent Newfoundland Rangers Monthly Report on Living Conditions in the Port Hope Simpson district for February 1940 has been found written by Ranger Clarence Dwyer or any other Ranger from the Port Hope Simpson Detachment. No medical report from the Doctor who apparently attended to Olga at the scene of the two deaths has been found. No death certificates for Arthur Eric Williams and Erica D'Anitoff Williams have been found. A consistent effort had been made over the years by Sir John Hope Simpson to keep the Newfoundland Rangers under the jurisdiction of the Natural Resources Department instead of under the Department of Justice. The grave's epitaph had been changed and apparent evidence discrepancies exist within its content. Unsatisfactory, unpaid wages and a severe lack of houses for the loggers and their families existed for the early settlers and contributed to suspicious, acrimonious circumstances surrounding the two deaths. A lack of local knowledge existed in 1969–70 about what had been going-on during the early years of the pioneer logging camp. There was no Government Director on the Company's board in St. John's at the time the deaths occurred. The Government appointments of Claude Fraser and Thomas Lodge to the Company's board of directors were meant to 'keep a lid' on things. The family tradition of secrecy surrounding the two deaths also strongly suggests it is beyond coincidence that a cover-up involving at the very least, Government mismanagement continues to hide the truth about what really happened in the early hours of 3 February 1940. References External links Alexis Bay History References Tombstone, Port Hope Simpson The Port Hope Simpson Diaries 1969 - 70 Vol. 1 The Port Hope Simpson Diaries 1969 - 70 Vol. 2 Port Hope Simpson Off the Beaten Path Port Hope Simpson Historic Logging Town in Canada Port Hope Simpson Clues, Newfoundland & Labrador, Canada Legacy: Port Hope Simpson Town, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada Port Hope Simpson Mysteries, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada Oral History Evidence and Interpretation Rooted Forever in History The Port Hope Simpson Challenge 1886 births 1963 deaths Businesspeople from Newfoundland and Labrador Welsh emigrants to Canada Canadian loggers Businesspeople from Cardiff People from Labrador Politicians in Newfoundland and Labrador 20th-century Welsh businesspeople 19th-century Welsh businesspeople
4877913	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural%20impact%20of%20the%20Chernobyl%20disaster	Cultural impact of the Chernobyl disaster	The Chernobyl disaster is the world's worst nuclear accident to date. Overview The name "Chernobyl" has become synonymous with the concept of a nuclear energy disaster. Referencing the political damage from the inept initial response to the disaster, pundits sometimes use the phrase "Chernobyl moment" to describe alleged analogous damaging failures, such as responses to the COVID-19 pandemic. Ukraine has announced an intention to open the disaster area to tourism. Numerous cultural works have referenced the disaster, some of which are listed in this article. Documentary films The Bell of Chernobyl (1987), a documentary film directed by Russian filmmaker, Rollan Sergienko. Black Wind White Land (1993), a documentary film exploring the disaster and its consequences for the people of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine. (2001) tells the story of Ljudmila Ignatenko and her husband Vasilij who was a firefighter responding to Chernobyl. Chernobyl Heart (2003), a documentary film observing the effects of the disaster on the health of children in the area. Surviving Disaster: Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster (2006), a BBC docudrama about the events at the Chernobyl plant during the accident and its immediate aftermath, focusing on the role of Valery Legasov. The Battle of Chernobyl (2006), a documentary with live footage at the time of the situation in Pripyat and the powerplant. Heavy Water: A Film for Chernobyl (2006), released by Seventh Art Productions to commemorate the disaster through poetry and first-hand accounts. The film aired at film festivals and on TV, internationally, securing Best Short Documentary at Cinequest Film Festival and the Rhode Island “best score” award, with a screening at Tate Modern. The Unnamed Zone (2006), a Spanish documentary film about three young Ukrainian children directly affected by the disaster. White Horse (2008), a short documentary about a man returning to his Ukraine home for the first time in 20 years. Klitschko (2011), a documentary about the World Heavyweight Champions Vitali Klitschko and Wladimir Klitschko, which makes reference to their late father Wladimir Rodanovich Klitschko, a senior ranking Red Air Force officer was involved in the cleanup operation following the disaster who died in 2011. The Russian Woodpecker (2015), a documentary film that investigates the events leading to the Chernobyl disaster. Babushkas Of Chernobyl (2017), a documentary directed by Holly Morris exploring the daily lives of elderly women who live and farm in the Exclusion Zone. Back to Chernobyl (2020), a documentary by Roman Shumunov Chernobyl: The Lost Tapes (2022), directed by James Jones, contains interviews with people who were there and newly discovered footage filmed at the plant by cameramen who worked alongside those who cleaned up the disaster. Fiction films Scrooged (1988), Frank Cross, upon seeing the ghost of his boss: "No, you are a hallucination brought on by alcohol... Russian vodka poisoned by Chernobyl!" (1990), a Soviet feature film about the accident and its consequences, the title referring to its main theme of disintegration of human relationships—personal and public. Chernobyl: The Final Warning (1991), explores the disaster. Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country (1991) begins with the exploding moon Praxis of the home world of the Klingon Empire, itself an analog of the Soviet Union since Star Trek: The Original Series. In the film Naked (1993), starring David Thewlis, the eccentric protagonist Johnny quotes the Book of Revelation and remarks that the Russian translation of Chernobyl is "wormwood". This quote is also used as a sample in the album Orblivion (1997). The Japanese animator Hayao Miyazaki wrote and directed On Your Mark (1995), a music video for Japanese pop duo Chage and Aska. This was essentially an animated music video lasting almost seven minutes. The opening scene shows a clean, old-fashioned, and apparently deserted small village which is dominated by a huge, asymmetrical version of the Chernobyl "sarcophagus". In a 1995 interview in Animage magazine, Miyazaki compared the sarcophagus in the video to Chernobyl, noting the survival of plant life. In the comedy film Deuce Bigalow: European Gigolo (2005), the character Deuce Bigalow meets Svetlana, a woman who was born in Chernobyl, and, as a result of the disaster, has a penis instead of a nose. The action film Universal Soldier: Regeneration (2009) revolves around terrorists seizing control of Chernobyl and threatening to expose the reactor. In the time travel comedy film Hot Tub Time Machine (2010), the hot tub is converted to a time machine when an illegal Russian energy drink, "Chernobly", is spilled on its controls. The protagonists are transported to 1986, only a few weeks before the real-life Chernobyl disaster. The Russian-Ukrainian-German co-produced film В субботу (2011; international title Innocent Saturday) dramatizes the events in the town of Pripyat during the hours and days after the disaster, before the Soviet authorities decided to evacuate. The film was entered into the 61st Berlin International Film Festival. In the film Transformers: Dark of the Moon (2011), the Autobots and NEST travel to Chernobyl to retrieve ancient Cybertronian technology (initially, they were supposed to discover the source of a radiation leak). However, once it is retrieved Shockwave suddenly appears and ravages the plant, along with a worm-like Decepticon named Driller. The horror film Chernobyl Diaries (2012) revolves around a group of college students who take an extreme tour into Pripyat, only to find themselves being stalked and hunted by a group of mysterious creatures. The final 20 minutes in the fifth film of the Die Hard series, A Good Day to Die Hard (2013), are set in Chernobyl. In the film Fast & Furious Presents: Hobbs and Shaw (2019), the main antagonistic faction Eteon's biotech and weapons facility is located inside the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, and soon after Luke Hobbs, Deckard Shaw, and Hattie Shaw drive a damaged truck into Pripyat. Chernobyl: Abyss (2021), a Russian film directed by and starring Danila Kozlovsky, centers on a fictionalized firefighter who becomes a liquidator. Literature The disaster is the plot-driving device in the Marvel Comics miniseries Meltdown (1988), featuring Wolverine and Havok. The novel Party Headquarters by the Bulgarian author Georgi Tenev deals with Chernobyl's impact on the integrity of the former Communist bloc in the late 1980s. A large episode of the book is set as an exchange of letters between the protagonist and "little unknown Soviet and Ukrainian comrade" describing the catastrophe. The Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache chose the term Chernobyl () as German Word of the Year 1986. Christa Wolf's 1987 novel Accident (German: Störfall) narrates, from the perspective of a female first-person narrator, the thoughts and events of the day on which the news about the Chernobyl accident have reached her and amounts to a criticism of utopian visions that ignore the human side of social progress. Frederik Pohl's novel Chernobyl (1987) relates the disaster from the viewpoint of individuals involved in it. In 2004, photographer Elena Filatova published a photo-essay on her website of her solo motorcycle rides through Pripyat and the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone. The solo motorcycle ride story was later revealed to be a hoax; most of the photos had been taken during a guided tour. Heavy Water: a poem for Chernobyl (Enitharmon Press, 2004) ISBN 1-900564-34-3 and Half Life (Poems for Chernobyl) (Heaventree Press, 2004) ISBN 0-9545317-3-6 were based on first-hand accounts of the disaster, winning the Arvon prize and providing the source material for the award-winning art film, Heavy Water: a Film for Chernobyl (Seventh Art Productions, 2006). Martin Cruz Smith's novel, Wolves Eat Dogs (2005), is set mostly in Chernobyl, when the Moscow detective Arkady Renko investigates the murder of a powerful businessman in that area, after the businessman's partner has died in Moscow of radiation poisoning. Both victims are found to have had some involvement with the accident, 20 years earlier. Jim Shepard's "The Zero Meter Diving Team" (2007) is a short story about the disaster, narrated in the first person by Boris Yakovlevich Prushinsky, chief engineer of the Soviet Department of Nuclear Energy. The story first appeared in Bomb magazine and later appeared in Shepard's short story collection, Like You'd Understand, Anyway (2007), Vintage Books. Darragh McKeon's novel All That is Solid Melts into Air (2014) uses the disaster as the backdrop for chronicling the end of the Soviet Union. In the Mort and Phil comics album Chernobil... ¡Qué cuchitril!, the titular characters have to investigate mysterious things happening in Chernobyl 25 years after the disaster. In volume 1 of Guillermo del Toro and Chuck Hogan's The Strain trilogy, Professor Abraham Setrakian explains that the Master is naturally drawn to the sites of humanity's greatest disasters and atrocities. In volume 2, The Fall, corrupt businessman Eldritch Palmer meets with "The Master", the leader of the rogue vampires, in Pripyat, to plan the vampires' takeover of the world. Markiyan Kamysh's novel Stalking the Atomic City: Life Among the Decadent and the Depraved of Chornobyl(2022). Music Polish singer Jacek Kaczmarski wrote a song titled "Dzień Gniewu II (Czarnobyl)" (Day of Wrath II (Chernobyl), written in May 1986 and released a year later), about the day of the disaster in Pripyat, its citizens unaware of the unfolding tragedy. The song juxtaposes calm, ballada-like music with the perspective of imminent death (such as "Around the well in the backyard / wet, smiley faces / a child chases wheel / it is being killed as well"), serving as a protest song against the Soviet handling of the disaster and the secrecy that surrounded it. The 1986 song "Jijiji" by Argentinian rock band Patricio Rey y sus Redonditos de Ricota was inspired by this incident David Bowie's 1987 song "Time Will Crawl" was inspired by the disaster. The incident also inspired the song "Burli" from the 1987 album Liebe, Tod & Teufel by Austrian pop group Erste Allgemeine Verunsicherung. It tells the story of a "Burli" (Austrian German for "boy") born with multiple physical deformities following a nuclear accident, concluding with his marriage to a girl with similar deformities as a result of the Chernobyl disaster. ("Auch sie hat einiges zuviel / als Andenken an Tschernobyl" "She also has a bit too much / As a souvenir of Chernobyl".) The single was denied airplay on West German radio due to being considered insensitive to victims of the disaster and people with disabilities generally. English heavy metal band Saxon describe their personal experiences of the disaster in the track "Red Alert" on their 1988 album, Destiny. The Japanese punk band The Blue Hearts' song "Chernobyl", on their 1988 single "Blue Hearts Theme", was written in protest of nuclear power. The band's record label at the time had ties to the nuclear industry, thus the group left the label to release the song. "Mayday in Kiev", a song by Watchtower on their 1989 album Control and Resistance. The song title is a pun on the May Day celebrations, which were held in the Ukrainian capital Kyiv only days after the explosion as if nothing had happened, and the emergency signal mayday. Paul Simon's 1990 song "Can't Run But", found on The Rhythm of the Saints contains references to the disaster. The German electronic band Kraftwerk mentions Chernobyl at the beginning of their 1991 remix of their song "Radioactivity", released on the album The Mix. Chernobyl is mentioned along with other places of nuclear incidents and accidents, such as Harrisburg, Sellafield and Hiroshima. The names were included in the remix of the song because some critics had found the original version of the song to be too optimistic towards nuclear energy. American rap group Outkast makes a reference to the disaster in the song "Millenium" on their second album ATLiens released in 1996. André 3000s lyrics start the song off with the line "Me and everything around me, is unstable like Chernobyl". The 1997 song "Spam" by the band Save Ferris claims that the product is made in Chernobyl, to rhyme with the line, "It's pink and it's oval." Swedish black metal band Craft has a song referring to the disaster called "Reaktor 4" on their second album, Terror Propaganda, released in 2002. The music video for the 2007 song "What We Made" by British rapper Example is shot on location at Pripyat, focusing on some parts of the city that has been greatly affected by the disaster. Crossover thrash band Municipal Waste wrote a song entitled "Wolves of Chernobyl", which was about the effects of the fallout, on their 2009 album Massive Aggressive. The music video for "Sweet People", performed by Ukraine's Eurovision Song Contest 2010 entry Alyosha, was filmed in Pripyat. "Colony Collapse" from the 2014 album Lost Forever // Lost Together by British band Architects makes reference to the disaster. Brazilian musician Fredi Endres (of the band Comunidade Nin-Jitsu) calls himself "DJ Chernobyl" in a solo project. The nickname comes from the MTV Brasil Rockgol football championship, where the comedian hosts likened his haircut to the nuclear accident. Russian band Amatory dedicated a song titled "Cherno" (Russian: "Черно)" from the album DOOM (2019) to the Chernobyl disaster. Ukrainian band Go_A used an aerial shot of the Chernobyl power plant for their music video for the piece Shum for the Eurovision Song Contest 2021. South African band Kalahari Surfers released a mini-album in 2019 titled "Chernobyl" which contains the song "Human Wrongs- Chernobyl 25th Anniversary" written by W.Sony'. Thrash metal band Megadeth wrote a song entitled "Dogs of Chernobyl" from their 2022 album, The Sick, the Dying... and the Dead!. Television Nova television series season 16 episode 4 "Back To Chernobyl" (1989) was filmed on-location three years after the disaster. Chernobyl miniseries, produced by HBO and Sky Atlantic, aired on May 6, 2019. Motylki, Ukrainian miniseries, aired on April 27, 2013. The September 30, 2009, episode of Destination Truth, a reality television series on Syfy, features a paranormal investigation located at the site. In the Millennium season 1 episode "Maranatha", the hero, Frank Black, tracks a Russian anti christ figure who caused the Chernobyl disaster. In Scorpion season 2 episode 23 ("Chernobyl Intentions", airdate April 18, 2016), the team works on an issue with the Chernobyl sarcophagus. In the television series The Event, the character Thomas is said to have been responsible for the disaster at Chernobyl after attempting to transport the fuel rods from the site using alien technology. In The Simpsons season 5 episode 9 ("The Last Temptation of Homer"), Homer and his new colleague Mindy Simmons represent the Nuclear Power Plant at The National Energy convention in Capital City. Many passers-by are shouting at the nuclear power stand, culminating in one shouting, "No more Chernobyls!", prompting Homer to throw a brick at him. In The Simpsons season 7 episode 7 ("King-Size Homer"), Homer receives a medal and the promise to be thin again from his boss Mr. Burns, when Homer saves the town by "turning a potential Chernobyl into a mere Three Mile Island." In The X-Files season 2 episode "The Host", the main antagonist, a mutant creature dubbed "Fluke-Man", is traced to a Russian freighter that was carrying radioactive sewage away from Chernobyl. In the British TV series Top Gear, season 21 episode 3, originally aired on February 16, 2014, presenters Jeremy Clarkson and James May had to drive past the reactor as a part of a challenge. Clarkson ran out of fuel and was made to stop not far from the reactor. Video games In the home computer game Maniac Mansion (1987), the player can find a hidden nuclear reactor described as "made in Chernobyl". A hidden codec conversation in the video game Metal Gear Solid (1998) reveals that the supporting character Nastasha Romanenko was born in Pripyat and lived three kilometers north of there. The disaster occurred when she was 10 years old and lead to her parents' deaths from radiation sickness some years later, as well as her hard-line stance against nuclear weapons. The video game Snatcher (1988) features in its backstory a horrific disaster known as "The Catastrophe", involving an explosion at a nuclear facility in Chernoton, Russia that released into the atmosphere a biotoxin called Lucifer-Alpha which kills a large percent of the world's populace. Said catastrophe bears similarities to the Chernobyl disaster. The arcade game Chelnov (1988) was believed to be named after the events at Chernobyl, despite some developers stating it was independent of the Chernobyl disaster, other developers stated it originally had an alternative name but was changed to Chelnov due to the recent Chernobyl events. The computer game S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl (2007), its prequel S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Clear Sky, and its sequel S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat are based on the Chernobyl plant, disaster, and the surrounding areas. In the first two games, the power plant is the setting of the final stages. The games are also substantially influenced by the novel Roadside Picnic and Tarkovsky's film Stalker. The games are set in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone; although the Zone is not replicated exactly, various landmarks, geographic features, and overall geography resemble and are based upon field trips to the Zone. The power plant is guarded by a fanatical cult called the "Monolith", which worships an alien crystal that resides in Reactor No. 4. A new entry in the series, S.T.A.L.K.E.R. 2: Heart of Chornobyl, is in development. The video game Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare (2007) features mission 11, "All Ghillied Up", and mission 12, "One Shot One Kill", and a multiplayer map, "Bloc", set in buildings and streets in and around abandoned Pripyat. The dangers of radiation and feral dogs are elements of the gameplay. Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 (2009) features the Spec Ops map "Hidden" and areas previously featured in "All Ghillied Up". There is also a multiplayer map "Wasteland" that is set in the outskirts of Pripyat. Reactor 4 can be seen in the distance in one area of the map. In the event that someone detonates a tactical nuke, the blast can be seen coming from the reactor. Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 (2011) includes a flashback cutscene of the mission "One Shot One Kill", from the point of view of the playable character Yuri and the series antagonist Vladimir Makarov, witnessing the attempted assassination of Imran Zakhaev. Counter-Strike: Global Offensive has a map based on Chernobyl called "de_cache". The science fiction horror video game Chernobylite is based in the exclusion zone of the aftermath of the Chernobyl Disaster. Reiuji Utsuho from Subterranean Animism (2008) of the Touhou Project franchise has her right leg encased in concrete similarly to the Elephant's Foot. Her design might also be inspired by the alleged 'Blackbird of Chernobyl' References Further reading David R. Marples The social impact of the Chernobyl disaster, chapter 4 Images of Chernobyl – Arts and the Public, pp. 125–160 External links . Chernobyl
4877943	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifical%20Oriental%20Institute	Pontifical Oriental Institute	The Pontifical Oriental Institute, also known as the Orientale, is a Catholic institution of higher education located in Rome and focusing on Eastern Christianity. The plan of creating a school of higher learning for Eastern Christianity had been on the agenda of the Catholic Church since at least Pope Leo XIII, but it was only realized in 1917 by Pope Benedict XV. The Orientale forms part of the consortium of the Pontifical Gregorian University (founded in 1551) and the Pontifical Biblical Institute (founded in 1909), both in Rome. All three institutions are run by the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). While the Orientale depends on the Holy See, its management is entrusted to the Society of Jesus. Its chancellor is the Prefect of the Congregation for the Eastern Churches and its vice-chancellor is the superior general of the Society of Jesus, while the Congregation for Catholic Education is the dicastery competent for approving the academic programmes of the Orientale. Each year, another approximately 400 scholars visit the library for research purposes. Mission The Pontifical Oriental Institute is a school of higher studies that has as its particular mission the service of the Oriental Churches. It is to make known to the churches of the East “the immense richness ... preserved in the treasure chests of their traditions” (GP II, Orientale Lumen 4) and equally to make known to the Latin West these riches so little explored. Its mission is to pursue research, teaching, and publishing related to the traditions of the Eastern Churches in their theology, liturgy, patristics, history, canon law, literature and languages, spirituality, archaeology, and questions of ecumenical and geopolitical importance. The aim of the Orientale is to educate students already in possession of a first academic degree, irrespective of their religious affiliation, Latin or Eastern Catholic, Orthodox or otherwise, to deepen their knowledge of the Christian East in its Churches, theology, spirituality, liturgy, discipline, history, and culture. The student population comes largely from the countries of the Eastern churches: the Middle East, Eastern Europe, Africa (Egypt, Ethiopia, and Eritrea), and Asia (Mesopotamia; Kerala, India), with a significant number of students from Europe and the Americas interested in learning about the Christian East. Today, with the flood of migrants and refugees from some of the above countries, students also come from the diaspora communities. History The early years The Orientale’s first provisional seat was in the immediate vicinity of the Vatican, in the Palazzo dei Convertendi, Piazza Scossacavalli, which later had to give way to Via della Conciliazione. The Institute was briefly re-located to the current premises of the Pontifical Biblical Institute, in via della Pilotta, 25, Rome until 1926 when it settled into its permanent seat at Piazza di Santa Maria Maggiore, 7. Of all churches in Rome, the Basilica of St. Mary Major in the same square is the one which evokes the East most closely. Its famous mosaics were executed under Pope Sixtus III (432-440) to celebrate the third ecumenical council of Ephesus (431), which, by emphasizing that Jesus Christ is one person, brought out as a consequence that Mary, his Mother, is the Mother of God, or the Theotokos, as the Greeks call her. As the Basilica prides itself on having the relics of the crib, it is thus liturgically known as “ad Praesepe”, the Church of the Crib. Here, moreover, in the late 860s the apostles of the Slavs, Saints Cyril and Methodius, deposited their liturgy books, an indication that now, after the pope’s approval, one could celebrate the liturgy in Church Slavonic. In a side street opposite against the Orientale there is the Basilica of Santa Prassede, with its Carolingian mosaics attesting Pope St Pascal I’s revulsion against the iconoclasm which at the time of the construction of the Basilica (817) had resumed in the East. Nearby, there is a marble slab reminding us that St Cyril, St Methodius’ brother, died there in 869. As part of the complex of the block where the Orientale is there is the church of St. Anthony the Great (S. Antonio Abate), of whom all Easterners are particularly fond. He is also popular in Rome, where people still recall the times when the blessing of the animals took place in this church. Ever since the creation of the Pontifical Russian College in 1929, known as the Russicum, by Pius XI (1921-1939), the church has been run by Jesuits living in the college. In many ways, therefore, the position of the Orientale is ideal. The first 100 years The Orientale was created as a twin institution to the Congregation for the Eastern Church, whose name would change in 1967 to Congregation for the Eastern Churches. Without the link to this important organ of the Holy See, it would be impossible to grasp the purpose and mission of the Orientale, nor how the Orientale could be founded in the midst of the "useless massacre" of World War I, 1917. The question to which the creation of the Orientale was meant to be the answer had been long in coming. Known as la question d’Orient, the question was first posed after the Ottoman’s humiliating defeat at the hands of the Russians in 1774 (cf. the Treaty of Kutchuk-Kainarji), becoming ever more poignant ever since Napoleon set foot in Egypt in 1798: what was to be done with the millions of Christians under the Ottomans once the Ottoman empire would disappear? The question reached its acme in the Eucharistic Congress of Jerusalem in 1893, when the Eastern Catholic Patriarchs made the grievances of their communities known to the papal legate, Cardinal Benoît Langenieux, who forwarded them to the pope. Leo XIII at once convoked an assembly of Eastern Catholic Patriarchs for the following year (1894), from which emerged the apostolic letter Orientalium dignitas, known as the Magna Carta of the rights of Eastern Catholics. With the collapse of the Russian empire a reality after the February revolution of 1917 and the demise of the Ottoman empire in sight, the pope decided to act. With the motu proprio regarding the Eastern Congregation, Providentis Dei (1.05.1917), the pope created the Oriental Congregation; with the other motu proprio Orientis catholici(15.10.1917), he created the Orientale. The pope reserved to himself the prefecture of the new Congregation, whose head was therefore only a Secretary, although a cardinal (cfr. canon 257 of the Pio-Benedictine Codex Iuris canonici of 1917 specified precisely this). Already three years after founding the Orientale, Benedict XV granted it, through the apostolic constitution, Quod nobis in condendo, the right to confer degrees. From the start the pope insisted on the necessity of a richly supplied Eastern library to second the study and the research of the Orientale population. At the beginning the professors were chosen from various orders and even among lay people. These were a White Father, Antoine Delpuch (1868-1936), who served as pro-president in the first year of the Orientale's functioning (1918-1919); two Benedictines, including Ildefonso Schuster; three Assumptionists, including Martin Jugie (1878-1954), a professor at the Orientale for only the first few years, but who was to write a monumental synthesis of the history of Eastern theology; a Dominican; a Mechitarist; four Jesuits, including Guillaume de Jerphanion (1877-1948), a famous archaeologist; two Russians, a Greek and an Ethiopian; and three lay persons, including Michelangelo Guidi, an outstanding philologist and a historian. Soon after Pius XI became pope he felt that it would be better if one order took care not only of running the place but also of preparing those who could eventually take over. His choice fell on the Jesuits, and in a brief to Fr. General Vladimir Ledochowski (14.09.1922) he entrusted to the Order the Orientale. This had been the suggestion of Abbot Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster, OSB, who had also become, in the meantime, the first full president. Now it was the turn of the first Jesuit president (1922-1931), and that was Michel d'Herbigny (1880-1957). A very talented man, he managed to impart to the nascent institution new élan, with its own publications and even the new seat in the Piazza di Santa Maria Maggiore. Complications on his very delicate mission to Russia led to his early retirement. D’Herbigny was followed as president by Emil Hermann (1932-1951), a German canon lawyer of note, whose prudence helped him guide the Institute during the war period; Ignacio Ortiz de Urbina (1951-1957), a Basque and a renowned patristic scholar; Alphonse Raes (1957-1962), an accomplished Syriac scholar who became Prefect of the Vatican Library; Joseph Gill (1962-1963), a great expert on the Council of Florence (1438-1445) and chief editor of the Acts of this council; and again Joseph Gill (1964-1967), who in 1965 began to bear the title of Jesuit Rector; Ivan Žužek (1967-1972), later the secretary of the Pontifical Commission for the revision of Eastern canon law; Georges Dejaifve (1972-1976), noted ecumenist; Eduard Huber (1976-1981), former rector of the Meudon School of Russian; Peter-Hans Kolvenbach (1981-1983), who after a brief stint became Superior general of the Society of Jesus for a quarter of a century (1983-2008); Gilles Pelland (1984-1986), who was soon made rector of the Gregorian University; Gino Piovesana (1986-1990), whose experience as rector of the Sophia University of Tokyo and his expertise in Russian philosophy stood him in good stead; Clarence Gallagher (1990-1995), a canon lawyer, dean and rector; Gilles Pelland (1995-1998), the only rector to have two different terms separated in time; Hèctor Vall Vilardell (1998-2007), whose aplomb assured him nine years as rector; Cyril Vasil' (2007-2009), who after two years became Secretary of the Congregation; Sunny Kokkaravalayil (May 2009-May 2010), who was pro-rector for a year and superior for seven; James McCann (2010-2015), who after leaving office became Senior Vice President of the Gregorian Foundation, New York; Samir Khalil Samir, who was pro-rector from 20 April 2015 to 25 August 2015, and David Nazar (2015-), in whose term the Orientale was not only re-structured but also became fused, as a community, with the adjoining community of the Pontifical Russian College, popularly known as Russicum. The hundred year history of the institution (1917-2017) may tentatively be divided, first, into an eleven year period at the beginning, when the Orientale was trying to assert itself and become recognized, which came with Pius XI’s encyclical dedicated to the Orientale, Rerum orientalium (1928). Then followed a thirty-year period bringing us to the eve of Vatican II (1928-1958), when already some of the rich harvest that was expected began to be reaped, and the foundations for others to build on had been laid. Yet the next thirty years after the council up to 1989, the fresh breath of Vatican II brought accrued interest in the Christian East and in the Orientale. When with 1989 Eastern Europe opened up, a new chapter of the Orientale’s relating to the hitherto forbidden East started and many new students from these countries could now study at the Orientale. The library The Pontifical Library of the Institute is without a doubt the greatest gem of the Orientale. It is one of the best equipped libraries regarding the Christian East in the world. Some books which were discarded during the early years of the Soviet Union were bought for the Orientale Library, such that it alone has the entire Pravda collection, for example. The library space was considerably enlarged by John Paul II after his visit to the Orientale in 1987. The "aula magna", a conference hall which hosts part of the library and was re-furbished for the centenary celebrations in 2017, provides a "safe space" for international discussions on problematic yet delicate themes. Syria, autocephaly, genocide, nonviolence, are some of the themes to which imams, diplomats, Patriarchs, Cardinals, and "people on the ground" have participated. Academics Faculties and languages As an Institute, the Orientale has only two faculties, one for ecclesiastical sciences, the other for Eastern canon law. At first there was only one faculty, and it comprised the programme already outlined in Benedict XV's founding charter (1917), that is theology, comprising spirituality, liturgy, and canon law, plus archaeology and such subsidiary sciences as are necessary to secure a balanced programme of societal structures, art, culture, history. In this curriculum, languages play a major part, and, besides Italian which is the main teaching language, ancient Greek, Syriac, Russian, and Church Slavonic, have always loomed large. Besides Armenian, Coptic, Ethiopic, and Georgian, which have become part and parcel of the curriculum, in recent years modern Greek and Romanian have been added. Modern Greek is divided into four levels, whereby one may obtain a diploma from the Greek government. For canon law students, Latin is required and taught. A well-developed Italian language programme has become the hard core of the propaedeutic year. Branching off from the Faculty of Eastern Ecclesial Sciences, the faculty of canon law was created in 1971, partly in view of the revision of Eastern canon law and a corresponding codex. Secretary of this commission was Fr. Ivan Žužek (1924-2004). The Orientale, with its professors of canon law, continues to serve as the main centre for the elaboration of the Code which is used around the world by both Catholic and Orthodox churches of the East. Publications Besides instruction for licentiate to doctoral degrees, the Orientale has acquired a name for its publications. In 1923 appeared the first number of Orientalia christiana. When hundred such numbers had been published, the series was divided, in 1934, in Orientalia Christiana Analecta, exclusively for monographs, and Orientalia Chrisitana Periodica, for articles and book reviews. These publications were written by experts in the field and acquired by libraries. After the promulgation of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches (CCEO), in 1990, it was decided to launch a new series for monographs in canon law. In 1992 a new publication, Kanonika, was published, whose first number appeared in 1992. The critical edition of Anaphorae Orientales, beginning with Alphonse Raes in 1939, brought attention to one among the many forgotten treasures of the Christian East and has been continued by the renowned liturgist of the Orientale, Professor Robert Taft, SJ. When William Macomber published the oldest known text of the Anaphora of Addai and Mari, little could he have imagined how useful it was for the Congregation of Faith in 2001 when it decided for the orthodoxy and validity of an anaphora without the explicit words of consecration. Notable achievements The CCEO was to a large extent prepared at the Orientale. It represents a huge step forward for Easterners because, for the first time, they have a law of their own, allowing each of the sui juris Churches in the East to further develop its own particular law. (b) Another monumental contribution was the critical edition of the documents of the Council of Florence (1438-1445) by the professors of the Faculty of Eastern Ecclesial Sciences. This led to the decision of Pius XII in 1947 to purify the Armenian Catholic Rite of Latinization. Among other scholarly works of note are the finest study to date, in 6 volumes, of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom; the Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Christian East; annotated translations of 9th-13th-century Syrian manuscripts; a seven-volume edition of Vatican archival documents on the Armenian Question (1894-1925); a similar edition on the Chaldean-Assyrian question (1908-1938); annotated catalog of 150 Ethiopian manuscripts; detailed archaeological studies of mosaics, frescoes, and architecture of the early church in Asia Minor, and so on. Notable professors Guillaume Jerphanion, SJ, made a name for himself through his study of archaeology and the rock-hewn churches of Cappadocia. Marcel Viller, SJ, after teaching patristics at the Orientale, moved to become one of the founders of the monumental Dictionnaire de Spiritualité. According to his successor Cardinal Tomáš Špidlík, SJ, himself a noted exponent for Russian spiritual theology, Irenée Hausherr laid the foundations of Eastern spirituality, and his books sell as if they were written yesterday – as do the works of Juan Mateos, SJ, who, in the wake of Anton Baumstark (1872-1948), is considered by R.F. Taft, SJ and G. Winkler, to have founded at the Orientale "The Mateos School of Comparative Liturgiology". Georg Hofmann, SJ, was a German Church historian, who had a big part in the editing of the Florentine Acts. The Orientale has been blessed with a whole generation of outstanding liturgists, such as Miguel Arranz, SJ. Samir Khalil Samir, SJ has put the Arab-Christian Literature on the map. Gustav Wetter, SJ was a world authority on Marxism. Placid J. Podipara, C.M.I, was a world expert on the St Thomas Christians. Notable alumni Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople, who studied here from 1963 to 1968 and wrote his thesis, On the Codification of the Sacred Canons and of the Canonical Precepts, under Prof. Ivan Žužek. Patriarch Gregorios III Laham, Catholic Patriarch emeritus of Antioch. Cardinal Josef Slipyj, first Major Archbishop of the Greek Catholic Church in Ukraine. Patriarch Paul Cheiko Paul, Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans. Patriarch Bidawid Raphael, Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans. Patriarch Ignace Antoine Hayek, Patriarch of Antioch of the Syrians. Patriarch Paul Méouchi, Patriarch of Antioch of the Maronites. Patriarch Stephanos I Sidarouss, Patriarch of Alexandria of the Copts. Catholicos Baselios Marthoma Mathews III, primate of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church Maj. Archbishop Sviatoslav Shevchuk, current Major Archbishop of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. Patriarch Mar Awa III, current Catholicos-Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East Two Superiors General of the Society of Jesus: Peter Kolvenbach, who was rector of the Orientale, and Jean-Baptiste Janssens. The list of Cardinals is as follows: Cardinal Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster, OSB, first president of the Orientale and professor of liturgy at the Orientale. Cardinal Gregorio Pietro Agaganian. Cardinal Franz König, Cardinal Archbishop of Vienna and founder of Pro Oriente. Cardinal Franz Ehrle, one-time professor at the Orientale. Cardinal Ladisław Ruben, Prefect of the Eastern Congregation. Cardinal Eugène Tisserant, Secretary of the Congregation. Cardinal Aloys Grillmeier, SJ, theologian and patristic scholar. Cardinal Jozef Tomko, Prefect emeritus of the Congregation for the Evangelization of the Nations. Cardinal Aloys Grillmeier, SJ, patrologist and scholar. Cardinal Tomáš Josef Špidlík, SJ, noted author on Eastern Christian spirituality. The list of famous students begins with Blessed Eugène Bossilkoff, bishop of Nicopolis in Bulgaria and martyr. In April 2013, two alumni Orthodox bishops were kidnapped in Aleppo, Syria: Greek Orthodox Bishop Paul Yazigi and Syrian Orthodox Bishop Mor Gregorius Yohanna Ibrahim. Their whereabouts remain unknown. Other alumni of singular note are: Engelbert Kirschbaum, SJ, archeologist; Robert Murray, SJ, Syriacist; Alessandro Bausani, islamologist; Hans-Joachim Schultz, liturgist, Lambert Beauduin, OSB, founder of Chevetogne and René Vouillaume, prior of the Petits Frères de Jésus. A promising theologian, who was shot dead by the Nazis during World War II, studied here, too: Yves de Montcheiul, SJ (1900-1942). Publications Orientalia Christiana Analecta publishes book-length works by experts on Eastern Christianity. Orientalia Christiana Periodica contains articles and book reviews. Kanonika covers topics on canon law. Anaphorae Orientales prints Eucharistic prayers of the Christian East. Edizioni Orientalia Christiana also publishes single works. Additional associates and alumni Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I Archbishop Mar Andrews Thazhath Mar Thomas Elavanal Archbishop Mar Jacob Thoomkuzhy Mar Pauly Kannookadan Mar Paul Alappat Mar Raphael Thattil Mar Sebastian Vadakel Mar Joseph Kodakallil Archbishop Mar Mathew Moolakkatt Mar George Madathikandathil Mar Peter Kochupurackal Archbishop Mar Kuriakose Bharanikulangara Eugene Bossilkov Virgilio Canio Corbo Peter Dufka John D. Faris Michael Daniel Findikyan Borys Gudziak Moussa El-Hage Édouard Hambye Irénée Hausherr Michel d'Herbigny Mar Sarhad Yawsip Jammo Guillaume de Jerphanion Martin Jugie Peter Hans Kolvenbach Stjepan Krizin Sakač Xavier Koodopuzha Hlib Lonchyna Thomas Mar Koorilos Teodor Martynyuk Józef Milik Paul Mulla George Nedungatt Andrew Pataki Aurel Percă Victor J. Pospishil Dimitri Salachas Samir Khalil Samir Leonardo Sandri E. Anne Schwerdtfeger Josyf Slipyj Joseph Soueif Tomáš Špidlík Robert F. Taft William Toma Alexandr Volkonsky Cyril Vasiľ Ivan Žužek Archbishop Amfilohije, Metropolitan of Montenegro, See also List of Jesuit sites References External links Pontifical Oriental Institute website Eastern Catholic canon law Eastern Catholicism Catholic universities and colleges in Italy 1917 establishments in Italy
4878000	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Loomis	Samuel Loomis	Dr. Samuel "Sam" J. Loomis is a fictional character in the Halloween franchise. A main protagonist of the overall series, Loomis appears on-screen in eight of the thirteen Halloween films (and is mentioned or featured in photographs and audio recordings in others), first appearing in John Carpenter's original 1978 film. Donald Pleasence portrayed the character in five films, with Malcolm McDowell taking on the role in the 2007 reimagining and its sequel. In both portrayals, Loomis is introduced as the psychiatrist of series antagonist Michael Myers, driven to pursue and restrain his murderous former patient. He also appears in a flashback in Halloween Kills. Dr. Loomis's name was derived from Sam Loomis, played by John Gavin in the 1960 film Psycho. Appearances Films Original series (1978–1995) Dr. Samuel Loomis first appears in the original Halloween (1978). Assigned as the psychiatrist to six-year-old Michael Myers after the boy killed his own sister, Loomis spent eight years trying to reach Myers before coming to the conclusion that he was "purely and simply evil" and advocating that Myers never be released. Fifteen years after Myers' first murder, Loomis and colleague Marion Chambers prepare to escort Michael from Smith's Grove Sanitarium to court; Loomis plans to give Michael Thorazine to ensure he will have no chance to be released back to society. However, upon arrival they find that the sanitarium's patients are wandering loose, and in the confusion an escaped Michael steals their car. Loomis suspects Michael plans to return to his hometown of Haddonfield, Illinois; investigating the Haddonfield cemetery he discovers that Judith Myers' tombstone is missing. He meets with Sheriff Leigh Brackett, and the two begin their search at Michael's former home. While a skeptical Sheriff Brackett patrols the streets, the doctor stays at the house believing that Michael may desire to return "home". Loomis hears two children frantically fleeing a nearby house; investigating, he finds Michael attacking Laurie Strode. Loomis draws his revolver and shoots Michael six times, knocking him off the balcony, but when he goes to check Michael's body he finds it missing. An unsurprised Loomis stares off into the night, while Laurie begins sobbing in terror. Halloween II (1981) begins at the final moments of the first film. Laurie is taken to Haddonfield Memorial Hospital, while Brackett accompanies Loomis in his search for Michael. The pair spots a masked figure that may be Myers, but he is struck by a car and immolated which confounds identification of the body. Sheriff Brackett learns his daughter Annie was killed by Michael, and angrily blames Loomis for letting him escape and leaves the search to Deputy Gary Hunt. Investigation of the burned corpse reveals it was not Myers, whose trail is picked up at the local elementary school. As Loomis investigates he discovers clues connecting Michael to the occult practice of Samhain, suggesting an explanation to his seeming invulnerability and murderous desire. The search is interrupted by a returning Chambers: the governor has ordered Loomis to return immediately to Smith's Grove accompanied by a US Marshal. Along the way, Marion shares that a previously sealed file reveals that Laurie is Michael's sister, adopted by the Strodes after the death of her parents. Realizing that Michael is after Laurie, Loomis forces the Marshal to drive to Haddonfield Memorial at gunpoint. The trio reach the hospital to defend Laurie. As Marion attempts to contact the police, Michael kills the Marshal and chases Loomis and Laurie into an operating theater. Michael stabs Loomis in the stomach, seriously wounding him, but Laurie blinds Michael by shooting him in the eyes. The pair fill the room with oxygen and ether. Laurie flees while Loomis ignites the flammable gases, blowing up the operating room. Miraculously, Loomis survives, as he is thrown out of the room by the explosion and is knocked unconscious. Michael, engulfed in flames, staggers out of the room before finally collapsing lifeless. Halloween 4: The Return of Michael Myers (1988) picks the story up ten years after the events of Halloween II. Michael has been comatose since the explosion, but awakens when he learns Laurie Strode has died in a car accident, leaving behind a daughter, Jamie Lloyd. Loomis heads to Haddonfield after learning that Michael has escaped. He follows Michael to a gas station, but Myers escapes in a tow truck and causes an explosion, destroying Loomis's car in the process. Catching a ride to Haddonfield, Loomis warns the new sheriff, Ben Meeker, that Michael has returned. Michael attacks the police station and kills all of the officers. A lynch mob is formed by the town's men to kill Michael once Loomis reveals he's returned, refusing to let Michael cause a massacre and the latter goes to protect Jamie Lloyd from her uncle. After Michael Myers is shot and falls down a mine shaft, Jamie and Rachel are brought back to their foster parents' house, where Loomis arrives with Sheriff Meeker, the former being convinced that Myers has died. Without warning, Jamie stabs her foster mother giving her an appearance similar to six-year-old Michael's first kill. Sheriff Meeker prevents a horrified Loomis from shooting her as the group realizes that Jamie is following in Michael's footsteps. Halloween 5: The Revenge of Michael Myers (1989) takes place a year later as Loomis is assigned to Jamie at the Haddonfield Children's Clinic. Aware that Michael is still alive, and discovering that Jamie is telepathically linked with him, Loomis constantly pressures her to inform him of Michael's whereabouts, but Jamie is too traumatized to tell him. When Michael returns, Loomis sets a trap for Myers at his house, which involves Jamie recreating an eerie recreation of Judith Myers' final moments before her murder. Michael arrives, and Loomis tries to reason with him, proposing that he fight his rage and redeem himself through a positive relationship with Jamie. Loomis's words seem to work at first, as Michael calmly listens to him and lowers his knife, but when Loomis reaches to take away Michael's knife, he subdues him. When Loomis awakens, he uses Jamie as bait, and lures Michael into a trap to weaken him with a tranquilizer gun. After beating Michael unconscious with a wooden plank, Loomis suffers a stroke and collapses. In Halloween: The Curse of Michael Myers (1995), Loomis has retired and lives as a hermit in a small home on the outskirts of Haddonfield. He is visited by his old colleague Dr. Terence Wynn, chief administrator at Smith's Grove Sanitarium who tries to persuade Loomis to return to Smith's Grove, but the latter declines. At the same time they hear the voice of Jamie Lloyd on the radio begging Loomis to help her. The following morning Jamie's body is discovered, and Loomis is devastated. He is later approached by Tommy Doyle at the hospital who tells him about his discovery of Jamie's child, Steven. It is revealed that Michael is under control of the curse of "Thorn", a power he has been cursed with by a druid cult led by Dr. Wynn since he was a young boy after hearing voices telling him to kill his family. After this discovery, Loomis and Tommy are drugged and later follow Wynn to Smith's Grove who abducted Danny, his mother, and Steven with the help of his cult followers. Wynn reveals that Jamie's baby represents a new cycle of Michael's evil that he kept secret from most of the cult who were focused on inflicting the curse onto a new child, Danny. Loomis is knocked unconscious after criticizing Wynn. Later, Michael butchers Wynn's team of staff surgeons and Wynn himself during a medical procedure with Danny and Steven sitting in a room next door. Tommy then joins forces with Kara Strode (Danny's mother and Laurie Strode's cousin) in order to protect Jamie's baby from Michael. They succeed, and after regaining consciousness, Loomis helps them escape the hospital while Tommy subdues Michael by injecting him with large quantities of tranquilizers. As Tommy, Kara, Danny, and Steven leave, Loomis refuses to come with them as he has "a little business to attend to". Back inside the building, Michael's mask is seen lying on the floor of the lab room, and Loomis is heard screaming in the background, leaving the fate of both men unknown. In the original cut of the film, after telling the others he has got "a little business to attend to", Loomis walks back into the sanitarium to find a seemingly-defeated Michael lying on the floor of the main hallway, after being stopped by Tommy, who used runes. Upon removing the mask, Loomis finds Dr. Wynn, who was forced by Michael to switch outfits so he could escape. With his dying breath, Wynn grabs Loomis's hand and says, "It's your game now, Dr. Loomis." After Wynn dies, the Thorn symbol appears on Loomis's wrist; realizing now that he himself is now to act as the leader of the cult, Loomis screams in terror. H20 continuity (1978–1981, 1998–2002) Ignoring the events of the previous three films, Halloween H20: 20 Years Later (1998) establishes that Michael Myers has been missing for twenty years since the explosion in 1978. He kills Marion Chambers at Loomis's retirement house. Two investigators discuss what they know about Loomis's life in this alternate version of the series, following the events of the first two films. Having survived the explosion in 1978, Loomis was under Marion's care at this house in his final years before dying. However, even after nearly 20 years, Loomis refused to believe that Michael was dead, and devoted the rest of his life to studying all information about his former patient. The two investigators enter his private study, and find that the walls are covered with photographs, sketches, and newspaper articles about Michael. During the opening credits, Loomis' speech to Brackett about his first meeting with Michael is heard in a voiceover (provided by Tom Kane). Rob Zombie series (2007–2009) A new version of Dr. Samuel Loomis appears in the remake (2007). In the film, Dr. Loomis seems not to have contempt for Michael, and Michael doesn't truly see him as his nemesis. Their relationship with one another is more of a tragic friendship. Loomis does not immediately shoot Michael, but tries to reason with him. Loomis is first seen as a child psychiatrist brought in by ten-year-old Michael Myers' school to speak with Michael's mother, Deborah. After seeing the various animals Michael has tortured and killed, he recommends that the boy get help. After Michael commits four murders on Halloween, he is put under Loomis's care at Smith's Grove Sanitarium. On some days the two talk peacefully, on others Michael has outbursts of violent rage. Fifteen years later, Loomis writes a best-selling book based on Michael's treatment called "The Devil's Eyes". On his last day at Smith's Grove, Loomis tells Michael that he has tried but cannot help him anymore. He also tells Michael that he has become something like his best friend. After Michael escapes, Loomis concludes that his former patient is going to Haddonfield. Once there, he enlists the help of Sheriff Lee Brackett, and also buys a gun. Loomis comes to believe that Michael has returned to find his little sister, Laurie, who Brackett helped get adopted by the Strodes after her mother committed suicide. Michael succeeds in tracking Laurie down, killing her friends and two police officers in the process. Loomis is alerted of Michael capturing Laurie by Tommy Doyle and Lyndsey Wallace, the children Laurie is babysitting, and sets off to the Myers house. There he confronts Michael as he approaches Laurie, begging Michael to stop, but as Michael ignores him and continues forward, Loomis is left with no choice but to shoot Michael. Loomis rescues Laurie, but Michael soon reawakens to continue the attack on his sister. Loomis again tries to reason with him at which point Michael lets Laurie go and subdues Loomis. In the unrated version of the film, when Michael is in pursuit of Laurie through the house, Loomis grabs his foot to try and stop him. Michael shakes him off and Loomis blacks out. In the film's original ending, Loomis is successful in convincing Michael to let go of Laurie as he is surrounded by police officers, telling Michael he "did the right thing". Despite Loomis's protests, however, Michael is killed shortly afterwards in a hail of gunfire, and the film ends with Loomis looking down sadly at his former patient's corpse. In the sequel (2009), Loomis's character is revised; he is now seen as a greedy, arrogant mercenary who is profiting from the murders of the previous film. He does not believe Michael is alive and becomes annoyed and angry when asked about it. He goes on a tour to promote a new book, "The Devil Walks Among Us", while his assistant is shown to be disgusted with his campaign. In the climax of the film Loomis, after realizing Michael is still alive, realizes that he has changed for the worse and tries to save Laurie, this time unarmed. Michael ambushes Loomis and kills him by slashing his face and stabbing him in the chest. In the unrated version, Michael tackles Loomis out of the shack and then stabs him in the stomach while Loomis is still trying to reason with him. With Loomis injured and unconscious (it is not revealed whether he lived or died), the police open fire on Michael, killing him. Laurie, now completely insane, leaves the shack, picks up Michael's knife and walks over to Loomis's unconscious body. Against Brackett's orders, the police open fire on Laurie, apparently killing her too. 2018 continuity (1978, 2018–2022) Halloween (2018) is a direct sequel to the first film, ignoring all other series entries. Taking place forty years later, it is established that Michael was arrested following his 1978 killing spree and has spent the last forty years imprisoned in Smith's Grove Sanitarium. Loomis does not appear in-person, having died an unspecified time ago prior to the film's events. True crime podcasters uncover a 1979 audio recording of Loomis (voiced by Colin Mahan) giving a statement on his "former patient", advocating for Myers' execution and immediate cremation and voicing a desire to witness as Myers is put to death and destroyed. Michael's new psychiatrist, Dr. Ranbir Sartain (Haluk Bilginer), is established as a former student of Loomis's and even referred to as "the new Loomis" by Laurie Strode; however, he has a different perspective on Michael than Loomis's belief that he is "pure evil". In the sequel, Halloween Kills (2021) Loomis (portrayed by Tom Jones Jr., and voiced by Mahan) is depicted in flashbacks portraying Myers' detainment by police forty years prior in the aftermath of his 1978 killing spree (events briefly mentioned in the prior film). Haddonfield officer Hawkins encountered Michael at the Myers residence, shortly before the arrival of Loomis accompanied by the rest of the police department. The doctor questions Hawkins if Michael killed the officer's partner, but gets no response. Loomis attempts to execute the detained Michael, but is stopped by a remorseful Hawkins who did not believe Michael deserved death for his crimes. Decades later, an older Hawkins blames himself for the deaths following Michael's 2018 escape and feels tremendous guilt for stopping Loomis that night. Literature Samuel Loomis's first literary appearance was in October 1979, in Curtis Richards' novelization of Halloween, which largely follows the events of the film. He also appeared in the 1981 adaptation of Halloween II written by Jack Martin; it was published alongside the first film sequel, with the novel following the film events, with an additional victim, a reporter, added to the novel. The final novelization to feature Loomis was Halloween IV, released October 1988. The novel was written by Nicholas Grabowsky, and like the previous adaptations, follows the events of Halloween 4: The Return of Michael Myers. Loomis appears in the online short story Halloween: Sam, focusing on what happened to his character in the H20 timeline after Halloween II. Written by Hutchinson and featuring illustrations from Autopsis Marcus Smith, Sam is a prose short story available exclusively for download at the website HalloweenComics.com. It explores the life of Dr. Loomis, including his backstory and relationship with Elizabeth Worthington, a journalist he met during World War II. In 1995, Michael Myers visits the ailing Dr. Loomis in a hospital and murders Elizabeth in front of him. Loomis attempts to stop him, but dies of a coronary failure. In the comic Halloween: One Good Scare, Loomis is revealed to have a son, David Loomis, who like him, is a doctor at Smith's Grove Sanitarium. Although continuing his father's work, David is careful not to inherit his obsession with Michael Myers. However, when Lindsey Wallace is admitted to Smith's Grove claiming that Michael is stalking her, he finds history repeating itself. David neglects his other patients to interview Lindsey, investigates Michael's history, and even visits his childhood home in Haddonfield. However, on Halloween night in 2003, Michael arrives at Smith's Grove, murdering his way through the staff to get to Lindsey. David tries to protect her, but his fear gets the better of him and he hides as Michael drags Lindsey away to her death. Michael leaves behind a cracked picture frame containing a photograph of David and his father, a message that he plans to return for him. Characterization Scott Froehlich describes Loomis in Halloween "as the uncommissioned bounty hunter attempting to return his patient to the institution. His character provides insight into Myers’ motives, or lack thereof, and fills the audience in on how disturbed the masked murderer truly is." Brad Miska refers to Loomis as the film's "hero figure" who calls Michael "it" in a series of acts of depersonalization of his patient. Miska explains Loomis as believing Michael is inhuman, furthering that Loomis spends much of the film as "one of the few individuals (but not the only one) to fear and acknowledge the threat Michael presents and immediately speculates that he will return to Haddonfield – and we, of course, know he’s right." Josh Greally calls Loomis one of film's "greatest harbingers of doom" and adds that in spite of Loomis barely interacting with Myers in the film, Loomis "instils a sense of fear in the audience for how calmly assured he is of Michael's evil nature. He knows what Michael is capable of and that he is the only one who can stop him." Doug Bradley observes that Dr. Loomis "spends a lot of the film warning people they don’t know what they are dealing with" and this provides Michael with "this supernatural, mysterious element that made him so powerful." Dustin Putman views Pleasence as having brought "authority, dignity, and vulnerability" to the Loomis role and defines the character as "a man who once cared for Michael, who can't help but feel as if he still shares a bond with him, but who has grown wearisome because he now knows that there is no way of getting through to him." Commentary on Loomis in the original film extends to discussing how his character relates to Laurie Strode. David McCallister notes the differences between Loomis and Laurie in their interactions with Michael in the original film that work together to form "a fantastic dynamic with" Myers that also demonstrates "an underlying look at how some perceive evil and how others like Loomis see mental health and the 'science' of people like Michael Myers." SciFiFX credits the film for focusing on Laurie more than Loomis, viewing him as being efficient "at telling everyone what sort of evil this man is. He makes sure everyone knows what sort of creature he believes Michael to be." M. Keith Booker, who saw Loomis as "playing the strict father to Michael", observes that "Loomis’s pursuit of Michael is so relentless that he becomes a sort of stalker figure in his own right, providing a third term that complicates the eventual moral opposition between Michael and innocent Final Girl Laurie Strode that enhances the allegorical structure of the film by providing a figure of righteous masculine authority so uncompromising that he becomes a sort of official representative of the structures and systems that somehow created Michael in the first place." In Halloween 2, Geoff Cox asserts, viewers "witness Loomis grow increasingly more exasperated that Michael’s still on the loose, confused about how he took bullets to the chest and walked away but vindicated in his belief that Myers is less a man and more a force of pure evil." Devon Elson observes that the early demise of a Michael lookalike "mechanically serves as a narrative reset to have the police disbelieve Loomis again." John Hansen notes Loomis being blamed by Brackett for his daughter Annie's death despite Loomis spending years trying to keep Michael contained, and reasons that "there would be ample reason for Loomis to lose his mind, but as far as I can tell, his behavior and actions are perfectly in line with the reality of Michael’s killing spree". Seth Harris assesses that Loomis "really goes over the deep end throughout" the second film and becomes a lunatic just as out of control as Michael himself. Harris opines that this is when Loomis works best, as "a madman, obsessed with killing this force of nature, he feels responsible for." Kayleena Pierce-Bohen praises Halloween II as being where Pleasence shaped "Loomis into a more complex hero" who helped create the Myers mythos: "If Myers is the ultimate evil, then Dr. Loomis is the ultimate force for good, standing up to the forces of darkness with kindness in his heart, over and over again." Loomis is depicted in Halloween 4 with burn scars from his near-fatal injuries at the end of Halloween 2. Alan Smithee observed Loomis as "more world weary than ever" with physical scars to evidence his worry. Adam Tyner wrote that Loomis served as "more than just connective tissue with the first two films in the franchise. It makes the world of Haddonfield feel more real...more lived-in...that there are consequences that linger and matter." Jack Wilhelmi viewed the inclusion of the Jamie Lloyd character as giving both Loomis and Michael "a tremendous amount of depth and characterization" and "a foil to build off of and play against." "Within this fourth installment, Loomis brought sympathy and tragedy because of his elderly age," wrote Rodolfo Salas, who equated Pleasence's performance to that of a father who had failed their child and whose attempts to reach Michael "brought about a sense of care, depression, and exhaustion." Salas also notes the contrast between Loomis and his knowledge of Michael and Jamie and her being "nearly unaware of her murderous uncle." Patrick Bromley, who cited the Halloween 4 iteration of the character as his favorite version of Loomis outside of the 1978 film, opined that Loomis's "concern isn't so much for Michael's sanity anymore; it's barely even for the safety of Haddonfield's residents" and that the film "is where Loomis really gives in to obsession, and it's interesting to see the character slide closer and closer to the brink of crazy." James Berardinelli called Pleasence "the stabilizing influence" in his review of Halloween 4 and observed that "the character of Dr. Sam Loomis, even as beaten and broken as he is in the later installments, represents a rock of solidity. The ending of Halloween 4 would not have been as effective without Pleasance's entirely convincing reaction of unimaginable horror." The Halloween 5 iteration of Loomis is described as "increasingly unbalanced" by Jason Barr, and as having "apparently lost his mind" by Jesse Sparks, the latter viewing Loomis as having developed an evident mistrust in Jamie and that "his motivations have changed from public servant to becoming strictly personal." Derek Anderson assesses the film as depicting Loomis with an increased obsession with Michael that has been "pushed to a dangerous and almost selfish level." Anderson explains that Loomis views himself as the only one who can stop Michael and "knowing that he may not have much time left on this Earth, his growing obsession with ending Myers at any cost is a believable progression in a character who has dedicated the second half of his life to containing and obliterating the evil that lives within Michael—even if it means putting Jamie squarely in harm’s way." Berardinelli theorizes that "one could construct an argument that the good doctor’s obsession, combined with the various physical and mental experiences he has gone through, might have taken him off the deep end" and that Loomis could be argued as having become just as deranged as Michael. Daniel Farrands, writer of The Curse of Michael Myers, cited his intent to give Loomis an arc in the film, depicting Loomis as living in seclusion and seemingly having put his past with Michael behind him while writing a book about his patient. Farrands explained, "I thought that was a great way to start with him. Start him in a place of relative peace and end up right back in hell." He wanted the film to conclude "with this incredible battle for Michael Myers' soul between the good doctor and the evil doctor" and that he had written the part of Dr. Wynn with "the idea of casting a serious equal for Donald." Culture Crypt notes that Loomis "never even confronts Michael Myers one single time in Halloween 6, often doing his own thing on a parallel arc to what Tommy Doyle and the Strodes do on the main one." Mark Ziobro expresses that Loomis "is not so much ranting and raving about how evil Michael is, but has accepted it" and has become a realist. Ziobro furthers that the filmmakers ran with the belief that Michael was unstoppable, as espoused by Loomis, "and leave his continued existence unanswered." In the first appearance of Loomis in the film, he is listening to a radio host who mistakes him as having been deceased, to which he replies, "Not dead, just very much retired." Richard Harrington, and Alan Jones have noted the line as being an epitaph for Pleasence. Due to both being doctors who serve as the archenemy to a supernatural antagonist, a number of commentators have compared Loomis to Dracula foe Abraham Van Helsing; the list includes Kyron Lewis, Christian Bone, Tony Fyler, Cody Hamman, and Padraig Cotter. Alternatively, Wicked Horror's Nat Brehmer argues, "Sam Loomis is not, when you break the character down and really study him, the Van Helsing of the Halloween series because Van Helsing was brought into the middle of a story he had no personal stake in." Brehmer likens Loomis to a personification of the Cassandra myth as Loomis is "someone who basically has a premonition" and "tries to warn everyone, and nobody listens, so exactly what he was trying to stop from happening just happens as scheduled." Casting Carpenter's first choice for the role of Dr. Loomis was Peter Cushing, famous for his roles in Hammer Horror films; however, as he had just been in the high-profile Star Wars, Cushing's agent rejected the offer out of hand due to the low salary. Christopher Lee was also approached for the role; he too turned it down, although the actor would later tell Carpenter and Hill that declining the role was the biggest mistake he made during his career. Producer Irwin Yablans then suggested Pleasence, who agreed to star because his daughter Lucy, a guitarist, had enjoyed Assault on Precinct 13 for Carpenter's score. Nancy Stephens reflected, "The thrill for me in the first Halloween was that I got to work with Donald Pleasence." Tony Moran, who briefly portrays Michael when his mask is removed, initially refused to do the film until learning that Pleasence was involved. While filming the final scene of the movie, where Michael is revealed to have disappeared after being shot by Loomis and falling off a balcony, Pleasence asked Carpenter if he should do an expression of surprise or an "I knew it'?" Carpenter, "too naive to know the right answer", asked Pleasence if he could do both, to which Pleasence complied. Halloween II was supposed to be the last film in the Halloween franchise to revolve around Michael Myers. After the 1982 release of Halloween III: Season of the Witch, the lowest performing film in the series at the time, executive producer Moustapha Akkad wanted to make a sequel that brought back Michael Myers. On February 25, 1988, writer Alan B. McElroy, a Cleveland, Ohio native, was brought in to write the script for Halloween 4. McElroy wanted to open the film with Loomis being thrown from the explosion at the end of Halloween II as a way of explaining how he survived. This was vetoed by director Dwight H. Little, who "didn't want to get tied up with a lot of 'logic police' questions about Michael and exactly what happened to Dr. Loomis, exactly what happened at the end of the hospital [sequence]." Little furthered that he did not want to be influenced by anything besides the original film. In reprising his role in Halloween 4, Pleasence became the only actor from the first two films to return. According to Little, Pleasence was "committed conceptually" to the role, but did not sign on to the project until having read a finished screenplay. Little reflected that he had been impressed by Pleasence's performance in The Great Escape (1963). He asserted that Pleasence "carried a lot of film history and he carried a lot of weight as an actor" but was open to collaborating on scenes and Little would arrange a schedule to accommodate his health: "I did notice that after about four or five hours he would get quite tired. I don’t know if that was age or he was suffering with something. I started working with the AD to make sure we would do anything demanding in those first four to six hours, then for the last few hours just take it easy with him." Ellie Cornell, who portrayed Rachel Carruthers in Halloween 4 and its sequel, called working with Pleasence "a huge honour" and recalled that Pleasence could "nail his scenes" very quickly before leaving. According to Cornell, Pleasence would stay at a different hotel from the rest of the cast and "was kind of on his own, but he was just tremendously professional, just so supportive." Pleasance portrayed the character until his death in 1995; Halloween: The Curse of Michael Myers was released posthumously and dedicated to his memory. In 1998's Halloween H20, the voice of Dr. Loomis is heard giving the same speech that he gave to Sheriff Brackett when they were inside Michael's abandoned childhood home in the original film. Sound-alike voice actor Tom Kane provided this voice-over rather than archival recordings of Pleasance. An audio recording of Loomis is featured in 2018's Halloween; Loomis is voiced by Colin Mahan. For Halloween Kills, Loomis was physically portrayed by the film's construction foreman Tom Jones Jr., whose resemblance to Pleasance was enhanced with prosthetic makeup; Mahan again provided the voice via dubbing. Reception Empire ranked Loomis as the 18th best horror movie character. In 2016, Dread Central ranked Loomis in second place (only behind Anthony Perkins as Norman Bates) on their Top 5 Most Powerful Performances in Horror History Since 1960! list, opining that Pleasence spoke "with pitch-perfectly clear intention" and created "one of the greatest characters in film history" in the original film. Screen Rant listed Loomis as the second best Halloween character (behind Michael Myers), asserting that "Pleasance truly gives one of the best performances in Horror films as the determined doctor." /Film cites Loomis as the greatest character John Carpenter made over his five-decade career. Joe Puccio described Loomis as legendary and called Pleasence "arguably the crown jewel of the series". Meagan Navarro called Loomis the pillar of the Halloween franchise and asserted that "Pleasance always gave Loomis his all, no matter where the story took his character." Matthew Chernov of the Chicago Tribune asserts that Pleasence gave credibility to Loomis' ominous warnings and that the actor "never gave anything less than 100 percent on screen", citing this as the reason "why, for many fans, he remains the series' stealth MVP." Justin Davis of Complex praised Pleasence and Jamie Lee Curtis for "star-making performances" in Halloween. Ron Pennington of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that Pleasence as Loomis provided "a strong presence, but it’s basically a one-dimensional role, designed to provide necessary plot information." Berardinelli referred to Pleasence as the "saving grace of Halloween II" and that the film "belongs to Loomis, the gun-toting action figure who arrives in the nick of time and has more good one-liners than everyone else put together." Discussing Halloween 4, Vinnie Mancuso cited Pleasence as "absolutely hamming it up to a new level". Cox wrote that bringing back Pleasence as Loomis was one of the "major things" Halloween 4 did correctly and that the film was "anchored by solid performances from Pleasence and Harris". Reviewing The Curse of Michael Myers, Ben Martin lauded Pleasence for giving "a good performance again. So good in fact that I’m reminded of why I liked Loomis in the first place." While admitting that Loomis was "the most interesting" character in Halloween 4, Edison Smith viewed him as suffering the most from the film's repetition of the Myers storyline, with Pleasence's "once-iconic turn beginning to smack of self-parody" whose only growth was "becoming a John McClane style action hero who crashes through windows and leaps fifty feet through the air to avoid gas station explosions". The character's portrayal in Halloween 5 has also received negative reception, with Richard Harrington of the Los Angeles Times rebuking Pleasence for giving "a flat two-note performance". A.A. Dowd of The A.V. Club writes that by the time of Halloween 5, "Donald Pleasence’s shtick had shaded into self-parody. He spends most of this regrettable fourth sequel bellowing into a little girl’s face like a lunatic." Commentary was directed toward the reduced role of Loomis in The Curse of Michael Myers, with Marc Savlov of The Austin Chronicle calling the role "hardly more than an extended cameo", and Jeremy Nichols lamenting that Pleasence's "role was cut down significantly so we don’t get to see him much." Eric Hatch and Berardinelli, both of whom disliked the sixth film, bemoaned that it was Pleasence's last appearance in the series, with Sparks asserting that "Pleasance deserved better, especially at the end of his career." In popular culture Loomis has been featured in merchandise. In 2020, NECA released a figure of Loomis alongside Laurie Strode based on their appearance in Halloween II (1981). NECA produced a two-pack of 7-inch figures of Loomis and Michael from Halloween II to celebrate the film's fortieth anniversary the following year. Loomis has also been referenced in media. In the season eight episode of The Simpsons entitled "Hurricane Neddy", after Dr. Foster discovers that Ned Flanders has gone mad, he states, "May god have mercy on us all!" The episode's DVD commentary clarifies this as a reference to Loomis' reaction to Michael escaping at the start of the original film. In the 2010 The Boondocks episode "Smokin' with Cigarettes", the Dr. Doomis character is based on Loomis and voiced by his H20 voice actor Tom Kane. In the 1996 film Scream, Skeet Ulrich's character Billy Loomis is named after him. The fifth film in the Scream series stars Melissa Barrera as Sam Carpenter, who is revealed to be Billy's daughter, with her technical name being a nod to the Halloween character. Nicholas Brooks of Comic Book Resources writes extensively on the connections between Barrera and Pleasence's characters. In the 1985 Mexican slasher film Cemetery of Terror, Hugo Stiglitz plays the psychiatrist of the film's antagonist in a role inspired by Loomis. In the 2002 film Blood Feast 2: All U Can Eat, John McConnell and Mark McLachlan play detectives Dave Loomis and Mike Myers, named after the Halloween characters. Max Gail plays a character named Sam Loomis in an episode of NCIS; the episode also features characters named after Halloween characters Tommy Doyle and Bob Simms. Jamie Lee Curtis described her portrayal of Laurie Strode in the 2018 Halloween film as being similar to Loomis: "Laurie has been traumatized and Laurie also understands Michael Myers in a way that nobody else does. So, in a weird way, she’s become the new Loomis character because Loomis was the one who understood that he [Michael] needed to be stopped because he was pure evil." References Works cited Halloween (franchise) characters Fictional psychiatrists Fictional English people Fictional World War II veterans Fictional immigrants to the United States Fictional writers Fictional hermits Film characters introduced in 1978 Fictional sole survivors Male horror film characters
4878170	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninja%20Senshi%20Tobikage	Ninja Senshi Tobikage	, known as Ninja Robots outside Japan, is a Japanese anime television series, produced by Pierrot, which aired from 6 October 1985 to 13 July 1986 on the Nippon Television network. It was also broadcast to parts of Asia and Australia on Cartoon Network, but never aired in the United States. Plot It is the 23rd century and the earthlings have colonized Mars and the Moon. Much like the legendary convicts in Australia during the 18th and 19th century, the settlers of Mars consist mostly of convicts from Earth. The Martian colony is run by a dictatorial Commander Hazzard Pascha, who tests every settler on whether they should serve in the military or become a laborer. Joe Maya is a 16-year-old who lives on Mars and dreams of returning to Earth. He has two friends: Mike Coil and Jenny Ai. When escaping from the Martian military police, Joe and Mike stumble upon a crashed spaceship, the Xenos 5, being attacked by huge robots. In his attempt to escape chasing robots, Joe gets into the spaceship where he encounters three human-looking aliens: the beautiful Princess Romina, her willowy attendant Jade, and a young General Icelander. A robot locates them and the three aliens hide, leaving Joe to fend for himself. Joe tries hiding in a pile of glowing metal, which turns out to be a ninja robot named Black Lion. The battle leads outside the ship where a mysterious ninja robot Cybertron suddenly appears when the Black Lion struggles. It wipes out several enemy robots before merging with Joe's robot, transforming into a mechanical lion that destroys the remaining attackers. After the attack, Joe, Mike, and Jenny are forcibly taken to the alien spaceship. It transpires that the aliens are from the planet Ladorio (also romanized as "Radorio") in a distant galaxy (Andromeda, also "Black Star Galaxy" in the English version), and are at war with the Zaboom army who captured their planet. They came to the Milky Way seeking ninjas who could operate their three ninja robots. Joe, Mike, and Jenny agree to help them for a variety of reasons. Along the way, as they fend off the constant attacks by the Zaboom army and their allies, they make new friends and enemies, while Cybertron looms mysteriously in the background. Characters Humans , Joe is a 16-year-old boy who lives with his father (a construction worker) on Mars at the beginning of the series. He lost his mother when he was young, but often reminisces about the beauty of Earth. He is rebellious (especially against authority), quick-tempered, insensitive, and impulsive, the opposite of his father, who is calm and thoughtful. His nonattendance at the compulsory military exam leads to him and Mike being chased by the military police into the area where the spaceship crash lands. At first, Joe attempts to leave his friends in order to go after Hazzard, but they support him when Hazzard imprisons his father and Jenny's parents. He is the first to discover and operate one of the three ninja robots: the Black Lion. He is usually the first to spring towards defending Xenos 5 during the numerous attacks. Cybertron appears when he is in a dire situation and either aids him or merges with the Black Lion. He eventually pilots Cybertron. He is often singled out by Icelander (piloting Mantis or Zerokage) for duels. His motivation for helping Xenos 5 changes as the series progresses: rebel against Hazzard, rescue the parents, inform Earth of Hazzard's evil plans, find the ninjas, and free Ladorio from the Zaboom army. His tactics are very daring, such as infiltrating C-Terahertz as a prisoner. Joe's childhood friend is Ronin and their friendship stands several tests. He and Mike are close, referring to each other as brothers. He enjoys teasing Jenny and treats her like one of the guys, but becomes jealous when he wrongly suspects Mike of fancying her. He is struck by the beauty of Princess Romina upon their first meeting and is willing to do anything to protect her. He continues being attracted to both Jenny and Romina and admits this to Jenny in the final episode (the English version strongly hints that he reciprocates Jenny's love and confesses his love to her in episode 41). His infatuation with the princess, as well as his rude and rash behavior, puts him at odds with Icelander . This results in an animosity that persists until the very end - when Joe encourages him to fight against dying and they join hands to power Xenos 5. , Jenny is a 16-year-old girl (turns 17 during the series) who is friends with Joe and Mike. She is a no-nonsense girl-next-door, determined, stubborn, but also caring about her family who faces Hazzard's machinations. She is the second of the group to operate a ninja robot; she pilots the Phoenix Thunderhawk. She is almost as daring as Joe in combat and comes to his rescue several times. A local boy, Kenji, has a crush on her, but she does not reciprocate, and gets irritated whenever Joe teases her about him. She is passionately in love with Joe and is very jealous and possessive, becoming upset and hurt by Joe's continued insensitivity to her feelings and occasional flirting with Princess Romina. She reacts violently whenever she observes signs of Princess Romina's increasing love for Joe. The two girls reach a truce when Romina admits loving Joe, but requests her for a united front until Ladorio is freed. Although Jenny does not like going to Ladorio (fearing she may lose Joe to Romina), she changes her mind when Joe confesses his love for her. Jenny is also close to Mike, giving him advice on courting Jade. , Mike is a 15-year-old boy who treats Joe like an older brother, although he is the opposite in personality, being sensitive, perceptive, and reserved. He is protective of Joe, leaping to his defense when Icelander or Gameran criticizes or are skeptical of Joe. He completes the initial trio who pilot the Ninja Robots; he pilots Burst Dragon. He eventually falls in love with Jade and gets contrasting love advice from both Joe and Jenny. He is critical of Joe's treatment of Jenny, sometimes even physically fighting. , Damian is the 18-year-old son of the Martian north pole's guerrilla leader. He initially mistrusts Joe and the Ladorians, but later joins them when Hazzard attacks both Xenos 5 and the North Pole. After Joe pilots Cybertron, Damian works hard and succeeds in piloting the Black Lion. His microchip on the ninjas provides them with information on the mechanism of Cybertron strengthening the ninja robots. He falls in love with a female ninja (led by Charme and sent to trap Xenos 5), but she sacrifices her life to enable them escape. , Ronin is a childhood friend of Joe , Mike, and Jenny, and is a Major General in Earth. He was very close to Joe when he lived in Mars with his father. He trusts his childhood friends despite the convincing lies told by Hazzard and unwaveringly tries to help them and Xenos 5 by using his father's power and connections, often at great risks to himself. He is arrested when Hazzard frames him and is forced to attack Xenos 5 and Joe. He is daring and provides fuel for Xenos 5, an act for which he is dismissed. He is reinstated when the Earth Federation decides to support Xenos 5. He discovers Xenos 5's previous visit to Japan in A.D. 1790. , Kegare is the father of Ronin. He is the North American representative to the Earth Federation and was the previous commander of the Martian colony. He, along with his son, tries to lobby support for Xenos 5. When the Earth Federation allies with Hazzard (and the Zaboom army), he withdraws North America's membership of the Earth Federation and offers assistance to Xenos 5. He is later forced to rejoin the Earth Federation and become hostile to Xenos 5. , Hazzard is the 40-year-old dictatorial commander of Mars who persecutes the polar guerrillas and imposes his will on the inhabitants. He is power-hungry, opportunistic, devious, a liar, and a master manipulator. He waits for an opportunity to take revenge on earth for transferring him to Mars. The crash-landing of Xenos 5 makes him realizes that he could use the technology to conquer earth. All of his future actions are motivated by this purpose. He kidnaps Princess Romina for coercing her into giving him the technology. Upon her refusal, he allies with Grathan, the first deal being to receive the enemy robots in exchange for Romina. The fine-print of his alliance with the Zaboom army varies during the course of the series, but through this he increases his arsenal of enemy robots and hopes to conquer the solar system using these and the ninja robots. He fears King Annex, is angry at Grathan for his occasional disregard, and deeply hates Icelander for mainly three reasons (beating him in the race to succeed Grathan, his arrogant behavior, and for seeing through his machinations). In the finale, he rescues Joe and Icelander (and their robots- Cybertron and Zerokage) after the destruction of the Zaboom fortress and plans to use them to conquer the universe. He places bombs on both robots to ensure their destruction if they disobey. When Joe and Icelander escape to duel outside Xenos 5, Hazzard triggers the bombs upon realizing that they are fueled by hatred towards each other and would only be counterproductive to his plans. He tries to kill everyone on Xenos 5, but is destroyed by the Phoenix in Houraiou mode. , Dog Tack is Hazzard's henchman and trusted aide. He is eventually killed in episode 41. Ladorio This is a list of the notable characters from the planet Ladorio. , Romina (Rowena in the English version) is the young daughter and heiress of King Ladorio VII of Ladorio. When the Zaboom army invades Ladorio, her parents entrust her with the task of finding the ninjas from the Earth who could pilot the three ninja robots and defeat the invaders. She strongly believes that Joe and his friends are the ninjas despite their denials. Unlike others on Xenos 5, she readily accepts Joe and his friends, considers their advice, and is distressed by fights and arguments between Joe and Icelander or Gameran. Although she puts on a brave and composed front, she mourns over the destruction of her home planet, her father's assassination, and her mother's imprisonment. This also makes her sensitive to the lives of humans, often vetoing plans by Icelander and/or Gameran that involves such collateral destruction and loss. She has a strong sense of ethics and is both diplomatic and decisive. She is courageous, attacking Icelander (in Mantis or Zerokage) when he overpowered Joe (in the Black Lion or Cybertron) and throwing herself under the two robots to prevent them from fighting. Although she is perturbed by Grathan and Annex, she refuses to waver from her mission of finding the ninjas and redeeming her home planet, even if she is the last one standing. This single-minded focus leads her to rebuff Icelander's attempt at courting her (giving him a lecture on their priorities) and postpones acting on her growing love for Joe. She is also rational, explaining to Jenny that she would compete for Joe only if her feelings are unchanged after accomplishing her mission. In the finale, she seems to give up on winning Joe when she sees him with Jenny. Her attitude towards Joe results in Icelander concluding he cannot win her heart, thus defecting to C-Terahertz and flaming his hatred of Joe. This action devastates her and, regardless of his reasons (which Gameran was commanded to divulge), she considers him a betrayer and enemy. Yet, she is forgiving and does not prevent several of her frightened crew from defecting (in fact, she forgives Gameran's attempts at defecting; presumably Icelander is forgiven in the finale). , Jade is an 18-year-old lady-in-waiting and confidante of Princess Romina. She is conscientious, kind, and understanding, often protesting on behalf of the Princess who does not vocalize her feelings. She was skeptical of Joe being a ninja owing to his brash character. She is very protective of Romina and threatens Joe against capturing Romina's heart for this is a guaranteed heartbreak (Romina can marry only a Ladorian). She is cautious, not divulging Icelander's attempt at killing Romina as she does not know his reasons. She does not tolerate bad behavior and scolds others for being insensitive and Joe for his treatment of Jenny. She is courageous, impersonating Romina when visiting the Earth Federation and earns the admiration and love of Mike. , Icelander is a reserved, but very ambitious general who commands Xenos 5 (later, C-Terahertz for King Annex). Known as "The Best Warrior" and "Pride" of Ladorio, he identifies himself as a soldier and is proud and arrogant, tending to look down upon others. He is both an excellent warrior and military tactician, often divining his opponents' game-plans, capitalizing on the context, and giving little thought to collateral damage. Throughout the series, he is driven by his deep love for Princess Romina, his dream of rebuilding Ladorio with her, and his great hatred and envy of Joe. He pilots the Mantis and the ninja robot Zerokage. Both he and Joe are "people of action" and this mutual antipathy ends up in open quarrels and fights. He does not accept Joe and his friends and hates him for disagreeing on his tactics, disobeying him, and attracting Romina. The need to win her love and trust makes him reckless and he is captured by Grathan and Hazzard who offer a tempting deal, lies of Ladorio's destruction, and pokes at his feelings (better to kill her rather than lose her to Joe). Although his love for her prevents him from killing her, he feels guilty for breaking his promise to protect her and leaves Xenos 5. He becomes a mercenary, fighting for Grathan and King Annex and targeting Joe for duels. His loyalty to Annex is suspect, harboring plans of single-handedly freeing Ladorio. He negotiates with Grathan for Romina's survival and expects her to understand his feelings when he saves her. Prior to a plan of destroying Xenos 5, he infiltrates the spaceship and warns Gameran, begging him to move Romina to safety. He finally gloats to Joe about the sole reason for working for Annex: the opportunity to destroy him. This hatred for Joe persists until he is seriously injured. Expecting to die, he confesses his feelings to Romina and entrusts her to Joe. He is believed to have survived as Zerokage/him and Cybertron/Joe join hands and enter the secret room together to power the Xenos 5, thus fulfilling the prophecy. , Gameran is the second in command aboard the Xenos 5. He deeply distrusts Joe and his friends and their efforts to help Xenos 5, often assuming that they are betraying them or are using them. He takes the initiative to attempt at murdering Joe and Jenny and often tries to prevent Joe from leaving the ship- whether it be for fighting against the enemies or negotiating. He is the only person to whom Icelander confesses his reasons for leaving Xenos 5. He remains more loyal to Icelander who prevents his attempts at following him to C-Terahertz and commissions him with protecting Princess Romina. This makes him angrier at Joe and his friends, seeing them as the reasons for Icelander's departure. Zaboom A list of notable characters in the army of Zaboom. , Grathan Gryn is the first commander of the Zaboom army who pursues Xenos 5 to the Solar System. His mission shifts from capturing Xenos 5 to killing Princess Romina and reluctantly allies with Hazzard. He is manipulative, but is also manipulated by Hazzard. The duo traps Icelander and offers him a deal: the three ninja robots in exchange for murdering the Princess. His lies and manipulations contribute to Icelander abandoning Xenos 5 and joining C-Terahertz. Grathan later agrees (with the fullest intention of reneging) to a revised deal with Icelander: the capture of Xenos 5 in exchange for the survival of Princess Romina. When Romina attacks Mantis/Icelander, Grathan shoots at her plane, even shooting down Mantis/Icelander when he obstructs and protests. He is killed by Cybertron just as he is about to kill Romina. , King Annex's trusted and devoted General (with her own female warriors) and possible lover. She is beautiful, but stern, cruel, ruthless, and devious. She is struck by the beauty of the planet Earth, which Annex promises to give her. She is suspicious of Icelander and believes he has hidden motives. This leads her to disregard Icelander's tactical advice and tries to kill him (and Cybertron) in the force room. She is killed in the destruction of G-Excellent. , King Annex is the ruler of planet Zaboom and seeks to become the ruler of the universe. He possesses a large fleet of spaceships and robots. He invades Ladorio under the pretext of punishing King Ladorio VII for disagreeing with his viewpoint on the population decline in the galaxy. The more compelling reason is the legend and prophecy on the ninjas. He goes on to conquer the galaxy and focuses on achieving absolute victory: killing Princess Romina and appropriating the three ninja robots. He comes to the solar system due to Grathan's consistent failures at both tasks. He appoints Icelander as Grathan's successor and correctly guesses Icelander to be the destined pilot of another ninja robot that he possesses, the Zerokage. Upon understanding that ninjas have died out, his aim shifts to securing the other part of the prophecy from Romina and using Cybertron to conquer the universe. He supposedly leaves for Zaboom in C-Terahertz, leaving Charme in charge, but hides in the vicinity of G-Excellent. He is killed when Joe destroys the G-Excellent. Machines Ninja Legend and Prophecy The ancient legend, pieced together during the series, speaks of mysterious ninjas who, 500 years ago, fought off an invading Zaboom army trying to conquer Ladorio. They had been transported from Japan in A.D.1790 and brought to planet via Xenos 5. Subsequently, they were the models for the three ninja robots (Black Lion, Phoenix Thunderhawk, and Burst Dragon) and it was believed the robots could be piloted only by the ninjas. When the Zaboom army attacks Ladorio, King Ladorio VII entrusts Princess Romina with the task of finding the ninjas from Earth who could pilot the three robots and defeat the Zaboom army. King Annex aims at not only preventing Romina from finding the ninjas, but also use the ninjas and the ninja robots to conquer the universe. Both Annex and Romina possess a torn piece each of a parchment containing the prophecy. Annex's parchment, with the latter half of the prophecy, states that the ninjas in Xenos 5 would emit a great light and would have the power to destroy stars and planets. Romina's parchment (hidden in her tiara and discovered in the final episode), with the former half of the prophecy, states that when Cybertron and Zerokage meet at Xenos 5, they will combine to generate great energy, resulting in the transformation of Xenos 5. The prophecy is fulfilled when Icelander and Joe join hands to merge into Cybertron and Zerokage, emitting the great light, and enter the secret, forbidden chamber in Xenos 5 where they power and transform Xenos 5 and journeys back to Ladorio. Ninja Robots The ninja robots are mechas that can be controlled only by individuals with special abilities. In the event of the pilots losing their physical strength, they merge with a special ninja robot called Cybertron (Tobikage) and transform into a more powerful combination. The pilots of both Cybertron (Joe) and Zerokage (Icelander) have a deeper association with their ninja robots. The robots instinctively respond to them and merges with them when their lives are in danger (as seen when Joe and Icelander are in their mortal forms when G-Excellent is destroyed, but are found by Hazzard drifting in space in their robot forms). They also have reciprocal power levels. They combine to form a luminous power source that not only energizes Xenos 5, but also has the potential to destroy stars (and their previous inadvertent combination contributes to a widespread damage of G-Excellent). Cybertron is a small ninja robot, approximately tall and weighing . It mysteriously appears whenever the ninja robots are low on power or are facing overwhelming odds. It can fight on its own or can combine with one of the ninja robots (when the pilots are weak) to form a more powerful mode. From episode 26 onwards, Joe is able to summon and pilot Cybertron. Icelander tracks the origin of Cybertron to the secret chamber aboard the Xenos 5. Black Lion was the first ninja robot to be activated. It is initially piloted by Joe and later by Damian. When it merges with Cybertron, it is known as "Beast Demon Kurojishi", and looks more like a lion. As per its namesake, it has an armored mane that shoots bullets and is the most agile and speedy of the ninja robots. It is tall and weighs 10 tons. Phoenix Thunderhawk is the ninja robot used by Jenny. It has powers of fire. When it merges with Cybertron, it is known as "Sky Demon Hōraiō", and resembles a fiery phoenix. In this form, it can fly and cast a flame that spans its wings. It is tall and weighs 9.6 tons. Burst Dragon is the ninja robot used by Mike. When it merges with Cybertron, it is known as "Sea Demon Bakuryu", and resembles a dragon. Its form is large and strong, but slow and ungainly. Its special ability is a lightning strike that is capable of wiping out entire robot armies. It is tall and weighs 12 tons. Zaboom Robots The generic battle mecha used by the Zaboom army. They are colored red, have camouflaging abilities, and are equipped with kamas. They are tall and weigh . A more powerful mecha used by the Zaboom army. They are equipped jumonji type yari and are significantly larger than the Shadow Bots at tall. A giant, blue robot created by Grathan and having four times the strength of the Stealth Destroyers. As part of a deal with Grathan, Icelander is allowed to pilot this (from episode 19 until episode 24) and lead the Zaboom attacks on Xenos 5. It was destroyed by the Black Lion in Kurojishi mode. Zerokage is a very agile and sentient Ninja Robot possessed by King Annex. Given its reference in the prophecy, it is not known how Annex got it. It merges with Icelander when Icelander was thrown out of the Mantis. Its main opponent is the Cybertron and both robots are comparable in ability. It is tall and weighs . Fortresses Also: Cinos 5. The mother ship for the aliens from Ladorio. It is 300 m long and 250 m wide. It carries a crew of 50 people, both male and female. Xenos 5 had visited the earth 500 years ago to carry away several ninja warriors to Ladorio. A giant space fortress used by the Zaboom army and Commander Grathan when pursuing Xenos 5. It is 500 m tall and is later commanded by Icelander. The Black Lion in Kurojishi mode cripples it (temporarily) to permit Xenos 5 to reach the Earth. King Annex reaches the solar system in this gigantic space fortress commanded by Charme. C-Terahertz is a dwarf when compared to this. It is first damaged by the Earth's missiles and later crippled by Icelander/Zerokage's attack on Joe / Cybertron. It is finally destroyed by Joe's time bombs. Famille Ship A cruiser used by Hazzard. It is destroyed in the 41st episode by the Phoenix in Houraioh mode. Anime The anime series was produced by Studio Pierrot, and aired on Nippon Television network from 6 October 1985 to 13 July 1986. The show ran for 43 episodes (episodes 42 and 43 are summaries). The initial plan was to finish the series with the recapture of the planet Ladorio, but financial difficulties stopped the show with the plot ending at Xenos 5 leaving for Ladorio. It was also broadcast across to South Asia, Southeast Asia and Australia (including Bangladesh, Pakistan, India and Malaysia) by Cartoon Network. It was also dubbed across Russia by Ren-TV, across Ukraine by Pershyi Natsionalnyi, across the Philippines by Solar USA after Cartoon Network Philippines removed it from it airwaves, and across France by TF1, under the title Tobikage. A Latin American Spanish version was produced under the title Robots Ninja, and was broadcast across Chile by TVN de Chile, Mexico by Televisa Canal 5 and Peru by América Televisión 4. In 1995, it was dubbed & under the title Ninja Robots. The series was written, produced, and directed by Buz Alexander of Alexander Entertainment Group. The English cast credited Los Angeles-based voice actors Cam Clarke, Steve Kramer, Wendee Lee, Mike Reynolds, and Doug Stone for providing voices, however the actual voices were done by Miami-based actors at Sonic III Studios. It is rumored that a test pilot with done with those voice actors before the Miami cast was brought in. The first eleven episodes of this version do not follow the original order of episodes. The opening theme song is titled . The closing theme song is titled . Both songs were written by Kumiko Aoki, and the composition and arrangements were done by Yūichirō Oda. They were performed by HIT BOY. In the English adaptation, the opening theme song is used for both the opener and closer; the lyrics were written by Lisa McBride and the song was performed and arranged by Jerry Cobb. For the Latin American Spanish version of the show, the theme song, based on the English version, was performed by Ricardo Silva. Episode list Release Japan The anime has been released in two DVD boxsets on March 22, 2002 and June 25, 2002 by PioneerLDC. North America The series used to be streamed in North America via Yomiura Group's now defunct Anime Sols video service in spring 2013. In December 2021, the series became available for streaming on RetroCrush. Discotek has licensed the anime for a release in North America. On June 7, 2021, the company issued calls for assistance in locating the English dub tracks for episodes 34, 37, 42 and 43. The series was released with an English dub on Blu-ray on January 25, 2022. Reception During its time at the Cartoon Network it was well received and popular. The show has 186 reviews on IMDB, with an 8.4 user rating. Animenewsnetwork user ratings gave the show an average score of 6.34 out of 10, ranking it #5788 of the 9076 shows on the website. Neil Lumbard of blu-ray.com gave the North American Blu-ray release a positive review, noting the hand-drawn artwork as "a fascinating example of how excellent traditional art looks with anime series," and calling the show overall "an exciting action series with a lot to offer fans of classic (vintage) anime." Games Ninja Senshi Tobikage also feature in Super Robot Wars games: Super Robot Wars COMPACT 2 (Japanese title: スーパーロボット大戦COMPACT2) First launch and show up in the game. Super Robot Wars Impact (Japanese title: スーパーロボット大戦IMPACT) Super Robot Wars UX (Japanese title: スーパーロボット大戦UX) Super Robot Wars X-Ω (Japanese title: スーパーロボット大戦X-Ω) Notes References External links Studio Pierrot's official website for Ninja Senshi Tobikage Studio Pierrot's official English website for Ninja Robot Tobikage (Archived) 1985 anime television series debuts 1985 Japanese television series debuts 1986 Japanese television series endings Adventure anime and manga Discotek Media Fantasy anime and manga Fictional ninja Ninja in anime and manga Nippon TV original programming Pierrot (company) Science fiction anime and manga Shōnen manga Super robot anime and manga Mars in television
4878320	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malicious%20Damage%20Act%201861	Malicious Damage Act 1861	The Malicious Damage Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict c 97) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (as it then was). It consolidated provisions related to malicious damage from a number of earlier statutes into a single Act. For the most part these provisions were, according to the draftsman of the Act, incorporated with little or no variation in their phraseology. It is one of a group of Acts sometimes referred to as the Criminal Law Consolidation Acts 1861. It was passed with the object of simplifying the law. It is essentially a revised version of an earlier consolidation Act, the Malicious Injuries to Property Act 1827 (7 & 8 Geo 4 c 30) (and the equivalent Irish Act), incorporating subsequent statutes. The Act applied in the Republic of Ireland until 1991 and still applies in some Commonwealth countries which were parts of the British Empire in 1861, such as Sierra Leone. Injuries by fire to buildings, and goods therein The following words were repealed for England and Wales by section 83(3) of, and Part I of Schedule 10 to, the Criminal Justice Act 1948: In sections 1 to 10, 14 to 21, 23, 26 to 33, 42 to 48 and 50, the words "and, if a male under the age of sixteen years, with or without whipping" wherever those words occurred In sections 22 and 54, the words from "with or without hard labour" to the end In section 39, the words from "with or without hard labour" to "whipping" Sections 1 to 7 were repealed for England and Wales by section 11(8) of, and Part I of the Schedule to, the Criminal Damage Act 1971. They were repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (S.I. 1977/426) (N.I. 4) Section 1: Setting fire to a church or chapel Section 2: Setting fire to a dwelling house, any person being therein Section 3: Setting fire to a house, outhouse, manufactory, farm building, etc. Indictments of ss. 2 & 3 The following specimen counts were formerly contained in paragraph 14 of the Second Schedule to the Indictments Act 1915 before it was repealed. The following specimen count was formerly contained in paragraph 15 of the Second Schedule to the Indictments Act 1915 before it was repealed. Section 4: Setting fire to any Railway Station Section 5: Setting fire to any Public Building Section 6: Setting fire to other Buildings Section 7: Setting fire to Goods in any Building the setting fire to which is Felony Section 8: Attempting to set fire to Buildings This section was repealed for England and Wales by section 10(2) of and Part III of Schedule 3 to, the Criminal Law Act 1967. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 Injuries by explosive substances to buildings and goods therein Sections 9 to 26 were repealed for England and Wales by section 11(8) of, and Part I of the Schedule to, the Criminal Damage Act 1971. They were repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (S.I. 1977/426) (N.I. 4) Section 9: Destroying or damaging a House with Gunpowder, any Person being therein Section 10: Attempting to destroy Buildings with Gunpowder Injuries to buildings by rioters, etc. Section 11: Rioters demolishing Church, Building, &c. Section 12: Rioters injuring Building, Machinery, &c. The proviso to this section was repealed for England and Wales by section 10(2) of and Part III of Schedule 3 to, the Criminal Law Act 1967. Injuries to buildings by tenants Section 13: Tenants of Houses, &c. maliciously injuring them Injuries to manufactures, machinery, etc. Section 14: Destroying Goods in Process of Manufacture, certain Machinery, &c. Section 15: Destroying Machines in, other Manufactures, Threshing Machines, &c. Injuries to corn, trees and vegetable productions Section 16: Setting fire to Crops of Corn, &c. Section 17: Setting fire to Stacks of Corn, &c. Section 18: Attempting to set fire to any Crops of Corn, &c. or to any Stack or Steer Section 19: Destroying Hopbinds Section 20: Destroying or damaging Trees, Shrubs, &c. to the Value of more than 1l. growing in a Pleasure Ground, &c. Section 21: Destroying or damaging Trees, Shrubs, &c. to the Value of more than 5l. growing elsewhere than in a Pleasure Ground, &c. Section 22: Damaging Trees, wheresoever growing, to the Amount of 1s This section has been repealed for England and Wales and Northern Ireland. As originally enacted this section read: Indictment The following specimen count was formerly contained in paragraph 17 of the Second Schedule to the Indictments Act 1915 before it was repealed. Section 23: Destroying any Fruit or vegetable Production in a Garden Section 24: Destroying &c. vegetable Productions not growing in Gardens, &c. Injuries to fences Section 25: Destroying, &c. any Fence, Wall, Stile, or Gate Injuries to mines Section 26: Setting fire to a Coal Mine Section 27: Attempting to set fire to a Mine This section was repealed for England and Wales by section 10(2) of and Part III of Schedule 3 to, the Criminal Law Act 1967. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 Sections 28 and 29 were repealed for England and Wales by sections 11(3) and (8) of, and Part I of the Schedule to, the Criminal Damage Act 1971. They were repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (S.I. 1977/426) (N.I. 4) Section 28: Conveying Water into a Mine, obstructing the Shaft, &c. Section 29: Damaging Steam Engines, Staiths, Waggon ways, &c. for working Mines Injuries to sea and river banks, and to works on rivers, canals, etc. Sections 30 to 34 were repealed for England and Wales by section 11(8) of, and Part I of the Schedule to, the Criminal Damage Act 1971. They were repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (S.I. 1977/426) (N.I. 4) Section 30: Destroy any Sea Bank, or Wall on any Canal Section 31: Removing the Piles of any Sea Bank, &c., or doing any Damage to obstruct the Navigation of a River or Canal Injuries to ponds Section 32: Breaking down the Dam of a Fishery, &c. or Milldam, or poisoning Fish Injuries to bridges, viaducts and toll bars Section 33: Injury to a public Bridge Section 34: Destroying a Turnpike Gate, Toll House, &c. Injuries to railway carriages and telegraphs Section 35 - Placing wood, &c. on railway, with intent to obstruct or overthrow any engine, &c. This section creates an offence in England and Wales and Northern Ireland. It has been repealed for the Republic of Ireland. It replaces section 6 of the Prevention of Offences Act 1851 (14 & 15 Vict. c.19) in so far as that section related to malicious injuries to property. It has the following form in England and Wales: The words in the first place were repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1892. The words "and, if a male under the age of sixteen years, with or without whipping" at the end were repealed by section 83(3) of, and Part I of Schedule 10 to, the Criminal Justice Act 1948. This section was repealed in part for Northern Ireland by the Statute Law Revision Act (Northern Ireland) 1954. "Maliciously" See section 58. "Felony" See the Criminal Law Act 1967, the Criminal Law Act (Northern Ireland) 1967 and the Criminal Law Act, 1997. "Penal servitude" See the Criminal Justice Act 1948, section 1(1) and the Criminal Justice Act (Northern Ireland) 1953, section 1(1) Mode of trial In England and Wales, the offence under section 35 is an indictable-only offence. Sentence In England and Wales, an offence under section 35 is punishable with imprisonment for life or for any shorter term. See the Crown Prosecution Service Sentencing Manual. In Northern Ireland, an offence under section 35 is punishable with imprisonment for life or for any shorter term. Early release of prisoners An offence under this section is an excluded offence for the purposes of section 32 of the Criminal Justice Act 1982. Jurisdiction in Northern Ireland over offences committed in the Republic of Ireland An offence under this section is an extraterritorial offence for the purposes of the Criminal Jurisdiction Act 1975. Former jurisdiction in the Republic of Ireland over offences committed in the Northern Ireland Offences under this section were specified for the purposes of section 2(1) of the Criminal Law (Jurisdiction) Act, 1976 Visiting Forces In England and Wales and Northern Ireland, an offence under this section is an offence against property for the purposes of section 3 of the Visiting Forces Act 1952. Terrorism An offence under this section is a scheduled offence for the purposes of Part VII of the Terrorism Act 2000. Section 36 - Obstructing engines or carriages on railways This section creates an offence in England and Wales, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. It replaces section 15 of the Railway Regulation Act 1840 (3 & 4 Vict c 97) in so far as that section related to malicious injuries to property. This section is similar to section 35, but requires no proof of specific intent. The maximum penalty is two years imprisonment. The main difference between these two provisions is the mens rea, a specific intent being regarded as more culpable than recklessness or negligence. "Maliciously" See section 58. "Misdemeanour" See the Criminal Law Act 1967, the Criminal Law Act (Northern Ireland) 1967 and the Criminal Law Act, 1997 Mode of trial In England and Wales, this offence is triable either way. Sentence In England and Wales, a person guilty of an offence under section 36 is liable, on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years, or on summary conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or to a fine not exceeding the prescribed sum, or to both. See the Crown Prosecution Service Sentencing Manual. In Northern Ireland, a person guilty of an offence under section 36 is liable, on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years, or on summary conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding twelve months, or to a fine not exceeding the prescribed sum, or to both. Visiting Forces In England and Wales and Northern Ireland, an offence under this section is an offence against property for the purposes of section 3 of the Visiting Forces Act 1952. Indictments of ss. 35 & 36 The following specimen counts were formerly contained in paragraph 16 of the Second Schedule to the Indictments Act 1915 before it was repealed. A book has suggested that these forms could safely be used as precedents despite their repeal. (Note: It is not necessary to specify the place where the offence allegedly took place unless it is material to the charge.) Sections 37 to 42 were repealed for England and Wales by section 11(8) of, and Part I of the Schedule to, the Criminal Damage Act 1971. They were repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (S.I. 1977/426) (N.I. 4) Section 37: Injuries to Electric or Magnetic Telegraphs Section 38: Attempt to Injure such Telegraphs Injuries to works of art Section 39: Destroying or damaging Works of Art in Museums, Churches, &c., or in Public Places Injuries to cattle and other animals Section 40: Killing or maiming Cattle Section 41: Killing or maiming other Animals Injuries to ships The heading "injuries to ships" was included in the Bill, but omitted from the Act as printed. It is thought that this was a mistake. Section 42: Setting fire to a Ship Section 43: Setting fire to Ships to prejudice the Owner or Underwriters This section was repealed for England and Wales by section 10(2) of and Part I of Schedule 3 to, the Criminal Law Act 1967. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977. Section 44: Attempting to set fire to a Vessel This section was repealed for England and Wales by section 10(2) of and Part III of Schedule 3 to, the Criminal Law Act 1967. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977. Sections 45 and 46 were repealed for England and Wales by section 11(8) of, and Part I of the Schedule to, the Criminal Damage Act 1971. They were repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (S.I. 1977/426) (N.I. 4) Section 45: Placing Gunpowder near a Vessel with Intent to damage it Section 46: Damaging Ships otherwise than by Fire Sections 47 and 48 were repealed by sections 8(3) and (4) of, and paragraph 35 of Schedule 4 to, and Part II of Schedule 5 to, the Merchant Shipping (Registration, etc) Act 1993 Section 47: Exhibiting false Signals, &c. Section 48: Removing or concealing Buoys and other Sea Marks Sections 49 to 51 were repealed for England and Wales by section 11(8) of, and Part I of the Schedule to, the Criminal Damage Act 1971. They were repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (S.I. 1977/426) (N.I. 4) Section 49: Destroying Wrecks or any Articles belonging thereto Sending letters threatening to burn or destroy Section 50: Sending Letters threatening to burn or destroy Houses, Buildings, Ships, &c. Injuries not before provided for Section 51: Person committing malicious Injuries not before provided for exceeding the Amount of 5l Sections 52 and 53 were repealed for by section 44 of, and Schedule 4 to, the Criminal Justice Administration Act 1914. They were repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (S.I. 1977/426) (N.I. 4) Section 52: Persons committing Damage to any Property, in any Case not previously provided for, may be committed or fined and compelled by a Justice to pay Compensation not exceeding 5l Section 53: Preceding Section to extend to Trees Making gunpowder to commit offences, and searching for the same Sections 54 and 55 were repealed for England and Wales by section 11(8) of, and Part I of the Schedule to, the Criminal Damage Act 1971. They were repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (S.I. 1977/426) (N.I. 4). Section 54: Making or having Gunpowder, &c. with Intent to commit any Felony against this Act Section 55: Justices may issue Warrants for searching Houses, &c. for such Gunpowder, &c. Other matters Sections 56 and 57 were repealed for England and Wales by section 10(2) of and Part III of Schedule 3 to, the Criminal Law Act 1967. They were repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977. Section 56: Principals in the Second Degree and Accessories Section 57: A Person loitering at Night and suspected of any Felony against this Act may be apprehended Section 58 – Malice against owner of property unnecessary This section provides that it is not necessary to prove malice against the owner of the damaged property. Sections 59 to 61 were repealed for England and Wales by section 11(8) of, and Part I of the Schedule to, the Criminal Damage Act 1971. They were repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (S.I. 1977/426) (N.I. 4). Section 59: Provisions of this Act shall apply to Persons in possession of the Property injured Section 60: Intent to injure or defraud particular Persons need not be stated in any Indictment Section 61: Persons in the Act of committing any Offence may be apprehended without a Warrant Section 62: Mode of compelling the Appearance of Persons punishable on summary Conviction This section was repealed by section 4 of, and the Schedule to, the Summary Jurisdiction Act 1884. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977. Sections 63 to 65 were repealed for England and Wales by section 11(8) of, and Part I of the Schedule to, the Criminal Damage Act 1971. They were repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (S.I. 1977/426) (N.I. 4). Section 63: Abettors in Offences punishable on summary Conviction Section 64: Application of Forfeitures and Penalties upon summary Convictions Section 65: If a Person summarily convicted shall not pay, &c., the Justice may commit him Section 66: The Justice may discharge the Offender in certain Cases This section was repealed for England and Wales by section 83(3) of, and Part I of Schedule 10 to, the Criminal Justice Act 1948. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977. Section 67: A summary Conviction shall be a Bar to any other Proceeding for the same Cause This section were repealed for England and Wales by section 11(8) of, and Part I of the Schedule to, the Criminal Damage Act 1971. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (S.I. 1977/426) (N.I. 4). Section 68: Appeal This section was repealed by section 56(4) of, and Part IV of Schedule 11 to, the Courts Act 1971. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977. Section 69: No Certiorari, &c. This section was repealed by the Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1976. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977. Section 70: Convictions to be returned to the Quarter Sessions This section was repealed by section 4 of, and the Schedule to, the Summary Jurisdiction Act 1884. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977. Section 71: Venue in Proceedings against Persons acting under this Act This section was repealed by section 2 of, and the Schedule to, the Public Authorities Protection Act 1893. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977. Section 72 - Offences committed within the jurisdiction of the Admiralty This section deals with jurisdiction and essentially duplicates the Offences at Sea Act 1799, and although still in force, is obsolete. The provision dealt mainly with piracy and extended the jurisdiction of British courts to crimes committed by British subjects on the high seas. The words " deemed to be offences of the same nature and", and the words from " and may be dealt with " to the end, were repealed for England and Wales by section 10(2) of and Part III of Schedule 3 to, the Criminal Law Act 1967. Section 73: Fine and Sureties for keeping the Peace; in what Cases The words " fine the offender, and," and the words from "and in case of any felony " to " authorized ", where next occurring, were repealed for England and Wales by section 10(2) of and Part III of Schedule 3 to, the Criminal Law Act 1967. This section was repealed for England and Wales by section 8(2) of, and Part II of Schedule 5 to, the Justices of the Peace Act 1968. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977. Section 74: Hard Labour This section was repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1892. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977. Section 75: Solitary Confinement and Whipping This section was repealed for England and Wales by section 83(3) of, and Part I of Schedule 10 to, the Criminal Justice Act 1948. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977. Section 76: Summary Proceedings in England may be under the 11 & 12 Vict. c. 43., and in Ireland under the 14 & 15 Vict. c. 93 This section was repealed for England and Wales by section 11(8) of, and Part I of the Schedule to, the Criminal Damage Act 1971. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (S.I. 1977/426) (N.I. 4). Section 77: The Costs of the Prosecution of Misdemeanors against this Act may be allowed This section was repealed by section 10(1) of, and the Schedule to, the Costs in Criminal Cases Act 1908. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977. Section 78: Act not to extend to Scotland This section was repealed for England and Wales by section 11(8) of, and Part I of the Schedule to, the Criminal Damage Act 1971. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (S.I. 1977/426) (N.I. 4). Section 79: Commencement of Act This section was repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1892. It was repealed for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977. See also Criminal damage in English law Footnotes References James Edward Davis, The Criminal Law Consolidation Statutes of the 24 & 25 of Victoria, Chapters 94 to 100: Edited with Notes, Critical and Explanatory, Butterworths, 1861, pp. v - xviii (introduction) The Criminal Law Consolidation Statutes of the 24 & 25 of Victoria: Chapters 94 to 100 and pp. 118 to 170 (complete annotated text of the Act) The Criminal Law Consolidation Statutes of the 24 & 25 of Victoria: Chapters 94 to 100 (from Google Books). List of repeals and amendments in the Republic of Ireland from the Irish Statute Book External links The Malicious Damage Act 1861, as amended from the National Archives. The Malicious Damage Act 1861, as originally enacted from the National Archives. 1861 in British law English criminal law United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 1861
4878599	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Gold%20Coast%2C%20Queensland	History of the Gold Coast, Queensland	The history of the Gold Coast in Queensland, Australia began in prehistoric times with archaeological evidence revealing occupation of the district by indigenous Australians for at least 23,000 years. The first early European colonizers began arriving in the late 1700s, settlement soon followed throughout the 19th century, and by 1959 the town was proclaimed a city. Today, the Gold Coast is one of the fastest-growing cities in Australia. Kombumerri Aboriginal history in the Gold Coast region Archaeological evidence suggests that Aboriginal people inhabited the Gold Coast region about 23,000 years before European settlement, and continue to live there today. By the early 18th century there were several distinct clan estate groups (previously referred to as tribes) living between the Tweed and Logan Rivers and bounded approximately in the west by the town of Beaudesert; they are believed to be: the Gugingin, Bullongin, Kombumerri, Minjingbal, Birinburra, Wangerriburra, Mununjali and Migunberri Collectively they were known as Kombumerri people and spoke the Yugambeh language, for which there was and is evidence of several distinct dialects in the region. The historical Kombumerri people were hunters, gatherers and fishers, and are reported to have trained dingos and even dolphins to aid them in the hunting and fishing processes. Various species were targeted in various seasons, including shellfish including eugaries, (cockles or pipis), oysters and mudcrabs. In winter, large schools of finfish species "running" along the coast in close inshore waters were targeted, those being sea mullet, which were followed by a fish known as tailor. Turtles and dugong were eaten, but the latter only rarely due to their more northerly distribution. Various species of parrots and lizards were eaten along with bush honey. Echidnas, (an Australian native similar to a porcupine, but a monotreme not a rodent), are still hunted with dogs today and various marsupials including koalas and possums were also consumed. Numerous plants and plant products were included in the diet including macadamias and Bunya nuts and were used for medicinal purposes. Unlike their neighbours to the north of the Logan river and west and south west of Beaudesert, the Kombumerri people not only spoke dialects of a different language group, but along with other members of the Y-Bj dialect chain to the south, subscribe to an originary myth known as "The Three Brothers", which is based on the arrival to this part of the eastern Australian coastline by 3 men/mythical culture heroes and their wives and children in a canoe: Berang-ngehn gurilahbu, ngering Mumuhm, Yabirahyn or Berrungen korillåbo, ngerring Mommóm, Yaburóng Berrung came long long ago, with Mommóm (and) Yaburóng Long ago, Berrung together with Mommóm (and) Yabúrong came to this land. They came with their wives and children in a great canoe, from an island across the sea. As they came near the shore, a woman on the land made a song that raised a storm which broke the canoe in pieces, but all the occupants, after battling with the waves, managed to swim ashore. This is how ‘the men,’ the paigål (baygal) black race, came to this land. The pieces of the canoe are to be seen to this day. If any one will throw a stone and strike a piece of the canoe, a storm will arise, and the voices of Berrúng and his boys will be heard calling to one another, amidst the roaring elements. The pieces of the canoe are certain rocks in the sea. At Ballina, Berrúng looked around and said, nyung? (nyang)and all the paigål about there say nyung to the present day. On the Tweed he said, ngando? (ngahndu)and the Tweed paigål say ngando to the present day. This is how the blacks came to have different dialects. Berrúng and his brothers came back to the Brunswick River, where he made a fire, and showed the paigål how to make fire. He taught them their laws about the kippåra, and about marriage and food. After a time, a quarrel arose, and the brothers fought and separated, Mommóm going south, Yaburóng west, and Berrúng keeping along the coast. This is how the paigål were separated into tribes. The area around present day Bundall, proximate to the Nerang River and Surfers Paradise, along with various other locations in the region was an established meeting place for tribes visiting from as far away as Grafton and Maryborough. Great corroborees were held there and traces of Aboriginal camps and intact bora rings are still visible in the Gold Coast and Tweed River region today, including the bora ring at the Jebribillum Bora Park at Burleigh Heads. As Europeans settled the Gold Coast region and began farming and timber-gathering in the 19th century it was thought by some that the Kombumerri were driven from their traditional hunting, gathering and fishing grounds into the hinterland and missions and Aboriginal reserves which followed the passage of the Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897 (61 Vic, No.17), generally cited as the 1897 Act: "... (it) was the first comprehensive Aboriginal protection act in Queensland and, indeed, in Australia; it ushered in the long era of protection and segregation during which Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders lost their legal status as British citizens and became, in effect, wards of the state". "Regional administrative control of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population of the State was achieved by dividing the State into Protectorates. Each Protectorate was administered by a local Protector of Aboriginals who was a police officer in all cases except for Thursday Island. The appointment of local Protectors began in 1898. Local Protectors had many responsibilities including the administration of Aboriginal employment, wages, and savings bank accounts. Local Protectors also played a significant role in the removal of Aboriginal people to reserves". However, analyses of historical and anthropological records show that many of the Kombumerri remained in their traditional country and found employment with farmers, oyster producers and fishermen, timber cutters and mills constructed for the production of resources like sugar and arrowroot, whilst continuing to varying degrees with the Kombumerri cultural practices, laws and customs that were in evidence at the time of the arrival of the colonists. Many of them, both men and women (and sometimes children), found employment as servants or staff in the houses of the wealthy squatters and businessmen. Due to the harshness of the 1897 Act, and the various equally draconian amendments to it in the last century, and with respect to various government administrations, Kombumerri Aboriginal people have to date maintained a relatively low political profile in the Gold Coast region so that they would not be removed from their families, or from their traditional country with which they had (and retain) strong spiritual links. As a result, and since that time, the Kombumerri people have maintained close and generally closed networks of communication amongst themselves regarding their cultural practices and use of language which were not accommodated by the authorities. Early European history English navigator Captain James Cook became the first European to visit the Gold Coast when he sailed past on 16 May 1770. As an explorer under the commission of the Royal Navy he had the foresight to name Mount Warning (a volcanic outcrop inland) as a natural beacon for a hazardous reef off the mouth of the Tweed River near a rocky outcrop he named Point Danger. Captain Matthew Flinders, an explorer charting the continent north from the colony of New South Wales, sailed past again in 1802 but the region remained uninhabited by Europeans until 1823 when explorer John Oxley landed at Mermaid Beach, (named after his boat, a cutter called Mermaid). Despite the area's relatively early appearance on colonial maps, it wasn't until New South Wales government surveyors charted the region in 1840 that the area was really brought to the attention of European settlers. The hinterland's supply of redcedar began drawing timber cutters to the region in large numbers in the mid-19th century and in 1865 the inland township of Nerang (named after the local aboriginal word neerang, meaning ‘shovel-nosed shark’) was surveyed and established as a base for the industry. The surrounding valleys and plains were quickly developed as cattle, sugar and cotton farms and by 1869 settlement had reached the mouth of the Nerang River on the Southern edge of Moreton Bay. The township of Southport was surveyed in 1875 in a location known as Nerang Creek Heads. In 1885 Queensland Governor Musgrave built a holiday home known as the 'Summer Place' on the banks of the Nerang River near Southport and the surrounding coastal area began to get a reputation as a resort for Brisbane's wealthy and influential. Summer Place remains in situ at The Southport School and serves as Biddle House, the senior school boarding house. The rough bush tracks and numerous creek crossings be between Brisbane and Southport made it difficult to reach without a boat, but in 1889 a railway line was extended to the town and numerous guesthouses and hotels were soon established up and down the coastline. During the 19th century many ships ran aground along the Gold Coast. One of the most famous of these shipwrecks was the Scottish Prince. Where in 1887, ""The Scottish Prince"", a 3 steel-masted iron barque 64 metres long, sank as she was sailing from Glasgow, Scotland to Brisbane with a cargo of whiskey, mousetraps, linen and other assorted cargo. The reason for it running aground, is because it is believed that the captain and many of the crew were drunk at the time. Today only the hull remains which is covered with soft corals and sponges, and is a haven for crayfish, Shovelnose rays, Leopard and wobbegong sharks, and other tropical fish. The permanent population of the region increased slowly until 1925 when a new coastal road was built between Brisbane and Southport. That same year, Jim Cavill built the Surfers Paradise hotel south of Southport in an area between the Nerang River and the beach known as Elston, and the real tourism boom began. As automobile technology became more and more reliable in the 1930s, the number of holiday makers traveling down the coast road from Brisbane increased, and by 1935 most of the coastal strip between Southport and the New South Wales border had been developed with housing estates and hotels. Elston residents successfully lobbied to change the name of their town to Surfers Paradise in 1933. The Surfers Paradise hotel burnt down in 1936 and was quickly replaced with another much grander structure, which had art deco styling and even included a zoo; complete with kangaroos and other wildlife. The Gold Coast during WW2 Although the Gold Coast was not attacked by a foreign power in WW2, the war itself had a dramatic impact as well as most other coastal towns. It was in 1942, when the Americans began arriving. They commandeered the beach area at Coolangatta to establish rest areas. The Coolangatta Rest Area included five rest camps for Enlisted Men, and two hotels specifically for submariners. Camp No. 1 was located at Kirra Beach, along the foreshore north of Musgrave Street, in today's Roughton Park. Huts, ablutions and latrines, a kitchen/mess and an Officer's quarters and sick bay were located between the intersection with Winston Street and Lord Street, as well as down the east side of Lord Street. Camp No. 2 was at Kirra Hill, while Camp No. 3 was on Marine Parade at Coolangatta Beach. Camp No. 4 was located at Greenmount, and Camp No. 5 was at Greenmount Hill. The latter camp was located in today's Pat Fagan Park, to the north of Marine Parade. Camp No. 5 included five huts divided into 10 single cabins, a mess and recreation room, ablutions and latrines. The Royal Australian Air Force also operated a seaplane alighting area at Southport Broadwater during World War II; however, it is not known whether any particular on-shore installations were constructed as distinct from possibly floating moored pontoon landing structures. Post-war years and the birth of the name Gold Coast The South Coast region was a very popular holiday destination for servicemen returning from World War II. However, inflated prices for real estate and other goods and services led to the nickname of "Gold Coast" from 1950. South Coast locals initially considered the name "Gold Coast" derogatory. However, soon the "Gold Coast" simply became a convenient way to refer to the holiday strip from Southport to Coolangatta. As the tourism industry grew into the 1950s, local businesses began to adopt the term in their names, and on 23 October 1958 the South Coast Town Council was renamed "Gold Coast Town Council". The area was proclaimed a city less than one year later. Specific Gold Coast areas became the holiday destinations for many who lived inland. Coolangatta had a caravan and camping park on the New South Wales border and numerous families from Ipswich spent their Christmas holidays there. In later times, many holiday rental flats sprung up in the area. The Ipswich roots remain as the Currumbin Lifesavers, share with a similar Ipswich swimming club the title 'Vikings'. Many Vikings swimming club members joined the life saving squads at Currumbin during the holiday periods. Direct flights from Sydney to Coolangatta began in 1956. The first town planning on the Gold Coast began with the 1953 South Coast Planning Scheme. It featured height controls that restricted development towards strategic nodes. By the 1960s the Gold Coast's infrastructure had grown considerably, and the local building industry was able to support the development of high-rise holiday apartments and hotels (the first of which, Kinkabool, was completed in 1959). Surfers Paradise had firmly established itself as the leading destination and the introduction of bikini-clad meter maids in 1965 to feed parking meters by the beach to prevent holiday makers from getting parking fines was a particularly popular innovation. In 1965, the World water skiing championships were held at the Surfers Paradise Ski Gardens, now known as Sea World. This was the first international event held on the coast. The hi-rise boom continued in earnest during the 1970s and by the time the Gold Coast Airport terminal opened in Coolangatta in 1981, the region had become Australia's most well-known family holiday destination and much of the vacant land within of the coast had been developed. Japanese property investment during the 1980s made the skyline soar, and the construction of modern theme parks including Dreamworld, Sea World, Warner Bros. Movie World and Wet'n'Wild Water World confirmed the Gold Coast's reputation as an international tourist centre. Some unethical business practices and State Government corruption during the late 1980s tainted the Coast's reputation as a place of business, and property marketeering (seminars which duped interstate and overseas investors into paying premium prices for new Gold Coast property developments) during the 1990s did little to help the region's image. In 1994, Queensland Local Government Commissioner, Greg Hoffmann began reviewing the local government boundaries in the Gold Coast, Albert and Beaudesert areas. After public debate, the 'Local Government (Albert, Beaudesert and Gold Coast) Regulation 1994' provided for the amalgamation of Gold Coast City Council and the Shire of Albert to create a new local authority called the City of Gold Coast Council. An election was held on 11 March 1995 and the first Council meeting was held on 24 March 1995. 21st century By the turn of the 21st century the Gold Coast had shrugged off its shady past and fully embraced the real estate boom. This boom reached its physical, and economical peak in 2005 with the opening of the 322.5m 'Worlds Tallest Residential Tower' Q1, in Surfers Paradise. In September 2010 the Gold Coast Native Title Claim QUD346/06 was registered by the Registrar of the National Native Title Tribunal (NNTT). This administrative decision was made under the Australian Federal Government's Native Title Act 1993 which is administered by the Federal Court of Australia. A registered claim entered on the Tribunal's Register of Claims, (which in this case is currently in mediation in the Federal Court) means that in all matters which may affect the claimants' native title rights and interests in the claim area, and under the procedural rights afforded by the Native Title Act (Cwth 1993), consultation and often negotiation with the claim group is required. Jabree Limited on behalf of the claim group is the registered cultural heritage body. Yugambeh people are now recognised as significant stakeholders in the Gold Coast region. Notable historical figures James Cavill, first Gold Coast hotelier Eddie Kornhauser, Gold Coast property developer and owner of Surfers Paradise Hotel Russ Hinze, influential and controversial Queensland politician Annette Kellerman, Female swimming pioneer Johan Meyer, owner of the Meyer's Ferry and the Main Beach Hotel Sir Bruce Small, businessman, property developer, mayor of the Gold Coast See also History of Queensland Timeline of Gold Coast, Queensland References Bibliography
4878766	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Russell%20%28rebel%29	Thomas Russell (rebel)	Thomas Paliser Russell (21 November 1767 – 21 October 1803) was a founding member, and leading organiser, of the United Irishmen marked by his radical-democratic and millenarian convictions. A member of the movement's northern executive in Belfast, and a key figure in promoting a republican alliance with the agrarian Catholic Defenders, he was arrested in advance of the risings of 1798 and held until 1802. He was executed in 1803, following Robert Emmet's aborted rising in Dublin for which he had tried, but failed, to raise support among United and Defender veterans in the north. Background Russell was born in Dromahane, County Cork to an Ascendancy family that, early 1770s, moved to Dublin when his father, a veteran of the American War, was appointed Captain of Invalids at the Royal Hospital, Kilmainham. At the age of fifteen, he sailed with his brother's regiment to India. In July 1783 he was commissioned ensign in an infantry regiment and saw action in the Second Anglo-Mysore War. At Cannanore he distinguished himself by carrying his wounded commanding officer from the battlefield. His services made him "favourably known" to Sir John Burgoyne and Lord Cornwallis. He was, however, disgusted by what he regarded as "the unjust and rapacious conduct pursued by the authorities in the case of two native women", and returned disaffected to Ireland in 1786. After briefly studying for the church ministry, he spent the next four years as a half-pay officer in Dublin pursuing studies of science, philosophy and politics. In July 1790 in the visitors' gallery in the Irish House of Commons, he met Theobald Wolfe Tone. He found Tone equally critical of the proceedings in the chamber below where the patriot leader Henry Grattan was unable to capitalise on his triumph in securing Ireland's legislative independence from England (the "Revolution of 1782"") to effect meaningful reform. Writing his Autobiography six years later in Paris, Tone was to describe the encounter with Russell as "one of the most fortunate in my life". Russell in Belfast At the end of August 1790, Russell was appointed as an officer to the 64th Regiment of foot stationed in Belfast. As an officer of the garrison, Russell was received into the society of the town's newly emerging professional and business class. Largely Presbyterian, they were resentful of the privileges and monopolies of the Anglican Ascendancy and sympathetic to what they perceived as the democratic ideals of the American, and now French, revolutions. With his keen mind and his own radical bent, Russell became a confidante of William Drennan, Samuel McTier, Samuel Neilson and later of Henry Joy McCracken, James Hope, and others who were to play a prominent role in the United Irish movement. It is said that Russell admired and respected men and women alike. Both Drennan's sister Martha McTier and McCracken's sister Mary Ann McCracken took him into their confidence. Mary Ann, who regarded Russell as "a model of manly beauty" with a grace "which nothing but superiority of intellect can give", shared with him her enthusiasm for the female-emancipatory ideas of Mary Wollstonecraft. McTier had Russell address meetings of other radically-minded women and declared: "I admire that man much and had I the power I do believe that he would be the first man that I would serve". Russell appeared more than willing to join McTier and McCracken in their enthusiasm for Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of their rights as women (1792): "women in public offices", he noted in his Journal, were "as clever as men. Queens, poetesses etc. etc, In merchants houses they keep accounts as well as men". His advanced thoughts on their rights, however, did not preclude a conflicted relationship with women. His Journal was also to record the torment both of a love for the idealised and unapproachable Eliza Goddard (daughter of a close friend of McTier's) and of guilt-ridden visits to Belfast prostitutes. In October 1791, and in the presence of Tone, invited to Belfast as the proponent of political union with disenfranchised Catholics, Russell attended the inaugural meeting of the Society of United Irishmen. While Tone recapitulated his Argument on behalf of the Catholics of Ireland, Russell presented a history of the Catholic Committee in Dublin and of his own negotiations with leading Catholics. The resolutions, which Tone had asked Russell to write, called for the elimination of all remaining sacramental tests and for an "equal representation of all the people" in the Dublin Parliament. After several months, and to avoid debt, Russell accepted the offer of Viscount Northland of Tyrone, the father of an old army friend, to become seneschal (a kind of stipendiary magistrate) to the Northlands' manor court at Dungannon. But Russell was appalled by the anti-Catholicism of his fellow magistrates and possibly also of the Northland family, and he resigned in October 1792. His experience in Dungannon contributed significantly to his developing radicalism, and he never again served in any official position, or sought the patronage of his aristocratic friends. Russell was concerned with the conditions of the workers and in 1792 supported linen workers who were in conflict with their employers. With Drennan's assistance, in 1793 Russell was to take a position more congenial to his friends: librarian at the Belfast Society for Promoting Knowledge (the later Linen Hall Library). The year before, under the active patronage of Dr James MacDonnell, the Society had organised the Belfast Harpers Assembly. As secretary, Russell ensured that transcriptions by his friend Edward Bunting of the melodies played were published. In 1794, Russell attended Irish-language classes offered by Pádraig Ó Loingsigh (Patrick Lynch) at the Belfast Academy. United Irish revolutionary Britain's entry into the war against revolutionary France at the beginning of 1793 and the increased domestic repression that followed, caused the United Irishmen increasingly to despair of reform. At the same time, the possibility of French intervention and assistance encouraged the thought of insurrection. By mid-1793 Russell had shed his sympathies for the parliamentary patriots or Irish Whigs. In a letter to Belfast's United Irish paper the Northern Star he denounced Henry Grattan's parliamentary opposition as "insignificant" and accused him of "declaiming, and grinning, and chattering at the abuses of that ministry, which but for him would not now exist". In Review of the Lion of Old England; or Democracy Confounded (1794) (dedicated to the reputedly enlightened "Empress of all the Russias", Catherine II), Russell and his friend William Sampson (John Philpot Curran's Junior Counsel) suggested that, in Ireland, the English charters Grattan celebrated in his strict constitutionalism—Magna Carta, the Bill of Rights and Habeas Corpus—did little more than "amuse the masses". In June 1795, as a member of the Society's increasingly conspiratorial Northern Executive, Russell met with McCracken. Neilson, Robert Simms and, en route to exile in the United States, with Tone. At McArt's fort atop Cave Hill overlooking Belfast they swore the celebrated oath "never to desist in our efforts until we had subverted the authority of England over our country, and asserted our independence'". Russell travelled widely throughout Ulster, recruiting and organising for the United Irishmen. In September 1795 an informer reported that "Capt. Russell of Belfast has been appointed to the command of all the societies in the province of Ulster"; while sometime later, one of the government's most reliable agents informed the Castle that the United Irishmen were ready to rise and that "Russell…now conducts all their plans". His role as a United Irish recruiter was commemorated in the well-known ballad "The man from God-knows-where". In October 1793 he founded the Society in Enniskillen with William Henry Hamilton. In January 1794 he married Russell's niece, Mary Ann Russell (c.1775–c.1840), who herself had radical political views, and he was to remain a close confidante and collaborator. Social radical In 1796, Russell published a Letter to the People of Ireland on the Present State of the Country—the fullest exposition of his democratic and increasingly millenarian outlook. He castigated the aristocracy for stalling progress towards reform in the 1780s, their moral corruption, their unworthiness to govern, and their useless, parasitic existence and insisted that all men have not only the right, but the duty, to concern themselves with government and politics. Only if legislation seeks to serve "the whole family of mankind", rather than just self-interested minorities, can there be some hope that it will reflect the natural justice ordained by God. Russell looked to a simpler, purer form of government in which the will of a benevolent deity could operate untrammelled by greed and corruption and man could realise those rights accorded him by nature. These, he believed, required radical changes to the distribution and prerogatives of property. "The way lands are held makes the people slaves" and he could not see "why a law should not be made as to the length of leases, as well as for any other purpose". He decried the cruelties of mill work and the poverty induced by the exactions and indifference of the aristocracy and the government. As an acting magistrate in Dungannon Russell had taken the side of local linen weavers in their disputes with their employers. While some radicals took a hostile view of tradesmen's combinations, seeing them as an obstacle to the self-regulating harmony of the market, Russell looked upon them with approval. Clashing with Samuel Nielson in the Northern Star, he recommended combination—unions—not for only tradesmen but also for labourers and cottiers. In advance of Tone's oft-quoted declaration in 1796, Russell was "among the first of the United Irishmen to conclude that they would have to depend on 'the men of no property'". In July 1793, he argued:... from what I can see, the men of property, whether landed or commercial, are decidedly against a struggle, which might risqué that and will do nothing. The people are begin[n]ing to see this and in time when they will feel their strength and injurys they will do it themselves and adieu to property! While Tone feared that the "san culottes ... are too ignorant for any thinking man to see in power", Russell was perhaps closer to Martha McTier in his estimate. In 1795 she wrote approvingly to her brother of Belfast's plebeian Jacobin Club (United Irishmen among them), describing it as composed of "persons and rank long kept down [who] now come forward with a degree of information that might shame their betters". Less controversially for Belfast, Russell had made clear his uncompromising opposition to slavery. The veteran anti-slavery campaigner, Henry Joy McCracken's sister Mary Ann, remembered that as a young officer in Belfast, Russell had "abstained from the use of slave labour produce until slavery in the West Indies was abolished, and at the dinner parties to which he was so often invited and when confectionery was so much used he would not take anything with sugar in it". But Russell, with his experience in India, had a broader critique of the iniquities of the colonial trade in which Belfast was engaged. He cautioned:If the English, or any other people, think gold a sufficient cause to shed blood—if they are satisfied to fill the world with carnage and misery, that they may acquire cloves and nutmegs, and contracts, and slaves—let it not be so with us. State prisoner Russell's uncompromising radicalism earned him the respect of the more extreme democrats in Belfast and, in time, was to be in line with Tone's new conviction that "if the men of property will not support us, they must fall; we can support ourselves by the aid of that numerous and respectable class of the community, the men of no property". With his close friend Henry Joy McCracken, Russell was a key figure in forming the alliance between the northern United Irishmen and the greatest body, existing, of "men of no property", the Defenders. A vigilante response to Peep O'Day raids upon Catholic homes in the mid-1780s, by the early 1790s the Defenders (drawing, like the United Irishmen, on the lodge structure of the Masons) were a secret oath-bound fraternity ranging across Ulster and the Irish midlands. Such activities increasingly alarmed the authorities and on 16 September 1796, they finally struck. A large military force descended on Belfast, sealed off the town, and arrested several leading United men, including Russell. Charged with high treason, Russell was held in Newgate Prison where, in the spring and summer of 1798, he was forced to sit out the ill-fated insurrection. He was considerably more reluctant than most of his colleagues to come to terms with the government, attempting from prison to instigate further armed resistance. In March 1799 he was detained for a further three years, with other state prisoners, at Fort George in Scotland. His letters reveal that as he brooded on the state of the world he increasingly found sense and solace in biblical prophecy. The combined effect of the continuation of the war in Europe, its spread to the Middle East, and the bloody summer of 1798 in Ireland, seems to have only intensified his belief that the world was then engaged in the time of troubles which St John had foretold would precede the coming of Christ's kingdom. His duty was to prepare the way by raising his hand against the war-mongering British monarchy. While confined to Fort George, Russell, Samuel Neilson, and the lawyer William Dowdall remained in contact with Robert Emmet, William Putnam McCabe and other young militants. They were determined to reconstruct the Society on a strict military basis, with its members chosen personally by its officers meeting as the executive directory. The immediate aim of the directory was, in conjunction with simultaneous risings in Ireland and England to again solicit a French invasion. At the end of June 1802, during what was to prove a brief cessation in the war with France, Russell was released on condition of exile to Hamburg. 1803 Rising Not content to sit things out in Hamburg, Russell soon made his way to Paris where he met Robert Emmet who, with the roving McCabe (Paris, Hamburg, London, Scotland, Ireland) were advancing the plans for insurrection pending the French renewal of the war against England. Russell, although having himself little confidence in the French, agreed to return to Ireland in March 1803 to organise the North in conjunction with the veteran of the Battle of Antrim, James Hope and with William Henry Hamilton. They were to find the north subdued following the suppression of the 1798 rebellion and with little appetite for a renewed attempt. Rebuffed by United Irish remnant in north Down, Russell attempted to raise the standard in Defender country. On the morning of 22 July 1803, he addressed small groups of men in Annadorn and Loughinisland. He told them that there was to be a general insurrection throughout Ireland and that blows would be struck simultaneously at Dublin, Belfast and Downpatrick. He entreated them to join him but to no avail. One man said that they would be hanged like dogs. On a hill near Downpatrick where, dressed in his green uniform, Russell had expected to multitude, there were no more than three individuals, and of these, one objected that Ireland might as well be an English colony, as a French one. For his biographer James Quinn, "the picture that emerges is of man with a tenuous grip on reality, maintaining a quixotic confidence in victory in the face of overwhelming evidence to the contrary". "The conviction and zeal that had enabled [Russell] to tap in Ulster's millennialist expectations in the 1790s" had "rendered him completely out of touch the disillusionment that followed the defeat in 1798". According to later trial evidence on 24 July, Russell as Member of the Provisional Government, and General in Chief of the Northern District issued (or intended to issue) the following proclamation: Men of Ireland!--Once more in arms to assert the rights of mankind and liberate your country!--you see by the secrecy with which this effort has been conducted, by the multitudes in all parts of Ireland, who are engaged in executing this great object, that your provisional government has acted with wisdom.--- You will see that in Dublin, in the west, the north, and the south, the blow has been struck in the same moment. Your enemies can no more withstand than they could foresee this mighty exertion. The proclamation and regulations will shew that your interest and honour have been considered. Your general, appointed by that government to command in this district, has only to exhort you strongly to comply with these regulations. Your valour is well known; be as just and humane as you are brave, and then rely with confidence that God, with whom alone is victory, will crown your efforts with success. The general orders that hostages shall be secured in all quarters; and hereby apprizes the English commander, that any outrage contrary to the acknowledged laws of war, and of morality, shall be retaliated in the severest manner. And he farther makes known, that such Irish, as in ten days from the date of this, as are found in arms against their country, shall be treated as rebels, committed for trial, and their properties confiscated.-But all men behaving peaceably, shall be under the protection of the law. Head-Quarters, July 24, 1803. Unknown to Russell, in Dublin Emmet, unable to deliver promised firearms, could not draw Michael Dwyer's men down from the Wicklow Mountains nor mobilise the hoped-for support in Kildare. Plans to surprise Dublin Castle failed when his men prematurely revealed themselves, and finding many of those under his immediate command the worse for drink, he called the rising off. Trial and execution Russell managed to hide for a number of weeks but on 9 September 1803 was arrested by Major Sirr in Dublin where he returned in hopes of rescuing Emmet (who had been captured on 25 August). Mary Ann sent £100 to Thomas Russell via Orr, which was to be used as a bribe “for the purpose of effecting his escape.” But without warning on the morning of the 12th he was transferred under heavy escort to Downpatrick Gaol. There, on 3 October, the Rev. F. Archer, inspector of prisons, reported that he attended Russell at his own request "to administer the Sacrament which he received with apparently great devotion". When the service ended, Russell declared "in the awful presence of God" that he had been guilty of "many immoral acts", but as to his political opinions and actions he had never intended "any other than the Advantage of my fellow creatures and even the Happiness of my Adversaries" and that. whether "thread" of his existence extended a further 40 years or was cut within the hour, he should not cease from the work he had begun. Convicted of high treason in Downpatrick, on 12 October Russell was hanged and beheaded. His remains were buried in the graveyard of St Margaret's Church, Downpatrick, a grave paid for by his friend Mary Ann McCracken. In remarks to the court before sentencing, Russell expressed surprise "to see gentlemen on the jury (looking at the grand jury box) who had often expressed and advocated political opinions similar to those on which he acted, and for which he had forfeited his life, for the sentiments publicly delivered by them, had assisted to influence his conduct". He afterwards told an officer that six of the jury (probably referring to persons on both grand and petty juries) had been United Irishmen. In 1796 efforts to raise a yeomanry corps in Belfast had to be abandoned because of lack of support. On 5 April 1803, in response to rumours of Russell's mission, the town's citizens proclaimed their readiness to repel the attacks of foreign or domestic enemies, and two new corps were raised. Of the three lieutenants appointed two were all former United Irishmen: Robert Getty and Gilbert McIlveen. The physician James MacDonnell, who had warned Russell that if he returned to Belfast he would find "a great difference in this place", subscribed 50 guineas to a public subscription for arrest. He later claimed that he had done so dispel suspicion of his own sudden departure from Belfast, a result of his being called away to perform an operation. They had been friends: MacDonnell had allowed Russell to lodge with him from October 1792 to February 1794 and, with Drennan, had helped him get the position at the Linen Hall library. He had corresponded with him while in Newgate (where Russell was treated by MacDonnell's Dublin counterpart and friend, Dr. Whitely Stokes). But MacDonnell had always taken issue with Russell's militant republicanism, suggesting that, just as in their shared scientific interests, his judgement in politics was often rash and, in working "all from first principles", naive. Concluding his remarks to the court, Russell exhorted "those gentlemen who have all the wealth and power of the country in their hands" to "attend to the wants and distresses of the poor"-- "the labouring class of the community, their tenantry and dependants". While it might not secure their position, their solicitude may at least ensure that "their fall will be gentle". In passing sentence on Russell, the Judge said that "he was sorry and surprised that a Gentleman of education could so pervert his understanding, as to imagine that he was acting either honourably, or religiously, when he asserted to his ignorant followers what he knew was untrue, namely, that the French were [already] landed in great force at Ballywalter". The charge, based on the testimony of a state witness, greatly distressed Mary Ann McCracken who, on enquiry, satisfied herself that it was false. According to another witness, what Russell had offered was not that the French were ashore but that "they were to send thirty thousand arms to be landed at Kilkeel". (An attempt had been made at gun-running to the Down coast by the French in 1798) In 1803 in London, Russell's brother, Captain John Russell (c.1748–c.1812), was also arrested in connection with the Emmet rising. He was released for lack of evidence, but the aspiring writer was associated with political radicals in the capital and may have had some role. Selected writing A Letter to the People of Ireland, on the present situation of the country. Belfast: Northern Star Office, 1796 Journals and Memoirs of Thomas Russell, 1791-5, Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1991, With William Sampson: Review of the Lion of Old England; or Democracy Confounded, Belfast: 1794. A faithful report of the trial of Hurdy-Gurdy, tried and convicted of a seditious libel in the court of King's Bench . . .,, (originally serialised in the Northern Star), Dublin: Bernard Dornin, 1806 References 1767 births 1803 deaths Irish Anglicans Irish soldiers United Irishmen Protestant Irish nationalists Executed people from County Cork 19th-century executions by the United Kingdom Executed revolutionaries People executed by the United Kingdom by hanging
4878821	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Stavro	Steve Stavro	Steve Atanas Stavro, (September 27, 1926 – April 23, 2006; born Manoli Stavroff Sholdas) was a Macedonian-Canadian businessman, grocery store magnate, Thoroughbred racehorse owner/breeder, sports team owner, and a noted philanthropist. Under the leadership of Steve Stavro, what began as a single produce store in the east end of Toronto in 1954 grew into Knob Hill Farms, one of Canada's largest grocery chains all with only 10 locations in and around Toronto. Knob Hill Farm's Cambridge location, founded in 1991, had the honor of being the largest grocery store in the world at the time of its opening. Stavro was also an avid sports fan and heavily involved with the Canadian sports scene, beginning in 1961 with the founding of the Eastern Canada Professional Soccer League together with George Gross. Stavro would go on to purchases the controlling interest in Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment (MLSE) in 1994 making him the owner of the Toronto Maple Leafs. In 1998 MLSE would purchase Toronto's recently formed NBA team, the Toronto Raptors. This deal made Steve Stavro the principal owner of two of Toronto's three principal North American sports franchises. In addition, through this period, Stavro was instrumental in the construction of the new arena to house both the Toronto Maple Leafs and the Toronto Raptors, the Air Canada Centre (now called Scotiabank Arena). Stavro's sports passions also included the world of horse racing. Stavro's interests began in 1967 with the purchase of two yearlings and the founding of Knob Hill Stables. Over the years the stables inventory swelled to a peak of over 80 horses on their roster. Stable standouts included Molson Million and Prince of Wales Stakes winner Benburb, Canadian International Stakes Winner Thornfield and Prince of Wales Stakes winner and Queen's Plate runner-up, Alezzandro. In a speech to the Canadian Senate following Stavro's passing, Senator Trevor Eyton paid tribute to Steve's life and stated: “Steve Stavro's contributions to business and sport in Canada will not be forgotten. He was a man that followed his passions and a man of self-made success coming from hard work and determination.” Personal life and Knob Hill founding Born in the village of Gabresh (today known as Gavros, and located in the Kastoria regional unit of the administrative region of Western Macedonia, Greece), Stavro and some family members, immigrated to Toronto during the Great Depression in 1933. The family reunited with his father, who had come to Canada in 1927. Stavro and his sister, Gloria, attended Duke of Connaught Public School and Riverdale Collegiate Institute. They also attended Bulgarian language classes at Sts. Cyril & Methody Macedono-Bulgarian Orthodox Church, where Stavro's parents were active members. He worked in his father's store, Louis' Meat Market, in Toronto's east end at Queen Street and Coxwell Avenue and left school after Grade 10 to work full-time. In 1951, he opened his own fresh produce stand across the street under the Knob Hill Farms name. Stavro said he took the name from a box of produce from California. By 1954, he was running his own traditional grocery store at 425-427 Danforth Avenue. By the late 1950s, Stavro was operating nine grocery stores and outdoor markets in Toronto. Knob Hill Farms Steve Stavro, founder of Knob Hill Farms, was a serial innovator and one of the early adopters of the concept of a big box retailer. Knob Hill Farms bought in very large volumes to secure maximum discounts from brokers, wholesalers and farm co-operatives. Knob Hill Farms advertised heavily in Toronto area newspapers and customers flocked to the stores for prices, wide selection and the unique experience. The decision to purchase stock in bulk necessitated the construction of "food terminals” that were significantly larger than any competitors at the time. Over the years Knob Hill Farms would construct the largest grocery store in Ontario, then Canada, followed by North America and finally the world with the construction of Knob Hill Farms’ Cambridge terminal in 1991. Knob Hill Farms’ stores were located close to major transportation arteries for the delivery of bulk goods (and the convenience of the driving public) and many of the stores were serviced directly by railway spur lines (and one directly accessed the Port of Toronto on Lake Ontario). As a result of Knob Hill Farms large individual store sales volumes and the frequent occurrence of customers leaving with bulky orders, Knob Hill Farms adopted a company-wide policy of providing their customers first with large, re-usable, cardboard boxes (for five cents each) and then with sturdy, re-usable plastic baskets, to take their groceries home. These baskets held significantly more than any paper or plastic grocery bags. This initiative represented one of the first examples of a retailer abandoning plastic and paper bags in favour of a reusable and environmentally friendly alternative. Stavro brought a focus to purchasing from local farms, where seasonally appropriate, both to decrease transportation costs and to support local business. In addition to purchasing local products, Knob Hill Farms developed relationships with brokers, wholesalers and suppliers around the world to cater to Toronto's rapidly growing multicultural immigrant communities. Knob Hill Farms was especially notable for its large selection of Continental European, South Asian and Caribbean products. Stavro opened his first food terminal in December 1963 (a 65,000 square foot (6,000 square metre) store). It was located just north of Toronto at Woodbine Avenue and Highway 7 in Markham, Ontario. (At the time of its opening, the Markham location was Canada's biggest grocery store.) Eight years later, on August 4, 1971, Stavro opened a second terminal in Pickering, Ontario – immediately to the east of Toronto. With each store opening it became customary for Stavro to hold events for large industry groups, including brokers, wholesales and manufacturers. This store opening was also noteworthy for the arrival of Sam Walton, founder of Walmart and Sam's Club, who drove in from New York to meet with Steve Stavro. Following the Pickering terminal Stavro opened his third terminal, the first in Toronto, on September 3, 1975. The terminal was located at Lansdowne Avenue and Dundas Street West, on a site previously occupied by a National Cash Register plant. A second Toronto terminal opened on February 2, 1977, at Cherry Street and the Gardiner Expressway. The fifth store, billed as the largest food store in North America, opened November 1, 1978 at Dixie Road and the Queen Elizabeth Way in Mississauga – immediately to the west of Toronto. This was the first store in the chain to sell some non-food products and was initially two stories tall. The second storey was later closed to customers and used for storage. A restaurant, drug store, and wine shop all rented space within the building. On June 29, 1983, Knob Hill Farms opened a location in Oshawa, Ontario in the former Ontario Malleable Iron Company Limited's factory. The building had been used as an iron foundry since 1898, although the company had operated at that site since 1872. The 226,000 square foot (21,000 square metre) building had railway spurs for both Canadian Pacific and Canadian National Railway lines running right to the store. A pharmacy, bakery, dentist's office, video rental store, wine store, and a card shop were among the other businesses initially located within the terminal. The Ontario Municipal Board and the Ontario government approved a 12-acre (5 ha) site in 1982 for the seventh Knob Hill Farms terminal, this one at Weston Road and Highway 401 in the Weston community of Toronto. For this opening a team of executives from The Kroger Company, the largest supermarket chain in the US, flew in on a company jet for the opening. The site was previously an industrial building dating back to the 1930s and was used for the assembly of airplanes (de Havilland Mosquitos) by Massey Harris during World War II. The 325,000 square foot (30,200 square metre) store opened May 14, 1986. Features of the supermarket included a man-made waterfall, rides for children and a variety of shops. The store also featured John Richmond's 1,300 foot (400 metre) mural depicting the history of food from Prometheus to Marc Garneau. In 1984 Knob Hill Farms purchased 1900 Eglinton Ave. East from General Electric on the closing of its factory. The plan was to construct a new food terminal catering to the Scarborough community. This plan, however, was opposed by some members of the local community and led by the area alderman, a real estate broker, who felt the terminal would be “too disruptive to the existing fabric of development”. In 1987 the application for development was formally turned down. The denial came as somewhat of a surprise forcing Knob Hill Farms to pivot its strategy for the location, turning it into a wholesale retailer on the north side of the building and the south side of the building became Knob Hill Farms’ head office. On August 21, 1991, Knob Hill Farms opened a terminal in Cambridge Ontario, the first outside the Greater Toronto Area. The terminal measured 340,000 square feet (31,500 square metres), making it the largest food retail store in the world. It was estimated that the terminal saw over 20,000 customers on opening day with hour long lines and traffic jams surrounding the store. The Store featured 5,250 feet (1,600 metres) of refrigeration units, a 500-foot (150 metre) meat counter and 1,500 parking spaces. An interesting facet of the terminal also was the partnership with the local Mennonite community. 8,000 square feet (750 square metres) of the store was devoted to the sale of homemade Mennonite furniture and fabric, while the parking lot featured a five buggy hitching post to accommodate the Mennonites’ horse and buggy travel. The final Knob Hill terminal, the Riverdale Terminal, opened in 1992. The terminal was located at the Carlaw and Gerrard intersection in Toronto. In August 2000, Stavro announced that all stores would close. At the time, the company had about 800 employees at 10 locations. Knob Hill Farms had lost market share to new competitors, including Walmart and Costco and existing competitors such as Loblaws. In addition, Knob Hill Farms had incurred significant debts. The final store — the Weston site — closed in February 2001 and Stavro ensured that all debts were repaid in full, including termination payments to all employees. Stavro and soccer Stavro's first venture into professional soccer was in 1961 when he, together with George Gross and others, founded the Eastern Canada Professional Soccer League. This league was a four team league with representation from Hamilton, Montreal, and two Toronto teams, the Toronto Italia, which moved from the National Soccer League, and Toronto City, a brand new endeavour. After formation, Stavro and Gross travelled to the United Kingdom seeking to sign stars to play for Toronto City in their off-season and to bring star power to the new league. Stavro and Gross returned with the signatures of goalkeeper and Scottish captain Tommy Younger and forward Jackie Mudie, England and Fulham captain Johnny Haynes, and Northern Irish and Tottenham Hostspur captain Danny Blanchflower. These players were each stars in their own right, but the biggest move, however, was the signing of Stanley Matthews, a legend of the game, and the only player to be knighted while actively playing. It was also the last time that England, Scotland and Northern Ireland captains played on the same team. The league got under way in the spring of 1961, with 16,509 people gathering in Varsity Stadium to watch Toronto City take on Toronto Italia. City would go on to win the league that year, but lose in the semi-finals of the playoffs. The following year the English Football Association stepped in and banned players from playing for other teams during their summer breaks, which ended Toronto City's strategy of acquiring big name stars. In 1966 Stavro helped form the United Soccer Association and entered a team also called Toronto City in the new league. The United Soccer Association originally intended to launch its league in the spring of 1968, but a rival league, the National Professional Soccer League, announced it was ready to launch in 1967. Not wanting to lose ground to its rival, the Association decided to fast track its launch. Without any players of its own, the Association opted to import whole teams from Europe and South America, which would represent the franchises during the inaugural season, giving them time to build their own squads for the following season. Toronto City was represented by Hibernian of the Scottish Football League. The team played 12 games in the 1967 season with six being home games played at Varsity Stadium. Their record for the year was four wins, three losses and five ties to finish third in their division, failing to qualify for the playoffs. In December 1967 the United Soccer Association and the National Professional Soccer League merged to form the North American Soccer League. As a result of this merger some of the Association's franchises, including Toronto City, folded, in part to avoid cities having more than one club in the new league with City losing out to its National Professional Soccer League rival the Toronto Falcons. Stavro sold his team back to the league for $160,000. Summing up Stavro's contribution to Canadian soccer, Senator Trevor Eyton stated that: “Steve was involved in the management of the Continental Soccer League, the International Soccer League, the Eastern Canada Professional Soccer League, the United Soccer Association and the North American Soccer League. As a result of this support and contribution to soccer in Canada, Steve was honoured as a life member of the Canadian Soccer Association.” In addition, in recognition of Stavro's contribution to Canadian soccer he was inducted into the Canadian Soccer Hall of Fame in 2005 as an “honoured builder” of the sport. Knob Hill Stable Stavro's interest in horse racing began in 1967 when he acquired a pair of yearlings – Boy Bandit and Danforth Dan. They were conditioned by J. C. Meyer. However, it wasn't until the early 1980s that Stavro became passionate about thoroughbreds. As his passion grew, he founded Knob Hill Stable in Newmarket Ontario. At the peak of Knob Hill Stables, there were more than 60 horses which included 15 or more racers at Woodbine Racetrack. To further grow Knob Hill Stables prospects Stavro purchased a 300-acre (120 ha) farm in Kentucky in 1988. Stavro had begun to take a bigger interest in not only racing horses, but breeding them as well. The Kentucky farm was used for training in the winter, but more importantly, served as the main location for Knob Hill Stables breeding operations. 1988 was also an important year for Knob Hill Stables due to the success of its thoroughbred Granacus. That year Granacus won the Grade I Blue Grass Stakes at Keeneland Race Course and finished the year winning $300,000 of prize money. The following year Granacus continued his success, starting six races, finishing in the top three all but one time. For the year Granacus ended with winnings of $228,755 In 1992 Knob Hill Stables had its breakout year. That year it won nine stakes races with six different horses and netted $1.8 million in stake winnings. Of the Knob Hill Stables horses, it was their three year old Benburb, bred by the stable, which emerged as the most promising thoroughbred. In the early part of the season Benburb upset Queen's Plate winner Alydeed on a muddy track to win the Prince of Wales Stakes. The win generally surprised the Canadian racing community and began to attract national attention to Benburb and the stable. Later in the year Benburb had another upset win, this one in the GR2 Molson Export Million. In the race Benburb knocked off a blue-chip field that included eventual U.S. Horse of the Year A.P. Indy, Alydeed, and GR1 winner Technology. The win was the highest stake victory a Knob Hill Horse had ever achieved and helped to cement Stavro as one of the premiere Canadian stable owners. At the end of the 1992 season Benburb was selected as the Sovereign Award winner for the Canadian Horse of the Year as well as Champion 3-year-old male honours. In 1995, Knob Hill Stables bred Schossberg, started five races finishing in first on three occasions. Notably, the five-year-old thoroughbred captured the Philip H. Iselin Handicap and the Salvator Mile Handicap. For the 1995 season Schossberg finished with earnings of $293,000. For the remainder of the decade Knob Hill Stables experienced moderate success, winning some smaller stakes races, but a major win proved elusive. Their fortunes changed, however, in 1999, with the success of the Knob Hill Stable bred 5-year-old Thornfield. Thornfield started six races and won three, including the major Canadian International Stakes which carried a US$1 Million purse. The win was a major upset as Thornfield started the race as the longest shot on the board, further cementing Knob Hill Stables reputation as both a superior breeding stable and as frequent upset artists. As a result of his performance in the 1999 season Thornfield won the Sovereign Award for horse of the year and Champion Grass Horse. In the early 2000s Knob Hill Stables experienced moderate success, with 20 horses accumulating career earnings of US$70,000 or more, however, only two horses achieved graded stakes wins, Chopinina and Saoirse. After Stavro's death in 2006, his estate assumed the management of Knob Hill Stable, looking to carry on Stavro's legacy and love of horse racing. That year Stavro was posthumously inducted into the Canadian Racing Hall of Fame. The 2006 season would prove to be successful for the stables largely due to one of the horses Stavro purchased at the Keeneland Yearling Sale, Leonnatus Anteas. Named after one of Alexander the Great's body guards the two year old horse would go on to win all three races he entered, with each race being on a different track surface. For his efforts Leonnatus was voted 2006 Sovereign Award Champion for 2-Year-Old Horse. Leonnatus quickly emerged as one of the more promising Canadian racing horses and began the 2007 season with high expectations. He was a winterbook favorite for the Queens Plate race; however, he unfortunately could not race due to an infection in his pastern. The three-year-old colt made his next start in the September 15 Super Derby at Louisiana Downs in Bossier City, Louisiana, finishing fourth. Even with Leonnatus’ injuries, the 2007 season was one of the most successful in the history of Knob Hill Stables. Leading the charge was the Knob Hill Stables bred three-year-old Alezzandro, a derivative of the name of Stavro's hero, Alexander the Great. That year Alezzandro won the Prince of Wales Stake and finished second in the Queen's Plate, a goal that Stavro strived for his entire life. Alezzandro finished the year 65th in earnings for all of North America and received the Sovereign Award for Champion 3-Year-Old Colt. For the 2007 season Knob Hill Stables finished with US$1,247,000 in earnings, the second highest earnings in their history. In 2008 Knob Hill Stables saw less success than years prior. Their only major stake win for the season was Nicki Knew which won the Boston City Stake. Overall the Stables’ earnings were down to US$608,000. The 2008 season would be the last season that Knob Hill Stables won a major stake competition. Over the next four years the breeding program Stavro championed would slow and overall stable inventory dropped sharply. The horses still racing were mainly holdovers from the 2007/2008 season. 2012 would be the last year that the Stable entered horses into racing competitions. In its 40-year career Knob Hill Stable proved to be one of the premiere Canadian stables. Throughout its history it produced 85 stakes winners that raced throughout North America and Europe. Knob Hill Stables remains one of the few Canadian stables to win the Thoroughbred Owners and Breeders Association award for the top owner horse breeder in North America. Toronto Maple Leafs – Maple Leaf Sports and Entertainment Steve Stavro's interest in hockey started many decades before he would eventually become the majority owner of the Toronto Maple Leafs. In 1962 his grocery store sponsored the Toronto Knob Hill Farms junior ice hockey team in the fledgling Metro Junior A League. While the league would only last two seasons it featured a number of future hockey stars, including a 14 year old Bobby Orr. Stavro's next foray into Toronto hockey management was in 1973 when he purchased a minority interest in the Toronto Toros hockey club of the World Hockey Association. Although the Toros team would move to Birmingham, Alabama after the 1976 season, Stavro's tenure with the team would provide valuable sports management experience for his future endeavors. A long-time friend of Toronto Maple Leafs’ majority owner, Harold Ballard, Stavro had served as a director of Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. Together with the other two Maple Leaf Gardens’ directors, Don Giffin, and Don Crump, Stavro served as an executor of the Ballard estate following Ballard's death on April 11, 1990. In the period between Ballard's death and October 1991, Stavro, Giffin and Crump assumed all management responsibilities for the entire organization. At that time, Stavro became chairman of the board of Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. and Governor of the Toronto Maple Leafs hockey club. In the same year, Stavro repaid a $20 million loan that had been extended to Ballard in 1980 by Molson Brewery, which also owned the Leafs’ bitter rivals, the Montreal Canadiens. In return for repaying the loan, Stavro was granted an option to buy Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd.’s shares from Ballard's estate, equal to 60% of the total outstanding shares of Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. In a separate transaction, Molson Brewery also agreed to sell its 20% stake in Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. to Stavro. The purchase from Molson Brewery closed in 1994, and shortly thereafter Stavro bought the Ballard estate's shares for $34 a share, totalling $75 million. In the purchase from Ballard's estate, Stavro partnered with the Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan. Through this transaction, the Ontario Teachers’ Pension Plan acquired 49% of the shares of Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. and the balance of 51% was held by a holding company, MLG Holdings Limited (and that company was 80% owned by Stavro and 20% owned by TD Bank). The purchase was the subject to a review by the Ontario Securities Commission and a lawsuit from Ballard's son, Bill Ballard, and in the end, the deal stood. In 1996 Stavro sold 25% of MLG Holdings Limited to Larry Tanenbaum's company, Kilmer Sports Inc., for a reported $21 million. Around this same time Maple Leaf Garden Ltd. began to show increased interest in moving locations from Maple Leaf Gardens, their home arena since 1931, as well as interest in acquiring Toronto's newly formed National Basketball Association (NBA) team, the Toronto Raptors. At this time, the Raptors were looking to build a new arena, which was a condition of being granted a franchise by the NBA. The Raptors invited the Maple Leafs to be a tenant at the new arena they were constructing in downtown Toronto. Initially Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. rebuffed the invitation because they concluded that “the footprint is too small”. When Allan Slaight acquired control of the Toronto Raptors in late 1996, talks recommenced regarding the proposed joint use of the new proposed arena. Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. proposed constructing a new $300 million shared arena on top of the rail tracks at Union Station and the land on which the Toronto Raptors were to build their new arena would become a bus terminal. This proposal died when an agreement could not be reached with the City of Toronto government on the rent for the land. In November 1997 Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. submitted a new proposal for a $250 million arena to be located at Exhibition Place. This would have been a hockey only facility as the Toronto Raptors had commenced construction of their own arena south of Union Station. Then, on February 12, 1998, after years of difficult negotiations, Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. purchased 100% of both the Toronto Raptors and the new arena that was under construction, from Allan Slaight and the Bank of Nova Scotia. Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. paid a reported $467 million for both assets, with $179 million attributable to the team and $288 million attributable to the arena under construction. Stavro personally took the lead in significantly revising and upgrading the arena as a top tier entertainment venue. On February 20, 1999, the Scotiabank Arena (formerly known as the Air Canada Centre), was opened to the public. This opening marked a new era of Toronto Maple Leafs hockey. The first game at the new arena took place against historic rivals the Montreal Canadiens. The Toronto Maple Leafs would go on to win the game 3–2 on an overtime goal by Steve Thomas. In the same year MLG Ventures Limited purchased all the remaining publicly traded shares of Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. and took it private. Following this purchase Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. and MLG Ventures Limited amalgamated to form Maple Leafs Sports & Entertainment Ltd. (MLSE). Following the creation of MLSE, Stavro continued to exercise control of the company through the following share structure. MLG Holdings Limited held a 51% interest in MLSE. Stavro owned 55% of this holding company and the minority shareholders were Kilmer Sports Inc. (25%) and TD Capital Group (20%). The remaining 49% of MLSE was owned by Ontario Teachers’ Pension Plan. This tiered ownership structure gave Stavro effective control of MLSE with only a net 28% stake. In contrast to Harold Ballard, who gained much media attention for his cantankerous behaviour and tendency to micromanage the Leafs, Stavro was a dignified man who preferred to stay out of the limelight. He almost never interfered in hockey operations, and mostly left management of the team to experienced executives and staff. The first period of hockey success was led by general manager Cliff Fletcher. In the 1992–93 campaign, the Maple Leafs had their first winning season in 14 years, coming within one game of the Stanley Cup Finals. The Leafs again made the Conference Finals the following season. During the tenure of head coach and general manager Pat Quinn from 1999 to 2002, the team was an annual contender, clinching a Northeast Division title in the 1999–2000 season, notching the first two 100-point seasons in franchise history, and making two Eastern Conference Finals appearances. Stavro was also known in the local Macedonian community to have a friendly competition with fellow Macedonian Mike Ilitch who owned a rival NHL hockey team, the Detroit Red Wings. Stavro stepped down as Chairman of MLSE in 2003 in favour of Tanenbaum, as part of a restructuring plan that also saw his ownership stake sold to the Ontario Teachers’ Pension Plan. When Brad Duguid rose in the Ontario provincial legislature to pay tribute to Stavro on his passing, Duguid summarised Stavro's contribution to, and his passion for, developing a successful National Hockey League franchise as follows: "…clearly one of Steve Stavro's greatest passions was the Toronto Maple Leafs. Steve Stavro took over the Maple Leaf organization at a time when they had lost respect for their rich heritage. One of the first things he did was bring back the retired numbers and hang them proudly from the Maple Leaf Gardens’ rafters. Under Stavro, the Leafs went from a club known for ignoring its alumni to one that showed honour and respect for those who wore the blue and white. Although Steve Stavro never achieved his ultimate goal of winning the Stanley Cup, the Leafs became a perennial contender once again. In short, he returned dignity to the Toronto Maple Leafs." Philanthropy As well as being a notable businessman and sports owner, Steve Stavro was well known in the Toronto community for the charitable causes he championed, much of which was given without public recognition. As The Globe and Mail Chairman Kenneth Thompson said: "Steve was generous to a fault. His friendship and support embraced many grateful and needy recipients. He did not seek public recognition of this. The satisfaction of helping others was reward enough." Stavro was also well known for his contributions to many major infrastructure projects in Toronto based hospitals. The most notable project was the 1988 construction of the Stavro Emergency Department in what is now the Michael Garron Hospital, located in the East York area of Toronto, Stavro's childhood neighbourhood. (His family foundation was subsequently the key donor in the refurbishment of the department in 2007.) Throughout the years the Stavro family foundation has continued to provide funding for this hospital. Stavro was also a frequent donor to various programs at the Mount Sinai and Wellesley hospitals in Toronto. One of the more prominent projects was the establishment at Mount Sinai hospital of the “Steve Atanas Stavro Familial Gastrointestinal Cancer Registry”. As a result of this initiative individuals with a potential family history of gastrointestinal cancer can be more easily screened, providing opportunities for preventative measures to be implemented before development of cancer. Stavro's commitment to the cause of healthcare was not only limited to the Toronto area. In 1987 the Stavro foundation provided funding for the construction of the “Neo-Natal Intensive Care Unit” of the Meir Hospital in Kfar Saba, Israel. The neo-natal unit was a major medical advance for the community as it allowed premature newborns to receive a much higher standard of care post birth, greatly increasing their odds of survival. In addition to Stavro's major healthcare donations, he contributed broadly, including the arts (Toronto Symphony Orchestra, The National Ballet, and Art Gallery of Ontario), universities and high schools across Ontario, old age homes and a variety of community endeavours in Toronto. Particularly noteworthy was Knob Hill Farms longstanding partnership with the Royal Agricultural Winter Fair, a largely indoor agricultural fair held at Exhibition Place in Toronto. Knob Hill Farms sponsored a variety of different attractions at the fair including a designated "Knob Hill Lane" section that contained a number of displays as well as a petting zoo. Stavro was also strongly committed to various multicultural communities within the Toronto region. As an example, in 1967, he contributed to the founding of Caribana (currently, the Toronto Caribbean Carnival). This festival is world renowned and considered one of the Toronto's summer highlights, regularly drawing well over 1 million people to North America's largest street festival. Stavro's charitable giving continues through his family foundation. A recent donation led the YMCA of Greater Toronto to name its Kingston Road facility, which is currently under construction, The Steve & Sally Stavro Family YMCA. This new YMCA is slated to open in the second quarter of 2022. Honours Honorary lifetime director of the Royal Agricultural Winter Fair Honorary director of the Ontario Jockey Club 1993, TOBA Award as North American Thoroughbred Breeder of the Year 1992, Member of the Order of Canada 1992, City of Toronto Award of Merit 1992, Beth Sholom Brotherhood Humanitarian Award 1991, AHEPA Ellis Island Award of Distinction 1988, Decorated Knight Commander, Knights of Malta 1987, Man of the Year, Kupat Holim, Canadian chapter 1985, Canadian Award, John G. Diefenbaker Memorial Foundation 1980, The Knight of the Golden Pencil Award, Food Industry Association of Canada 2002, Queen Elizabeth II's Golden Jubilee Medal Other achievements Stavro was a director of the Liquor Control Board of Ontario, a member of the executive committee of the Economic Council of Canada, a trustee of the Ontario Jockey Club, and honorary campaign chairman of Toronto East General Hospital Emergency Critical Care Fund (1987–89). Stavro was a founding sponsor of Canada's Sports Hall of Fame and a member of its advisory council, founding member of the Canadian Federation of Independent Grocers, corporate member of 4-H Canada, member of the board of directors of the John G. Diefenbaker Memorial Foundation, member of the advisory council for the Equine Research Centre, member of the Jockey Club of Canada, member of the Canadian Thoroughbred Horse Society, and a member of the Thoroughbred Owners and Breeders Association (TOBA) of Lexington, Kentucky. Notes External links Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame profile Order of Canada citation 1926 births 2006 deaths Businesspeople from Toronto Retail company founders Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame inductees Canadian people of Macedonian descent Canadian racehorse owners and breeders Canadian soccer chairmen and investors Canada Soccer Hall of Fame inductees Canadian sports businesspeople Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment Members of the Order of Canada National Hockey League executives National Hockey League owners Sovereign Award winners Toronto Maple Leafs executives Canadian company founders 20th-century Canadian philanthropists Burials at Mount Pleasant Cemetery, Toronto
4879132	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey%20Peterson	Jeffrey Peterson	Jeffrey Peterson (born October 11, 1972 in Santa Barbara, California) is an American technology entrepreneur and California born millionaire who is considered the pioneer of Hispanic internet in the United States. He is best known as the founder of Quepasa, the first Latin American online community to go public and trade on a stock exchange in the early dot-com internet era of the late 1990s. In 2012, Quepasa changed its corporate name to MeetMe and continued trading on the Nasdaq Stock Market under ticker symbol . MeetMe subsequently acquired the Skout, if(we), Tagged, and hi5 social networks and internet brands. As of mid 2018, renamed parent company the Meet Group had a market value of about U.S. $300 million. Early life and education Peterson grew up in Santa Barbara, California. As a son of British mother and an American father, his paternal ancestors emigrated to Santa Barbara from Spain. Peterson was educated at public schools in the Santa Barbara area. He was raised next door to the director of the University of California, Santa Barbara computer laboratory, who introduced him to computer programming at an early age in 1978. In 2017, Peterson's life story was featured in a book written by motivational speaker Brian Tracy about entrepreneurs. Peterson spent much of his early childhood remotely connecting to the UCSB mainframe computers via terminal and modem. Through early access to technology, Peterson learned to make his own Unix and VMS based software applications on the campus PDP-11 and DEC VAX computer systems. In the early years of computing, the largely technical science of programming was a pastime overrun by the likes of college professors and engineers. To fit in, Peterson reportedly maintained an identity for login on the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory PDP-10, where he was known by his peers as "Dr. Jeffrey Peterson", at the age of eleven. In 1981, Peterson landed his first job, as a troubleshooter for a software company focused on Commodore computers. In 1983, he worked as a product tester for vintage hardware manufacturer LOBO Systems. During the mid-1980s, Peterson focused on the development of software for freely distributed bulletin board system and multi-user dungeon gaming applications. He was known among his colleagues as an expert at implementing customized kernel-level multitasking solutions, who regularly pushed early hardware beyond traditional limits. Peterson, already a seasoned assembly and C language developer in his early years, contributed heavily to the emerging F/OSS programming communities of the 1980s. He has published numerous texts, including articles on multiprocessing, quasi-empirical methods, and artificial intelligence. Peterson was ridiculed about his early programming years in a satirical article published by TheStreet.com in 2004. The article, which highlights Peterson's public biography as filled in a Quepasa proxy statement on April 23, 2004, was suspicious about believing that he was programming computers when he was ten years old. Nonetheless, Peterson is credited at this age as a contributor on the inside cover of a best selling microcomputer software book in 1983. Well acquainted with the college scene from his earlier programming years, Peterson worked as a disc jockey at UCSB college radio station KCSB-FM from 1986 to 1990. During the late 1980s, Peterson held the position of "traffic manager" on the sixteen-member executive committee at college radio station KCSB-FM that gave both Jim Rome and Sean Hannity their first radio broadcasting jobs. Peterson dropped out of high school in 1988 at age 16, to pursue his career in investments. He continued postliminary studies in the areas of law and history. Career Wall Street years In 1989, Peterson started his first job at a Wall Street investment firm, Lehman Brothers, where he learned about the stock market. He would later pass the industry exams, becoming a stockbroker at age nineteen. After working for several Wall Street firms, he landed in the field of investment banking, where he gained experience in corporate finance. Peterson would go on to work with investment groups that financed hundreds of companies primarily through initial public offering transactions during the strong stock market conditions of the early 1990s. Quepasa.com In 1997, Peterson founded Quepasa.com, Inc. The website was the first major online community to focus on United States Hispanic Internet users. A year later, he successfully persuaded Arizona sports mogul Jerry Colangelo to help raise in excess of $20 million of seed capital to launch the company. Phoenix Suns star Jason Kidd signed on as an investor as well as the former Denver Broncos quarterback John Elway, investing $500,000. Within months, Costa Rican President José María Figueres joined the Quepasa board of directors. Peterson went on to sell a stake in the Spanish language website to Sony Pictures Entertainment and Telemundo LLC. CNBC chief business commentator and former FDIC chairman L. William Seidman joined Quepasa's board of directors. After meeting with Peterson during an online interview at the offices of the Miami Herald, seven-time GRAMMY award-winning Latina recording artist Gloria Estefan signed a contract to become Quepasa's official spokesperson and investor. Quepasa billboards were a frequent sight in Hispanic cities across the United States, encouraging millions of Latinos to join "El Mundo Nuevo" (Spanish: The New World) online. On June 24, 1999, Quepasa went public on the Nasdaq stock market. By the end of the day, Quepasa was worth $272 million. The young company founder was featured in live interviews on CNN and CNBC. At age 26, Peterson had seen his net worth rise by $36 million. A year later, Quepasa was named the most popular online destination for United States Hispanics, ahead of competitors Starmedia and Yahoo! Espanol. Vayala Corporation In July 2001, Peterson founded an Internet search company called Vayala Corporation, together with Brian Long Lu, son of Asian technology mogul Hong Liang Lu, and Mike Marriott. Vayala, a developer of large scale dynamic search technologies, was successful in securing venture capital financing with executives of Softbank Corp. In 2002, Vayala was acquired by Quepasa. During this time, The Arizona Republic ran a photo of Peterson on the front cover of the Sunday edition, in a three-part feature about his career. The series ran on September 9 and 10, 2001, concluding on September 11, 2001. Quepasa takeover and resurrection By 2002, Quepasa shares had declined in value under the leadership of Trujillo. In media reports, Trujillo blamed the decline in Quepasa's market value on unfavorable market conditions and the ".com bubble". The Chicago Tribune wrote that "even with Internet Winter blowing cold wind across the digital landscape, many experts were surprised to hear the death rattle of America's once successful hispanic-centered Web operation, Quepasa.com." Later that year, Peterson led a group of investors through a proxy fight and hostile takeover of Quepasa, reportedly investing millions of his own money. Shortly after the takeover, Peterson was again named chairman and chief executive of Quepasa. In January 2004, the Business Journal of Phoenix reported that Quepasa was in the midst of a revival led by Jeffrey himself. By 2006, Quepasa shares had increased in value by $150 million. On November 5, 2006, Peterson again left the company, after selling 30% of Quepasa to then-multimillionaire investor Richard Scott, who would later become Governor of Florida. Mobile Corporation In April 2013, Peterson and Quepasa cofounder Michael Silberman launched Mobile Corporation. The company was a start-up venture focused on developing a freelancing platform for Mobile technology. According to filings with the Securities and Exchange Commission, notable board members of Mobile Corporation included Univision Online CEO Javier Saralegui, son of Atari founder Nolan Bushnell, Brent Bushnell, former U.S. Attorney Dennis Burke and Senior Advisor to Mexican billionaire Carlos Slim, Marco A. López Jr. Notable investors in Mobile Corporation included the venture fund of the Silicon Valley based Wilson Sonsini Goodrich & Rosati law firm, Salt Lake City businessman Phil Marriott, Texas land Commissioner George P. Bush, and Prorsus Capital. Mobile established a headquarters office in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Shortly thereafter, the company began developing branch offices at Plaza Carso in Mexico City, in Nogales, Sonora Mexico, and in the Philippines. In August 2014, Mobile Corporation announced that "working together with its investor and intellectual property partner" it had acquired the internet domain name Mobile.co, at $239,000, the second largest ".co" domain sale in history at the time, after Overstock.com (o.co) at $350,000. The Mobile.co domain acquisition, performed by Peterson's investment company, gave rise to complex litigation including a highly publicized UDRP dispute. In an interview, Peterson stated that the original purchase price of the Mobile.co internet domain was $50,000, but the domain seller refused to complete the transfer after he learned who Peterson was, and instead demanded more money. When the UDRP dispute failed, Peterson initiated litigation in federal court and several international venues to secure the domain transfer. The litigation was followed by technology press and domain industry blogs. Shortly after the successful acquisition of Mobile.co, Peterson announced "we have acquired over 30 mobile related [internet domain] names over the last six months." On October 10, 2014, Mobile Corporation named former U.S. Presidential Candidate and Democratic National Committee Chairman Governor Howard Dean as its Global Advocate. Dean, the previous Governor of Vermont, also joined the Advisory Board. By 2015, Mobile had developed a fully operational Mobile freelancing platform. In 2016, Mobile Corporation entered in to a definitive agreement to go public on the Toronto Stock Exchange through a merger transaction. The going-public transaction was not completed, with Mobile remaining a private company. In 2018, Peterson attributed the unsuccessful public transaction to "a combination of market conditions, regulatory issues and problems with former Board members." As of mid-2018, Peterson remained the chairman and CEO of Mobile Corporation. Management controversies and litigation In July 1999, shortly after the Quepasa public offering, Peterson was ousted from the company by Gary Trujillo, the new CEO that Peterson hired to run Quepasa sixty days prior to the incident. Speaking about the surprise management coup to the Arizona Republic newspaper, Peterson stated that Trujillo had "breached every ounce of his trust." In a lawsuit filed in Maricopa County Superior Court, Peterson was accused of competing with Quepasa. The lawsuit was settled 90 days later, with Quepasa paying $2.4 million to Peterson. Trujillo would later concede that the problem was of a "personality issue." Peterson resigned from the board of directors, still remaining Quepasa's largest single shareholder. According to news reports at the time, When Peterson resigned from Quepasa after settling the lawsuit, the company was left in the hands of a chief executive officer and a board of directors inexperienced in both the Internet and the technology that ran it. In 2017, an article in the Arizona Republic newspaper questioned numerous disagreements with members of Peterson's board of directors. The article made public a dispute between Peterson and David Lopez, the father of Latina actress and musician Jennifer Lopez. Peterson's Quepasa had previously contracted with the J.Lo by Jennifer Lopez clothing line. In December 2018, Peterson filed a $100 million defamation lawsuit in the U.S. District Court for Massachusetts against the Arizona Republic, parent company Gannett, reporter Craig Harris, and Dennis Burke, a former business colleague Peterson accuses of orchestrating an allegedly factually incorrect newspaper article as part of a "ongoing retaliatory campaign." According to Peterson's lawsuit, Burke, who resigned in 2011 as U.S. Attorney for the District of Arizona amid allegations of misconduct, had a history of improper retaliation against coworkers and attempted to manipulate the press by leaking documents in the Obama-era Operation Fast and Furious scandal. Peterson attributed his lawsuit against Burke to "a disgruntled former colleague who is a former federal prosecutor apparently willing to use his knowledge of prosecutorial methods to implement various schemes based on lies, innuendo and half truths meant to destabilize our business projects and create the false appearance of wrongs in order to cover up Burke's own bad acts." Political activities Peterson, a Democrat, has been involved in political circles. His political affiliations have often been related to Hispanic interests. According to an article published in the Arizona Republic newspaper, Peterson is a close associate of Hispanic marketing executive Lionel Sosa. Arizona In 2003, Peterson was appointed to the Arizona-Mexico Commission by former Arizona Governor Janet Napolitano. By 2005, he had been appointed to the Executive Committee. In 2005, Peterson was appointed to the cross-border transactions committee of the Arizona Department of Real Estate. The committee is focused on international real estate transactions between residents of Arizona and Mexico. In the same year, he was appointed as the chairman of the Technology Subcommittee of the 2006 Executive Bond Committee, by Phoenix Mayor Phil Gordon. The $850 million bond initiative was approved by voters in March 2006. He also financially supported the March 25, 2006, and April 10, 2006, reform marches organized by immigrants and he was a co-host at a June 1, 2006, fundraiser for Arizona Senatorial candidate Jim Pederson, featuring former president, Bill Clinton. Jeffrey held a fundraiser at his residence for Barack Obama featuring Democratic National Committee Chairman Howard Dean and actress Scarlett Johansson on August 21, 2008. Peterson was named as a co-host at an October 19, 2016 fundraising event for Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton featuring Chelsea Clinton at a private residence in Phoenix. According to Maricopa County's property records, Peterson owned a residence in the same condominium as Arizona Senator John McCain. Washington, D.C. In 2013, Peterson was appointed to the board of directors of the U.S. Philippines Society, a Washington, D.C. based private sector initiative chaired by U.S. Ambassador John Negroponte and former AIG Chairman Maurice "Hank" Greenberg. A prominent picture of Peterson with Benigno Aquino III, former president of the Philippines, was set at the Malacañang Palace and featured in a 2017 print publication. Skybridge Activism On February 10, 2021, Peterson appeared in a cable television news segment, questioning influence of the Mexican Institutional Revolutionary Party on Skybridge Arizona, the first American cross-border cargo port with 'pre-authorization screening' between the United States and Mexico. Hollywood ties Peterson signed Gloria Estefan as Quepasa's spokesperson and investor in 1999. Movie producer Paul Mazursky was an investor in Peterson's startup, Vayala Corp. A newspaper article associated Peterson with Hawk Koch, former president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. The co-founder of rock band Dishwalla is listed as a member of the board of directors in an early Quepasa registration statement. Peterson is a childhood friend of rap music producer Damizza. In September 2005, Quepasa announced a marketing deal with Jennifer Lopez. Former Van Halen lead singer Sammy Hagar, founder of the Mexican tequila brand, Cabo Wabo, was reported to have forged ties with Peterson's Quepasa. Career activities Peterson is considered to be amongst the top authorities on Hispanic Internet culture in the United States. He maintains a presence in a number of IT industry advisory roles. Peterson serves on the Hispanic committee of the Interactive Advertising Bureau in New York City. According to his public biography, he acts as a technology consultant to the Federal government of Mexico. In 2007, a scholarship fund was established at the University of Texas, San Antonio, in Peterson's name. The fund grants scholarships to Hispanic students pursuing technology related degrees. Peterson, together with former MySpace CEO Richard Rosenblatt and PayPal co-founder Peter Thiel, was reported to be among the founding investors of Vator, with his $250,000 angel investment in the start-up company led by Filipina-American entrepreneur and former CBS Marketwatch lead internet reporter Bambi Francisco in May 2007. On July 20, 2009, Peterson sold the Internet domain name demand.com to Demand Media Inc., a company controlled by former Myspace Chairman Richard Rosenblatt. In 2017, Peterson was credited as a producer of a biographical film about entrepreneur and best-selling author Jack Canfield. References External links "Quepasa.com, refugio de los internautas hispanos", by Micaela de la Maza, Baquia.com (Spanish language), December 24, 1999. "Quepasa Announces Relationship With The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)", June 12, 2003. 1972 births Living people American computer programmers American software engineers American technology company founders American technology chief executives American computer businesspeople 21st-century American businesspeople American technology writers Wired (magazine) people 21st-century American engineers American corporate directors Angel investors American stockbrokers Film producers from California American people of English descent People from Santa Barbara, California Businesspeople from Phoenix, Arizona Businesspeople from Cambridge, Massachusetts Film producers from Massachusetts Film producers from Arizona Engineers from California 21st-century American inventors
4879260	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric%20induction	Asymmetric induction	Asymmetric induction (also enantioinduction) describes the preferential formation in a chemical reaction of one enantiomer or diastereoisomer over the other as a result of the influence of a chiral feature present in the substrate, reagent, catalyst or environment. Asymmetric induction is a key element in asymmetric synthesis. Asymmetric induction was introduced by Hermann Emil Fischer based on his work on carbohydrates. Several types of induction exist. Internal asymmetric induction makes use of a chiral center bound to the reactive center through a covalent bond and remains so during the reaction. The starting material is often derived from chiral pool synthesis. In relayed asymmetric induction the chiral information is introduced in a separate step and removed again in a separate chemical reaction. Special synthons are called chiral auxiliaries. In external asymmetric induction chiral information is introduced in the transition state through a catalyst of chiral ligand. This method of asymmetric synthesis is economically most desirable. Carbonyl 1,2 asymmetric induction Several models exist to describe chiral induction at carbonyl carbons during nucleophilic additions. These models are based on a combination of steric and electronic considerations and are often in conflict with each other. Models have been devised by Cram (1952), Cornforth (1959), Felkin (1969) and others. Cram's rule The Cram's rule of asymmetric induction developed by Donald J. Cram in 1952 is an early concept relating to the prediction of stereochemistry in certain acyclic systems. In full the rule is: In certain non-catalytic reactions that diastereomer will predominate, which could be formed by the approach of the entering group from the least hindered side when the rotational conformation of the C-C bond is such that the double bond is flanked by the two least bulky groups attached to the adjacent asymmetric center. The rule indicates that the presence of an asymmetric center in a molecule induces the formation of an asymmetric center adjacent to it based on steric hindrance. In his 1952 publication Cram presented a large number of reactions described in the literature for which the conformation of the reaction products could be explained based on this rule and he also described an elaborate experiment (scheme 1) making his case. The experiments involved two reactions. In experiment one 2-phenylpropionaldehyde (1, racemic but (R)-enantiomer shown) was reacted with the Grignard reagent of bromobenzene to 1,2-diphenyl-1-propanol (2) as a mixture of diastereomers, predominantly the threo isomer (see for explanation the Fischer projection). The preference for the formation of the threo isomer can be explained by the rule stated above by having the active nucleophile in this reaction attacking the carbonyl group from the least hindered side (see Newman projection A) when the carbonyl is positioned in a staggered formation with the methyl group and the hydrogen atom, which are the two smallest substituents creating a minimum of steric hindrance, in a gauche orientation and phenyl as the most bulky group in the anti conformation. The second reaction is the organic reduction of 1,2-diphenyl-1-propanone 2 with lithium aluminium hydride, which results in the same reaction product as above but now with preference for the erythro isomer (2a). Now a hydride anion (H−) is the nucleophile attacking from the least hindered side (imagine hydrogen entering from the paper plane). In the original 1952 publication, additional evidence was obtained for the structural assignment of the reaction products by applying them to a Chugaev elimination, wherein the threo isomer reacts to the cis isomer of -α-methyl-stilbene and the erythro isomer to the trans version. Felkin model The Felkin model (1968) named after Hugh Felkin also predicts the stereochemistry of nucleophilic addition reactions to carbonyl groups. Felkin argued that the Cram model suffered a major drawback: an eclipsed conformation in the transition state between the carbonyl substituent (the hydrogen atom in aldehydes) and the largest α-carbonyl substituent. He demonstrated that by increasing the steric bulk of the carbonyl substituent from methyl to ethyl to isopropyl to isobutyl, the stereoselectivity also increased, which is not predicted by Cram's rule: The Felkin rules are: The transition states are reactant-like. Torsional strain (Pitzer strain) involving partial bonds (in transition states) represents a substantial fraction of the strain between fully formed bonds, even when the degree of bonding is quite low. The conformation in the TS is staggered and not eclipsed with the substituent R skew with respect to two adjacent groups one of them the smallest in TS A. For comparison TS B is the Cram transition state. The main steric interactions involve those around R and the nucleophile but not the carbonyl oxygen atom. Attack of the nucleophile occurs according to the Dunitz angle (107 degrees), eclipsing the hydrogen, rather than perpendicular to the carbonyl. A polar effect or electronic effect stabilizes a transition state with maximum separation between the nucleophile and an electron-withdrawing group. For instance haloketones do not obey Cram's rule, and, in the example above, replacing the electron-withdrawing phenyl group by a cyclohexyl group reduces stereoselectivity considerably. Felkin–Anh model The Felkin–Anh model is an extension of the Felkin model that incorporates improvements suggested by Nguyễn Trọng Anh and Odile Eisenstein to correct for two key weaknesses in Felkin's model. The first weakness addressed was the statement by Felkin of a strong polar effect in nucleophilic addition transition states, which leads to the complete inversion of stereochemistry by SN2 reactions, without offering justifications as to why this phenomenon was observed. Anh's solution was to offer the antiperiplanar effect as a consequence of asymmetric induction being controlled by both substituent and orbital effects. In this effect, the best nucleophile acceptor σ* orbital is aligned parallel to both the π and π* orbitals of the carbonyl, which provide stabilization of the incoming anion. The second weakness in the Felkin Model was the assumption of substituent minimization around the carbonyl R, which cannot be applied to aldehydes. Incorporation of Bürgi–Dunitz angle ideas allowed Anh to postulate a non-perpendicular attack by the nucleophile on the carbonyl center, anywhere from 95° to 105° relative to the oxygen-carbon double bond, favoring approach closer to the smaller substituent and thereby solve the problem of predictability for aldehydes. Anti–Felkin selectivity Though the Cram and Felkin–Anh models differ in the conformers considered and other assumptions, they both attempt to explain the same basic phenomenon: the preferential addition of a nucleophile to the most sterically favored face of a carbonyl moiety. However, many examples exist of reactions that display stereoselectivity opposite of what is predicted by the basic tenets of the Cram and Felkin–Anh models. Although both of the models include attempts to explain these reversals, the products obtained are still referred to as "anti-Felkin" products. One of the most common examples of altered asymmetric induction selectivity requires an α-carbon substituted with a component with Lewis base character (i.e. O, N, S, P substituents). In this situation, if a Lewis acid such as Al-iPr2 or Zn2+ is introduced, a bidentate chelation effect can be observed. This locks the carbonyl and the Lewis base substituent in an eclipsed conformation, and the nucleophile will then attack from the side with the smallest free α-carbon substituent. If the chelating R group is identified as the largest, this will result in an "anti-Felkin" product. This stereoselective control was recognized and discussed in the first paper establishing the Cram model, causing Cram to assert that his model requires non-chelating conditions. An example of chelation control of a reaction can be seen here, from a 1987 paper that was the first to directly observe such a "Cram-chelate" intermediate, vindicating the model: Here, the methyl titanium chloride forms a Cram-chelate. The methyl group then dissociates from titanium and attacks the carbonyl, leading to the anti-Felkin diastereomer. A non-chelating electron-withdrawing substituent effect can also result in anti-Felkin selectivity. If a substituent on the α-carbon is sufficiently electron withdrawing, the nucleophile will add anti- relative to the electron withdrawing group, even if the substituent is not the largest of the 3 bonded to the α-carbon. Each model offers a slightly different explanation for this phenomenon. A polar effect was postulated by the Cornforth model and the original Felkin model, which placed the EWG substituent and incoming nucleophile anti- to each other in order to most effectively cancel the dipole moment of the transition structure. This Newman projection illustrates the Cornforth and Felkin transition state that places the EWG anti- to the incoming nucleophile, regardless of its steric bulk relative to RS and RL. The improved Felkin–Anh model, as discussed above, makes a more sophisticated assessment of the polar effect by considering molecular orbital interactions in the stabilization of the preferred transition state. A typical reaction illustrating the potential anti-Felkin selectivity of this effect, along with its proposed transition structure, is pictured below: Carbonyl 1,3 asymmetric induction It has been observed that the stereoelectronic environment at the β-carbon of can also direct asymmetric induction. A number of predictive models have evolved over the years to define the stereoselectivity of such reactions. Chelation model According to Reetz, the Cram-chelate model for 1,2-inductions can be extended to predict the chelated complex of a β-alkoxy aldehyde and metal. The nucleophile is seen to attack from the less sterically hindered side and anti- to the substituent Rβ, leading to the anti-adduct as the major product. To make such chelates, the metal center must have at least two free coordination sites and the protecting ligands should form a bidentate complex with the Lewis acid. Non-chelation model Cram–Reetz model Cram and Reetz demonstrated that 1,3-stereocontrol is possible if the reaction proceeds through an acyclic transition state. The reaction of β-alkoxy aldehyde with allyltrimethylsilane showed good selectivity for the anti-1,3-diol, which was explained by the Cram polar model. The polar benzyloxy group is oriented anti to the carbonyl to minimize dipole interactions and the nucleophile attacks anti- to the bulkier (RM) of the remaining two substituents. Evans model More recently, Evans presented a different model for nonchelate 1,3-inductions. In the proposed transition state, the β-stereocenter is oriented anti- to the incoming nucleophile, as seen in the Felkin–Anh model. The polar X group at the β-stereocenter is placed anti- to the carbonyl to reduce dipole interactions, and Rβ is placed anti- to the aldehyde group to minimize the steric hindrance. Consequently, the 1,3-anti-diol would be predicted as the major product. Carbonyl 1,2 and 1,3 asymmetric induction If the substrate has both an α- and β-stereocenter, the Felkin–Anh rule (1,2-induction) and the Evans model (1,3-induction) should considered at the same time. If these two stereocenters have an anti- relationship, both models predict the same diastereomer (the stereoreinforcing case). However, in the case of the syn-substrate, the Felkin–Anh and the Evans model predict different products (non-stereoreinforcing case). It has been found that the size of the incoming nucleophile determines the type of control exerted over the stereochemistry. In the case of a large nucleophile, the interaction of the α-stereocenter with the incoming nucleophile becomes dominant; therefore, the Felkin product is the major one. Smaller nucleophiles, on the other hand, result in 1,3 control determining the asymmetry. Acyclic alkenes asymmetric induction Chiral acyclic alkenes also show diastereoselectivity upon reactions such as epoxidation and enolate alkylation. The substituents around the alkene can favour the approach of the electrophile from one or the other face of the molecule. This is the basis of the Houk's model, based on theoretical work by Kendall Houk, which predicts that the selectivity is stronger for cis than for trans double bonds. In the example shown, the cis alkene assumes the shown conformation to minimize steric clash between RS and the methyl group. The approach of the electrophile preferentially occurs from the same side of the medium group (RM) rather than the large group (RL), mainly producing the shown diastereoisomer. Since for a trans alkene the steric hindrance between RS and the H group is not as large as for the cis case, the selectivity is much lower. Substrate control: asymmetric induction by molecular framework in acyclic systems Asymmetric induction by the molecular framework of an acyclic substrate is the idea that asymmetric steric and electronic properties of a molecule may determine the chirality of subsequent chemical reactions on that molecule. This principal is used to design chemical syntheses where one stereocentre is in place and additional stereocentres are required. When considering how two functional groups or species react, the precise 3D configurations of the chemical entities involved will determine how they may approach one another. Any restrictions as to how these species may approach each other will determine the configuration of the product of the reaction. In the case of asymmetric induction, we are considering the effects of one asymmetric centre on a molecule on the reactivity of other functional groups on that molecule. The closer together these two sites are, the larger an influence is expected to be observed. A more holistic approach to evaluating these factors is by computational modelling, however, simple qualitative factors may also be used to explain the predominant trends seen for some synthetic steps. The ease and accuracy of this qualitative approach means it is more commonly applied in synthesis and substrate design. Examples of appropriate molecular frameworks are alpha chiral aldehydes and the use of chiral auxiliaries. Asymmetric induction at alpha-chiral aldehydes Possible reactivity at aldehydes include nucleophilic attack and addition of allylmetals. The stereoselectivity of nucleophilic attack at alpha-chiral aldehydes may be described by the Felkin–Anh or polar Felkin Anh models and addition of achiral allylmetals may be described by Cram’s rule. Felkin–Anh and polar Felkin–Anh model Selectivity in nucleophilic additions to chiral aldehydes is often explained by the Felkin–Anh model (see figure). The nucleophile approaches the carbon of the carbonyl group at the Burgi-Dunitz angle. At this trajectory, attack from the bottom face is disfavored due to steric bulk of the adjacent, large, functional group. The polar Felkin–Anh model is applied in the scenario where X is an electronegative group. The polar Felkin–Anh model postulates that the observed stereochemistry arises due to hyperconjugative stabilization arising from the anti-periplanar interaction between the C-X antibonding σ* orbital and the forming bond. Improving Felkin–Anh selectivity for organometal additions to aldehydes can be achieved by using organo-aluminum nucleophiles instead of the corresponding Grignard or organolithium nucleophiles. Claude Spino and co-workers have demonstrated significant stereoselectivity improvements upon switching from vinylgrignard to vinylalane reagents with a number of chiral aldehydes. Cram’s rule Addition of achiral allylmetals to aldehydes forms a chiral alcohol, the stereochemical outcome of this reaction is determined by the chirality of the α-carbon on the aldehyde substrate (Figure "Substrate control: addition of achiral allylmetals to α-chiral aldehydes"). The allylmetal reagents used include boron, tin and titanium. Cram’s rule explains the stereoselectivity by considering the transition state depicted in figure 3. In the transition state the oxygen lone pair is able to interact with the boron centre whilst the allyl group is able to add to the carbon end of the carbonyl group. The steric demand of this transition state is minimized by the α-carbon configuration holding the largest group away from (trans to) the congested carbonyl group and the allylmetal group approaching past the smallest group on the α-carbon centre. In the example below (Figure "An example of substrate controlled addition of achiral allyl-boron to α-chiral aldehyde"), (R)-2-methylbutanal (1) reacts with the allylboron reagent (2) with two possible diastereomers of which the (R, R)-isomer is the major product. The Cram model of this reaction is shown with the carbonyl group placed trans to the ethyl group (the large group) and the allyl boron approaching past the hydrogen (the small group). The structure is shown in Newman projection. In this case the nucleophilic addition reaction happens at the face where the hydrogen (the small group) is, producing the (R, R)-isomer as the major product. Chiral auxiliaries Asymmetric stereoinduction can be achieved with the use of chiral auxiliaries. Chiral auxiliaries may be reversibly attached to the substrate, inducing a diastereoselective reaction prior to cleavage, overall producing an enantioselective process. Examples of chiral auxiliaries include, Evans’ chiral oxazolidinone auxiliaries (for asymmetric aldol reactions) pseudoephedrine amides and tert-butanesulfinamide imines. Substrate control: asymmetric induction by molecular framework in cyclic systems Cyclic molecules often exist in much more rigid conformations than their linear counterparts. Even very large macrocycles like erythromycin exist in defined geometries despite having many degrees of freedom. Because of these properties, it is often easier to achieve asymmetric induction with macrocyclic substrates rather than linear ones. Early experiments performed by W. Clark Still and colleagues showed that medium- and large-ring organic molecules can provide striking levels of stereo induction as substrates in reactions such as kinetic enolate alkylation, dimethylcuprate addition, and catalytic hydrogenation. Even a single methyl group is often sufficient to bias the diastereomeric outcome of the reaction. These studies, among others, helped challenge the widely-held scientific belief that large rings are too floppy to provide any kind of stereochemical control. A number of total syntheses have made use of macrocyclic stereocontrol to achieve desired reaction products. In the synthesis of (−)-cladiella-6,11-dien-3-ol, a strained trisubstituted olefin was dihydroxylated diasetereoselectively with N-methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMO) and osmium tetroxide, in the presence of an unstrained olefin. En route to (±)-periplanone B, chemists achieved a facial selective epoxidation of an enone intermediate using tert-butyl hydroperoxide in the presence of two other alkenes. Sodium borohydride reduction of a 10-membered ring enone intermediate en route to the sesquiterpene eucannabinolide proceeded as predicted by molecular modelling calculations that accounted for the lowest energy macrocycle conformation. Substrate-controlled synthetic schemes have many advantages, since they do not require the use of complex asymmetric reagents to achieve selective transformations. Reagent control: addition of chiral allylmetals to achiral aldehydes In organic synthesis, reagent control is an approach to selectively forming one stereoisomer out of many, the stereoselectivity is determined by the structure and chirality of the reagent used. When chiral allylmetals are used for nucleophilic addition reaction to achiral aldehydes, the chirality of the newly generated alcohol carbon is determined by the chirality of the allymetal reagents (Figure 1). The chirality of the allymetals usually comes from the asymmetric ligands used. The metals in the allylmetal reagents include boron, tin, titanium, silicon, etc. Various chiral ligands have been developed to prepare chiral allylmetals for the reaction with aldehydes. H. C. Brown was the first to report the chiral allylboron reagents for asymmetric allylation reactions with aldehydes. The chiral allylboron reagents were synthesized from the natural product (+)-a-pinene in two steps. The TADDOL ligands developed by Dieter Seebach has been used to prepare chiral allyltitanium compounds for asymmetric allylation with aldehydes. Jim Leighton has developed chiral allysilicon compounds in which the release of ring strain facilitated the stereoselective allylation reaction, 95% to 98% enantiomeric excess could be achieved for a range of achiral aldehydes. See also Macrocyclic stereocontrol Cieplak effect References External links The Evolution of Models for Carbonyl Addition Evans Group Afternoon Seminar Sarah Siska February 9, 2001 Stereochemistry Induct
4879458	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House%20of%20Cro%C3%BF	House of Croÿ	The House of Croÿ () is a family of European mediatized nobility, which held a seat in the Imperial Diet from 1486, and was elevated to the rank of Princes of the Holy Roman Empire in 1594. In 1533 they became Dukes of Arschot (in Belgium) and in 1598 Dukes of Croy in France. In 1913, the family had branches in Belgium, France, Austria and Prussia. This dynastic house, which originally adopted its name from the Château de Crouy-Saint-Pierre in French Picardy, claimed descent from the Hungarian Prince Marc, (if true, he was likely a grandson of Prince Géza) who allegedly settled in France in 1147, where he married an heiress to the barony of Croÿ. The Croÿ family rose to prominence under the Dukes of Burgundy. Later, they became actively involved in the complex politics of France, Spain, Austria, and the Low Countries. Among the more illustrious members of the House of Croÿ were two bishop-dukes of Cambrai, two cardinals (one being also the Archbishop of Toledo and another being the Archbishop of Rouen), five bishops (those of Thérouanne, Tournai, Cammin, Arras, and Ypres), one prime minister of Philip the Good, one finance minister, archchancellor, chief admiral, godfather and tutor of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (himself godfather to another Croÿ), one Grand-Bouteiller, one Grand-Maitre and one Marshal of France; one Grand Equerry of the King of Spain, several imperial field marshals and twenty generals, four finance ministers of the Netherlands, two governors of the Netherlands and Belgium, one Russian field marshal; numerous ministers, ambassadors and senators in France, Austria, Belgium, and a record of thirty-two knights of the Order of the Golden Fleece. The head of the house bears the title of duke, with all the other members titled as princes or princesses. All of them bear the predicate of Serene Highness. The Croÿs of Burgundy Jean I de Croÿ was responsible for the ascendancy of his family to a position of supreme power in medieval Burgundy. He served Philip the Bold and his son John the Fearless in the capacity of councillor and chamberlain. In 1384 he married a wealthy heiress, Marie de Craon, successfully suing her first husband's family upon her death. In 1397, Jean acquired the lordship of Chimay, which was to become a core dominion of the Croÿ family. Four years later, he was appointed governor of Artois and led the ducal armies against the rebellious citizens of Liège. He was recorded as the Grand Bouteiller of the king of France in 1412 when he laid siege to Bourges. The following year, Isabeau of Bavaria had him apprehended and incarcerated in the castle of Montlhéry, whence he escaped. Jean, together with two of his sons, were killed in the Battle of Agincourt on 25 October 1415. Antoine I le Grand, Jean I's eldest surviving son and heir, was a key figure in 15th-century French politics. Securing for himself the post of governor general of the Netherlands and Luxembourg, he presided over the pro-French party at the court of Philip the Good and was one of the judges at the trial for treason in 1458 of Duke of Alençon. Like his father, he led French and Burgundian armies against Liège and distinguished himself at the Battle of Brouwershaven fighting against the English. While on a mission to the court of the Duke of Berry, he was implicated in the assassination of Louis de Valois, Duke of Orléans and as a consequence suffered torture in the Château de Blois. Having extricated himself from this predicament, Antoine used his power to expand his family's possessions: in 1429 he obtained the lordship of Le Rœulx; three years later he married a princess of Lorraine, who brought Aarschot to his family as her dowry; in 1446 he purchased the Château de Montcornet and completely rebuilt it. In 1438 he acquired the castle of Porcien and was made Count of Porcéan and Guînes by Charles VII in 1455. A year earlier, he had married his daughter to Count Palatine Louis I of Pfalz-Zweibrücken in order to increase his influence in the orbit of the Holy Roman Empire. With Charles the Bold, the future Duke of Burgundy, he was at loggerheads, especially after they clashed over the inheritance of Jeanne d'Harcourt, Countess of Namur. Upon Charles's accession, Antoine was accused of plotting with astrologers to bring about the Duke's downfall and was compelled to flee to France. In France he took part in the coronation of Louis XI and was chosen as a godfather to the future Louis XII. It was not until the age of 83 that he reconciled himself with Charles and was allowed to reclaim his properties in Burgundy. He died either in 1475 or 1477 and was interred in Porcien. Agnes de Croÿ was his sister and the mistress of Duke John the Fearless, by whom she had a natural son, the future bishop of Cambrai and archbishop of Trier. Several noble families of Belgium and the Netherlands descend from this prelate's eleven illegitimate children. The lines of Croÿ-Arschot-Havré and Croÿ-Rœulx stem from Antoine's two sons, Philippe I and Jean III, while his younger brother, Jean II, was the progenitor of the only extant line of the family, that of Croÿ-Solre. All three lines engaged in a complex pattern of intermarriage, so that estates and titles would stay within the family as long as possible. The line of Croÿ-Aerschot Antoine was succeeded as count of Porcéan by his eldest son, Philippe I de Croÿ, governor of Luxembourg and Ligny. Philippe I de Croÿ was raised together with Charles the Bold, who arranged Philippe's marriage to Jacqueline of Luxembourg in 1455. The bride's father was extremely against the alliance and attempted to win his daughter back by force, but the Count of Porcéan closed the borders of Luxembourg and announced that the marriage had been consummated. In 1471 Philippe defected to the king of France with 600 knights but returned to Burgundy to fight for Charles during the Battle of Nancy. During the battle he was taken prisoner. Following Charles's death, Philippe de Croÿ helped arrange the betrothal of his heiress, Marie, with Emperor Maximilian I. Toward the end of his life, he was employed by the Emperor as governor of Valenciennes, lieutenant general of Liège, and captain general of Hainaut. Philippe commissioned a remarkable church in Château-Porcien, in which he was buried upon his death in 1511. Among Philippe's sons, Antoine, Bishop of Thérouanne, predeceased his father and lies buried in Cyprus. More notable was Guillaume de Croÿ (1458–1521) (Guillermo de Chièvres, Chievres or Xebres in Spanish documents). As a tutor to Carlos I of Spain (afterwards Emperor Charles V), Guillaume became the power behind the Spanish throne during his pupil's minority, obtaining for himself the titles of Marquis of Aarschot and Duke of Soria and Archi. The Spanish aristocracy detested him as a foreigner, accusing him of pillaging the treasury and other irregularities, causing a wave of civil unrest to spread through Castile. Guillaume attended the Diet of Worms, where he was poisoned on 28 May 1521, apparently by German nobles afraid of his influence on imperial politics. Guillaume's nephew and namesake, Guillaume III de Croÿ (1497–1521), was tutored by the Spanish humanist Juan Luís Vives. As it appeared unlikely he would succeed to the lands of his grandfather, Philippe I, he was steered toward the church. Family interests ensured his rapid promotion: he was elected bishop of Cambrai at the age of eighteen, and made a cardinal a few months later. Within a year, Charles V bestowed upon his young friend the archbishopric of Toledo, making him the primate of Spain. This unprecedented move brought Spain to the brink of a civil war. Guillaume accompanied his uncle and Charles to Worms, where on 6 January he died at the age of 23, following a fall from his horse. His tomb is in the Celestine monastery of Louvain, founded by his father. Guillaume III's elder brother, Philippe II de Croÿ (1496–1549), succeeded to the County of Porcéan upon his father's death in 1514. Like his predecessors, he was Governor of Hainault and senior knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, but it is as Charles V's general that he is best remembered. In 1533 Charles V created Philippe Duke of Soria and Archi and grandee of Spain. Earlier, he had become marquis of Renty and exchanged the lordship of Longwy in Normandy for that of Havré, which his descendants would develop as the family seat. His first wife was a cousin, Anne de Croÿ, Princess of Chimay. She died in 1539, and nine years later Philippe married Anna of Lorraine, leaving offspring by both marriages. Philippe II's eldest son, Charles I de Croÿ (1522–51), inherited the principality of Chimay from his mother and succeeded to the duchy of Aarschot upon his father's death. He was assassinated in Quievrain two years later, leaving no children by his marriage to Louise of Lorraine-Guise. Thereupon Chimay and Aarschot passed to Philippe II's second son, Philippe III. Philipe de Croÿ, Duke of Aerschot (1526–1595), was made 216th knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece by Philip II of Spain. In 1567 his cousin Antoine III de Croÿ, 1st Prince of Porcéan died without issue by his marriage to Catherine of Cleves, and the principality of Porcéan devolved upon Philippe. His devotion to the Roman Catholic Church, which he expressed by showing his delight at the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, led Philip II to regard him with great favor. He was appointed governor of the citadel of Antwerp but defected to the other side before long. Jealous of William the Silent's influence, he was then the head of the party which induced Archduke Matthias (afterwards emperor) to undertake the sovereignty of the Netherlands, and soon afterwards was appointed governor-general of Flanders by the state council. A strong party, including the burghers of Ghent, distrusted the new governor; Arschot, who was taken prisoner during a riot at Ghent, was only released on promising to resign office. He then sought to regain the favor of Philip of Spain, and having been pardoned by the king in 1580 again shared in the government of the Netherlands; but he refused to serve under the Count of Fuentes when he became governor-general in 1594, and retired to Venice, where he died in December 1595. Philippe III was succeeded by his only son, Charles II de Croÿ (1560–1612), who was created Duke of Croÿ by Henry IV of France in 1598. As Charles was childless, the duchy of Arschot passed to his sister Anne de Croÿ, who had married Charles de Ligne, 2nd Prince of Arenberg, thus bringing Aarschot to the House of Arenberg. Another sister, Marguerite, inherited the lordships of Halewyn and Comines, which passed to her husband, Wratislaw, Count of Fürstenberg. The line of Croÿ-Havré First line Charles Philippe de Croÿ (1549–1613) was the eldest son of Philippe II by his second wife, Anne of Lorraine. A successful imperial general, he was created Prince of the Holy Roman Empire in 1594. It was the first time when a simple baron was admitted among Princes of the Empire. Charles Alexandre de Croÿ, Marquis d'Havré (1581–1624) was the son of the preceding. He inherited the title of Prince of Croÿ from his father, that of Count of Fontenoy from his mother, Diane de Dompmartin, and that of Duke of Croÿ (in the French peerage) - from his childless cousin and brother-in-law, Charles II. He served as a hereditary marshal of the Holy Empire in the Battle of White Mountain, and advised Archduke Albert of Austria, Governor of Netherlands in the capacity of his chamberlain. Philip III of Spain made him the Superintendent of Finances and a Grandee of Spain. His second wife, Countess Genevieve d'Urfe, was a great beauty notorious for her many liaisons. When Charles Alexandre was shot dead in his palace at Brussels on November 5, 1624, French courtiers put the blame upon Genevieve and her reputed lover, the Marquis of Spinola. One innocent man was condemned on that account and was immured in a fortress until a true culprit admitted his guilt to a confessor 32 years later. Charles Alexandre's reminiscences were not published until 1845. Charles Alexandre's nephew, Ernst Bogislaw von Croÿ (1620–1684), inherited both princely and ducal titles of Croÿ when he was just four years old. As his father died a month after his birth, Ernst Bogislaw was brought up by his mother, Anne de Croy (also known as Anna of Pomerania in her native land, where he was styled Prince of Massow and of Neugarten). Although he was destined for the church and received the see of Cammin in due time, Ernst Bogislaw also had illegitimate children by several mistresses. He died in Königsberg at the age of 63 and was buried in Stolp Castle. Second line Marie Claire de Croÿ (1605–1664) was Charles Alexandre's only daughter by marriage to Princess Yolande de Ligne. She married two of her distant cousins, Charles Philippe de Croÿ, Marquis of Renty (in 1627) and then his brother Philippe Francois de Croÿ, Count of Solre (in 1643), in order to preclude the family estates from passing to another family. At the time of her first marriage, Philip III of Spain raised her marqusate of Havré to a dukedom, with her as the first duchess. By her first marriage, she had two children - Philippe Eugene de Croÿ, Bishop of Valencia and Marie Ferdinande, Marquise of Renty, the wife of Louis Philippe, Count of Egmond. Her only son by the second marriage, Ferdinand de Croÿ-Solre, succeeded to the ducal title. Among his children, Charles, 4th Duke of Havré, was killed at Saragossa in 1710; Marie Therese left children by her marriage to Landgrave Philip of Hesse-Darmstadt; and Jean-Baptiste de Croÿ, the 5th Duke, left children by his marriage to Marie Anne Lante Montefeltro della Rovere (daughter of Antonio Lante Montefeltro della Rovere). This line came to an end in 1839, when the 7th Duke of Havré and Croÿ died in Paris, aged ninety-five, having outlived all of his sons. His daughter and heiress married a distant cousin, Emmanuel de Croÿ-Solre, who succeeded to the estates and titles. The 7th Duke's sister, Louise Elisabeth de Croÿ-Havré (1749–1832), is best known for her book of memoirs on the French Revolution and the years of emigration that followed. A close friend of Queen Marie Antoinette, she was appointed by her to the vacant post of royal governess for the future Louis XVII. During the revolution, she was incarcerated with her own daughter and doomed to the guillotine when a mysterious gentleman smuggled them out of the prison. After one of her pupils ascended the throne as Charles X he made her an hereditary duchess. Louise Elisabeth de Croÿ, 1st Duchess of Tourzel died in the Château de Groussay on 15 May 1832. The line of Croÿ-Roeulx The line of Counts of Rœulx descends from Jean III de Croÿ (1436–1505), the second son of Antoine le Grand and younger brother of Philippe I. Jean III's grandson, Adrien de Croÿ, 1st Count of Rœulx, served as governor of Flanders and Artois before his death in combat in 1553. His granddaughter is remembered as La Belle Franchine, the beautiful mistress of Alessandro Farnese. In 1609, the senior line of the Counts of Rœulx became extinct, and the county passed to a cadet branch, represented by Eustache de Croÿ (1608–73), governor of Lille and Douai. Eustache's son, Ferdinand Gaston Lamoral de Croÿ, unexpectedly succeeded to the duchy of Croÿ in 1684, when the most senior member of the house, Ernst Bogislaw von Croÿ, had died in Königsberg. After Ferdinand's grandson, 6th Duke of Croÿ, died childless at Le Rœulx in 1767, the line of Croÿ-Rœulx expired and the Château du Rœulx together with the ducal title passed to the line of Croÿ-Solre (see below). Probably the most illustrious member of the Croÿ-Rœulx branch was Eustache's nephew, Charles Eugène de Croÿ (1651–1702). He participated in the Battle of Lund (1676) against the Swedes before succeeding to his father's title as Prince of Croÿ-Millendonck in 1681. Charles Eugene fought with success in the Imperial Austrian Army against the Turks and participated in both the liberation of Vienna in 1683 and the attack on Belgrade in 1690. He was promoted Imperial field marshal for his vital services to the Austrian crown. In 1697 he entered the Russian service and was put in charge of Peter I's forces fighting in Livonia during the initial stages of the Great Northern War. After suffering a humiliating defeat in the Battle of Narva on 20 November 1700, Charles Eugene was taken prisoner by the Swedes and died at their fortress of Reval on 30 January 1702. On demand of his creditors, his body was not buried for more than a century (190 years-until 1897), and, when mummified, was exhibited in a glass coffin as a curiosity, with fees paid by tourists as a price of admission used to settle his debts. The line of Croÿ-Solre Origins The only line of the House of Croÿ existing today, that of Croÿ-Solre, descends from Antoine le Grand's younger brother, Jean II de Croÿ (1395–1473), who governed Hainaut and Namur in the name of the Dukes of Burgundy. His dominions were centred on the town of Chimay, of which he became the first count. In 1430, he was made one of the first Knights of the Order of the Golden Fleece. Jean II's grandson, Count Charles de Croÿ-Chimay (1455–1527), made a name for himself in the Battle of Guinegate in 1479. He succeeded to the county of Chimay in 1482 and to the possessions of his mother, a countess of Mors-Saarwerden, several years later. In 1500, Charles was summoned to take part in the baptism of the future emperor Charles V, during whose minority he served as one of the governors. The Prince of Chimay had many children by his wife, Louise d'Albret, sister of Jean d'Albret, King of Navarre. Only two daughters reached the age of majority, Anne inheriting Chimay while Marguerite obtained Wavrin. The former married a cousin, Philippe II de Croÿ, Duke of Arschot (see above), and their children succeeded to the principality of Chimay. Jacques III de Croÿ-Sempy (1508–1587) was Jean II's great-grandson and Charles de Chimay's nephew. It was through his mother, Louise of Luxembourg, that he succeeded to the Château of Fontaine-l'Évêque in 1529, later obtaining more lands as a dowry for his three marriages. His last wife, Yolande de Lannoy, brought the manors of Molembais, Solre, and Tourcoing to the House of Croÿ. Their son Philippe was the first to style himself Count of Solre. He died in Bohemia in 1612, leaving two daughters and four sons, of whom the eldest succeeded as the 2nd Count of Solre. A younger son married the 1st Duchess of Havré, giving birth to the second line of Croÿ-Havré, which expired in 1839 (see above). Modern times Towards the end of the 18th century, as other branches of the family were coming to an end, the line of Croÿ-Solre accumulated a number of their titles and possessions. During the French Revolution, Anne Emmanuel de Croÿ, 8th Duke of Croÿ (1743–1803), moved his seat from Le Rœulx to the Westphalian town of Dülmen, formerly a possession of his wife, a princess of Salm-Kyrburg. Among his sons, Prince Gustave of Croÿ (1773–1844) rose to become a cardinal and archbishop of Rouen. Another son, Auguste de Croÿ, 9th Duke of Croÿ, better known as Le Bel Auguste (1765–1822), was mediatized upon the demise of the Holy Roman Empire in his capacity as sovereign prince of Dülmen. When the Bourbons were restored to the throne of France, Auguste was made a peer of France. From three of Auguste's sons – Alfred, Ferdinand and Philipp Franz – descend the three extant branches of the House of Croÿ, residing in Germany and France. On 24 October 1913, Karl Rudolf, 13th Duke of Croÿ, married Nancy Leishman, daughter of Pittsburgh industrialist John George Alexander Leishman, United States Ambassador to Germany and former president of Carnegie Steel. In 1974, Karl Rudolf died and was succeeded by his son Carl, 14th Duke of Croÿ (1914–2011); Carl was married to Princess Gabriele, daughter of Crown Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria. Their eldest son, Rudolf, the 15th and current Duke of Croÿ (b. 1955), married Alexandra Miloradovich, member of the Miloradović noble family; they had six children. Duchess Alexandra died on 23 September 2015; her funeral took place at St Jakobus Kirche in Dülmen on 3 October 2015. The Duke and his family live at their Haus Merfeld estate near Dülmen. Dukes of Croÿ of the Solre line (1767–present) Philippe Emanuel Ferdinand of Croÿ (1641–1718), created Prince of Solre Philippe-Alexandre-Emmanuel of Croÿ (1676–1723), 2nd Prince of Solre Emmanuel, 7th Duke 1767–1784 (1718–1784), 3rd Prince of Solre Anne Emmanuel, 8th Duke 1784–1803 (1743–1803), 4th Prince of Solre Auguste, 9th Duke 1803–1822 (1765–1822), Solre title passed to his brother Alfred, 10th Duke 1822–1861 (1789–1861) Rudolf, 11th Duke 1861–1902 (1823–1902) Karl Alfred, 12th Duke 1902–1906 (1859–1906) Karl Rudolf, 13th Duke 1899–1974 (1889–1974) Carl, 14th Duke 1974–2011 (1914–2011) Rudolf, 15th Duke 2011–present (born 1955) Carl Philipp, Hereditary Prince of Croÿ (born 1989) Prince Marc Emanuel of Croÿ (born 1992) Prince Heinrich of Croÿ (born 1993) Prince Alexander of Croÿ (born 1995) Prince Stefan of Croÿ (born 1959) Prince Lionel of Croÿ (born 1996) Prince Clemens Franz of Croÿ (born 1934) Prince Carl Clemens of Croÿ (born 1963) Prince Vincenz of Croÿ (born 1993) Prince Sebastian of Croÿ (born 1995) Prince Constantin of Croÿ (born 1968) Prince Emanuel of Croÿ (born 2008) Prince Anton Prosper Clemens of Croÿ (1893–1973) Prince Clemens Anton Philipp Joseph of Croÿ (born 1926) Prince Eugen Alexander of Croÿ (born 1953) Prince Philipp Alexander of Croÿ (born 1957) Prince Alexander of Croÿ (born 1987) Prince Maximilian of Croÿ (born 1988) Prince Albrecht-Alexander of Croÿ (born 1959) Prince Julius Constantin of Croÿ (born 1993) Prince Engelbert of Croÿ (born 1962) Prince Constantin of Croÿ (born 1992) Prince Carl-Georg of Croÿ (born 1994) Prince Anton Egon Clemens of Croÿ (1945–2003) Prince Anton Clemens of Croÿ (born 1974) Prince Anton Ferdinand of Croÿ (born 1994) Prince Alexis Wilhelm of Croÿ (1825–1898), ancestor of Bohemian line Prince Ferdinand Victor Philippe of Croÿ (1791–1865), ancestor of the Belgian houses of Croÿ-Solre, Croÿ du Rœulx (Croÿ-Rœulx) and Croÿ-Rumillies. Prince Philipp Franz of Croÿ (1801–1871), male line survives Coats of arms Members Jean I de Croÿ (1365–1415) Antoine de Croy, Comte de Porcéan (1385–1475) Jean II de Croÿ (1390–1473) Philippe I de Croÿ (1435–1511) Philip I of Croÿ-Chimay (1436–1482) Charles I de Croÿ (1455–1527) William de Croÿ, advisor to Emperor Charles V (1458–1521) William de Croÿ (archbishop) (1497–1521) Philippe II de Croÿ (1496–1549) Charles II de Croÿ (1522–1551) Philippe III de Croÿ (1526–1595) Charles III de Croÿ (1560–1612) Ernst Bogislaw von Croÿ (1620–1684) Charles Eugène de Croÿ (1651–1702) Louise Elisabeth de Croÿ-Havré (1749–1832) Gustave de Croÿ-Solre (1772–1844) Princess Isabella of Croÿ (1856–1931), married Archduke Friedrich, Duke of Teschen References Sources Georges Martin. Histoire et Généalogie Maison de Croÿ. HGMC, 2002. Werner Paravicini. Montée, crise, réorientation. Pour unse histoire de la famille de Croy au XVe siècle, in: Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire 98 (2020), 2, pp. 149–355. External links Gotha International Croÿ-Rœulx Gotha International \| Croÿ-Dülmen Website about the Croÿ Castle in Aarle-Rixtel, the Netherlands (in Dutch) Family tree of the Croÿ Family tree of the Croÿ (in French) Belgian noble families German noble families
4879531	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Last%20Vampire	The Last Vampire	The Last Vampire series (later rebranded as Thirst) consists of books written by Christopher Pike and chronicles the life of Sita, a 5,000-year-old vampire. Publication History The Last Vampire was published in 1994. Sequels were originally published as numbered "The Last Vampire" titles. The Last Vampire 2: Black Blood was published later in 1994, and The Last Vampire 3: Red Dice followed in 1995. 1996 saw the publication of three additional titles over a span of six months: The Last Vampire 4: Phantom, The Last Vampire 5: Evil Thirst, and The Last Vampire 6: Creatures of Forever. In 2009, the first three novels were republished in a new omnibus edition entitled Thirst No. 1: Human Urges, Fatal Consequences. The series' new branding drops "The Last Vampire" from all titles beyond the first, listing the individual titles as "The Last Vampire," "Black Blood," and "Red Dice." In 2010, the next three novels were similarly republished as a single volume, Thirst No. 2: Deepest Desire, Instant Remorse, identified as consisting of "Phantom," "Evil Thirst," and "Creatures of Forever." When Pike wrote further novels in the series, they continued under the "Thirst" name and numbering: Thirst No. 3: The Eternal Dawn (2010), Thirst No. 4: The Shadow of Death (2011), and Thirst No. 5: The Sacred Veil (2013). On his Facebook page, Pike has shared different versions of the beginning of his next planned entry in the series, Thirst No. 6: Sita, which he intends to self-publish upon its completion. After stating in 2016 that the story would extend into a seventh and eighth book, Pike announced in 2020 that Sita's story will end with Thirst No. 7, also to be self-published. Books and Plot Thirst No. 1: Human Urges, Fatal Consequences The Last Vampire (1994) As the story begins, Alisa arrives at the office of a man named Michael who had invited her. He identifies himself as a private investigator. She tries to find out about a guy named Slim, but her best shot is Michael's computer. Alisa then enters high school as a student named Lara Adams and befriends Ray. She also befriends another young man named Seymour Dorsten. She uses Ray to get information from his father's computer. She lets herself be trapped by the unknown client's men. Unfortunately, it isn't easy to escape. After learning what she can, she kills Slim and some of his crew (the rest escape in a shootout with the police). A flashback narrates Alisa's life and explains who Yaksha is. In 3000 B.C. Sita was born in India. When she was seven years old, a disease struck her village, and most of the villagers died, including her closest friend who was pregnant with a child. A traveling priest from a different religion convinced the elders that he could drive away the disease by performing a ritual; it involved invoking a demon into the recently deceased corpse of Sita's friend. During the ceremony, the priest called forth a yakshini (demon) which killed the priest. Only a handful of the male villagers saw the demon kill the man and then supposedly vanish. But Sita, hiding in the bushes, understood that the demon had actually entered the corpse of the child, still inside his mother. Before vanishing, the demon seemed to stare straight at Sita though she is hidden behind a rock. When her father rushed to save the child from its mother's womb, Sita ran forth and stated that it is not the child that is moving, but the demon possessing the child's corpse. Her father decided to let her choose to let the child to live or die but she was afraid and confused. He said the only way to find out if it were evil or not was if they let it live. The father saved the child and Sita decided to name the child "Yaksha", meaning "begot from a Yakshini." Yaksha grew to be a beautiful man in a short period of time, who'd always had an eye for Sita. By this time, she was grown up as well, and married to Rama, her husband, and even had a daughter named Lalita. It was about that time the men that had witnessed the long-ago ritual vanished, one after another, including Sita's father. One night, after her father disappeared, Sita was awoken by a strange noise, and upon leaving her home, was attacked and dragged away by Yaksha. He explained what he was, though the word for vampire did not exist then. Some of the men were with him, transformed as he was (though being the first, he was forever more powerful than any of them, including Sita). He convinced her to join him, threatening to kill her sleeping husband and child if she did not. It did not take long for the civilized world to realize what they were up against, and they begged Krishna, the 6th incarnation of the deity, to intervene. His men slaughtered most of the fleeing vampires, but Yaksha and Sita survived. Krishna and Yaksha fought, and in the end Sita was given Krishna's grace under the condition that she never create another vampire. Yaksha was pardoned as well, but the pact Krishna spoke to him was unheard by Sita. Yaksha spent nearly the next 5,000 years slowly hunting down the remaining vampires and destroying them before apparently being chased and murdered by a mob during the Middle Ages. Sita lived through the ages, in Egypt first, and gradually on and toward America, until the present day setting (1990s). Both Sita and Ray, on the run from Yaksha, figure out a way to survive the coming confrontation. Sita, sure that Yaksha is ready to die with her, sets up a trick. Bombs are put in the sitting room, with the button on Yaksha's chair (so he can kill himself, tired of his long life, and ensure that Sita goes with him). Unknown to him, Sita's and Ray's chairs sit on top of a thick steel plate beneath which are a separate set of bombs intended to send them flying high narrowly before the big explosion. Before she can set her plan in motion, Yaksha asks her what Krishna whispered in her ear thousands of years before and realizes the whole time that she was protected; Krishna had told Sita "Wherever there is love, there is my grace". Her love for Ray is what allowed her to break her vow and yet still keep Krishna's grace. When she originally became a vampire, she did so for love of her family, and therefore from the beginning she had always had Krishna's grace. Yaksha thus decides that she was not intended to be killed to fulfill Krishna's injunction to him, and lets them go while he waits his end. Sita manages to shove Ray afar before the explosion but she was close enough to be pierced by a stake right through her heart from behind. With Sita in Ray's hands contemplating Krishna's grace, the book ends in suspense as to whether or not she survives. The Last Vampire 2: Black Blood (1994) Sita is now healed for the most part, but still suffering from continual pain. She is not healing as fast as usual, after being struck in the heart by a piece of flaming wood from the explosion that destroyed her home. She hears of a group of vampires in Los Angeles that have been brutally murdering people in the area. As she is the oldest vampire now that Yaksha is dead, it is up to her to figure out what is happening. She runs into the group, and quickly kills most of them only to find herself out-matched by the leader, Eddie Fender, whose vampiric abilities rival those of Yaksha himself. Surprised, she flees, and with Ray's help, deduces that Eddie must have found the remains of Yaksha from the explosion and used his blood to change himself. When she attempts a sneak attack to destroy Eddie and his group during the day at their hideout, Eddie instead springs a trap on her. Ray, her lover, then lights his "fuse" and kills himself in an attempt to kill Eddie and save Sita. The explosion forces Eddie to flee, and seriously injures Sita, who is rescued from the flames by Joel, an FBI agent whom she had met earlier in the book. Joel, unable to believe his eyes as Sita heals right there in the car, takes her to a motel, where she admits what she is, but leaves after admonishing him to never seek her out. She finds Yaksha, who had survived the explosion, stored in an ice-cream truck. Vampires hate the cold. Though they can still withstand Antarctic-like temperatures without protection, the cold slows down the healing process and hampers their mental functions. The explosion blew off Yaksha's lower torso as it turns out and Eddie had been keeping him in a weakened state in order to continue feeding off him. Comforting Yaksha as he dies, she does what he asks; she drinks the rest of his blood, increasing her abilities far beyond what they were, hopefully putting her on a par with Eddie. Eddie kidnaps Joel and in retaliation Sita kidnaps his mother, with whom he has a strange relationship, though her tactic fails. Eddie tricks her into releasing his mother, mortally wounds Joel, and then breaks his mother's neck. With Joel bleeding to death, Sita gives in to Eddie, who starts to drain her of her blood. As she eases in and out of consciousness and lucidity, she remembers a song Krishna once played on his flute, long ago in the duel against Yaksha. Krishna's flute could control people's emotions. Sita begins humming one of its frequencies, realizing that she could hypnotize Eddie and stimulate him to blind lust. She lures him into a freezer where she chops his head off with the emergency axe and rescues Joel, turning him into a vampire (against his wishes) and falling unconscious as the book ends. The Last Vampire 3: Red Dice (1995) This third volume follows directly from the events recounted in The Last Vampire 2: Black Blood. Sita regains consciousness and finds herself surrounded by the police, S.W.A.T., and higher government groups. Realizing that she cannot allow Eddie Fender's blood to fall into the wrong hands, Sita comes to the conclusion that she must burn down the entire house. She retrieves a pair of gasoline drums from the back of the house where the freezer is located and douses the entire living room in the flammable fluid. She also notes how light the drums feel as she carries them. This is the first indication of her newly increased powers. The second one comes when she finds she is able to read the thoughts of the assembled police and S.W.A.T members outside, something she has never been able to do before. Joel, who is now a vampire, convinces Sita that he can negotiate their safe release since he is FBI. Upon setting foot outside Eddie's residence Joel is taken into custody despite showing his badge, which leaves Sita no choice but to surrender in order to protect Joel – but not before she sets the house ablaze. The police are unable to put out the fire, and Eddie's body and blood are safely destroyed in the conflagration. In the armoured van she and Joel ride in, Sita breaks free and takes control of the vehicle leading to a high speed chase in Los Angeles. Upon seeing the skyscrapers of downtown Los Angeles, Sita realizes that there are helicopters parked upon their rooftops. Struck by the idea of an escape by flight she begins to drive towards those cut-glass monoliths. In transit, Sita shoots down helicopters and, on one occasion, jumps from one skyscraper window to another hundreds of feet away – injuring herself slightly in the process, discovering that the strength of her healing factor is much greater than it was before. It is upon the roof of this second skyscraper that she comes upon the desired helicopter, the one by which she and Joel make their escape. The escape is not as smooth as Sita might have liked, however. While their helicopter is nothing more than a businessman’s runabout, they soon find themselves pursued by Apache helicopters. Certain that they cannot lose their pursuers in their company helicopter, they quickly decide to crash it into a lake. Flying towards the nearest substantial body of water, she and Joel make a jump into the water after Sita convinces Joel that faking their deaths is the only way to avoid capture. Sita escapes, but Joel, still uncomfortable with his newly discovered stamina and abilities, rises to the surface of the lake too soon and is captured by the military. Sita decides to follow and finds Joel taken into a heavily-gunned government base. Sita meets a man from the base named Andrew Kane, and she tries to seduce him to get him to get her to Joel. She is shocked to discover he has cracked the DNA of a vampire. After she tells the truth to Andy, he helps Sita to enter the military base. Her attempt is defeated and she is taken captive. To make matters worse, Andy confesses he is not Andy but her old lover, Arturo Evola, a brilliant priest and alchemist from the Inquisition who attempted to use Sita's blood to recreate the blood of Christ. This would, he believed, allow humanity to ascend beyond mortality; Arturo saw himself as doing God's work in offering immortality to Christendom. However, despite the high aims from which he drew his initial inspiration, he turned into a megalomaniac in the process. Going against Sita's wishes, he experimented upon their young friend Ralphe. The experiment failed, due to an alteration in Ralphe's emotional aura, and rather than the idealised hybrid of vampiric invulnerability and human purity, the boy was turned into a creature baser than either. While Ralphe possessed that same superhuman strength, he lacked all control. A vampire only feeds upon blood when needed – and can control this craving, should such control prove necessary. Ralphe, however, was gripped by an insatiable hunger for flesh. The Inquisitors went after Ralphe but Sita killed him before they got to him. However, the Inquisitors found out that Arturo had made the savage demon Ralphe, and Sita believed he was burned at the stake. Arturo confessed he turned into a vampire-human hybrid and managed to stay alive. Sita uses her powers to incite a riot at the base and gets out of her cell, but not before reluctantly killing many of the soldiers there. Sita captures General Havor, the base commander of the base, and uses him to set off a nuclear warhead so as to destroy all the information regarding vampire DNA, as well as those samples of her and Joel's blood which are stored in the base. At this moment Arturo arrives with a legion of soldiers and prepares for a final battle. In the face of seemingly inescapable defeat, Sita – becoming, after a fashion, her own deus ex machina – discovers that the recent infusion of Yaksha's blood has imbued her with a new power: flight. Filled with the rays of the moon, Sita becomes transparent. When she tries to carry Joel with her she discovers that she cannot, indeed she cannot even touch him. The warhead explodes as she escapes, a loving Joel and contrite Arturo perishing in the blast. Sita then uses Arturo's alchemy equipment to turn herself into a human. At the end of the book, she figures out she is human and then hears someone knocking at the door. She does not answer it. Then Seymour comes to the door and is angry and upset with her for what she has done Thirst No. 2: Deepest Desire, Instant Remorse The Last Vampire 4: Phantom (1996) Sita, having turned herself back into a human at the end of Red Dice, realizes she is indeed human. The man at the door from the end of the last book tries to make Sita open the door, but she is reluctant to do so. The man says he understands and will come back. After fleeing with Seymour from Arturo's home to a hotel, Sita is nearly raped by two drunks on the beach when she goes out for a late walk. She kills both men using her pistol and wanders into a nearby diner. It is there she finds herself face to face with none other than Ray, who claims that he didn't die in the explosion, but that Eddie had indeed revived him. He also reveals that he used Arturo's alchemical tools to make himself human again as well. After leaving Seymour behind, she and Ray moved to a suburb and she starts to go about normal, human life, befriending a very pregnant woman named Paula (who claims she has no idea how she was impregnated). Sita also discovers her own pregnancy as well and is stunned, but happy. It takes little time to find out that her child, Kalika, is indeed an incarnation of Kali Ma, the Supreme Goddess of Destruction and is far more powerful than even Yaksha. The child ages incredibly fast and begins craving blood, forcing Sita to abduct a young man named Eric Hawkins and keep him prisoner at her home to give Kalika the blood she craves. Eventually, Kalika becomes very interested in Paula's child. She eventually goes to great extremes to find the child, including brutally murdering Eric and taking Seymour as a hostage to ensure Sita delivers the baby to her. Sita advises her to flee and when she is far enough away to call a certain phone number in order to speak to Sita. To save Paula's child (who Sita believes is none other than the messiah, the new incarnation of both Krishna and Jesus), Sita acquires a portion of Yaksha's frozen and preserved blood from the ice cream truck in which Eddie kept him prisoner. The truck was being watched over by a strange homeless man with an odd grace; he believed she was going to come back for it one day. Sita returns to the Las Vegas residence of her former lover Arturo, the alchemist, and finds a startling resemblance between him and Kalika from a picture of his that she picks up. Sita discovers right then and there that Arturo fathered Kalika; because Arturo was a hybrid, he became the only being capable of making Sita pregnant while she was a vampire. She also finds that Ray had not returned to her, that he was a phantom and was no longer real. Sita "kills" Ray at his request and turns back into a vampire by once again using Arturo's alchemist equipment and combining Yaksha's blood with the blood of Paula's baby (Sita had stolen a vial of the baby's blood from the hospital). Because of the combination, she is even more powerful than before, being more or less equal to Yaksha, but is still no match for Kalika. Promising via the phone to deliver the baby to Kalika in exchange for Seymour on Santa Monica Pier. Sita, however, has been lying and does not bring Paula's child, telling Kalika that she has "come herself." After a short and fruitless negotiation, a fight between the pair ensues. Kalika stops Sita effortlessly by breaking her leg and throws Seymour into the ocean. Shortly after this, she reveals that she is definitely the incantation of Kali, overwhelming her mother with her dark power. In her thrall, Sita unknowingly reveals the phone number which she asked Paula to call. In desperation, she asks Kalika who Paula's child really is. In response, her daughter tells her that the "knowledge will cost her". Sita repeats her question, and Kalika shows her the cost, fashioning a wooden stake which she throws at Seymour, piercing him through. As Sita jumps into the water and pulls the dying Seymour to shore, telling him that she will save him by making him a vampire, Kalika leaves. However, by the time that Sita and Seymour are on land again, it becomes clear that he is beyond even her help. Believing he is a vampire due to the lack of pain he is experiencing, Seymour asks if he will live forever, and when Sita tells him out of pity that he will, he tells her he will love her for that long. She replies, "Me too," and he dies in her arms. Sita takes Seymour's body to a funeral pyre to cremate him. Struck by a sudden and astonishing possibility, Sita uses the remaining blood from the messiah child on Seymour and he comes back to life. Overcome with happiness, Sita does not tell Seymour of Kalika's actions but vows to stop her daughter from getting hold of Paula's baby. The Last Vampire 5: Evil Thirst (1996) Sita's daughter, Kalika, has transformed into a blood-thirsty monster with power far beyond Sita's. It is Sita's task to track her down and destroy her, yet Sita still has trouble believing her daughter is totally evil. She still hopes to save Kalika, even if it means risking her own life – and perhaps the lives of everyone in the world. The story opens as Sita and the newly revived Seymour attend a seminar of an ancient Egyptian Seer named Suzama. Sita knew her personally and is interested to know that, in her Seer's eye, Suzama predicted the birth of God in three mortal forms at exact times. Krishna and Jesus Christ were two of these incarnations. Sita learns from Dr. Donald Seter, the man who discovered Suzama's Scripture and the founder of the Suzama Society, that Christ has been born again as her friend Paula's new born son (and Paula herself is actually Suzama reincarnated). Unlike Ray, Paula begins to remember her previous life. Using her powerful powers of persuasion, Sita befriends Seter and his son James, authenticates the text, and discovers that Kalika wishes to kill the baby. She also learns that the Suzama Society was formed in order to protect the child. Mother and Daughter are reunited over the phone and through an apparent miscalculation on Kalika's part, Sita discovers where her daughter lives. Sita goes with Dr. Seter, James, and the Suzama Society to Kalika's home. There all the Society member are brutally murdered by Kalika, despite their preparations and automatic weaponry. In the end, Sita is pushed off the balcony of the building and is grievously injured. She recovers fairly quickly, however, and by using clues in Suzama's scripture, eventually deciphers the location of Paula and her child. Sita, James, Seymour, and Dr. Seter drive to that location to discover that Kalika has already arrived and taken the child. Armed with a shotgun, Sita pursues Kalika and corners her in a small house. James arrives shortly after. Too late, Sita realizes that he is really Ory, an old enemy from her past and an agent of the Setians, a malevolent race of reptilian aliens who are after Paula's child. Ory severely wounds both Sita and Kalika, and reveals that the Suzama Society—with the exception of Dr. Seter—we all his disciples. He then escapes with the child. Mortally wounded, Kalika gives her blood to her mother in order to save her. As she lies there dying, Sita realizes at last that Kalika never meant to hurt the child, but was only trying to protect him. She also reveals that she killed Eric (the young man from Phantom) as an act of mercy since he has been diagnosed with a terminal illness and would have suffered greatly had she not ended his life. For the first time in her life, Kalika explicitly tells her mother that she loves her, and then she dies. Later, Sita arrives at the spot where Paula's son was conceived and experiences a cosmic event while remembering her last meeting with Suzama, in which she is irradiated with stellar energy and transformed into an ethereal being. Moments later, the Setians, who also exist in the same state as Sita arrive in their spaceship to take the baby back to their homeworld, where they will consume his holy powers. Sita possesses the body of Croka, the Setian commander and is able to use him to attack and incapacitate Ory long enough to her to save the baby. After doing so, she slits his throat and the Setians, knowing they have lost their chance, quickly flee. The book ends with Sita returning the baby to Paula alive and safe. The Last Vampire 6: Creatures of Forever (1996) After the events of Evil Thirst (in which Sita learns that there is more strangeness to the world than Vampires) Sita now knows that Paula is the incarnation of her oldest friend, Suzama the great Egyptian Seer; Paula tells Sita that something is going to happen. Distraught, Sita asks if she will ever see Paula again, and she says no. Leaving Seymour and Paula behind, Sita begins delving deeper into the secrets of the group of powerful beings that stalk her. Along the way she confronts another of these creatures, only to find that their time is near at hand, brought about by a centuries-old mistake committed by none other than the last vampire herself – Sita. After dispatching this foe, Sita is approached by a young woman claiming to be a friend who offers Sita the chance to set right what went wrong nearly a thousand years earlier. Using a revamped version of time travelling which projects her mind into herself 1000 years earlier, Sita embarks on a journey into the heart of darkness and confronts the necromancer, Landulf of Capula, the architect of this evil plot who not only deceived and used Sita's power for evil before wiping her mind of the event but also now has the power to upset the balance of life itself, tipping the scales in the favor of evil. In this epic conclusion to the Last Vampire, Sita must confront her darkest fears and face an unthinkable choice: to go on as a creature of forever, or forsake her life and power for a destiny turned to ash five thousand years earlier. She, finally tired of her immortal existence like Yaksha before her, chooses to prevent vampires from ever coming into being by projecting her mind to when she was a child, and this time she kills Yaksha instead of sparing him; she lives out her life as a mortal, meaning that all of the previous books have in effect never happened. Still, one evening Sita leaves her home, husband and child, and waits in the night for something she cannot name or even know. When it does not come, she resumes her life. Had she not killed Yaksha in the womb, that was/would have been the time he abducted and changed her. Shortly after this, Krishna appears to Sita and her daughter Lalita and asks her if she is truly happy. Sita replies that she could not possibly be happier, and Krishna leaves her, never to see her again. The book ends as Seymour completes his work on his latest story. The reader finds that the saga of Sita, the Last Vampire, is a story written by Seymour, who is in fact dying of his HIV infection. Thirst No. 3: The Eternal Dawn (2010) It is revealed that the events in all of the previous books had indeed still happened, but with a crucial difference: Seymour had connected to Alisa's mind during the time of her adventures and he had literally experienced everything that happened with her and used those memories as the basis for the books. It is also revealed that Seymour, due to the great medical advancements made for HIV/AIDS patients, had never died and although he is still HIV positive, is living as a relatively healthy young man. While in Seymour's books, Sita remained in the past and never became a vampire; in reality, she returned to the present day after defeating Landulf and went on with her life. She and Seymour would finally meet in person in Book 7. It is also shown in Book 7, Sita placed a small amount of blood in his system, destroying the HIV virus—the same way Seymour had written it in his books. Alisa discovers Teri, a long lost descendant of her human family, all she wants is to get closer to her. Knowing Teri ultimately leads to knowing Matt, Teri’s boyfriend. And as much as Alisa wants to ignore the connection she feels with Matt, she can’t stop thinking about him. That is, until she is attacked in her home by someone who is definitely not human… Off in search of this new race of immortals before they get to her first, Alisa travels with Matt to Europe and discovers that there is more behind these immortals, and Matt, than she ever thought possible. Thirst No. 4: The Shadow of Death (2011) After the events of The Eternal Dawn, Sita is living in the body of her descendant, Teresa "Teri" Raine, after she was shot through the heart with an advanced laser-gun weapon. It is two weeks after her "death", and she attends her own funeral where she tells Seymour that she is not really Teri, but Sita. The IIC, a powerful company with an Array, a group of psychic children and teens, that allows them to overpower a targeted person's will and force them to commit acts they would not actually do, are the only ones who can help Sita destroy the Source, the leaders of the Telar. The Telar are a race of immortals from 10000 B.C., ancient Egypt. They are going to release a deadly virus to eliminate all humans on Earth, as the Telar have had a permanent vaccine that will make them immune. After a strange ritual with Umara, Yaksha's wife and the oldest Telar, Sita is returned into her rightful body, which had healed itself in the last week. Sita then strikes a deal with the president of the company, and uses the Array and Cradle to kill the leaders of the Telar, and uses the virus the Telar planned to release to kill the Cradle. Sita spares only the president of the company, Cynthia Brutran, and Brutran's daughter Jolie. During this epic final battle, Sita revisits what happened in between her death and awakening two days later in Teri's body, and finds that she made a deal with an ancient demon to escape from a sentence to Hell. Thinking they are free, Sita, Shanti, Seymour, Cynthia and Jolie, and Matt quickly escape from the company's head office, which then explodes, killing the Cradle and Array. They prepare to run away from the FBI, when Sita discovers that Shanti, the sweet and perfect Indian girl Sita rescued in The Eternal Dawn, is the traitor. She had always been the demon Tarana, who was really Lucifer, or The Light Bearer. The book ends with Sita decapitating Shanti and discovering that she was never sentenced to Hell, but in fact saw Krishna once again who gave her a choice to stay dead or return to life. Thirst No. 5: The Sacred Veil (2013) In her five thousand years as a vampire, Alisa- or Sita, as she was originally called - has experienced the equivalent of fifty lifetimes. Every moment of her immortal life is seared deep into her being. Every person she has loved, every victim she has killed-their faces are forever a part of her. Yet, strangely, a handful of memories has been lost to Alisa. As she and her friends embark on a search for the location of a sacred artifact-an ancient veil that may hold the key to mankind's salvation-Alisa soon realizes that her own mind may be her greatest enemy. The memories she is blocking deal with the most horrifying period in mankind's history, a time when she was tortured by a madman responsible for the deaths of millions. But what information did her torture yield? Film adaptation According to the Simon & Schuster author page, the Thirst (The Last Vampire) series is slated to be released as a feature film. As of September 2010, FilmNation has acquired the screen rights to The Last Vampire series. As of April 2013, according to Pike's official Facebook page, the author has retrieved the movie rights from FilmNation and hopes to find a production company that will remain closer to his original vision of his main characters. On September 20, 2013, Christopher Pike released a statement via his fan page on Facebook. He says, Michael Preger (Preger Entertainment LLC) is very interested in "The Last Vampire" and is keen to "keep the story and the character of Sita intact." Pike says "Since completing the deal with Michael, we’ve talked at length about the film and I’m even more confident than ever that he’ll do the books justice." The deal was negotiated by Wayne Alexander of Alexander, Lawrence, Frumes, & Labowitz and Laurence Becsey from the Intellectual Property Group, representing Preger, and Ryan Nord of Hirsch, Wallerstein, Hayum, Matlof & Fishman representing the author, Christopher Pike. The deal is reported to be valued in the mid to high six figures. References External links The Last Vampire 1 & 2 The Last Vampire 3 & 4 The Last Vampire 5 & 6 Thirst No. 1 Thirst No. 2 American vampire novels Fantasy novel series
4879797	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donaldson%20Air%20Force%20Base	Donaldson Air Force Base	Donaldson Air Force Base is a former facility of the United States Air Force located south of Greenville, South Carolina. It was founded in 1942 as Greenville Army Air Base; it was deactivated in 1963 and converted into a civilian airport. It is currently an active airfield known as Donaldson Center Airport. It was used by the United States Army Air Forces' Third Air Force as a B-25 Mitchell medium bomber training airfield during World War II. It was home to C-124 Globemaster II transports and called "The Airlift Capital of the World" for its role in the Berlin airlift, Korean War, and Cold War, being assigned to both Tactical Air Command (TAC) and the Military Air Transport Service (MATS). History Originally named Greenville Army Air Base when opened in 1942, and later Greenville Air Force Base in 1948, the base was renamed in March 1951 as Donaldson Air Force Base in honor of Captain John Owen Donaldson, (1897–1930). Donaldson spent his boyhood in Greenville, South Carolina, attending Greenville High School, Furman University and Cornell University before joining the Royal Flying Corps and (after April 1918) the Royal Air Force in World War I. He became an ace, with eight victories, and was decorated by Great Britain, the United States and Belgium. Becoming an air racer after the war, Donaldson was killed on 7 September 1930 after winning the American Legion Air Race in Philadelphia when his plane spun out of control. He had won the Mackay Gold Medal for taking first place in the Army's transcontinental air race in October 1919. World War II In the early 1940s, the War Department selected Greenville, South Carolina as the site for a new Army airfield to support the buildup for World War II. The airfield was completed in May 1942, and in June, Greenville Army Air Base was officially activated as a B-25 Mitchell medium twin-engine bomber training base. Greenville AAB was assigned to the III Bomber Command of the Third Air Force. The 342d Army Air Force Base Unit was assigned as the host unit for the airfield. The 342d provided such as logistics, maintenance, facilities, security and general administration. Isaqueena Bombing Range was established on and near Lake Isaqueena in the Clemson University Experimental Forest about to the west. Greenville AAB also controlled Coronaca Army Airfield as a sub-base for its training mission. The operational training unit (OTU) at Greenville AAB was the 334th Bombardment Group, being assigned on 16 July 1942. Its flying squadrons were the 470th, 471st, 472nd, and 473rd Bombardment squadrons, flying B-25 Mitchell medium bombers. The 334th's mission was to provide flying training to personnel and bomber crews. The 334th was inactivated on 1 May 1944 with personnel and equipment being reassigned to the 330th Army Air Forces Base Unit (Replacement Training Unit/Medium Bombardment). On 1 January 1945, the 330th was redesignated as the 128th Army Air Force Base Unit in conjunction with the base's reassignment to the First Air Force. The 56th Combat Training Wing became the overall commanding unit at Greenville AAB on 1 May 1945, being reassigned from Morris Field, North Carolina which was closed. Its mission was to perform training and processing of bombardment replacement crews for overseas duty and the training of permanent party instructor personnel with the view of qualifying all personnel assigned for overseas duty. 90th Bombardment Group The first combat unit assigned to Greenville for training was the 90th Bomb Group (Heavy), which was assigned on 21 June 1942 and flew Consolidated B-24 Liberator heavy bombers. The unit consisted of four squadrons: 319th, 320th, 321st, and 400th Bombardment Squadrons. With its training completed, the group transferred to Ypsilanti, Michigan on 18 August 1942 for follow-on training near Ford's Willow Run aircraft manufacturing plant. After another transfer (to Hickam Field in Hawaii), in early November 1942, the 90th BG transferred to the Pacific theater, being stationed at Townsville, Queensland, Australia with the Fifth Air Force. 310th Bombardment Group The 310th Bomb Group (Medium) trained at Greenville Army Air Base between 18 September and 17 October 1942, flying North American B-25 Mitchell medium bombers. The unit consisted of four squadrons: 379th, 380th, 381st, and 428th Bombardment Squadrons. With its training completed, the group went overseas, transferring to Médiouna Airfield, in French Morocco with the Twelfth Air Force. With the departure of the 310th, the 334th began training personnel for assignment as replacements, rather than complete bomb groups. After training was completed, the personnel would be assigned overseas to existing units in the wartime theaters. Photographs Photographs of the WWII base and soldiers can be viewed in the Greenville County Library System digital collections. Postwar era In the summer of 1945, with the war coming to an end, a number of training bases were slated for closure. This included Greenville Army Air Base, which was placed on standby status in November 1945. However, there were plans made by the Army Air Force for its continuing use. One of the lessons of World War II was that the airplane was invaluable in the support of ground forces, both in the close air support and transport role. Tactical Air Command (TAC) was established as one of the post-war Army Air Forces' three major commands. The USAAF Troop Carrier Command (TCC) was inactivated as part of this reorganization and the Third Air Force was reassigned from the disbanding Continental Air Forces. TAC assumed command of the Troop Carrier transport mission and assigned it to the Third Air Force on 21 March 1946, which was assigned to Greenville AAB. At Greenville, the Third Air Force was assigned a mixture of C-46 Commando and C-47 Skytrain aircraft and several Air Force Reserve troop carrier groups. Also, surplus C-54 Skymasters that had been originally purchased for Air Transport Command (ATC) were made available for troop carrier use. The Third Air Force was inactivated on 1 November 1946, being replaced by the Ninth Air Force, which had just returned from Europe. With the establishment of the United States Air Force as an independent service branch in September 1947, the airfield was renamed Greenville Air Force Base. In the late 1940s many of TAC's Troop Carrier Groups/Wings were assigned directly to HQ TAC with the rest to the Air Force Reserve' Fourteenth Air Force and 302d Air Division. Greenville AFB remained an administrative facility for several years, maintaining aircraft and providing training to these Air Force Reserve units. During the Berlin Blockade in 1948, Air Force Reserve troop carrier groups at Greenville AFB deployed C-54s to Germany to replace the C-47s that began the Berlin Airlift to sustain the 'Großstadt'. At least one C-82 Packet, an early version of the C-119 Flying Boxcar, also participated in the airlift for several weeks. In 1949, a 0.5-mile dirt car racing track was built just south of the base. The track took the name "Air Base Speedway", as a nod to the nearby airfield. The track held a NASCAR Grand National race on August 25, 1951. Noted race driver Bob Flock won the race in an Oldsmobile. The track closed down in 1952. Korean War The theater troop carrier mission was expanded rapidly during the Korean War when many of these reserve units were elevated to active service and assigned directly to HQ TAC. HQ TAC ordered the 315th Troop Carrier Group to deploy from Greenville AFB to Brady Air Base, Japan with C-46 Commando transports. Also the 314th Troop Carrier Group was ordered to Japan with the new C-119 Flying Boxcar to support the United Nations forces in the conflict. The 314th was ordered to Japan primarily to support the 187th Regimental Combat Team, a United States Army airborne unit that was on its way to Japan by ship, but when the aircrews arrived, they found themselves heavily involved in logistical support operations between Japan and South Korea as well as performing combat cargo airdrops and the occasional airborne parachute operation. On 16 October 1950, the 375th Troop Carrier Wing was activated at Greenville AFB. The 375th was an Air Force Reserve unit previously based at Greater Pittsburgh Airport. After a period of intensive training, the C-82s of the 375th participated in troop carrier and airlift operations, paratroop drops, and other exercises until being returned to the reserves in July 1952. Its aircraft at Donaldson were taken over by the newly activated 17th Troop Carrier squadron. The older C-82s were replaced by C-119s in 1953 and the 17th remained on active duty until 21 July 1954 when it returned to reserve status. Also on 16 October 1950, the Air Force Reserve's 433d Troop Carrier Wing was activated, its three squadrons flying the C-119. On 20 July 1951, the wing was reassigned to USAFE and ordered to Rhein-Main Air Base, West Germany. The 57th Troop Carrier Squadron flew the C-82 Packet and C-45 cargo planes. Between 20 February and 11 April 1952, the unit operated on temporary duty from Brownwood Municipal Airport, performing paratroop drops and other exercises in support of Army maneuvers. Eighteenth Air Force operations In March 1951 the base was renamed 'Donaldson Air Force Base' and on 26 June, the Eighteenth Air Force was activated in 1951 to discharge Tactical Air Command's troop carrier responsibilities. Its mission was to organize, administer, equip, train, and prepare for combat troop carrier missions. The Eighteenth Air Force inherited nine continental "medium" troop carrier wings (314th, 375th, 403d, 433d, 434th, 435th, 443d, 514th and 515th), seven of which were Air Force Reserve wings called to active duty during the Korean War. The command added a "heavy" (C-124) wing (62d) in the fall of 1951 and another in early 1953 (463d). One of those reserve wings, the 443d Troop Carrier, was deployed for active duty at Donaldson on 9 August 1951 as a training wing. For almost two years, the 443d participated in tactical exercises in operations, training troop carrier aircrews using C-46 Commandoes for assignment to the Far East and worked closely with other troop carrier groups to test and evaluate new troop carrier doctrine and procedures. With the end of the Korean War, the 443d was inactivated on 8 June 1953. With the departure of the 443d, it was decided to bring Donaldson up to being an operational transport base. On 15 October 1953 the 63d Troop Carrier Wing was transferred from Altus Air Force Base, Oklahoma, to Donaldson. The 63d flew the longer-range C-124 "Globemaster II" and became the host unit at Donaldson AFB until its closure in 1963. Its attached units consisted of: Groups 61st Troop Carrier (25 August 1954 − 8 October 1959) 63d Troop Carrier (15 October 1953 − 18 January 1963) 64th Troop Carrier (15 October 1953 − 15 February 1954) Squadrons 9th Troop Carrier (1953–1957) 15th Troop Carrier (1954–1963) 52d Troop Carrier (1953–1957) 309th Troop Carrier (1954–1956) The 63d TCW participated in maneuvers, exercises and the airlift of personnel and cargo to many points throughout the world, it helped evacuate Hungarian refugees, supported the construction of the eastern mission test range, and the Distant Early Warning Line sites in the Arctic. The next year, the Eighteenth Air Force C-119s from the 483rd Troop Carrier Wing; flown by civilian crews employed by the Central Intelligence Agency Civil Air Transport airdropped supplies to besieged French paratroops at Dien Bien Phu. Some 483rd personnel flew missions in an unofficial capacity, some of whom would play key roles in the troop carrier mission in later years. After the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, 374th TCW and TAC C-124s airlifted wounded French soldiers out of Indochina to Japan. Throughout the mid-1950s, Donaldson Air Force Base supported USAF troop carrier participation in joint operations training. Eighteenth Air Force squadrons took part in joint exercises and provided support for airborne paratroop training. Additional endeavors were implemented to improve communications capabilities and to include AF medical air evacuation in joint exercises. Airlift support was provided to other USAF major commands and to other Tactical Air Command (TAC) organizations. Two helicopter squadrons, the 21st and 54th, flying the Piasecki H-21, were assigned to the Eighteenth Air Force in 1956 and 1957. Their mission was for the purpose of providing the US Army with air support in a fashion similar to the TAC Troop Carrier Squadrons. The Army, however, declined all support from the Air Force helicopters, and the 21st/54th Helicopter Squadron turned to flying airlift support, search and recovery missions, and also cooperated with a communications group in an experiment to lay communications lines by helicopter. Prior to inactivation, the unit flew photo, airlift, and radiological survey missions during atomic testing at the Nevada Test Site. Military Air Transport Service A realignment of Troop Carrier forces in 1957 led to the Eighteenth Air Force's C-124 wings being reassigned to the Military Air Transport Service (MATS). The command's headquarters was also moved to Connally AFB, Texas on 1 September 1957 when Donaldson AFB was turned over to MATS along with the C-124s and 63d TCW assigned there. MATS C-124s from Donaldson flew the large aircraft all over the globe. Large hangars and expansive ramps were constructed to support these sizeable machines; the base became known as the "Troop Carrier Capital of the World". 1958 Lebanon crisis In 1958 the Eisenhower Administration received an urgent call for assistance from the Middle East. The government of Lebanon was being threatened with attack. Sorely needed troops and supplies had to be airlifted to Lebanon as soon as possible, and it also had to be done without public knowledge, so as not to inform a possible enemy of the deployment of US troops. A task force of 36 MATS C-124s, with a significant number from the 63d TCW based at Donaldson were dispatched from the United States to Rhein-Main Air Base, West Germany to assist in the airlift, deploying Army and Marine units along with their weapons and equipment to Beirut. 1958 Taiwan Strait Crisis Also in 1958 the Chinese Communists were shelling Quemoy and threatening Matsu. These tiny islands in the Straits of Formosa are the closest Nationalist Chinese territory to the mainland of China. By using heavy artillery fire, the Communists appeared to be softening up the islands in preparation for invasion. Tactical Air Command was ordered to organize and send a Composite Air Strike Force to Formosa (now Taiwan). C-124s, some from the 63d TCW at Donaldson, transported F-104 Starfighter aircraft from Hamilton AFB, California along with their pilots, ground crews, and maintenance equipment and delivered them intact to Ching Chuan Kang Air Base. This operation marked a historical milestone as it was the first time that a complete operational Air Force squadron was airlifted in a single-package operation. Congo Crisis During the Congo Crisis in 1962, the 63d TCW deployed C-124s to fly United Nations troops and their equipment to central Africa. In addition to the troops, the aircraft also airlifted badly needed food to the Republic of the Congo (Leopoldville). In the initial phase of the airlift, MATS C-124s carried more than 4,000 troops from five different nations, in addition to thousands of tons of food and equipment. Included in these shipments flown in by MATS were such items as communications facilities, maintenance equipment, helicopters, liaison planes, and even complete mess halls. At some points the airlift was a two-way shuttle − ferrying in UN soldiers and flying out returning Belgian troops, or UN troops that had been replaced, to their homelands. MATS also made emergency trips, flying the from Leopoldville to Stanleyville, and back, to rescue threatened refugees. C-124s flying to and from utilized the USAFE base at Châteauroux, France as a transshipment point for cargo arriving from the United States. Laotian Civil War In 1962, communist guerrillas in Laos had driven the Royal Lao Army before them and had captured two important cities. Now they were pushing toward the Mekong River which separates Laos from Thailand. The United States, under the terms of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, was meeting its defense obligations to Thailand. MATS C-124s were deployed to Don Muang Airport near Bangkok. 63d TCW heavy air transports were taking off every fifteen minutes from Don Muang to Udon RTAFB carrying Thai and United States Marines with their equipment some to the northeast to "show the flag", as well as put an armed force along the Mekong River. The Communist guerrilla forces did not cross the Mekong. This was the first large-scale landing of US combat troops and the first in Southeast Asia since the Korean War, and foreshadowed the large United States presence in Southeast Asia in the coming years during the Vietnam War. Closure In December 1962, the Air Force announced plans to close the base permanently due to budget reductions. Donaldson AFB was declared surplus in 1963 and steps were taken to deed the property back to the City and County of Greenville. In January 1963, the 63d Troop Carrier Wing was transferred to Hunter Air Force Base, Georgia and Donaldson AFB was deactivated for the last time. Under the terms of an earlier reversionary clause, the entire were offered "as is". The City and County accepted the offer, and took title of the facilities on 25 January 1963. Legacy The facilities and land of the former Donaldson AFB were returned to the City and County of Greenville and were renamed Donaldson Center Airport. Among the over 75 tenants of the industrial air park are Lockheed Martin; which services USAF, USN and USMC C-130s and USN P-3s there; Stevens Aviation (a 1950 spinoff of J.P. Stevens Company); 3M; Alan Pittman Race Cars (a fabricator of Pro Modified cars); the Greenville County Sheriff's Office Southern Area Command (SAC) and facilities supporting the U.S. Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps Reserves. Donaldson's presence also led to the establishment of Greenville's first restaurant serving pizza. Julius N. Capri of Altoona, Pennsylvania was stationed at Greenville Army Air Base in 1944, and placed in charge of its civilian mechanics. After World War II, Capri's family opened the first of what later became several Italian restaurants near the base on Augusta Road. See also South Carolina World War II Army Airfields References Notes Explanatory notes Citations Bibliography General references Manning, Thomas A. (2005), History of Air Education and Training Command, 1942–2002. Office of History and Research, Headquarters, AETC, Randolph AFB, Texas Shaw, Frederick J. (2004), Locating Air Force Base Sites, History’s Legacy, Air Force History and Museums Program, United States Air Force, Washington DC. Ulanoff, Stanley M. (1964), MATS: The Story of the Military Air Transport Service. New York, Franklin Watts. . External links Installations of the United States Air Force in South Carolina 1942 establishments in South Carolina 1963 disestablishments in South Carolina Buildings and structures in Greenville County, South Carolina Military installations closed in 1963 Military installations established in 1942
4879958	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artur%20Phleps	Artur Phleps	Artur Gustav Martin Phleps (29 November 1881 – 21 September 1944) was an Austro-Hungarian, Romanian and German army officer who held the rank of SS-Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen-SS (lieutenant general) in the Waffen-SS during World War II. At the post-war Nuremberg trials, the Waffen-SSof which Phleps was a senior officerwas declared to be a criminal organisation due to its major involvement in war crimes and crimes against humanity. An Austro-Hungarian Army officer before and during World War I, Phleps specialised in mountain warfare and logistics, and had been promoted to Oberstleutnant (lieutenant colonel) by the end of the war. During the interwar period he joined the Romanian Army, reaching the rank of General-locotenent (major general), and also became an adviser to King Carol. After he spoke out against the government, he asked to be dismissed from the army after being sidelined. In 1941 he left Romania and joined the Waffen-SS as an SS-Standartenführer (colonel) under his mother's maiden name of Stolz. Seeing action on the Eastern Front as a regimental commander with the SS Motorised Division Wiking, he later raised and commanded the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen, raised the 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian), and commanded the V SS Mountain Corps. Units under his command committed many crimes against the civilian population of the Independent State of Croatia, German-occupied territory of Serbia and Italian governorate of Montenegro. His final appointment was as plenipotentiary general in south Siebenbürgen (Transylvania) and the Banat, during which he organised the evacuation of the Volksdeutsche (ethnic Germans) of Siebenbürgen to the Reich. In addition to the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, Phleps was awarded the German Cross in Gold, and after he was killed in September 1944, he was awarded the Oak Leaves to his Knight's Cross. Early life Phleps was born in Birthälm (Biertan), near Hermannstadt in Siebenbürgen, then a part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (modern-day Transylvania, Romania). At the time, Siebenbürgen was densely populated by ethnic Germans, commonly referred to as Transylvanian Saxons. He was the third son of a surgeon, Dr. Gustav Phleps and Sophie (née Stolz), the daughter of a peasant. Both families had lived in Siebenbürgen for centuries. After finishing the Lutheran Realschule school in Hermannstadt, Phleps entered the Imperial and Royal cadet school in Pressburg (modern-day Slovakia) in 1900, and on 1 November 1901 was commissioned as a Leutnant (lieutenant) in the 3rd Regiment of the Tiroler Kaiserjäger (mountain infantry). In 1903, Phleps was transferred to the 11th Feldjäger (rifle) Battalion in Güns (in modern-day Hungary), and in 1905 was accepted into the Theresian Military Academy in Wiener Neustadt. He completed his studies in two years, and was endorsed as suitable for service in the General Staff. Following promotion to Oberleutnant (first lieutenant) he was transferred to the staff of the 13th Infantry Regiment at Esseg in Slavonia, then to the 6th Infantry Division in Graz. This was followed by a promotion to Hauptmann (captain) in 1911, along with a position on the staff of the XV Army Corps in Sarajevo. There, he specialised in mobilisation and communications, in the difficult terrain of Bosnia and Herzegovina. World War I At the outbreak of World War I, Phleps was serving with the staff of the 32nd Infantry Division in Budapest. His division was involved in the early stages of the Serbian campaign, during which Phleps was transferred to the operations staff of the Second Army. This Army was soon withdrawn from the Serbian front and deployed via the Carpathian Mountains to the Austro-Hungarian province of Galicia (modern-day Poland and Ukraine), to defend against a successful offensive by the Russian Imperial army. The Second Army continued to fight the Russians in and around the Carpathians through the winter of 1914–1915. In 1915 Phleps was again transferred, this time to Armeegruppe Rohr commanded by General der Kavallerie (General) Franz Rohr von Denta, which was formed in the Austrian Alps, in response to the Italian declaration of war in May 1915. Armeegruppe Rohr became the basis for the formation of the 10th Army, which was headquartered in Villach. Phleps subsequently became the deputy quartermaster of the 10th Army, responsible for organising the supply of the troops fighting the Italians in the mountains. On 1 August 1916, Phleps was promoted to major. Later that month, King Ferdinand of Romania led the Kingdom of Romania in joining the Triple Entente, subsequently invading Phleps' homeland of Siebenbürgen. On 27 August, Phleps became the chief of staff of the 72nd Infantry Division, which was involved in Austro-Hungarian operations to repel the Romanian invasion. He remained in this theatre of operations for the next two years, ultimately serving as the chief quartermaster of the German 9th Army, and was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class, on 27 January 1917. In 1918 he returned to the mountains when he was transferred to Armeegruppe Tirol, and ended the war as an Oberstleutnant (lieutenant colonel) and chief quartermaster for the entire Alpine Front. Between the wars After the war the Austro-Hungarian Empire was dissolved, and Phleps returned to his homeland, which had become part of the Kingdom of Romania under the Treaty of Trianon. He joined the Romanian Army and was appointed commander of the Saxon National Guard, a militia formed of the German-speaking people of Siebenbürgen. In this role he opposed the Hungarian communist revolutionary government of Béla Kun, which fought against Romania in 1919. During a battle at the Tisza river against Kun's forces, Phleps disobeyed direct orders and was subsequently court-martialled. The trial concluded that he had saved the Romanian forces through his actions, and he was promoted to Oberst (colonel). He commanded the 84th Infantry Regiment, then joined the general army headquarters and started teaching logistics at the Romanian War Academy in Bucharest. He attended the V Army Corps staff college in Brașov, and published a book titled Logistics: Basics of Organisation and Execution in 1926, which became the standard work on logistics for the Romanian Army. Ironically, after the book was published, Phleps failed his first general's examination on the topic of logistics. He commanded various Romanian units, including the 1st Brigade of the vânători de munte (mountain ranger troops), while serving also as a military advisor to King Carol II in the 1930s. Phleps reached the rank of General-locotenent (major general) despite his reported disdain for the corruption, intrigue and hypocrisy of the royal court. After criticising the government's policy and publicly calling King Carol a liar when another general tried to twist his words, he was transferred to the reserves in 1940 and finally dismissed from service at his own request in 1941. World War II SS Motorised Division Wiking In November 1940, with the support of the leader of the Volksgruppe in Rumänien (ethnic Germans in Romania), Andreas Schmidt, Phleps wrote to the key Waffen-SS recruiting officer SS-Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen SS (Brigadier) Gottlob Berger offering his services to the Third Reich. He subsequently asked for permission to leave Romania to join the Wehrmacht, and this was approved by the recently installed Romanian Conducător (leader), the dictator General Ion Antonescu. Phleps volunteered for the Waffen-SS instead, enlisting under his mother's maiden name of Stolz. According to the historian Hans Bergel, Phleps joined the Waffen-SS because Volksdeutsche were not permitted to join the Wehrmacht. He was appointed an SS-Standartenführer (colonel) by Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler and joined the SS Motorised Division Wiking, where he commanded Dutch, Flemish, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish and Finnish volunteers. When Hilmar Wäckerle, the commander of SS-Regiment Westland, was killed in action near Lvov in late June 1941, Phleps took over command of that regiment. He distinguished himself in fighting at Kremenchuk and Dnipropetrovsk in the Ukraine, commanded his own Kampfgruppe, became a confidant of Generalmajor (Brigadier General) Hans-Valentin Hube, commander of the 16th Panzer Division, and was subsequently promoted to SS-Oberführer (senior colonel). In July 1941 he was awarded the 1939 clasp to his Iron Cross (1914) 2nd Class and then the Iron Cross (1939) 1st Class. 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen On 30 December 1941, Generalfeldmarschall (Field Marshal) Wilhelm Keitel advised Himmler that Adolf Hitler had authorised the raising of a seventh Waffen-SS division from the Volksdeutsche (ethnic Germans) of Yugoslavia. In the meantime, Phleps reverted to his birth name from his mother's maiden name. Two weeks later, SS-Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen SS Phleps was selected to organise the new division. On 1 March 1942, the division was officially designated the SS-Freiwilligen-Division "Prinz Eugen". Phleps was promoted to SS-Gruppenführer und Generalleutnant der Waffen SS (major general) on 20 April 1942. After recruitment, formation and training in the Banat region in October 1942, the two regiments and supporting arms were deployed into the southwestern part of the German-occupied territory of Serbia as an anti-Partisan force. Headquartered in Kraljevo, with its two mountain infantry regiments centred on Užice and Raška, the division continued its training. Some artillery batteries, the anti-aircraft battalion, the motorcycle battalion and cavalry squadron continued to form in the Banat. During his time with the 7th SS Division, Phleps was referred to as "Papa Phleps" by his troops. In early October 1942, the division commenced Operation Kopaonik, targeting the Chetnik force of Major Dragutin Keserović in the Kopaonik Mountains. The operation ended with little success, since the Chetniks had forewarning of the operation and were able to avoid contact. After a quiet winter, in January 1943 Phleps deployed the division to the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) to participate in Case White. Between 13 February and 9 March 1943 he was responsible for the initial aspects of raising the 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian) in the NDH in addition to his duties commanding the 7th SS Division. In his strongly apologetic divisional history of the division which he later commanded, Otto Kumm claims that his division captured Bihać and Bosanski Petrovac, killed over 2,000 Partisans and captured nearly 400 during Case White. After a short rest and refit in April, the division was committed to Case Black in May and June 1943, during which it advanced from the Mostar area into the Italian governorate of Montenegro killing, according to Kumm, 250 Partisans and capturing over 500. The historian Thomas Casagrande notes that all German units fighting partisans routinely counted the civilians they had murdered as partisans. Therefore, it can be assumed that the reported number of inflicted casualties included many civilians. The division played a decisive role during the fighting. Although Himmler had already planned to award Phleps the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross for his role in organising the 7th SS Division, it was for the achievements of his division during Case Black that Phleps received the award. Phleps was also portrayed in the SS-magazine Das Schwarze Korps. He received the Knight's Cross in July 1943, while being also promoted to Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen-SS (lieutenant general), and placed in command of the V SS Mountain Corps. In May 1943, Phleps became frustrated by the failure of his Italian allies to cooperate with German operations, which was demonstrated in his reputation for forthright speech. During a meeting with his Italian counterpart in Podgorica, Montenegro, Phleps called the Italian corps commander General Ercole Roncaglia a "lazy macaroni". Phleps scolded his Wehrmacht interpreter, Leutnant Kurt Waldheim for toning down his language, saying "Listen Waldheim, I know some Italian and you are not translating what I am telling this so-and-so". On another occasion, he threatened to shoot Italian sentries who were delaying his passage through a checkpoint. On 15 May 1943, Phleps handed over command of the division to SS-Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen SS Karl von Oberkamp. While under Phleps' command, the division committed many crimes against civilian population of the NDH, especially during Case White and Case Black. These included "burning villages, massacre of inhabitants, torture and murder of captured partisans", thence the division thereby developed a distinctive reputation for cruelty. These charges have been denied by Kumm, among others. Still, the divisional orders routinely called for the annihilation of hostile civilian population and documents by the Waffen-SS themselves show that these orders were regularly put into practice. For example, Himmler's police representative in the NDH, SS-Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Polizei Konstantin Kammerhofer, reported on 15 July 1943 that units of the 7th SS Division had shot the Muslim population of Kosutica, about 40 men, women, and children gathered in a "church". The division claimed that "bandits" in the village had opened fire, but the police could not discover any traces of combat. Such incidents, which jeopardized the plan to raise a Muslim SS division, led to a dispute between Kammerhofer and Phleps' successor Oberkamp. Himmler ordered Phleps to intervene, and he reported on 7 September 1943 that he could not discover anything wrong with the shootings in Kosutica and that Kammerhofer and Oberkamp had resolved their dispute. The war crimes committed by the 7th SS Division became the subject of international controversy when Waldheim's service in the Balkans became public in the mid-1980s, during his successful bid for the Austrian presidency. V SS Mountain Corps The formations under the command of V SS Mountain Corps varied during Phlep's command. In July 1944, it consisted of the 118th Jäger Division and 369th (Croatian) Infantry Division in addition to the 7th SS and 13th SS divisions. Throughout Phlep's command, the corps was under the overall control of 2nd Panzer Army and conducted anti-Partisan operations throughout the NDH and Montenegro. These operations included Operations Kugelblitz (ball lightning) and Schneesturm (blizzard), which were part of a major offensive in eastern Bosnia in December 1943, but they were only a limited success. Phleps had met personally with Hitler to discuss the planning for Operation Kugelblitz. Due to the unreliable nature of the troops loyal to the NDH government, Phleps utilised Chetnik forces as auxiliaries, stating to a visiting officer that he could not disarm the Chetniks unless the NDH government provided him with the same strength in reliable troops. In January 1944, due to fears that the Western Allies would invade along the Dalmatian coastline and islands, V SS Mountain Corps forced the mass evacuation of male civilians between the ages of 17 and 50 from that area. Phleps was criticised by both NDH and German authorities for the harshness with which the evacuation was carried out. During the first six months of 1944, elements of the V SS Mountain Corps were involved in Operation Waldrausch (Forest Fever) in central Bosnia, Operation Maibaum (Maypole) in eastern Bosnia, and Operation Rösselsprung (Knight's Move), the attempt to capture or kill the Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito. On 20 June 1944, Phleps was awarded the German Cross in Gold. In September, he was appointed plenipotentiary general of German occupation troops in south Siebenbürgen and the Banat, organising the flight of the Volksdeutsche of north Siebenbürgen ahead of the advancing Soviet Red Army. Death and aftermath Following the 23 August 1944 King Michael's Coup, while en route to a meeting with Himmler in Berlin, Phleps and his entourage made a detour to reconnoitre the situation near Arad, Romania after receiving reports of Soviet advances in that area. Accompanied only by his adjutant and his driver, and unaware of the presence of Red Army units in the vicinity, he entered Șimand, a village approximately north of Arad, on the afternoon of 21 September 1944. Soviet forces were already in the village, and Phleps and his men were captured and brought in for interrogation. When the building in which they were held was attacked by German aircraft later that afternoon, the prisoners tried to escape and were shot by their guards. Bergel suspects that Phleps had been set up by Hungarian army officers who had found out that he knew of plans for Hungary to switch sides as Romania had done shortly before. Phleps' personal effects, including his identity card, tags and decorations, were found by a Hungarian patrol and handed over to German authorities on 29 September 1944. Phleps had been listed as missing in action since 22 September 1944 when he did not show up for his meeting with Himmler, who had issued a warrant for his arrest. Phleps was posthumously awarded the Oak Leaves to his Knight's Cross on 24 November 1944, which was presented to his son, SS-Obersturmführer (First Lieutenant) Dr.med. Reinhart Phleps, a battalion doctor serving in the 7th SS Division. Soon after his death, the 13th Gebirgsjäger Regiment of the 7th SS Division was given the cuff title Artur Phleps in his honour. Phleps was married; his wife's name was Grete and in addition to their son Reinhart, they had a daughter, Irmingard. One of Phleps' brothers became a doctor, and the other was a professor at the Danzig technical university, now Gdańsk University of Technology. Accusations of war crimes Although no longer in command of the division, Phleps was accused by the Yugoslav authorities of war crimes in association with the atrocities committed by 7th SS Division in the area of Nikšić in Montenegro during Case Black. At the Nuremberg trials on 6 August 1946, a document from the Yugoslav State Commission for Crimes of Occupiers and their Collaborators regarding the crimes of the 7th SS Division was quoted as follows: At the end of May 1943 the division came to Montenegro to the area of Niksic in order to take part in the fifth enemy offensive in conjunction with the Italian troops. [...] The officers and men of the SS division Prinz Eugen committed crimes of an outrageous cruelty on this occasion. The victims were shot, slaughtered and tortured, or burnt to death in burning houses. [...] It has been established from the investigations entered upon that 121 persons, mostly women, and including 30 persons aged 60–92 years and 29 children of ages ranging from 6 months to 14 years, were executed on this occasion in the horrible manner narrated above. The villages [and then follows the list of the villages] were burnt down and razed to the ground. [...] For all of these most serious War Crimes those responsible besides the actual culprits—the members of the SS Division Prinz Eugen—are all superior and all subordinate commanders as the persons issuing and transmitting the orders for murder and devastation. Among others the following war criminals are known: SS Gruppenfuehrer and Lieutenant General of the Waffen-SS Phleps; Divisional Commander, Major General of the Waffen-SS Karl von Oberkamp; Commander of the 13th Regiment, later Divisional Commander, Major General Gerhard Schmidhuber... The post-war Nuremberg trials made the declaratory judgement that the Waffen-SS was a criminal organisation due to its major involvement in war crimes and crimes against humanity, including the killing of prisoners-of-war and atrocities committed in occupied countries. Awards Phleps received the following awards during his service: Austrian Military Merit Medal (Signum Laudis) in Bronze with war decoration and swords on 13 October 1914 in Silver with war decoration on 15 March 1916 Austrian Military Merit Cross 3rd Class with war decoration and swords on 3 July 1915 Decoration for Services to the Red Cross 2nd Class with war decoration on 23 October 1915 Prussian Iron Cross (1914) 2nd Class on 27 January 1917 Austrian Order of the Iron Crown 3rd Class with war decoration and swords on 24 April 1917 Officers cross of the Order of Franz Joseph with war decoration and swords on 23 July 1918 Order of the Star of Romania Officers cross with swords on ribbon of military merit on 12 March 1920 Commanders cross on 28 February 1933 Czechoslovak War Cross on 1 March 1928 Order of the Yugoslav Crown 2nd Class in 1933 Bulgarian Order of Military Merit 2nd Class on 26 April 1934 Romanian Order of the Crown Commander on 1 January 1927 Grand Cross on 10 May 1939 Clasp to the Iron Cross (1939) 2nd Class on 10 July 1941 Iron Cross 1st Class on 26 July 1941 Infantry Assault Badge in Bronze on 7 November 1943 German Cross in Gold on 20 June 1944 as SS-Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen-SS in the V SS Mountain Corps Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves Knight's Cross on 4 July 1943 as SS-Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen SS and commander of SS-Division "Prinz Eugen" 670th Oak Leaves on 24 November 1944 (posthumously) as SS-Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen-SS, commanding general of the V SS Mountain Corps and Higher SS and Police Leader as well as commander-in-chief in Siebenbürgen. Notes Footnotes References Books Journals Websites External links 1881 births 1944 deaths Austro-Hungarian Army officers Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I Commanders of the Order of the Star of Romania Gebirgsjäger of World War II People from Sibiu County Recipients of the Gold German Cross Recipients of the clasp to the Iron Cross, 2nd class Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves Academic staff of Carol I National Defence University Romanian Land Forces generals Romanian people of German descent SS and Police Leaders German people who died in Soviet detention German prisoners of war in World War II held by the Soviet Union Yugoslavia in World War II Waffen-SS personnel killed in action SS-Obergruppenführer Recipients of the Order of the Yugoslav Crown Grand Crosses of the Order of the Crown (Romania) Recipients of the Czechoslovak War Cross Missing in action of World War II Officers of the Order of the Star of Romania Nazi war criminals
4880292	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional%20sports%20network	Regional sports network	A regional sports network (RSN) in the United States and Canada is a television channel that presents sports programming to a local media market or geographical region. Some RSNs originated as premium channels. Since the 1990s, they have commonly been distributed through the expanded basic tiers of cable television and IPTV services. Direct broadcast satellite providers may require subscribers to purchase a higher programming tier or a specialized sports tier to receive local and out-of-market regional sports networks. Overview Viewership and advertising revenue on RSNs are highest during live broadcasts of professional and collegiate sporting events. These broadcasts are often the source content for out-of-market sports packages. During the rest of the day, these channels show news programs covering local and national sports, magazine and discussion programs relating to a team or collegiate conference, fishing and hunting programs, and in-studio video simulcasts of sports radio programs. RSNs also rerun sports events from the recent and distant past. Some RSNs air infomercials. In the United States, DirecTV offers all regional sports networks to all subscribers across the country, but live games and other selected programs are blacked out outside their home markets. Regional sports networks are generally among the most expensive channels carried by cable television providers. A typical RSN, , carries a monthly retransmission fee of $2 to $3 per subscriber, lower than the rates providers charge to carry ESPN and premium channels but higher than the rates for other cable networks. RSNs justify these high prices by citing demand for the local sports teams they carry, particularly those in Major League Baseball, the National Basketball Association and the National Hockey League, as well as college teams that have large and loyal fanbases. Carriage disputes between distributors and RSNs are often controversial and protracted. Since 2013, television providers such as Charter Spectrum and Verizon FiOS have charged customers a "regional sports network fee" as a separate item on their bills. In response to high and increasing surcharges for RSNs and local broadcast channels, on March 22, 2023, FCC chairwoman Jessica Rosenworcel announced a proposal to require television providers to advertise only "all-in" pricing, including all programming fees. In Canada, Sportsnet operates four regional sports networks, and the otherwise nationally distributed TSN also maintains some regional operations. This differs from the operational structure of RSNs in the United States, which are independently operated from national sports networks. Some sports teams own some or all of their respective RSNs. For example, the New York Rangers and New York Knicks have long co-owned their RSN, MSG; they also have purchased the rights to the Rangers' local rivals, the New York Islanders and New Jersey Devils. MSG also owns the rights to the Buffalo Sabres, but the Sabres produce their own games for MSG Western New York, a separate channel managed by MSG and Pegula Sports and Entertainment, owners of the Sabres. History The first regional sports network is considered to be the Madison Square Garden Network. An early unnamed version of that network started broadcasting Knicks and Rangers to a small number of subscribers in Manhattan in May 1969. By the late 1970s another version of this network would launch and be made available to other cable systems in the metropolitan area and it would finally receive the name Madison Square Garden Television in 1980. Another early network considered by many to be an RSN is Philadelphia's PRISM which launched in 1976 offering coverage of three of the city's major sports teams and movies. In 1976, Cablevision launched a new service providing coverage of Long Island sports (originally called Cablevision Sports 3). This channel would be renamed SportsChannel New York in 1979 and became the first channel to resemble a modern regional sports network. Other SportsChannels were launched in different cities and in 1988, they were formally organized into a group that shared programming and national TV rights. During the 1990s, some teams experimented with pay-per-view or premium television broadcasts of games, which were generally unpopular. The Portland Trail Blazers ran BlazerVision, which charged a fee for every game, and which blacked out NBA on TNT coverage of Trail Blazer playoff games for fans within of Portland. The Chicago Blackhawks broadcast games exclusively on Hawkvision between 1992 and 1995. As sports fans began to prefer watching their favorite teams on television rather than in person, RSNs became a very important source of revenue for professional teams and collegiate conferences. By 2011, regional sports networks were integral to the financial health of many U.S. sports ventures. Teams in smaller media markets were often disadvantaged by their reliance on RSNs, whereas teams in larger markets could negotiate more lucrative media rights deals. Impact of cord-cutting, streaming In the 21st century, the rise of cord-cutting has led to decreasing cable and satellite television subscriber numbers in the U.S., which in turn has reduced the revenue that RSNs receive from television provider subscriber fees and advertising. These have resulted in an increasing erosion to the RSN market, and attempts to launch over-the-top (OTT) services at RSNs. These services require broadcasters to obtain in-market streaming rights to teams, and have a high cost due to RSNs usually being subsidized by subscribers that are not interested in sports. Major League Soccer, which previously broadcast most of its matches regionally on RSNs, switched to a centralized media rights model in the 2023 season; all match telecasts are now produced in-house and carried internationally on the MLS Season Pass subscription service under a ten-year digital rights agreement with Apple Inc. In March 2023, Bally Sports parent company Diamond Sports Group filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, while Warner Bros. Discovery Sports (WBD) announced its intent to exit the regional sports market by divesting its AT&T SportsNet channels. Major League Baseball had established a local media department prior to the 2023 season (leveraging resources from MLB Network), in preparation for the possibility that league-produced telecasts would have to supplant RSNs incapable of broadcasting their teams' games. This situation became reality in May 2023, when the rights to the San Diego Padres reverted back to the team after Diamond missed a payment: beginning May 31, 2023, MLB Local Media took over the production of Padres regional games, distributing them via an in-market add-on to MLB.tv, and making agreements with multiple television providers to carry the games on local access channels (such as Cox Cable's YurView California, which had been the previous rightsholder of the Padres before they moved to Fox/Bally Sports San Diego). The broadcasts maintain team-contracted staff such as commentators. In July 2023, MLB Local Media similarly took over the rights to the Arizona Diamondbacks after Diamond was granted a motion to decline its contract with the team. In 2023, amid the dismantling of AT&T SportsNet and the Diamond Sports bankruptcy, multiple NBA and NHL teams pivoted away from the pay television RSN model and returned to primarily carrying their games on free-to-air television—along with paid OTT services—ahead of their 2023–24 seasons, including the Phoenix Suns and Utah Jazz of the NBA (with the latter signing with KJZZ-TV, which had formerly aired Jazz games while under the ownership of then-owner Larry H. Miller), and the Arizona Coyotes and Vegas Golden Knights of the NHL (which both signed with E. W. Scripps Company's newly-formed Scripps Sports division). United States Bally Sports For more than 20 years, the primary RSN in many markets was owned by Fox Sports. Fox Sports Networks, which launched on November 1, 1996, as Fox Sports Net, was created through former parent News Corporation's October 1995 purchase of a 50% equity stake in Liberty Media-owned Prime Sports Networks, co-founded in 1988 by Bill Daniels and Liberty's then-sister company Tele-Communications Inc. The group expanded further in June 1997, Fox/Liberty Networks, the joint venture company operated by News Corporation and Liberty Media, purchased a 40% interest in the Cablevision-owned SportsChannel group. As part of a rebranding effort, the collective branding of the networks – which eventually became "FSN (Region/City)" in 2004 – was extended to Fox Sports (Region/City) (also used from 1996 to 2000) with the start of the 2008 college football season. The FSN networks were acquired by Diamond Sports Group from The Walt Disney Company in 2019, as Disney was required to divest them by U.S. Department of Justice as a condition of their own acquisition of 21st Century Fox. The channel group was renamed Bally Sports on March 31, 2021, as part of a naming rights agreement with casino operator Bally's Corporation. On February 15, 2023, Diamond Sports Group, the parent company of Bally Sports, failed to make a $140M interest payment, instead opting for a 30-day grace period to make the payment. During this grace period, Diamond Sports also missed a rights payment to the Arizona Diamondbacks. On March 14, 2023, Diamond Sports filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. On October 2023, following the loss of airing Phoenix Suns and Arizona Diamondbacks games during the year, Bally Sports Arizona dropped coverage of the Arizona Coyotes during the preseason, which subsequently led to Bally Sports Arizona being the first Bally Sports-related regional sports network to shut down. NBC Sports Regional Networks Cable conglomerate Comcast began creating Comcast SportsNet (CSN) after their March 1996 purchase of a 66% stake in Philadelphia-based event organizer Spectacor, which owned the Flyers and 76ers. Comcast SportsNet Philadelphia, the first CSN channel, launched on October 1, 1997. CSN purchased a small number of RSNs previously owned by Fox Sports Networks, and acquired the local rights to professional teams that FSN regional networks carried. In two markets, the latter situation resulted in Fox Sports shutting down their networks. The January 2011 Comcast merger with NBCUniversal allowed NBC Sports to take operational control of these networks. In April 2017, Comcast SportsNet's California and Bay Area networks were rebranded under the NBC Sports brand; NBC Sports Regional Networks adopted the "NBC Sports" moniker on its other regional channels on October 2, 2017. AT&T Sports Networks In May 2009, DirecTV Group Inc. announced that it would become a part of Liberty Media's entertainment unit, with some of the group's assets subsequently being spun off as a separate company under the DirecTV banner; the Fox Sports Networks outlets that became part of the Liberty Sports unit (which was renamed DirecTV Sports Networks on November 19, 2009) were rebranded under the new name "Root Sports" on April 1, 2011. DirecTV Sports Networks would be acquired by AT&T Inc. in 2015, as a byproduct of its acquisition of DirecTV. The renamed RSN unit, AT&T Sports Networks, rebranded its regional sports networks – excluding Root Sports Northwest, which is mostly owned by the Seattle Mariners – under the AT&T SportsNet banner on July 14, 2017. In September 2018, AT&TSN was transferred to the WarnerMedia News & Sports division. In February 2020, the New York Post reported that AT&T had abandoned a plan to divest the channels, after only receiving bids in excess of $500 million (rather than the $1 billion valuation it had expected). In May 2021, it was announced that AT&T would instead divest the entirety of WarnerMedia, and contribute it into a joint venture with Discovery Inc., forming a new company later announced as Warner Bros. Discovery. Discovery announced on April 7, 2022, that Patrick Crumb, president of AT&T Sports Networks, would report to the yet-to-be-named Chairperson for Warner Bros. Discovery Sports; Jeff Zucker departed the company upon the completion of the merger, but his successor Chris Licht will only oversee CNN. The merger was completed the following day. On February 24, 2023, Warner Bros. Discovery announced that it would leave the RSN business, and informed that the networks' respective teams had until March 31 to reach an agreement to take their rights back or acquire the networks. Those teams with deals with Root Sports Northwest are not affected because that channel already is majority-owned by the Seattle Mariners. This deadline quietly passed with no changes in operations; it was later reported that WBD had been negotiating an agreement with the MLB to ensure that the networks would continue operating as normal through the end of the 2023 regular season. On October 2023, AT&T SportsNet Pittsburgh was taken over by the Pittsburgh Penguins (via NESN, a sister via the team's parent Fenway Sports Group) and renamed to just SportsNet Pittsburgh, while the Houston Astros and Rockets acquired WBD's shares in AT&T SportsNet Southwest and rebranded it as Space City Home Network. Meanwhile, AT&T SportsNet Rocky Mountain rebranded itself to just SportsNet Rocky Mountain later on, but that network wasn't taken over by either a team like the Colorado Rockies and/or another network during that month, which ultimately left them defunct later that month. AT&T SportsNet plans to cease all services on December 31, 2023. Spectrum Sports Spectrum Sports is the collective name for a group of regional sports networks that are primarily owned and operated by Charter Communications through its acquisition of Time Warner Cable in May 2016. Canada Sportsnet Sportsnet (formerly known as CTV Sportsnet and Rogers Sportsnet) is owned by the Rogers Media division of Toronto-based Rogers Communications. Sportsnet carries all of the Toronto Blue Jays baseball games. Although it is considered a national channel with multiple feeds for regulatory purposes, in practice its four main channels act as a set of RSNs, albeit with a significant portion of common national programming. Through the separate Sportsnet One licence, Rogers also operates three part-time regional "companion channels", which provide coverage of additional regional NHL broadcasts which are not able to air on Sportsnet's main regional channels: Sportsnet Flames, Sportsnet Oilers, and Sportsnet Vancouver Hockey. Rogers is also a shareholder in Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment (MLSE), which owns Leafs Nation Network, a channel devoted entirely to the Toronto Maple Leafs and its farm team, the Toronto Marlies (and is restricted to the Leafs' broadcast territory). MLSE also operates NBA TV Canada, which is distributed nationally but focuses much of its programming on the MLSE-owned Toronto Raptors and farm team Raptors 905. TSN/RDS On August 25, 2014, The Sports Network (TSN), another Canadian sports channel, split its singular national feed into four regional feeds in a manner similar to Sportsnet. These feeds are primarily used to broadcast regional NHL games, but may also be used to provide alternative and common national programming. While each region has a primary TSN channel, due to overlaps in NHL territories it is possible in some parts of Ontario to access additional regional games from one non-primary channel. Prior to the launch of these channels, regional NHL games whose rights were held by TSN (which, at that point, consisted solely of the Jets and Canadiens) were broadcast on special part-time channels exclusive to the team's television region. Bell Media also owns Réseau des sports (RDS) and RDS2, French-language sports networks that are licensed to serve all of Canada, but in practice focus on the predominantly French-speaking province of Quebec (as there are relatively few francophones outside that province). Prior to the 2014–15 season, RDS could air Canadiens games on a national basis, as it was also the national French-language rightsholder of the National Hockey League in Canada. With Rogers' acquisition of the exclusive national media rights to the NHL, and its decision to sub-license French rights to Quebecor Media's TVA Sports, RDS and RDS2's coverage of the Canadiens and Senators are now restricted to parts of Eastern Ontario, Quebec and Atlantic Canada. Regional syndicators Some telecasts (especially in U.S. college sports) are broadcast by ad-hoc syndicated packages, which can be picked up on a network of broadcasters that may consist of either individual over-the-air stations, regional sports networks, or a mixture of both. Jefferson-Pilot Communications and Raycom Sports were well-known as syndicators of college sports on broadcast television, having previously held agreements with the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) and Southeastern Conference (SEC). By the late-2000's. both packages began to wind down after ESPN acquired the media rights to both conferences; ESPN initially maintained a syndicated package known as "SEC Network", while Raycom was given a sub-license to continue its syndication package (subsequently renamed "ACC Network"). Both packages ended when ESPN launched dedicated cable channels for both conferences. ESPN was originally intended to focus on sports in Connecticut, but chose to broadcast nationally when it debuted in 1979 when it was discovered by the network's founders that it would be less expensive to broadcast nationwide on satellite as opposed to regionally through microwave transmission. ESPN formerly served as a college sports syndicator via ESPN Regional Television—formerly branded on-air as ESPN Plus, but later using conference-oriented brands such as SEC Network (not to be confused with the SEC Network cable channel which succeeded it), and Big East Network. The SEC Network package was a successor to the previous Raycom Sports-produced SEC package. In 2014, television station owner Sinclair Broadcast Group established its own sports syndicator known as the American Sports Network (ASN), primarily syndicating broadcasts of college football and basketball from mid-major conferences (some of which were previously associated with ESPN Plus) to stations that it owns and operates. In 2015, Sinclair also acquired regional rights to Major League Soccer's Real Salt Lake, with ASN handling production and distribution of team telecasts within its designated market. ASN later began to operate a dedicated channel; in contrast to other sports channels, it was distributed free-to-air as a digital multicast television network, and eventually subsumed its syndication of individual telecasts. In 2017, the channel was relaunched as Stadium as part of a joint venture with Silver Chalice, which expanded its programming and added a focus on distribution via free ad-supported streaming television (FAST). See also Broadcasting of sports events List of sports television channels Major League Baseball on regional sports networks References External links Kaiser's Blog – Info on RSN history and some regions. Sports television in the United States Sports television in Canada Cable television in the United States Cable television in Canada
4880466	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana%20Oughton	Diana Oughton	Diana Oughton (January 26, 1942 – March 6, 1970) was an American member of the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) Michigan Chapter and later, a member of the 1960s radical group Weather Underground. Oughton received her B.A. from Bryn Mawr College. After graduation, Oughton went to Guatemala with the American Friends Service Committee program to teach the young and older Native Americans. After returning to the U.S, she worked at the Children's Community School in Ann Arbor, Michigan while getting her master's degree at the University of Michigan. She became active in SDS, eventually becoming a full-time organizer and member of the Jesse James Gang. With the split of SDS in 1969, she joined Weather Underground. Oughton died in the Greenwich Village townhouse explosion in Greenwich Village when a nail bomb she was constructing with Terry Robbins detonated. The bomb was to be used that evening at a dance for noncommissioned officers and their dates at the Fort Dix, New Jersey Army base, to "bring the [Vietnam] war home". Early life and education Oughton was born and raised in Dwight, Illinois, the eldest of four daughters. She played the piano and the flute as a child, and enjoyed the operas and plays that her parents took her to see in Chicago. As a child, Oughton's father taught her to handle a shotgun to be used during the pheasant season with her father at the family's shooting preserve and sometimes in the surrounding countryside of Dwight. Oughton learned to ride horses and had been a 4-H member. Her mother was Jane Boyce Oughton, and her father was James Henry Oughton, Jr., vice-president of the family bank and owner of a successful restaurant. James Oughton was a member of the Republican Party and was elected to the Illinois General Assembly, serving from 1964 to 1966. One of her paternal great-grandfathers was the founder of Dwight's Keeley Institute for Alcoholics, and another great-grandfather, William D. Boyce, founded the Boy Scouts of America. Her sisters are Carol Oughton Biondi, philanthropist and wife of Hollywood executive Frank Biondi; the late Pamela Oughton Armstrong; and Debra. Diana Oughton left Dwight at the age of 14 to finish her high school education at the Madeira School in McLean, Virginia. In her senior year at Madeira, she was accepted by all of the Seven Sisters colleges. Oughton graduated from high school in 1959, entering Bryn Mawr College as a German-language major. Oughton supported her Republican family's political values by opposing federal banking regulations, social security, and anything associated with big government. When she was 19, Oughton went to West Germany under a program sponsored by Wayne State University to spend her junior year of college at the University of Munich. She rented a room from Gerhard Weber, the former rector of the university. Oughton became friends with some of the German students, including Peter, with whom she had conversations late into the night. In the family-authorized biography Diana: The Making of a Terrorist, author Thomas Powers noted Diana's recollection of a conversation with Peter that resonated with her: "He said...Hurrah for Socialism!" After her study abroad, Oughton returned to Bryn Mawr for her senior year. During this time, Oughton and many other students read and were influenced by the book Black Like Me. The author John Howard Griffin gave an account of what he encountered going to the Southern United States, disguised as an African American. The book had a profound effect on Oughton, prompting her to volunteer in 1962 to tutor African-American children in an impoverished section of Philadelphia. Oughton once told her sister Carol how amazed she was that there were seventh graders she was tutoring who could not read. Guatemala After receiving her B.A. degree from Bryn Mawr in 1963, Oughton spent the next two years in Guatemala with the American Friends Service Committee program (AFSC). Nearly half the women from Oughton's college senior class had gone on to graduate school. Oughton was assigned to Chichicastenango, at that time an isolated indigenous market town. Oughton went to Guatemala as a liberal, believing that the problems could be identified and solutions devised and carried out. Eventually, she became a radical and began to feel an urgency to change everything at once. While there, Oughton worked with young adults and older indigenous people to teach them to read. She helped local Catholic priests implement nutritional programs and edited a left-wing Guatemalan newspaper. Oughton lived in a small house with a dirt floor and a little outhouse. During this time, the questions with which she had struggled with came to a head. Oughton questioned what to do about poverty, social injustice, and revolution in the world. Oughton came to the conclusion that no matter how many hours were spent working to feed and educate, there would always be more people than jobs to earn wages, inadequate food supplies, and never enough shelter to protect people from the elements. According to Thomas Powers, the author of Diana: The Making of a Terrorist, the more Oughton learned about the hard life of rural Guatemala, the more she reflected on the affluence of the United States. In Chichicastenango, Americans seemed an alien presence; the fact of their wealth was almost an insult to the impoverished Indians. In her mind, confusion emerged that lasted the rest of her life: She had rejected affluence (at first almost unconsciously) to work among the poor, but poverty, clearly, was nothing to be envied. She hated poverty as well as affluence. Oughton left Chichicastenango with a new view of the problems that undeveloped countries like Guatemala faced when in struggle with the United States. Those who knew Oughton recognized this period as the major turning point in her life; according to Powers, Oughton came to feel something close to a sense of shame at being American. In Fugitive Days, Bill Ayers writes that Oughton "had had an abundance of experience in Guatemala, a torrent, almost more than she could endure. She now sometimes suffered the full flood of her experiences." Oughton became much more aware of the United States' impact on foreign countries, and she did not return to Philadelphia as the same Midwest Republican. Oughton's friends from college noticed upon her return to the United States how she had matured, displaying sadness regarding the poverty she encountered in Guatemala in the previous two years. Children's Community School In 1966, Oughton left Philadelphia for Ann Arbor, Michigan to enroll in the University of Michigan Graduate School of Education, seeking her Master of Arts degree in teaching. In Michigan, she began to work part-time at the Children's Community School (CCS), a project established by Toby Hendon and based on the Summerhill method of education. Children were allowed to do what they liked when they liked, on the premise that both teaching and learning were most successful when most spontaneous. The CCS mission was to treat the children with love and understanding, in hopes that violent thoughts would not consume the child's personality. The school also tried to establish complete equality between white and black students and to involve parents in the running of the school, so that it might be a community in the largest sense of the word. Later in 1966, Oughton dropped almost all of her other commitments to work full-time at CCS. She designed a fund-raising button with a smiling face and the words "Children Are Only Newer People". At CCS, Oughton met teacher Bill Ayers. The two fell in love and soon began living together. In 1968, the school ran into severe problems, such as the fact that few students learned to read, and lost its funding, so Oughton and Ayers sought to become active elsewhere in the community. SDS and the Jesse James Gang Ayers and Oughton were involved with Students for a Democratic Society while working at CCS, but it was not until after the closure of the school that they became involved as full-time organizers. Their lives became consumed by meetings, organizing, and planning actions. It was during this time that Ayers and Oughton met Terry Robbins. In March 1968, Oughton helped create a women's liberation group. The group met every week or so, wherever the women could find room. Most of the talk seemed to center on the subordinate role of women in the radical movement and on the sexual oppression of women by the "macho" tendency of males to regard sex as conquest. During these meetings, Oughton often discussed the role that women played in the SDS, which was a combination of being a sexual object, an office clerk, and a housekeeper. Later in 1968, Oughton told a friend that Ayers had slept with other women while she was away for five days. She told the friend she tried to convince herself that it didn't matter, but it did. Also in 1968, Oughton and Ayers became part of the Jesse James Gang, which banded together with about 40 others against the moderates. The Jesse James Gang replaced the University of Michigan SDS chapter, and Robbins, Oughton, and Ayers worked in partnership with Jim Mellen from the Revolutionary Youth Movement Group. The Vietnam War entered its third year in the middle of 1968. The early student movement had taken their moral stance from the teachings of Albert Camus, who taught that thinking men have the responsibility to find a way in the world to be neither a victim or the executioner. Four events in 1968 turned the American student movement into self-proclaimed Marxist–Leninist revolutionaries: the Viet Cong's Tet Offensive, the student sit-in at Columbia University, the near-revolution in France, and the Democratic National Convention in Chicago. Each event helped change the way American radicals viewed their own situations. By the end of 1968, the revolutionaries were tired of waiting for change and no longer had allegiance to or trust in America's democracy. One of the few actions by the Jesse James Gang occurred on the University of Michigan campus while Robben Fleming, the university president, was speaking to a group of students inside a school building. Oughton spoke outside with a portable address system while the Jesse James Gang handed out sliced pieces of bread, shouting "Here's the bread. Get the baloney inside." The 1968 annual national SDS convention was held at Michigan State University. Oughton and Ayers were participants sponsored by Eric Chester, who was a Voice-SDS leader in Ann Arbor. The gang insisted that action was the only thing likely to create a situation in which radical solutions to American problems would be considered. The Gang offered a tight, validating community within which members could express their rage and frustration about the status quo and their empathy for suffering. Weatherman With the split of SDS in 1969, Oughton and Ayers joined the Weatherman faction. Oughton found it difficult to get along with her father; she saw her parents' lives in Dwight, Illinois as complacent and secure, and lives in the impoverished sections of Chicago and Detroit as chaotic. At this time, SDS protests became more violent and radical. Oughton and Ayers had been drifting apart since December 1968. Monogamy, according to Ayers, interfered with his political work. Oughton replaced her friends, and she abandoned teaching for politics. Merrill Rosenberg told Oughton "Revolution means violence and risk, or it is only talk. The Weathermen's arguments pointed to their conclusion that the time was now to fight." In August 1969, Oughton participated in an SDS delegation that traveled to Cuba for the third meeting between Vietnamese and American delegates. The Vietnamese called the meeting to discuss progress taken in the peace movement as the war in Vietnam was entering its final stages. Oughton was impressed by Cuba's progress in literacy and medical treatment. The pace of movement toward action within the Weathermen picked up soon after their return from Cuba. Oughton and 75 other Weatherwomen drove to Pittsburgh on September 3, 1969 after attending a caucus in Cleveland to take part in what the Weathermen Group called a practice run of the Days of Rage. On the morning of September 4, 20 Weatherwomen entered the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) office and held the office workers captive until the Weatherwomen had run off copies of a leaflet to be handed out to student sympathizers. One of the Weatherwomen told Miss Dodd, who worked in the AFSC office: "We thought until now you were on our side. Now we know you are a member of the enemy." A short time later, all 75 Weatherwomen appeared at South Hills High School in Pittsburgh to participate in a "jailbreak". The women spray painted anti-war slogans "Ho lives" and "Free Huey" on the school's main entrance doors, and handed out leaflets, urging high school students to "bring the war home," and asking students to leave the school campus. Some Weatherwomen made speeches in the school's playground about racism, imperialism, and the SDS national action plans. Oughton was able to escape from the Pittsburgh police, but 26 others, including Cathy Wilkerson and Jane Spielman, were arrested at the school. The students at the high school had no idea who the Weatherwomen were or why the women chose their school. Part of this move toward greater violence was seen during the Days of Rage in Chicago, which took place October 8–11, 1969. One purpose of the Days of Rage was to create an image of strength and determination that would win converts to revolutionary violence. Weathermen gathered at Grant Park around a fire made from nearby park benches. They listened to leaders' speeches about Che Guevara and the world revolution. The last speech spurred the group to head for the Drake Hotel, where federal judge Julius Hoffman resided. He was the presiding judge at the Chicago 8 trial. Weathermen took their helmets, clubs, and chains, entered the streets, and smashed car windshields and store windows. Oughton was one of those arrested on October 9 in Chicago when police spied her keeping an eye out for other Weathermen who might turn up. Her bail was set at $5,000, which her father came up from Dwight to pay. Until Oughton's arrest, her family did not know who the Weathermen were. After she was released, Mr. Oughton dropped his daughter off at a church where she was meeting with other Weathermen; shortly afterward, police raided the church and arrested 43 members of the group. Oughton managed to escape by jumping from a ground floor window. After the Days of Rage, the group became increasingly violent. Oughton returned home for a short visit around Christmas Day 1969. She seemed pleased to receive some clothing items and other gifts from her family. Although she appeared thin and fatigued, her family did not press her to stay. Oughton left her parents' home for the last time to go to Flint, Michigan for the December 27 "War Council" meeting. Oughton made the decision at the meeting to go underground. In her book Flying Close to the Sun, former Weatherman member Cathy Wilkerson describes meeting with Terry Robbins, also a member of the Jesse James Gang, who told her about a small, semi-clandestine group in New York to which he belonged. He explained briefly that the group had already been active: a firebomb had been thrown at the home of Judge Murtagh, then presiding over the trial of the Panther 21. When Wilkerson joined the collective, the members were in need of a place to stay. Wilkerson's father had a townhouse in New York and was to be away for a couple of weeks. Robbins wondered whether Wilkerson could get the keys. She did so, and the group arrived at 18 West 11th Street to decide their next move. Jonah Raskin, whose wife Eleanor Raskin was part of the Weather Underground organization, and who was a courier for the Underground, recalls the last time he spoke with the members of the collective in New York: "I had talked to them not long before the townhouse blew up and they seemed to have lost touch with reality- and were incapable of making sensible decisions about almost everything." Townhouse explosion On March 2, 1970, in Keene, New Hampshire, a Weatherman purchased two 50-pound cases of dynamite from the New England Explosives Corporation. Sometime that week, the dynamite was moved from Keene to Greenwich Village, where it was taken to the house at 18 West Eleventh Street. Oughton left Detroit and joined the group at the house. Oughton and Robbins were in the basement assembling a nail bomb when it detonated. Cathy Wilkerson, who was in the townhouse at the time, describes her experience during the explosion, "the idea that Terry and Diana were both in the subbasement overwhelmed everything else. As I forced my attention there and to them, my lungs expanded instantaneously to draw in air and dust so I could call out." Wilkerson and Kathy Boudin, another Weatherman in the townhouse at the time, were the only two to escape. When they ran out into the street, someone asked if there was anyone else in the house. Thinking that Ted Gold, the other Weatherman in the townhouse, had gone to the store, Wilkerson replied that there was no one left inside, as she was sure that Robbins and Oughton were dead. Four days after the explosion, detectives found some of Oughton's remains near a workbench in the rubble-filled basement of the devastated townhouse. At the end of another week, a detective discovered the tip of the little finger from the right hand. A print taken by a police department expert was matched later that day with a set of Oughton's prints in the Washington files of the FBI. The prints they had on file were from Oughton's arrest in Chicago on October 9, 1969 during the Days of Rage. It took four days to find Oughton's remains, not only because of the amount of destruction the bomb had caused—the townhouse was destroyed—but also because of the dynamite found in the wreckage. While searching through the rubble, detectives found four lead pipes, each in diameter and packed with dynamite. The street was cleared, the bomb-removal truck was summoned, and the search continued with considerable caution. Before the day was over, detectives found four cartons containing 57 sticks of dynamite, 30 blasting caps, and some cheap alarm clocks with holes drilled in their faces for wires. It was understood later that the bombs were to be detonated at a non-commissioned officers' dance at Fort Dix. The doctor who examined Oughton's remains said that she had been standing within a foot or two of the bomb when it exploded. It may, in fact, have gone off in her hands. Ayers has raised the possibility that Oughton may have intentionally detonated the explosion, and it has been reported that a vicious argument occurred throughout the previous day and night in which Boudin favored using antipersonnel bombs and that Oughton had misgivings. When Brian Flanagan reflects on his time as part of the Weather Underground Organization, he said "I was regretful over about 5 percent of what we did...I think 95 percent of what we did was great, and we'd do it again. And what was the 5 percent? The town house." When pressed, Flanagan said that he regretted "the deaths of the three Weathermen Ted Gold, Diana Oughton and Terry Robbins and the plan to bomb the dance at Fort Dix and the library at Columbia University, which could have taken lives." The Townhouse Explosion was the dramatic culmination of the grim political direction in which Weatherman had been headed. Laura Whitehorn, a former member of Weatherman, said "We were out of touch with what was going on, and we lost sight of the fact that if you're a revolutionary, the first thing you have to try to do is preserve human life." The Weather Underground Organization dedicated its book Prairie Fire to Oughton (as well as Sirhan Sirhan and many others). Diana Oughton's mother was notified at the Oughton home by a member of the Dwight, Illinois police force, once Oughton's identity had been confirmed. Mr. Oughton was on a business trip in London at the time of Diana's death. He stated in the Detroit Free Press that he was told on the phone that "his daughter's remains had been identified in a bombed Greenwich Village townhouse. She was a revolutionary terrorist and the bomb, intended for an adjunct of the Establishment in New York, had killed her by mistake." Mr. Oughton also stated in the article: "I knew she had friends in radical politics and that she was traveling around the country organizing teach-ins. But even as late as the (1968) Democratic convention she refused to take part in the violence. I'm sure she did this with a crystal clear conscience. There was nothing egocentric or self-centered about it." On Tuesday, March 24, 1970, Oughton was buried next to her grandparents in the family plot about a mile and a half outside of Dwight. Hundreds attended the funeral services. Some of the children Oughton had worked with at the Children's Community School pinned their fund-raising buttons, that Oughton had designed and made three years prior, to a bouquet of flowers at the explosion site. Cultural references In film and television Katherine (1975), loosely based on Oughton's life, is a TV movie starring Sissy Spacek, tells the story of Katherine Alman, who was from a wealthy Denver family, became socially active, served as a teacher of English in South America, then joined a radical "collective" which had many similarities to the SDS and eventually the Weather Underground. The "collective" protested the Vietnam War, invaded a high school, held a "war council" and eventually split into peaceful and violent factions. The story ended with Katherine's death from the explosion of the bomb that detonated prematurely at a government building the violent faction had targeted. In music The song "Diana - Part 1", sung by Paul Kantner on the album Sunfighter (1971), was written in response to the story of Diana Oughton and the Weathermen. In print James Merrill, who had grown up in the townhouse that was owned by Cathy Wilkerson's father at the time of the bombing, wrote a poem titled "18 West 11th Street". Richard M. Pearlstein wrote The Mind of the Political Terrorist (1991), in which he attempted to provide insight into the individual psychological dimensions of political terrorism. Diana Oughton is one of the individuals he uses as a case study. See also John R. Oughton House Notes References Dohrn, Bernardine, Ayers, Bill, and Jones, Jeff, editors. Sing a Battle Song: The Revolutionary Poetry, Statements, and Communiqués of the Weather Underground, 1970–1974. New York: Seven Stories Press, 2006. Double Feature - The Boy in the Plastic Bubble - Katherine #03877 (PC Treasures, Inc. 2006, 2765 Metamora Rd. Oxford, MI 48371) [Note: 1975 fictionalized TV movie "Based on a True Story" - Written and directed by Jeremy Kagan. The movie mixes drama with documentary style commentaries, and authentic audio/video footage of the period.] Eager, Paige Whaley. From Freedom Fighters to Terrorists. London: Ashgate Publishing, 2008. FBI files Kantner, Paul. "Diana". Sunfighter (1971). Grunt Label. "Long Live Ho Chi Minh!" Guardian Independent Radical Newsweekly. New York; Sept 13, 1968. Further reading Eager, Paige Whaley. From Freedom Fighters to Terrorists. England: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2008 (See pages 49–51 regarding Diana Oughton). Lynn, Cendra. The Compassionate Life and Terrible Death of Diana Oughton. "Ann Arbor Observer" March, 2010. pp 21–23. External links COINTELPRO targets 1942 births 1970 deaths Deaths by improvised explosive device in the United States Members of the Weather Underground Bryn Mawr College alumni Activists from Chicago University of Michigan alumni Madeira School alumni People from Dwight, Illinois
4880551	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance%20of%20power%20%28international%20relations%29	Balance of power (international relations)	The balance of power theory in international relations suggests that states may secure their survival by preventing any one state from gaining enough military power to dominate all others. If one state becomes much stronger, the theory predicts it will take advantage of its weaker neighbors, thereby driving them to unite in a defensive coalition. Some realists maintain that a balance-of-power system is more stable than one with a dominant state, as aggression is unprofitable when there is equilibrium of power between rival coalitions. When threatened, states may seek safety either by balancing, allying with others against the prevailing threat; or bandwagoning, aligning themselves with the threatening power. Other alliance tactics include buck-passing and chain-ganging. Realists have long debated how the polarity of a system impacts the choice of tactics; however, it is generally agreed that in bipolar systems, each great power has no choice but to directly confront the other. Along with debates between realists about the prevalence of balancing in alliance patterns, other schools of international relations, such as constructivists, are also critical of the balance of power theory, disputing core realist assumptions regarding the international system and the behavior of states. History The principle involved in preserving the balance of power as a conscious goal of foreign policy, as David Hume pointed out in his Essay on the Balance of Power, is as old as history, and was used by Greeks such as Thucydides both as political theorists and as practical statesmen. A 2018 study in International Studies Quarterly confirmed that "the speeches of the Corinthians from prior to the Persian Wars to the aftermath of the Peloponnesian War reveal an enduring thesis of their foreign policy: that imperial ambitions and leveling tendencies, such as those of Athens, Sparta, and Thebes, should be countered in order to prevent a tyrant city from emerging within the society of Greek city-states." It resurfaced among the Renaissance Italian city-states in the 15th century. Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan, and Lorenzo de' Medici, ruler of Florence, were the first rulers to actively pursue such a policy, with the Italic League, though historians have generally attributed the innovation to the Medici rulers of Florence. Discussion of Florence's policy can be found in De Bello Italico, by Bernardo Rucellai, a Medici son-in-law. This was a history of the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII of France, and introduced the phrase balance of power to historical analysis. Internationalism, which was the dominant direction of European international relations prior to the Peace of Westphalia, gave way to the doctrine of the balance of power. While the balance of power was not explicitly mentioned in the Peace of Westphalia, it was referenced during the negotiations. Subsequent behavior by states reflected the balance of power. In the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, the doctrine was explicitly referenced multiple times. It was not until the beginning of the 17th century, when Grotius and his successors developed the idea of international law, that the balance of power was formulated as a fundamental principle of diplomacy, although this formulation must have reflected existing practices. In accordance with this new discipline, the European states formed a sort of federal community, the fundamental condition of which was the preservation of a balance of power, i.e., such a disposition of things that no one state, or potentate, should be able absolutely to predominate and prescribe laws to the rest. And, since all were equally interested in this settlement, it was held to be the interest, the right, and the duty of every power to interfere, even by force of arms, when any of the conditions of this settlement were infringed upon, or assailed by, any other member of the community. This balance-of-power principle, once formulated, became an axiom of political science. Fénelon, in his Instructions, impressed the axiom upon the young French Dauphin. Frederick the Great, in his Anti-Machiavel, proclaimed the principle to the world. In 1806, Friedrich von Gentz re-stated it with admirable clarity, in Fragments on the Balance of Power. The principle formed the basis of the coalitions against Louis XIV and Napoleon, and the occasion (or excuse) for most of the European wars between the Peace of Westphalia (1648) and the Congress of Vienna (1814). It was especially championed by Great Britain, even up to World War I, as it sought to prevent a European land power from rivaling its naval supremacy. During the greater part of the 19th century, the series of national upheavals which remodeled the map of Europe obscured the balance of power. Yet, it underlaid all the efforts of diplomacy to tame the forces of nationalism let loose by the French Revolution. In the revolution's aftermath, with the restoration of comparative calm, the principle once more emerged as the operative motive for the various political alliances, of which the ostensible object was the preservation of peace. Regarding the era 1848–1914, English diplomatic historian A.J.P. Taylor argued: Europe has known almost as much peace as war; and it has owed these periods of peace to the Balance of Power. No one state has ever been strong enough to eat up all the rest, and the mutual jealousy of the Great Powers has preserved even the small states, which could not have preserved themselves. Regarding the last quarter-century of the period outlined by Taylor, his American colleague, diplomatic historian Edward Mead Earle, argued: "During the quarter-century beginning about 1890, Europe and the Far East lived under a precarious balance of power with the result … that the world moved crazily from one crisis to another and finally to catastrophe". Earle concludes: "The balance of power may well land us all in crematory". The balance of power theory prepared catastrophe in 1939 as in 1914, wrote Clarence Streit in his famous Union Now. There is "no more sterile, illusory, fantastic, exploded and explosive peace policy than the balance of power." In 1953, Ernst B. Haas criticized balance of power theory, arguing that international relations works that used the concept were plagued with "philological, semantic, and theoretical confusion." Since 1945, the arguments of Streit and Earle has prevailed over that of Taylor. Atomic scientists launched an all-out attack on the balance-of-power concept: Former German Foreign Minister Joschka Fischer interpreted the core of the concept of Europe after 1945 as the rejection of the European balance-of-power principle and the hegemonic ambitions of individual states that had emerged following the Peace of Westphalia in 1648: "European integration was the response to centuries of a precarious balance of powers on this continent which again and again resulted in terrible hegemonic wars and culminated in the two World Wars between 1914 and 1945." Former US Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney expressed the same for Europe and other democracies: "It is not in our interest or those of the other democracies to return to earlier periods in which multiple military powers balanced one against another in what passed for security structures, while regional, or even global peace hung in the balance." NATO Secretary General, Manfred Wörner, outlined the European alternative at the end of the Cold War: According to historian Sverre Bagge, a balance of power logic may have prevented unification of the three Scandinavian kingdoms (Norway, Sweden and Denmark), as balancing coalitions formed to prevent one kingdom from conquering the other kingdoms. England It has been argued by historians that, in the sixteenth century, England came to pursue a foreign policy which would preserve the equilibrium between Spain and France, which evolved into a balance-of-power policy: In 1579, the first English translation of Francesco Guicciardini's Storia d'Italia ("History of Italy") popularised the Italian balance of power theory in England. This translation was dedicated to Elizabeth I of England and claimed that "God has put into your hand the balance of power and justice, to poise and counterpoise at your will the actions and counsels of all the Christian kings of your time". Thomas Carlyle referred to statesmen "in shadow-hunting, shadow-hunted hour ... looking with intense anxiety into a certain spectral something the call the Balance of Power." Statesman Richard Cobden labeled the balance of power "a chimera" due to its unclear meaning: "It is not a fallacy, a mistake, an imposture—it is an undescribed, indescribable, incomprehensible nothing." The only point on which writers on the balance of power agree "is in the fundamental delusion that such a system was ever acceded to by the nations of Europe." They imply long, uninterrupted, peaceful and prosperous co-existence. Instead, for centuries "Europe has (with only just sufficient intervals to enable the combatants to recruit their wasted energies) been one vast and continued battle-field…" He criticized Lord Bacon for his adherence to the balance of power as a universal rule: Sir Esme Howard wrote that England adopted the balance of power as "a cornerstone of English policy, unconsciously during the sixteenth, subconsciously during the seventeenth, and consciously during the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries, because for England it represented the only plan of preserving her own independence, political and economic". With the coming of World War II, however, Edward Carr found that today the balance of power badly preserves the independence of England: In 1941, Winston Churchill was criticized by his rival, Adolf Hitler, for his adherence to the balance of power: {{blockquote\| Churchill is a man with an out-of-date political idea—that of the European balance of power. It no longer belongs to the sphere of realities. And yet it's because of this superstition that Churchill stirred England up to war.<ref>Adolf Hitler, Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944, His Private Conversations"", trs. Norman Cameron, & R. H. Stevens, New York: Enigma Books, 2000, p 202</ref>}} On another occasion he added: Without the Wehrmacht, a "wave would have swept over Europe that would have taken no care of the ridiculous British idea of the balance of power in Europe in all its banality and stupid tradition—once and for all." In fact, Churchill shortly adopted a similar view: Our Russian friends and Allies, he spoke in 1946, most admire strength and least respect military weakness. "For that reason the old doctrine of a balance of power is unsound. We cannot afford … to work on narrow margins, offering temptations to a trial of strength." If the Western Democracies do not stand together "then indeed catastrophe may overwhelm us all." If, however, "the population of the English-speaking Commonwealths be added to that of the United States with all that such co-operation implies in the air, on the sea, all over the globe and in science and in industry, and in moral force, there will be no quivering, precarious balance of power to offer its temptation to ambition or adventure. On the contrary, there will be an overwhelming assurance of security." Historical evidence against balance of power theory A 2021 assessment by Morten Skumsrud Andersen and William C. Wohlforth concluded that "balance of power is not a universal empirical law" and that it does not merit explanatory precedence" in international relations research. In an attempt to disprove the balance of power theory, some realists have pointed to cases in international systems other than modern Europe where balancing failed and a hegemon arose. A collaboration between nine scholars (William Wohlforth, Richard Little, Stuart J. Kaufman, David Kang, Charles A. Jones, Victoria Tin-Bor Hui, Arthur Eckstein, Daniel Deudney, and William L. Brenner) pointed to the failure of state-like units to balance against Assyria in the first millennium BCE; the Hellenic successor states of Alexander the Great to balance against Rome; the Warring States to balance against the Qin dynasty in ancient China and five other cases. This cross-cultural research concludes: Wohlforth et al. state that systemic hegemony is likely under two historically common conditions: First when the rising hegemon develops the ability to incorporate and effectively administer conquered territories. And second, when the boundaries of the international system remain stable, and no new major powers emerge from outside the system. When the leading power can administer conquests effectively so they add to its power and when the system's borders are rigid, the probability of hegemony is high. The argument of universal reproduction of anarchy can be correct in the European context, "whereas a systematic survey of world history reveals that multipolarity has frequently given way to unipolarity or hegemony." Henry Kissinger, Historian by profession, noted that "theories of the balance of power often leave the impression that it is the natural form of international relations. In fact, balance-of-power systems have existed only rarely in history." Yet based on these rare occurrences, many realists "elevate a fact of life … into a guiding principle of world order." Earlier, political scientist Martin Wight had drawn a conclusion with unambiguous implication for the modern world: Still earlier, Quincy Wright, concluded on the balance of power in world history: Evoking examples of the ancient Chinese and Roman civilizations, Quincy Wright added: The post-Cold War period represents an anomaly to the balance of power theory too. Rousseau defined the theoretical limit how far balance of power can be altered: "Will it be supposed that two or three potentates might enter into an agreement to subdue the rest? Be it so. These three potentates, whoever they may be, will not possess half the power of all Europe." "Within two-and-a-half centuries, only one potentate possessed half the power of all the world, including Europe. In 2008, US military expenditures, including supplemental spending, exceeded those of the rest of the world combined."Stephen Walt, "Imbalance of Power," Foreign Policy, 193: (12 May 2012): p 1, https://foreignpolicy.com/2009/05/12/imbalance-of-power/ Since 2000, the founder of Neorealism, Kenneth Waltz, confessed that "the present condition of international politics is unnatural." "Clearly something has changed." Wohlforth, Little and Kaufman undertook the above-mentioned historical study after they had coped with what they called the "puzzle" of the unipolar stability. Elsewhere, Richard Little wrote: Events since the end of the Cold War "create a potential anomaly" for the theory because the outcome has "left the United States as the sole superpower in a unipolar world ... A major puzzle for realists ... is the fact that unipolarity has not provoked a global alarm to restore a balance of power." The same anomaly stressed seventeen other experts on alliances, Stephen Walt, Randall Schweller, Xiaoyu Pu, John Ikenberry, Robert Pape, T. V. Paul, Jack S. Levy, William R. Thompson, John Lewis Gaddis, David A. Lake, Campbell Craig, Fareed Zakaria, John M., Owen, Michael Mastanduno, Thomas S. Mowle, David H. Sacko and Terry Narramore: Fareed Zakaria asks, "Why is no one ganging up against the United States?" And John Ikenberry and John M. Owen ask the same question. Prominent Historian of the Cold War, John Lewis Gaddis, poses a more general question and replies: Do the weak always unite against the strong? "In theory, yes, but in practice and in history, not necessarily." One of the issues the discipline of political science "has been wrestling with recently is why there is still no anti-American coalition despite the overwhelming dominance of the United States since the end of the Cold War." French or Chinese officials publicly denounce "hyperpower" and aspire for "multipolarity" but refrain from forming a counterbalancing coalition. "Rhetorically, leaders and public want the United States to be balanced" but "we find very little balancing." French academic Michel Winock said: "Before we could say we were on American side. Not Now. There is no counterbalance." Two American Neoconservative thinkers, Robert Kagan and William Kristol, completely agree: "Today’s international system is built not around a balance of power but around American hegemony." Christopher Layne published two articles on the post-Cold War case, "The Unipolar Illusion…" (1993) and "The Unipolar Illusion Revisited" (2006). The former predicted imminent anti-American balancing as the balance of power theorists expected; the latter explains "why balance of power theorists got it wrong." Finally, Dall'Agnol analyzes, through a critical bias, the implications of unipolarity for balancing behavior. In order to do so, he discusses the dynamics of balance of power theory, assumed to be inoperative in the post-Cold War period by main academic debates over unipolarity: i) unipolar stability; ii) balance of threats; iii) soft balancing; iv) liberal institutionalism. He then argues that these approaches, including the unipolar illusion view, tied to the balance of power theory, overestimate the effects of unipolarity on balancing behavior of other states. Concluding that balance of power dynamics, especially those of hard balancing, are still observed in the post-Cold War era, he criticizes two main conclusions from the literature: i) that balancing became inoperative and; ii) that the only available strategies to other states are soft balancing and bandwagoning. In sum, this conclusion has directly implication on strategies available both to the United States and to its main competitors. Realism and balancing The balance of power theory is a core tenet of both classical and neorealist theory and seeks to explain alliance formation. Due to the neorealist idea of anarchism as a result of the international system, states must ensure their survival through maintaining or increasing their power in a self-help world. With no authority above the state to come to its rescue in the event of an attack by a hegemon, states attempt to prevent a potential hegemon from arising by balancing against it. According to Kenneth Waltz, founder of neorealism, "balance-of-power politics prevail wherever two, and only two requirements are met: that the order be anarchic and that it be populated by units wishing to survive". They can do this either through "internal balancing" , where a state uses internal efforts such as moving to increase economic capability, developing clever strategies and increasing military strength, or through "external balancing", which occurs when states take external measures to increase their security by forming allies. As states are assumed to be skeptical of the intentions of other states, neorealists primarily hold that states balance through "self-help", as they expand their military capabilities and copy military innovations of competitors. States happy with their place in the system are known as "status quo" states, while those seeking to alter the balance of power in their favor are generally referred to as "revisionist states" and aspire for hegemony, thus repairing the balance. Balancing versus bandwagoning States choose to balance for two reasons. First, they place their survival at risk if they fail to curb a potential hegemon before it becomes too strong; to ally with the dominant power means placing one's trust in its continued benevolence. Secondly, joining the weaker side increases the likelihood that the new member will be influential within the alliance. States choose to bandwagon because it may be a form of appeasement as the bandwagoner may hope to avoid an attack by diverting it elsewhere—a defensive reason—or because it may align with the dominant side in wartime to share the spoils of victory—an offensive reason. Realists claim that balancing is when states ally against the prevailing threat and results in a more secure world whereas in a bandwagoning world security is scarce as rising hegemons are not kept in check. With bandwagoning, the threatened state abandons hope of preventing the aggressor from gaining power at its expense and instead joins forces with its dangerous foe to get at least some small portion of the spoils of war. The weaker the state the more likely it is to bandwagon than to balance as they do little to affect the outcome and thus must choose the winning side. Strong states may change a losing side into a winning side and thus are more likely to balance. States will be tempted to bandwagon when allies are unavailable, however excessive confidence in allied support encourages weak states to free ride relying on the efforts of others to provide security. Since bandwagoning "requires placing trust in the aggressors continued forbearance" some realists believe balancing is preferred to bandwagoning. According to Stephen Walt, states are more likely to balance in peacetime but if they are on the losing side of a war they may defect and bandwagon in the hopes that they will "share the fruits of victory". Chain ganging Chain-ganging occurs when a state sees its own security tied to the security of its alliance partner. It chains itself by deeming any attack on its ally the equivalent of an attack on itself. That is another aspect of the balance of power theory, whereby the smaller states could drag their chained states into wars that they have no desire to fight. A key example was the chain-ganging between states prior to World War I, dragging most of Europe to war over a dispute between the relatively major power of Austria-Hungary and the minor power of Serbia. Thus, states "may chain themselves unconditionally to reckless allies whose survival is seen to be indispensable to the maintenance of the balance". Buck passing and bloodletting Balancing and buck passing are the main strategies for preserving the balance of power and preventing a potential hegemon's rise. Instead of balancing against an aggressor, some states instead choose to "pass the buck" whereby instead of taking action to prevent a potential rise, it will pass the responsibility on to another state. John Mearsheimer, a prominent offensive realist, claims that threatened states can take four measures to facilitate buck passing, including: seeking good diplomatic relations with the aggressor in the hope that it will divert its attention to the "buck-catcher"; maintaining cool relations with the buck-catcher so as not to get dragged into the war with the buck-catcher and as a result possibly increase positive relations with the aggressor; increasing military strength to deter the aggressive state and help it focus on the buck-catcher; and facilitating the growth in power of the intended buck-catcher. In the case that a state is an enemy with both the aggressor and the intended buck-catcher, a buck-passer can implement a bait and bleed strategy whereby the state causes two rivals to engage in a protracted war while the baiter remains on the sideline. This form of buck passing enables the state to increase in relative strength at the expense of the two rivals. Bloodletting, a further variant whereby a state does what it can to increase the cost duration of the conflict can further increase the buck-passer's relative power. Thus, threatened states usually prefer buck-passing to balancing as the buck-passer avoids the costs of fighting the aggressor in the event of war. Some realists believe there is a strong tendency to buck-pass or free-ride within balancing coalitions themselves, usually leaving their alliance partners to assume the heavy burden of wearing down the enemy, leaving the free-riders military fresh to win the final battles of the war and thus be in a better position to dictate the peace, such as the UK's light involvement in the early stages of World War I. Likewise, buck-passers can enter wars late after both sides have been worn down, allowing the buck-passer to dominate the post-war world. A potential drawback of the strategy occurs if the buck-catcher fails to check the aggressor, as the buck-passer will be in a much more vulnerable situation. Proponents of the theory point to the Soviet Union's role in World War II whereby it passed the buck to the UK and France through the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany. After eliminating France the Germans had no Western front to divide their forces, allowing them to concentrate their forces against the USSR. According to a 2015 study, "the diplomatic record yields almost no examples of firm peacetime balancing coalitions over the past 200 years. When alliances have formed, great powers have generally doubted the reliability of their allies and of their opponents' allies." Offensive and defensive realism Defensive realism Defensive realists emphasize that if any state becomes too powerful, balancing will occur as other powers would build up their forces and form a balancing coalition. Because this resulting security dilemma would leave the aspiring hegemon less secure, defensive realists maintain that it is in a state's interest to maintain the status quo rather than maximize its power. Offensive realism Offensive realists accept that threatened states usually balance against dangerous foes, however, they maintain that balancing is often inefficient and that this inefficiency provides opportunities for a clever aggressor to take advantage of its adversaries. Buck passing, rather than joining a balancing coalition, is another tactic offensive realists point to when disputing the balance of power theory. Offensive realists believe that internal balancing measures such as increasing defense spending, implementing conscription, are only effective to a certain extent as there are usually significant limits on how many additional resources a threatened state can muster against an aggressor. However, since offensive realists theorize that states are always seeking to maximize their power, states are "effectively engaged in internal balancing all the time". Balance of threat The balance of threat theory is an offshoot of neorealism, coined in 1985 by Stephen M. Walt in an attempt to explain why balancing against rising hegemons has not always been consistent in history. In contrast to traditional balance of power theorists, Walt suggests that states balance against threats, rather than against power alone. The "balance-of-power theory is not wrong; it is merely incomplete. Power is one of the factors that affect the propensity to balance, although it is not the only one nor always the most important." The theory acknowledges that power is an extremely important factor in the level of threat posed by a state, but also includes geographic proximity, offensive capabilities, and perceived intentions. Balance of threat theory is an interesting adjunct to neorealism, because as a structural theory, neorealism only predicts that balances of power will form, not whether a particular state will balance or bandwagon (inter alia), or which state it might balance with. As Waltz put it: "balance of power theory is often criticized because it does not explain the particular policies of states. True, the theory does not tell us why state X made a certain move last Tuesday. To expect it to do so would be like expecting the theory of universal gravitation to explain the wayward pattern of a falling leaf. A theory a one level of generality cannot answer questions about matters at a different level of generality." Walt's balance of threat formulation allows neorealism to serve as the foundation for a theory of foreign policy, thus allowing it to explain or predict which potential threats a state is most likely to balance against. Soft balancing Soft balancing was developed in the 2000s to account for the contemporary anomaly of the unipolar unbalanced world. Thomas Mowle and David Sacko describe "soft balancing" as "balancing that does not balance at all." These theoretical efforts are counter-productive, since Realism and unipolarity are compatible and structural realism should rather develop a set of hypotheses for a unipolar world: "Scholars do not need to desperately search for signs of balancing, they do not need to soften balancing beyond recognition, and they do not need to stand to watch for the first glimmering of a new multipolar dawn." Campbell Craig explained the development of soft balancing theory on the Thomas Kuhn's three-stage model how scholarly communities respond to anomalies that seem clearly to defy their core theoretical predictions: More recent scholarly work has engaged the debate on soft balancing. Kai He suggested a new analytical framework, a negative balancing model, to explain why states do not form alliances or conduct arms races to balance against power or threats as they may have done in the past. He describes negative balancing as any strategy or diplomatic efforts aimed to undermine a rival's power. In contrast, positive balancing is actions or policies designed to strengthen a state's own power in world politics. Preponderance of power The preponderance of power has been suggested as an alternative to the balance of power since World War II. In his 1940 article, "War, Peace and the Balance of Power", Frederick L. Schuman included a chapter titled "Necessity for Preponderance of Power". It argued: In 1941, Alfred Vagts wrote an article, titled "The United States and the Balance of Power," in which he recalled the words of Thomas Jefferson: In 1942, Robert Strausz-Hupé found that it "is in the interests of the United States no less than that of humanity" that the United States should be the only one "geographical power nucleus" from which a "balancing and stabilizing" power of arbiter be exercised. This "will pave the way for a new and universal order." Writing the same year in Life magazine, Joseph Thorndike tells about "many observers" seeking "preponderant power in the postwar world" to replace balance of power: However, Thorndike added in the same 1942 article, many may wonder whether, over the years, Russia and China "will not rival Anglo-America". The following year, the founder of the Paneuropean Union, Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, also invoked the example of the two-centuries-long "Pax Romana" which, he suggested, could be repeated if based on the preponderant US air power and inter-regional organization: The same year, Nathaniel Peffer criticized the idea of the preponderance of power: In self-contradiction, Peffer ended the article recommending for the postwar period a preponderance of power of offensive kind backed by total national effort: The United States will need "a larger permanent military establishment," alliances with other powers having common interests and an alliance with Great Britain that would be not only defensive but also "outright, unconditional offensive." It means full-scale power politics and to it "must be accommodated and sometimes subordinated everything else in the nation’s life." On 24 September 1946, Truman's Special Counsel Clark M. Clifford submitted a report "American Relations with the Soviet Union…" advocating a preponderant power: In the early Cold War, US Secretary of State Dean Acheson combined the concepts of preponderance and bandwagoning. As he put it, the United States was going to have to be "the locomotive at the head of mankind," while the rest of the world was going to be "the caboose." While arguing that equilibrium was essential to justice, Reinhold Niebuhr asserted that "nothing but the preponderance of power in the non-Communist world can preserve the peace." Melvyn Leffler describes the US strategy throughout the Cold War as a strategy of preponderance. In its last year, he summarized: Backed by strategic preponderance, the United States integrated and rearmed the Eurasian industrial areas, shored up the Eurasian periphery and rolled back the Iron Curtain. Already during the Cold War, some scholars stressed that the pattern accords the preponderance of power rather than balance of power. The balance of power presupposes such a distribution of power in the system that no single state is preponderant. In this sense, during the period 1945–1965 if "there was any threat to the general balance of power [...] it was from the United States rather than from the Soviet Union that this came." Stephen Walt observed in the 1980s that most states, including all developed states, ally with, rather than balance against, the preponderant power. Noting this "anomaly", Walt suggested his balance of threat hypothesis: In 1986, still not envisaging the end of the Cold War in sight, Zbigniew Brzezinski emphasized the historical uniqueness of the current period regarding the preponderance of power: "[N]ever before would the eclipse of one of the major rival powers have given to the other effective global preponderance." Shortly after one of the rival superpowers eclipsed, the Pentagon Regional Defense Strategy (1992) formulized: "It is not in our interest … to return to earlier periods in which multiple military powers balanced one against another in what passed for security structures, while regional or even global peace hang in the balance." In the first post-Cold War year, Leffler advocated for the United States to continue its strategy of "preponderance of power". Christopher Layne claims that the preponderance of power has been the dominant US strategy during both the Cold War and the post-Cold War periods. "Preponderance's strategic imperatives are the same as they were during the post-World War II era: pacification and reassurance in Europe and East Asia, and protection of these regions from instability in the periphery."Also The Peace of Illusions: American Grand Strategy from 1940 to the Present, (Ithaka & London: Cornell University Press, 2006). The post-Cold War strategy of preponderance holds that "only a preponderance of US power ensures peace" which is "the result of an imbalance of power in which US capabilities are sufficient, operating on their own, to cow all potential challengers and to comfort all coalition partners. It is not enough consequently to be primus inter pares [...] One must be primus solus." Layne since the beginning of the post-Cold war period expects the preponderance of power to trigger counterbalancing. He finds that "it was the bipolar structure of the postwar system that allowed Washington to pursue a strategy of preponderance successfully" and thereby smother the emergence of other great powers. But the preponderance of power which "others found merely irritating in a bipolar world may seem quite threatening in a unipolar world." Because of these structural factors, "an American strategy of preponderance [...] is doomed to failure"; it will "cause other states to balance against the United States". Overturning the scholarly conventional wisdom, however, the current preponderant power seems to render inoperative the counterbalancing long central to research in international relations. By the preponderance of American power and the absence of balance of power William Wohlforth explains the peacefulness and stability of the present world order. No distribution of power rules out war. "The greater the preponderance of power, however, the more extreme the values of other variables must be to produce war [...]" Campbell Craig believes that "Power Preponderance theory" will become one of the dominant American IR schools of the post-Cold War era: Expecting anti-American balancing, Waltz drew a much-cited analogy: "As nature abhors vacuum, so international politics abhors unbalanced power." Craig paraphrased: US National Security Strategy of 2002 uses repeatedly the term 'balance of power' favoring freedom. The author of the Preponderance of Power… (1992), Melvyn Leffler, was puzzled: A balance of power is linked historically to the evolution of the Westphalian state system and "envisions equilibrium, while the Bush administration yearns for hegemony." When they invoke the language of power balancing, Bush's advisers obfuscate more than they clarify: According to Leffler's exegesis, Bush has invoked a balance of power vocabulary in purpose to integrate the tradition with the hegemonic dilemma. British Orwell Prize-winning policy analyst, Anatol Lieven, comments: In this conception, however, a phrase "was a form of Orwellian doublespeak. The clear intention actually was to be so strong that other countries had no choice but to rally to the side of the United States, concentrating all real power and freedom of action in the hands of America." The surprising rehabilitation of the balance-of-power term in the 2002 NSS "can be accounted for in terms of mythopoetic function that the terminology serves in the document." It keeps alive the traditional concept in a new unipolar world. Eventually, explanation what implies "the balance of power favoring freedom" was dropped by "US National Security and Defense Strategies" of 2018: The Pentagon will ensure that the United States remain the "preeminent military power in the world," and the regional "balances of power remain in our favor." [Emphasis added] The "balance of power favoring freedom" appeared identical with the balance of power favoring "us." Russian President Vladimir Putin complained: "Instead of establishing a new balance of power … they [the United States] took steps that threw the [international] system into sharp and deep imbalance." In 1826, George Canning "called the new world into existence to redress the balance of the old". In 1898, Theodore Roosevelt found that the United States had become "more and more the balance of power of the whole globe." In 1941, a New Deal Economist with the National Resources Planning Board, Otto T. Mallery, averred that "destiny offers to the United States the ultimate balance of power and of resources in the world after the war." Colin Gray titled his 2005 chapter by question, "Where Is the Balance of Power?" The chapter opens: "The short answer is that the United States is the balance of power." See also Balance of terror Balance of threat Mutual assured destruction – a theory in which two or more states are balanced by their ability to effectively completely destroy each other Negarchy Offshore balancing Peace through strength Polarity (international relations) Soft balancing Sphere of influence Superpower Strategic autonomy In history: Age of Metternich Iran–Iraq War Notes References Attrition Further reading Waltz, K. N. (1979). Theory of International Politics. New York: Random House. Waltz described IR in a systemic way, consisting of an anarchic structure and interacting units. His BOP-theory says that (smaller, weaker) states will balance the power or preponderance of more powerful ones to ensure that the latter do not become too powerful and dominate all other. For Waltz, a bipolar structure, as given in the Cold War, seems to be the best, i.e. the most peaceful one. Most relevant for his theory are Chapters 1 and 4–6. Walt, S. (1987). The Origins of Alliances. Walt puts the BOP-theory on a new basis and calls it balance-of-threat (BOT) theory, since some states do not balance each other, because they do not perceive one another as threats (e.g. the West in the Cold War, worked together against the Warsaw Pact, but didn't balance each other). Mearsheimer, J. J. (2001). The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York: W. W. Norton. Mearsheimer tries to mend BOP theory after it was unable to predict or explain the end of the Cold War. He describes himself as an "offensive realist" and believes that states do not simply balance, but because they want to survive in an anarchical system they get frequently aggressive. This is in contrast to Waltz, whom he describes as "defensive realist", who says that states primarily seek survival through balancing. Mearsheimer is an ardent critic of other IR theories (such as neoliberalism, constructivism etc.) and warns heavily of the Chinese rise in their relative power position. T. V. Paul, Michel Fortman, and James J. Wirtz. Balance of Power: Theory and Practice in the 21st Century. (Stanford University Press, 2004) . Balance of power theory has been severely criticized since the end of the Cold War. Regions where BOP dynamic would have been expected, Central Asia for example after the Soviet left, did not experience it. This book analysis the theoretical and historical criticisms of balance of power theory and test whether the theory is still valid in the 21st century. Virginia.edu – 'Balance of Power', Dictionary of the History of IdeasHedley Bull, Anarchial Society (United States of America: Macmillan Ltd, 1977). John Lewis Gaddis, Surprise, Security and the American Experience (Harvard University Press, 2004). Lawrence Kaplan & William Kristol, The War Over Iraq (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003). William Keylor, A World of Nations (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003). Little,Richard, The Balance of Power in International Relations. Metaphors, Myths and Models (Cambridge University Press, 2007) Hans Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations: The struggle for Power and Peace: Fourth Edition (New York: Knofp, 1967). Randall Schweller. 2016. "The Balance of Power in World Politics" in the Oxford Encyclopaedia of Politics. Paul W. Schroeder, "The Nineteenth century system: balance of power or political equilibrium?", Review of International Studies, 15, (1989), pp. 135–153. Schroeder argues that the BOP system is inherently unstable and conflict-prone because particular nations tend to have differing conceptions of what constitutes a "balance"; he contends that the equilibrium achieved in Europe between 1815 and 1854 rested not upon a BOP but upon a generally recognized system of British and Russian hegemonies. Michael Sheehan, The Balance of Power: History and Theory'' (Routledge, 2000). External links Political realism International security International relations theory
4880973	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic%20harp	Celtic harp	The Celtic harp is a triangular frame harp traditional to the Celtic nations of northwest Europe. It is known as in Irish, in Scottish Gaelic, in Breton and in Welsh. In Ireland and Scotland, it was a wire-strung instrument requiring great skill and long practice to play, and was associated with the Gaelic ruling class. It appears on Irish coins, Guinness products, and the coat of arms of the Republic of Ireland, Montserrat, Canada and the United Kingdom. Early history The early history of the triangular frame harp in Europe is contested. The first instrument associated with the harping tradition in the Gaelic world was known as a . This word may originally have described a different stringed instrument, being etymologically related to the Welsh crwth. It has been suggested that the word / (from / , a board) was coined for the triangular frame harp which replaced the , and that this coining was of Scottish origin. A notched piece of wood which some have interpreted to be part of the bridge of an Iron Age lyre dating to around 300 BC was discovered on the Isle of Skye, which, if actually a bridge, would make it the oldest surviving fragment of a western European stringed instrument (although images of Greek lyres are much older). The earliest descriptions of a European triangular framed harp, i.e. harps with a fore pillar, are found on carved 8th century Pictish stones.<ref>The Anglo Saxon Harp, 'Spectrum, Vol. 71, No. 2 (Apr. 1996), pp. 290–320.</ref>Scotland, Insight Guides. Josephine Buchanan 2003, pp94 Published 2003 Langenscheidt Publishing Group.Scotland's Music: A History of the Traditional and Classical Music of Scotland from Early Times to the Present Day. John Purser (2007) Mainstream Publishing Group. Pictish harps were strung from horsehair. The instruments apparently spread south to the Anglo Saxons who commonly used gut strings and then west to the Gaels of the Highlands and to Ireland.J. Keay & Julia Keay. (2000): Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland, Clarsach, p. 171. Harper Collins publishers.Celtic Music History and Criticism Kenneth Mathieson 2001 Backbeat books p192 Exactly thirteen depictions of any triangular chordophone instrument from pre-11th-century Europe exist and twelve of them come from Scotland. The earliest Irish references to stringed instruments are from the 6th century, and players of such instruments were held in high regard by the nobility of the time. Early Irish law from 700 AD stipulates that bards and 'cruit' players should sit with the nobility at banquets and not with the common entertainers. Another stringed instrument from this era was the tiompán, most likely a kind of lyre. Despite providing the earliest evidence of stringed instruments in Ireland, no records described what these instruments looked like, or how the cruit and tiompán differed from one another. Only two quadrangular instruments occur within the Irish context on the west coast of Scotland and both carvings date two hundred years after the Pictish carvings. The first true representations of the Irish triangular harp do not appear till the late eleventh century in a reliquary and the twelfth century on stone and the earliest harps used in Ireland were quadrangular lyres as ecclesiastical instruments, One study suggests Pictish stone carvings may be copied from the Utrecht Psalter, the only other source outside Pictish Scotland to display a Triangular Chordophone instrument. The Utrecht Psalter was penned between 816 and 835 AD. However, Pictish Triangular Chordophone carvings found on the Nigg Stone date from 790 to 799 AD. and pre-date the document by up to forty years. Other Pictish sculptures also predate the Utrecht Psalter, namely the harper on the Dupplin Cross from c. 800 AD. The Norman-Welsh cleric and scholar Gerald of Wales (c.1146 – c.1223), whose Topographica Hibernica et Expugnatio Hibernica is a description of Ireland from the Anglo-Norman point of view, praised Irish harp music (if little else), stating: However, Gerald, who had a strong dislike of the Gaelic Irish, somewhat contradicts himself. While admitting that the style of music originated in Ireland, he immediately added that, in "the opinion of many", the Scots and the Welsh had now surpassed them in that skill. Gerald refers to the cythara and the tympanum, but their identification with the harp is uncertain, and it is not known that he ever visited Scotland. Early images of the clàrsach are not common in Scottish iconography, but a gravestone at Kiells, in Argyllshire, dating from about 1500, shows one with a typically large soundbox, decorated with Gaelic designs. The Irish Saint Máedóc of Ferns reliquary shrine dates from c.1100, and clearly shows King David with a triangular framed harp including a "T-Section" in the pillar. The Irish word lamhchrann or Scottish Gaelic làmh-chrann came into use at an unknown date to indicate this pillar which would have supplied the bracing to withstand the tension of a wire-strung harp. Three of the four pre-16th-century authentic harps that survive today are of Gaelic provenance: the Brian Boru Harp in Trinity College, Dublin, and the Queen Mary and Lamont Harps, both in the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. The last two are examples of the small low-headed harp, and were long believed to have been made from hornbeam, a wood not native to Scotland or Ireland. This theory has been refuted by Karen Loomis in her 2015 PhD thesis</ref>. All three are dated approximately to the 15th century and may have been made in Argyll in western Scotland.See Caldwell 1982. One of the largest and most complete collections of 17th–18th century harp music is the work of Turlough O'Carolan, a blind, itinerant Irish harper and composer. At least 220 of his compositions survive to this day. Characteristics and function In construction, the Irish and Scottish harp may, in general, be considered as one. A characteristic feature is the metal strings. Historical sources mention various types of wire, including brass and iron, and some scholars also argue for the use of silver and gold. The wires were attached to a massive soundbox typically carved from a single log, commonly of willow, although other woods including alder and poplar have been identified in extant harps. This harp also had a reinforced curved pillar and a substantial neck, flanked with thick brass cheek bands. The strings, usually played with the fingernails, produced a brilliant ringing sound. This type of harp is also unique amongst single row triangular harps in that the first two strings tuned in the middle of the gamut were set to the same pitch. Components The names of the components of the cláirseach were as follows: The corr had a brass strap nailed to each side, pierced by tapered brass tuning pins. The treble end had a tenon which fitted into the top of the com (soundbox). On a low-headed harp the corr was morticed at the bass end to receive a tenon on the lámhchrann; on a high-headed harp this tenon fitted into a mortice on the back of the lámhchrann. The coim (soundbox) was usually carved from a single piece of willow, hollowed out from behind. A panel of harder timber was carefully inserted to close the back.Crú na d-tead (string shoes) were usually made of brass and prevented the metal strings from cutting into the wood of the soundbox. The fhorshnaidhm may refer to the wooden toggle to which a string was fastened once it had emerged from its hole in the soundboard. Playing technique The playing of the wire-strung harp has been described as extremely difficult. Because of the long-lasting resonance, the performer had to dampen strings which had just been played while new strings were being plucked, and this while playing rapidly. Contrary to conventional modern practice, the left hand played the treble and the right the bass. It was said that a player should begin to learn the harp no later than the age of seven. The best modern players have shown, however, that reasonable competence may be achieved even at a later age. Social function and decline During the medieval period, the wire-strung harp was in demand throughout the Gaelic territories, which stretched from the northern Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland to the south of Ireland. The Gaelic worlds of Scotland and Ireland, however, while retaining close links, were already showing signs of divergence in the sixteenth century in language, music and social structure. The harp was the aristocratic instrument of Gaelic Ireland, and harpers enjoyed a high social status which was codified in Brehon Law. The patronage of harpers was adopted by Norman and British settlers in Ireland until the late 18th century, although their standing in society was greatly diminished with the introduction of the English class system. In his biography of Turlough O'Carolan, historian Donal O'Sullivan writes: The function of the clàrsach in a Hebridean lordship, both as entertainment and as literary metaphor, is illustrated in the songs of Màiri Nic Leòid (Mary MacLeod) (–), a prominent Gaelic poet of her time. The chief is praised as one who is skilled in judging harp-playing, the theme of a story and the pith of sense: Tuigsear nan teud, Purpais gach sgèil, Susbaint gach cèill nàduir. The music of harp and pipe is shown to be intrinsic to the splendour of the MacLeod court, along with wine in shining cups:Gu àros nach crìonAm bi gàirich nam pìobIs nan clàrsach a rìsLe deàrrsadh nam pìosA' cur sàraidh air fìonIs 'ga leigeadh an gnìomh òircheard. Here the great Highland bagpipe shares the high status of the clàrsach. It would help supplant the harp, and may already have developed its own classical tradition in the form of the elaborate "great music" (ceòl mòr). An elegy to Sir Donald MacDonald of Clanranald, attributed to his widow in 1618, contains a very early reference to the bagpipe in a lairdly setting: Is iomadh sgal pìobadh Mar ri farrum nan dìsnean air clàr Rinn mi èisdeachd a’d' bhaile... There is evidence that the musical tradition of the clàrsach may have influenced the use and repertoire of the bagpipe. The oral mnemonic system called canntaireachd, used for encoding and teaching ceòl mòr, is first mentioned in the 1226 obituary of a clàrsair (harp player). Terms relating to theme and variation on the clàrsach and the bagpipe correlate to each other. Founders of bagpipe dynasties are also noted as clársach players. The names of a number of the last harpers are recorded. The blind Duncan McIndeor, who died in 1694, was harper to Campbell of Auchinbreck, but also frequented Edinburgh. A receipt for "two bolls of meall", dated 1683, is extant for another harper, also blind, named Patrick McErnace, who apparently played for Lord Neill Campbell. The harper Manus McShire is mentioned in an account book covering the period 1688–1704. A harper called Neill Baine is mentioned in a letter dated 1702 from a servitor of Allan MacDonald of Clanranald. Angus McDonald, harper, received payment on the instructions of Menzies of Culdares on 19 June 1713, and the Marquis of Huntly's accounts record a payment to two harpers in 1714. Other harpers include Rory Dall Morison (who died ), Lachlan Dall (who died ), and Murdoch MacDonald (who died ). By the middle of the eighteenth century the "violer" (fiddle player) had replaced the harper, a consequence, perhaps, of the growing influence in the Gaelic world of Lowland Scots culture. Revival In the early 19th century, even as the old Gaelic harp tradition was dying out, a new harp was developed in Ireland. It had gut strings and semitone mechanisms like an orchestral pedal harp, and was built and marketed by John Egan, a pedal harp maker in Dublin. The new harp was small and curved like the historical or Irish harp, but it was strung with gut and its soundbox was lighter. In the 1890s a similar new harp became popular in Scotland as part of a Gaelic cultural revival. There is now, however, renewed interest in the wire-strung harp, or , with replicas being made and research being conducted into ancient playing techniques and terminology. A notable event in the revival of the Celtic harp is the Edinburgh International Harp Festival, which has been held annually since 1982 and includes both performances and instructional workshops. Bibliography Armstrong, Robert Bruce (1904). The Irish and The Highland Harps. Edinburgh: David Douglas. Bannerman, John (1991). "The Clàrsach and the Clàrsair". Scottish Studies, vol. 30 no. 3. Budgey, Andrea (2002). "Musical relations between Scotland and Ireland" [in] McDonald, R. Andrew, [ed.] Literature and Music in Scotland: 700–1560. University of Toronto Press, ; . Caldwell, D.H., [ed.] (1982). Angels, Nobles and Unicorns: Art and Patronage in Medieval Scotland. Edinburgh: NMS. Cathcart, Cynthia (Summer 2009). "Silver report: Precious metal strings on the wire-strung harp". Folk Harp Journal, no. 143, pp. 34–43. available via wirestrungharp.com . Chadwick, Simon (November 2008). "The Early Irish Harp". Early Music, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 521–532. Collinson, Francis (1983)[1966]. The Bagpipe, Fiddle and Harp. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966; reprinted by Lang Syne Publishers Ltd., , . Dimock, James F., [ed.] (1867). Giraldi Cambrensis opera: Giraldi Cambrensis Topographica Hibernica et Expugnatio Hibernica. London, UK: Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer. Farmer, Henry George (1947). A History of Music in Scotland, p. 280. London, UK. Heymann, Ann & Heymann, Charlie (Fall 1991). "Cláirseach: The Lore of the Irish Harp". Éire-Ireland, vol. 26, no. 3. Heymann, Ann & Heymann, Charlie (Summer 2003). "Strings of Gold". The Historical Harp Society Journal, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 9–15. available via annheymann.com . Lanier, Sara C. (1999). "'It is new-strung and shan't be heard': Nationalism and Memory in the Irish Harp Tradition". British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 8. Lawlor, Helen (2012). Irish Harping, 1900–2010. Dublin: Four Courts Press, . Le Govic, Tristan (2015). The Breton Harp Anthology (Antologiezh Telenn Breizh) Vol. II Newton, Michael & Cheape, Hugh (n.d.) "The Keening of Women and the Roar of the Pipe: From Clársach to Bagpipe, ca. 1600–1782". available via academia.edu . Ó Brógáin, Séamas (1998). The Irish Harp Emblem. Dublin, IE: Wolfhound Press, . O'Donnell, Mary Louise (2014). Ireland's Harp: The Shaping of Irish Identity c.1770–1880. Dublin, IE: University College Dublin Press, . Rensch, Roslyn (1989). Harps and Harpists, pp. 125–127. Indiana University Press. Rimmer, Joan (1964). "The Morphology of the Irish Harp". The Galpin Society Journal, no. 17. Rimmer, Joan (1984)[1969] The Irish Harp: Cláirseach na hÉireann, 3rd ed. The Mercier Press, [1st ed. 1969; 2nd ed. 1977]. Sanger, Keith & Kinnaird, Alison (1992). Tree of Strings – Crann nan Teud. Kinmor Music, . Watson, J. Carmichael, [ed.] (1934). Gaelic Songs of Mary MacLeod. Blackie & Son. available via archive.org . Yeats, Gráinne (1980). Féile na gCruitirí, Béal Feirste'' [The Belfast Harpers' Festival] 1972. Gael Linn, . References External links Historical Harp Society of Ireland An Chúirt Chruitireachta, International traditional harp course held annually in Termonfeckin Co. Louth, Ireland The Clarsach Society/Comunn na Clarsaich, resource centre for the Scottish harp Edinburgh International Harp Festival List of surviving early Gaelic harps Historic wire-strung harps and harpers listed and described on wirestrungharp.com Gaelic Modes Web articles on Gaelic harp harmony and modes Treasures of early Irish art, 1500 B.C. to 1500 A.D., an exhibition catalogue from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Clàrsach (cat. no. 68) Asni: harp lore – descriptions of several types of historical European harps (with sound samples) The Celtic Harp Page – information on Celtic and other types of harps My Harp's Delight – learning to play the Celtic harp, tips and techniques, buying a harp Teifi Harps – Celtic & Folk Harps in Wales "Tears, Laughter, Magic" – An Interview with Master Celtic Harp Builder Timothy Habinski on AdventuresInMusic.biz, 2007 Celtic Harp Amplification Series – using microphones and guitar amplifiers with folk harps Markwood Strings – Information on installing harp strings, harp string installation guide Early Gaelic Harp site by Simon Chadwick Composite chordophones Culture of medieval Scotland Frame harps Irish musical instruments Medieval Ireland National symbols of Ireland Scottish music
4881373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Geraghty	Ben Geraghty	Benjamin Raymond Geraghty (July 19, 1912 – June 18, 1963) was an American infielder in Major League Baseball and one of the most successful and respected minor league managers of the 1950s. A Jersey City native, Geraghty went right from Villanova University to the Brooklyn Dodgers, appearing in 51 games with the team in his rookie season. He appeared in 19 more games with the Boston Braves over the 1943 and 1944 seasons, compiling a batting average of .199 in 146 at bats with 29 hits in 71 career games. In 1946, he survived a horrific bus crash that killed nine of his Spokane Indians teammates. As he wound up his playing career, Geraghty started managing. He was part of the Milwaukee Braves system for nine years from 1953 through 1961, during which time Hank Aaron played for him. Aaron considered Geraghty the best manager he ever had. In his 18-year managing career, Geraghty won 1,432 games and lost 1,154 (.554). He won five pennants in seven years (1953–59) while piloting Braves affiliates. In the ten seasons of 1953 through 1962, a Geraghty-managed team never finished lower than second place. He was managing the Jacksonville Suns in 1963 when he suffered a fatal heart attack on June 18, just shy of his 51st birthday. Early life Benjamin Raymond Geraghty was born on July 19, 1912, in Jersey City, New Jersey. He was the youngest of eight children of Patrick and Ida Geraghty, Irish immigrants to the United States. Patrick held several jobs during Ben's childhood; he was employed for over ten years as a teamster, then as a chauffeur for a tea factory, and finally as a night manager at the garage for the National Grocery Company. The Geraghtys lived on 157 Grand Street in Jersey City, along with two of Ida's brothers, the four-member Greaves family, and a boarder from Sweden. Patrick died in an accident not long after Ben's 14th birthday, when he was crushed between two trucks at work. Thomas, the second-oldest boy who worked as a policeman in the community, helped raise the younger children after Patrick's death. During his freshman and sophomore years of high school, Geraghty attended St. Peter's Preparatory School in Jersey City, where he played baseball as a pitcher and also was part of the basketball team. He transferred to St. Benedict's Preparatory School in Newark as junior. By this time, he had begun playing football as well, though his high school yearbook implied that basketball was his best sport. He graduated in 1932. Geraghty then attended Villanova University, majoring in journalism. He continued to play baseball and basketball, both of which were coached by George Jacobs. Standing tall and weighing , Geraghty was shorter than average for a basketball player, but he scored a great deal of points and was named the team captain as a senior. For the baseball team, he played third base, though he had to battle Frank Skaff for playing time. Brooklyn Dodgers (1936) While Geraghty was playing baseball for Villanova, scout Mel Logan recommended him to the Brooklyn Dodgers. Geraghty attended spring training for the Dodgers in 1936 and made a strong impression with manager Casey Stengel. Lonny Frey, the incumbent shortstop for the team, was error-prone and missed time in mid-March with an injury. At the close of spring training, Stengel decided to move Frey to second base and added Geraghty to the Opening Day roster. Jimmy Jordan made the first three starts of the year at shortstop; then, Geraghty played 15 straight games at the position. Making his MLB debut on April 17, he played all 10 innings of a game against the Philadelphia Phillies, recording two hits and a run batted in (RBI) in a 4–3 Dodger victory. He batted .429 in his first 10 games. On April 19, Jimmie Wilson of the Phillies kicked the baseball away from Geraghty as he stole second base. "He won’t pull that again on me. The next time I’ll just take that throw and tag him on the nose with the ball," Geraghty informed Stengel. Seven days later, also against Philadelphia, Geraghty became the first of a handful of players to reach first base on catcher's interference twice during a game. Phillies catcher Earl Grace wrongly calculated that the rookie Geraghty and an inexperienced umpire would not notice him block Geraghty's swing. A hand injury caused Geraghty to miss five games in May. Upon his return, he struggled to hit. He made just one start at shortstop after June 9, though he began getting playing time at other infield positions, such as second base and third base. After July 29, the Dodgers sent him to the Allentown Brooks of the Class A New York-Penn League. In 51 games with Brooklyn, he had batted .194 with 11 runs scored, 25 hits, and 9 RBIs. He hit no home runs for the Dodgers; in fact, Geraghty would never hit a home run professionally. Later recalling his rookie year in 1963, Geraghty said, "I knew, the first month I was up with Brooklyn, that I was not good enough to play this game. I made up my mind that if I was going to stay in baseball I’d have to do it with my head." Finishing the 1936 season with Allentown, Geraghty batted .246 with 28 hits in 35 games. That fall, he returned to Villanova, finishing his journalism degree. He did not play at all in 1937. The exact reasons for this are unknown; though two articles from 1943 said he was in an automobile accident that year, the Dodgers placed him on their ineligible list in February. Geraghty had to appeal to commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis for reinstatement in order to make his return in 1938. Meanwhile, Geraghty secured a job off the field as a cemetery superintendent, which would remain his offseason occupation for several years. Washington Senators organization, break from the game (1937–42) Geraghty's rights had been acquired by the Trenton Senators, a Class A Eastern League affiliate of the Washington Senators, in August 1937. He debuted with the team in 1938, batting .264 with 117 hits in 120 games. Trenton moved to Springfield in 1939, and Geraghty played 38 games for them, batting .233. His time was limited by a broken elbow. Another injury occurred on July 28, against the Williamsport Grays. Geraghty scored from first base on a dropped pop fly, but his celebration was short-lived, as he collapsed because of a hemorrhage. Williamsport purchased his contract after the game, and Baseball-Reference.com indicates he was under contract to the Grays in 1940, though no statistics are recorded. He sat out the 1941 and 1942 seasons, taking a job with a California shipyard before Stengel, now manager of the Boston Braves encouraged him to return east and make a comeback in 1943. Boston Braves (1943-44) Due to World War II, all MLB teams except the St. Louis ones trained east of the Mississippi River and north of the Potomac and Ohio River, not in the south like they normally did. Training in Wallingford, Connecticut, the Braves tried to do most of their work indoors initially, but they ended this practice after Geraghty and two others suffered minor leg injuries because of the slick floor. Geraghty made the team and was still with them by the time the All-Star Game was played. However, he only appeared in eight games and only had one at bat. Mostly, he was utilized as a pinch runner; he scored two runs in this capacity. The Braves optioned him to the Eastern League's Hartford Bees on July 18, and Geraghty batted .312 in 39 games. Geraghty started 1944 with the Braves, appearing in seven games through mid-May before again getting sent to the minors, this time to the Syracuse Chiefs of the Class AA International League. He played 84 games for the Chiefs, batting .224 with 22 RBI. Recalled by Boston in September, he played in four more games, the last appearances of his MLB career. His final game was against the Dodgers on September 14; pinch-running for Buck Etchison, he scored to give the Braves the lead, though Boston allowed runs in the eighth and ninth and lost 5–4. After going hitless with the Braves in 1943, Geraghty had four hits in 16 at bats for them in 1944. He actually began the 1945 season on Boston's roster but was sent to the minors in mid-May without having played. In 70 total MLB games, he compiled a batting average of .199 in 146 at bats with 29 hits, four of which were doubles, and nine RBI. Minor league player-manager (1945-48) Indianapolis Indians After being demoted in 1945, Geraghty finished out the year playing 117 games for the Indianapolis Indians of the Class AA American Association. In 117 games, he batted .270 with 63 runs scored, 111 hits, and 25 RBI. Heading west in 1946, he joined the Sacramento Solons of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League but only lasted four games before getting released. Geraghty then signed with the Spokane Indians of the Class B Western International League, with whom his life would be forever altered. Survived 1946 Spokane bus tragedy On June 24, 1946, Geraghty survived one of the greatest tragedies in baseball history, when the bus carrying the Spokane Indians crashed while attempting to avert an oncoming car on a rain-slicked mountain pass. Nine players were killed; Geraghty was among the injured. He sustained a severe head wound when he was thrown through a window before the bus burst into flames, but he was able to climb up the hillside and signal for help. The Spokane club was decimated and could only continue the season with players loaned from other teams and organizations. "I guess I'm pretty lucky", Geraghty told the Associated Press the day after the crash. "I was thrown right out a window. I took the window frame right with me. I remember flying out the window, but I must have been knocked out because I don't remember landing." Geraghty's head wound required 28 stitches to close, and he was on crutches as the result of a broken kneecap. Despite his head injury, Geraghty was named the immediate replacement for Mel Cole—the team's catcher and player-manager who perished in the crash—as the Indians' first post-accident skipper. But his injuries were too serious, and former big-leaguer Glenn Wright assumed the reins for the rest of 1946. Geraghty was able to return to Spokane to play for and manage the Indians in 1947. He appeared in 31 games for the Indians, batting .348. Meanwhile, he led them to a second-place finish and 87 victories. His health, however, would never be the same. He would manage in the minors for the next 16 seasons, but he was troubled by heart disease, cardiovascular disease and ulcers, and developed a reputation as a heavy drinker. 1947-48 Geraghty was released after the 1947 season. He had come into conflict with team owner Sam Collins when he criticized the release of an outfielder, but his popularity with the fans had helped him last the rest of the season before getting released. Hired by the Cleveland Indians in 1948, he started the year playing for and managing the Meridian Peps of the Class B Southeastern League. In 15 games, he batted .128 before getting released on May 30. Those games were the last time in his career he would be an active player. Later in the year, he managed the Palatka Azaleas of the Class D Florida State League as they finished the season in eighth place. New York Giants affiliates (1949-52) Over the next four years, Geraghty managed New York Giants minor league teams. He guided the Class D Bristol Twins of the Appalachian League to a third-place finish (76–41) in 1949 and a second-place finish (74–47) in 1950. In 1951, he moved up to Class A, managing the Jacksonville Tars of the South Atlantic League (SAL). George Booker of The Sporting News wrote in August, "A great deal of the Tar success this season must be attributed to Ben Geraghty, who, with his magic touch, has turned a poor spring team into a 1951 pennant contender for the first time in years." The Tars finished second in the SAL with a 79–58 record, but they slumped to seventh in 1952 with a 69–85 record. Geraghty remained on with the team in 1953, when they changed their name to "Braves" as a result of their new affiliation with Milwaukee. That year, Geraghty managed his most famous prospect. Milwaukee Braves affiliates (1953-61) Manager of young Hank Aaron (1953) One of the 1953 Jacksonville Braves was 19-year-old Hank Aaron. "He was the greatest manager I ever played for, perhaps the greatest manager who ever lived, and that includes managers in the big leagues. I’ve never played for a guy who could get more out of every ballplayer than he could. He knew how to communicate with everybody and to treat every player as an individual," Aaron said. Baseball's future home run king also recalled that "he chewed me out when I needed it, but he told me how good I could be and – most important – he taught me how to study the game, and never make the same mistake twice." Pat Jordan, another 1953 Jacksonville Brave, remembered that Geraghty, a white man, would regularly confront the rigid racial segregation of the times. Geraghty would insist that he and his minority players (Aaron, Horace Garner, and Felix Mantilla) be served as equals at the finest restaurants. "Invariably, they would be refused service", Jordan wrote. "While Aaron waited nervously outside, Geraghty complained loudly to the management ... They [would go] to the next best restaurant, and the next and the next, until Geraghty finally located one that would serve [them]." The Braves won the SAL pennant with a 93–44 record in 1953, and Geraghty was named the league's best manager. Further years with Jacksonville (1954-58) By the 1953-54 offseason, Geraghty's offseason occupation was selling TV sets. He led the Braves to another pennant in 1954, with an 83–57 record. Over the 1954-55 offseason, Geraghty managed the Caguas-Guayama Criollos of the Puerto Rican Winter League, a last-minute replacement for Mickey Owen, who chose to play for a Venezuelan team instead. In 1955, Geraghty expressed his desire that players pay attention to the game: "A guy who doesn't study to improve himself has got no place in baseball. We got enough rockheads already." He had to take several days off in June due to stomach problems. Jacksonville finished second in 1955 with a 79–61 record, and Geraghty returned to the Criollos over the offseason. Guiding them to a second-place finish, he tied Herman Franks in voting for the league's best manager, a deadlock that was settled when Franks asked that Geraghty be given the honor. Caguas-Guayama won the league title and tied for second in the subsequent Caribbean Series, played against teams from surrounding nations. Jacksonville won their third pennant under Geraghty in 1956 with an 87–53 record. Charlie Grimm was fired as Milwaukee's manager that year, and Geraghty later noted that he was passed over when Fred Haney was named the replacement, though no articles at the time mentioned that Geraghty was a candidate. While managing Caguas-Guayama in the offseason, he discovered that he had been promoted to manage the American Association's Wichita Braves, Milwaukee's top minor league affiliate. Geraghty's promotion brought immediate results to a team that had finished seventh the year before. "Look at what Ben Geraghty’s done to that club" was a remark Frank Haraway of The Sporting News overheard many times in the season's first two months; he attributed the improvement to a change in the team's attitude. As it battled for the title, Wichita dealt with injuries to key players and saw several of their regulars promoted to the major league club, which was also in a pennant race. In fact, Geraghty recommended to Milwaukee general manager John Quinn that the team promote Bob Hazle, one of Wichita's starting outfielders. Hazle went on to bat .403 in the season's final two months, helping the parent club win the National League (NL) pennant and ultimately the 1957 World Series. Despite losing key players, Geraghty secured his fourth minor league pennant, as Wichita won the American Association title with a record of 93–61 before losing in the first round of the playoffs. He was named the league's top manager, and The Sporting News named him their Minor League Manager of the Year. In the winter of 1957–58, Geraghty went to the Dominican Republic to manage the Estrellas Orientales. During the 1958 season, Geraghty again saw several of his star players called up by Milwaukee. Wichita got off to a slow start, improved as the year went on, but only managed to finish second this time, posting an 83–71 record. Wichita still qualified for the playoffs but lost in the first round again. That offseason, Geraghty managed Caguas-Guayama in his most physically demanding offseason yet. Geraghty first suffered a knee injuring while demonstrating a double play, then had to go to Milwaukee for treatment after getting struck by a foul ball during batting practice. This would mark the last time he managed in Latin America over the offseason. Louisville Colonels (1959-61) The Braves American Association affiliate became the Louisville Colonels in 1959, and Geraghty moved to Kentucky with the franchise. Dave Roberts called him Milwaukee's most respected minor league manager. Louisville won the pennant a 97–65 record, but they lost in the first round of the playoffs. Instead of managing winter ball after the season, Geraghty instructed Braves prospects in Bradenton, Florida, that fall. When Fred Haney stepped down as Milwaukee's manager following the 1959 season, Geraghty was strongly considered for the Braves' managerial opening. Reporters noted that he was an excellent manager but that he lacked the big-name reputation of other candidates. Ultimately, Chuck Dressen was hired instead. "I think Dressen coming into our organization will mean a big difference to our personnel in Milwaukee. The boys will be better off," Geraghty graciously said in January 1960. "I know how badly he wanted to manage in the big leagues, so I know how much it hurt when he didn't get the job," Aaron recalled in 1972. Before the 1960 season, Geraghty developed some pre-spring training routines for the young players. "This could do the boys a lot of good. ... They can accomplish more working together like this than on their own at some gymnasium. Otherwise, people hang around and talk to them and they kill a lot of time." Grimm made him part of his strategy board in Milwaukee's 1960 spring training. He started the season as Louisville's manager, but ulcers led to his hospitalization in May, and a six-month rest prescribed by doctors sidelined Geraghty for the rest of the 1960 season. He started instructing prospects again that fall and told reporters, "When my chance in the majors comes, I'll be ready." Returning to Louisville in 1961, Geraghty managed the team for the whole year, leading the Colonels to an 80–70 record and a second-place finish. This time, the Colonels won in the American Association playoffs, allowing them to advance to the Junior World Series, where the Buffalo Bisons swept them. That September, Grimm stepped down as Milwaukee's manager. However, Birdie Tebbetts was chosen as his replacement instead. Convinced that he would never advance in Milwaukee's organization, as the Braves viewed him as more valuable as a developmental coach than a major league manager, Geraghty left the Braves' organization, having managed their teams for nine years. Return to Jacksonville (1962-63) On October 11, 1961, Geraghty signed a three-year contract to manage Cleveland's new Class AAA team, the Jacksonville Suns. Jacksonville fans were glad to have their old manager back. That January, he underwent a four-hour operation in a Jacksonville hospital to correct a circulatory condition. Recovering in time for spring training, he led his 1962 Suns to 94 victories and earned his second Sporting News Minor League Manager of the Year Award and final pennant, although his Suns were defeated in seven games by the Atlanta Crackers in the finals of the Governors' Cup playoffs. "You’ve got to be lucky in this game to win," Geraghty said upon receiving the award. Tommy John played for Geraghty in 1962 and 1963 with the Suns. He heard that Geraghty had once been a great instructor in the minor leagues, but by the time John joined the team, Geraghty tended to favor the veterans over the younger players, since the veterans needed less instruction. John also observed the impact the bus accident had on Geraghty. "I noticed that Ben never slept on long bus trips. He'd sit in his seat all night, wide awake, just staring out the window. Or when the club was at home, he'd go into his office, which was directly opposite my locker, and sit there silently chain-smoking cigarettes and swigging his beer. He'd stare at nothing, as if trying to remember something...or maybe trying to forget." The Suns got off to a slow start in 1963, with a 26–39 record through June 17. Bobby Maduro, the team owner, discussed with Geraghty which players the club might obtain to help their performance. That night, he suffered shoulder pain. Next morning, he awoke with chest pain. His wife phoned for medical help, but Geraghty was stricken with a fatal heart attack, dying at 4:15 A.M., one month shy of his 51st birthday. "I don't know of another manager in baseball whom the paying fans held in so much respect", Bill Foley, the Florida Times-Union's sports editor, wrote upon Geraghty's death. He is interred in Jacksonville's Evergreen Cemetery. In his 18-year managing career, Geraghty won 1,432 games and lost 1,154 (.554). He won five pennants in seven years (1953–59) while piloting Braves affiliates. In the ten seasons of 1953 through 1962, a Geraghty-managed team never finished lower than second place. Personal life Geraghty married Livingston, New Jersey, resident Mary Dowd on November 17, 1938. They had five children: Patrick, Elizabeth, Barry, Thomas, and Benjamin Jr. (or "Benjie"). He was very superstitious, once having a lucky rabbit's foot flown to a visiting city on a Trans World Airlines flight when he forgot to bring it with him on the team's road trip. The 1946 bus crash left him in a state of constant anxiety whenever he rode buses. Jordan recalled that he would wear a lucky shirt, drink an entire case of beer, and chatter incessantly with the bus driver. "He had an amazing capacity for beer...the unusual thing about him, though, was that he never seemed to show the effects of it at all," Aaron recalled. References Jordan, Pat, A False Spring. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1975. . External links Obituary 1912 births 1963 deaths Allentown Brooks players Baseball players from Jersey City, New Jersey Boston Braves players Brooklyn Dodgers players Hartford Bees players Indianapolis Indians players Louisville Colonels (minor league) managers Major League Baseball infielders Meridian Peps players Sacramento Solons players Spokane Indians managers Spokane Indians players Springfield Nationals players Trenton Senators players Villanova University alumni Villanova Wildcats baseball players Williamsport Grays players
4881462	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doug%20Aitken	Doug Aitken	Doug Aitken (born 1968) is an American multidisciplinary artist. Aitken's body of work ranges from photography, print media, sculpture, and architectural interventions, to narrative films, sound, single and multi-channel video works, installations, and live performance. He currently lives in Venice, California, and New York City. Early life and education Doug Aitken was born in 1968 in Redondo Beach, California. In 1987, he initially studied magazine illustration with Philip Hays at the Art Center College of Design in Pasadena before graduating in Fine Arts in 1991. Work He moved to New York in 1994 where he had his first solo show at 303 Gallery. Aitken's body of work ranges from photography, print media, sculpture, and architectural interventions, to narrative films, sound, single and multi-channel video works, installations, and live performance. Aitken's video works have taken place in such culturally loaded sites as Jonestown in Guyana, southwest Africa's diamond mines, and India's Bollywood. Site-specific projects Aitken has created an array of site-specific installations, sometimes synthesizing interactive media with architecture. A recent site-specific work, New Horizon, revolved around a reflective hot air balloon and gondola that transformed into a kinetic light sculpture. The balloon sculpture was featured in a series of happenings that took place in July 2019 across the state of Massachusetts. Another project was Underwater Pavilions (2016), which consisted of three temporary sculptures that were moored to the ocean floor off Catalina Island, CA. Geometric in design, the sculptures created environments that reflected and refracted light, opening a portal that physically connected a viewer to the expanse of the ocean while simultaneously disrupting preconceived visual ideas of the aquatic world. By merging the language of contemporary architecture, land art, and ocean research and conservation, the Underwater Pavilions were a living artwork within a vibrant ecosystem. In contrast to areas of the sculpture that have a rough and rock-like surface, mirrored sections reflected the seascape and, when approached, activated to become a kaleidoscopic observatory. The environments created by the sculptures changed and adjusted with the currents and time of day, focusing the attention of the viewer on the rhythm of the ocean and its life cycles. The artwork created a variety of converging perceptual encounters that played with the fluidity of time and space, resulting in a heightened awareness of the physical world. The sculptures were created in partnership with Parley for the Oceans and the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles. Another site-specific project, titled Mirage, premiered at Desert X, near Palm Springs, CA from February 25 to April 30, 2017, and evolved with presentations in Detroit, MI, as Mirage Detroit (2018), and Switzerland as Mirage Gstaad (2019). Video installations Since the mid-1990s, Aitken has created installations by employing multiple screens in architecturally provocative environments. diamond sea (1997), for example, includes three video projections, one suspended video monitor, and one full-color, illuminated transparency photograph in a dimly lit space. Multiple speakers create an immersive sound experience; the multi-screen film explores a guarded region in the Namib desert in southwestern Africa known as Diamond Area 1 and 2. The territory, estimated at over 40,000 square miles and sealed off since 1908, contains the world's largest and richest computer-controlled diamond mine. Hysteria (1998–2000) uses film footage from the past four decades that shows audiences at pop and rock concerts working themselves into a frenzy on four screens in an X formation. Filmed and photographed in the dusty sound stages and film sets of Bombay, Into the Sun (1999) focuses on the frenetic activity of Bollywood, recreating the sound stages of the Indian film industry with canvas projection screens, a red dirt floor, and video shown in a non-stop, twenty-four-hour loop. diamond sea was presented at the 1997 Whitney Biennial and his electric earth installation, an eight projection, multi-room post cinematic experience, drew international attention and earned him the International Prize at the Venice Biennale in 1999. His ambitious show New Ocean, which included multiple sound, photo, and video works, began with a transformation of the Serpentine Gallery in London and traveled the world to Austria, Italy and Japan, each time in a new configuration. In 2010, Aitken exhibited his work House, a study of destruction featuring the artist's parents. In 2017, the artist displayed a three channel video installation titled Underwater Pavilions at Art Basel Unlimited, documenting sculptures of the same name. Recently, Aitken has shown NEW ERA, a kaleidoscopic multi-channel video installation in a mirrored hexagonal room, in various locations across the world, from New York to Zurich, Denmark, Beijing, California and London. The artwork maps the creation of the cellular telephone into a landscape of repetition and philosophical reckoning with its effect on the world. Outdoor film installations In 1998, Glass Horizon, an installation comprising a projection of a pair of eyes onto the facade of the Vienna Secession building after it had closed for the night, showcased an interest in architectural structures and in art that interacts with urban environments. In 2001, Aitken's exhibition at London's Serpentine Gallery used the entire building for the complex installation New Ocean including transforming the museum's tower into a functional lighthouse at night. In 2004, after having worked together in Berlin, Doug Aitken and Klaus Biesenbach co-curated Hard Light, a group exhibition at MoMA PS1. In the winter of 2007, Aitken's large-scale installation Sleepwalkers, curated by Klaus Biesenbach in collaboration with Creative Time, was presented at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. The project included actors such as Donald Sutherland and Tilda Swinton, as well as musicians Seu Jorge and Cat Power. Five interlocking vignettes shown through eight projections were displayed upon the exterior walls of the museum so as to be visible from the street. Concurrent with the exhibition, Aitken also presented a "happening" inside the museum that featured live drummers and auctioneers, and a performance by Cat Power. In the same year, he created an interactive music table: "k-n-o-c-k-o-u-t". In 2008, Aitken produced another large scale outdoor film installation, titled Migration for the 55th Carnegie International show titled "Life on Mars" in Pittsburgh, PA. The first installment in a three-part trilogy entitled Empire, the work features migratory wild animals of North America as they pass through and curiously inhabit empty and desolate hotel rooms. Continuing Aitken's work in large scale outdoor video installation, his artwork "SONG 1" (2012), created for the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, challenged the standard of public art in Washington D.C. The artwork, which deconstructed the popular song "I Only Have Eyes for You", created a 360 degree screen out of the circular facade of the museum. Rather than using a more typical concave surface for such a projection, Aitken projected the film onto the convex exterior of the museum creating a cinema experience that required moving around the building and could never be fully seen from any one location. Another example of what the artist has called 'liquid architecture', his freestanding installation ALTERED EARTH (2012) explores the Camargue region of southern France in a maze-like flowing arrangement of twelve large projections in the hangar-like Grande Halle of the Parc des Ateliers in Arles. The work also inspired an app created by the artist and POST for the Apple iPad. Commissioned by art patron Bagley Wright, Mirror (2013) is a large LED screen, wrapped around the corner of the Seattle Art Museum, with thin strips of vertical lights. For the project, Aitken had been filming for the project over five years, capturing images of central Seattle as well as the surrounding area. A computer program selects which parts of the footage to project in response to a live feed of information that ranges from the weather to the density of traffic in the streets of Seattle. Conversations In 2006, Aitken produced Broken Screen: 26 Conversations with Doug Aitken (Distributed Art Publishers, 2006), a book of interviews with twenty-six artists who aim to explore and challenge the conventions of linear narrative. Interviews included Robert Altman, Claire Denis, Werner Herzog, Rem Koolhaas, Kenneth Anger and others. The Idea of the West (2010) presents the collective response of 1000 people on the street who were asked “What is your idea of the West?” to create a manifesto from the quotes and comments of random individuals. Another interview project, Patterns & Repetition (2011) is a series of filmed conversations about creativity in the 21st Century in which Aitken conducts short conversations with pioneers in different artistic disciplines, including Devendra Banhart, Thomas Demand, Jack White, James Murphy, Mike Kelley, Jacques Herzog, Fischli & Weiss, Yayoi Kusama, Stephen Shore, and Dan Graham. Continuing his interest in the exchange of ideas, Aitken's work "THE SOURCE" (2012) explores the root of creativity. Six projections in a pavilion designed by David Adjaye, cycle through many more interviews with artists, architects, and musicians such as Adjaye, Liz Diller, William Eggleston, Philippe Parreno, Paolo Soleri, Tilda Swinton, and Beck among others. Happenings Aitken has directed many live "happenings" including his Broken Screen happenings from 2006 in Los Angeles and New York. In 2009, Aitken orchestrated a real-time opera titled "the handle comes up, the hammer comes down" that assembled auctioneers performing against the rhythms of his Sonic Table, at Il Tempo del Postino, at Theater Basel. Also in 2009, along with his large-scale video installation, Frontier, presented on the Tiber river's Isola Tiberina in the heart of Rome, Aitken staged a happening by the same title. The film featured a protagonist played by the iconic American artist Ed Ruscha, as he's seen caught in a landscape between fiction and non-fiction. The work creates a futuristic journey from day to night in a world where reality is put into question. In the happening, performers from the film, such as a professional whip cracker, come alive in the installation while surrounded by the audience. First shown at the Deste Foundation’s project space "Slaughterhouse" on the Greek island of Hydra, Black Mirror is displayed on five screens reflected “into infinity” across black mirrors and stars Chloë Sevigny tethered only by brief conversations over the phone and through voiceover in such disparate locales as Mexico, Greece, and Central America. "Black Mirror" was also a four-night event staged on a custom barge, again featuring a performers from the film: Leo Gallo, Tim McAfee-Lewis, No Age, and Chloë Sevigny. Photographs, light boxes, and sculptures Aitken is well known for his many photographs, which often explore spatial and temporal disruption and narrative suggestion like his installations. For example, Passenger, a group of still photographs made in 1999, shows planes in flight, most of which focus on the faint traceries of takeoffs and landings over desolate airport landscapes. More recently, Aitken has created aluminum light boxes that combine photographic image and text. Extending the theme of text and image, Aitken has produced sculptures from materials as diverse as plants inside clear acrylic and kaleidoscopic mirrors. Other sculptures, such as sunset (black and white), 2012, employ the use of hand-carved foam, epoxy and hand silk-screened acrylic. Sound experiments Interested in the uneasy intersection of nature and culture or narrative variability, the artist has incorporated into his scores what he calls "field recordings," such as jungle noises from Jonestown, Guyana (in his 1995 monsoon), and the reverberations of tremors generated by the eruption of the Soufrière Hills volcano on the Caribbean island of Montserrat (in eraser, 1998). In 1996, for the public art organization Creative Time, Aitken conceived an installation piece in the Anchorage, a cavernous space inside the base of the Brooklyn Bridge, that used recordings of the traffic noises overhead. In 2004, he completed a sound sculpture for the Barcelona Pavilion composed of a central post supporting a few sweeping steel branches that rotated while highly directional speakers at the end of each branch played snippets of scripted conversation. In October 2009, Aitken's Sonic Pavilion opened to the public. The pavilion is located in the forested hills of Brazil, at Inhotim. The Sonic Pavilion provides a communal space to listen to the sounds of the earth as they are recorded through highly sensitive microphones buried close to a mile deep into the ground and carried back into the pavilion through a number of speakers. The sound heard inside the pavilion is the amplified sound of the moving interior of the earth. Aitken has collaborated on his films with a wide variety of musicians, from hip hop artist André 3000 of Outkast, who was in Aitken's 2002 multiscreen Interiors to indie bands like Lichens and No Age, which contributed to his score for his 2008 film Migration and 2011's Black Mirror, respectively. Books Aitken is also a producer of books: I AM A BULLET: Scenes from an Accelerating Culture (2000) a collaboration with writer Dean Kuipers; Doug Aitken: A-Z Book (Fractals) (2003), the alphabet serves as structure to arrange Aitken's photography and video work, along with texts and interviews; Broken Screen (2005), a book of interviews with 26 artists pushing the limits of linear narrative; Alpha, published in 2005 by the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris; Sleepwalkers (2007), published by the Museum of Modern Art, in correspondence to the film and video installation of the same name; 99 Cent Dreams (2008), a collection of photographs that captures "moments between interaction" to create a 21st-century nomadic travelogue; Write In Jerry Brown President (2008), a folded artist book published by the Museum of Modern Art,; The Idea of the West (2010), which asked 1,000 people about their idea of the west, and was produced in conjunction with a happening at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles,; Black Mirror (2011), features a nomadic Chloë Sevigny, produced in conjunction with a video installation and live theater performance staged on a barge; SONG 1 (2012), accompanied an exhibition of the same name at the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, the book takes the form of the Hirshhorn itself, while examining the artwork that explores the idea of pure communication through the pop song I Only Have Eyes for You. Two monograph style books contain comprehensive information on the artist's career: Doug Aitken: 100 YRS, published by Rizzoli and Doug Aitken: Electric Earth, published by Prestel. Station to Station (2013) Station to Station is a nomadic “Happening” that first occurred in the fall of 2013 on a transcontinental train. It functioned as a moving platform for artistic experimentation stopping in cities, towns and remote locations across America. An artist-created project, Station to Station embraced constantly changing stories, unexpected encounters, and creative collisions between music, art and film. The project had the support of a wide range of institutions including MoMA PS1, Carnegie Museum of Art, MCA Chicago, Walker Art Center, SITE Santa Fe, LACMA and SFMOMA. All event proceeds went to fund multi-museum arts programs throughout 2014. Art works and musical performances changed with every stop. The train traveled from New York City to San Francisco, making a total of 9 stops at train stations across the country - New York; Pittsburgh; Chicago; Minneapolis/St. Paul; Santa Fe/Lamy, New Mexico; Winslow, Arizona; Barstow, California; Los Angeles; and Oakland. The project acted as a studio and cultural incubator, creating unplanned moments and artistic collisions. Artists that participated included Kenneth Anger, Olaf Breuning, Peter Coffin, Thomas Demand, Urs Fischer, Meschac Gaba, Liz Glynn, Fischli & Weiss, Fritz Haeg, Carsten Höller, Olafur Eliasson, Christian Jankowski, Aaron Koblin, Ernesto Neto, Nam June Paik, Jorge Pardo, Jack Pierson, Nicolas Provost, Stephen Shore, Rirkrit Tiravanija, and Lawrence Weiner. Musicians included Beck, The Black Monks of Mississippi, Boredoms, Jackson Browne, Cat Power, Cold Cave, The Congos, Dan Deacon, Eleanor Friedberger, The Handsome Family, Lia Ices, Kansas City Marching Cobras, Lucky Dragons, Thurston Moore, Giorgio Moroder, Nite Jewel, No Age, Patti Smith, Ariel Pink’s Haunted Graffiti, Savages (band), Mavis Staples, Suicide (band), Sun Araw, Thee Satisfaction, Twin Shadow and others. Printed matter contributors included Taylor-Ruth Baldwin, Yto Barrada, Sam Durant, Karen Kilimnik, Urs Fischer, Catherine Opie, Jack Pierson, Raymond Pettibon, and Josh Smith. Food was provided by Alice Waters and the Edible Schoolyard Project and chef Leif Hedendal. From June 27- July 26, 2015, Aitken staged Station to Station: A 30 Day Happening at the Barbican Centre in London. Envisioned as a living exhibition, the entire multi-arts facility was turned into a large scale multi-disciplinary event, with more than 100 artists, including Olafur Eliasson, Martin Creed, and Terry Riley. On August 21, 2015, a feature film directed by Aitken, shot with footage from the 2013 happenings, titled Station to Station, premiered in Los Angeles. Experimental in format, the film was described as "...a textured, visceral collection of 62 shorts capturing moments during the three-week journey..." Exhibitions Aitken has participated in over 200 art exhibitions throughout the world. His work has been featured in numerous group exhibitions in such institutions as the Whitney Museum of American Art, The Museum of Modern Art, and the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris. Among others, he has had solo exhibitions at the Schirn Kunsthalle, Frankfurt, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, the Serpentine Gallery, London, Kunsthalle Zürich, Switzerland, Kunsthaus Bregenz, Austria, Museum of Modern Art, New York, Deste Foundation, Greece and Tokyo Opera City Art Gallery, Japan. In 2006, the Aspen Art Museum mounted the first exhibition dedicated solely to Aitken's photography. From September 10, 2016 - January 15, 2017, The Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, at the Geffen Contemporary at MOCA, exhibited Doug Aitken: Electric Earth, the artist's first North American mid-career survey. The exhibition traveled to The Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, TX from May 28, 2017 - Aug 20, 2017. Aitken is represented by 303 Gallery, New York; Regen Projects, Los Angeles; Galerie Eva Presenhuber, Zürich; and Victoria Miro Gallery, London. Other activities Americans for the Arts, Member of the Artists Committee Prizes 1999 International Prize – Golden Lion, Venice Biennale, Venice, Italy 2000 Aldrich Award, Aldrich Museum of Contemporary Art, Ridgefield, Connecticut, U.S. 2007 German Film Critic's Award, KunstFilmBiennale, Cologne, Germany 2009 Aurora Award, Aurora Picture Show, Houston, Texas, U.S. 2012 Nam June Paik Art Center Prize 2013 Smithsonian magazine's American Ingenuity Award in the Visual Arts category 2016 Americans for the Arts National Arts Award: Outstanding Contributions to the Arts 2017 Frontier Art Prize by the World Frontiers Forum, inaugural recipient 2019 ArtCenter College of Design, Lifetime Achievement Award See also List of video artists References External links Doug Aitken Workshop: official website Station to Station: official website KCET Artbound, Electric Earth - The Art of Doug Aitken sleepwalkers 30-second trailer on YouTube Doug Aitken information at Regen Projects Doug Aitken information at 303 Gallery Doug Aitken: The Sonic Happening (Migration) / 303 Gallery, New York Video at VernissageTV. Installation "Nine New Destinations" at the Centro de Arte Contemporânea Inhotim in Brumadinho, Brazil Interview with Doug Aitken on the Louisiana Channel Doug Aitken profile at Kadist Art Foundation 1968 births Living people American installation artists American video artists People from Redondo Beach, California Artists from California Art Center College of Design alumni
4881667	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thebaid%20%28Latin%20poem%29	Thebaid (Latin poem)	The Thebaid (; ) is a Latin epic poem written by the Roman poet Statius. Published in the early 90s AD, it contains 12 books and recounts the clash of two brothers, Eteocles and Polynices, over the throne of the Greek city of Thebes. After Polynices is sent into exile, he forges an alliance of seven Greek princes and embarks on a military campaign against his brother. Although its source material derives predominantly from the Greek literary tradition, the Thebaid has close ties with other Latin texts such as Vergil's Aeneid and the tragedies of Seneca the Younger. The poem's central themes include the relationship between politics and the family, civil war, and the amoral acts to which it gives rise. Critics have also noted the poem's innovative depiction of Roman mythology. Following in the footsteps of Ovid's Metamorphoses, Statius used an episodic structure which is held together by subtle links between individual episodes. The Thebaid was not widely read in antiquity, but was held in high esteem throughout the Middle Ages, when multiple adaptions of the poem were composed in vernacular languages. Preserved through the Carolingian Renaissance, the text of the Thebaid reached modernity without the recognition it once held. While classical scholars of the 19th and early 20th century criticised the poem for a perceived lack of originality and taste, a resurgence of critical interest has since brought it closer to the centre of the literary canon. Synopsis Preparations for war The Thebaid begins with a view of Oedipus, the former king of Thebes. Having gouged out his own eyes, he had relinquished his kingdom after learning that he had killed his father Laius and committed incest with his mother Jocasta. He places a curse on his sons, Eteocles and Polynices, who had turned on him because of his transgressions. The fury Tisiphone is sent to Thebes in order to sow discord among the brothers. In the city, Eteocles and Polynices strike a pact, stipulating that rule of the city would alternate between them on an annual basis while the other spent a year in exile. Eteocles is granted the first term as king. A council of the gods takes places, at which Jupiter decides that he will involve the cities of Thebes and Argos in a war against each other. Following the agreement with his brother, Polynices is exiled and wanders through Greece. In the midst of a violent storm, he seeks refuge at the palace of Adrastus, king of Argos. At the palace's threshold, he gets into a heated argument with Tydeus, an exiled prince from Calydon. Their fight is broken up by Adrastus who invites them into his palace. At a feast in honour of the god Apollo, Adrastus suggests that the two exiles marry his young daughters. He also explains that the feast commemorates a legend from his city's history: Psamathe, daughter of the Argive king Crotopus, is raped by Apollo and gives birth to his son Linus. After Linus is killed by a pack of dogs, the princess confesses her plight to her father who punishes her by death. A child-eating monster, summoned by Apollo, is sent to Argos but killed by a youth named Coroebus. The young man offers to sacrifice himself to appease the god's wrath. Apollo, however, is so moved by this offer that he decides to spare both Coroebus and his city. Argia and Deipyle, Adrastus' daughters, marry Polynices and Tydeus respectively. Their father thus concludes a military alliance with his sons in law. The wedding ceremony is marred by ill omens caused by Argia's wearing of the Necklace of Harmonia, a cursed object first worn by Harmonia, the wife of Thebes' mythical founder Cadmus. Polynices dreams of recovering his throne and asks his new allies for their support. Short of going to war, Tydeus is sent on an embassy to Thebes. Eteocles is visited by the ghost of his grandfather Laius who warns him about his brother's intentions. Thus instructed, he rejects the Argive embassy and sends a group of 50 warriors to ambush Tydeus on his way home; in the ensuing battle, Tydeus single-handedly kills all but one Theban soldier. Maeon, the only survivor, returns to the palace and accuses Eteocles of causing the death of dozens of Thebans. He kills himself in anticipation of the king's punishment. Jupiter instructs Mars to incite the citizens of Argos to war. Upon Tydeus' arrival, Adrastus remains reluctant to go to war against Thebes. After several days, he bows to his allies' pressure and lets his seers Amphiaraus and Melampus find out whether a war is sanctioned by the gods. Though the omens presage a terrible defeat, it is decided that Argos should march against Thebes. Both sides begin to prepare for war. At Argos, seven princes assemble their forces: Polynices, Adrastus, Tydeus, Amphiaraus, Capaneus, Hippomedon, and Parthenopaeus. At Thebes, panic breaks out at the news that an Argive army is preparing. Eteocles orders the seer Tiresias to consult the gods. In a necromantic ritual, he predicts a horrific war with a good outcome for Thebes. Nemea As the Argives pass through Nemea on their way to Thebes, they are spotted by the god Bacchus who harbours sympathies for the Thebans. To prevent the army's arrival, he withdraws all water from the area. The Argives are struck by a parching thirst but they are saved by a young woman named Hypsipyle who shows them the way to a nearby stream. After they drink from the muddy river, Hypsipyle reveals that she is the daughter of Thoas, the former king of the island of Lemnos. In a narrative taking up the fifth book almost in its entirety, the princess tells the story of how she came to Nemea: the women of Lemnos had disrespected the goddess Venus who, in return, inspires their husbands to embark on a military campaign against Thrace. In the men's absence, the women fall into a frenzy and conspire to kill all male children on the island. When the Lemnian men return, they too are murdered by their wives. Only Hypsipyle is unaffected by the women's condition and guides her father Thoas to safety in a chest. She then becomes queen of Lemnos. After a while, the Argonauts pass by Lemnos on their way back from Colchis. Although the women try to prevent them from disembarking, the Argonauts invade the island and, in a mass rape, father a new population of Lemnians. Hypsipyle is raped by their leader, Jason, and gives birth to two sons. In spite of their offspring, the Argonauts decide to leave the island. When rumour of Thoas' survival reaches the island, Hypsipyle is forced to flee. Apprehended by pirates, the princess is sold to Lycurgus, king of Nemea who makes her a nurse to his infant son Opheltes. While Hypsipyle talks to the Argives, Opheltes sleeps unwatched. A large serpent sacred to Jupiter grazes the child with its scales and kills him. The Argive princes attack the serpent in order to avenge the child's death; Capaneus succeeds in killing it and thereby incurs the enmity of Jupiter. Opheltes's parents, Lycurgus and his wife Eurydice, accuse Hypsipyle of neglecting their son. Keen to protect their saviour, the Argives initiate a commotion at Lycurgus' palace, from which Hypsipyle is saved by her sons Thoas and Euneus who had arrived in search of their lost mother. The next day, the Argive princess congregate at the palace to attend the funeral of Opheltes. An ancient grove is felled to provide the building material for a sumptuous pyre. After the child's body is cremated, they erect a temple to mark the spot. Following a common epic tradition, the Argives suggest the inauguration of funerary games in honour of the dead boy. The games are contested by the Argive army and act as an origin myth of the Nemean Games which were celebrated in antiquity. War at Thebes Angry at the Nemean delay, Jupiter sends Mars to incite the Argives to continue their march. Against the opposition of Bacchus, the Argive army makes its way to Thebes. Meanwhile, the Thebans muster their own army while Antigone, the warring brothers' sister, looks down from the city walls. In a narrative device known as teichoscopy, an old servant instructs her about all notable warriors involved in the Theban host. In the night after the Argives arrive at Thebes, Jocasta visits their camp hoping to serve as a mediator between her sons. However, Tydeus turns her down and brusquely sends her back to the city. The Argives proceed to kill the tigers of Bacchus, a sacrilege over which their first confrontation with the Thebans breaks out. Amphiaraus, aided by his patron Apollo, kills dozens of enemies in a frenzy until a large chasm opens up and absorbs him into the underworld. He is the first of the seven princes to die. Disturbed by the news of his death, the Argives negotiate a brief truce. They spend the night mourning their loss while the Thebans celebrate a victory. On the morning of the next day, Thiodamas is appointed to replace the dead seer. Upon his accession, he conducts an elaborate ritual to the gods. Slaughter ensues on the second day of battle. Tydeus fights the Theban prince Haemon. Victorious, he goes on a rampage and kills swathes of Theban soldiers, among them Atys, the fiancé of Polynices' sister Ismene. When he sets his sight on Eteocles, Tydeus is overwhelmed by Melanippus. In a final act of horror, he devours his killer's brains Both sides are horror-struck by the horrific act of Tydeus and attempt to take possession of his body. Hippomedon fights against a whole host of Thebans to retain the corpse but is tricked by Tisiphone into abandoning the scene. He goes on to fight in the bed of the river Ismenus but makes the mistake of killing the river god's grandson Crenaeus. So provoked, the river joins the battle and drowns Hippomedon. Atalanta, Parthenopaeus' mother, has a vision of her son's death in a dream. The goddess Diana seeks to intervene on her behalf but is told by Apollo that the youth cannot be saved. Parthenopaeus is granted one last killing spree before he is killed by Dryas. At Argos, a group of women pray to Juno to come to their army's help. The goddess sends her messenger Iris to the cave of sleep where she ask Sleep himself to intervene. He obliges and casts deep sleep onto the Theban army. Led by Thiodamas, a band of Argives invades the Theban siege camp and commits a massacre. Two youths, Dymas and Hopleus, attempt to retrieve the bodies of Tydeus and Parthenopaeus. Apprehended by the Thebans, they die on top of the bodies they sought to steal. The Argives now mount a full on assault on the fortress of Thebes. Within the city, Tiresias consults the gods and is given an omen: Menoeceus, the son of the leading Theban and brother of Jocasta Creon, must be sacrificed to attain be peace. The young man receives the omen happily, scales the walls of the city and kills himself in front of both armies. On the Argive side, Capaneus climbs the walls himself and, in an excess of hubris, vows to challenge Jupiter himself; the god, in turn, strikes him down with a thunderbolt. Tisiphone and her sister Megaera stir Polynices to challenge Eteocles to single combat to decide the war. Eteocles is hesitant but he is urged by Creon to accept the duel, while Antigone and Jocasta try to defuse the situation. Meeting on the plain before the city, the brothers fight and kill each other. Jocasta kills herself at the news. Creon succeeds Eteocles as king of Thebes as the rest of the Argive army depart. Theseus' intervention In Thebes, Menoecus receives a kingly burial while the other war dead are cremated. Creon proclaims that he will deny burial to the dead Argives. The widows of the Argive army go on a mission to retrieve their husbands' bodies. When they learn of Creon's decree, they decide to split up: Polynices' widow Argia goes to Thebes, the other women to Athens in order to seek the protection of King Theseus. Argia meets Antigone at the site of Polynices' body. After weeping over their shared loss, they burn his body on Eteocles' pyre. At Athens, the Argive women seek refuge at the Altar of Mercy. Having returned from an expedition against the Amazons, Theseus agrees to come to their aid. He directs his army towards Thebes where he routs the exhausted defenders and kills King Creon. Structure Following the model of Vergil's Aeneid, the Thebaid is divided into 12 books, each containing between 720 and 946 lines in the dactylic hexameter. There is no universally recognised theory about the poem's internal structure, though the existing approaches can be summarised as follows: 1) two equal halves along the lines of the Aeneid, 2) four quarters of three books ("triads") based on sense breaks between individual books, and 3) four asymmetrical, thematic sections. In spite of this, three overarching sections are acknowledged by a majority of scholars: Books 1–4: build-up to the war, preparations at Argos and Thebes Books 5–6: the Argive army at Nemea, sometimes described as mora ("delay") Books 7–11: war at Thebes, deaths of the seven princes Themes Politics According to the classicist Kathleen Coleman, the Thebaid displays a "a particularly Roman preoccupation with the relationship between politics and the family". The politics of Thebes are inextricably linked with those of its royal family: the rupture between Eteocles and Polynices results in a split within the Theban polity and leads ultimately to civil war. Another aspect of this theme is the dominance of male actors over their female contemporaries which mirrors the patriarchal society of Flavian Rome. Statius shares this concern with his epic predecessor Lucan, whose Bellum civile portrayed the civil war between Pompey and Caesar as failure of their marriage ties. Moral and theological outlook Statius' depiction of the gods marks a departure from the mythological anthropomorphism exhibited by Homer and Vergil towards allegory. The writer C. S. Lewis considered his development of this narrative device an important predecessor of medieval forms of allegorical writing. Lewis illustrates this point with his analysis of the portrayal of Mars in the Thebaid: instead of playing a mythological role, the god is always in a state of blind wrath and has come to represent the concept of warfare. Another important theme is the poem's depiction of nefas. In the language of Roman moral discourse, the term denotes something or someone in violation of societal and religious norms. The Thebaid, classicist Randall Ganiban writes, is unique in Latin poetry for the degree to which its protagonists indulge in such behaviour without serious moral opposition. Although the poem's heroes commit acts of exceptional violence, they are not balanced by a benign cast of gods. Instead, the gods' attitude has been described as "one of hostility or indifference". The world of the Thebaid may thus be viewed as anti-Rome because it indulges in the unchecked representation of one of Rome's strictest religious taboos. Episodicity In contrast with other Roman epics (notably, the Aeneid), the poem does not follow a linear form of plot development. Instead, it entails a variety of loosely related episodes. This observation is most valid in the build-up to the war and has traditionally been viewed as a poetic flaw. The Argives' extensive stint at Nemea is typical of this trend. Hypsipyle's tale, embedded within the Nemean episode, introduces nearly an entire book of material extraneous to the Theban legend. Though seemingly unconnected, the Thebaid'''s episodes reveal an intricate carmen perpetuum ('unbroken song'), in the manner of Ovid's Metamorphoses: an epic of diverse strands which are held together by an intricate internal structure. Textual history Date Although the precise dating of the Thebaid is unknown, the poem is thought to have been written during the reign of Domitian (80s AD) and published in the early 90s. Statius himself states that he had spent twelve years composing his poem, while the preface to his first book of Silvae, a collection of occasional poems published from 91 onwards, mentions its publication. These circumstances have led some critics to posit a date of publication in 90 or 91. The Latinist D. R. Shackleton Bailey, on the other hand, writes that the Thebaid was "probably" published in 92. The poems precedes by a few years the composition of the Achilleid, Statius' second, unfinished epic begun in 95. Transmission The text of the poem known to modern readers derives from several medieval manuscripts which trace their roots back to the 9th century AD. This tradition is thought to fall into two distinct branches. One, labelled P as a shorthand for Puteaneus, is represented by a single manuscript written at Corbie Abbey and housed in Paris. The other, labelled ω, has spawned numerous descendants, though its original copy, known as the archetype, is lost. P and ω offer diverging text on many occasions with P being considered less corrupted by mistakes. The first printed edition based on these manuscripts was published in Rome around 1470. Influences Long before Statius wrote the Thebaid, the Theban legend had been present in ancient Greek literary culture. A Thebaid may have formed part of the Epic Cycle, a group of archaic hexameter poems of which little first hand evidence survives. A poem of the same name was written by the poet Antimachus, who lived in the 4th century BC. It is unknown whether Statius made use of his work since it only survives in a small number of fragments. The Athenian playwright Sophocles wrote three well-known plays about Thebes (Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone), though no sustained interaction with them has been proved. Euripides' Phoenissae and Aeschylus' Seven Against Thebes, two plays which enjoyed great popularity at Rome, have recently been shown to have influenced Statius' depiction of the Theban war. Among the Latin literary tradition, the Aeneid, Vergil's epic about the travails of Aeneas, served as Statius' principal model. His debt to this particular poem is expressed near the end of the Thebaid, where the poet exhorts his poem "not to challenge the divine Aeneid, but to follow her at a distance and to always revere her footsteps". The poem also draws on various poetic texts from the first century AD, the most important of which are Ovid's Metamorphoses, Lucan's Bellum civile and the tragedies of Seneca the Younger. Reception Antiquity and the Middle Ages Writing a generation after Statius, the satirist Juvenal stated that the Thebaid still garnered steady attention from the Roman public. In spite of his testimony, there is little other evidence to suggest that the poem had much currency until late antiquity. The poet Claudian, writing at the court of the emperor Honorius around 400 AD, imitated many of the stylistic features found in the Thebaid. Preserved through the Carolingian Renaissance, the poem was widely read during the High Middle Ages, sparking adaptations such as the Middle Irish Togail na Tebe ("Destruction of Thebes"). Joseph of Exeter, nephew of archbishop Baldwin of Exeter, wrote poetry modelled on the Thebaid that has been described by the Latinist Michael Dewar as the "most sensitive and intelligent" among Statius' medieval admirers. The Thebaid played an important role in the work of the Italian poet Dante Alighieri. Its influence on the Divine Comedy is, according to Dewar, "manifest and omnipresent". Dante's fascination for Statius, whom he erroneously considered to have been a Christian, is illustrated by his appearance, alongside Vergil, on the fifth terrace of the Purgatorio. Modern approaches Modern classicists held the Thebaid in low esteem for most of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. Their views were rooted in a distaste for Statius' perceived lack of originality and his ties to the autocratic regime of the emperor Domitian. Representing such attitudes, the Latinist Robert Maxwell Ogilvie wrote in 1980 that "the Thebaid cannot be said to be about anything". Along with a general re-evaluation of imperial Latin texts, the second half of the 20th century saw a resurgence of critical interest in the poem. In 1973, David Vessey's Statius and the Thebaid provided a sympathetic study which still acknowledged some of the flaws traditionally ascribed by classical scholars. Towards the end of the century, a revisionist school of thought interpreted the Thebaid'' as a subtle criticism of autocratic government. The poem has since been rehabilitated to a place closer to the centre of the literary canon. References Works cited Further reading 1st-century Latin books Epic poems in Latin Poetry by Statius
4881775	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish%20Ambulance%20Service	Scottish Ambulance Service	The Scottish Ambulance Service () is part of NHS Scotland, which serves all of Scotland's population. The Scottish Ambulance Service is governed by a special health board and is funded directly by the Health and Social Care Directorates of the Scottish Government. It is the sole public emergency medical service covering Scotland's mainland and islands; providing a paramedic-led accident and emergency service to respond to 999 calls, a patient transport service which provides transport to lower-acuity patients, and provides for a wide variety of supporting roles including air medical services, specialist operations including response to HAZCHEM or CBRN incidents and specialist transport and retrieval. History In 1948, the newly formed Scottish National Health Service (NHS) contracted two voluntary organisations, the St Andrew's Ambulance Association and the British Red Cross, to jointly provide a national ambulance provision for Scotland, known then as the St Andrew's and Red Cross Scottish Ambulance Service. After British Red Cross withdrew from the service in 1967, the service was renamed the St Andrew's Scottish Ambulance Service. In 1974, with the reorganisation of the Scottish health services, ambulance provision in Scotland was taken over by the Scottish NHS, with the organisational title being shortened to the current Scottish Ambulance Service. St. Andrew's First Aid, the trading name of St. Andrew's Ambulance Association, continues as a voluntary organisation and provides first aid training and provision in a private capacity. The organisation was established as a NHS trust on 1 April 1995 when it legally became known as the Scottish Ambulance Service National Health Service Trust. The trust was dissolved on 1 April 1999 and at the same time constituted as a special health board known as the Scottish Ambulance Service Board. Structure Emergency Medical Service Capabilities The Scottish Ambulance Service now continues in its current form as one of the largest emergency medical providers in the UK, employing more than 5,000 staff in a variety of roles and responding to 740,631 emergency incidents in 20152016 alone. The service, like the rest of NHS Scotland, is free at point of access and is widely used by both the public and healthcare professionals. Employing almost 1,300 paramedic staff, and a further 1,200 technicians, the accident and emergency service is accessed through the public 999 system. Ambulance responses are changing in Scotland and are now prioritised according to patient needs: a traditional, double-crewed ambulance, a single response car or a paramedic practitioner may attend different kinds of emergencies. Ambulance Control Centres The Scottish Ambulance Service also maintains three command and control centres in Scotland, which facilitate handling of 999 calls and dispatch of ambulances; a further 350400 staff employed as call handlers and dispatchers fulfil this role across three locations: Edinburgh, Glasgow and Inverness. These three centres (which, through use of software, operate as one integrated unit) have been in use since 2004 and handle over 800,000calls per year. The Advanced Medical Priority Dispatch System (AMPDS) is used for call prioritisation, and provides post-dispatch instructions to callers, allowing medical advice to be given over the phone, before the ambulance arrives. Clinical staff are present to provide clinical oversight and tertiary triage. Co-located with the Ambulance Control Centres (ACC) are patient transport booking and control services, which handle approximately 1million patient journeys per year. Advanced Paramedics Critical Care Scottish Ambulance Service Advanced Practitioners in Critical Care (APCC) are based at Raigmore Hospital, Newbridge Ambulance Station in Edinburgh and Glasgow Airport. They are considered a Yellow level response in relation to the trauma network. They carry injectable medications not usually available to Scottish Ambulance Service paramedics, including: Ketamine, 200mg in 20ml (0.1-1mg/kg) Ketamine, 500mg in 10ml (4mg/kg of ideal body weight) Salbutamol 500mcg in 1ml (Adults; max dose 1mg, Children 2-12 years 15mcg/kg) Magnesium 5g in 10ml (Asthma: 2g, Pre/Eclampsia: 4g, toxidrome: 2g) Calcium Gluconate 10% w/v in 10ml (Toxidrome & hyperkalaemia: up to 20mls) Sodium Bicarbonate 8.4% w/v in 100ml (Toxidrome & hyperkalaemia: up to 100mls) Haloperidol, 5mg in 1 ml (1.25mg to 10mg). They can undertake a number of advanced interventions, including: DC cardioversion Transthoracic pacing Sedation Surgical airway Thoracostomy Advanced clinical assessment Advanced decision making Point of care ultrasound Paediatric intubation Urgent and Primary Care Advanced Practitioners in Urgent & Primary Care (APUC) are located more widely across Scotland. Specifically at the following ambulance stations: Lerwick, Kirkwall, Stornoway, Benbecula, Lairg, Inverness, Lochcarron, Elgin, Aberdeen, Oban, Pitlochry, Callander, Perth, Dundee, Campbeltown, Paisley, Glasgow (Castlemilk fire station), Kilmarnock, Hamilton, Stranraer, Newton Stewart, Dumfries, Biggar, Melrose, Prestonpans, Edinburgh, Livingston, Falkirk, Stirling, Dunfermline, Cupar and Leven. Retrieval Practitioners Scottish Ambulance Service employ a number of Specialist and Advanced Retrieval Practitioners as part of the ScotSTAR service. Role within the Scottish Trauma Network The Scottish Ambulance Service coordinates the pre-hospital and inter-hospital transfer elements of the Scottish Trauma Network. This response comes from the Scottish Ambulance Service and a number of partner agencies. These are sometimes categorised as Red, Yellow and Green resources; of these, Medic One and BASICS Scotland are registered charities. The use of Yellow and Red categorisation is also applied to the enhanced skills offered by different teams or clinicians. Volunteer Resources BASICS Scotland The service also uses a number of volunteer responders in conjunction with BASICS Scotland and the Sandpiper Trust. These responders are doctors, nurses and paramedics who volunteer their time to respond on behalf of the ambulance service and help the sick and injured. Equipment is provided to these responders by both the ambulance service and BASICS Scotland, with assistance from the Sandpiper Trust. These responders may be able to offer enhanced "Yellow" skillsets and advanced interventions to assist the other emergency services. Such skills offered by BASICS Scotland responders may include: endotracheal intubation, procedural sedation, advanced analgesia, nerve blocks, cardioversion and thoracostomy with or without drain insertion. Community First Responder There are also a number of Community First Responder schemes across Scotland which support the ambulance service. These are voluntary responders with basic medical training who are deployed to 999 calls, mostly cardiac arrests. Highland Prehospital Immediate Care and Trauma (PICT) Team The Highland PICT Team is based at Raigmore Emergency Department, Inverness and respond to a round 150 patients a month. It was formed in 2016 to address a lack of physician-led pre-hospital care in the Highlands. It uses a doctor and advanced practitioner model, providing advanced care and extending the capabilities of the Scottish Ambulance Service. They were winners of the Highland Heroes award in 2022, with the team's founder and clinical lead receiving an international award for his work in rural pre-hospital medicine in 2021. One of the team's advanced nurses was also nominated for a Scottish Health Award for his part in the care and rescue of a child with traumatic injuries from a mountain. Medic One Medic One is a charity team formed in 1980 which deploys from the emergency department in Edinburgh. In 1998 a charitable trust was set up, aligned to the Medic One team, to facilitate learning and development of Edinburgh hospital staff. It has a fast response car, but relies on the Scottish Ambulance Service sending a driver to the hospital in order to attend 999 calls. The usual composition of the team is an emergency medicine consultant with a middle grade doctor, with one or two emergency nurses. They attend around three patients a month. In 2020 Medic One declared their intention to cease operations and it was noted that that their training and governance was unlikely to meet current standards. Scotland's Charity Air Ambulance (SCAA) The Scottish charity air ambulance is a Scottish charity which since 2013 has worked to provide additional air ambulance resources to support the work of the ambulance service. They transport around 1 patient a day. The helicopter is crewed by 1 or 2 paramedics and a pilot. Tayside Trauma Team The Tayside Trauma Team is an enhanced care team working out of Ninewells Hospital, Dundee. They attend around six patients a month. The team is made up of staff from the Emergency department, however they have no team capability to drive on blue lights, so need to be given a lift from another agency. This results in a variable mobilisation time: average time from 999 call to the team leaving the hospital is 25 minutes, with a range of 6 minutes to 1 hour 40 minutes. In 2020 the Tayside trauma team stated they would soon cease to operate and it was noted that their governance and training could be deemed inadequate by current standards. † NHS Funded * Charity Funded Fleet, equipment and uniform The Scottish Ambulance Service maintains a varied fleet of around 1,500 vehicles. Emergency response vehicles include ambulances, and single-response vehicles such as cars and small vans for paramedics. There are also patient-transport ambulances, which are adapted minibuses, lorries and support vehicles for major incidents and events, and specialist vehicles such as 4x4s and tracked vehicles for difficult access. The service also has three bicycles, which are only utilised during events at which Scottish Ambulance Service crews are present. The geography of Scotland includes urban centres such as Edinburgh and Glasgow, areas of relatively low population density such as Grampian and the Scottish Highlands, and inhabited islands. Thus the fleet provision has to be flexible and include different kinds of vehicle. In the past, 4x4-build ambulances on van chassis were used in more rural areas, and traditional van conversions in more urban areas. When a large fleet upgrade project was commissioned in 2016, the business case was made to move to a solely box-body on chassis build, to provide some flexibility and more resilient parts procurement. Most of these replacement ambulances have been based on either Mercedes or Volkswagen chassis, with a mixture of automatic or manual transmissions. The equipment used on board Scottish Ambulance Service vehicles broadly falls in line with NHS Scotland and allows for interoperability in most cases. Equipment is standardised nationally and replaced at regular service intervals; for example, high-cost items such as defibrillators are costed and changed every seven years according to clinical need. The uniform is in line with the NHS Scotland National Uniform standard, which is in keeping with the uniform standard described by the National Ambulance Uniform Procurement group in 2016. Amongst cost and comfort considerations, all Scottish Ambulance Service Staff now wear the national uniform which comprises a dark green trouser/shirt combination. Personal protective equipment (boots, helmet and protective jackets) is issued to all staff and denote rank/clinical rank by way of epaulette and helmet markings. Organisation The national headquarters is located at Gyle Square, South Gyle, on the west side of Edinburgh. There are five divisions within the service, namely: Patient transport The Patient Transport Service carries over 1.3 million patients every year. This service is provided to patients who are physically or medically unfit to travel to hospital out-patient appointments by any other means so that they can still make their appointments. The service also handles non-emergency admissions, discharges, transport of palliative care patients and a variety of other specialised roles. Patient Transport Vehicles come in a variety of forms and are staffed by ambulance care assistants, who work either double- or single-crewed. They are trained to look after patients during the journey, and to provide basic emergency care. Air operations The service has the only government-funded air ambulance service in the UK, operated under contract by Gama Aviation. The fleet consists of two Airbus H145 helicopters and two Beechcraft B200C King Air fixed-wing aircraft, which provide emergency response and transfers of patients to and from remote areas of Scotland. The two previous H145 helicopters were operated under sub-contract by Babcock Mission Critical Services Onshore until May 2020. In 20152016, the air ambulance crews flew 3,849 missions. One helicopter and one King Air are based at a Gama Aviation facility at Glasgow Airport. The other operating bases are Inverness Airport (helicopter) and Aberdeen Airport (King Air). The aircraft based in Glasgow are regularly used by the Emergency Medical Retrieval Service (EMRS). The air ambulance service was occasionally featured as part of the Channel 5 television documentary series Highland Emergency. Charity-funded air ambulance In late 2010, a charity, Scotland's Charity Air Ambulance (SCAA), was founded to provide a further air ambulance, based at Perth Airport to work alongside the state-funded aircraft. SCAA commenced operations in May 2013 with a MBB Bo 105 helicopter. Since November 2015, SCAA has operated a Eurocopter EC135. The EC135 was previously operated by the state-funded service, until they replaced the fleet with H145 aircraft. The helicopter is crewed by Scottish Ambulance Service paramedics, tasking is from the SAS ambulance control centre at Cardonald. In April 2018, it was announced by the charity that a drive was underway to raise funds to secure a second helicopter. This aircraft is now operational at Aberdeen Airport. Notable accidents involving air ambulances On 19 May 1996, a Britten-Norman BN-2 Islander aircraft operated by Loganair for the Scottish Ambulance Service crashed short of the runway at Lerwick/Tingwall Airport in Shetland while turning to final approach at night during strong and gusting winds. The pilot was killed, and the physician and flight nurse were injured. There was no patient on board at the time. On 15 March 2005, a Britten-Norman BN-2 Islander aircraft operated by Loganair crashed into the sea while descending toward Campbeltown Airport in western Scotland. The aircraft was operating an air ambulance flight on behalf of the Scottish Ambulance Service. The pilot and paramedic both died in the crash. Special Operations Response Team (SORT) The SORT service is similar to the Hazardous Area Response Team in other parts of the United Kingdom. SORT paramedics have the same scope of practice as a regular paramedic, however have an enhanced scope of practice in relation to Personal protective equipment and other rescue equipment. They do not however carry nor administer ketamine. In 2010, the service established three teams of specialist accident & emergency ambulance personnel who were given specialist training. This £4.3million initiative was to provide additional preparedness to be able to respond to large-scale hazardous incidents, such as those that might involve chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear material. The work was in concert with the UK government. In 2019, the SORT services responded to 1,200 calls requiring specialist intervention, and supported a further 9,000 calls. there are five SORT teams; three full-time based in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, and two on-call teams in Inverness and Dumfries. These teams provide a specialist response to major incidents, and provide paramedic care in hostile environments. The team provides capability in arenas such as water rescue, safe working at height, search and rescue including the use of breathing apparatus, and confined space working. The SORT teams also provide a full-time emergency decontamination and inner-cordon capability. ScotSTAR With the remote towns and villages in Scotland often being hours away from advanced medical treatment, Scottish Specialist Transport and Retrieval (ScotSTAR) was setup incorporating paediatric and neo-natal retrieval and transfer teams and EMRS. The ScotSTAR service was set up on 1 April 2014 and transported 2,654 patients 20142015. The service uses multiple vehicles, either owned by the ambulance service or other organisations: specialist ambulances and cars, five air ambulances and HM Coastguard helicopters. The service is based in Glasgow. EMRS (The Emergency Medical Retrieval Service) was created in 2004 by ten emergency medical consultants from Glasgow and Paisley. Initially, the service provided aeromedical cover to six isolated hospitals within Argyll and Bute. The ten consultants only had £40,000 worth of funding for medical equipment. In its first year the service transported 40 patients. In years to follow, the clinical crew began to gather evidence for the life-saving impact and cost effectiveness of the service. Following a successful 18-month trial period in the West of Scotland funded by the Scottish Government, in 2010 the service was opened up to the whole of the country, after securing permanent funding. The service is currently staffed by 47 part-time retrieval consultants, 14 retrieval practitioners, and 4 registrars, carrying out around 1000 missions every year. Training academy The service has its own dedicated training academy within the campus of Glasgow Caledonian University, which opened in June 2011. The facility has purpose built classrooms, lecture theatres, syndicate rooms and a clinical simulation area that recreates a 16-bed hospital ward and Accident & Emergency department allowing realistic interaction with other trainee healthcare professionals. From 1996 until April 2011, the service used its own dedicated training college located at Barony Castle in Eddleston near Peebles. Set in of formal gardens and woodlands, Barony was a residential training and conference centre with 78 bedrooms that allowed the service to carry out all its training in house. Between 1985 and 1996 it used the former Redlands women's and children's hospital in Glasgow's west end and prior to that the training school was based at Bangour Hospital before moving to Gartloch Hospital. Facts and figures In year ended 31 March 2020, the service: Responded to 542,213 accident and emergency incidents. Carried out 606,015 non-emergency patient journeys. Flew 3,732 air ambulance missions. Controversy and challenges In 1999 it emerged that the Financial Director of the Scottish Ambulance Service had previously been jailed for fraud. In 2017 the ambulance service was criticised for using an ancient fleet of ambulances, with nearly half having over 100,000 miles on them. In 2018 it was revealed that frontline staff had been working "dangerously long hours", with one staff member working a 36 hour long shift. This was described as a national scandal at the time. In 2020 both the Tayside Trauma Team and Medic 1 announced their continuing existence was unsustainable and the services would be terminated, removing this physician led resource from the ambulance services capabilities. 2021 saw the Scottish Ambulance Service struggle to staff frontline ambulances; seeking help from firefighters, the military, and non-medical trained drivers to crew ambulances attending 999 calls. A number of tragic stories emerged highlighting the personal cost of this crisis, including one patient who died after waiting 40 hours for an ambulance, and an elderly man who died on his driveway after waiting four and a half hours for an ambulance. In the same year it was also revealed that a number of senior NHS managers from the ambulance service were running a camper van hire business during work hours, while planning for the COP26 international conference. Research published in 2022 demonstrated that four out of five Scottish paramedics were considering quitting their jobs. It also revealed that 87% of staff do not feel valued by the Scottish Ambulance Service. The same report highlighted a third of staff working shifts lasting 15–20 hours. The same year, a story was published in which a member of the public was asked to perform CPR on their relative, alone in the back of the ambulance without help from the ambulance crew while en route to hospital. In the summer of 2022 it was claimed that an ambulance service senior manager was suspended as a result of requesting that a member of control-room staff leave their post and collect him (and his family) from Glasgow Airport. In 2022 it also came to light that EMRS have been deploying as a “Red Team” for the Scottish Ambulance Service without a Consultant on board. See also Air ambulances in the United Kingdom Ambulance services in the United Kingdom Other Scottish emergency and non-emergency services: NHS 24 Police Scotland Scottish Fire and Rescue Service References External links Inspection reports from Healthcare Improvement Scotland NHS Scotland NHS ambulance services Air ambulance services in Scotland Ambulance services in Scotland
4882463	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudanese%20literature	Sudanese literature	Sudanese literature consists of both oral as well as written works of fiction and nonfiction that were created during the cultural history of today's Republic of the Sudan. This includes the territory of what was once Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, the independent country's history since 1956 as well as its changing geographical scope in the 21st century. Even though there exist records about historical societies in the area called Sudan, like the Kingdom of Kush in Nubia, little is known about the languages and the oral or written literature of these precursors of the Sudan of today. Moreover, the notion of Bilad al-Sudan, from which the name of the modern country is derived, referred to a much wider geographic region to the south of the Sahara, stretching from western to eastern Central Africa. Like in many African countries, oral traditions of diverse ethnic or social groups have existed since time immemorial, but a modern written Sudanese literature can only be traced back to the beginning of the 20th century. Through the publication of written literature in Sudanese newspapers and books, as well as aided by formal, non-religious education, a modern Sudanese literature of fiction and nonfiction began to appear. Going back to age-old oral traditions, poetry and the lyrics for songs have been the most popular literary genres in Sudan. Just as other cultural expressions, literature reflects the hybrid identities of Sudan, that have been called Afro-Arabism by some scholars. In the 21st century, electronic media, which often rely on written texts and oral storytelling on video, connect people in Sudan with their compatriots at home as well as in the world-wide Sudanese diaspora. Some contemporary writers with Sudanese roots and living in other countries, such as Leila Aboulela or Jamal Mahjoub, write in English. Together with translations of original works written in Arabic, they have made fictional literature about Sudan accessible to an international audience. History Historical precursors of modern literature in Sudan The oldest existing records of the precursors of a distinctive Sudanese literature can be dated to about 300 BCE and were written in the Meroitic script. These historical records, such as inscriptions on sandstone, bear testimony of the kings of Kush or deities of the Kushite culture in northern Sudan. During the Christianization of Nubia in the sixth century CE, the Kushite language and cursive script were replaced by Byzantine Greek, Coptic, and Old Nubian languages, with texts relating both to religion, to public affairs or to private life. From the fourteenth century onwards, Arabic gradually became the primary language in Nubia and, with the spread of Islam, developed into the main written and spoken language for religious and secular affairs in most other parts of Sudan. The oral poetic tradition of the northern Nilotic Sudan was mainly expressed in colloquial Sudanese Arabic. Presented orally or in songs, poetry was and still is a fundamental form of literary expression in highly developed and structured forms. Most of the poetry that has survived from the 19th century is in praise of the Prophet and during the Mahdist period, in praise of the Mahdi. A rare historical record written in the early 19th century by Shaykh Ahmad ibn al-Hajj Abi Ali (b. 1784-5) and other early Sudanese historians is the Funj Chronicle. Preserved in several versions in many manuscripts, it present a history of the Funj sultanate (1504–1821) and its capital at Sennar, on the Blue Nile, and of the Turco-Egyptian regime that succeeded it. The manuscripts were edited as an annotated translation under the title "The Sudan of the Three Niles" in 1999 by British historian Peter M. Holt. In her review of this edition, historian Heather J. Sharkey wrote: "Along with the Tabaqat of Ibn Dayf Allah (a biographical dictionary of Sudanese Muslim holy men compiled in the late eighteenth century), the Funj Chronicle is the most important Arabic source for the northern riverain Sudan in the Funj era, a period when Islam was spreading widely." Another account of the early 19th century was written by Muḥammad al-Tūnisī (d. 1857)), who spent ten years as merchant from Cairo in the Sultanate of Darfur and described the kingdom in detail and with his own drawings in the book entitled 'In Darfur'. Traditional and modern forms of oral literature Literature in contemporary Sudan is either recited orally or written in the Arabic language, with certain types also in local languages, such as poetry in the Fur language of western Sudan. As in other African countries, both written literature and genres of oral tradition, such as folk tales, proverbs or poems, are common, but depend on their social setting, such as in rural, partly illiterate or in urban educated societies. These oral types of storytelling may be simply recited by individuals or by groups of persons, or they may be accompanied by singing and musical accompaniments, thus transgressing the theoretical definition of literature and music. "Long before the novel and short story became known as literary genres, Sudanese literature existed in the form of oral stories and narrative poems, most of which, until recently, were transmitted from one generation to the next.", as literary critic Eiman El-Nour put it in her seminal paper The Development of Contemporary Literature in Sudan. Among the living oral traditions, there are the Ahaji folk tales and the Madih, or religious praise tales. The first kind generally have a mythological and often local character. According to El-Nour, "they invariably have happy endings and are full of fanciful scenes and superstitions that describe the magic powers of genies and ogres." Madih, the other kind of poetry is typically recited by a singer and chorus, and has a religious character, praising the prophet Muhammad or revered religious leaders. Sudanese folk tales have been collected and edited by Abdallah al-Tayyib, a scholar of Arabic literature and language, and published in English as Heroes of Arabia as well as in Stories from the sands of Africa. Poetry and songs continue to occupy a prominent role in contemporary Sudanese culture. Songs celebrating the beauty of the land, its regions and scenery have been very popular in modern music since at least the 1930s. Before independence, poems and the lyrics of songs were often artistic expressions of nationalism and other political issues. Among others, Khalil Farah (1892–1932) was an important poet, and his patriotic verses have been used in popular songs like "Azza fī Hawāk" (My beloved Azza). During more recent times of political oppression, forms of oral literature have been expressions of resistance towards the rulers of the day, and have even led to the imprisonment or exile of poets like Mahjoub Sharif (1948–2014) or musicians like Mohammed Wardi (1932–2012). A traditional form of oral poetry are the songs of praise or ridicule by female singers of Western Sudan, called Hakamat. These are women of high social standing, respected for their eloquence, intuition and decisiveness, who may both incite or vilify the men of their tribe, when engaged in feuds with other tribes. The social impact of these Hakamat can be exceptionally strong. Because of this, they have recently been invited by peacebuilding initiatives in Darfur in order to exert their influence for conflict resolution or other social issues, like environmental protection. Other forms of popular oral literature are Sudanese folk tales, often narrated by female storytellers. In the 21st century, contemporary forms of oral literature in urban settings as an expression of identity, political resistance or visions of the future include the forms of spoken word poetry, political slogans, rap, or hip hop music that preceded and accompanied the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. The beginnings of modern Sudanese literature Background Moreover, literary scholar Constance E. Berkley states that "Sudanese Arabic literature has links with all Arabic literature, both past and present. At the same time, it is valid in its own right. Among the Sudanese, as among other African and/or Arabic speaking people, poetry is the preferred literary form." On the further issue of writing in Arabic with a distinct Sudanese character, the Sudanese poet and critic Mohammed Abdul-Hayy writes: "Muhammad Ahmed Mahgoub was one of the leading literary spokesmen who (...) expressed the idea of a Sudanese literature 'written in Arabic, but infused with the idiom of our land, because this (idiom) is what distinguishes a literature of one nation from another.'" Although there were several newspapers published in Sudan around the beginning of the 20th century, like Jaridat al-Sudan, a biweekly paper published in Arabic and English first printed in 1903, arguably the most important newspaper in terms of impact on modern Sudanese literature was Al-Ra'id (The Pioneer). This newspaper, published in Arabic, started in Khartoum, the Sudanese capital, in 1914 and presented a variety of poetry and other literary forms. Its first editor was the well-known poet and journalist Abdul Raheem Glailati. In 1917, the British authorities deported him to Cairo because of his article criticising the poor living conditions of Sudanese. Despite this, he later could publish a collection of revolutionary, nationalist poetry in 1924. In 1934, the literary journal Al Fajr (The Dawn) was founded and became known for publishing the first Sudanese short stories. Another important factor for the development of written literature in Sudan was the spread of modern educational institutions, like the Gordon Memorial College in Khartoum and other non-religious schools in major cities like Omdurman or Wad Madani. Before this development, the only books available for education were those written in Arabic. Schooling in the English language also provided Sudanese intellectuals with access to English literature, translations from other Western languages and to non-fictional publications on world-wide issues. Important literary genres Apart from poetry, the most prominent literary genre in Sudan is the short story. This form of writing started in the 1920s and was largely influenced by Arabic short stories in Egyptian newspapers. Tājouj (1948), a romantic love story by Osman Muhammad Hashim (1897–1981), has been called the first Sudanese novel. Since the period preceding the independence of Sudan in 1956, short stories and novels have dealt with political and social issues, as well as with the question of the country's complex cultural identity. This central theme of what it means to be Sudanese is marked in more or lesser degrees by both African roots as well as by Arabic cultural influences. This multiple cultural identity also gave the name to a group of writers of the 1960s, comprising Al-Nur Osman Abkar, Mohammed Abdul-Hayy, Ali El-Makk and Salah Ahmed Ibrahim, called The Jungle and Desert School (madrasat al-ghāba wa-l-ṣaḥrā’), where "jungle" stands for the rainforests of the South and "desert" refers to northern Sudan. Sudan's hybrid identity has been reflected in numerous literary works since then. Some authors such as Ḥāmid Badawī (b. 1956),have chosen literary characters and places from various regions, others wrote about families with members from different ethnic backgrounds or about people displaced from rural origins to the larger cities. Apart from poetry, the most prominent literary genre in Sudan is the short story. This form of writing started in the 1920s and was largely influenced by Arabic short stories in Egyptian newspapers. Tājouj (1948), a romantic love story by Osman Muhammad Hashim (1897–1981), has been called the first Sudanese novel. Since the period preceding the independence of Sudan in 1956, short stories and novels have dealt with political and social issues, as well as with the question of the country's complex cultural identity. Sudan's hybrid cultural identity This central theme of what it means to be Sudanese is marked in more or lesser degrees by both African roots as well as by Arabic cultural influences. Since The Jungle and Desert School, numerous other writers have included this hybrid identity in their narratives, either by choosing literary characters or places from different regions, such as Abkar Adam Isma‘il (b. 1965), who originates from Kordofan, in his novel Aḥlām fī bilād al-shams (Dreams in the Land of the Sun). Authors like Hamid Badawi (b. 1956) included references to intermarriages between Arabs and Africans in his Mashrū‘ Ibrāhīm al-Asmar al-riwā’ī (Ibrahim al-Asmar's Project of Novel). Numerous novelists like Ibrahim Ishaq, Jamal Mohammad Ibrahim, Al-Hasan Bakri (b. 1955) and others have focused on the coexistence of many diverse ethnic, cultural, religious, and linguistic groups living next to each other in Sudan. Another example is the Sudanese journalist and renowned poet across the Arabic literary world Muhammad al-Fayturi (1936–2015), whose extensive poetic work "particularly draws upon his experience as an African living among Arabs, and thus addresses issues such as race, class and colonialism." Resuming these recurrent literary topics, critic and translator of Sudanese novels Xavier Luffin made the following remark: "At the same time, none of these authors idealizes this richness, since they often quote the many problems faced by the marginalized, such as racism and civil war." Social and political themes In line with social and political developments in other countries at the time, stories, novels and poems dealing with social realist themes, like the conflicts between social classes were also written in Sudan. These were spurred on by Sudanese academics, who were returning home after studying in Egypt or European countries. After the 1990s, an increasing number of writers included social and political issues by choosing poor and marginalized people as major characters. Thus, Ibrahim Bashir Ibrahim (b. 1958) described people's lives in a suburban slum of Al-Obeid in his novel Al-Zindiyya (1995). Further novels dealing with people living in slums or with the shammasa (street boys) are Dhākirat shirrīr (2005, Memories of a Bad Boy) by Mansour El Souwaim and The Kandarees (2012) by Abdalaziz Baraka Sakin. In a general sense, "marginal characters became a real topos in Sudanese literature, because of their profession, often related to an ethnic origin: the Southern alcohol-seller, the Ethiopian prostitute, the West African healer, and so on. Depicted with empathy, they often play the role of rebels against the political and moral authorities." A number of authors writing stories with social and political contexts also have included explicit references to Sudan's failures of democracy. Thus, Ahmad al-Malik (b. 1967) presented a typical despot in his Al-Kharīf ya’tī ma‘a Ṣafā’ (2003) (Autumn Comes with Safā), which tells the story of a president through his own memories, "from his coming to power by chance to the eve of his disappearance." Al-Malik further included numerous details of life under dictatorship, "mixing them with fantasy, dream, and humor in a style that recalls magical realism", which helps the author to avoid censorship. Another novel dealing with dictatorship is Waṭan khalf al-quḍbān (2002) (A Nation behind Bars) by Khālid ‘Uways (b. 1972). Here, the writer does not dwell explicitly on the dictator, but most of all on the system and its victims: His main characters are two women in jail, Rābi‘a and Mary, an educated artist from the North and a servant from the South of the country. By narrating their lives in jail and in the outside world, the novel describes a host of negative influences employed by the regime against its own people. By the characters of Rābi‘a and Mary, ‘Uways shows "that the victims of the regime are both Africans and Arabs, non-Muslims and Muslims." Similar recurrent themes are the "undeniable and long history of conflict and political turbulence", caused by authoritarian governments, for example in the political poems of Mahjoub Sharif, violent clashes between militias and impoverished human beings in Abdelaziz Baraka Sakin's novels or discrimination and violence against women, told by female authors like Rania Mamoun or Stella Gaitano. Among contemporary Sudanese poets, Mahjoub Sharif is remembered for his poems "for freedom, full with music, witty, agitating, but always didactic." As critic Magdi El Gizouli wrote in his obituary about Sharif: "A school teacher by training, this secular prophet spoke truth to power in a creative language that readily transformed into powerful memes, and as a consequence landed him habitually in the detention cells of Sudan's military rulers." Political discrimination has also affected the Sudanese Writers Union, which was founded in 1985 in order to promote freedom of expression and to bring together writers of different cultural groups. It was dissolved by the military government of Omar al-Bashir in 1989 and could only be revived from 2006 onwards. After ten years of activities in the general context of suppression of free expression, it was closed down again in 2015, but upon a court ruling in 2016, the Union managed to resume its activities. - In 2015, poet Mamoun Eltlib and others started a monthly street market for used books called Mafroosh, meaning “spread out” or “display”, attracting many young people looking for books. But a short time later, these informal meetings were also banned by the government. Publishing and distributing books also suffered greatly from the government's neglect and censorship, which also led to the circulation of illegal copies. According to the editor and translator of The Book of Khartoum, Max Shmookler, Sudanese literature of the late 20th century is characterized by an "association between estrangement (ghurba) and the West (al-gharb)" that "has run deep in Sudanese society and literature." This cultural contrast between a largely conservative society, even in the urban centres, and the growing influence of a globalized world, is reflected in the choice of characters and plots of many contemporary authors. Examples for this contrast and estrangement can be found in Tayeb Salih's Season of Migration to the North, but also in stories about human tragedy, like the pandemic in Amir Taj al-Sir's novel Ebola 76 or in the short story Isolation by one of the youngest authors, Sabah Sanhouri. Notable Sudanese writers The list of Sudanese literary authors with works written in Arabic, with some of them translated into English, comprises both established as well as emerging male and female writers: The first novel depicting the life of a working woman in Sudan was "Al-Faragh al-'arid" (The Wide Void). Written by the short story writer and novelist Malkat al-Dar Mohamed in the early 1950s, it was only published after her death in 1969. Arguably the most notable Sudanese writer is Tayeb Salih (1929–2009), who wrote both novels and short stories. His most famous work, translated as Season of Migration to the North and published in 1966, deals with the coming of age of a student returning to Sudan from England. The novel was banned in the author's native Sudan for a period of time, because of its sexual imagery, but later it has been readily available. It became famous among Arabic readers across the region, was included in Banipal magazine's list of the 100 Best Arabic Novels, and has been translated into more than twenty languages. Ibrahim Ishaq (1946–2021) was a Sudanese novelist and short story writer, whose narrative works are mostly set in his native Darfur region of western Sudan. From 1969 on, he published six novels and three collections of short stories, as well as academic studies about the history and literature of Africa. Through his subject-matter and elements of the local forms of language, he introduced the life and culture of Darfur to readers in other parts of the country. Fatima al-Sanoussi (born in the 1950s) worked both as journalist, writer and translator. She is known for her flash fiction that had a strong influence on writers of the 1980s and young readers. Her stories have been described as moving "across categories and outside the existing structures and genre constraints". Bushra Elfadil, (born 1952), a former lecturer of Russian literature at the University of Khartoum, and now living in exile in Saudi Arabia, won the prestigious Caine Prize in 2017 with "The Story of the Girl Whose Birds Flew Away". This short story has been called "a mix of classical traditions as well as the vernacular contexts of its location" and was first published in The Book of Khartoum. Among other topics, Jamal Mohammad Ibrahim (b. 1959) treated the complex Sudanese identity of African and Arab heritage: In his Nuqṭat talāshī (A Point of Disappearance, 2008) by describing one of his characters as “a perfect and typical Sudanese, who has taken something from each background: he has taken his pleasant brown color from Africa, and his loquacity from the Arabs.” In Dafātir Kambālā (The Kampala Notebooks, 2009), he explored the African roots of Sudan through a “philosophical journey” in Uganda. Based on this literary approach, he was described as one of the Sudanese writers who included "African names, realistic descriptions of traditions and beliefs, and even words in African languages. Born in Cairo of Sudanese parents in 1959, Tarek Eltayeb has been living in Vienna, Austria, since 1984. In addition to seven books in Arabic, he has also published his poetry, novels and short stories in German translation. His novel Cities Without Palms tells the story of a young man from Sudan, who first migrated to Egypt and then further on to Europe. A Sudanese writer of international recognition is Amir Taj al-Sir (born 1960). He has published more than a dozen books, including poetry and nonfiction. His first novel Karmakul came out in 1988, and his novel The Hunter of the Chrysalises was shortlisted for the 2011 International Prize for Arabic Fiction, mentored by the Booker Prize Foundation in London. Ishraga Mustafa Hamid (born 1961) is a poet, literary translator and human rights activist of Sudanese origin, living in Austria since 1993. Writing both in Arabic and German, her literary works encompass poetry and prose, often reflecting her own or the experiences of other migrants in Austria. Until 2017, she had published seven works in German, and as many in Arabic. Abdelaziz Baraka Sakin (born 1963) has written several popular novels and collections of short stories, including The Jango, which deals with the conditions in a women's prison and won the Al-Tayeb Salih Award for Creative Writing. His books were initially sold in local bookstores, but later confiscated and banned by the Sudanese authorities and were subsequently only available outside of Sudan. His novel The Messiah of Darfur, which takes place in the context of the civil war in Darfur, was translated into French and German. Since 2012, Baraka Sakin has lived in exile in Austria and has been invited to a number of literary festivals in France and Germany. Mansour El Souwaim, (born 1970), has released two novels and two collections of short stories. His second novel, titled Memories of a Bad Boy, received the Tayeb Salih Award for Creative Writing in 2005. Hamed al-Nazir (born 1975), a Sudanese journalist and novelist living in Qatar, has published three acclaimed novels. Two of them, The Waterman's Prophecy and The Black Peacock were longlisted for the prestigious International Prize for Arabic Fiction. Najlaa Eltom (born 1975) is a Sudanese writer, poet and translator who became known for her poetry in Sudan and abroad during the early 2000s. In 2012, she went to Sweden for a degree in English literature at Stockholm University and has lived there since. Hammour Ziada, (born 1979), has published several volumes of fiction in Arabic, and is best known for his second novel Shawq al-darwīsh (The Longing of the Dervish), which won the Naguib Mahfouz Prize in 2014 and was also nominated for the 2015 International Prize for Arabic Fiction. This novel and several of his stories have appeared in English translation, including in the anthology The Book of Khartoum (Comma Press, 2016) as well as in Banipal magazine. Stella Gaitano, born in Khartoum of parents from southern Sudan in 1979, has published both short stories and a novel in Arabic that have been translated into English. She grew up and studied in Khartoum, and writes stories often dealing with the harsh living conditions of people from southern Sudan, who have endured discrimination and military dictatorship, or war and displacement in the northern part of Sudan. Rania Mamoun (born 1979) is another contemporary female writer, who has written novels and short stories, translated as Thirteen Months of Sunrise. Several of her stories have appeared in English translation, including in The Book of Khartoum, Banthology and in Banipal literary magazine. Sabah Sanhouri (born 1990), is a cultural essayist and literary author from Khartoum, who writes prose as well as poetry. Her story "Isolation" won the Al-Tayeb Salih Award for Creative Writing in 2009 and was published both in Arabic, and later in a French and English translation. Mirrors, her first collection of short stories, came out in Egypt and Sudan in 2014, and in 2019, she published her first novel, entitled Paradise. In 2021, Muhammad Ismail won the first prize of the Katara Award for the Arabic Novel for his short story “The Brothers of Yusuf”, selected from more than 400 entries. In 2023, Reem Gaafar won the South African Island Prize for a Debut Novel from Africa for the manuscript of her novel A Mouth Full of Salt. She is the first novelist from Sudan to be distinguished by this award. In an article about Sudanese female novelists, Sawad Hussain, who has translated several novels from Arabic to English, discusses the difficulties of literature by authors such as Amna al-Fadl, Ann El Safi, Rania Mamoun, Sara Al-Jack, or Zeinab Belail to be translated and published in English. In the same article, Hussain mentions a bibliography of Sudanese novels that lists 476 novels published in Arabic in Sudan from 1948 to 2015, with 314 of them between 2000 and 2015. In May 2022, ArabLit magazine published several articles by and about Sudanese women writers, as well as other articles on literary works from Sudan in English translation. Literature in English by writers with Sudanese roots The earliest records of a writer from Sudan using the English language are the memoir and other literary works of Selim Aga, born around 1826 in Taqali, a historical state in the Nuba Hills, in modern-day central Sudan. As a young boy, he had been sold as slave to various owners and was eventually brought to Scotland in 1836. There, he was raised and educated as a free man by the family of Robert Thurburn, at the time British consul in Alexandria. In 1846, he published his autobiographical Incidents Connected with the Life of Selim Aga, written in "faultless idiomatic English". — The first Sudanese modern novel written in English was Their Finest Days (1969), by Al-Sirr Ḥasan Faḍl, a political novel about the rumor of a coup d’état two months after the October 1964 revolution. Taban Lo Liyong, who was born in southern Sudan in 1939 and studied in the 1960s in the United States, is one of Africa's well-known poets, writers of fiction and literary criticism. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, "Liyong wrote highly imaginative short narratives, such as Fixions (1969), and unorthodox free verse,( ...) His nonfiction output consists of argumentative and amusing personal essays and bold literary criticism (...), presenting challenging new ideas in an original manner." After teaching positions in several countries, including Sudan, he became professor of English at the University of Juba. Leila Aboulela, who was born in 1964 in Cairo, Egypt, to an Egyptian mother and a Sudanese father, and grew up in Khartoum, is a Sudanese writer who lives in Scotland and writes in English. Her poems, short stories and novels have received international acclaim and have been translated into other languages, including Arabic. Jamal Mahjoub, born in London in 1966 of British and Sudanese parents and grew up in Khartoum, writes in English and has published a trilogy taking place in Sudan. His memoir A Line in the River (2019) recounts the years from the military coup of 1989 up to the separation of South Sudan in 2001. In an article about literature in Sudan, written just about as the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19 came to its final stage, he gave the following assessment of the limitations for writers, publishers and readers: A representative of young writers of Sudanese origin, living in the worldwide Sudanese diaspora, is Safia Elhillo (born 1990), a Sudanese-American poet known for her written and spoken poetry. Her poems have appeared in several publications, including Poetry, Callaloo, the Academy of American Poets’ Poem-a-day series, and in anthologies, such as The BreakBeat Poets: New American Poetry in the Age of Hip-Hop and Women of Resistance: Poems for a New Feminism. Her collection of poetry The January Children (2017) refers to the children born in Sudan under British occupation, whose date of birth was often indiscriminately recorded as 1 January. Emtithal Mahmoud, who was born in Darfur in 1992, moved with her parents to the United States as a child. She became known as a spoken word poet and activist for refugees. In 2015, she won the Individual World Poetry Slam championship and has since published her first collections of poems in English, entitled Sisters' Entrance. K. Eltinaé is an award winning Sudanese poet of Nubian descent, based in Spain. His work has appeared in magazines such as World Literature Today and the African American Review, as well as in The Ordinary Chaos of Being Human: Tales from Many Muslim Worlds, among other publications. His debut collection The Moral Judgement of Butterflies won the 2019 International Beverly Prize for Literature. He is the recipient of the Visionary Arts Memorial Reza Abdoh Poetry Prize 2021. He also co-won the 2019 Dignity Not Detention Prize. Daoud Hari, who was born as a tribesman in the Darfur region of Western Sudan, wrote an autobiographical memoir in English about life and people in Darfur, entitled The Translator: A Tribesman's Memoir of Darfur. Through his story, he tried to bring further international attention to the plight of his people and country. In 2008, the autobiographical memoir about women's experiences with genocide and war in Darfur, called Tears of the Desert, was published by Halima Bashir. This Sudanese medical doctor chose her fictitious name in order to stay anonymous. The book was co-authored by British journalist Damian Lewis and published after Halima Bashir had found asylum in the U.K. Yassmin Abdel-Magied (born 1991), a Sudanese-Australian media presenter and writer, first became known for her outspoken engagement in community work and Australian media, including talks and blogs about her multicultural identity as a young Muslim woman in Australia. In 2016, she published her memoir called Yassmin's Story, and in 2019 a novel for young adults, titled You Must Be Layla. Sudanese-American writer Fatin Abbas based her 2023 debut novel Ghost Season on her personal experience of working for an NGO in the border region between northern and southern Sudan. The story is set in the fictitious village Saaraya, a "flashpoint in the civil war between the Southern rebel movement and the Northern government based in Khartoum." Memoirs by former slaves and 'Lost Boys' Based on their painful experiences of persecution, human trafficking and deplacement, a number of people from southern Sudan have published their memoirs in English. Examples are the autobiographical accounts Escape from Slavery by Francis Bok or Slave by Mende Nazer. Other accounts were published by some of the "Lost Boys of Sudan", a group of over 20.000 boys of the Nuer and Dinka ethnic groups, who were displaced or orphaned during the Second Sudanese Civil War (1987–2005). After emigrating to the U.S. or the U.K., these refugees from Sudan published their stories, usually with co-editors in their country of refuge. Works for young readers and graphic storytelling Modern literature for children and young adults has been written, among others, by authors and illustrators such as Abdel-Ghani Karamallah and Salah El-Mur. Also, the poet Mahmoud Sharif published a collection of short stories for children entitled Zeinab and the Mango Tree. Another book for children called Kadisa (Sudanese expression for cat) was written in 2017 by Sudanese-American elementary teacher Rasha Hamid and illustrated by Sharhabil Ahmed, a well-known musician and graphic artist. In the 1950s and up to the mid-1990s, the Ministry of Education published comics magazines such as Al-Sabyan (Boy's Journal), Maryud and Sabah (Morning) in order to develop children's literacy, but because of diminishing support, the numbers of such magazines and children's books decreased from 30.000 copies a week of the most popular magazine to a much lower number of such publications. In the 21st century, Sudanese comic strips and graphic storytelling have been enjoying a growing audience. They are mainly published on social media, but also in the form of magazines or during national comic competitions. As a political cartoonist living in the Sudanese diaspora, Khalid Albaih has become known for his social and political caricatures in Arab and international online media. Traditional and modern forms of Sudanese theatre Rituals and theatre-like performances, such as the zār rituals, have been described by modern studies as part of ancient and traditional civilisations in Sudan. During the 1930s, Ibrahim al-Abadi (1894 -1980) created a play about an important Sudanese resistance fighter against the Turkish army, El Mek Nimr, and Khaled Abu Al-Rous wrote a play about a village love story called Tajouj. Along with other Sudanese or foreign plays, they were produced at the National Theatre of the time. In a period of flourishing cultural life in Sudan from the 1960s and up to the restrictions of many public activities by the Public Order Laws since 1989, foreign and Sudanese theatre plays in the modern sense enjoyed a certain amount of popularity in Khartoum. Nevertheless, the College of Music and Drama of the Sudan University of Science and Technology has been offering studies and degrees since 1977, and together with the Sudanese Dramatists Union has organized theatre festivals and workshops at the National Theatre, opened in 1959 in Omdurman. Anthologies of Sudanese literature After the 2009 collection of short stories in French translation, Nouvelles du Soudan, several anthologies in English, such as I Know Two Sudans: An Anthology of Creative Writing from Sudan and South Sudan, The Book of Khartoum, Literary Sudans: An Anthology of Literature from Sudan and South Sudan or Modern Sudanese Poetry: An Anthology have made contemporary literature from Sudan and South Sudan accessible to readers in translation. In addition, Banipal literary magazine published a special issue in 2016 on Sudanese literature today. In 2020, The Common literary magazine published eleven short stories by Sudanese authors in English translation. Apart from those names already mentioned above, writers featured in these compilations are Mohammad Jamil Ahmad, Emad Blake, Nur al-Huda Mohammed Nur al-Huda, Ahmed Al Malik, Dan Lukudu, Agnes Ponilako, Kenyi A. Spencer, Mamoun Eltlib and others. In his introduction to Literary Sudans: An Anthology of Literature from Sudan and South Sudan, Taban Lo Liyong wrote: Academic scholarship on Sudanese literature and Arabic language An outstanding Sudanese scholar and literary critic with a long list of publications on poetry or other genres, and in Arabic in general, was Abdallah al-Tayyib (1921–2003). His primary field of study was the Arabic language and its creative use in poetry. One of his most notable works is A Guide to Understanding Arabic Poetry, a massive opus written over thirty-five years. Some of his collection of folk stories from Sudan and Africa have been translated into English. Al-Tayyib was also president of the Arab Language League of Sudan and a member of the Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo. Through his radio programmes on literature, he contributed also to a wider appreciation of literature for people without access to written sources. Another notable scholar on language and culture in Sudan was Awn Alsharif Qasim (1933–2006). Among many other works, he authored the Sudanese Encyclopedia of Tribes and Genealogies in seven volumes and 2628 pages, a pioneer, state of the art series of books about place or personal names and Sudanese tribes, their roots and origins. Several departments of the University of Khartoum, like the Faculty of Arts, the Institute of Asian and African Studies or of Islamic Studies, publish academic scholarship relating to the history and present of culture in Sudan. Nonfiction and cultural journalism by Sudanese writers The list of Sudanese writers of nonfiction, as another important form of narrative writing, includes authors like Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im or Sadiq al-Mahdi, known for their contributions to such topics as Islamic thought, politics or social issues in Sudan. Addressing Sudanese and other Arab readers, these are published in Arabic, although some publications, such as essays, academic scholarship, interviews or other journalistic texts, have also been translated into English. One of the Sudanese online magazines focussing on Sudanese culture and the close relationship of life in Sudan and South Sudan, as well as with other East African neighbours, is the bilingual online Andariya Magazine. See also African literature Arabic literature Modern Arabic literature List of Sudanese writers Culture of Sudan Culture of South Sudan – Literature Music of Sudan Notes and references Works cited Further reading Al-Malik, A., Gaetano, S., Adam, H., Baraka, S. A., Karamallah, A., Mamoun, R., & Luffin, X. (2009). Nouvelles du Soudan. Paris: Magellan & Cie. (in French) Babikir, Adil (ed.) (2019). Modern Sudanese Poetry: An Anthology. Lincoln, NE, USA. Cormack, Ralph and Max Shmookler (eds.) (2016) The Book of Khartoum. A City in Short Fiction. Manchester: Comma Press Elhillo, Safia. The January Children. University of Nebraska Press, 2017 Lynx Qualey, Marcia. Sudanese Literature: North and South. 2012, in ArabLit magazine Lynx Qualey, Marcia. 10 Sudanese & South Sudanese Short Stories for the Solstice, 2019, in ArabLit.org Magid, Djamela et al. (eds.), I Know Two Sudans: An Anthology of Creative Writing from Sudan and South Sudan, 2014 Mahjoub, Jamal. Top 10 books about Sudan. The Guardian, May 2019 Mahjoub, Jamal. Navigation of a Rainmaker (1989), Wings of Dust (1994), In the Hour of Signs (1996) Shringarpure, Bhakti (ed.) 2016. Literary Sudans: An Anthology of Literature from Sudan and South Sudan. Trenton: The Red Sea Press, Soghayroon, Thorraya. (2010) Sudanese Literature in English Translation: An Analytical Study of Translation with a Historical Introduction to the Literature. PhD dissertation, Westminster University. External links An ever-so-short history of the ‘complex, capacious’ Sudanese short story with further links by ArabLit magazine Sudanese literature available in English, May 2021, by ArabLit magazine African literature Arabic literature Sudanese literature Sudanese culture
4882592	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad%20ibn%20Tulun	Ahmad ibn Tulun	Ahmad ibn Tulun (; c. 20 September 835 – 10 May 884) was the founder of the Tulunid dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria between 868 and 905. Originally a Turkic slave-soldier, in 868 Ibn Tulun was sent to Egypt as governor by the Abbasid caliph. Within four years Ibn Tulun had established himself as a virtually independent ruler by evicting the caliphal fiscal agent, Ibn al-Mudabbir, taking over control of Egypt's finances, and establishing a large military force personally loyal to himself. This process was facilitated by the volatile political situation in the Abbasid court and the preoccupation of the Abbasid regent, al-Muwaffaq, with the wars against the Saffarids and the Zanj Rebellion. Ibn Tulun also took care to establish an efficient administration in Egypt. After reforms to the tax system, repairs to the irrigation system, and other measures, the annual tax yield grew markedly. As a symbol of his new regime, he built a new capital, al-Qata'i, north of the old capital Fustat. After 875/6 he entered into open conflict with al-Muwaffaq, who tried unsuccessfully to unseat him. In 878, with the support of al-Muwaffaq's brother, Caliph al-Mu'tamid, Ibn Tulun took over the governance of Syria as well as the frontier districts with the Byzantine Empire, although control of Tarsus in particular proved tenuous. During his absence in Syria, his eldest son and deputy, Abbas, tried to usurp power in Egypt, leading to the imprisonment of Abbas and the nomination of Ibn Tulun's second son, Khumarawayh, as his heir. The defection in 882 of a senior commander, Lu'lu', to al-Muwaffaq, and the defection of Tarsus, forced Ibn Tulun to return to Syria. Now virtually powerless, al-Mu'tamid tried to escape from his brother's control to Ibn Tulun's domains but was captured by al-Muwaffaq's agents, and Ibn Tulun convened an assembly of jurists at Damascus to denounce al-Muwaffaq as a usurper. His attempt in autumn 883 to bring Tarsus to heel failed, and he fell sick. Returning to Egypt, he died in May 884 and was succeeded by Khumarawayh. Ibn Tulun stands out as the first governor of a major province of the Abbasid Caliphate to not only establish himself as its master independently of the Abbasid court, but to also pass power on to his son. He was thus also the first ruler since the Ptolemaic Pharaohs to make Egypt an independent political power again, with a sphere of influence encompassing Syria and parts of the Maghreb, setting the tone for later Egypt-based Islamic regimes, from the Ikhshidids to the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo. Primary sources Several medieval authors wrote about Ahmad ibn Tulun. The two major sources are two biographies by two 10th-century authors, Ibn al-Daya and al-Balawi. Both are called , and al-Balawi's work relies to a large extent on Ibn al-Daya's, although it is much more extensive. Ibn al-Daya also wrote a book () with anecdotes from the Tulunid-era Egyptian society. Further information comes from Ibn Tulun's contemporary, the geographer and traveler Ya'qubi, whose works cover the first years of his rule in Egypt, and from later Egyptian authors, especially the 15th-century historians Ibn Duqmaq and al-Maqrizi, who drew on a variety of earlier sources to write on the history of the Tulunid state. Several other medieval Arabic chroniclers from the 13th to the 16th centuries mention Ibn Tulun or his officials, but most are of a later date and not very reliable, especially in comparison to Ibn Duqmaq and al-Maqrizi. Life Early life and career Ahmad ibn Tulun was born on the 23rd day of the month of Ramadan 220 AH (20 September 835) or slightly later, probably in Baghdad. His father, Tulun, was a Turk from a locality known in Arabic sources as Tagharghar or Toghuz[o]ghuz, i.e., the Uyghur confederation. In the year 815/6 (200 AH) Tulun was taken captive along with other Turks, and sent as part of the tribute of the Samanid governor of Bukhara Nuh ibn Asad to the Caliph al-Ma'mun (), who at the time resided in Khurasan. After al-Ma'mun returned to Baghdad in 819, these Turkish slaves were formed into a guard corps of slave soldiers (, sing. ) entrusted to al-Ma'mun's brother and eventual successor, al-Mu'tasim (). Tulun did well for himself, eventually coming to command the Caliph's private guard. Ahmad's mother, called Qasim, was one of his father's slaves. In 854/5, Tulun died, and Qasim is commonly held to have married a second time, to the Turkish general Bayakbak or Bakbak. This report, however, does not appear in Ibn al-Daya or al-Balawi, and may be spurious. According to al-Balawi, after his father's death Ahmad came under the tutelage of Yalbakh, a close companion of Tulun, who had been taken captive alongside him. At his deathbed, Tulun urged his friend to take care of his wife and son, and Bakbak thereafter treated the young Ahmad as his own son. The young Ahmad ibn Tulun received a thorough education, involving military training at the new Abbasid capital of Samarra and studies in Islamic theology at Tarsus, acquiring a reputation not only for his knowledge but also for his pious and ascetic way of life. He became popular among his fellow Turks, who would confide secrets and entrust their money and even their women to him. While at Tarsus, Ibn Tulun fought in the frontier wars with the Byzantine Empire. There he also met another senior Turkish leader, Yarjukh, whose daughter, variously given as Majur or Khatun, became his first wife and the mother of his eldest son, Abbas, and his daughter Fatimah. The sources also report that during his time at Tarsus, Ibn Tulun had ties to Caliph al-Mutawakkil's vizier Ubayd Allah ibn Yahya ibn Khaqan, and the latter's cousin Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Khaqan. On one occasion, while returning to Samarra, he saved a caravan bearing a caliphal envoy returning from Constantinople from a Bedouin raiding party, and accompanied it to Samarra. This act gained him the favour of Caliph al-Musta'in (), as well as a thousand gold dinars and the hand of the slave Miyas, the mother of his second son, Khumarawayh. When the Caliph abdicated and went into exile at Wasit in 866, he chose Ibn Tulun to be his guard. Qubayha, the mother of the new caliph, al-Mu'tazz (), schemed to remove the deposed al-Musta'in, and offered Ibn Tulun the governorship of Wasit if he would murder him. Ibn Tulun refused and was replaced by another, who carried out the deed. Ibn Tulun himself played no part in the assassination, but gave his master a burial and returned to Samarra. Governor of Egypt Already under Caliph al-Mu'tasim, senior Turkish leaders began being appointed as governors of provinces of the Caliphate as a form of appanage. Thereby they secured immediate access to the province's tax revenue for themselves and their troops, bypassing the civilian bureaucracy. The Turkish generals usually remained close to the centre of power in Samarra, sending deputies to govern in their name. Thus when al-Mu'tazz gave Bakbak charge of Egypt in 868, Bakbak in turn sent his stepson Ahmad as his lieutenant and resident governor. Ahmad ibn Tulun entered Egypt on 27 August 868, and the Egyptian capital, Fustat, on 15 September. Ibn Tulun's position after his appointment was far from undisputed within his province. As governor of Fustat he oversaw the province's garrison and was the head of the Muslim community as recognized in his title of 'overseer of the army and the Friday prayer' (), but the fiscal administration, in particular the collection of the land tax () was in the hands of the powerful veteran administrator Ibn al-Mudabbir. The latter had been appointed as fiscal agent () already since , and had rapidly become the most hated man in the country as he doubled the taxes and imposed new ones on Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Ibn Tulun quickly signalled his intention to be sole master of his province: on his arrival at Fustat, when both Ibn al-Mudabbir and Shukayr, the head of the postal service () and of correspondence with the caliphal government, came out to meet him with a gift of 10,000 dinars, he refused to accept it. For the next four years, Ibn Tulun and his rivals fought via their emissaries and relatives at the caliphal court in Samarra to neutralize each other; in the end, Ibn Tulun managed to secure Ibn al-Mudabbir's transfer to Syria in July 871, and assumed collection of the himself. At the same time, Ibn Tulun also secured the dismissal of Shukayr, who died shortly after. Thus by 872 Ibn Tulun had assumed control of all branches of the administration in Egypt, becoming de facto independent of the Abbasid central government. At the time of Ibn Tulun's appointment, Egypt was undergoing a transformative process. In 834 its early Muslim elite, the Arab settler families () of Fustat, lost their privileges and government pay, and power passed to officials sent by the Abbasid court. At about the same time, for the first time the Muslim population began surpassing the Coptic Christians in numbers, and the rural districts were increasingly subject to both Arabization and Islamization. The rapidity of this process, and the influx of settlers after the discovery of gold and emerald mines at Aswan, meant that Upper Egypt in particular was only superficially controlled by the local governor. Furthermore, the persistence of internecine strife and turmoil at the heart of the Abbasid state—the so-called "Anarchy at Samarra"—led to the appearance of millennialist revolutionary movements in the province under a series of Alid pretenders. One of them was Ibn al-Sufi, a descendant of Ali's son Umar, who rebelled in late 869 and massacred the populace of Esna. In winter 870 he defeated an army sent against him by Ibn Tulun, but was driven to the oases of the desert in spring. He remained there until he was defeated in a struggle with another regional strongman, Abu Abdallah ibn Abd al-Hamid al-Umari in 872, fleeing to Mecca. There he was seized and imprisoned for a while by Ibn Tulun. One of his followers, Abu Ruh Sukun, rebelled in the oases in 873/4 and was successful enough for Ibn Tulun to offer him an amnesty. Ibn al-Sufi's vanquisher, al-Umari, was another descendant of Ali who had created an autonomous principality around the gold mines, defeating the forces sent against him. Another revolt broke out in 874/5 by the governor of Barqa, Muhammad ibn al-Faraj al-Farghani. Ibn Tulun tried to reconcile with him at first but was eventually forced to send an army to besiege and storm the city, although the reprisals were limited. The re-imposition of his authority over Barqa, however, led to the strengthening of ties with Ifriqiya to the west, including, according to Ibn al-Athir, the erection of a series of lighthouses and messaging beacons along the coast. In the meantime, in Palestine, the local governor, Isa ibn al-Shaykh al-Shaybani, had used the anarchy in Iraq to set up a quasi-independent Bedouin regime, intercepting the tax caravans from Egypt and threatening Damascus. When Caliph al-Muhtadi ascended the throne in July 869, he offered a general amnesty, and wrote to Ibn al-Shaykh, offering a pardon in exchange for him handing over the treasure he had wrongfully appropriated. When Ibn al-Shaykh refused, the Caliph ordered Ibn Tulun to march against him. Ibn Tulun complied and began a mass purchase of black African () and Greek () slaves to form an army over the winter of 869/70, but no sooner had he arrived at al-Arish with his army in summer 870 than orders came to turn back. Ibn al-Shaykh's revolt was crushed soon after by another Turkish soldier, Amajur al-Turki, who continued to govern Syria for the Abbasids until his death in 878. This episode was nevertheless of major importance as it allowed Ibn Tulun to recruit an army of his own with caliphal sanction. The Tulunid army, which eventually grew to reportedly 100,000 men—other sources give a breakdown of 24,000 Turkish and 42,000 black African and Greek slaves, as well as a mercenary corps composed mostly of Greeks—became the foundation of Ibn Tulun's power and independence. For his personal protection, Ibn Tulun reportedly employed a corps of ghilmān from Ghur. Ibn Tulun's stepfather Bakbak was murdered in 869/70, but luckily for him in the summer of 871 the supervision of Egypt passed to his father-in-law Yarjukh. Yarjukh not only confirmed Ibn Tulun in his post, but in addition conferred to him the authority over Alexandria and Barqa. In 873, Ibn Tulun entrusted the government of Alexandria to his eldest son, Abbas. Ibn Tulun's growing power was manifested in the establishment of a new palace city to the northeast of Fustat, called al-Qata'i, in 870. The project was a conscious emulation of, and rival to, the Abbasid capital Samarra. Just like Samarra, the new city was designed as quarters for Ibn Tulun's new army with the aim of reducing frictions with the urban populace of Fustat. Each unit received an allotment or ward (whence the city's name) to settle, after which the ward was named. The new city's centrepiece was the Mosque of Ibn Tulun, which was built in 878–880 under the supervision of the Mesopotamian Christian architect Ibn Katib al-Farghani. A royal palace adjoined the mosque, and the rest of the city was laid out around them. Beside government buildings, it included markets, a hospital () that provided services free of charge, and a hippodrome. Nevertheless, Ibn Tulun himself preferred to reside in the Coptic monastery of Qusayr outside Fustat. Ibn Tulun's new regime The administration of Egypt was already well developed before Ibn Tulun's arrival, with a number of departments (s) responsible for the collection of the land tax, the supervision of the post, the public granaries (), the Nile Delta lands (), and possibly a privy purse () for the governor's personal use. A chancery () possibly also already existed, or else was established under Ibn Tulun, when he remodelled the Egyptian administration after the Abbasid central government. Most of the officials employed by Ibn Tulun were like him trained in the caliphal court at Samarra. Ibn Tulun's chancellor was the capable Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Abd al-Kan (died 891), while other important positions in the administration were held by the four Banu al-Muhajir brothers and Ibn al-Daya. Al-Balawi also reports several anecdotes about Ibn Tulun's extensive use of spies and his own ability to uncover spies sent against him, and claims that the chancery was established so that Ibn Tulun could check up on every piece of correspondence with the caliphal court. Unsurprisingly, given his own origins as a slave soldier, Ibn Tulun's regime was in many ways typical of the " system" that became one of the two main paradigms of Islamic polities in the 9th and 10th centuries, as the Abbasid Caliphate fragmented and new dynasties emerged. These regimes were based on the power of a regular army composed of , but in turn, according to Hugh Kennedy, "the paying of the troops was the major preoccupation of government". It is therefore in the context of the increased financial requirements that in 879, the supervision of the finances in Egypt and Syria passed to Abu Bakr Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Madhara'i, the founder of the al-Madhara'i bureaucratic dynasty that dominated the fiscal apparatus of Egypt for the next 70 years. Although, as Zaky M. Hassan notes, "fragmentary evidence does not permit a thorough assessment of Tulunid economic and financial policies", it appears that the peace and security provided by the Tulunid regime, the establishment of an efficient administration, and repairs and expansions to the irrigation system, coupled with a consistently high level of Nile floods, resulted in a major increase in revenue. By the time of Ibn Tulun's death, income from the land tax alone had risen from 800,000 dinars under Ibn al-Mudabbir to the sum of 4.3 million dinars, and Ibn Tulun bequeathed his successor a fiscal reserve of ten million dinars. Crucial to this was the reform of the tax assessment and collection system, including the introduction of tax farming—which at the same time led to the rise of a new landholding class. Additional revenue was collected from commercial activities, most notably textiles and in particular linen. Ibn Tulun's regime was highly centralized, but also featured "consistent attempts to win the backing of Egypt's commercial, religious and social élite", according to Zaky M. Hassan. Notably, the wealthy merchant Ma'mar al-Jawhar functioned both as Ibn Tulun's personal financier and as the head of an informal intelligence network through his contacts in Iraq. A further "notable characteristic" of Ibn Tulun's rule, according to historian Thierry Bianquis, was "the quality of relations it maintained with Christians and Jews"; according to a letter by the Patriarch of Jerusalem, Elias III, when he took over Palestine, he appointed a Christian as governor of Jerusalem, and possibly even of the provincial capital, Ramla, thereby putting an end to the persecution of Christians and allowing the renovation of churches. Expansion into Syria In the early 870s, a major change took place in the Abbasid government, as the Abbasid prince al-Muwaffaq emerged as the de facto regent of the empire, sidelining his brother, Caliph al-Mu'tamid (r. 870–892). Officially, al-Muwaffaq controlled the eastern half of the Caliphate, while al-Mu'tamid's son and first heir al-Mufawwad controlled the western, with the aid of the Turkish general Musa ibn Bugha. In reality al-Muwaffaq held the actual reins of power. Al-Muwaffaq however was preoccupied with the more immediate threats to the Abbasid government presented by the rise of the Saffarids in the east and by the Zanj Rebellion in Iraq itself, as well as with keeping in check the Turkish troops and managing the internal tensions of the caliphal government. This gave Ibn Tulun the necessary space to consolidate his own position in Egypt. Ibn Tulun kept himself out of the Zanj conflict, and even refused to recognize al-Mufawwad as his suzerain, who in turn did not confirm him in his position. Open conflict between Ibn Tulun and al-Muwaffaq broke out in 875/6, on the occasion of a large remittance of revenue to the central government. Counting on the rivalry between the Caliph and his over-mighty brother to maintain his own position, Ibn Tulun forwarded a larger share of the taxes to al-Mu'tamid instead of al-Muwaffaq: 2.2 million dinars went to the Caliph and only 1.2 million dinars to his brother. Al-Muwaffaq, who in his fight against the Zanj considered himself entitled to the major share of the provincial revenues, was angered by this, and by the implied machinations between Ibn Tulun and his brother. Al-Muwaffaq sought a volunteer to replace him, but all the officials in Baghdad had been bought off by Ibn Tulun and refused. Al-Muwaffaq sent a letter to the Egyptian ruler demanding his resignation, which the latter predictably refused. Both sides geared for war. Ibn Tulun created a fleet and fortified his borders and ports, including Alexandria, and a new fortress on Rawda Island to protect Fustat. Al-Muwaffaq nominated Musa ibn Bugha as governor of Egypt and sent him with troops to Syria. In the event, due to a combination of lack of pay and supplies for the troops, and the fear generated by Ibn Tulun's army, Musa never got further than Raqqa. After ten months of inaction and a rebellion by his troops, Musa returned to Iraq. In a public gesture of support for al-Mu'tamid and opposition to al-Muwaffaq, Ibn Tulun would assume the title of "Servant of the Commander of the Faithful" (mawlā amīr al-muʾminīn) in 878. Ibn Tulun now seized the initiative. Having served in his youth in the border wars with the Byzantine Empire at Tarsus, he now requested to be conferred the command of the frontier districts of Cilicia (the Thughur). Al-Muwaffaq initially refused, but following the Byzantine successes of the previous years al-Mu'tamid prevailed upon his brother and in 877/8 Ibn Tulun received responsibility for the entirety of Syria and the Cilician frontier. Ibn Tulun marched into Syria in person. He received the submission of the son of Amajur, who had recently died, whom he appointed governor at Ramla, and proceeded to take possession of Damascus, Homs, Hama, and Aleppo. At Damascus Ibn Tulun encountered his old rival Ibn al-Mudabbir, who since his eviction from Egypt had served as Amajur's for Palestine and Damascus. Ibn al-Mudabbir was fined 600,000 dinars and thrown into prison, where he died in 883/4. In the rest of the provincial administration, however, he largely left the people who had served under Amajur in place. Only the governor of Aleppo, Sima al-Tawil, resisted, and fled to Antioch. Ibn Tulun laid siege to the city until Sima was killed, reportedly by a local woman. He then continued on to Tarsus, where he began preparing for a campaign against the Byzantines. The presence of his numerous soldiers, however, led to a rapid rise in prices, causing great hostility among the Tarsians, who demanded that he either leave or reduce his army. At this juncture, news arrived from Egypt that his son Abbas, whom he had left as his regent, was preparing to usurp his position under the influence of his entourage. Ibn Tulun hastily withdrew from Tarsus, but as more information about the situation in Egypt began to arrive, clarifying that Abbas posed no real threat, Ibn Tulun decided to spend more time in Syria and consolidate his authority. He redressed the injustices of Sima, installed troops in Aleppo (under his Lu'lu') and Harran, secured the co-operation of the Banu Kilab tribe and their leader Ibn al-Abbas, and captured the rebel Musa ibn Atamish. At some point after his takeover of Syria, Ibn Tulun ordered the refortification of Akka, a task undertaken by Abu Bakr al-Banna, the grandfather of al-Muqaddasi, who provides a detailed description of the work. Only then, in April 879, did Ibn Tulun return to Egypt. Abbas fled west with his supporters, and from Barqa tried to take over Ifriqiya. Defeated by the Ifriqiyans (probably in the winter of 880–881), he retreated back east to Alexandria, where he was finally confronted and captured by Ibn Tulun's forces. After being publicly paraded seated on a mule, Ibn Tulun ordered his son to execute or mutilate his companions, who had driven him to rebel. Ibn Tulun reportedly secretly hoped that his son would refuse to do such a dishonourable act, but he agreed. Weeping, Ibn Tulun had Abbas whipped and imprisoned. He then named his second son, Khumarawayh, as his heir-apparent. Final years and death Following his return from Syria, Ibn Tulun added his own name to coins issued by the mints under his control, along with those of the Caliph and heir apparent, al-Mufawwad. In the autumn of 882, the Tulunid general Lu'lu' defected to the Abbasids. At the same time, the Tulunid-appointed governor of Tarsus and the Thughur died, and his replacement, Yazaman al-Khadim, with popular backing, refused to acknowledge Tulunid rule. Ibn Tulun immediately left in person for Syria—taking the chained Abbas with him as a precaution—and headed for Tarsus. At Damascus, he received a message from al-Mu'tamid informing him that the by-now nearly powerless Caliph had escaped Samarra and was heading for Syria. Taking custody of al-Mu'tamid would have immensely boosted Ibn Tulun's standing: not only would the sole source of political legitimacy in the Muslim world reside under his control, but he would also be able to pose as the "rescuer" of the Caliph. Ibn Tulun therefore decided to halt and await al-Mu'tamid's arrival. In the event, however, the Caliph was overtaken at al-Haditha on the Euphrates by the governor of Mosul, Ishaq ibn Kundaj, who defeated the caliphal escort and brought him back to Samarra (February 883) and thence south to Wasit, where al-Muwaffaq could better control him. This opened anew the rift between the two rulers: al-Muwaffaq nominated Ishaq ibn Kundaj as governor of Egypt and Syria—in reality a largely symbolic appointment—while Ibn Tulun organized an assembly of religious jurists at Damascus which denounced al-Muwaffaq as a usurper, condemned his maltreatment of the Caliph, declared his place in the succession as void, and called for a jihad against him. Only three participants, including the chief of Egypt, Bakkar ibn Qutayba, refused to pronounce the call for jihad publicly. Ibn Tulun had his rival duly denounced in Friday sermons in the mosques across the Tulunid domains, while the Abbasid regent responded in kind with a ritual denunciation of Ibn Tulun. Despite the belligerent rhetoric, however, neither made moves to confront the other militarily. After his failure to take control of the Caliph, Ibn Tulun turned on Tarsus. He appointed Abdallah ibn Fath in Lu'lu's place in Aleppo, and marched in person to Cilicia. The Egyptian ruler laid siege to Tarsus in autumn 883, but Yazaman diverted the local river, inundating the Tulunid camp and forcing Ibn Tulun to retreat. Ibn Tulun fell ill on his return to Egypt, and was carried to Fustat on a wheeled vehicle. In the same year, a campaign to take over the two holy cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina, also failed. Back in Egypt, he ordered Bakkar to be arrested and replaced him with Muhammad ibn Shadhan al-Jawhari. A thorough examination of Bakkar's accounts while head of the charitable endowments, however, revealed no misappropriations. Although Ibn Tulun ordered him released, the elderly and sick refused to leave his cell. At the same time, the illness of Ibn Tulun himself worsened. "Muslims, Christians and Jews, including women and children, converged separately upon the flank of the Muqattam to implore God to save him", as Bianquis writes, but Ibn Tulun died at Fustat on 10 May 884 and was interred on the slopes of the Muqattam. According to al-Balawi, Ibn Tulun left his heir 24,000 servants, 7,000 men and 7,000 horses, 3,000 camels, 1,000 mules, 350 ceremonial horses, and 200 fully equipped warships. Succession and aftermath At Ibn Tulun's death, Khumarawayh, with the backing of the Tulunid elites, succeeded without opposition. Ibn Tulun bequeathed his heir "with a seasoned military, a stable economy, and a coterie of experienced commanders and bureaucrats". Khumarawayh was able to preserve his authority against the Abbasid attempt to overthrow him at the Battle of Tawahin and even made additional territorial gains, but his extravagant spending exhausted the treasury, and his assassination in 896 began the rapid decline of the Tulunid regime. Internal strife sapped Tulunid power. Khumarawayh's son Jaysh was a drunkard who executed his uncle, Mudar ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun; he was deposed after only a few months and replaced by his brother Harun ibn Khumarawayh. Harun too was a weak ruler, and although a revolt by his uncle Rabi'ah in Alexandria was suppressed, the Tulunids were unable to confront the attacks of the Qarmatians which began at the same time. In addition, many commanders defected to the Abbasids, whose power revived under the capable leadership of al-Muwaffaq's son, Caliph al-Mu'tadid (). Finally, in December 904, two other sons of Ibn Tulun, Ali and Shayban, murdered their nephew and assumed control of the Tulunid state. Far from halting the decline, this event alienated key commanders in Syria and led to the rapid and relatively unopposed reconquest of Syria and Egypt by the Abbasids under Muhammad ibn Sulayman al-Katib, who entered Fustat in January 905. With the exception of the great Mosque of Ibn Tulun, the victorious Abbasid troops pillaged al-Qata'i and razed it. Offspring According to al-Balawi, from his various wives and concubines, Ibn Tulun had 33 children, 17 sons and 16 daughters. The only modern edition of al-Balawi provides the following list: Male children: Abū al-Faḍl al-ʿAbbās (the eldest), Abū al-Jaysh Khumārawayh, Abū al-Ashāʾir Muḍar, Abū al-Mukarram Rabīʿah, Abū al-Maqānib Shaybān, Abū Nāhiḍ 'Iyāḍ, Abū Maʿd ʿAdnān, Abū al-Karādīs Kazraj, Abū Ḥabshūn ʿAdī, Abū Shujāʿ Kindah, Abū Manṣūr Aghlab, Abū Lahjah Maysarah, Abū al-Baqāʾ Hudā, Abū al-Mufawwaḍ Ghassān, Abū al-Faraj Mubārak, Abū ʿAbdallāh Muhammad, and Abū al-Fataj Muẓaffar. Female children (note that only 15 names are listed): Fāṭimah, Lamīs, (unreadable), Ṣafiyyah, Khadījah, Maymūnah, Maryam, ʿĀʾishah, Umm al-Hudā, Muʾminah, ʿAzīzah, Zaynab, Samānah, Sārah, and Ghurayrah. Legacy Despite the brief duration of his dynasty, Ibn Tulun's rule was a seminal event not only for Egypt, but for the entire Islamic world. For Egypt itself, his reign marks a turning point as the country for the first time since the Pharaohs ceased being a passive province subject to a foreign imperial power, and became once again a political actor in its own right. The new realm Ibn Tulun forged, encompassing Egypt and Syria as well as the Jazira and Cilicia, and to a lesser extent the eastern parts of the Maghreb, established a new political zone separated from the Islamic lands further east, restoring in a fashion the frontier that had existed between the Roman/Byzantine and Sassanid Persian realms in Antiquity. Egypt was the basis of Ibn Tulun's power; he paid particular attention to restoring its economy, as well as establishing an autonomous bureaucracy, army, and navy. These policies were continued by later Egypt-based regimes, the Ikhshidids (935–969) and eventually the Fatimids (969–1171), who likewise used Egypt's wealth to establish control over parts or even most of Syria. Indeed, as Thierry Bianquis remarks, the territory ruled by Ibn Tulun in Syria was remarkably similar to that controlled by the later Egypt-based regimes of Saladin and the Mamluk Sultanate. According to the historian Matthew Gordon, Ibn Tulun's relations with, and quest for autonomy from, the Abbasids is a "central problem of Tulunid history". Modern scholars see in Ibn Tulun's policies a "careful balancing act" and notice that he never fully severed himself from the Caliphate, remaining conspicuously loyal to the person of al-Mu'tamid, who, after all, was a powerless figurehead. Nevertheless, the move towards increasing autonomy is evident throughout his reign. His relations with the Abbasid government were dominated by his conflict with al-Muwaffaq, resulting from the latter's attempts to establish control over Egypt—whose wealth was direly needed during the costly war against the Zanj—and prevent the further rise of Ibn Tulun. In a certain sense, writes Matthew Gordon, many of Ibn Tulun's measures "were as much the means by which imperial interests were protected against the ambitions of al-Muwaffaq and his (largely Turkish) military coterie in Iraq as they were efforts to secure Tulunid authority". Given that Ibn Tulun at least twice (in 871 and 875/6) remitted huge sums to the caliphal treasury, it remains an open question whether without the conflict with al-Muwaffaq, this would have been a more regular occurrence. Nevertheless, in retrospective, Ibn Tulun's role in the wider context of Islamic history is as the herald of the Abbasid Caliphate's disintegration and the rise of local dynasties in the provinces. This became particularly evident with the succession of Khumarawayh: as Thierry Bianquis explains, "this was the first time in Abbasid history with regard to the government of so large and rich a territory, that a , whose legitimacy derived from the caliph who had designated him, was succeeded openly by an who claimed his legitimacy by inheritance". Thus Zaky M. Hassan calls Ibn Tulun a "typical example of the Turkish slaves who from the time of Harun al-Rashid were enlisted in the private service of the caliph and the principal officers of state, and whose ambition and spirit of intrigue and independence [eventually made] them the real masters of Islam". See also List of rulers of Egypt References Sources Further reading 835 births 884 deaths 9th-century Tulunid emirs Tulunid emirs People from Baghdad Middle Eastern monarchs Abbasid people of the Arab–Byzantine wars City founders Egyptian slaves Slaves from the Abbasid Caliphate
4882893	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination%20against%20superheroes	Discrimination against superheroes	Discrimination against superheroes is a common theme and plot element in comic books and superhero fiction, usually as a way to explore the issue of superheroes operating in society or as commentary on other social concerns. Often in response to this are Registration Acts, fictional legislative bills that have been plot points used in various comic books and mediums which, when passed into law, enforce the regulation of extra-legal vigilante activity vs. criminal activity, or the mandatory registration of superpowered individuals with the government. The issues that superheroes may be discriminated against, and that the government might seek to regulate the activities and civil rights of superheroes, who are either criminalized or deemed to be a threat to the safety of the general public, who may be denied habeas corpus or detained indefinitely without trial, or viewed as valuable national security resource subject to forced conscription without notice in times of crisis, have also been explored in other comics, such as those featuring DC's Justice Society of America team, series like Watchmen, Astro City and Powers; the films The Return of Captain Invincible (1983) and The Incredibles (2004); and in role-playing games Brave New World (1999) and Dawn of Legends for Savage Worlds. This plot point is especially rich and extensively explored in the fictional universes of various comic book stories that are published by Marvel Comics. The first mention of the broad concept was in Uncanny X-Men #141 (January 1981). The actual term "Registration Act" was first used in Uncanny X-Men #181 (May 1984). As their names suggest, Mutant Registration Act and Superhuman Registration Act deal with the registration of mutants and superhumans respectively. The Mutant Registration Act has also been featured in both the original X-Men animated series and the X-Men films. Numerous versions of each bill have been proposed at different times and in different jurisdictions in the Marvel Universe. The Superhuman Registration Act is a major plot point in Marvel's 2006 crossover limited series Civil War, which was loosely adapted for the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) in the film Captain America: Civil War (2016). This version was called the Sokovia Accords, and would have a lasting impact in the films before its repeal was revealed in the series She-Hulk: Attorney at Law (2022). The Registration Acts as a concept Publication history The idea that enhanced individuals might need to be "regulated" or "registered" by the government was first raised in specific relation to Marvel Comics' mutants. In Uncanny X-Men #141, written by Chris Claremont and John Byrne, the concept is briefly suggested. In that issue the term "Registration Act" is not used, but one character (Moira MacTaggert) brings up the notion of "registration". In reference to a politician whom she suspects of anti-mutant bigotry she says: "Registration today, gas chambers tomorrow". The same issue features mention of the "Mutant Control Act", but it is left unclear exactly what that legislation involves and whether some form of registration is a part of it. In New Mutants #1, it was implied that involved the operation of concentration camps. The term "Mutant Registration Act" was first fully used in Uncanny X-Men #181, by writer Chris Claremont. As the MRA (as it became known) was passed into law in the Marvel Universe it became widely used as a subplot, plot device or background element across Marvel's entire line of titles, especially those featuring mutants (such as Uncanny X-Men, X-Factor and New Mutants) during the late 1980s. In the early 1990s Chris Claremont left the X-titles and the topic of the MRA began to appear much more rarely in stories. It was still occasionally mentioned, though usually in the past tense, suggesting that it was repealed at some point (though this was never clearly shown) or that it simply ceased to be actively enforced. However, in an interview regarding the Civil War: X-Men limited series its writer David Hine suggested that it is still law in the Marvel Universe, stating that in the series the idea of bringing "the Mutant Registration Act in line with the SRA" will be discussed. The idea of an equivalent piece of legislation for non-mutant super-powered individuals—a Superhuman Registration Act—was first raised in comics that were published during the "Acts of Vengeance" crossover in 1989–1990. The issue was most fully explored in Fantastic Four #335-336 by writer Walter Simonson. In the course of the story, the issue was apparently resolved with the proposed Act being shelved. The concept was then revived in 1993 in Alpha Flight (vol. 1) #120 (May 1993) by writer Simon Furman. In that issue a "Superpowers Registration Act" becomes law in Canada and went on to be a major plot point in the remainder of the series. Later Alpha Flight series did not make use of the concept. In 2006 the concept was again revived by writer Mark Millar as the main plot point in Marvel's 2006 Civil War crossover. In preparation for that storyline a new version of the Superhuman Registration Act has been widely mentioned across various Marvel titles, with the issue being most widely discussed and explored in The Amazing Spider-Man #529 - 531 (April - June 2006) by writer J. Michael Straczynski. Issues, allegories and metaphors When the topic of the original Superhuman Registration Act is debated in Fantastic Four #335-336 the issue is explored in a national security context, with the utility of such a law being challenged. In the comics the Fantastic Four argue that super-heroes are already a hugely benevolent force for society and such an act would be unnecessary and possibly counter-productive. The National Rifle Association of America (NRA) is also against the act, stating that the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution's protection of the right to keep and bear arms in the United States applies to superpowers. An NRA representative testifies to Congress that "if powers are outlawed, only outlaws will have powers". When the issue of an SRA was raised again in Amazing Spider-Man #529 - 531 the prospect of a new SRA is explored once more from a security perspective, with reference being made to the fact that super-powered individuals often wield abilities which have massively destructive potential for use, making some mechanism to regulate their activities necessary. The writer of Civil War, Mark Millar, has stated that that storyline explores the civil rights implications of the SHR as previous stories have done, but also explores the other side of the argument in more depth, in particular how Marvel super-heroes are, absent an SRA, illegal vigilantes, lacking proper legal authority or oversight. Terms of the registration acts In a June 2006 interview Civil War editor Tom Brevoort confirmed that registrants to the act were required to reveal their identities to the government (but not the public) and they have to undergo some basic testing or training and satisfy certain (as yet unspecified) standards before they gain legal authorization to continue to use their abilities to fight crime. Government employment is not mandatory, though it is available to those who wish to take it. This has not remained consistent, though, and characters have made reference to all superpowered individuals being forced to register and enlist in S.H.I.E.L.D. It was revealed in Amazing Spider-Man #535 that unregistered individuals are sent to a prison in the otherdimensional Negative Zone indefinitely until they agree to register. Iron Man claims that as this is off United States soil, they have almost no civil rights unless the United States Supreme Court explicitly rules otherwise—and he knows they won't. This leads Spider-Man to re-evaluate his support of the act. After the major conflict of Civil War ends, all the superhero inmates are transferred to real prisons in the state while the facility is transformed into a Maximum Security Prison for high-threat-level villains such as the Taskmaster and Lady Deathstrike. Marvel Universe Marvel Comics Mutant Control Act The first direct mention of a piece of legislation specifically aimed at super-humans in the Marvel Universe comes in Uncanny X-Men #141 (January 1981), in which the "Mutant Control Act", a law from the future, is mentioned. In this issue (the first part of the two-part "Days of Future Past" storyline), the consciousness of Kate Pryde travels back in time from a dystopian future to the present, possessing the body of her younger self, X-Men member Kitty Pryde. Upon revealing herself to Kitty's teammates, she recounts to them the series of events which led to her dark present/their future, in the hopes the X-Men can prevent these historical events from ever happening. One of those pivotal events was the passing of a "Mutant Control Act" by the U.S. government. When the U.S. Supreme Court strikes down the law for being unconstitutional, the other branches of the government respond by reactivating the Sentinel program, and its mutant-hunting robots, to police mutants. However, this plan backfires when the artificial intelligence-enabled Sentinels determine that the best way to stop mutants is to control all people (since any non-mutant, at any level of society, could eventually become a politically powerful mutant ally advancing pro-mutant ideas and laws); the Sentinels forcibly take over the U.S. government and institute a harsh regime which includes severe mutant persecution. The reference to the Mutant Control Act is brief, and it is unclear exactly what its provisions would entail, though it would appear that registration forms at least one part of it. In the course of the story, the X-Men successfully prevent one of the pivotal events Pryde had described: the assassination of U.S. Senator Robert Kelly from occurring; however, the story's ending is intentionally ambiguous as to whether Pryde's dystopian future was fully avoided. Although no Mutant Control Act has been implemented in the comics, the Mutant Registration Act may be its equivalent, and the events of "Days of Future Past" continue to be alluded to in X-Men comics as a possible future. 1982 British Super Hero Legislation During the events of the Jaspers' Warp story arc, an insane reality warper, Jim Jaspers, became the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and turned the UK into a fascist state. As PM, he enforced "Super Hero Legislation"; using armored agents of S.T.R.I.K.E., the UK division of S.H.I.E.L.D., to hunt down and detain superhumans within the UK. The legislation is abandoned after Captain Britain defeated Jaspers. Mutant Registration Act Registration as a concept is first mentioned in Uncanny X-Men #141 in which Moira MacTaggert suggests that Kelly deems the registration of mutants by the government as necessary. Her suggestion eventually turns out to be accurate, and in the Uncanny X-Men #181 (May 1984) the first mention of a Mutant Control Act is made when Kelly is seen discussing his introduction of the Mutant Affairs Control Act with a senatorial colleague. It is then mentioned in issue #183 (1984) to have "stirred up the hornets' nest" by Valerie Cooper. By #184 (July 1984) the Act is mentioned as introduced in Congress by Senator Kelly, and Nightcrawler remarks the chance of it to become accepted as law is as high as never before in issue #188, suggesting that, unlike the Mutant Control Act in the "Days of Future Past" timeline, it would not be struck down by the Supreme Court. The passage of the MRA did not have an immediate impact on the plots of any Marvel series, but the legislation continued to be referenced intermittently in various titles. In at least one instance (X-Factor #1; February 1986), the Mutant Registration Act is referred to as a "possible new law". In that story, the prospect of the MRA is one of the things which motivate Jean Grey and Cyclops to form X-Factor. The legislation becomes a plot point later when government agent Val Cooper and the mutant terrorist Mystique form Freedom Force, a government-sanctioned superhero team (mostly comprising former Brotherhood of Evil Mutants members) in Uncanny X-Men #199 (November 1985). Freedom Force went on to make many appearances where they sought to enforce the MRA by arresting unregistered mutants such as the X-Men's members (e.g. Uncanny X-Men #206, June 1986), X-Factor (e.g. X-Factor #30; July 1988) and the New Mutants (e.g. New Mutants #86, February 1990). They also appeared enforcing the MRA in non-X-Men-related titles such as Daredevil #269 (August 1989). Captain America and Battlestar – two other officially sanctioned super-heroes – also briefly enforce the MRA by capturing the unregistered mutant Meteorite for the government in Captain America (vol. 2) #343 (July 1988). During this period of active enforcement of the MRA, the only mutants who are shown publicly protesting the MRA were those who were not aligned with the X-Men or its affiliated teams. For example, the Alliance of Evil in X-Factor #33 demonstrates against the MRA in Manhattan and after fighting X-Factor are arrested by Freedom Force and a mutant group called the Resistants in Captain America #368 (March 1990) are shown protesting the MRA in Washington, D.C. Indeed, far from publicly agitating against the MRA, X-Factor (in its original form) actually pretend in public to be supporters of the MRA who are actively enforcing it, though in actuality they act to subvert it. With Freedom Force (the characters most involved in the enforcement of the MRA) no longer existing (they disband following a disastrous mission in Iraq in X-Factor Annual #6, 1991) and Chris Claremont (the writer who developed the MRA as a sub-plot) no longer writing X-Men stories after 1992, the Mutant Registration Act stopped appearing prominently in Marvel Universe stories. Proposition X In an attempt to further subjugate the remaining mutant population, Simon Trask leads the Humanity Now! coalition in support of federal legislation called Proposition X. Proposition X if passed would have force mandatory chemical birth control on all mutants. While marching to San Francisco's city hall in support of Proposition X, Trask and his followers met opposition by Hank McCoy, young mutants and mutant right activist. McCoy's peaceful resistance against Proposition X eventually led to a fight between the opposing sides. In response Norman Osborn will declare martial law in San Francisco, which causes the riot that will plague the city the next few nights. These events will lead to Cyclops creating a new mutant sanctuary called Utopia, where mutants can be free from bigoted legislation. 1990 Metahuman Registration Act A variation on the concept of the Mutant Registration Act, the Superhuman Registration Act, is originally proposed in comic books published circa the "Acts of Vengeance" storyline, such as Punisher (vol. 2) #29 and Avengers (vol. 1) #313 (both January 1990). During that period, in Fantastic Four #335-336 (December 1989-January 1990) the Fantastic Four go to Congress where a committee is investigating whether an SRA, similar in its provisions to the already in effect Mutant Registration Act, is required for Superheroes (the MRA only covers individuals who have their powers inherently at birth, not those who acquire their abilities artificially in later life). In his testimony and in evidence he presents to Congress, Reed Richards argues that a Super-human registration Act is unnecessary as Super-humans have been largely effective and trustworthy in their actions and government regulation would only stifle their ability to protect the world. He argues that those individuals who were likely to act irresponsibly with their powers are also likely to be supervillains and thus would not be candidates for registration anyway. As the topic is debated, he and his teammates are continually attacked by random supervillains whom they easily subdue, though it is unclear if this helps or hinders his arguments. In his final point concerning the lack of any workable definition of superhuman Richards demonstrates a device that scans a human for physical and mental capabilities and compares those to the national average, marking 'significant outliers' as "superhuman". The device identifies several regular humans, including some committee members, as "superhuman" according to those criteria. The proposed legislation is abandoned and registration of superhumans in the United States is not recommended by the committee. 1993 Canadian Super-powers Registration Act A similarly titled "Super-powers Registration Act" is passed by the Canadian government in Alpha Flight #120 (May 1993). Introduced by a minister of the Canadian government named Robert Hagon, the Super-powers Registration Act is part of a complex plot engineered by the Master who is using the alias "Joshua Lord". The terms of the act entail the government employment of all super-powered individuals, including mutants, who are then enlisted in one of the government Department H "Flight" programs such as "Alpha Flight" and "Gamma Flight". Although the Super-powers Registration Act was shown to be controversial and the first series ended with the disbandment of the Canadian government's superteams (the various "Flights") in Alpha Flight (vol. 1) #130 (March 1994), the Canadian SRA is never explicitly repealed or overturned within the comics. Later Alpha Flight series did not acknowledge the law. As of 2006, rumors began to circulate (encouraged by some Marvel creators such as Mark Millar) that a new Alpha Flight series of some form was in the planning stages. The rumors suggested that this series' premise would have involved American superheroes fleeing the United States to Canada to escape a newly enacted U.S. Superhuman Registration Act. This suggests that registration is no longer mandatory in the Marvel Universe version of Canada. In July 2006 Civil War editor Tom Brevoort concurred with this sentiment saying that "we've seen no evidence of it in ten-plus years of Canadian appearances. So if such legislation did exist, it was evidently repealed at some point". Other sources, such as Michael Avon Oeming's post-Civil War title Omega Flight, contradict this statement, which several characters mentioning having a Registration Act for years, without the American Superhuman Registration act's negative effects. 2006 Superhuman Registration Act Interest in the concept of the Superhuman Registration Act was revived in various Marvel comic books in 2006. In New Avengers Special: the Illuminati (May 2006), following the events of "Decimation" and the sudden dramatic fall in the Mutant population, the U.S. government again considers a Superhuman Registration Act and Iron Man attempts to persuade his Illuminati colleagues to support the SRA, in order to diffuse it. Iron Man predicts that some superhuman or group of superhumans will eventually make a mistake that will cost hundreds of lives (he specifically mentions the Young Avengers and the Runaways as candidates for causing such a catastrophe). After such an event, he went on to predict, the government would inevitably rush to make an example of someone, or everyone, in the superhuman community by passing legislation that would be even more restrictive or persecutory towards them than the proposed SRA. By supporting the Superhuman Registration Act before it is passed, he suggests, he and his fellow Illuminati might be able to help avert such possible future tragedies and also, by becoming a part of the process, help moderate the legislation so that it would have the minimum possible negative effect on the superhuman community. However, most of the Illuminati members (except for Reed Richards, who had spoken against the similar proposition made 16 years before the 1990 Super-human Registration Act) flatly reject Stark's proposal, leading to the disbandment of the group. In Amazing Spider-Man #529-531 (April–June 2006), Spider-Man and Iron Man travel to Washington, D.C. to discuss the issue. In those issues Iron Man is shown to be initially opposed to the idea, while Spider-Man is unsure of his opinion. The first part of Iron Man's prediction are shown to be accurate when a conflict between the New Warriors and a group of supervillains ends with a massive explosion which kills hundreds of people, including children attending a nearby school. As depicted in the Civil War crossover and series, the public outcry that follows this event leads the government (with the support of Iron Man and fellow Illuminati member Reed Richards) to quickly enact the Superhuman Registration Act (SHRA), 6 U.S.C. § 558, which required those with naturally occurring superhuman abilities, super abilities acquired through science or magic (including extraterrestrials and gods), and even non-super powered humans using exotic technology, such as Iron Man, to register as "living weapons of mass destruction". Enactment of the law on the federal level led to various revisions to state criminal codes (such as Chapter 40, Article 120, Section 120 of the New York Penal Code and Section 245(d) of the California Penal Code) in order to allow state and federal coordination in enforcing the law. This leads to a major schism and conflict among the superheroes, with the anti-SHRA side- regarding the Act as a violation of civil liberties- led by Captain America and the pro-SHRA side- seeing the Act as a natural evolution of the superhuman's role in the modern world to regain public trust- led by Iron Man. Eventually, Iron Man's side wins the conflict and the "Fifty State Initiative" is established. Other countries followed America's lead and introduced their own Superhuman Registration laws. Following the Skrull invasion and the subsequent fall from grace of Iron Man, Norman Osborn seizes control of the Initiative and SHIELD, but is prevented from getting his hand on the register (and thus the identities of most of the superhuman community) by Tony Stark when he infects the US government database with a computer virus. There is only one copy of the SHRA database, in Stark's brain, where he deleted it, piece by piece, before Osborn could get his hands on it, destroying the very information that was the focus of "Civil War" in the first place. At the conclusion of Siege, Steve Rogers is named the new head of security of the United States and as a condition of joining, he convinces the government to repeal the Superhuman Registration Act, allowing superheroes to return to their prior activities. MI-13 Registration Act First raised and further detailed in Captain Britain and MI-13 #1-5 (2008), the British version of registration was started during the Skrull invasion: all superheroes in the UK were drafted with immediate effect into the intelligence agency MI-13. After the invasion, the terms were stated that MI-13 would monitor and support superheroes and call on them for reasons of national defence, but would allow them semi-autonomy so they would not feel morally compromised. Israel Mossad assigns Sabra to Bishop's US government-sanctioned team that polices unruly mutants, in exchange for intelligence and technology so Israel can enact its own registration program. Underage Superhuman Welfare Act Being first hinted at by Senator Geoffrey Patrick on television about problems caused by young vigilantes,<ref>Incoming #1. Marvel Comics</ref> the destruction of Coles Academic High School due to Viv's malfunction and the simultaneous/resulting nearby public's near death experience had the U.S. government draft the Underage Superhuman Welfare Act. The Underage Superhuman Act, which they nicknamed Kamala's Law due to Kamala's courageous actions during the event, outlawed superheroes below twenty-one years of age. The Act also leads to the creation of the Child-Hero Reconnaissance and Disruption Law Enforcement (C.R.A.D.L.E.), whose commanders would prevent young people from being superheroes. An underage person can legally act as a superhero with an adult hero as sponsor. The Act was supported by many superheroes such as Spider-Man (Peter Parker), as well as parents of young superheroes. As it turns out, the Roxxon Energy Corporation had orchestrated the Kamala's Law conspiracy behind the government's back after forming a partnership with them and the established C.R.A.D.L.E., having acquired the dragons from the War of the Realms event, through disposing high schooler Aliana Kabua, and shifting the blame on the Champions for the damage they never started. Roxxon manipulates the government to further their shady businesses, such as for permanent imprisonment, brainwashing and unethical experimentation, as well as possibly kidnapping kids who oppose the unjust law. Thankfully, Viv, who survived Roxxon’s assault on Aliana and unknowingly sold her friends' freedom to C.R.A.D.L.E. and Roxxon, exposes the shady activity records within C.R.A.D.L.E. facility to the world including the U.S. government, thanks to Amadeus Cho / Brawn. With support from Champions and a group of protestors, the U.S. government end their partnership with Roxxon, and re-evaluating much more legal laws. Marvel media Ultimate Universe Although no Registration Act exists in the Ultimate Marvel Universe, there are several laws in place that prohibit superhuman activity. Genetic modification of a human being is illegal, and the Superhuman Test Ban Treaty makes it illegal for nations to employ superhumans. This makes the Test Ban Treaty the polar opposite of the SHRA. It was stated that the law on deliberately created superhumans is still unclear, allowing Nick Fury to hold supervillains indefinitely without any trial and in hidden locations (Ultimate Six #5 showed that the President of the United States was unaware of this, and was furious when he learned of it).Ultimate Six #5. Marvel Comics Exiles #12 In Exiles #12, a parallel world is shown, similar to the "Days of Future Past" timeline, in which the passing of a Mutant Registration Act led to the Sentinels taking over the world and herding mutants, superhumans and eventually even humans into concentration camps. The "Age of Apocalypse" version of Sabretooth, who at that point was a member of the Exiles, stays on this planet in order to raise the infant David Richards (the son of the Rachel Summers and Franklin Richards of that reality). Marvel Knights: 2099 In an alternate world (Earth-2992) shown in the Marvel Knights: 2099 series of one-shots published in November 2004, a Mutant Registration Act is in effect which mandates that mutants undergo a process which robs them of their abilities. The Marvel Knights: Mutant 2099 one-shot explained that after the passage of this act the Avengers, X-Men and Fantastic Four opposed the government's enforcement of it and were eventually defeated in a major battle that was fought in front of the Baxter Building. This led all the remaining superheroes to go underground. The 1992 X-Men animated series The first episode of the 1992 TV series X-Men: The Animated Series (Night of the Sentinels (part 1); original airdate: 31 October 1992) mentions that some form of registration is in effect already. In the episode, Jubilee's foster parents worry that they may have to "register her with the Mutant Control Agency" after she manifests her powers for the first time. Following the attack on Jubilee at a mall, it was revealed that the hidden agenda of Henry Peter Gyrich, the founder of the agency is to deceive the mutants into revealing their identities so the Sentinels could track down and eliminate them due to Gyrich's beliefs that mutants pose a threat to society. After the destruction of their files, following the X-Men's raid on the agency, the President decides to cancel the registration act. The government's persecution of mutants is a consistent theme throughout the fifth season of the series. The X-Men movies The events of the first X-Men film are precipitated when Senator Robert Kelly introduces a Mutant Registration Act to the Senate. This motivates Magneto, who sees such legislation as persecutory towards mutants, to kidnap Kelly and replace him with Mystique, who while impersonating Kelly, withdraws his advocacy for the Act. In the sequel X2, the Mutant Registration Act is briefly mentioned when Storm speculates that Nightcrawler's attack on the White House might lead the government to reintroduce the legislation. Marvel Cinematic Universe In Captain America: Civil War (2016), public opinion of the Avengers and all superpowered beings worsens following the events of The Avengers, Captain America: The Winter Soldier, and Avengers: Age of Ultron, causing great destruction and casualties to New York City, Washington, D.C., and Sokovia, respectively. After a catastrophe in Lagos involving Wanda Maximoff using her powers to try and divert an explosion from Brock Rumlow and inadvertently causing the accidental destruction of a building and the deaths of several humanitarian workers (several of them Wakandan), the United Nations begins trying to pass a set of internationally ratified legal documents which provide regulation of the military/law enforcement deployment of enhanced individuals, particularly the Avengers, and are called the Sokovia Accords. The document's full title is the Sokovia Accords: Framework for the Registration and Deployment of Enhanced Individuals. The Sokovia Accords divide the Avengers, leading Steve Rogers to come into conflict with Tony Stark, with Stark believing the Avengers need to be held responsible for their actions, especially after he created Ultron and was responsible for the destruction in Sokovia, and Rogers believing the Sokovia Accords will restrict the Avengers' freedom and therefore opposing it. In the meantime, Bucky Barnes is framed for a bombing at the UN by Colonel Helmut Zemo, who uses the Accords to his advantage against the Avengers, seeking vengeance for the deaths of his family in Sokovia. This leads to Rogers and Stark each forming their own sides as they battle over the Sokovia Accords, ultimately resulting in a large-scale battle at the Leipzig/Halle Airport, with Stark, James Rhodes, Peter Parker, Romanoff, T'Challa and Vision against Rogers, Barnes, Sam Wilson, Clint Barton, Maximoff, and Scott Lang. The battle concludes with Rogers and Barnes escaping to the Hydra Siberian Facility, where they suspect Zemo will unleash five other Winter Soldiers. In the aftermath of the battle, Wilson, Maximoff, Barton and Lang are imprisoned at the Raft, while Romanoff becomes a fugitive and goes into hiding for helping Rogers and Barnes escape. Rogers and Romanoff break their allies out of the Raft, with Stark choosing not to interfere after reading a letter from Rogers. In Avengers: Infinity War (2018), Ross still intends to prosecute Rogers, Romanoff, Wilson, and Maximoff for violating the Sokovia Accords, despite being made aware of Zemo's actions and the threat that Thanos poses to Earth. This alienates Rhodes, who no longer supports the useless Sokovia Accords, and he proceeds to hang up on Ross instead of arresting them as ordered, leading Rhodes to get court-martialed. Barton and Lang are unavailable for the battle against Thanos because they are on house arrest for violating the Sokovia Accords. In Ant-Man and the Wasp (2018), Lang is under house arrest as part of his plea deal, while Hope van Dyne and Hank Pym were forced into hiding for violation of the Sokovia Accords due to their technology being involved in the conflict. In WandaVision (2021), FBI agent Jimmy Woo suggests that Maximoff violated the Sokovia Accords when she reactivated Vision. However, it is eventually revealed that the surveillance footage showing this was doctored by S.W.O.R.D. acting director Tyler Hayward, who seeks to eliminate Maximoff. In Black Widow (2021), which is set in 2016, Romanoff continues to be on the run from Ross for violating the Sokovia Accords during her crusade to take down the Red Room. In the She-Hulk: Attorney at Law (2022) episode "Ribbit and Rip It", when Jennifer Walters requests that superhero tailor Luke Jacobson reveal his list of clients to the court, his attorney Matt Murdock states that the Sokovia Accords had been repealed, thus negating the need to reveal his client list. With the Accords now inactive, superheroes are now able to operate legally again. In the Secret Invasion (2023) episode "Home", a new legislative act called the Anti-Alien Act is created by U.S. President Ritson that declares all aliens as threats that must be eliminated and plots to kill all the Skrulls on Earth, leading citizens to murder high officials under the fear that they are Skrulls in disguise. While Sonya Falsworth and G'iah attempt to protect the remaining Skrulls from Ritson, Nick Fury warns Ritson about the consequences of this new law, but the latter refuses to back down and just tells Fury to get the Skrulls to leave Earth. Avengers Assemble In Avengers Assemble, two registration acts are enacted: "the New Powers Act" which puts all super powered beings under government jurisdiction and a variation of the Mutant Registration Act known as "Inhumans Registration Act", which puts all Inhumans under government control with Registration Disks on their necks. Both the "New Powers Act" and the Inhuman Registration Act, however, are revealed to be just a plot by Ultron (who was disguised as the Avengers' government liaison Truman Marsh) to accomplish his goals against both humans and Inhumans, also revealing that the Registration Disks are mind control devices. Marvel Future Avengers In a three-part story during the first season of Marvel Future Avengers, Norman Osborn uses a mind-altering gas as the Green Goblin to cause the Hulk to go on a rampage in New York City, stoking anti-superhero sentiment. Osborn uses this to gain support for a new superhero regulation bill, hoping to eliminate superheroes from society and allow him to sow chaos. The law passes, but several councilmen begin seeking its repeal, leading the Goblin to stage violent attacks on the bill's opponents. Ultimately, Spider-Man and the Future Avengers expose Osborn as the Goblin, and he is defeated and imprisoned, restoring the people's faith in heroes and leading to the law's repeal. Spider-Man: Life Story In the timeline of Spider-Man: Life Story, where all the Marvel characters age naturally after Peter Parker became Spider-Man in 1962, the Superhuman Registration Act was passed shortly after the September 11 attacks, with Tony Stark enforcing it as Secretary of Defense. After Peter's clone Ben Reilly is killed as Spider-Man and Peter decides to go public, Stark threatens Peter by stating that under the Superhuman Act, the government has grounds to seize Parker's assets such as Parker Industries, on the grounds they may have been illicitly acquired using Peter' powers. DC Universe DC Comics In DC Comics, the Justice Society of America chose to disband in 1951 rather than appear before the U.S. House Un-American Activities Committee, which demands they publicly unmask themselves. This was first shown in Adventure Comics (vol. 1) #466 ("The Defeat of the Justice Society!"; December 1979) by writer Paul Levitz and subsequently further explored in the America vs. The Justice Society 4-issue limited series (January–April 1985) by writers Roy and Dann Thomas. There is also a piece of legislation called the "Keene Act" (an apparent reference to Watchmen) in the DC Universe. First mentioned in Suicide Squad (vol. 1) #1 (May 1987) in a story written by John Ostrander, the "Act" is referred to as a piece of legislation from 1961 which gives prisons greater leeway in imprisoning superhumans than ordinary prisoners. It was more fully explored in Secret Origins (vol. 3) #14 (May 1987), again written by Ostrander, where it is revealed that the Act was passed in 1961 and it reaffirmed the right (that had been cast into doubt by HUAC in 1951) of superheroes to operate with secret identities. That story also reveals that the later "Ingersoll Amendment" (a reference to lawyer and comics writer Bob Ingersoll) to the Keene Act, which delineates governmental authority over superhuman activity in times of crisis, was passed into law in 1972. Watchmen In Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons' 12-issue Watchmen series (September 1986 – October 1987), extensive reference is made to a law called the Keene Act. The series reveals that the actions of superheroes or "costumed vigilantes" in the world of Watchmen caused a New York City police strike in 1977, which led to rioting (shown in Watchmen #2; October 1986) and the passing of the Keene Act which outlaws non-government affiliated acts of "costumed adventuring" (mentioned in Watchmen #4; December 1986). The passing of the act led to the retirement of most of the US superheroes, the sole exceptions being government-sponsored heroes such as The Comedian and Doctor Manhattan (who are used to fight wars, allowing the US to win the Vietnam War) and Rorschach, who refuses to abide by the law. The series depicts them coming out of retirement when The Comedian is murdered at the beginning of the comic. DC media Smallville In the television series Smallville, the Vigilante Registrations Act (VRA) is proposed legislation that would require vigilantes to register themselves. Led by General Slade Wilson, the VRA forces registered heroes to unmask and officially work for the government or be branded as terrorists. Despite the efforts of Darkseid and his minions to encourage anti-hero propaganda, the actions of the Justice League, Oliver Queen, and the pro-vigilante Senator Martha Kent – ironically aided by an assassination attempt arranged against Martha by a clone of Lex Luthor, which was based around his personal grudges against her son rather than the VRA – result in the Act being repealed and the heroes being permitted to return to their daily lives. Arrowverse Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice In the film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, Superman becomes controversial due to his unintentional hand in the destruction wreaked in Metropolis as a result of General Zod's invasion during the events of Man of Steel. The government subsequently decides to have a court hearing that will decide if Superman should be held accountable via a registration act. A conflicted Superman tries to avoid it, and instead focus on trying to locate Batman, who agrees with the government and desires to obtain kryptonite to use on him if necessary. Superman ultimately attends the hearing, but before a resolution can be made, Lex Luthor bombs the court. Other equivalents In many other super-hero universes the government has intervened to regulate or control the activities of super-heroes. Some examples of this include: The Return of Captain Invincible In the 1983 comedy film The Return of Captain Invincible starring Alan Arkin and Christopher Lee, Captain Invincible (Arkin) is a super-hero who was forced into retirement in the 1950s following the government's persecution of him. In a similar scenario as that faced by the Justice Society, Captain Invincible faced a McCarthy-ish congressional investigation which accused him of being a communist (because of his red cape) and charged him for violating U.S. airspace by flying without a proper license. As the title suggests a crisis forces Captain Invincible out of retirement in the 1980s which leads to him redeeming his reputation. City of Heroes Following World War II, in the City of Heroes universe, the United States intelligence community feared the Soviet bloc would gain an advantage in meta-human assets. To address this issue, the government passed the Might for Right Act. This law proclaimed any U.S. citizen with meta-human powers or paranormal abilities, super-powered individuals and vigilante heroes a valuable national resource subject to draft without notice into the service of the United States government. The law was later struck down by the U.S. Supreme Court after numerous protests and complaints regarding the law's civil rights abuses. Currently in effect in the setting is the Citizen Crime Fighting Act, which provides vigilantes who choose to register (whether technically superhuman or not) with police powers. Unlike the Might for Right act or the Marvel act the CCFA does not require heroes to work for the government, although through various "forms" in the game it is shown the government (or at least the one in Paragon City) keeps track of all heroes and any supergroups they may form. Similar to Marvel's 2006 Act, in the alternate dimension Praetoria all superhumans are required to work under the "Powers Division" of the government. Astro City In writer Kurt Busiek's Astro City Vol. 2 #6-9 (February - May 1996) the registration of super-humans is mandated by the city's Mayor Stevenson. In those comic book issues, a super-human serial killer is thought to be active in the city and the Mayor proposes that registration will help apprehend the killer. Stevenson brings in federal E.A.G.L.E. agents to enforce the new requirement, which is opposed by many active super-heroes. The prominent hero Winged Victory makes outspoken statements opposing registration and several super-humans flout the law and illegally continue their activities without registration. In Astro City #8 the Mayor is revealed as an alien infiltrator whose actions are part of a planned extraterrestrial invasion. The mayor's policy discredited, Astro City's super-human population unite to defeat the invasion in Astro City #9. By the time of the storyline's conclusion, the serial killer, revealed to be a supernatural being, is eventually disposed of, and Registration is abandoned and has not been mentioned again in the series. The issues involved were later collected in the trade paperback Astro City: Confession (). Brave New World In the Brave New World superhero role-playing game originally released by Pinnacle Entertainment Group in 1999 the setting of a dystopian alternate timeline includes a fascist United States government which passed the "Delta Registration Act" after a group of supervillains attempted to assassinate President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963. In the game the law requires that anybody with super-human abilities must register themselves to the United States Government. Its restrictive provisions include requirements that registrants surrender certain civil rights and notify the police of their whereabouts regularly. The law also mandates that super-powered individuals register within 7 days of first manifesting their abilities, with the penalty for failing to do so being an automatic sentence of life imprisonment without the possibility of parole. The Act also legislates for the mandatory military conscription of individual super-powered individuals at any time should their abilities be judged necessary by the government. In the world of the game most other nations have similar laws, though they are far less draconian in their restrictions and enforcement. Powers In Brian Michael Bendis and Michael Avon Oeming's Powers series, superheroes had to register with the government in order to be able to operate. This was changed following the events of Powers (vol. 1) #30 (March 2003) in which Super Shock, the world's most trusted superhero, goes on a massive worldwide killing spree. At that point, the US government prohibited super-beings from using their powers and operating as superheroes. This leads all the world's heroes to retire and attempt to live normal lives, though after Powers (vol. 2) #6 (November 2004) some begin to re-emerge. The Incredibles and Incredibles 2 In the world depicted in the 2004 Pixar animated feature film The Incredibles, superheroes (known as "supers") are shown in flashbacks as originally having been required to register with the National Supers Agency (or "NSA"; a joke reference to the real-life National Security Agency) in order to legally fight the crime that mostly (and at many times constantly) occurred in their home city of Municiberg during the late 1940s and into the 1950s. However, this all changed when the Sansweet v. Incredible court case at the start of the film revealed superheroes are legally liable for personal injury claims of people injured during their activities, eventually revealing they are also liable for costs to infrastructure and property damages during their activities. Despite any and all of the important live-saving and crime-stopping those same activities had and would provide for everyone, the superheroes ended up facing potentially overwhelming legal liabilities for those injuries and damages, and public pressure from those who hated superheroes for causing any and/or all of them: this forced all superheroes into retirement before the end of the 1950s. To assist them with these retirement processes, the United States government set up a "Superhero Relocation Program" (similar in many ways to the non-fictional Witness Protection Program) which granted superheroes amnesty from the legal claims provided they permanently retire from hero work and live anonymously. By the end of the film, in the early 1960s (1962 according to a newspaper), the main protagonists have returned to their roles as superheroes (among the very few left as the result of the villainous Syndrome's actions), hinting the program itself has been nullified. In the 2018 sequel, Incredibles 2, the shutdown of the relocation program is confirmed, after the main protagonists' first attempt at resuming their hero work reveals that much of the public and government still does not want them back, thus leading to said shutdown. A wealthy industrialist, Winston Deavor, recruits Helen Parr (Elastigirl and wife of Robert Parr, Mr. Incredible) to help him get supers legalized again. Although the effort is sabotaged by Deavor's own sister Evelyn, who blames supers for the cause of their father's death, near the end of the film, a judge is shown striking down the legislation outlawing superheroes. Absolution In the world depicted in Absolution'', Christopher Gage's creator-owned limited series by Avatar Press, super heroes are part of the police force. While the government is aware of their real identities, superheroes are not obligated to reveal their identities to the public. References External links The Annotated JSA checklist: Timeline 1950 Doug Atkinson's The Annotated Watchmen The Grand Comics Database Science fiction themes Discrimination in fiction X-Men Political fiction Tropes Superhero fiction themes
4883560	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment%20casting	Investment casting	Investment casting is an industrial process based on lost-wax casting, one of the oldest known metal-forming techniques. The term "lost-wax casting" can also refer to modern investment casting processes. Investment casting has been used in various forms for the last 5,000 years. In its earliest forms, beeswax was used to form patterns necessary for the casting process. Today, more advanced waxes, refractory materials and specialist alloys are typically used for making patterns. Investment casting is valued for its ability to produce components with accuracy, repeatability, versatility and integrity in a variety of metals and high-performance alloys. The fragile wax patterns must withstand forces encountered during the mould making. Much of the wax used in investment casting can be reclaimed and reused. Lost-foam casting is a modern form of investment casting that eliminates certain steps in the process. Investment casting is so named because the process invests (surrounds) the pattern with refractory material to make a mould, and a molten substance is cast into the mold. Materials that can be cast include stainless steel alloys, brass, aluminium, carbon steel and glass. The cavity inside the refractory mould is a slightly oversized but otherwise exact duplicate of the desired part. Due to the hardness of refractory materials used, investment casting can produce products with exceptional surface qualities, which can reduce the need for secondary machine processes. Water glass and silica sol investment casting are the two primary investment casting methods currently in use. The main differences are the surface roughness and cost of casting. Water glass method dewaxes into the high-temperature water, and the ceramic mould is made of water glass quartz sand. Silica sol method dewaxes into the flash fire, and silica sol zircon sand makes the ceramic mould. Silica sol method costs more but has the better surface than the water glass method. The process can be used for both small castings of a few ounces and large castings weighing several hundred pounds. It can be more expensive than die casting or sand casting, but per-unit costs decrease with large volumes. Investment casting can produce complicated shapes that would be difficult or impossible with other casting methods. It can also produce products with exceptional surface qualities and low tolerances with minimal surface finishing or machining required. Process Castings can be made from an original wax model (the direct method) or from wax replicas of an original pattern that need not be made from wax (the indirect method). The following steps describe the indirect process, which can take two to seven days to complete. Produce a master pattern: An artist or mould-maker creates an original pattern from wax, clay, wood, plastic, or another material. In recent years the production of patterns using 3D printing of models produced by computer-aided design software has become popular using mainly resin based Stereolithography (SLA) or DLP 3D printers for high resolution patterns or standard PLA filament when high levels of accuracy are not required. If using a 3D Printed pattern proceed directly to step 5. Create a mould: A mould, known as the master die, is made to fit the master pattern. If the master pattern was made from steel, the master die can be cast directly from the pattern using metal with a lower melting point. Rubber moulds can also be cast directly from the master pattern. Alternatively, a master die can be machined independently—without creating a master pattern. Produce wax patterns: Although called wax patterns, pattern materials may also include plastic and frozen mercury. Wax patterns can be produced in one of two ways. In one process, the wax is poured into the mould and swished around until an even coating, usually about thick, covers the inner surface of the mould. This is repeated until the desired pattern thickness is reached. Another method involves filling the entire mould with molten wax and letting it cool as a solid object.If a core is required, there are two options: soluble wax or ceramic. Soluble wax cores are designed to melt out of the investment coating with the rest of the wax pattern; ceramic cores are removed after the product has hardened. Assemble wax patterns: Multiple wax patterns can be created and assembled into one large pattern to be cast in one batch pour. In this situation, patterns are attached to a wax sprue to create a pattern cluster, or tree. To attach patterns, a heating tool is used to slightly melt designated wax surfaces, which are then pressed against each other and left to cool and harden. As many as several hundred patterns can be assembled into a tree. Wax patterns can also be chased, which means parting lines or flashings are rubbed out using the heated metal tool. Finally, patterns are dressed (by removing imperfections) to look like finished pieces. Apply investment materials: The ceramic mould, known as the investment, is produced by repeating a series of steps—coating, stuccoing, and hardening—until a desired thickness is achieved. Coating involves dipping a pattern cluster into a slurry of fine refractory material and then draining to create a uniform surface coating. Fine materials are used in this first step, also called a prime coat, to preserve fine details from the mould. Stuccoing applies coarse ceramic particles by dipping patterns into a fluidised bed, placing it in a rainfall-sander, or by applying materials by hand. Hardening allows coatings to cure. These steps are repeated until the investment reaches its required thickness—usually . Investment moulds are left to dry completely, which can take 16 to 48 hours. Drying can be accelerated by applying a vacuum or minimizing environmental humidity. Investment moulds can also be created by placing the pattern clusters into a flask and then pouring liquid investment material from above. The flask is then vibrated to allow entrapped air to escape and help the investment material fill any small voids. Materials: common refractory materials used to create the investments are: silica, zircon, various aluminium silicates, and alumina. Silica is usually used in the fused silica form, but sometimes quartz is used because it is less expensive. Aluminium silicates are a mixture of alumina and silica, where commonly used mixtures have an alumina content from 42 to 72%; at 72% alumina the compound is known as mullite. During the primary coat(s), zircon-based refractories are commonly used, because zirconium is less likely to react with the molten metal. Prior to silica, a mixture of plaster and ground up old moulds (chamotte) was used. The binders used to hold the refractory material in place include: ethyl silicate (alcohol-based and chemically set), colloidal silica (water-based, also known as silica sol, set by drying), sodium silicate, and a hybrid of these controlled for pH and viscosity. Dewax: Once ceramic moulds have fully cured, they are turned upside-down and placed in a furnace or autoclave to melt out and/or vaporize the wax. Most shell failures occur at this point because the waxes used have a thermal expansion coefficient that is much greater than the investment material surrounding it—as the wax is heated it expands and introduces stress. To minimize these stresses the wax is heated as rapidly as possible so that outer wax surfaces can melt and drain quickly, making space for the rest of the wax to expand. In certain situations, holes may be drilled into the mould before heating to help reduce these stresses. Any wax that runs out of the mould is usually recovered and reused. Burnout preheating: The mould is then subjected to a burnout, which heats the mould to between 870 °C and 1095 °C to remove any moisture and residual wax, and to sinter the mould. Sometimes this heating is also used to preheat the mould before pouring, but other times the mould is allowed to cool so that it can be tested. Preheating allows the metal to stay liquid longer so that it can better fill all mould details and increase dimensional accuracy. If the mould is left to cool, any cracks found can be repaired with ceramic slurry or special cements. Pouring: The investment mould is then placed open-side up into a tub filled with sand. The metal may be gravity poured or forced by applying positive air pressure or other forces. Vacuum casting, tilt casting, pressure assisted pouring and centrifugal casting are methods that use additional forces and are especially useful when moulds contain thin sections that would be otherwise be difficult to fill. Divesting: The shell is hammered, media blasted, vibrated, waterjeted, or chemically dissolved (sometimes with liquid nitrogen) to release the casting. The sprue is cut off and recycled. The casting may then be cleaned up to remove signs of the casting process, usually by grinding. Finishing: After grinding, the completed casting is then subject to finishing. This usually goes further than grinding, with impurities and negatives being removed via hand tooling and welding. In the case that the part needs additional straightening, this process is usually carried out by hydraulic straightening presses, which bring the product in line with its tolerances. Advantages Excellent surface finish High dimensional accuracy Extremely intricate parts are castable Almost any metal can be cast No flash or parting lines Effective utilization of metal Fewer environmental hazards from the foundry process Disadvantages The main disadvantage is the overall cost, especially for short-run productions. Some of the reasons for the high cost include specialized equipment, costly refractories, and binders, many operations to make a mould, a lot of labor is needed and occasional minute defects occur. However, the cost is still less than producing the same part by machining from bar stock; for example, gun manufacturing has moved to investment casting to lower costs of producing pistols. Additionally: It can be difficult to cast objects requiring cores. This process is expensive, is usually limited to small casting, and presents some difficulties where cores are involved. Holes cannot be smaller than 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) and should be no deeper than about 1.5 times the diameter. Investment castings require longer production cycles compared to other casting processes. There are many process factors to affect the quality of the mould and casting, so the quality management system is challenging. Counter-gravity casting The variation on the gravity pouring technique is to fill the mould using a vacuum. A common form of this is called the Hitchiner process after the Hitchiner Manufacturing Company that invented the technique. In this technique, the mould has a downward fill pipe that is lowered into the melt. A vacuum draws the melt into the cavity; when the important parts have solidified, the vacuum is released, and the unused material leaves the mould. The technique can use substantially less material than gravity pouring because the sprue and some gating need not solidify. This technique is more metal efficient than traditional pouring because less material solidifies in the gating system. Gravity pouring only has a 15 to 50% metal yield compared to 60 to 95% for counter-gravity pouring. There is also less turbulence, so the gating system can be simplified since it does not have to control turbulence. The metal is drawn from below the top of the pool, so the metal is free from dross and slag (which are lower density (lighter) and float to the top of the pool). The pressure differential helps the metal flow into every intricacy of the mould. Finally, lower temperatures can be used, which improves the grain structure. This process is also used to cast refractory ceramics under the term vacuum casting. Vacuum pressure casting Vacuum pressure casting (VPC), properly referred to as vacuum assist direct pour, uses gas pressure and a vacuum to improve the quality of the casting and minimize porosity. Typically VPC machines consist of an upper and a lower chamber—the upper chamber, or melting chamber, housing the crucible, and the lower casting chamber housing the investment mould. Both chambers are connected via a small hole containing a stopper. A vacuum is pulled in the lower chamber, while pressure is applied in the upper, and then the stopper is removed. This creates the greatest pressure differential to fill the moulds. The most common materials for vacuum casting process are the high nickel-based alloy and super alloys. Turbocharger products are a common applications for this casting process, though it is also regularly used in the manufacture of silver and gold jewellery. Details Investment casting is used with almost any castable metal. However, aluminium alloys, copper alloys, and steel are the most common. In industrial use, the size limits are to several hundred kilograms. The cross-sectional limits are to . Typical tolerances are 0.1 mm for the first 25 mm (0.005 in for the first inch) and 0.02 mm for the each additional centimeter (0.002 in for each additional inch). A standard surface finish is 1.3–4 micrometres (50–125 μin) RMS. History The history of lost-wax casting dates back thousands of years. Its earliest use was for idols, ornaments and jewellery, using natural beeswax for patterns, clay for the moulds and manually operated bellows for stoking furnaces. Examples have been found across the world, such as in the Harappan Civilisation (2500–2000 BC) idols, Egypt's tombs of Tutankhamun (1333–1324 BC), Mesopotamia, Aztec and Mayan Mexico, and the Benin civilization in Africa where the process produced detailed artwork of copper, bronze and gold. By far, one of the earliest identified uses of the investment casting process was seen in objects found in the 'Cave of Treasure', discovered in Southern Israel. These items were identified as being made around 3700 BC using Carbon-14 dating techniques. The earliest known text that describes the investment casting process (Schedula Diversarum Artium) was written around 1100 A.D. by Theophilus Presbyter, a monk who described various manufacturing processes, including the recipe for parchment. This book was used by sculptor and goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini (1500–1571), who detailed in his autobiography the investment casting process he used for the Perseus with the Head of Medusa sculpture that stands in the Loggia dei Lanzi in Florence, Italy. Investment casting came into use as a modern industrial process in the late 19th century, when dentists began using it to make crowns and inlays, as described by Barnabas Frederick Philbrook of Council Bluffs, Iowa in 1897. Its use was accelerated by William H. Taggart of Chicago, whose 1907 paper described his development of a technique. He also formulated a wax pattern compound of excellent properties, developed an investment material, and invented an air-pressure casting machine. In the 1940s, World War II increased the demand for precision net shape manufacturing and specialized alloys that could not be shaped by traditional methods, or that required too much machining. Industry turned to investment casting. After the war, its use spread to many commercial and industrial applications that used complex metal parts. Applications Investment casting is used in the aerospace and power generation industries to produce turbine blades with complex shapes or cooling systems. Blades produced by investment casting can include single-crystal (SX), directionally solidified (DS), or conventional equiaxed blades. Investment casting is also widely used by firearms manufacturers to fabricate firearm receivers, triggers, hammers, and other precision parts at low cost. Karsten Solheim famously revolutionized golf club design through his company PING by incorporating investment casting for the first time for clubheads. Quickly the process became an industry standard to allow weight distribution around the perimeter of the clubhead. Other industries that use standard investment-cast parts include military, aerospace, medical, jewelry, airline, automotive and golf clubs especially since the start of 3D printing technology. With the increased availability of higher-resolution 3D printers, 3D printing has begun to be used to make much larger sacrificial moulds used in investment casting. Planetary Resources has used the technique to print the mould for a new small satellite, which is then dipped in ceramic to form the investment cast for a titanium space bus with integral propellant tank and embedded cable routing. See also Full-mold casting Lost-foam casting References Notes Bibliography . . . . External links Casting (manufacturing) Jewellery making sl:Precizijsko litje
4883567	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbinsville%20High%20School%20%28New%20Jersey%29	Robbinsville High School (New Jersey)	Robbinsville High School is a comprehensive community public high school serving students in ninth through twelfth grades from Robbinsville Township, in Mercer County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey, operating as the lone secondary school of the Robbinsville Public School District. The school is accredited by the New Jersey Department of Education. As of the 2021–22 school year, the school had an enrollment of 1,085 students and 82.5 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 13.2:1. There were 30 students (2.8% of enrollment) eligible for free lunch and 10 (0.9% of students) eligible for reduced-cost lunch. Awards, recognition and rankings The school was the 59th-ranked public high school in New Jersey out of 339 schools statewide in New Jersey Monthly magazine's September 2014 cover story on the state's "Top Public High Schools", using a new ranking methodology. The school had been ranked 110th in the state of 328 schools in 2012, after being ranked 109th in 2010 out of 322 schools listed. Schooldigger.com ranked the school 43rd out of 389 public high schools statewide in its 2012 rankings, which was based on the combined percentage of students classified as proficient or above proficient on the mathematics (94.4%) and language arts literacy (98.1%) components of the High School Proficiency Assessment (HSPA). The New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association recognized Robbinsville High School as the Group I winner of the Seventh Annual ShopRite Cup in 2009–10, based on the overall performances of the school's athletic teams which included first-place finishes in boys' cross country and girls' soccer, second place in girls' cross country, third-place finishes in indoor track & field, baseball (tie) and wrestling (tie), along with finishing fourth in both girls' indoor relays and girls' outdoor track and field, with bonus points awarded for not having any disqualifications during the three sports seasons. History and facilities There was a great struggle in the community to get the high school approved, and when it was approved, the vote was extremely close, with a referendum passing in 2001 by a 51-49% margin to approve the construction of a $50 million high school building, while a separate ballot for a pool price at $4.4 million was rejected. The school was first opened in 2004 as a wing in the middle school to house ninth graders. The plan was to start with only freshmen and each year fill in an additional grade. In 2005, the new high school building opened. By the 2006–07 school year, only students in 12th grade from Robbinsville Township were attending Lawrence High School in Lawrence Township, as part of the final year of a sending/receiving relationship with the Lawrence Township Public Schools. With the start of the 2007–08 school year, the sending relationship had ended, and Robbinsville High School began to serve all of Robbinsville Township's high school students on site. The school graduated its first class of 150 students in June 2008. The school features a large common area with an atrium to serve as a cafeteria as well as several other purposes, an attached music wing, a central hallway which connects the commons area to the four main wings, the kitchen, the black box theater, the 1,000-seat auditorium with a opera pit, the gymnasium wing (including a main gym, auxiliary gym, the weight room, locker rooms, and the trainer's office), and the main office as well as administrators offices on the first floor and contains much technology including a recording studio. Outside, there is a rubberized turf football field along with a track, an aerial obstacle course, and numerous sports fields for all seasons. Curriculum Robbinsville High School offers a diverse curriculum to its students covering an art department, business department, English/ language arts department, family and consumer science department, health department, mathematics department, music and performing arts department, science department, social studies department, technology department, and world languages department. Students may also take classes at nearby colleges, typically Mercer County Community College. Advanced Placement Robbinsville High School offers advanced placement college credit in the following courses: Advanced Placement Art History Advanced Placement Biology Advanced Placement Calculus Advanced Placement Chemistry Advanced Placement Computer Science Advanced Placement French Language Advanced Placement English Language and Composition Advanced Placement English Literature and Composition Advanced Placement Music Theory Advanced Placement Psychology Advanced Placement Physics 1 Advanced Placement Physics 2 Advanced Placement Spanish Language Advanced Placement Statistics Advanced Placement United States History Advanced Placement World History Extracurricular activities Extracurricular activities and clubs offered at the high school include: Astronomy Club Trivia Club Chinese Club The RHS Choir Dance Team Debate Team Drama Club Friends of Rachel Club Future Business Leaders of America (FBLA) Future Educators of America Gender-Sexuality Alliance Club Improv Club Interact Club Language Honor Society Literary Magazine Marching Band (including Color Guard) Math Club Model U.N. Multicultural Club Mock Trial National Honor Society Robotics Team Science Olympiad Ski Club Spanish Club Students Against Destructive Decisions (SADD) Red Cross Club RHS Executive Council (Student Body Government) Class Councils (Class Governments) Technology Student Association Tri-M Music Honor Society Debate team The debate team finished an undefeated season in 2010 and was named Colonial Valley Conference champions. In 2011 the debate team renewed their title as champions. Raven Regiment The regiment received the "Best Visuals" award at the NJ State Marching Band Competition in 2009, and won 4th out of 23 bands at the Northern states Marching Band Competition in 2010. In their 2011 season, the Regiment took 7th out of 21 at Nationals in Allentown, Pennsylvania. The band also moved up from a 1A class to a 2A class band. In 2012, the Raven Regiment was the only New Jersey band invited to perform at the 2nd Annual Pearl Harbor Day Parade in Honolulu, Hawai'i. In 2014, the band received the award for "Best Color Guard" at the USBands 2A state championships. They later placed 5th out of 18 bands at the National Championships. The Raven Regiment moved up from a 2A to a 3A class band in 2015. In 2018, the Raven Regiment won 1st place out of 9 bands at the USBands New Jersey State Championships (III A) in Glassboro, NJ, on October 28. The following week, the Raven Regiment placed 2nd out of 16 bands at the USBands A Class National Championships (III) in Allentown, PA, on November 4. In 2022, the Raven Regiment moved up from a 3A to a 4A class band. Robotics With the assistance of a NASA 2008 rookie grant, Nemesis-FIRST Robotics Competition team 2590 won the "Rookie All Star," "Highest Scoring Rookie," and "Finalist" awards, and received the Entrepreneurship Award in 2009, 2012 and the 2012 Chairman's Award at the Lenape District. Nemesis won the 2012 Montreal Regional and the Lenape District and has placed in the top 10 at the New Jersey, Boston & Washington DC Regionals and awarded the 2010 "Industrial Design" Award and 2011, 2012 "NJ Best Website Award" and were semifinalists at the World Championship in St. Louis. As a Project Lead the Way High School, qualified students earn three college credits for successful completion of projects-based pre-engineering classes that teach fundamental problem-solving and critical-thinking skills. In 2011, RHS gained national recognition as an Exemplary Career and Technical Education (CTE) program by the National Association of State Directors of CTE for the implementation of PLTW and the FIRST Robotics Team. In 2013 Nemesis won the Chairman's Award and also ranked first in the Mid-Atlantic. They finished the season as quarter-finalists in the Archimedes Division of the FIRST World Championship. In 2014 they went further to win first place in the Archimedes Division and then became Einstein Field semifinalists. Theatre department During autumn, a dramatic play is performed. In the spring, the school performs a musical, and then a series of acts named the "Senior One Acts" where the seniors direct one-act plays with other students as performers. Students from the theatre department have also participated in a competition hosted by the Speech and Theatre Association of New Jersey, and the New Jersey State Thespian Festival. Other activities include an improvisation club as well as a drama club, and a competition of Shakespearean acts in the spring. The Theatre Department has given many performances including: And Never Been Kissed (Fall 2004), Once Upon A Mattress (Spring 2005), A Midsummer Night's Dream (Fall 2005), Grease (Spring 2006) Pride and Prejudice (Fall 2006), Kiss Me Kate (Spring 2007) Noises Off (Fall 2007), Back to the 80s, the Totally Awesome Musical (Spring 2008) The Laramie Project (Fall 2008), Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat (Spring 2009) Romeo & Juliet (Fall 2009), Guys and Dolls (Spring 2010) The Adventures of Alice in Wonderland (Fall 2010), Copacabana (Spring 2011) Is He Dead? (Fall 2011), Thoroughly Modern Millie (Spring 2012) The Odyssey (Fall 2012), Nine to Five (Spring 2013) As You Like It (Fall 2013), Into the Woods (Spring 2014) You Can't Take It with You (Fall 2014), Legally Blonde (Spring 2015) A Murder is Announced (Fall 2015), Seussical (Spring 2016) Peter and the Starcatcher (Fall 2016), Bring It On: The Musical (Spring 2017) Midsummer/Jersey (Fall 2017), The Drowsy Chaperone (Spring 2018) She Kills Monsters (Fall 2018), Beauty and the Beast (musical) (Spring 2019) The Crucible (Fall 2019), Guys & Dolls (Spring 2020) Romeo & Juliet (Fall 2020), Emma: A Pop Musical (Spring 2021) Puffs (Fall 2021), Mamma Mia! (Spring 2022)Heartwood (Fall 2022), Pippin (Spring 2023)Clue The Musical (Fall 2023), Chicago'' (Spring 2024) Athletics The Robbinsville High School Ravens compete in the Colonial Valley Conference, which comprises high schools located in Mercer County, Monmouth County and Middlesex County, and operates under the supervision of the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA). With 740 students in grades 10-12, the school was classified by the NJSIAA for the 2019–20 school year as Group IV for most athletic competition purposes, which included schools with an enrollment of 486 to 758 students in that grade range. The football team competes in the Valley Division of the 94-team West Jersey Football League superconference and was classified by the NJSIAA as Group III South for football for 2022–2024, which included schools with 680 to 889 students. The school participates as the host school / lead agency for joint cooperative ice hockey and boys / girls swimming teams with Allentown High School. These co-op programs operate under agreements scheduled to expire at the end of the 2023–24 school year. Interscholastic sports offered at Robbinsville High School include: boys and girls tennis cross country cheerleading track football wrestling, field hockey ice hockey boys and girls basketball baseball softball boys and girls soccer golf swimming boys and girls lacrosse boys and girls cheerleading Baseball In 2008, the baseball team turned a 2007 season total of two wins into a 16–14 record, a Group I Central Jersey sectional championship and a spot in the state final before losing to Lyndhurst High School in the tournament final. In 2009, the team advanced to the state tournament, but lost 9–7 to David Brearley High School. The 2010 team won a school-record 23 games and the program's second Central Jersey Group I sectional championship. The 2011 team went 25–4, and won their first ever Mercer County Tournament championship, defeating Steinert High School for only the second time in school history (the first being earlier that season). Cross country The boys cross country team qualified for the state finals in 2006 and 2007, and won the Group I state championship in 2009. The girls' cross country team was 2nd in Central Jersey Group I and qualified for states in 2007 and 2009. The girls won the Group I state title in 2008 with Megan Flynn as the individual Group I winner that season. In the fall of 2010 both the boys' and girls' cross country teams captured the Patriot Division after deciding victories over Hopewell Valley Central High School at Mercer County Park. The boys finished with a dual meet record of 10-3 and the girls finished with a record of 12–1. Again in 2011, the boys team captured the title as Patriot Division champions. Field hockey The girls' field hockey team qualified for the 2007 North II Group I tournament, ending their regular season with a record of 12–4, and placed as the #3 seed in the tournament. The field hockey team secured the 4th seed in the 2007 Mercer County Tournament, and advanced to the semi-finals before falling to Stuart Country Day School in overtime, 2–1, and advanced to the sectional semi-finals again in 2011. Football In 2007, the varsity football team finished the regular season with a 6–3 record and qualified for the NJSIAA playoffs, losing to Asbury Park High School, the eventual Group I Champions, by a 41–0 score in the first round of the Central Jersey, Group I tournament. In 2019, the varsity football team won the West Jersey Football League division championship on the road against Haddon Township High School with a final score of 8–2, finishing the regular season undefeated at 9–0 for the first time. Ice hockey The boys ice hockey team won the Patriot Division and went to the Mercer County quarterfinals, NJSIAA Public B first round. Soccer The girls' soccer team won the Group I state title in 2008 (defeating Waldwick High School in the championship game) and 2009 (vs. Cresskill High School). The girls' soccer team made it to the 2006 state playoff tournament for Central Jersey Group I, defeating Middlesex High School 2–1 in the first round, before falling to Metuchen High School by 2–0 in the semifinals. The 2008 team won the Group I state title with a 3-0 win against Waldwick High School in the playoff finals. The 2009 team finished the season with a record of 19-3-1 after defeating Cresskill by a score of 3-0 in the championship game, to become the first public school in two decades to win consecutive Group I titles. The 2022 boys soccer team won the Group III state title, the program's first, by defeating West Morris Mendham High School in 4-2 in penalty kicks in the championship game, after ending regulation and overtime tied at 1-1. Softball The softball team has won state championships in Group II in 2011 (against runner-up Pequannock Township High School in the tournament final), 2013 (vs. Hanover Park High School), 2017 and 2018 (vs. Ramsey High School both years) and 2021 (vs. Verona High School); the program's five state titles are tied for eighth-most in the state. The 2011 team won the Group II state championship with a 2–1 win against Pequannock Township High School in the final game of the tournament, capping off a season in which the team finished 24-0 and had won the Mercer County Tournament. In 2013, the softball team won the NJSIAA Group II softball championship for the second time in three years. That year, the softball team became "the first from Mercer [County] to reach three straight state finals and the third from the county to win two state titles." In 2017, the softball team won the Group II state championship, defeating previously unbeaten Ramsey High School by a score of 2–0 in the tournament final, to win the program's third state championship. The team advanced to the inaugural New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association softball Tournament of Champions as the third seed, losing to sixth-seeded Group I champion Cedar Grove High School by a score of 2–1 in the first round. The 2018 team repeated as Group II champion, defeating Ramsey for the second straight year by a score of 6-2 in the finals at Kean University and went into the Tournament of Champions as the second seed, falling to Immaculate Conception High School of Lodi in the semifinals by a score of 12-2 to finish the season at 26-2. Swimming In 2012, the girls swim team earned the Patriot Division title. The RHS swim team is a co-ed team, however in 2013 the team successfully gained enough members for separate gender swim teams. Track and field In 2008, the girls' track and field team won both the NJSIAA Group I Central Jersey sectional championship and the Group I state championship. The girls team won the track and field Central Jersey Group I title for the third time in four years, and the boys also won the sectional championships in 2011. In 2009 the girls team came in 2nd in sectionals and in 2007 in 3rd. In 2012 the girls team won their Division for the first time. In 2013 the girls spring track team won the County Championship for the first time. Wrestling In 2010, the wrestling team won the Central Jersey Group I state sectional championship Administration The school's principal is Molly Avery. Her core administration team includes two assistant principals. References External links Robbinsville High School Robbinsville Public Schools School Data for the Robbinsville Public Schools, National Center for Education Statistics 2005 establishments in New Jersey Educational institutions established in 2005 Public high schools in Mercer County, New Jersey Robbinsville Township, New Jersey
4884487	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Incas	History of the Incas	The Incas were most notable for establishing the Inca Empire which was centered in modern day South America in Peru and Chile. It was about 2,500 miles from the northern to southern tip. The Inca Empire lasted from 1438 to 1533. It was the largest Empire in America throughout the Pre-Columbian era. At the peak of the Inca Empire, it was the largest nation in the world and to this day is the largest native state in the western hemisphere. The Inca civilization was located from north to south of the western hemisphere of South America. The Inca state was known as the Kingdom of Cuzco before 1438. Over the course of the Inca Empire, the Inca used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate the territory of modern-day Peru, followed by a large portion of western South America, into their empire, centered on the Andean mountain range. However, shortly after the Inca Civil War, the last Sapa Inca (emperor) of the Inca Empire was captured and killed on the orders of the conquistador Francisco Pizarro, marking the beginning of Spanish rule. The remnants of the empire retreated to the remote jungles of Vilcabamba and established the small Neo-Inca State, which was conquered by the Spanish in 1572. The Quechua name for the empire after the reforms under Pachacuti was Tawantin Suyu, which can be translated The Four Regions or The Four United Regions. Before the Quechua spelling reform it was written in Spanish as Tahuantinsuyo. Tawantin is a group of four things (tawa "four" with the suffix -ntin which names a group); suyu means "region" or "province". The empire was divided into four suyus, whose corners met at the capital, Cuzco (Qosqo) Historical Sources Spanish chronicles The first written traces of the Inca Empire are the chronicles recorded by various European authors (later there were mestizo and indigenous chroniclers who also compiled the history of the Incas); these authors compiled "Inca history" based on accounts collected throughout the empire. The first chroniclers had to face various difficulties in order to translate Inca history since, in addition to a language barrier, they faced the problem of interpreting a way of seeing the world totally different from the one they were used to. This led to the existence of several contradictions between the colonial texts, an example of this is presented by the chronologies of the Inca rulers; thus, in many chronicles, the same feats, facts and episodes are attributed to different rulers. Regarding the chronicles of the Inca Empire, it is important to note that its various authors had certain interests when writing them. In the case of the Spanish chroniclers, their interest was to legitimize the conquest through history, for this reason, in many chronicles, it is pointed out that the Incas conquered using violence entirely and therefore had no rights over the conquered territories. In another case, chroniclers linked to the Catholic Church sought to legitimize evangelization by describing the Inca religion as the work of the devil, the Incas as sons of Noah, and trying to identify the Inca deities with biblical beliefs or European folklore. Likewise, there were other mestizo and indigenous chroniclers who also had an interest in extolling the empire or one of the Panakas with which they were related, such as the case of Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, who in his work "Comentarios Reales de los Incas" showed an idealized Inca Empire where poverty didn't exist, wealth was distributed, and resources were exploited rationally. Incan sources The ayllus and Panakas had special songs through which they narrated their history, these songs were performed in certain ceremonies in front of the Sapa Inca. These stories, by way of collective memory, constitute the first historical records collected in the chronicles. Another resource used to record history were some cloaks and boards that contained paintings representing the stories of the Inca rulers and the biography of each of them. These objects were kept in a place called Puquincancha in Cusco, under the care of specialists in interpreting them. It is known that Viceroy Francisco de Toledo sent King Philip II four cloths illustrating the life of the Incas, adding that the native painters didn't have the same curiosity as those from Spain. In addition, some past events were stored in the quipus, although it isn't known how these systems of cords and knots could be used to store historical events, there are several chronicles that describe that the quipus were used to evoke the feats of the rulers. In general, in the Inca Empire there was a strong emphasis on preserving notable events and facts in the historical records. However, precision wasn't always valued, and some rulers might have intentionally excluded or distorted information that they deemed undesirable. María Rostworowski calls this quality of Inca history a "political amnesia" that was assumed by the common people but was remembered by the affected Panakas or ayllus, a factor that contributed to future contradictions in European chronicles about the Incas. After the meeting of the Hispanic and Andean culture, writing was established as the means of transmission and recording of information. In addition, a process of "miscegenation" and syncretism began that gave rise to the reinvention of traditions and the creation of others. All these reinventions are part of a natural process in all cultures, but to understand Inca history it is necessary to differentiate which are the syncretic or invented aspects and which are not. Chronology Chronology according to the Peruvian historian José Antonio del Busto Duthurburu. Chronology based on the works "Suma y Narración de los Incas" by Juan de Betanzos (1551) and "El Señorío de los Incas" by Pedro Cieza de León (1880) Chronology according to the "Miscelánea antártica" by Miguel Cabello de Balboa (1586). It is highly criticized for the length of several reigns and that it doesn't coincide with archaeological studies. Includes the correction by Howland Rowe, accepted by Kauffmann Doig, Ann Kendall, Alden Mason, and Robert Deviller. According to María Rostworowski, the victory against the Chanka took place in the early years of the 15th century. Origins Legends The Ayar Brothers Four pairs of brothers and their tribes left Pacaritambo: Ayar Cachi and Mama Huaco, Ayar Uchu and Mama Ipacura or Cura, Ayar Auca and Mama Raua, and Ayar Manco and Mama Ocllo. From the summit of the Wanakawri mountain, Ayar Cachi with his sling shot a stone against a hill and turned it into a quebrada, then he did the same with three more hills, completing the four cardinal points. His brothers saw his strength and, mistrusting him, they sent him to bring gold objects from Pacaritambo and locked him up with a large stone. After getting rid of Ayar Cachi, they lived in Wanakawri for a year, they planted potatoes on the back of the mountain, and Mama Huaco became another wife of Ayar Manco. After the year, they moved to a hill called Matagua, from there they looked at the valley of Cuzco, and the inhabitants and subjects of Alcaviza, who was the chief of a village with 30 houses, all thatched and very dilapidated. They deemed it a good place, so they agreed to conquer and populate it, they also agreed that one of them had to stay in Wanakawri to become a huaca and intercede with the Sun, their father, to increase their children and send good times. Ayar Uchu grew large wings and offered himself, he flew and after being in the "heavens", returned and told Ayar Manco to rename himself Manco Capac, because that is what the Sun commands, and to go the place they had seen because the residents would receive them well; he also gave him his wife Mama Cura to serve him. Having said all that, Ayar Uchu turned into a stone figure with wings. Manco Capac, Ayar Auca, the four women and their respective ayllus, went to see Alcaviza. Before entering his land, in a nearby town called Acamama, Mama Huaco hit a man with a bolas, killing him instantly, and then ripping out his heart, the people feared her and fled to the valley of Guallas. From there the group walked and spoke with Alcaviza, who accepted them. And so the city of Cuzco was founded, the brothers made their house for them and the four women, with seeds that they brought from Pacaritambo they dedicated themselves to planting corn. Ayar Auca died after two years and had no children; while Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo only had one, Sinchi Roca. This was as told by Juan de Betanzos, the different versions of this story are related by: Bernabé Cobo, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, Martin de Murúa, Pedro Cieza de León, Juan de Santa Cruz Pachacuti, and Cristóbal de Molina. Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo This legend was told by Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, a mestizo chronicler who was a descendant of Tupac Yupanqui on his mother's side. The Sun, seeing the state in which the men lived, took pity on them and sent his son, named Manco Capac, and a daughter, named Mama Ocllo, to civilize the inhabitants of the earth. With this mandate, the Sun placed his children in Lake Titicaca, and told them to go wherever they wanted, and that wherever they stopped to eat or sleep, they would have to sink a golden rod into the ground, where that rod would sink with just one hit, the Sun wanted them to stop there and make their home. Thus, they left the Titicaca Lake and walked north, all the way, wherever they stopped, they stuck the golden rod into the ground and it never sank. They went through a small inn or house, called Paqariq Tampu, and from there they arrived at the valley of Cuzco, which was pure wilderness. The first stop they made was on the hill called Huanacauri, there Manco Capac tried to sink the gold rod into the ground, which very easily sank at the first blow they gave it, so much so that they no longer saw it. Then he said to his sister and wife: "In this valley our father, the Sun, commands that we stop and make our seat and dwelling to fulfil his will." They both left from Huanacauri, each on their own to summon people, Manco Capac to the north and Mama Ocllo to the south. They told all the men and women they met that their father, the Sun, had sent them from heaven to be their teachers and the benefactors to the inhabitants of all that land, to get them out of the ferocious life they had and show them how to live like men. The people, marveling on the one hand to see those two dressed with the ornaments that the Sun had given them, their ears pierced and as open as their descendants had, and on the other hand, fond of the promises they were told, they believed everything they said, and adored and revered them as children of the sun and obeyed as kings. Seeing that many people were following them, they ordered some to take care of feeding everyone by working the land so that hunger wouldn't spread them through the mountains again and also instructed them with the outline of how they had to build their huts and houses. In this way they began to populate the city of Cuzco, divided into two that they called Hanan Cuzco (Upper part) and Hurin Cuzco (Lower part), similarly, they divided the lineages by establishing the Hanan ayllu and Hurin ayllu, and the upper and lower districts, Hanan saya and Hurin saya. Those brought by Manco populated Hanan Cuzco and those brought by the Coya populated Hurin Cuzco. Historical Explanation It's very likely the Incan ethnic group started as a caravan of puquina-speaking immigrants forced to move to the north from the decaying Tiwanaku culture, as this was invaded by huge waves of military forces from the south, said invaders would've been the ethnic group known as the aymaras. There is archaeological evidence discovered by Francis de Castelnau in 1845 and confirmed by Max Uhle that Tiwanaku was attacked when it was populated, as unfinished constructions were found. The exact reasons for the crumbling of the Tiwanaku state may have been the speed and strength of the invasions, giving little to no time for the organization of a proper defense, the support given by the conquered chiefdoms towards the invaders, or both. The caravan stumbled across Pacaritambo, and after a few years of settling down, Manco Capac left with a group made of 10 ayllus. They reached the Wanakawri mountain, and from there they planned to take the Huatanay Valley (Cusco), which belonged to several native ayllus. Although successful in the conquest, the foundation of the city was at risk. Their status as foreign invaders posed the threat of potential wars from their more powerful and larger neighboring chiefdoms, as well as the potential for future uprisings from those who would be conquered seeking to reclaim their land. Kingdom of Cusco It lasted from the beginning of the Inca settlement in Cusco under the rule of Manco Capac around the 13th century until the victory of Cusi Yupanqui, latter known as Pachacuti, against the Chanka people . It is divided between the two dynasties that ruled Cusco: Hurin and Hanan, both were the lineages corresponding to the two halves of the city: Hurin Cusco (Lower Cusco) and Hanan Cusco (Upper Cusco). The former maintained full control of religious and government functions from Manco Capac until Capac Yupanqui, who suffered a coup by Inca Roca with the support of Hanan Cusco members. From then on, the Hurin dynasty was in charge of the priesthood while the Hanan dynasty took control of civil, political, economic, judicial, and martial activity. The reigns of Manco Capac and Sinchi Roca are often called "mythical" because of their connection with the stories of the founding of Cusco, and because of the difficulty of proving their existence outside of the chroniclers' accounts based on the oral tradition of the Panakas. The latter also affects the rest of the rulers, although more can be done about it thanks to archaeological studies. The governments of the Hurin dynasty focused on consolidating the Inca presence in the surroundings of Cusco through political alliances and the conquest of smaller ayllus. By the end of Capac Yupanqui's reign, Cusco had accumulated considerable power, although it was still behind its larger neighbours: the Ayarmacas, Chankas, Lupacas, and Collas. From the reign of Inca Roca, and therefore from the Hanan dynasty, the Kingdom of Cusco and the consequent reforms of its rulers obtained the foundation to become what would be the Inca Empire. The critical moment for the succession of states came during the Chanka-Inca war, the young prince Cusi Yupanqui organized the defense of the city together with a few noblemen after his father Viracocha Inca and the legitimate successor Inca Urco escaped from Cusco. After fierce resistance they managed to push back the Chankas and eventually conquer them. His feat granted him the position of the new Sapa Inca under the name of Pachacuti, and the reforms introduced during his rule, combined with his expansionist ambitions, led to the formation of the Tawantinsuyu. Inca Empire Pachacuti Pachacuti reorganized the Kingdom of Cusco into the Tawantinsuyu, a federalist system which consisted of a central government with the Sapa Inca at its head and four provincial governments: Chinchasuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Kuntisuyu (SW), and Qullasuyu (SE) according to the four main roads that left the capital. Pachacuti is also thought to have built Machu Picchu, either as a family home or retreat. Pachacuti would send spies to regions he wanted in his empire who would report back on their political organization, military might and wealth. He would then send messages to the leaders of these lands extolling the benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high-quality textiles, and promising that they would be materially richer as subject rulers of the Inca. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a fait accompli and acquiesced peacefully. The ruler's children would then be brought to Cuzco to be taught about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate the former ruler's children into the Inca nobility, and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire. Co-rule of Amaru Yupanqui Pachacuti decided to name his son, Amaru, as his co-sovereign and successor. However he would display no interest in military affairs. Due to this lack of military capability, Pachacuti was forced to change his decision and to replace Amaru. But before that could happen, the co-sovereign abdicated. Co-rule of Tupac Yupanqui Pachacuti's son Tupac Inca began conquests to the north in 1463 and continued them as Sapa Inca after Pachacuti's death in 1471. His most important conquest was the Kingdom of Chimor, the Inca's only serious rival in the coast of the central Andes. Tupac Inca Yupanqui He spent most of his time in war campaigns of conquest or "pacification" and even exploration. The latter took him to Quito to the north and to the Maule River to the south, however, he also had an active participation in the government. Thus, he carried out the first general census, distributed the forms of work (Mit'a and Minka), assigned taxes, established the mitimaes, continued the construction of roads, propagated the cult of the Sun and implanted a calendar based on it. Huayna Capac Tupac Inca's son Huayna Capac added significant territory to the south. At its height, Tahuantinsuyu included Peru, southwest Ecuador, western and south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, northern Chile and a small part of southwest Colombia. Tahuantinsuyu was a patchwork of languages, cultures, and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. The portions of the Chachapoya that had been conquered were almost openly hostile to the Inca, and the Inca nobles rejected an offer of refuge in their kingdom after their troubles with the Spanish. For instance, the Chimu used money in their commerce, while the Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour (it is said that Inca tax collectors would take the head lice of the lame and old as a symbolic tribute). Economic productivity was based on collective labor which was organized to benefit the whole community. The ayni was used to help individual members of the community in need, such as a sick member of the community. The Minka or teamwork represented community service and the Mita was the tax paid to the Inca in the form of labor. The Inca did not use currency, economic exchanges were by reciprocity and took place in markets called catus. Civil War In 1525 there was an epidemic of a disease unknown to the Incas, usually identified by later historians as smallpox or measles, which caused the death of Huayna Capac in Quito. Before he died, Huayna Capac had designated Ninan Cuyuchi as successor, but he had also fallen ill and died in Tomebamba without his father's knowledge. Although a group of curacas tried to keep the death of the Sapa Inca and his successor a secret to avoid rebellions, Huascar found out from his mother Raura Ocllo, who traveled quickly from Quito to Cuzco. The plague had also killed two of the ruling Inca noblemen in the capital, leaving Huascar as the best option to succeed his father, a choice that was ratified by the Cuzco nobles. Atahualpa, meanwhile, was on campaign with the army and went unnoticed. He was the favorite of the military commanders; the most influential and capable commanders had decided to stay with him in Quito and Tomebamba. Huascar saw in Atahualpa the greatest threat to his power, since he had spent a decade fighting in his father's campaigns and had the support of many. He did not oppose his remaining as governor of Quito, out of respect for the wishes of his late father, but with two conditions: that he did not carry out military campaigns to expand his territories and that he recognized himself as his vassal and paid him tributes. Atahualpa agreed. As relations with his half-brother progressively worsened, he traveled to Tomebamba, where he ordered the construction of several buildings supposedly in honor of Huascar, but the only thing he achieved was to increase the intrigues and mistrust of the Cuzco government. Huascar supporters saw in each action of Atahualpa a sign of treason and the Atahualpa supporters considered that the they wanted the benefits and wealth of the empire for themselves, excluding them. It was then that Ullco Colla, curaca of Tomebamba, sent messengers to Huascar with news that Atahualpa planned to rebel. Atahualpa, from Quito, sent presents to his brother as a sign of respect and recognition, but Huascar murdered the messengers and sent others with derogatory gifts (consisting of women's clothing and ornaments) and a message ordering Atahualpa to go to Cuzco. Atahualpa was convinced in Quito by his generals that if he went to Cuzco he would be assassinated and that it was better to defeat Huascar so that he would supplant him in power. Spanish conquest Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro explored south from Panama, reaching Inca territory by 1526. It was clear that they had reached a wealthy land with prospects of great treasure, and after one more expedition (1529), Pizarro traveled to Spain and received royal approval to conquer the region and be its viceroy. Spanish arrival At the time the Spanish returned to Peru, in 1532, a war of succession between Huayna Capac's sons Huáscar and Atahualpa and unrest among newly conquered territories—and perhaps more they were said to have hidden a city or gold in a vault. Significantly, smallpox, which had spread from Central America—had considerably weakened the empire. Pizarro did not have a formidable force; with just 170 men, 1 cannon and only 27 horses, he often needed to talk his way out of potential confrontations that could have easily wiped out his party. Their first engagement was the battle of Puná, near present-day Guayaquil, Ecuador; Pizarro then founded the city of Piura in July 1532. Hernando de Soto was sent inland to explore the interior, and returned with an invitation to meet the Inca, Atahualpa, who had defeated his brother in the civil war and was resting at Cajamarca with his army of 80,000 troops. Pizarro met with the Inca, who had brought only a small retinue, and through interpreters demanded that he convert to Christianity. A widely disputed legend claims that Atahualpa was handed a Bible and threw it on the floor, the Spanish supposedly interpreted this action as adequate reason for war. Though some chroniclers suggest that Atahualpa simply didn't understand the notion of a book, others portray Atahualpa as being genuinely curious and inquisitive in the situation. Regardless, the Spanish attacked the Inca's retinue (see Battle of Cajamarca), capturing Atahualpa. Thereby, the victory of the comparatively small Spanish force can be attributed to the presence of Spanish horses, which were unknown to the Inca before the arrival of Pizarro, as well as to the usage of guns and cannons by the Spanish men. Furthermore, the local educational investments, which had an impact on economic growth and development, did not equal those of the Spaniards, with the numeracy level of Peruvian Inca Indios amounting to half the numeracy level of Spanish invaders. Pizarro used the capture of Atahualpa to gain gold as a ransom. Atahualpa offered the Spaniards enough gold to fill the room he was imprisoned in, and twice that amount of silver. The Incas fulfilled this ransom. Over four months, almost 8 tons of gold was collected. Pizarro was supposed to let the ruler of the Incas free once the ransom was paid, but he refused to release the Inca after that and instead had him strangled in public. During Atahualpa's imprisonment Huáscar was assassinated. The Spanish maintained that this was at Atahualpa's orders; this was one of the charges used against Atahualpa when the Spanish finally decided to put him to death, in August 1533. End of the Civil War Chalcuchimac, Rumiñahui and Quizquiz were the three main Atahualpa's generals during the war. Chalcuchimac, who was also imprisoned in Cajamarca after carrying Atahualpa's ransom, was accused of poisoning Tupac Hualpa on the way to Cusco, for which he was sentenced to death. Refusing to be baptized, Chalcuchimac was burned alive in 1533 in Jaquijahuana, near Cuzco. Quizquiz, who sent Chalcuchimac, decided to attack the Spanish garrison at Jauja (one of the three places occupied by the Spanish, the others being Cusco and the colony of San Miguel, which ensured reinforcements by sea), where after some victories against Hernando de Soto was defeated thanks to the support of Francisco Pizarro and Manco Inca. He attacked Jauja again after a while but was defeated by Captain Gabriel de Rojas y Córdova in command of 40 Spaniards and 3,000 indian auxiliares (mostly Huancas, who were defending their home and had sworn allegiance to Francisco Pizarro during the capture of Atahualpa), which forced him to retreat to Huánuco Pampa and from there to the north, he had to face many hostile populations who were supporters of Cusco or saw the Spanish as liberators. Rumiñahui seems to have maintained the need to confront the Spanish conquistadors as soon as they landed, but his astute advice, as a consummate soldier, had not been followed and Atahualpa had preferred to laugh at the opinion of his spies. Rumiñahui had thus remained outside the city with an army made up of around 5,000 soldiers. When it became clear that the day had been fatal for the armies of Atahualpa, Rumiñahui gave the order to withdraw to Quito and managed to rescue his troops without suffering any loss. After the death of Atahualpa, Rumiñahui understood that the Spanish would also reach the territories under his jurisdiction and he prepared to act accordingly. However, he met with opposition from Illescas who, with a peaceful soul, didn't want to face foreigners whose strength he believed to be on the brink of invincibility. For Rumiñahui, this weakness of Atahualpa's legitimate successor was an incentive to act. With the excuse of a banquet in commemoration of the deceased Inca, he gathered all the relatives and faithful of Atahualpa and, in the middle of the party, he had them all arrested. Rumiñahui fought at first only against Sebastián de Belalcázar, but he was eventually supported by Diego de Almagro and Pedro de Alvarado. His army was also supported by Quizquiz, who was retrieving from the south, and the forces of Zope-Zopahua, Zopozopangui, Razo-razo, and Pintag II, however, the three armies fought separately, which gave the Spanish the advantage. The factor that most influenced the outcome of the conflict were the allies of the Spanish, the Cañari and other minor ethnic groups, who took care of all warfare, be it combat or transport of supplies. Despite this, the first battles were very fierce and the Spanish began to taste defeat, that was, until the Battle of Mount Chimborazo. Before Quito fell, Rumiñahui burned it down, hid the famous treasures of Atahualpa and killed 4000 pillajes, zámbizas and collaguazos indigenous people that had received Belalcázar as their liberator, who entered the city in 1534. Rumiñahui refused to accept defeat, so gathering new allies, he fell on Quito and pursued Belalcázar who was going to Riobamba to meet Pedro de Alvarado and delayed Belalcázar's second entry into Quito by three months. Belalcázar gave the final assault on Rumiñahui in the Sigchos pucará, in Cotopaxi. Rumiñahui, limping and alone, was captured and tortured to give information about Atahualpa's supposed hidden treasure, but never said a word about it. Faced with their failed attempts, the Spanish decided to execute Rumiñahui, Zope-Zopahua, Quingalumba, Razo-razo and Sina on June 25, 1535, some were burned alive and others with equally atrocious forms of execution. Quizquiz, together with the Inca nobleman Huayna Palcon, withdrew into the jungle to plan the strategy to follow in the fight against the Spanish. Perhaps he wanted to develop a guerrilla fight until he redid his forces, which Huayna Palcon opposed. He, apparently, wanted an understanding with the Spanish. In the midst of the heated discussion that broke out, Huayna Palcon took a spear and pierced Quizquiz's chest, killing him . Neo-Inca State Rebellion of Manco Inca An associate of Pizarro's, Diego de Almagro, attempted to claim Cusco for himself. Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cusco in 1536, but the Spanish retook the city. Retreat to Vilcabamba Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of Vilcabamba and founded the Neo-Inca State, where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them. In 1572 the last Inca stronghold was discovered, and the last ruler, Túpac Amaru, Manco's son, was captured and executed, bringing the Inca empire to an end. Post-Spanish conquest After the fall of Tahuantinsuyu, the new Spanish rulers repressed the people and their traditions. Many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system. The Spanish used the Inca mita (mandatory public service) system to get labourers for mines and plantations. One member of each family was forced to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the silver mine at Potosí. When one family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family would be required to send a replacement. The major languages of the empire, Quechua and Aymara, were employed by the Catholic Church to evangelize in the Andean region. In some cases, these languages were taught to peoples who had originally spoken other indigenous languages. Today, Quechua and Aymara remain the most widespread Amerindian languages. Once the viceroyalty was established, the condition of the Inca nobility was not accepted by the encomenderos, since they believed that this social class could lead uprisings and revolutions, as happened during the Manco Inca rebellion, however, for a century, the nobility was recognized and accepted. The Crown also sought to consolidate its position, creating special colleges for curacas. In them, in addition to being correctly evangelized, they learned grammar and science. Viceroy José de Armendáriz reestablished the system by which Inca nobles who could prove their ancestry were recognized as Hidalgos of Castile. This led to a frenzy on the part of the indigenous nobility, who had to prove their noble titles to legitimize their status. But this situation worsened in 1780 with the rebellion of Tupac Amaru II, when they lost these privileges. Further reading Andrien, Kenneth J. (2001). Andean Worlds. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 9780826323583. Hemming, John. (1970). Conquest of the Incas. ISBN 9780156028264 Notes References External links Peru Cultural Society E-museum @ Minnesota State University Nueva corónica y buen gobierno by Guaman Poma (published 1615) Inca Land by Hiram Bingham (published 1912–1922) Tupac Amaru, the Life, Times, and Execution of the Last Inca. Inca Artifacts, Peru, and Machu Picchu 360-degree movies of inca artifacts and Peruvian landscapes. Inca civilization and other ancient civilizations by Genry Joil. Ancient Civilizations – Inca Inca Incas
4884675	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army%20Air%20Forces%20Tactical%20Center	Army Air Forces Tactical Center	The Army Air Forces Tactical Center was a major command and military training organization of the United States Army Air Forces during World War II. It trained cadres from newly formed units in combat operations under simulated field conditions around which new combat groups would be formed. It was established as the Army Air Forces School of Applied Tactics (AAFSAT) in 1942 and redesignated the following year. In addition to its training function, the school also developed as a tactical doctrine development center, assuming the functions formerly assigned the Air Corps Tactical School. In June 1946, the center became the Army Air Forces Proving Ground Command. History Background As the threat of entry of the United States into World War II increased, the United States Army decided to close the Air Corps Tactical School in 1940 in order to use its experienced personnel at headquarters, and in expanded training and tactical units. As a result, the responsibility for the development and change to tactics for Air Corps units was scattered among various Air Corps units. Moreover, no single element of the Air Staff or special committee was responsible for overseeing tactical doctrine for the Army's air elements. The field organizations primarily responsible for development of tactics and associated doctrine were the Army Air Force Board, the Air Defense Board, the Fighter Command School and the Army Air Forces Proving Ground. In addition, the splitting of existing combat groups into cadres for new groups had become impracticable as the number of new groups increased. At the entry of the United States into World War II on 7 December 1941, the Army Air Forces (AAF) had expanded to 67 groups from a pre-1939 total of 15, but approximately half were paper units just forming. The entry into the war meant an immediate significant increase in the numbers of new combat groups, expanding to 269 groups by the end of 1943. Formation of the Army Air Forces School of Applied Tactics Headquarters USAAF originally intended that four tactical schools be developed across the United States, one each for air defense, air service, air support and bombardment. However "to save administrative costs and physical outlay" and to facilitate coordination between the schools, all four would be consolidated at a single location. Orlando Army Air Base, Florida was chosen 1 November 1942, primarily because it was already the location of Fighter Command School, which would be subordinated to the Army Air Forces School of Applied Tactics (AAFSAT). The AAF determined this organization would conduct tactical development and training and provide tactical training for flyers who were preparing to deploy to theaters of operation. The commandant of AAFSAT was Brigadier General Hume Peabody, formerly the assistant commandant of the Air Corps Tactical School. The Fighter Command School became AAFSAT's Air Defense Department at once. The 91st Service Group at Fort Dix Army Air Field moved to Orlando and became the Air Service Department. 5th Interceptor Command moved from San Francisco and became the Interceptor Command School. The other two departments, Air Support and Bombardment were built up from scratch AAFSAT was organized into three directorates: Tactical Development, School Activities, and Demonstration Air Force, with three combat groups acting as both school units and demonstration air force units. The Directorate of School Activities was responsible for the four functional departments. The school officially opened 12 November 1942. An important component was the Army Air Forces Board, which supervised developmental projects. This board also assigned developmental projects to AAFSAT's departments, and had two subordinate boards, the Air Defense Board and, after April 1943, the AAF Equipment Board. Although the Board had been operating before AAFSAT was activated, it only became official in July, when the school became the AAF Tactical Center. It was reassigned from the center directly to Headquarters, AAF in October 1943.although the commandant of the center remained a member of the board. Army Air Forces Tactical Center In October 1943, AAFSAT was reorganized and became the Army Air Forces Tactical Center. A "new" AAFSAT was organized as one of the center's subordinate units. The first group receiving AAFSAT training to deploy overseas was the 390th Bombardment Group in July 1943, based in England with the Eighth Air Force. By September 1945, the AAF Center had trained 54,000 personnel and the cadres of 44 bombardment groups. During 1943-1945 the AAF Tactical Center operated a combat simulation facility in Florida. Units and airfields were established throughout an area of north central Florida designated a mock "war theater" stretching roughly from Tampa to Titusville to Starke to Apalachicola in which war games were conducted. AAFSAT also had a bombing range at Ocala AAF, a service center at Leesburg AAF, and an air depot at Pinecastle Army Air Field. Transfer and transition Due to a major reorganization of the Tactical Center and a change in the types of courses conducted by the institution, the Army Air Forces redesignated the "new" AAFSAT as the Army Air Forces School on 1 June 1945, while the Tactical Center dropped the "Tactical" from its name and became the AAF Center. Following the end of World War II, in preparation for its post-war educational operations, the AAF moved the AAF School from Orlando to Maxwell Field, Alabama on 29 November 1945 and assigned it directly to Headquarters, AAF. Having lost its developmental function, the AAF Center moved to Eglin Field in March 1946 and became the Army Air Forces Proving Ground Command. Lineage Established as the Army Air Forces School of Applied Tactics on 27 October 1942 Activated on 12 November 1942 Redesignated Army Air Forces Tactical Center on 16 October 1943 Redesignated Army Air Forces Center on 1 June 1945 Redesignated Army Air Forces Proving Ground Command on 8 March 1946 Redesignated Air Proving Ground Command on 10 July 1946 Redesignated Air Materiel Proving Ground on 20 January 1948 Redesignated Air Proving Ground on 3 March 1948 Redesignated Air Proving Ground Command on 20 December 1951 Redesignated Air Proving Ground Center on 1 December 1957 Redesignated Armament Development and Test Center on 15 July 1968 Redesignated Armament Division on 1 October 79 Redesignated Munitions Systems Division on 15 March 1989 Redesignated Air Force Development Test Center on 15 July 1990 Redesignated Air Armament Center on 1 October 1998 Inactivated on 1 October 2012 Assignments United States Army Air Forces (later United States Air Force), 27 October 1942 Air Materiel Command, 20 January 1948 United States Air Force, 1 June 1948 Air Research and Development Command (later Air Force Systems Command), 1 December 1957 Air Force Materiel Command, 1 July 1992 – 1 October 2012 Stations Orlando Army Air Base, Florida, 12 November 1942 Eglin Field (later Eglin Air Force Base), Florida, 8 March 1946 – 1 October 2012 School units The AAF Tactical Center medium and heavy bomber school unit from 31 October 1942 was the 9th Bombardment Group. In February 1943, a close air support school unit, the 415th Bombardment Group was added. The fighter school unit from 23 March 1943 was the 50th Fighter Group. Night Fighter training initially began with the 50th Group's 81st Fighter Squadron, but by 1943 was concentrated in the 481st Night Fighter Operational Training Group. However, the AAF was finding that standard military units like these groups, based on relatively inflexible tables of organization not well adapted to the training mission. Accordingly, it adopted a more functional system in the spring of 1944 in which each base was organized into a separate numbered unit. In preparation for this reorganization, the 9th Bombardment Group moved to Nebraska, where it was reassigned to Second Air Force to become a Boeing B-29 Superfortress unit. The 50th Fighter Group began to concentrate on training in preparation for deployment to the European Theater of Operations in March 1944, the 481st Night Fighter Operational Training Group continued its mission, but transferred to Fourth Air Force in California in January 1944. The transition to the new organization took place on 14 April 1944. With a ground school at Orlando Army Air Base, Florida, presenting a two-week academic course, AAFSAT also taught a two-week field course utilizing eleven training airfields in Florida representing all conditions likely to be found in combat, from bare fields to prepared bomber air bases having runways. Components Groups 9th Bombardment Group 1st Bombardment Squadron (Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress) Orlando Army Air Base, 31 October-15 December 1942;25 February-3 March 1944 Brooksville Army Air Field, 15 December 1942 – 25 February 1944 5th Bombardment Squadron, (Consolidated B-24 Liberator), (North American B-25 Mitchell) Orlando Army Air Base, 31 October 1942 – 15 April 1943 Pinecastle Army Air Field, 15 April 1943-7 January 1944;13 February-9 March 1944 Brooksville Army Air Field, 7 January-13 February 1944 99th Bombardment Squadron, (North American B-25 Mitchell), (Martin B-26 Marauder) Orlando Army Air Base, 31 October 1942 – 5 February 1943, 25 February-9 March 1944 Montbrook Army Air Field, 5 February-14 November 1943 Kissimmee Army Air Field, 14 November 1943 – 5 January 1944 Brooksville Army Air Field, 5 January-25 February 1944 430th Bombardment Squadron, (Consolidated B-24 Liberator), (North American B-25 Mitchell), (Martin B-26 Marauder) Orlando Army Air Base, 31 October 1942 – 6 January 1944; 25 February-6 March 1944 Brooksville Army Air Field, 6 January-25 February 1944 50th Fighter Group 10th Fighter Squadron, (Curtiss P-40 Warhawk) Orlando Army Air Base, 18 March 1942-4 January 1943;29 January-13 March 1944 Zephyrhills Army Air Field 4 January 1943 – 29 January 1944 81st Fighter Squadron, (Curtiss P-40 Warhawk) Orlando Army Air Base, 22 March 1942 – 18 June 1943; 1 February-13 March 1944 Cross City Army Air Field, 18 June 1943 – 1 February 1944 313th Fighter Squadron, (Curtiss P-40 Warhawk) Orlando Army Air Base]], 20 March 1942, 5 January 1943; 28 January-13 March 1944 Leesburg Army Air Field, 5 January-17 November 1943 Keystone Army Air Field, 17 November 1943 – 28 January 1944 415th Bombardment Group 465th Bombardment Squadron, (Douglas A-20 Havoc) (assigned to AAFSAT, 24 January-23 March 1943) Alachua Army Air Field, 24 January-19 November 1943 Montbrook Army Air Field, 19 November 1943 – 2 March 1944 Orlando Army Air Base, 2–19 March 1944 667th Bombardment Squadron (later 521st Fighter-Bomber Squadron (Douglas A-24 Dauntless), (Bell P-39 Airacobra), (North American A-36 Apache) Alachua Army Air Field, 15 February 1943 – 2 March 1944 Orlando Army Air Base, 2–19 March 1944 Night fighter units Air Defense Department, Army Air Forces School of Applied Tactics, 18 February 1943 481st Night Fighter Operational Training Group, 28 July 1943 – 1 January 1944 348th Night Fighter Squadron, (Douglas P-70 Havoc), (North American B-25 Mitchell) (attached to 481st Night Fighter Operational Training Group, 17 July 1943) Orlando Army Air Base, 4 October 1942 – 19 January 1944 349th Night Fighter Squadron, (Douglas P-70 Havoc), (B-25 Mitchell) (assigned to Night Fighter Division, Army Air Forces School of Applied Tactics, 1 April 1943, attached to: 481st Night Fighter Operational Training Group, 17 July 1943) Orlando Army Air Base, 4 October 1942 – 1 January 1943 Kissimmee Army Air Field, 1 January 1943 – 15 January 1944 414th Night Fighter Squadron, (Douglas P-70 Havoc) (air echelon attached to VIII Fighter Command after 31 March 1943) Orlando Army Air Base, 26 January-8 February 1943 Kissimmee Army Air Field, 8 February-21 April 1943 415th Night Fighter Squadron, (P-70/A-20 Havoc) (air echelon attached to VIII Fighter Command after 31 March 1943) Orlando Army Air Base, 26 January-8 February 1943 Kissimmee Army Air Field, 8 February-21 April 1943 416th Night Fighter Squadron, (Douglas P-70 Havoc) Orlando Army Air Base, 20 February-26 April 1943 417th Night Fighter Squadron, (Douglas P-70 Havoc) Orlando Army Air Base, 20 February-5 March 1943 Kissimmee Army Air Field, 5 March-26 April 1943 418th Night Fighter Squadron, (Douglas P-70 Havoc) (attached to 481st Night Fighter Operational Training Group, 17 July-25 September 1943) Orlando Army Air Base, 1 April-25 August 1943 Kissimmee Army Air Field, 25 August-25 September 1943 419th Night Fighter Squadron, (Douglas P-70 Havoc) (attached to 481st Night Fighter Operational Training Group, 17 July-15 October 1943) Orlando Army Air Base, 1–22 April 1943 Kissimmee Army Air Field, 22 April-15 October 1943 420th Night Fighter Squadron, (Douglas P-70 Havoc) (attached to: 481st Night Fighter Operational Training Group, 17–26 July 1943) Orlando Army Air Base, 1 June 1943 Kissimmee Army Air Field, 1 June-20 August 1943 Dunnellon Army Air Field 20 August 1943 – 18 January 1944 421st Night Fighter Squadron, (Douglas P-70 Havoc) (attached to: 481st Night Fighter Operational Training Group, 17 July-7 November 1943) Orlando Army Air Base, 1 May-1 October 1943 Kissimmee Army Air Field, 4 October-7 November 1943 422d Night Fighter Squadron, (Douglas P-70 Havoc) (assigned to AAF Tactical Center after 8 January 1943) Orlando Army Air Base, 1 August-3 November 1943; 6 January-13 November 1944 Kissimmee Army Air Field, 3 November 1943 – 6 January 1944 423d Night Fighter Squadron (Douglas P-70 Havoc) Orlando Army Air Base, 1 October 1943 – 29 January 1944 425th Night Fighter Squadron, (Douglas P-70 Havoc) Orlando Army Air Base, 1 December 1943 – 20 January 1944 Schools Fighter Command School, 4 October 1942 – c. 4 January 1943 Army Air Forces School of Applied Tactics (later Army Air Forces School), 21 January 1943 – 29 November 1945 Base units 900th Army Air Forces Base Unit (Army Air Forces School of Applied Tactics), 1 April 44-1 Jun 45 Redescribed (Army Air Forces Tactical Center), 1 Jun 45-3 Jul 45 Orlando AAB 901st Army Air Forces Base Unit (Tactical Wing), 29 Mar 44-15 Mar 45 Orlando AAB 901st Army Air Forces Base Unit (Army Air Forces Board), 1 Jun 45-3 Jul 45 Orlando AAB 902d Army Air Forces Base Unit (Base Complement), 29 March 1944 – 1945 Redescribed (Facilities), 1945 – 20 July 46 Orlando Army Air Base(-Jun 46) Eglin Field 903d Army Air Forces Base Unit (Base Services), 29 March–1 June 1944 Orlando Army Air Base 903d Army Air Forces Base Unit (Base Complement), 6 September–1 October 44 Redescribed (Bombardment), 1 October 1944 – 1 July 1945 Redesignated 621st Army Air Forces Base Unit Pinecastle Army Air Field 904th Army Air Forces Base Unit (Aviation), 1 April–31 May 44 Orlando Army Air Base 904th Army Air Forces Base Unit (Fighter), 6 September–31 December 1944 Redescribed (Base Complement), 1 May–7 July 1945 Kissimmee Army Air Field 906th Army Air Forces Base Unit (Bombardment, Heavy), 29 March–6 September 1944 Pinecastle Army Air Field 907th Army Air Forces Base Unit (Bombardment, Medium & Light), 1 April–30 June 1944 Orlando Army Air Base 909th Army Air Forces Base Unit (Fighter, Single Engine), 29 March–1 April 1944 Alachua Army Air Field(-1944) Orlando Army Air Base 910th Army Air Forces Base Unit (Fighter, Two Engine) 29 March–31 May 1944 Leesburg Army Air Field(-May 44) Orlando Army Air Base 911th Army Air Forces Base Unit (Service Group, Special), 29 March–30 Jun 1944 Orlando Army Air Base 916th Army Air Forces Base Unit (Antiaircraft Artillery Group) 1 May 45-21 March 1946 (transferred to Air Defense Command) Orlando Army Air Base 999th Army Air Forces Base Unit (Hq, AAF Tactical Applications Ctr) 17 April 44 – 31 December 46 Orlando Army Air Base(-Jul 45) Eglin Field Other Army Air Forces Board: 12 November 1942 (1 July 1943) – 8 October 1943 See also Orlando Fighter Wing References Notes Explanatory notes Citations Bibliography Shaw, Frederick J. (2004), Locating Air Force Base Sites: History's Legacy, Air Force History and Museums Program, United States Air Force, Washington, D.C., 2004. Bowman, Martin W., USAAF Handbook 1939-1945, External links Time article, May 24, 1943 Army Air Forces Historical Study No. 13 "The Development of Tactical Doctrines at AAFSAT and AAFTAC" Army Air Forces School of Applied Tactics Airfields United States Army Air Force Commands 1942 establishments in Florida 1946 disestablishments in Florida
4884925	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walmart%20Canada	Walmart Canada	Walmart Canada is a Canadian retail corporation and the subsidiary of U.S.-based multinational retail conglomerate Walmart. Headquartered in Mississauga, Ontario, it was founded on March 17, 1994, with the purchase of the Woolco Canada chain from the F. W. Woolworth Company. Originally consisting of discount stores, many of Walmart Canada's contemporaries and competitors include Giant Tiger, Home Hardware, Canadian Tire, Mark's, Sport Chek, GameStop, Dollarama, Winners, HomeSense, Rossy, Staples Canada, Michaels, Pet Valu, the Great Canadian Dollar Store, Dollar Tree, and Hart Stores. Based on the success of the US format, Walmart Canada has focused on expanding Supercentres from new or converted locations, offering groceries which puts them in the same market as supermarket chains such as Loblaws, Real Canadian Superstore, Atlantic Superstore, Your Independent Grocer, No Frills, Metro, Sobeys, Foodland, Thrifty Foods, Safeway, Save-On-Foods, Country Grocer, Fairway Markets, Quality Foods, Co-op and others. Walmart is the second largest retailer in Canada by revenue. As of October 31, 2022, Walmart Canada has 402 stores operating, including 343 supercentres and 59 discount stores in almost every province and territory except for Nunavut. Walmart Canada's principal developer and landlord is SmartCentres; other significant landlords include Riocan and First Capital Realty. It is a participant in the voluntary Scanner Price Accuracy Code managed by the Retail Council of Canada. History Walmart Canada was established on January 14, 1994 through the acquisition by Walmart of 122 Canadian leases of Woolco, a troubled subsidiary of Woolworth Canada. The same year, these Woolco stores were renovated and converted into the Walmart banner. Wal-Mart did not acquire 22 other Woolco stores that were either unionized or had downtown locations. Some former Woolco stores were sold and re-opened as Zellers stores. All 16,000 former employees of the Woolco stores that Walmart acquired were retained, retrained, and given a five percent raise. Mario Pilozzi, a senior vice-president at Woolco when the deal was signed, eventually became CEO of Walmart Canada. Pilozzi, who retired in 2008, has proclaimed that he and "his management team took a limping chain and turned it into the Walmart powerhouse that became a game-changer on the Canadian business scene. Retailers changed, Canadian manufacturers faced demands and volumes they had not seen before, real estate transitioned from enclosed malls to big-box plazas". Reflecting on the 1994 deal in 2013, a Walmart Canada spokesman was quoted as saying "Even though Woolco had seen better days and was struggling, there was still an enormous amount of talent in that company. I think that is one of the reasons Walmart has succeeded in Canada, is because we started with a fantastic team that we re-motivated". Since 1994, many of the shopping centres in which Walmart is located have been developed by SmartCentres (originally known as First Pro), a real estate company founded by Mitchell Goldhar. At present, Smartcentres is the landlord for approximately 100 Walmarts in Canada. Beginning in the fall of 2006, Walmart opened new Supercentres in Canadian cities. Walmart Canada also operated Sam's Club stores in Ontario from 2003 to 2009. On February 26, 2009, they announced that it would close all six of its Canadian Sam's Club locations. This was part of Walmart Canada's decision to shift focus towards Supercenter stores, but some industry observers suggested that the operation was struggling to compete with Costco and the non-membership Real Canadian Superstore (known as Maxi & Cie in Quebec). Sam's Club also rebranded two unopened locations as new Walmart Supercentres. From originally taking over much of the Woolco chain, Walmart Canada has expanded and opened new stores. It grew to 260 stores by 2005, making it Canada's second-largest retail chain. In 2011, Walmart Canada acquired the leases of 39 Zellers stores from Target, originally one of the 189 leaseholds purchased from Hudson's Bay Company and slated for conversion to Target Canada stores. Walmart Canada managed to convert and reopen some of the former Zellers stores before Target Canada's launch. Unlike Walmart's 1994 move into Canada, Walmart Canada this time did not guarantee the jobs of the employees whose stores it was acquiring. Walmart Canada launched the "Urban 90" format in 2012, a set of smaller Supercentres averaging . On May 8, 2015, following the bankruptcy of Target Canada, Walmart Canada announced its intent to acquire 13 former Target locations, along with its distribution centre in Cornwall, Ontario subject to court approval. These locations included an unopened location at the Bayshore Shopping Centre in Ottawa. In September 2018, Walmart Canada began offering same-day delivery at some of its locations through a partnership with Instacart. On March 15, 2021, Walmart Canada announced that it would close six stores and spend over $500 million to renovate over 60 percent of its stores over the next five years. Supercentres in Canada With the success of both Walmart in Canada and Walmart Supercenters in the United States, it was announced in late 2005 that the Supercentre concept would be arriving in Canada. On November 8, 2006, Canada's first three Supercentres opened in Ancaster, London, and Stouffville, all in Ontario. Alberta became the second province with Supercentres in September 2007. The first Supercentre in Vancouver, British Columbia opened in January 2009 in a former Costco/Price Club location, which moved to a new larger site nearby in Burnaby. Walmart Supercentres range from . Walmart Supercentres stock everything a Walmart Discount Store does, but also include a full-service supermarket, including meat and poultry, baked goods, delicatessen, frozen foods, dairy products, garden produce, and fresh seafood. Many Walmart Supercenters also feature a garden centre, pet shop, Axess Law office, pharmacy, Tire & Lube Express, optical centre, one-hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, a clinic and numerous alcove shops, such as cellular phone stores, hair and nail salons, video rental stores (including Redbox rental kiosks), local bank branches, and fast food outlets, Walmart Canada Bank launched its application for banking licence in 2008 to compete with similar stores in Canada such as Loblaw. On July 24, 2009, Walmart Canada Bank was incorporated under the Bank Act in Canada. On May 17, 2018, Wal-Mart Canada announced it had reached a definitive agreement to sell Wal-Mart Canada Bank to First National co-founder Stephen Smith and private equity firm Centerbridge Partners, L.P., on undisclosed financial terms. On the purely coincidental date of April 1, 2019, Centerbridge Partners, L.P. and Stephen Smith jointly announced the closing of the previously announced acquisition of Wal-Mart Canada Bank and that it was to be renamed Duo Bank of Canada, to be styled simply as Duo Bank. Though exact ownership percentages were never revealed in either company announcement, it has also since been revealed that Duo Bank was reclassified as a Schedule 1 (domestic, deposit-taking) federally chartered bank of the Bank Act in Canada from the Schedule 2 (foreign-owned or -controlled, deposit-taking) that it had been, which indicates that Stephen Smith, as a noted Canadian businessman, is in a controlling position. Discount stores in Canada Walmart Discount Stores are discount department stores varying in size from , with the average store covering about . They carry general merchandise and a selection of dried goods. Many of these stores also have a garden centre, pharmacy, medical clinic, Tire & Lube Express, optical centre, one-hour photo processing lab, cell phone store and fast food outlet, the usual restaurant being McDonald's. Walmart Discount Stores carry limited grocery items, which are limited mostly to dried goods. Sam's Club (2006–2009) Walmart Canada operated Sam's Club warehouse clubs in Ontario from 2006 to 2009. On February 26, 2009, they announced that it would close all six of its Canadian Sam's Club locations. Sam's Club also rebranded two unopened locations as new Walmart Supercentres. This was part of Walmart Canada's decision to shift focus towards supercenter stores. Some industry observers suggested that the Canadian Sam's Club never enjoyed the success of its American counterpart due to competition with Costco and the non-membership the Real Canadian Superstore (known as Maxi & Cie in Quebec), as both chains that had a well-established history in Canada while Sam's Club was a late entrant. That same year, Walmart Canada confirmed that it was in discussions with home improvement chain Lowe's to take over five of the six Sam's Club locations. Corporate Community involvement Raised and donated over $100 million since 1994 to Children's Miracle Network (CMN) to support children's hospitals across Canada. Contributed $2.9 million to more than 1,000 local non-profit organizations through Walmart's Local Matching Grant program. Raised and contributed $2.8 million for the Breakfast for Learning Canada program, a school nutrition program and partnership with a goal to ensure all school children attend class well nourished and ready to learn. Became the top corporate sponsor of the Canadian Red Cross, with $1 million in relief aid related to Hurricane Katrina, the India earthquake and other projects. Donated $300,000 to Evergreen, a Canadian non-profit environmental organization to help community groups create and improve green space in urban areas across the country. Awarded $115,000 in scholarships to Canadian university and college students. Supported 150 Canadian schools through a number of programs including Walmart Canada's Adopt-a School program. Marketing Slogans Where Everyday Costs Less (1994–1995) Always Low Prices. Always Wal-Mart. (1995–1998) We Sell For Less Everyday (1998–2009) Save Money. Live Better. (2009–present) Leadership Controversy Walmart Canada has been criticized for using low prices to drive out rivals and local businesses. Within ten years of Walmart's entry into Canada, well-established retailer chains such as Zellers, The Bay, and Sears Canada have struggled, with Kmart Canada being sold to Zellers while Eaton's (whom Walmart Canada overtook to become Canada's largest retailer) filed for bankruptcy. The continued difficulties of competing against Walmart Canada eventually led to HBC selling the leases of most Zellers stores to Target Canada, who also went out of business. In June 2005, Vancouver City Council voted 8–3 to reject Wal-Mart's proposal to build its first store in the city, a store on Southeast Marine Drive. All eight Coalition of Progressive Electors (COPE) councillors against the project, while Mayor Larry Campbell and Non-Partisan Association (NPA) councillors, Sam Sullivan and Peter Ladner, were in favour. Wal-Mart's proposed store was designed by local architect Peter Busby for sustainable development, with windmills generating power and underground wells heating and cooling the building which would consume 1/3 the energy of a normal store, and it was endorsed by city planners and staffers. Councillor Anne Roberts stated that her opposition was due to potential traffic and congestion that the store would bring to south Vancouver, although she later remarked "I'm not a fan of Wal-Mart, and I've always been concerned about their labour practices, about getting goods from sweatshops". Labour Like its American parent, Walmart Canada has been the subject of criticism that it has engaged in practices that discourage associates from exercising their right to join a union and negotiate a collective bargaining agreement. Walmart Canada has been accused of undermining internet rights and freedom of speech, as a result of its June 2009 decision to seek an injunction against the Walmart Workers Canada campaign and its longstanding Walmart Workers Canada website in particular, a labour rights website sponsored by United Food and Commercial Workers Union Canada (UFCW Canada). In Saskatchewan, Walmart fought unionization drivers at stores in Weyburn and North Battleford. The company's tactics eventually resulted in the Labour Relations Board imposing a fine and ordering them to hand over relevant documents, including the anti-union handbook for managers. A Walmart store in Windsor, was unionized in 1997, but workers dissolved the union three years later after it failed to sign contract with management. The United Food and Commercial Workers Union (UFCW), which had long been unsuccessful in unionizing Walmarts in the United States and much of Canada, was able to use some of Quebec's union-friendly laws to its advantage. These laws permit card check organizing, which gives unions more power than secret ballot organizing used in the rest of Canada, and mandates arbitration if the two sides fail to reach a contract. The UFCW argued that union card-signing was more democratic than secret votes because "when there is a vote Walmart uses intimidation tactics". In addition, Quebec's labour relations board had ordered Walmart Canada to stop "intimidating and harassing" cashiers at a store in Sainte-Foy, near Quebec City in the midst of an organizing drive. Walmart has responded, mostly by shutting down unionized stores or stalling labour contract negotiations. For instance they closed their Saguenay, Quebec store, in April 2005 after workers unionized and just days before contract settlement by binding arbitration, putting 190 employees out of work. Walmart argued that the store was not profitable and the Supreme Court of Canada affirmed 6–3 on November 27, 2009, that the company had the legal right to close the store. Walmart also closed its automotive centre in Gatineau, Quebec, after employees unionized and an arbitrator imposed a 33% wage increase. There was the successful unionization by the UFCW of a Walmart store in Jonquière, Quebec in August 2004, as told in the documentary Wal-Mart: The High Cost of Low Price. The initial card check organizing efforts fell one vote short, and in April 2004 a secret ballot to join the union was defeated 53% to 47%. However, when a group of managers gathered just outside the front door to celebrate for the TV cameras and taunt union supporters as they left the store, this spectacle offended many of the workers that originally voted against the union and caused them to switch sides, leading to a second and successful card check that unionized the store in August 2004. However, nine days of negotiation between the UFCW and Wal-Mart were fruitless, with the union accusing the company of not negotiating in good faith while Walmart argued that the union wanted the store to hire an additional 30 workers. Walmart closed the store five months later because the company did not approve of the new "business plan" a union would require, and this move was permitted by Quebec law as long as the closure was permanent. This labour dispute between Walmart and the UFCW made headlines worldwide; three of the other forty-six Walmarts in the province of Quebec were temporarily closed by bomb threats, while a TV broadcaster likened Wal-Mart to Nazi Germany, and Saguenay mayor Jean Tremblay denounced the company as a "freebooting scofflaw". Walmart CEO H. Lee Scott Jr. argued that the Jonquière store was struggling, while polls in Canada showed that 9 of 10 Canadians believed that the store closure was mainly due to the unionization. A local newspaper columnist accused the UFCW leaders in Washington, D.C., of using the Jonquière store workers (in a city with chronically high unemployment, and whose stores had been wiped out by the opening of the Place du Royaume shopping mall in Chicoutimi) as "cannon fodder" to provoke a fight in order to incite public opinion against the Walmart, knowing that Walmart headquarters would not tolerate a unionized store. In September 2005, the Quebec Labour Board ruled that the closing of a Walmart store amounted to a reprisal against unionized workers and has ordered additional hearings on possible compensation for the employees, though it offered no details. Union organizers suggested that Walmart was making an example of the Jonquière store to pressure workers at other locations not to unionize. At the Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec Walmart, the 200 employees had organized successfully in January 2005 but contract negotiations stalled and an arbitrator was called in, finally reaching a two-year deal on April 9, 2009. However the Saint-Hyacinthe contract was seen largely as a Pyrrhic victory for the UFCW, as the arbitrator portrayed "Walmart as at least as good an employer-even a superior employer- compared with other retailers", noting that Walmart workers were paid more than their counterparts at Zellers. The union's calls for wage and benefit increases were all rejected, particularly their demand for an automatic-progression annual wage scales, as that would have conflicted with the company-wide annual performance evaluation, a key component of Walmart's business model. The arbitrator awarded existing workers (but not new hires) a small wage gain of 30¢ an hour to prevent them from being "impoverished" by dues paid to a union that failed to justify wages increases to the arbitrator. In 2011, the Saint-Hyacinthe Walmart employees voted (147 out of 250) to decertify United Food and Commercial Workers as their representative union; it has been suggested that employees were disappointed in their union whose 2009 contract was tilted strongly in favour of their employer. Walmart employees in Gatineau, Quebec joined the United Food and Commercial Workers Union (UFCW) in 2008. This was followed by two years of stalled negotiations before an arbitrator imposed a collective agreement. In November 2011, after one year with their first collective agreement, the 150 Wal-Mart employees voted to decertify. On August 15, 2013, the Supreme Court of Canada cleared the way for Walmart employees in Weyburn, Saskatchewan who voted 51–5 to decertify United Food and Commercial Workers as their representative union. This left no unionized Wal-Mart stores in the whole of Canada. Security On July 14, 2015 Walmart Canada disabled their online photo site, blaming a third party vendor, believed to be PNI Digital Media. Walmart's shutdown was followed shortly after by other companies suspending their photo site whilst an investigation took place. In common with other potential victims there was no confirmation or denial about whether hackers had stolen customer photographs as well as data and payment information. Walmart Canada interiors References External links Official website 1994 establishments in Ontario Canadian subsidiaries of foreign companies Companies based in Mississauga Canadian brands Department stores of Canada Discount stores of Canada Retail companies established in 1994 Supermarkets of Canada Walmart Canadian companies established in 1994 Toy retailers of Canada
4884979	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali%20and%20Nino	Ali and Nino	Ali and Nino is a novel about a romance between a Muslim Azerbaijani boy and Christian Georgian girl in Baku in the years 1914–1920. It explores the dilemmas created by "European" rule over an "Oriental" society and presents a tableau portrait of Azerbaijan's capital, Baku, during the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic period that preceded the long era of Soviet rule. It was published under the pseudonym Kurban Said. The novel has been published in more than 30 languages, with more than 100 editions or reprints. The book was first published in Vienna in German in 1937, by E.P. Tal Verlag. It is widely regarded as a literary masterpiece and since its rediscovery and global circulation, which began in 1970, it is commonly considered the national novel of Azerbaijan. The English translation, by Jenia Graman, was published in 1970. There has been a good deal of interest in the authorship of Ali and Nino. The true identity behind the pseudonym "Kurban Said" has been the subject of some dispute. The case for Lev Nussimbaum, aka Essad Bey, as the author originally surfaced in 1944. In Tom Reiss's 2005 international bestseller The Orientalist: Solving the Mystery of a Strange and Dangerous Life, Reiss makes a thorough case that the novel is the work of Nussimbaum, which continues a claim dating to Nussimbaum's correspondence and writings 1938–1942 and the writings of Ahmed Giamil Vacca-Mazzara in the 1940s. A claim for Yusif Vazir Chamanzaminli as author originated in 1971. The argument for Chamanzaminli was presented in a special 2011 issue of Azerbaijan International entitled Ali and Nino: The Business of Literature, in which Betty Blair argued that Nussimbaum merely embellished a manuscript of which she surmises that Chamanzaminli must be the "core author," a position that had already been advanced by Chamanaminli's sons and their supporters for some years. The novel's copyright holder, Leela Ehrenfels, maintains that her aunt the Baroness Elfriede Ehrenfels von Bodmershof authored the book, mainly because the book's publishing contract and subsequent catalog record identify her as Kurban Said, though few support this as proof of her authorship. Plot [[Image:Baku realni school.jpg\|thumb\|Baku Realni School, the setting of Ali and Ninos first scene, now houses the University of Economics]] It is the early 1910s in Baku, Azerbaijan, under Russian control. Ali Khan Shirvanshir and Nino Kipiani are both still at school, but have loved each other for many years. He belongs to a distinguished Azerbaijani family (of Persian ancestry) and is a Muslim. Despite his European education, he feels deeply that he is Asian. She belongs to a distinguished Georgian family, and the Russian authorities have permitted her to use the title 'Princess'. She is a Christian, and culturally European. The novel is related in the first person by Ali. There are detailed descriptions of the locales and their customs. Russia goes to war (in 1914); some of Ali's Muslim friends eagerly join the Russian army, but he feels it is a Christians' war. Then the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) declares war on Russia; the Ottomans are Muslim, but Sunnites, while the Azerbaijanis are Shiites. There is bafflement, and uncertainty about the future. Ali's father permits him to marry Nino. Nino's father permits her to marry in a year's time, when she has finished school; his permission is apparently partly thanks to the persuasion of Ali's friend Melek Nacharyan, a (Christian) Armenian. But, totally unexpectedly, Nacharyan kidnaps Nino, persuading her that she will be safe with him whatever happens in the war, and drives away from Baku with her. On the unpaved road, Ali overtakes his car on horseback, and stabs him to death. He is entitled to kill Nino as well, but spares her, and orders his companions not to harm her. To escape the revenge of Nacharyan's family, Ali hides in a mountain village in Dagestan. After a time, Nino joins him; they still love each other. They are married, and live in blissful poverty. Then the news comes: the Tsar has been deposed, the government of Baku has evaporated, and all the Nacharyan family have left. Ali and Nino return to Baku. Baku becomes surrounded by an irregular Russian army seeking loot. Ali joins the defenders; Nino refuses to take shelter, and aids behind the front line. But they have to flee, and the Shirvanshir house is stripped by looters. With Ali's father they flee to Persia, which is at peace. Ali and Nino stay in Tehran in great comfort, but she is confined to the harem and is deeply discontented. Ali joins the parade on Muharram and comes home bloodied, to Nino's extreme distress. In the war, the Turks begin to prevail against Russia. The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic is declared, and the Turks occupy Baku. Ali and Nino return, and she takes charge of renovating and refurnishing the Shirvanshir house. It is a happy period. But the Turks are forced to make peace and withdraw, and their place is taken by a British occupation (and protection) force. The Republic still exists and Ali and Nino, who both speak English, serve as hosts for government events. On her own secret initiative, Nino arranges for them to be posted to the embassy in Paris, but Ali cannot bear to leave Baku, and she yields to him and apologises. She gives birth to a daughter. The war has ended, and the British troops are going to be withdrawn. The Russians are pressing again. In the hot weather, Ali, Nino, and the baby go to his estate near the Azerbaijani town of Ganja. They cut themselves off from news and events and are very happy. But the news comes: the Russians have taken Baku, and Ganja is coming under attack by a large force. Nino flees to Georgia with their daughter, but Ali refuses to leave. He is killed defending the town. (The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic fell in 1920 and the country became part of the Soviet Union.) Art, theater, and film related to Ali and Nino In 1998 Hans de Weers of Amsterdam-based Egmond Film & Television, sought to find American partners for a film adaptation of Ali & Nino, which was to be shot in English and written by Academy Award-winning Azerbaijani screenwriter Rustam Ibragimbekov. De Weers was reported to have "pieced together 30% of the $8 million budget from the Netherlands and Azerbaijan." In 2004 the Dutch film company Zeppers Film & TV, in a coproduction with NPS, released a 90-minute documentary by Dutch director Jos de Putter entitled Alias Kurban Said. The film examines the disagreements over the novel's authorship. Variety called it a "Magnificent historical whodunit, wherein crumbling photographs, yellowing documents, and forgotten reels of 35 mm film are invested with tremendous evocative power." The film shows documentary evidence that Abraham Nussimbaum was a proprietor of oil wells sold to the Nobel firm in 1913. The film was an official selection of the Tribeca Film Festival, the International Film Festival, Rotterdam, and the 2005 Netherlands Film Festival. Its music won the prize for Best Music at the Netherlands Film Festival. Ali and Nino was adapted as a play at the Baku Municipal Theater in 2007. The Azerbaijani theater company that staged it in 2007 also performed the play at an international theater festival in Moscow in 2012. In February 2010 an Azerbaijani news organization reported that Georgian film director Giorgi Toradze was planning to make a "documentary" about the "creation" of Ali and Nino, though the description of the film in the news report suggested that it would be a fictional rendition. According to the report, the project "has been submitted to the Azerbaijani Ministry of Culture and Tourism by film producer Giorgi Sturua." A moving metal sculpture created by Georgian sculptor Tamara Kvesitadze in 2007, titled "Man and Woman," which is said to have been well received at the Venice Biennale of 2007, was installed in Batumi, Georgia in 2010 and re-titled "Ali and Nino," after the title characters of the Kurban Said novel. The novel was reportedly Kvesitadze's inspiration for the work. See the sculptor's web site in which the sculpture is still titled "Man and Woman" A "musical re-imagining" of the novel, titled In the Footsteps of Ali and Nino, premiered in Paris at the Richelieu Amphitheater of University of Paris IV, Paris-Sorbonne in April 2012. Its "originator, project leader and pianist" was Azerbaijani pianist Saida Zulfugarova. Her "soundtrack" to the novel used "both Georgian and Azerbaijani traditional music and works by Azer Rzaev, Uzeyir Hajibeyli, Vagif Mustafazadeh, Fritz Kreisler and, of course, Kara Karayev, amongst many others." It was directed by Charlotte Loriot. As of 2013, the novel is being adapted for a film by British screenwriter and playwright Christopher Hampton. Asif Kapadia has been named as director and production of the film is slated to start in 2014. The film's producer is Leyla Aliyeva, Vice President of the Heydar Aliyev Foundation. Authorship debate For decades, there has been a controversy about the identity of Kurban Said, the pseudonym used to hide the identity of the author of this novel. No one has located or identified any existing manuscript of Ali and Nino. The publisher, Lucy Tal, claims that all papers were deliberately destroyed when the Nazis entered Vienna. The closest anyone has come to such a find is Mireille Ehrenfels-Abeille, who claims in the 2004 film Alias Kurban Said to possess half of the manuscript of The Girl From the Golden Horn, the other novel published under the name Kurban Said. In the film itself, however, she was unable to locate the manuscript in her home and said that in fact she may not have seen it for ten or twenty years. The case for Lev Nussimbaum's authorship The claim that Lev Nussimbaum was the novel's author began circulating in 1944, when an Italian translation of the novel appeared, listing the author as "Mohammed Essad Bey." Tom Reiss notes this as "a first posthumous restoration" of Nussimbaum's authorship. (This Italian edition was brought to press by Dr. Ahmed Giamil Vacca-Mazzara (né Bello Vacca), who claimed himself to be Kurban Said and denied that Essad Bey was a Jew named Lev Nussimbaum.). When the novel was translated into English by Jenia Graman and published by Random House in 1970, John Wain, the author of the introduction, described the figure behind the name Kurban Said, without naming him, as having the biographical attributes of Nussimbaum. Assertions that Nussimbaum was the author were occasionally repeated thereafter. Azerbaijani translator Charkaz Qurbanov, identified in the list of interviewees at the end of the film, Alias Kurban Said as "Cherkes Burbanly" identifies himself (as transcribed and transliterated in the English subtitles) as "Cherkes Qurbanov has argued, in a discussion shown in the film Alias Kurban Said, that "Kurban Said is the literary pseudonym of Mohammed Essad Bey. Statistics have shown, and so has my research, that the novels written by Essad Bey and Kurban Said are in exactly the same style. There is no difference. In Essad Bey's work you see Azerbeidshan [i.e., Azerbaijan] underneath." Another participant, identified in the list of interviewees at the end of the film Alias Kurban Said as "Zeydulla Achaev." It may be that this person is the man more commonly known as Zeydulla Ağayevdən, who has translated Ali and Nino into Azeri. The discussion said "The text is German, but it is an Azerbeidshan [i.e., Azerbaijani] type of German. Essad Bey's German is what a real German would never use. The sentence structure shows that he is not German." Documentary evidence for Lev Nussimbaum's authorship There are three documents written by people who knew Nussimbaum attesting that he was the author of the book. One is a letter published in the New York Times in August 1971 from Bertha Pauli, an Austrian literary agent who knew Nussimbaum in Vienna from 1933 to 1938 and had helped him get publishing opportunities through a writers' cooperative called Austrian Correspondence (which Pauli said she "had organized to provide authors whose work was ‘undesirable’ in the Third Reich with opportunities for publication elsewhere"). Pauli had also negotiated the contract for the second Kurban Said novel, The Girl from the Golden Horn. Describing herself as Nussimbaum's "colleague and friend," Pauli wrote to the New York Times in 1971 that she had "read the novel at the time of its successful, first publication, 1937, in my native Vienna and talked to the author himself about it." She remarked that "The new, excellent English translation brings the German original vividly to my mind; I seem to hear Essad talking again in his particularly witty way." Another testimonial is by Baron Omar Rolf von Ehrenfels in his foreword to a 1973 Swiss edition of the second Kurban Said novel, The Girl From the Golden Horn. Omar Rolf von Ehrenfels was the husband of Baroness Elfriede Ehrenfels von Bodmershof and coincidentally the father of Leela Ehrenfels, the current copyright holder. The complicated story is told by Leela Ehrenfels in "'Ali and Nino'. Identifying "Kurban Said" with the man he would have known in the 1930s as Nussimbaum/Bey, the baron writes: "As a young man I founded the ‘Orient-Bund’ for Afro-Asian students in Vienna and through it I became friends with the quietly observing Azerbaijani Kurban Said.... My way brought me shortly after that to India, from where I returned to Europe for the first time in 1954 and immediately went to visit the traditional Muslim grave of my then apparently forgotten friend which stood outside the wall of the cemetery in Positano." Lucy Tal, the spouse of E. P. Tal, the novel's original 1937 publisher, believed that "Essad Bey" (Nussimbaum) had probably written it but that she was not sure as her husband Peter had dealt with the contracts but had died suddenly of a heart attack and she had fled Vienna with the Anschluss. Furthermore, she did not trust Essad Bey in regard to the contracts: "Essad sometimes was the real Oriental fairytale story teller. What was true or not true did not always bother him much." Tom Reiss's case for Lev Nussimbaum's authorship Tom Reiss has argued—first in a 1999 article in The New Yorker and then at greater length in his 2005 biography of Nussimbaum, The Orientalist—that it is "almost certain that Kurban Said was a cover for him so that he could continue to receive royalties from his work." Reiss cites and quotes documentary evidence not only linking the pseudonym Kurban Said to Nussimbaum and Baroness Elfriede Ehrenfels von Bodmershof, but also showing reasons that the Jewish Nussimbaum would have needed a new pseudonym after he was expelled from the (Nazi) German Writers Union in 1935, that he received income from books published under that name, and that he himself claimed authorship of Ali and Nino. Tom Reiss's documentary evidence for Lev Nussimbaum's authorship From the beginning, in 1937 and 1938 Baroness Ehrenfels held the legal copyright to the works of Kurban Said, a copyright that has now passed by inheritance to her niece Leela Ehrenfels. Leela Ehrenfels's lawyer, Heinz Barazon, has successfully defended the Ehrenfels family's ownership of the copyright to Ali and Nino. Reiss argues, however, that rather than being the actual author behind the name Kurban Said, Baroness Ehrenfels instead acted as an "Aryanizer" for Nussimbaum, meaning she took legal ownership of the pseudonym Kurban Said while passing income to him generated from books published under that name. Heinz Barazon, Reiss reports, pointed out that a publishing contract for Ali and Nino was signed in Vienna on April 20, 1937, well before Nussimbaum, as a Jew, would have lost the right to publish in the wake of the Anschluss, or Nazi German annexation of Austria, which took place in March 1938. Reiss counters Barazon's point by arguing that Nussimbaum had an economic incentive to publish under a pseudonym owned by his friend the Baroness Ehrenfels because, as opposed to Austria and Switzerland, where Nussimbaum could have published under his pen name Essad Bey, Nazi-controlled Germany was the largest market by far for German-language publications. Reiss paraphrases Professor Murray Hall, an expert on publishing in interwar Austria, who told him "It wasn’t profitable to publish a book if you could not sell it in Germany, so Austrian publishers needed to get their books past the Nazi censors to reach the majority of the German-reading public." This theory is supported by Bertha Pauli's 1971 letter to the New York Times, in which she wrote that a reason Nussimbaum may have used the pseudonym for his work in this period was that "as 'Kurban Said' it could still be sold in the German market." Reiss writes of finding "a trail of letters" in "the files of the Italian Fascist Political Police in Rome" attesting that the Nazi police apparatus had thwarted an effort by Nussimbaum to sell his work in Nazi Germany. He cites a July 8, 1937, internal note from an Italian police service showing that the service believed Nussimbaum/Bey had "tried to smuggle" his works into Germany but that "the trick was, however, discovered." "Though this does not prove," concluded Reiss, "that Essad [Bey, Lev Nussimbaum's adopted name] was concealing his identity behind Kurban Said, it shows that he had cause to." Reiss further quotes Nussimbaum's correspondence with Baron Omar-Rolf Ehrenfels in 1938 to show that Nussimbaum received royalty payments for Kurban Said publications via Baroness Ehrenfels, whom he referred to as "Mrs. Kurban Said." (Leela Ehrenfels cites a September 14, 1938, letter from "Essad Bey" to Baroness Ehrenfels, written in Positano, Italy, in which he again refers to her as "Mrs. Kurban Said" and congratulates her on something unmentioned – Leela Ehrenfels interprets this as a reference to The Girl From the Golden Horn.) Reiss also quotes letters in which Nussimbaum unequivocally affirms being the novel's author. In one Nussimbaum states directly that he was using Baroness Ehrenfels as a legal cover in order to circumvent the ban on his work in Nazi Germany: Nussimbaum explains that Ali and Nino could still be published everywhere, since "according to the law on pseudonyms, K.S. is a woman! A young Viennese baroness, who is even a member of the Kulturkammer!", the German Writers’ Union from which Nussimbaum had been expelled. In this same letter Nussimbaum recommended to his addressee that "she buy a copy of Ali and Nino herself, bragging that it was his favorite of his own books." In another letter, Nussimbaum wrote of having had only two writing experience in which "I thought neither of the publishing company, nor of royalties, but just wrote happily away. These were the books Stalin and Ali and Nino," adding that "The heroes of the novel simply come to me demanding, ‘Give us shape’ — ‘we also possess certain characteristics that you’ve left out and we want to travel, among other things.’ " (Betty Blair has interpreted this statement as an "admission" that Nussimbaum had "gained access to the original manuscripts" already written by someone else, Yusif Vavir Chamanzaminli, and had "embellished them.") Reiss also quotes other letters in which Nussimbaum identifies himself as Kurban Said. In his final, unpublished manuscript, Der Mann der Nichts von der Liebe Verstand, Nussimbaum also refers to himself as "Ali." Thus, while Reiss has not claimed absolute proof that Nussimbaum, rather than Ehrenfels or Chamanzaminli, is the primary author, he does cite documentary evidence showing that Nussimbaum had a need in 1937 to "Aryanize" his publications in order to continue to generate income from them, was receiving income from checks written to the name of Kurban Said, made several documented references identifying himself as Kurban Said, and continued to use the pseudonym on his final, unpublished manuscript Der Mann der Nichts von der Liebe Verstand. Tom Reiss's textual comparisons In addition to the documentary evidence Reiss offers for Lev Nussimbaum's authorship, Reiss also suggests several interpretive parallels between Nussimbaum's known life experiences and his writings under the pseudonym Essad Bey. In The Orientalist Reiss cites the testimony of Alexandre Brailowski (aka Alex Brailow), a schoolmate of Lev Nussimbaum's at the Russian gymnasium in Charlottenburg, Berlin. It is not clear from Reiss's account whether Brailow had been in touch with Nussimbaum during the 1930s, particularly in 1937 when Ali and Nino was first published in Vienna; in any case Reiss does not report that Brailow claimed receiving from Nussimbaum (or anyone else) any verbal or written acknowledgement of Nussimbaum's authorship. Reiss quotes Brailow, in his unpublished memoirs, as remembering that Nussimbaum had a "talent for telling stories." Reiss further cites Brailow's unpublished introduction to a planned book entitled The Oriental Tales of Essad-Bey (a collection of Nussimbaum's early writings in Brailow's possession), in which Brailow interpreted characters in Ali and Nino as autobiographical references to Nussimbaum's schoolmates from his gymnasium. The Nino character, Brailow believed, was based on Nussimbaum's teenage love interest Zhenia Flatt. Reiss writes that because Zhenia Flatt "transferred her affections... to an older man named Yashenka," Brailow "always believed that Yasha was Lev’s model for Nachararyan, the 'evil Armenian' in Ali and Nino, who is Ali’s rival for Nino’s love." Brailow wrote: "The whole love affair, including the elopement of Nino and the subsequent pursuit and killing of Nachararyan, is as much of a wish-fulfillment as is the autobiography of Ali whose adolescence and youth are a curious mixture of Essad’s own and of what he would have liked them to be." Reiss also notes that Brailow also remembered an incident that recalls the moment in Ali and Nino in which Ali murders Nachararyan: "one day he pulled a knife on his tormentor and threatened to cut his throat. Brailow recalled that 'Essad, besides being a nervous type, seemed to indulge in outbursts of murderous rage, perhaps because he felt that this was his obligation as an ‘Oriental’ for whom revenge would be a sacred duty.' Brailow intervened to prevent his friend's 'Caucasian temper' from leading to murder." Reiss asserts that "though clearly juvenilia," Nussimbaum's unpublished early stories "had an irony that was instantly recognizable as the raw material of Ali and Nino and so many of the Caucasian books Lev would write." Additional evidence for Lev Nussimbaum's authorship: plagiarism and repetition Tamar Injia's book Ali and Nino – Literary Robbery! demonstrates that portions of Ali and Nino were "stolen" from the 1926 novel The Snake's Skin (Das Schlangenhemd) by Georgian author Grigol Robakidze. (It was published in Georgian in 1926 and in German in 1928. Injia analyzed the two books, found similar and identical passages, and concluded that "Kurban Said" (whom she identifies as Essad Bey) deliberately transferred passages from Robakidze's novel. The case for Yusif Vazir Chamanzaminli's authorship The claim that the Azerbaijani novelist Yusif Vazir, known popularly as Yusif Vazir Chamanzaminli, is the true author of Ali and Nino appears to have begun in the preface to the 1971 Turkish edition of the novel, in which the Turkish translator Semih Yazichioghlu, claimed that Lucy Tal, the late widow of the original publisher E.P. Tal, had written a letter stating that in the 1920s "a handsome young man" had "left a pile of manuscripts" that the company published in 1937. (Lucy Tal unequivocally denied having written the statement, calling the assertions "monstrous claims.") Chamanzaminli's late sons Orkhan and Fikret have continued to make the claim. They began advocating for it at least by the 1990s after the first Azeri translation of Ali and Nino was published in 1990. An earlier Azeri translation had been made in 1972, but a complete rendering in Azeri, by Mirza Khazar, was published for the first time, serially, in three issues of the magazine Azerbaijan in 1990. Following this theory, Chamanzaminli has been listed as the author (rather than the standard "Kurban Said") in a number of editions, particularly in Azerbaijan where the has declared Chamanzaminli to be the author. In the 2004 film Alias Kurban Said, directed by Jos de Putter, Yusif Vazirov Chamanzaminli's late son Fikrat Vazirov offered an argument for Chamanzaminli's authorship. Chamanzaminli had been in a romantic relationship with a girlfriend named Nina who, he argued, became "Nino" in the novel. "Anyone can say they are Kurban Said, but they can't tell you how they met Nino in Nikolay Street." He attested that his father had met a young woman named "Nino": "She was walking along Nikolay Street and father came from the Institute. They met here in the park, just like in the novel. He was nineteen and she was seventeen." A short story by Chamanzaminli, published in 1927, autobiographical in appearance, featured a starving writer in Paris in the mid-1920s (when Chamanzaminli was there) who works as a ghostwriter producing articles under the signature of someone else and getting only 25 percent of the earnings for them. Blair offers this as a clue that Chamanzaminli had in reality, not in fiction, produced writings that appeared under others' signatures. Blair implicitly conjectures that the novel must have also passed out of his possession and that he thus lost the capacity to receive credit for its writing. Fikret Vezirov has proffered the claim that Chamanzaminli had to hide his identity behind the name Kurban Said so that he would not be identified with the anti-Bolshevik views contained in Ali and Nino. If Chamanzaminli had a copy of the manuscript, Vezirov said, it must have been among those Vezirov reports Chamanzaminli burning in 1937 when Chamanzaminli fell under the suspicion of the KGB. Vezirov referred to an article from the 1930s, the authors of which, in Vezirov's characterization, resented Nussimbaum's use of the name "Essad Bey" and protested "that he wrote pornography that had nothing to do with history, that he was just inciting nations against each other." Vezirov cited the fact that his father had traveled to Iran, Tbilisi, Kislovodsk, and Daghestan (all visited by the novel's characters) as another self-evident link. "Draw your own conclusions," he declared. Panah Khalilov (alternative spelling: Penah Xelilov), as shown in the film Alias Kurban Said, is the creator of the Chamanzaminli archive. He referred in the film to a Chamanzaminli story published in 1907 which he believes is a "primary variant," rather than "the complete Ali and Nino." He also referred to "a book, written in German and published in Berlin" whose author had met Nussimbaum, had read Blood and Oil in the Orient, and "had written an essay about it in which he accuses him of insulting his people by saying that the core of the Azerbeidshan people were Jews" – a characterization that Cerkez Qurbanov, who translated Blood and Oil into Azeri, vociferously denied was true about Blood and Oil in the Orient. Wendell Steavenson, in her 2002 book Stories I Stole: From Georgia reported that "Vazirov the younger called Lev Nussimbaum a fraudster, a 'charlatan', not a Bakuvian, who wrote twelve books 'of an adventurist nature' but had nothing to do with Ali and Nino. Ali and Nino, he declared 'is a pure Azerbaijani novel.' His father, he said, had written Ali and Nino and managed to get it published in Vienna through a cousin who lived there. There were too many details that matched: Kurban Said must have been an Azeri. 'He even knew all about a special kind of Shusha cheese, which only a man from Shusha would know about.' Vazirov argued." Assertions that Azerbaijani nationalism motivates the advocacy of Yusif Vazir Chamanzaminli's authorship At least four scholars of Azerbaijani literature and culture have expressed skepticism about Azerbaijan International’s arguments for Chamanzaminli’s authorship of Ali and Nino. They have offered two kinds of criticism: one is a political rejection of the latent exclusionary nationalism they feel has motivated the campaign for establishing Chamanzaminli as the novel’s "core author." The other criticizes Azerbaijan International'''s interpretation of the book as having derived from Chamanzaminli himself. The Azerbaijani novelist and literary critic Chingiz Huseynov (or Guseinov), who teaches at Moscow State University, cautioned in 2004 against being "driven by 'ethno-emotions' that may compel us to tie this piece to Azerbaijani literature at any cost." Renowned Azerbaijani poet, mathematician, and founder of Baku’s Khazar University Hamlet Isakhanli oglu Isayev has also spoken out against nationalistic motivations in the campaign for Chamanzaminli's authorship. "I think that appealing to the Azerbaijanis' sense of national pride by trying to prove that Chamanzaminli wrote the novel is counterproductive. ... As an Azerbaijani I don’t feel any more proud because an ethnic Azeri supposedly wrote the novel." Another commentator is Alison Mandaville, a professor of literature at California State University, Fresno who has translated fiction from Azerbaijani to English and has published extensively on Azerbaijani literature and culture. Alison Mandaville's articles on Azerbaijani literature and culture include "Mullahs to Donkeys: Cartooning in Azerbaijan."Over any obstacle: a conversation with Azerbaijani Writer Afaq Masud," World Literature Today (Sept. 1, 2009): 14–17"Trading Culture: Practical Background for Azerbaijani-English Poetry Translation," Khazar Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences(2011); "Beyond Bread and Busses: Women and Work in Azerbaijan in the 21st Century," Journal of Azerbaijani Studies (2009)Her Azerbaijani translation work includes Mandaville and Shahla Naghyieva, eds., Buta, The Baku Workshop, 2010: Contemporary Fiction and Poetry by Azerbaijani Women with additional works by American and Turkish co-participants (Baku: Sonmaz Mashal Cultural Relations Public Union, 2010) and a translation of Afaq Masud, "The Crash," World Literature Today (September–October 2009) For Mandaville, Azerbaijan Internationals attempt to establish Chamanzaminli's authorship of Ali and Nino reflects a narrow sense of literature as a form of "property" that detracts from the appreciation and promotion of literature itself and reflects a contemporary sense of communalist Azeri nationalism that is divorced from the multicultural nationalism reflected in the novel. "This controversy reads like a view of literature as property – political, national property … as if the most important thing is not the literature itself, but who gets to 'own' it. In my opinion, Azerbaijan would be much better served by supporting and promoting literature itself, rather than getting into ‘whose’ it is. For anyone that reads today, literature is global. And anyone doing research on origins of literature during the Ali and Nino period knows that nation was a highly fluid thing at that point in history." Betty Blair and Azerbaijan Internationals case for Yusif Vazir Chamanaminli's authorship Research findings by Betty Blair and associated researchers were published in a special 2011 edition of Azerbaijan International magazine entitled Ali and Nino: The Business of Literature. (Some articles are co-credited to other authors in addition to Blair.) Blair points to numerous parallels between events from Chamanzaminli's life and writings and the text of Ali and Nino. She offers only a small handful of circumstantial events in Chamanzaminli's life on the basis of which she constructs a hypothetical scenario in which a manuscript by Chamanzaminli – the existence of which is conjectural – would somehow have been written by him, then would have been acquired by the Viennese publisher, E.P. Tal. Somehow Lev Nussimbaum would have been given this hypothetical manuscript and would have "embellished" it before its publication. Blair's hypotheses on a Chamanzaminli manuscript Betty Blair, in Azerbaijan International, has asserted that "there are too many links between Chamanzaminli and Ali and Nino to explain as being merely circumstantial. Irrefutable evidence points directly to Chamanzaminli as the core writer." However she has not shown any paper trail of documentary sources showing that Chamanzaminli had anything to do with Ali and Nino, nor demonstrated any link between any Chamanzaminli manuscript (either what she hypothetically refers to as "the core manuscript" or any other manuscript known to be authored by Chamanzaminli) and the publication of Ali and Nino. She links Chamanzaminli to Ali and Nino through textual parallels, relying on proposed textual parallels between Chamanzaminli's life and writings and the novel's content as "irrefutable evidence." Blair attempts to offer outlines of the way in which a transmission from Chamanzamini to Tal and Nussimbaum might have taken place. She proposes two hypothetical scenarios. She bases these scenarios on reported and speculative actions and movements made by Chamanzaminli and some claims made about Lev Nussimbaum, as well as on statements that have been retracted or which Blair notes as unreliable, or which falls under the "fruit of the poisonous tree" doctrine because it was obtained under interrogation. In her first hypothetical scenario, Blair asserts that Chamanzaminli's presence in Europe in the early- to mid-1920s makes his authorship theoretically possible. Chamanzaminli lived in Paris in the years 1923 to 1926. It is possible, Blair asserts, that he sold or left a manuscript in Europe, which Nussimbaum would have later altered to produce the present text. Chamanzaminli had reason to do so, she argues, because he had a need for income and because of the wisdom of not being in possession of any anti-Bolshevik writings upon his entry into the Soviet Union in 1926. She posits that Chamanzaminli "did stop in Berlin in 1926", citing a statement Chamanzaminli made under interrogation to a Soviet police agency and asserting, based on this source, that "we know for certain" that he visited Berlin. In 1926 however, Nussimbaum "would have just been starting his writing career with Die literarische Welt" and "we have no record that they ever met directly together." Blair provides no evidence that Chamanzaminli and Nussimbaum ever met at all or had any one-to-one connection. Considering the Berlin connection too remote, Blair proposes a Vienna connection. There is no evidence that Chamanzaminli ever visited Vienna, but Blair's speculates that the writer "would have" traveled by train to Istanbul on his return to Baku in 1926 and "could have" gone to that city on his way, "to visit Tal at his publishing company." Blair implies hypothetically that a manuscript "would have" passed from Chamanzaminli's hands into Tal's possession at that moment. Blair purports that this stop in Vienna is possible because Chamanzaminli "would have" taken the Orient Express (which passed through Vienna) because it was "the most famous train route of its day." Blair offers a further elaboration of this Vienna scenario based on a statement attributed to the original publisher's wife, Lucy Tal, which Tal vociferously denied ever making. Blair reports that the preface to the 1971 Turkish edition asserts that the author behind Kurban Said is Yusif Vazir Chamanzaminli. The translator, Semih Yazichioghlu, writes in this preface that two Azerbaijanis living in the United States – Mustafa Turkekul (who has said that he studied with Chamanzaminli in the 1930s) and Yusuf Gahraman (a former teacher and radiologist) read the book when the first English translation came out in 1970. The two "recognized" the novel's descriptions of "familiar streets, squares, mansions" of Baku as well as "the names of some of the Oil Baron families mentioned in the book." They then contacted Random House, the publisher, "hoping to learn more about the identity of Kurban Said." They assert in this foreword that Lucy Tal (the wife of E.P. Tal, the novel's original Viennese publisher) had replied: "It was in the 1920s (Mrs. Tal couldn't remember exactly what year it was). A handsome young man came to the publishing house and spoke with my husband [E.P. Tal] at length and then left a pile of manuscripts. I still don't know what they talked about as my husband never told me... My husband went on to publish these manuscripts in 1937." Andreas Tietze translated this preface from Turkish into English on May 31, 1973, for Tal's lawyer F.A.G. Schoenberg on May 31, 1973. Tietze, perhaps the first to give credence to the Chamanzaminli theory, commented that "the evidence, although not conclusive, does have a certain weight, and perhaps Chamanzaminli is really identical with Kurban Said." Yet within days of hearing of the quote attributed to her, Lucy Tal unequivocally denied having written the statement. In a letter to Schoenberg on June 2, 1973, Tal wrote: "Having read that document, I am quite startled. Never did I write such a letter to any Turks or anybody else. Why and what for? And it would have been so entirely unlike me. Such monstrous claims, how can one disprove them???" Tal und Co. published at least 15 books in Vienna in 1937 in addition to Ali und Nino. Blair's second hypothetical scenario involves a transmission in Istanbul, Turkey rather than Berlin, Germany or Vienna, Austria. Blair cites a claim by Giamil Ahmad Vacca-Mazzara, an associate of Lev Nussimbaum's in his final years in Positano, Italy that "Essad Bey" (Vacca-Mazzara denied that this name was a pseudonym for Lev Nussimbaum) wrote Ali and Nino in Istanbul based on Vacca-Mazzara's own story, and that Vacca-Mazzara was himself "Kurban Said," which he claims was Nussimbaum's nickname for him. Blair notes that Vacca-Mazzara "cannot be relied upon as a credible witness," but nonetheless hopes that "there may be some hints of truth to some parts of his story." Blair asserts that a passage in Chamanzaminli's writing represents "a paper trail" demonstrating that Chamanzamanli "spent considerable time in three libraries in old Istanbul while living there (1920–1923) after his appointment as Azerbaijan's ambassador was terminated with the takeover of Bolshevik government in Baku." Beyond Chamanzamanli's mere presence in Istanbul, moreover, "he even wrote that he had left some of his works in those libraries." Blair's "paper trail" consists of the following statement from Chamanzaminli's writings: "We gave some documents to the Qatanov [Katanov] Library of Suleymaniye in Istanbul. They are related to the last period of Azerbaijan's Independence, a two-year collection of the newspaper Azerbaijan in Russian, The News of Azerbaijan Republic Government, along with magazines and books about our national economy, and documents describing Armenian-Muslim conflict in Caucasia." The quote does not state that the donations in question were authored by Chamanzaminli, nor that they included fiction or any unpublished writings. Blair offers the two hypothetical scenarios, rather than a documentary paper trail, as a theory of how something conjecturally written by Chamanzaminli would have been published in an altered form as Ali and Nino in 1937. Lacking any evidence of a material connection, Blair offers instead an accumulation of parallels. Parallels Blair draws between Chamanzaminli and Ali and Nino Referring to parallels between passages in Chamanzaminli's writings and evidence from his life events, Blair asserts that Chamanzaminli is the "core author" of the novel Ali and Nino. Blair's "core author" argument is based on a list of 101 correlations found by comparing aspects of Chamanzaminli's and writings as well as evidence about his life experiences and his works including his diaries, articles, short stories and novels. Blair asserts that in the writings that Nussimbaum published as Essad Bey, he shows himself to have a negative attitude toward Azerbaijan, that when he left he was "thrilled to have closed that chapter of his life." He is "seemingly untouched emotionally" by Azerbaijan's loss of independence. In contrast, Ali and Nino portrays the country's conquest by the USSR in 1920 as an agonizing tragedy. Blair writes: However, in a scene reminiscent of that same Blood and Oil in the Orient quotation, in chapter 22 of Ali and Nino, Ali tells his father, "Asia is dead..." To which Ali's father replies, "Asia is not dead. Its borders only have changed, changed forever. Baku is now Europe. And that is not just a coincidence. There were no Asiatics left in Baku any longer." The working title of Ali and Nino, according to the 1937 contract between Baroness Elfriede Ehrenfels von Bodmerschof and the Tal publishing company, was The Dying Orient. Blair relies on an accumulation of evidence employed to suggest that Lev Nussimbaum, who wrote as Essad Bey, could not have written Ali and Nino by himself. She acknowledges that Nussimbaum left "fingerprints" on the book, but asserts that his contribution is limited to folkloric and legendary material, some of which he copied from his earlier books, which she shows is often neither culturally or ethnically reliable. (Much of this echoes Tom Reiss's account of Nussimbaum's writing.) Blair asserts that Nussimbaum could not have acquired the knowledge of Azerbaijan evident in Ali and Nino during his time in Baku, which ended when he was 14 years old, and during which time he had limited contact with Azerbaijani life. Therefore, in her view, he could not have written significant portions of the novel. She claims that Nussimbaum did not sympathize with the Azerbaijani national cause embodied in the novel and that he wrote his books, she judges, too quickly to have written them by himself. Therefore, she hypothesizes, he must have "gained access to the" (hypothetical) "original manuscripts" and "embellished them." She posits that the novel has a self-contradictory quality that can be explained through the hypothesis that it was based on something Chamanzaminli wrote but that it had been altered by Nussimbaum. Criticisms of Blair's argumentation Azerbaijani journalist Nikki Kazimova has reported that "most of the evidence of Chemenzeminli’s authorship is suggestive rather than factual, and plenty of AI’s arguments are a ‘proof by contradiction.’" Some scholars of Azerbaijani literature and culture, after being exposed to Blair's arguments, continue to express doubts about the possibility that Chamanzaminli is the novel’s author. Hamlet Isakhanli oglu Isayev, who chaired a December 2010 meeting in which Blair presented her findings, remarked that the findings "left many questions unanswered." Others have offered more specific criticisms. Leah Feldman, the 2010 recipient of the Heydar Aliyev award for scholarship on Azerbaijan, presented by the Consulate General of Azerbaijan and a research associate at Princeton University’s Princeton Institute for International and Regional Studies, who studies Orientalism and Azerbaijani literature, attended one of Blair’s presentations at the Writers' Union in Baku in December 2010. Feldman has characterized Betty Blair's approach as based on a "theory of authorship as autobiography," explaining that "Blair’s argument indicates that what she calls the 'core author' of Ali and Nino is not the man who penned the text (Essad Bey/Lev Nussimbaum) but rather the individual whose life and ideas are most readily expressed by the protagonists." Feldman's assessment of the novel leans toward Nussimbaum as author. "To me," she has written, "the novel read as an Orientalist piece." As an "Orientalist" novel, it would represent a primarily European point of view regarding Azerbaijan. Mandaville's assessment of Ali and Nino also favors Nussimbaum's authorship. Referring to the fact that Nussimbaum was of the Azerbaijani Jewish minority while Chamanzaminli was part of the Muslim majority, Mandaville writes that "the most interesting thing about the novel is the intense love/hate super-nostalgic relationship expressed for the region – exactly the kind of thing a person who was a (minority) child in an area they are now exiled from would write." The case for Baron and Baroness Ehrenfels's authorship Austrian Baroness Elfriede Ehrenfels (1894–1982) registered the novel Ali and Nino with German authorities, and her niece Leela Ehrenfels (in association with the Baron Omar Rolf von Ehrenfel's second wife, the Baroness Mireille Ehrenfels-Abeille) has claimed that the pseudonym Kurban Said belonged to her aunt Elfriede, and that she wrote both Kurban Said novels, Ali and Nino and The Girl from the Golden Horn. No one has offered any robust contextual comparison between Ali and Nino and other known writings by Elfriede Ehrenfels, but Leela Ehrenfels has noted several coincidences between her aunt's and father's lives and writings that suggest their, or at least Elfriede's, authorship of the novel. One is that the April 20, 1937, working title of the novel was The Dying Orient, and her father and aunt (the Baron and Baroness Ehrenfels) had previously written an article together entitled "The Dying Istanbul." Another is that the Ehrenfels made a film entitled The Great Longing, which is "about a man who is disappointed with the world. And he is looking for true love or truth." (The unspoken implication may be that this is similar to Ali and Nino.) Third, Baron Omar Rolf von Ehrenfels set up the "Orient Bund" for Muslim students in Berlin "in order to bring Europeans and Muslims closer together." Leela Ehrenfels and Mireille Ehrenfels-Abeille have also said it is possible that Elfriede had an affair with Lev Nussimbaum. Fourth, according to the April 20, 1937, contract with E.P. Tal & Co., Baroness Elfriede was the author behind the pseudonym Kurban Said, and Leela has said, "that makes it obvious to me that she wrote both books. But it is possible that Essad Bey supplied some of the material. And that there are certain parts on which they worked together." Fifth, Leela Ehrenfels cites a September 14, 1938, letter from "Essad Bey" to Baroness Ehrenfels, written in Positano, Italy, in which he again refers to her as "Mrs. Kurban Said" and congratulates her on something unmentioned – Leela Ehrenfels interprets this as a reference to The Girl From the Golden Horn. In the 2004 film Alias Kurban Said, the Baroness Mireille Ehrenfels-Abeille said that Elfriede Ehrenfels "never" said "a single word" regarding Ali and Nino'' when she knew her after returning to Austria in 1960 from a long stay in India, explaining that "it was a different world, that had come to an end." In a 1999 interview with Tom Reiss, however, Baroness Ehrenfels-Abeille recounted that, in Reiss's description, "sometime in the early 1970s the baroness remembers getting the first inkling that Elfriede had once been Kurban Said." Baron Omar-Rolf Ehrenfels's sister Imma informed Baroness Mireille Ehrenfels-Abeille that she had, the baroness told Reiss, "received a funny letter, some doctor wanted to know if I’d written a book call[ed] Ali and Nino." Mireille asked Elfriede about it, and Elfriede said, "Naturally, Immi does not need to know everything. Yes, I produced it." The word "produced" is left ambiguous. References Bibliography Further reading External links Essad Bey Truth Alert - Keeping Records Straight Reading Group Guide Fiction set in 1917 Fiction set in 1920 1937 novels Novels set in the 1910s Novels set in the 1920s Azerbaijani novels 1937 German-language novels Novels set in Azerbaijan Works published under a pseudonym Azerbaijani novels adapted into films
4885602	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long%20Lake%20Provincial%20Park%20%28Nova%20Scotia%29	Long Lake Provincial Park (Nova Scotia)	Long Lake Provincial Park is located in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. It was initiated in 1981 by then Premier John Buchanan after Halifax's water supply had been shifted from the Spruce Hill/Long Lake/Chain Lakes watershed to the Pockwock Lake watershed near Hammonds Plains. The park, formally established in 1984, constitutes the bulk of these former watershed lands. Other portions were deeded to the municipality of Halifax, and the area around the Chain Lakes is still administered by the Halifax Regional Water Commission, since the Chain Lakes remain the city's emergency water supply. History The lands included within the present park boundaries have had a long history of human use, including logging, several farms and many small granite quarries which provided the stones for many of the 19th century buildings in downtown Halifax. As part of its development as Halifax's watershed lands, in the early part of the 20th century an earthen dam was erected on Pine Hill Lake, greatly enlarging it. A long concrete and earth dam was constructed on Long Lake, again significantly expanding its area. A pipeline was built connecting the two lakes, and to the adjacent Chain Lakes. The entire area has been logged extensively in the early part of the 20th century, but a few scattered old growth trees remain. The north eastern side of Long lake featured world war I barracks location, extensive trenches and machine gun battle emplacement which protected movement from the St. Margaret's Bay and Prospect bay roads into Halifax. This fortification is known as Chain Lake Position - Locality 2 The lands were part of Halifax's old water supply system. In order to protect the water quality, about of land was left "virtually untouched" into the 1970s. In the years leading up to the 1977 commissioning of the new Pockwock water supply system, concern began to mount over the fate of the old watershed lands, which were considered to have high ecological and recreational value. Residents feared that the area would be spoiled by suburban development. A regional plan adopted in July 1975 proposed that the watershed lands would form one of seven new regional parks in the Halifax-Dartmouth area. The watershed lands were acquired by the province in 1981 and put under the management of the Department of Natural Resources for use as a provincial park. Long Lake Provincial Park was formally created by Order in Council (OIC) 84-1189 on October 9, 1984, comprising part of the old watershed lands. Application was altered (by the withdrawal of ) by OIC 93-364 on April 14, 1993. Management Long Lake is a provincial park controlled by the Department of Natural Resources and Renewables of the Government of Nova Scotia (formerly called the Department of Lands and Forestry). The park is not as well known as some other local public spaces despite its proximity to central Halifax and its large size, rivalling that of the Halifax peninsula. In 2003, the Department of Natural Resources entered into consultation with the Long Lake Provincial Park Association on the development of a park management plan which was completed in 2008 and subsequently adopted for park management purposes. In early 2015 the Long Lake Provincial Park Association started to build accessible walking and cycling trails on the east side of the lake near Northwest Arm Drive (Dunbrack Street) in Spryfield. These were constructed under a formal agreement between the association and the provincial government. There are now approximately of wide multi-use trails that lie along the east side of Long Lake, together with a loop around Withrod lake. Benches are installed along the trail and members of the public can have plaques installed on the benches. There is also a parking lot and a washroom across from the Cowie Hill Road. Another parking lot has been added along with a Kayak/Canoe launch at the location of the old pumphouse on Old Sambro Road across from Schnare Street. On behalf of Bicycle Nova Scotia and the mountain bike community in general Randy Gray submitted a Mountain Biking Management Plan to be included either in the main body or as an appendix to the Management Plan. This was submitted after about six years of involvement and consultation with the Long Lake Park Association's Board of Directors and the Long Lake Park Association's Management Plan Committee. It can be read here: Mountain Bike Management Plan Submission. The Department of Natural Resources did not include this in its draft plan. Long Lake has been designated by the Department of Natural Resources and Renewables as a "conservation-oriented" provincial park and can be viewed as an "urban wilderness", even though much of its area has been altered by previous human activities and uses. It is anticipated that no campgrounds or other high-impact projects will be developed in the park in the foreseeable future. This is in contrast to an aborted early plan to develop a resort area and artificial beach on the west side of Long Lake. An abandoned roadbed stretching part of the way between Long Lake and the Old Sambro Road is a residue of this earlier plan. Extensive erosion along part of this roadbed has resulted in a strip of exposed bedrock which has been dubbed the "scar road" and is easily visible from the air. Most of the park is designated as a "resource conservation zone" in the park's management plan. The plan also identified a wetland area as an environmental protection zone, while two small selected areas were designated for "resource development". One of these contains the canoe/kayak launch area near Schnare Street (described above) along with a short loop trail. Location and access points Long Lake Provincial Park is bordered by the Old Sambro Road on the east, Dunbrack Street (formerly Northwest Arm Drive) on the NE, Watershed Commission lands bisected by the St. Margaret's Bay Rd. on the north, Prospect Road on the west, and the Terence Bay Wilderness Area to the south. It can be viewed from: Dunbrack Street between the Spryfield exit on the St. Margeret's Bay Rd., and the Drive's termination on the Old Sambro Rd., the Old Sambro Rd. between Dunbrack Street and its intersection with Leiblin Drive and from the Prospect Road, for a brief section just beyond Exhibition Park. About 20 entrances to the park can be identified, including: several along the St. Margaret's Bay Rd. (including from the parking lot operated by Halifax Regional Municipality near the Prospect Rd. exit), 4 or 5 off Dunbrack Street, most notably the old road across from Peter Saulnier Drive, which goes past Withrod Lake to some of the more popular swimming spots on Long Lake, from two parking lots maintained by Long Lake Provincial Park Association situated on Dunbrack Street at Cowie Hill Road and at Old Sambro Road near Schnare Street, a path from the grassy area at the dam at the end of Dentith Rd., an access road from Old Sambro Road to the south end of the dam on Long Lake, both ends of a now decommissioned old road (sometimes called The Old Coach Road) that ran from the Old Sambro Rd. to Goodwood, the Goodwood entrance has a path leading to Harrietsfield, past Spruce Hill Lake, but actually getting to Harrietsfield via this pathway is difficult because access to Harrietsfield is blocked by private property, the old road which goes from Harrietsfield to the Spruce Hill Lake dam, 2 or 3 paths which terminate on private property in Harrietsfield, and an old road going from the Exhibition Park to the Pipeline Trail (see below). There is room along the roadside at a few of the more frequently used informal entrances for 2 to 4 vehicles. In addition, there are three parking lots: the one built by the Water Commission near the west end of Long Lake accessible from the St. Margaret's Bay Road, the relatively large lot maintained by the Long Lake Provincial Park Association off Dunbrack Street, and their smaller lot near Schnare Street. A canoe-kayak-paddle board launch area is associated with this smaller parking lot. The management plan had proposed that another parking lot be built off the Old Sambro Rd, but this component of the plan has been shelved. There has been discussion with the city for use of a portion of the Exhibition Park lands for parking in association with a major park access point there, as proposed in the park's management plan. The northern portion of Long Lake Provincial Park (north of Long Lake itself) and the adjacent Water Commission lands between the park's boundaries and the St. Margaret's Bay Rd. is home to a network of informal narrow single-track mountain bike trails that is noteworthy for its challenging terrain. Many of the trails are organized into a series of loops (approximately of trail) that can be ridden a number of ways. Most of these trails are unmarked and are generally inconsistent with the park's management plan. This northern hardwood-dominated portion of Long Lake Provincial Park receives most of the park's visitors. Hydrology Long Lake Provincial Park is home to a number of lakes and ponds. The eponymous Long Lake, with an area of , is the largest. It was created in the 19th century when a wooden dam was built on McIntosh Run, causing rising water levels to connect two pre-existing lakes, Cocked Hat Lake and Beaver Lake. The resultant Long Lake has a maximum depth of 30 metres. The park's second-largest water body, Spruce Hill Lake, was formed in a similar manner. A dam was built on Spruce Lake in 1867, connecting it to nearby Fosses Hill Lake. Today, the resulting Spruce Hill Lake is large, and has a maximum depth of 12 metres. Other lakes in the park include Witherod Lake () and Narrow Lake (). Park usage The park is used by a number of overlapping groups, including: Mountain bikers, who developed a trail system between 1994 and 1999. However, the number of bikers has declined significantly since about 2001, when trail systems began to be created elsewhere in the area. Hikers: folks simply out for a walk in the woods. Most hikers again use this same small northern portion of the park, but some make use of the older network of old roads and trails in the much larger portion south of Long Lake. Dog walkers: Walking dogs on leash along trails in the park is permitted under park regulations and this is a popular activity. Despite prohibition of unleashed dogs in provincial parks, Long Lake Provincial Park had been popular for off-leash dog walking in the Halifax area at one time. The activity was mostly in the area within 20-minutes walk of the parking lot on St. Margaret's Bay Road, mentioned above. The dog-walking pattern has evolved in recent years as a result of new trail development and greater awareness of provincial park regulations that prohibit this activity. Swimmers: Long Lake is deep, the water quality is excellent overall, and there are several good spots for swimming. As with other lakes in the region, the water is warm enough for swimming from June through September. Much of the swimming in the lake takes place in the small area discussed above (i.e. the portion north of Long Lake), plus there is a good swimming area just west of where a small stream known for its scenic waterfall enters the lake, near the southwest end. There is very limited trail access to the lake outside of this area, but for those adventurous enough two small sandy beaches offer secluded swimming on the south side. At the other end of the park, there is swimming spot on the earthen dam at the north end of Pine Hill Lake, where Harrietsfield children swim. Cross-country skiers: most of these use the trails and old roads just north of Long Lake, though the old road linking Spryfield and Goodwood is also suitable. Geocaching: an active and long-established geocaching tradition exists in the Halifax region, and the area within the park is particularly popular, perhaps due to the varied terrain within park boundaries, fishers: the lake is not stocked, but it is reported that there is still good fishing from a few spots on the lake, Boaters in kayaks, paddle boards and canoes. This is not as popular an activity as it could be, due to the scarcity of boat-launching places. The new kayak launch on Old Sambro has helped improve this access. Use of motorized vehicles of any kind, including boats, is prohibited within park boundaries, as with other provincial parks in Nova Scotia, so park planners have not made provisions for an easy place to launch boats, out of concern that power boats might also be launched. Birdwatchers and other naturalists: the park's terrain is quite variable and there are many excellent habitats for bird watching. Access to many of the best habitats for birds is still limited, but this is seldom a barrier to the most eager of birders. Photography: The park offers a great wealth of opportunities for scenic and natural history photography, from scenic vistas around the lakes, to the many large glacial erratics (boulders dropped by the melting glaciers as they retreated, about 14,000 years ago), beautiful old trees, and a surprisingly wide variety of flora and fauna. Groups on organized field outings: Youth groups of various kinds, hiking clubs, cross-country runners, field naturalists, hiking associations, school groups and others often make use of the park's extensive trail system for outings of both the educational and recreational kinds. In addition to the legal activities detailed above, illegal park uses include: Off-road vehicles: as discussed elsewhere, this activity occurs exclusively in the large southern portion of the park, and has caused considerable environmental harm, especially to wetlands. Hunting: This is not a serious problem in the park, fortunately, but it does occur nevertheless. Mostly, deer are the target of hunting in the area. Though, hunting is permitted on the Crown land outside of the park boundaries so long as legal safety distances are maintained. Trapping: Trap lines were occasionally reported in the park until around the year 2000, but not since then. Camping and squatting: This is a periodic problem, especially when trees are cut for firewood and for use in shelter and "camp" building. No camping is permitted within park boundaries, and no camp grounds are included in the current management plan. Evidence of many illegal campfires is provided by the numerous fire pits on the shores of Long Lake, and to a lesser extent at Withrod Lake. Party use, usually by youth: this is a serious problem because of the fire hazard involved, and because frequently used party spots become trampled clearings which both encourage future use and would take decades to recover if left alone. Litter and potential wildlife disturbance are also factors to consider, plus the safety hazards associated with parties in semi-remote areas involving extensive alcohol usage. The two largest islands in Long Lake and the island in Withrod Lake have been considerably damaged by party-related activities. In addition to litter left at party spots, there have been instances of deliberate dumping of wastes at the park's periphery where roads provide access to places that are hidden from view. Marijuana growing: Not a serious or widespread problem, but over the years a number of small plots of marijuana have been found within park boundaries. Off-leash dog walking and dog walkers refusing to pick up after their pets. There has been at least one instance of illegal logging within the park (see below). Environmental challenges Like most other parks in Halifax, it suffered extensive tree-loss as a result of Hurricane Juan on September 29, 2003. Many paths were blocked and some of the less-used ones remain that way. Most have since been cleared by citizens, however, since the province does not actively manage this provincial park. The slash created by these downed trees, which include many mature large, mature spruce trees, has created a significant fire hazard, although to date this has not created a problem and is typical of natural forests in the region. As mentioned elsewhere in the article, many of the more often used trails suffer from extensive erosion, and some have become quite wide because of people avoiding wet areas or creating short-cuts. Water quality is good overall, but is affected somewhat by runoff from the nearby Bayers Lake Industrial Park, and locally, by off-leash dogs swimming in the lake. In the large southern region of the park, extensive damage has been done by all-terrain vehicles, especially in boggy areas and along trails. This is an ongoing problem which will hopefully be remediated via education and more vigorous enforcement of regulations. In November 2015, around of land within the park was illegally clearcut by a private company. Resourcetec Inc. was hired by Dexter Construction to cut trees on property owned by Dexter along Old Sambro Road, beside the park. Resourcetec subcontracted the work to Scott and Stewart Forestry Consultants, who accidentally cut down trees on Crown land. Resourcetec was alleged to be the most culpable party. The company pleaded guilty and was fined in 2016. In response to this incident, provincial fines against illegal cutting on Crown land were significantly increased in November 2016. Flora and fauna Habitats within the park are extremely varied, and include various kinds of wetlands, old-growth vegetative successions from areas previously farmed, an area planted with pine trees by the Boy Scouts in the 1960s, extensive barrens in the southwestern portion of the park, some mixed hardwood/softwood and predominantly hardwood (oak, beech, witch hazel, birch, red maple) areas in the small northern part of the park discussed above, and extensive areas of boreal forest in the SE region - largely red and black spruce, balsam fir and red maple. As with most parts of Nova Scotia, large, old white pines dot the park, being left over from the logging which most areas underwent before their designation as watershed lands. It is worth noting that healthy populations of orchids can be found in some of the marshy portions in the park. The park's fauna is healthy and varied and includes many deer, the occasional moose, multitudes of squirrels, snowshoe hares, foxes, bobcats, chipmunks, three or four species of frogs and salamanders, many fish and bird species, beavers (who have extensively altered portions of the park), muskrats, snakes and others. Unverified reports of lynx tracks and spoor also exist . Bears have not been reported within the park in recent years. Trails The park possesses an extensive trail system comprising: old roads associated with the farms in the area, including one connecting the Old Sambro Rd. in Spryfield, and Goodwood (on the Prospect Rd.), and another from Goodwood to Harrietsfield, The "pipeline trail", above the pipeline between Pine Hill to Long Lakes. Most of this has unfortunately become flooded and swampy in recent years, hence impassable, older trails associated with habitation, watershed usage, quarries and general uses such as fishing, swimming, berry picking, hiking and hunting and newer trails developed by mountain bikers, as discussed above. Many of the more extensively used trails suffer from erosional problems, and various remedial proposals including trail closures have been discussed as part of the creation of the park's development plan. However, the majority of the damage to the trails occurred during the drop of mountain bike use and the increase in hiker/dog walker traffic. a new trail system on the northeast side of the park, called the Lakeview Trail, opened on Earth Day in 2016. It includes washrooms, benches, a car park, and bicycle racks. The trail system can be accessed at three points on Dunbrack Street and three points on Old Sambro Road The trails were funded by a private developer building a subdivision on the opposite side of Dunbrack Street. References External links HalifaxTrails.ca – Long Lake guide Randy Gray's website about the park Long Lake Provincial Park Association Long Lake Provincial Park Draft Park Management Plan Parks in Halifax, Nova Scotia Provincial parks of Nova Scotia
4885836	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Acadians	History of the Acadians	The Acadians () are the descendants of 17th and 18th century French settlers in parts of Acadia (French: Acadie) in the northeastern region of North America comprising what is now the Canadian Maritime Provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, the Gaspé peninsula in eastern Québec, and the Kennebec River in southern Maine. The settlers whose descendants became Acadians primarily came from the southwestern and southern regions of France, historically known as Occitania, while some Acadians are claimed to be descended from the Indigenous peoples of the region. Today, due to assimilation, some Acadians may share other ethnic ancestries as well. The history of the Acadians was significantly influenced by the six colonial wars that took place in Acadia during the 17th and 18th centuries (see the four French and Indian Wars, Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War). Eventually, the last of the colonial wars—the French and Indian War—resulted in the British Expulsion of the Acadians from the region. After the war, many Acadians came out of hiding or returned to Acadia from the British colonies. Others remained in France and some migrated from there to Louisiana, where they became known as Cajuns, a corruption of the word Acadiens or Acadians. The nineteenth century saw the beginning of the Acadian Renaissance and the publication of Evangeline, which helped galvanize Acadian identity. In the last century, Acadians have made achievements in the areas of equal language and cultural rights as a minority group in the Maritime Provinces of Canada. As French settlers Port Royal Habitation (1604-1613) Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts built the Habitation at Port-Royal in 1605 as a replacement for his initial attempt at colonizing Saint Croix Island (present day Maine). The trading monopoly of de Monts was cancelled in 1607, and most of the French settlers returned to France, although some remained. Jean de Biencourt de Poutrincourt et de Saint-Just led a second expedition to Port Royal in 1610. Arrival of the first European families The survival of the Acadian settlements was based on successful cooperation with the Indigenous peoples of the region. In the early years of Acadian settlement, this included recorded marriages between Acadian settlers and Indigenous women. Some records have survived showing marriages between Acadian settlers and Indigenous women in formal Roman Catholic rites, for example, the marriage of Charles La Tour to a Mi'kmaw woman in 1626. There were also reported instances of Acadian settlers marrying Indigenous spouses according to Marriage à la façon du pays, and subsequently living in Mi'kmaq communities. Settlers also brought French wives with them to Acadia, such as La Tour's second wife, Françoise-Marie Jacquelin, who joined him in Acadia in 1640. Governor Isaac de Razilly's administration at LaHave, Nova Scotia, prepared the ground for the arrival of the first recorded migrant families on board the Saint Jehan, which left La Rochelle on 1 April 1636. There were a number of sailings from the French Atlantic Coast to Acadia between 1632 and 1636, but this is the only one for which a detailed passenger list has survived. Nicolas Denys, who was stationed across the LaHave River at Port Rossignol (Liverpool Bay), acted as agent for the Saint Jehan. After a 35-day crossing of the Atlantic, the Saint Jehan arrived on 6 May 1636 at LaHave, Nova Scotia. There were seventy-eight passengers and eighteen crew members. With this ship, Acadia began a slow shift from being primarily a matter of explorers and traders, of men, to a colony of permanent settlers, including women and children. While the presence of European women is a signal that settlement was seriously contemplated, there were yet so few of them in this group of migrants that they did not immediately affect the status of Acadia as basically a colony of European transients. By the end of the year, the migrants were moved from LaHave and re-established at Port Royal. At Port Royal in 1636, Pierre Martin and Catherine Vigneau, who had arrived on the Saint Jehan, were the first European parents to have a child in Acadia. The first-born child was Mathieu Martin. In part because of this distinction, Mathieu Martin later became the Seigneury of Cobequid (1699). Kennedy (2014) argues that the emigrants from the Vienne and Aquitaine regions of France carried to Acadia their customs and social structure. They were frontier people, who dispersed their settlements based on kinship. They optimized the use of farmland and emphasized trading for a profit. They were hierarchical and politically active. The French and the Acadian villages were similar in terms of prosperity, egalitarianism, and independent-mindedness. The emergence of a distinct Acadian identity emerged from the adaptation of traditional French methods, institutions, and ideas to the Indigenous North American methods, ideas, and political situations. Civil war With the death of Isaac de Razilly, Acadia was plunged into what some historians have described as a civil war (1640–1645). Acadia had two legitimate Lieutenant Governors. The war was between Port Royal, where Governor Charles de Menou d'Aulnay de Charnisay was stationed, and present-day Saint John, New Brunswick, where Governor Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour was stationed. In the war, there were four major battles. La Tour attacked d'Aulnay at Port Royal in 1640. In response to the attack, D'Aulnay sailed out of Port Royal to establish a five-month blockade of La Tour's fort at Saint John, which La Tour eventually defeated (1643). La Tour attacked d'Aulnay again at Port Royal in 1643. D'Aulnay and Port Royal ultimately won the war against La Tour with the 1645 siege of Saint John. After d'Aulnay died (1650), La Tour re-established himself in Acadia. English colony (1654–1667) In 1654, war between France and England broke out. Led by Major Robert Sedgwick, a flotilla from Boston, under orders from Cromwell, arrived in Acadia to chase the French out. The flotilla seized La Tour's fort, then Port-Royal. La Tour, nevertheless, managed to find himself in England, where, with the support of John Kirke, succeeded in receiving from Cromwell a part of Acadia, along with Sir Thomas Temple. La Tour returned to Cap-de-Sable where he remained until his death in 1666 at the age of 73. During the English occupation of Acadia, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Louis XIV's minister, forbade the Acadians from returning to France. As a result of the English occupation, no new French families settled in Acadia between 1654 and 1670. Post Treaty of Breda The Treaty of Breda, signed 31 July 1667, returned Acadia to France. A year later, Marillon du Bourg arrived to take possession of the territory for France. The son of LeBorgne, Alexandre LeBorgne, was named provisionary governor and lieutenant-general of Acadia. He married Marie Motin-La Tour, the eldest child of the marriage between La Tour and d'Aulnay's widow. In 1670, the new governor of Acadia, the chevalier Hubert d'Andigny, chevalier de Grandfontaine, was responsible for the first census undertaken in Acadia. The results did not include those Acadians living with local First Nations. It revealed that there were approximately sixty Acadian families with approximately 300 inhabitants in total. These inhabitants were predominantly engaged in aboiteau farming along the shores of the present-day Bay of Fundy. No serious attempt was made to increase the population of Acadia. In the spring of 1671, more than fifty colonists left La Rochelle aboard the l'Oranger. Others arrived from Canada (New France) or were retired soldiers. During this time, a number of colonists married with the local First Nations. Some of the first to marry were Charles de Saint-Étienne de La Tour, Martin, Pierré Lejeune–Briard, Jehan Lambert, Petitpas and Guedry. The captain, Vincent de Saint-Castin, the commander at Pentagoet, married Marie Pidikiwamiska, the daughter of an Abenakis chief. In 1674, the Dutch briefly conquered Acadia, renaming the colony New Holland. During the last decades of the seventeenth century, Acadians migrated from the capital, Port Royal, and established what would become the other major Acadian settlements before the Expulsion of the Acadians: Grand Pré, Chignecto, Cobequid and Pisiguit. Although not common, on occasion epidemics ravished the population of Ile St.-Jean, Ile Royale and Acadia. In 1732/33 more than 150 people died of smallpox on Ile Royale. The history of the settlers of Ile St.-Jean prior to the expulsion includes extreme hardship. For almost every good harvest year it seems that there was one in which crops failed. In one or two instances widespread fires destroyed crops, livestock and farms. Famine and starvation were common and frequently occasioned desperate pleas for supplies from Louisbourg, Québec and even France itself. In 1756, famine on Ile St.-Jean prompted authorities to relocate some families to Québec. Prior to the founding of Halifax (1749), Port Royal/ Annapolis Royal was the capital of Acadia and later Nova Scotia for most of the previous 150 years. During that time the British made six attempts to conquer Acadia by defeating the capital. They finally defeated the French in the Siege of Port Royal (1710). Over the following fifty years, the French and their allies made six unsuccessful military attempts to regain the capital. Colonial Wars There was already a long history of Acadian and Wabanaki Confederacy resistance to the British occupation of Acadia during the four French and Indian Wars and two local wars (Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War) before the Expulsion of the Acadians. The Mi'kmaq and the Acadians were allies through Catholicism and through numerous inter-marriages. The Mi'kmaq held the military strength in Acadia even after the conquest of 1710. They primarily resisted the British occupation of Acadia and were joined in their efforts on numerous occasions by Acadians. While many Acadians traded with the New England Protestants, Acadians' participation in the wars clearly indicated that many were reluctant to be ruled by the British. During the first colonial war, King William's War (1688–97), the crews of the very successful French privateer Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste were primarily Acadian. The Acadians resisted during the Raid on Chignecto (1696). During Queen Anne's War, Mi’kmaq and Acadians resisted during the Raid on Grand Pré, Piziquid and Chignecto in 1704. The Acadians also assisted the French in protecting the capital in the Siege of Port Royal (1707) and the final Conquest of Acadia. The Acadians and Mi’kmaq were also successful in the Battle of Bloody Creek (1711). During Father Rale's War, the Maliseet raided numerous vessels on the Bay of Fundy while the Mi'kmaq engaged in the Raid on Canso, Nova Scotia (1723). In the latter engagement, the Mi'kmaq were aided by Acadians. During King George's War, Abbe Jean-Louis Le Loutre led many efforts which involved both Acadians and Mi’kmaq to recapture the capital such as the Siege of Annapolis Royal (1744). During this siege, French officer Marin had taken British prisoners and stopped with them further up the bay at Cobequid. While at Cobequid, an Acadian said that the French soldiers should have "left their [the English] carcasses behind and brought their skins". Le Loutre was also joined by prominent Acadian resistance leader Joseph Broussard (Beausoleil). Broussard and other Acadians were involved in supporting the French soldiers in the Battle of Grand Pré. During Father Le Loutre’s War, the conflict continued. The Mi'kmaq attacked New England Rangers in the Siege of Grand Pré and Battle at St. Croix. Upon the founding of Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Broussard and the Mi'kmaq conducted numerous raids on the village, such as the Raid on Dartmouth (1751), to try to stop the Protestant migration into Nova Scotia. (Similarly, during the French and Indian War, Mi’kmaq, Acadians and Maliseet also engaged in numerous raids on Lunenburg, Nova Scotia, to stop the migration, such as the Raid on Lunenburg (1756).) Le Loutre and Broussard also worked together to resist the British occupation of Chignecto (1750) and then later they fought together with Acadians in the Battle of Beausejour (1755). (As early as the summer of 1751, La Valiere reported, approximately 250 Acadians had already enrolled in the local militia at Fort Beausejour.) When Charles Lawrence took over the post following Hopson’s return to England, he took a stronger stance. He was not only a government official but a military leader for the region. Lawrence came up with a military solution for the forty-five years of an unsettled British conquest of Acadia. The French and Indian War (and Seven Years' War in Europe) began in 1754. Lawrence's primary objectives in Acadia were to defeat the French fortifications at Beausejour and Louisbourg. The British saw many Acadians as a military threat in their allegiance to the French and Mi'kmaq. The British also wanted to interrupt the Acadian supply lines to Fortress Louisbourg, which, in turn, supplied the Mi'kmaq. French and Indian War The British Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710. Over the next forty-five years the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. During this time period Acadians participated in various militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the French Fortress of Louisbourg and Fort Beausejour. During the French and Indian War, the British sought to neutralize any military threat Acadians posed and to interrupt the vital supply lines Acadians provided to Louisbourg by deporting Acadians from Acadia. Many Acadians might have signed an unconditional oath to the British monarchy had the circumstances been better, while other Acadians did not sign because they were clearly anti-British. For the Acadians who might have signed an unconditional oath, there were numerous reasons why they did not. The difficulty was partly religious, in that the British monarch was the head of the (Protestant) Church of England. Another significant issue was that an oath might commit male Acadians to fight against France during wartime. A related concern was whether their Mi'kmaq neighbours might perceive this as acknowledging the British claim to Acadia rather than the Mi'kmaq. As a result, signing an unconditional oath might have put Acadian villages in danger of attack from Mi'kmaq. In the Grand Dérangement (the Great Upheaval), more than 12,000 Acadians (three-fourths of the Acadian population in Nova Scotia) were expelled from the colony between 1755 and 1764. The British destroyed around 6,000 Acadian houses and dispersed the Acadians among the Thirteen Colonies from Massachusetts to Georgia. The single event that involved the most deaths of Acadians was the sinking of the Duke William. Although there were no purposeful attempts to separate families, this did occur in the chaos of the eviction. Acadian and Mi’kmaq resistance With the Expulsion of the Acadians during the French and Indian War, the Mi’kmaq and Acadian resistance intensified. After the Expulsion began, much of the resistance was led by Charles Deschamps de Boishébert et de Raffetot. The Acadians and Mi’kmaq again engaged victoriously in the Battle of Petitcodiac (1755) and the Battle of Bloody Creek (1757). Acadians who were being deported from Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia, on the ship Pembroke defeated the British crew and sailed to land. There was also resistance during the St. John River Campaign. Boishebert also ordered the Raid on Lunenburg (1756). In the spring of 1756, a wood-gathering party from Fort Monckton (former Fort Gaspareaux), was ambushed and nine of them were scalped. In the April 1757, a band of Acadian and Mi'kmaq raided a warehouse near Fort Edward, killing thirteen British soldiers and, after taking what provisions they could carry, setting fire to the building. A few days later, the same partisans also raided Fort Cumberland. Some Acadians escaped into the woods and lived with the Mi'kmaq; some bands of partisans fought the British, including a group led by Joseph Broussard, known as "Beausoleil", along the Petitcodiac River of New Brunswick. Some followed the coast northward, facing famine and disease. Some were recaptured, facing deportation or imprisonment at Fort Beausejour (renamed Fort Cumberland) until 1763. Some Acadians became indentured servants in the British colonies. Massachusetts passed a law in November 1755 placing the Acadians under the custody of "justices of the peace and overseers of the poor"; Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Connecticut adopted similar laws. The Province of Virginia under Robert Dinwiddie initially agreed to resettle about one thousand Acadians who arrived in the colony but later ordered most deported to England, writing that the "French people" were "intestine enemies" that were "murdering and scalping our frontier Settlers". In 1758, after the fall of Louisbourg, over 3,000 Acadians were deported to northern France. Resettlement attempts were tried in Châtellerault, Nantes, and Belle Île off Brittany. The French islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon near Newfoundland became a safe harbor for many Acadian families until they were once again deported by the British in 1778 and 1793. Re-establishing in Nova Scotia After the end of the Seven Years' War in 1763, Acadians were allowed to return to Nova Scotia as long as they did not settle in any one area in large numbers; they were not permitted to resettle in the areas of Port Royal or Grand-Pré. Some Acadians resettled along the Nova Scotia coast and remain scattered across Nova Scotia to this day. Many dispersed Acadians looked for other homes. Beginning in 1764, groups of Acadians began to arrive in Louisiana (which had passed to Spanish control in 1762). They eventually became known as Cajuns. Beginning in the 1770s, many Acadians were encouraged to return through the policies of Nova Scotia Governor Michael Francklin, who guaranteed Catholic worship, land grants and issued a promise that there would be no second expulsion (At this time, Nova Scotia included present-day New Brunswick). However the fertile Acadian dykelands had been resettled by New England Planters, who were soon followed by Loyalists who further occupied former Acadian lands. Returning Acadians and those families who had escaped expulsion had to settle in other parts of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, in most cases isolated and infertile lands. The new Acadian settlements were forced to focus more on fishery and later forestry. Milestones of Acadian return and resettlement included: 1767 St. Pierre et Miquelon 1772 census 1774 Founding of Saint-Anne's church; the Acadian school at Rustico and the abbey Jean-Louis Beaubien; the Trappistines in Tracadie 1785 Displacement from Fort Sainte-Anne to the upper Saint John River valley (Madawaska) Nineteenth century Milestones of Acadian return and resettlement included: Jean-Mandé Sigogne (6 April 1763 – 9 November 1844) was a French Catholic priest, who moved to Canada after the Revolution and became known for his missionary work among the Acadians of Nova Scotia. 1836 Simon d'Entremont and Frédéric Robichaud, MLAs in N.S. 1846 Amand Landry, MLA in N.B. 1847, Longfellow publishes Evangeline 1854, Stanislaw-Francois Poirier, MLA in P.E.I 1854, the seminary Saint-Thomas in Memramcook, New Brunswick, becomes the first upper-level school for Acadians 1859, the first history of Acadia is published in French by Edme Rameau de Saint-Père; Acadians begin to become aware of their own existence Acadian renaissance 1864 founding of the Farmers' Bank of Rustico, the earliest known community bank in Canada, under the leadership of Rev. Georges-Antoine Belcourt 1867, first Acadian newspaper, Le Moniteur Acadien (The Acadian Monitor) is published by Israël Landry 1871, Common Schools Act of 1871 prohibiting the teaching of religion in the classroom 1875, the death of Louis Mailloux, 19 years old, in Caraquet by government forces only stokes Acadian nationalism 1880, the Society of Saint John the Baptiste invites Francophones from all over North America to a congress in Quebec City July 20–21, 1881, Acadian leaders organize the first Acadian National Convention in Memramcook, New Brunswick, which had for its goal to take care of the general interests of the Acadian population. More than 5,000 Acadians participated in the convention. It was decided that August 15, the Feast of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, would be chosen to celebrate Acadian culture as National Acadian Day. Other debates at the convention centered around education, agriculture, emigration, colonization, and newspapers, and these same issues would arise at subsequent conventions. At the second convention, on August 15, 1884, in Miscouche, Prince Edward Island, the Acadian flag, an anthem - Ave Maris Stella, and a motto - L'union fait la force were adopted. 1885, John A. Macdonald nominates Pascal Poirier from Shediac as the first Acadian senator; a second Acadian newspaper published, Le Courrier des Provinces Maritimes 1887, the newspaper L'Evangéline begins being published from Digby, later, in 1905, moves to Moncton 1890, third Acadian convention Twentieth century Milestones of the Acadian Renaissance 1912, Monsigneur Edouard LeBlanc is the first Acadian bishop in The Maritimes 1917, the Conservative Aubin-Edmond Arsenault becomes the first Acadian premier of P.E.I. 1920, 2nd Acadian bishop, Mgr Alexandre Chiasson in Chatham and later Bathurst; la Société nationale de l'Assomption undertakes a campaign to build a commemorative church in Grand-Pré, Nova Scotia 1923, Pierre-Jean Véniot becomes the first Acadian premier of N.B. but was not elected 1936, the first Caisse Populaire Acadien in Petit-Rocher is founded; the committee France-Acadie is founded 1955, the first Tintamarre occurs. The Equal Opportunity program Louis Robichaud, popularly known as "P'tit-Louis" (Little Louis), was the first elected Acadian Premier of New Brunswick, serving from 1960 to 1970. First elected to the legislature in 1952, he became provincial Liberal leader in 1958 and led his party to victory in 1960, 1963, and 1967. Robichaud modernized the province's hospitals and public schools and introduced a wide range of reforms in an era that became known as the New Brunswick Equal Opportunity program, at the same time as the Quiet Revolution in Québec. To carry out these reforms, Robichaud restructured the municipal tax regime, expanded the government and sought to ensure that the quality of health care, education and social services was the same across the province—a programme he called equal opportunity, is still a buzzword in New Brunswick. Critics accused of Robichaud's government of "robbing Peter to pay Pierre" with the assumption being that rich municipalities were Anglophone ones and poor municipalities were Francophone ones. While it was true that the wealthier municipalities were predominantly in certain English-speaking areas, areas with significantly inferior services were to be found across the province in all municipalities. Robichaud was instrumental in the formation of New Brunswick's only French-speaking university, the Université de Moncton, in 1963, which serves the Acadian population of the Maritime provinces. His government also passed the New Brunswick Official Languages Act (1969) making the province officially bilingual. "Language rights", he said when he introduced the legislation, "are more than legal rights. They are precious cultural rights, going deep into the revered past and touching the historic traditions of all our people." 1977, official opening of the Acadian Historic Village in Caraquet, New Brunswick. Antonine Maillet Born 1929 in Bouctouche, Antonine Maillet is an Acadian novelist, playwright, and scholar. Maillet received a BA and MA from the Université de Moncton, followed by a Ph.D. in literature in 1970 from the Université Laval. Maillet won the 1972 Governor General's Award for Fiction for Don l'Orignal. In 1979, Maillet published Pélagie-la-Charrette, for which she won the prix Goncourt. Maillet's character "La Sagouine" (from her book of the same name) is the inspiration for "Le Pays de la Sagouine" in her hometown of Bouctouche. Twenty-first century In 2003, at the request of Acadian representatives, a proclamation was issued in the name of Queen Elizabeth II, as the Canadian monarch, officially acknowledging the deportation and establishing July 28 as a day of commemoration. The day of commemoration is observed by the Government of Canada, as the successor of the British Government. Acadian Remembrance Day The Fédération des Associations de Familles Acadiennnes of New Brunswick and the Société Saint-Thomas d'Aquin of Prince Edward Island has resolved that December 13 each year shall be commemorated as "Acadian Remembrance Day" in remembrance of all Acadians who died as a result of the deportation. The date December 13 was chosen to commemorate the sinking of the Duke William and the nearly 2000 Acadians deported from Île-Saint Jean who perished in the North Atlantic from hunger, disease and drowning in 1758. The event has been commemorated annually since 2004 and participants mark the event by wearing a black star. Acadian World Congress Beginning in 1994, the Acadian community gathered for an Acadian World Congress in New Brunswick. The congress has been held every 5 years since then: in Louisiana in 1999, in Nova Scotia in 2004, in the Acadian Peninsula of New Brunswick in 2009. The 5th Acadian World Congress was hosted in 2014 by a gathering of 40 different communities located in three different provinces and different states in two countries. Northwestern New Brunswick and Témiscouata, Quebec, in Canada as well as Northern Maine in the United States joined hands to host the 5th CMA. See also Military history of the Acadians Military history of Nova Scotia Acadians Cajun Occitans Fort Beauséjour and Fortress of Louisbourg Henri Peyroux de la Coudreniere List of governors of Acadia List of conflicts in Canada Military history of Canada Southern France New Brunswick Nova Scotia Prince Edward Island List of years in Canada History of Nova Scotia Notes Citations References Arsenault, B. (1994). Histoire des Acadiens. Gasp: Fides. Dupont, Jean-Claude (1977). Héritage d'Acadie. Montreal: Éditions Leméac. External links Thematic project on the Acadians at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Acadian Ancestral Home - a repository for Acadian History & Genealogy Poitou, Acadie, Bretagne Acadian-Cajun Genealogy & History CyberAcadie — Site Web sur l'histoire des Acadiens Le Pays De La Sagouine Further reading (published in the United States as ) Culture of Nova Scotia Conflicts in Nova Scotia History of Nova Scotia
4886029	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Googong%2C%20New%20South%20Wales	Googong, New South Wales	Googong is a locality located within the Queanbeyan–Palerang Regional Council government area, south of the Queanbeyan Central Business District (CBD). Googong contains the township of Googong and the developed areas of Fernleigh Park, Little Burra and Mount Campbell Estate. It borders Jerrabomberra and Karabar on the north and Environa on the west. It is about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) south of the Queanbeyan central business district. Its citizens tend to utilise the infrastructure of neighbouring Canberra. History Googong is situated on Ngunnawal traditional Aboriginal country. Five Aboriginal groups have identified custodial connections to the area. The area also has had European farmers and settlers since the mid-1800s. It is named after one of the largest farming properties in the area, although the meaning and origins of the word Googong remain obscure. The first part of the original stone homestead was built in 1845 and was first occupied by Alexander McDonald, an employee of the Campbell family who were early settlers of the Canberra region. The homestead was later renamed ‘Beltana’. The area around Googong has several historic features including the old London Bridge Homestead and the London Bridge Arch, a remarkable natural limestone bridge formed by Burra Creek over thousands of years. The nearby Googong Dam, fed by the Queanbeyan River and numerous creeks, is by far the largest in the ACT region. It was constructed in 1977. The township of Googong spans 780 hectares which sits within the Parish of Googong, an area of land between Burra and Queanbeyan, east of Jerrabomberra Creek. It is being developed as a joint venture between Peet and Mirvac and will eventually be home to around 18,000 people. Googong Foreshores is the name given to the area around Googong Dam. This is separate from the town of Googong and is managed as a water catchment, wildlife refuge and public recreation area. Park Care volunteers help to protect the national and cultural values of the Foreshores. Planning for the township of Googong began in the early 2000s, with approval to begin the re-zoning process granted in 2006. The findings of the Independent Queanbeyan Land Release Inquiry, issued by the NSW Minister for Planning in September of that year recommended the site as the future residential growth area for the City of Queanbeyan. In November 2007, the NSW Department of Planning issued a Section 65 certificate enabling the public exhibition of the draft Local Environmental Plan which was available for public comment until February 2008. The re-zoning of the site to allow residential development was approved in December 2009. At that time it was announced that Googong will have five neighbourhoods, a town center and four local shopping centers, as well as 183 hectares of open space to provide recreational, ecological and visual amenity. As part of the project, developers Peet and Mirvac undertook a Voluntary Planning Agreement (now known as a Local Planning Agreement) to dedicate land and undertake construction works valued at over $300 million. These included road and intersection upgrades on local access roads and the construction of community facilities including a library, community centres, indoor pool and sports centre, sporting fields and open spaces, as well as gifting land for a public primary school, public secondary school, and fire station. The Development Control Plan for the township of Googong was approved by Queanbeyan City Council in October 2010. The final plan was formally adopted in June 2013. Civil construction commenced at Googong in 2012 with the first residents moving in during February 2014. Culture and arts Googfest Googfest is a regional music festival hosted by the developers of Googong, Peet Limited and Mirvac. The festival was launched in 2015 and has previously featured music acts including Dami Im, SAFIA, Sneaky Sound System, and The Aston Shuffle attracting more than 10,000 people each year. Boogong Boogong is Googong’s annual Halloween festival. The event features circus acts and other forms of entertainment for the community and attracts up to 10,000 people each year. It is also hosted by Googong's developers, Peet Limited and Mirvac. Rural Fire Service Open Day The Googong Rural Fire Service Open Day offers members of the community the chance to meet local crew from the Jerrabomberra Creek Rural Fire Brigade and the Queanbeyan Fire and Rescue service to discuss fire safety in the region and at home. The open day also features local landcare, sports groups and wildlife careers and is hosted by Googong's developers, Peet Limited and Mirvac. KiteFest KiteFest is Googong’s annual kite festival which is held on Father’s Day at Rockley Oval. The event often features notable kite enthusiasts as well as onsite entertainment. Population At the Census, there were: 7,444 people in Googong (State Suburbs). Of these 49.9% were male and 50.1% were female. The median age was 32. Of people aged 15 years and over, 61.7% of people were in a registered marriage and 14.7% were in a de facto marriage. Of people were attending an educational institution, 34.3% were in primary school, 19.1% in secondary school and 20.7% in a tertiary or technical institution. The most common responses for religion in Googong were No Religion, so described 36.2%, Catholic 26.6%, Anglican 12.2%, Not stated 4.2% and Hinduism 3.3%. Commercial areas Googong North Village Centre opened in Googong’s first neighbourhood with an IGA supermarket, liquor store, Gorman & Co. pub, café, hair salon, beautician, Our Place Childcare, Domino’s Pizza, Club Lime gym, GP clinic, dentist, physiotherapist, allied health services, discount pharmacy, vet, real estate agent, and a Community Centre Googong Town Centre Plans for a $143 million town center were revealed in 2018 in Googong Central, the town’s second neighbourhood. Work is scheduled to be completed on supermarkets and the retail precinct in the coming years. Education The Anglican School Googong The Anglican School Googong is a co-educational, open-entry school that currently caters for Early Learning through to Year 10. By 2023 it will take students through until Year 12. Googong public primary school In June 2018, the New South Wales Government announced the approval and planning commencement of a public primary school for Googong. In 2020, they announced that the school will open for students for Term 1, 2023. This will be located on land adjacent to the Googong North Village Centre. Googong public secondary school The public secondary school will be located in Googong Central. A site has been gifted to the New South Wales Government. Sustainability Water Recycling Plant The Googong Water Recycling Plant is part of an $133 million integrated water recycling system which was funded, designed and built by Googong’s developers and gifted to the Queanbeyan-Palerang Regional Council who manage the site. The recycled water is delivered through an existing network of purple-coloured pipes and taps, distinguishing it from potable water. It will be used across Googong’s public green spaces and delivered to all Googong residents, schools and businesses for non-potable uses such as watering gardens and flushing toilets. The system will recycle over half the waste water used on site, and reduce potable water consumption in the town by 60%. Green Star Rating Googong was awarded the Green Building Council of Australia’s first 5-Star Green Star – Communities rating in 2016. The township was given a 5-star rating based on several its initiatives including its integrated water cycle management system, open space strategy and building design guidelines. Launched in 2003, Green Star is Australia's largest voluntary and holistic sustainability rating system for buildings, fitouts and communities. Following a re-accreditation process, this rating was confirmed and extended until 2026 as the township delivered on the several sustainability initiatives promised as part of the original certification. Reconophalt Googong has used ‘reconophalt’, a recycled road product, to install six netball courts and an adjacent car park within the township. The recycled road product is made from an asphalt mix of soft plastics, glass toner and reclaimed road. The product is currently undergoing trial, with the aim is for the product to be used to build roads within the township. Conservation area for Pink-tailed Worm-lizard The Pink-tailed Worm-lizard is listed as ‘vulnerable’ under Commonwealth and State legislation and a large population of this species has been identified as occurring within the eastern part of Googong. Under part of the approval of Googong under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, Googong has committed to establish, rehabilitate and dedicate to public ownership a 54ha fenced Pink-tailed Worm-lizard Conservation Area to protect this species. The township developed a second conservation area in support of the Pink-tailed Worm-lizard, which included $1m joint funding from the New South Wales Government and Googong’s developers Peet Limited and Mirvac. Electric Charging Stations There will be electric car charging stations embedded throughout Googong’s five neighbourhoods. Cat Containment In February 2021, a cat containment policy was proposed for Greater Googong. Cats are currently encouraged to be kept indoors. Cats are prohibited on public land which is zoned for 'environmental conservation'. This includes the parkland adjacent to the Googong Foreshores, as well as the Pink-tailed Worm-lizard Conservation Area. Cats found in these are likely to be controlled by rangers. Additionally, cats roaming onto neighbouring private properties face danger of being controlled by the landowners. Parks Lovegrove Park Lovegrove Park is an all ability park located on Aprasia Avenue adjacent to the Googong North Village Centre. It has a large climbing teepee, slippery dip, basket swing, spinners and softfall. Shadesails cover some of the equipment in the park. There is also a covered BBQ area with seating, bins and a water refill station. Beltana Park Beltana Park is adjacent to Club Googong and the tennis courts on Beltana Avenue. It has a large playground with swings, nest swing, slide, large climbing net and other items suitable for all ages of children. There is also a large covered BBQ area with seating and toilets. Duncan Fields playground Duncan Fields on Duncan Loop includes a playground with mini trampolines, a half-court basketball court, a covered BBQ area, tables and toilets. Rockley Oval playground Rockley Oval on Rockley Parade includes a cricket pitch, nets and AFL posts, a covered BBQ area with tables and a playground which includes a mini climbing wall, swings and toilets. Yerradhang Nguru – Gumnut Playground Yerradhang Nguru, Gumnut Playground is located at 65 Aprasia Avenue. Yerradhang Nguru, in the Aboriginal language of the Ngunawal people means Gumtree Camp. The playground has climbing structures, ping pong tables, and a small swing set. There is a large covered BBQ area with seating. Munnagai Woggabaliri Park Munnagai Woggabaliri Park has a BBQ area which is covered. It has a playground with swings and a spinner. All the equipment is made from timber. There is also seating available. Barkley Dog Park and Rockley Oval Dog Park Googong has two different dog-friendly parks, the largest of which is Barkley Dog Park which also includes a pond. Rockley Oval also includes a cricket pitch, nets and AFL posts. Googong Common Googong Common includes walking and bush trails, linking several of the town's ovals and sports precinct. A chain of ponds that make up Montgomery Creek, which runs through Googong Common, are currently under restoration. Nangi Pimble Nangi Pimble is a reserve at the highest hilltop in Googong and has been planted with thousands of Allocasuarina verticillata to support a colony of glossy black cockatoo. A proposed walking trail for the area will lead to a viewing platform atop the hill. The viewing platform is currently under development. Bunyip Park Bunyip Park opened in October 2022 and includes a bunyip themed playground with climbing structures, bunyip eggs and baby bunyip sculptures, fencing, BBQs, shade structures and toilets. It is located at 5 Glenrock Drive, Googong, and is adjacent to the town’s future town centre and the developers’ Sales Office. Artwork Googong entry sculpture The main entry to the township contains an installation called Terraformis of a 7-metre steel sculpture. The sculpture is a nod to Googong’s local ecology and geology and celebrates the foundations of its natural environment. Rusted steel blades mirror the shape of surface rock strikes, prevalent in the Googong landscape, and provide a backdrop for handcrafted precast lettering. Large arches dominate the structure and acknowledge the presence of the Molonglo Ranges, while at the same time revealing the microscopic patination of the threatened Golden Sun Moth wings. Public art Googong has a public artwork walk that runs throughout the Googong North and Googong Central neighbourhoods, with 15 separate artworks to see and learn about. Artwork on display along the walk includes sculptures, installations, historic markers and architecturally designed play areas. Houses House designs There are 15 builders that make up the Googong Builders Guild and with this comes a range of designs for the available houses throughout each neighbourhood. House and land packages are sold separately, with residents having the ability to implement their own ideas and designs within set frameworks. Display village Googong display village features 19 different example homes from the 15 builders within the Googong Builders Guild. It is the largest display village in the region and gives potential future residents the option to choose from different designs and builders. It is located at 12 Courtney Street, Googong NSW 2620. Sports and recreation Upcoming sports precinct Upon completion, Googong’s sports precinct[31] will contain the six netball courts, a BMX track, an indoor pool and sports centre, a tennis centre, seven ovals including an athletics track, a skate park, a basketball court, pitch and putt, BBQ facilities, toilets and parking, as well as the Googong Sports and Recreation Club. The precinct is currently home to five playing fields, three pump tracks, a fitness trail, two tennis courts and six netball courts. The most recent addition to the precinct is a pump track project, which stretches a combined 320 metres and includes an advanced track (120m), intermediate track (160m or two 80m tracks), and a kid’s track (40m). The current location of the tracks is temporary while the sports precinct continues to be developed, with the tracks set to be relocated to a permanent position in the community when work begins on the Indoor Pool and Sports Centre in coming years. Club Googong Club Googong is found in Googong’s first neighbourhood overlooking Beltana Park. The club contains a five lane 25 metre indoor pool and a small gym as well as an outdoor seating terrace. In 2019 the facility was transferred to new owners, Aquatots Swim School. Sports Clubs – Googong Hogs AFL, Googong Hogs Netball, Monaro Panthers Googong has three sports teams within the township. The Googong Hogs is a community-based AFL club that was formed in 1976 as the Harman Australian Football Club before a vote was passed in 2015 to change its name to the Googong Australian Football Club. They play at Rockley Oval. The Googong Hogs also has netball teams from the junior ages through to senior teams. The netball teams play on courts made from ‘reconophalt’. The Monaro Panthers is a Premier League Football Club with players from Googong as well as Queanbeyan, Jerrabomberra, Bungendore, Canberra, Sutton, Michelago and the surrounding regions. Googong Sports and Recreation Club The Queanbeyan Whites Sports and Social Club will be contained within the upcoming sports precinct. It will be built in two phases with the first phase expected to open late 2023. It will be home to local community sports clubs including the Googong Hogs AFL, Googong Hogs Netball, and Googong Monaro Panthers Football. The club is owned and operated by the Queanbeyan Rugby Union Football Club, who are based in the nearby town of Queanbeyan, New South Wales. They have earned the nickname 'Queanbeyan Whites' due to the colour of their playing jersey. The club competes in the ACTRU Premier Division. The club has produced several former professional and international rugby union stars including David Campese, Matt Giteau and Anthony Fainga’a. Awards and recognition UDIA Awards In 2019, Googong received top honours at the 2019 Urban Development Institute of Australia (UDIA) NSW awards, winning both the Excellence in Masterplanned Communities and Excellence in NSW Regional Development categories. In 2020, Googong won the award for Excellence in Marketing. The UDIA runs a prestigious annual awards ceremony for projects and leaders in the urban development industry. The township was also the winner of several other UDIA Awards including: UDIA NSW Awards for Excellence – Concept Design 2011 UDIA NSW Awards for Excellence – Excellence in Southern NSW Regions and ACT Development 2016 Commendation UDIA NSW Awards for Excellence – Environmental Technology and Sustainability 2016 UDIA NSW Awards for Excellence – Masterplanned Communities 2019 UDIA NSW Awards for Excellence – NSW Regional Development 2019 UDIA NSW Awards for Excellence – Marketing 2020 ACT Property Council Awards Property Council of Australia / Rider Levett Bucknall Innovation and Excellence Awards In 2020, Googong was awarded the Rider Levett Bucknall (RLB) ACT Development of the Year award. The RLB ACT Development of the Year award is part of the 2020 Property Council of Australia / Rider Levett Bucknall Innovation and Excellence Awards program. Gallery References External links http://www.googong.net Queanbeyan–Palerang Regional Council Southern Tablelands
4886277	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Australian%20Survey%20Corps	Royal Australian Survey Corps	The Royal Australian Survey Corps (RA Svy) was a Corps of the Australian Army, formed on 1 July 1915 and disbanded on 1 July 1996. As one of the principal military survey units in Australia, the role of the Royal Australian Survey Corps was to provide the maps, aeronautical charts, hydrographical charts and geodetic and control survey data required for land combat operations. Functional responsibilities associated with this role were: theatre wide geodetic survey for – artillery, naval gunfire and close air support – mapping and charting – navigation systems – command and control, communications, intelligence, reconnaissance and surveillance systems; map production and printing for new maps and charts, plans, overprints, battle maps, air photo mosaics and photomaps, rapid map and chart revision; map holding and map distribution; production, maintenance and distribution of digital topographic information and products. RA Svy survey and mapping information was, and still is, a key information source for geospatial intelligence. The operational doctrine was that the combat force deployed into the area of operations with topographic products adequate for planning, force insertion and initial conduct of tactical operations, that new products and broad area updates of the topographic base would be provided by the support area and communication zone survey forces, and that the combat support survey force in the area of operations would update the topographic base, add tactical operational and intelligence information and provide the value-added products required by the combat force. The Historical Collection of the Survey Corps is maintained by the Australian Army Museum of Military Engineering at Holsworthy Barracks, south-west Sydney, New South Wales. Survey Corps Associations of ex-members, family and friends are located in Adelaide, Bendigo, Brisbane, Canberra, Perth and Sydney. Many wartime maps produced by the Survey Corps are in the Australian War Memorial collection, while all of the maps produced by the Corps are also in the national collection at the National Library of Australia. All of these are available to the public and some are on-line. History Origins Australia's first surveyor, Lieutenant Augustus Alt, was an Army officer of the 8th (The King's) Regiment of Foot, which arrived in Australia with the First Fleet in January 1788. Eighteen years before him, Lieutenant James Cook, Royal Navy, used his knowledge and skills of topographic survey by plane-table for his surveys and charting of the east coast. This graphical method of topographic survey, first used before 1600, was the mainstay of the Australian Survey Corps for the first 20 years and used in the two world wars and occasionally much later. Cook had learned surveying in Canada from Royal Engineer Samuel Holland who then (1758) was the first Surveyor-General of British North America. For 113 years after the arrival of the First Fleet, much of the mapping of Australia, mainly for colonial exploration, settlement and development, was supervised and conducted by naval and military officers. These officers included the well known explorers and surveyors: Captain Matthew Flinders, Royal Navy; Lieutenant William Dawes, (New South Wales); Lieutenant Philip Parker King, Royal Navy (mainly Tasmania, Western Australia and Northern Territory), Lieutenant John Oxley, Royal Navy, (New South Wales); Lieutenant Colonel Sir Thomas Mitchell (New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland); Captain Charles Sturt (New South Wales and South Australia); Lieutenant John Septimus Roe, Royal Navy (Western Australia), and Colonel William Light (South Australia). After 100 years of settlement some topographic maps had been produced for both public and private use but only a few maps were of any real military utility. The colonial part-time Defence Forces prepared small-area training manoeuvre maps and some colonies had produced small systematic topographic surveys for defence of the main ports of trade and commerce in the 1880s and 1890s. That is not to say that the need for topographic mapping was not a government and public concern but there were only minor attempts to allocate appropriate public resources. After Federation in 1901, the Defence Act 1903 made provision for military survey but nothing was immediately done to address the matter. Most recently a royal commission into the way the British Army had conducted itself in South Africa (Boer War) found that the troops had to fight without adequate topographic information. Indeed, accurate maps of the Boer republics did not exist. The Times' history of the Boer War 1899–1902 included: 'The chief deduction to be made in the matter is that no efforts during a war will compensate for the lack of a proper topographical survey made in peace time. Maps are a necessity to a modern army, and the expense of making them is very small compared with the cost of a campaign.' In early 1907, Colonel William Bridges then Chief of Intelligence and the senior Australian military officer recommended to Defence Minister Sir Thomas Ewing, member for Richmond, New South Wales, that a Chief of the General Staff should be appointed in place of Chief of Intelligence and that a General Staff be established. The Minister, who was a licensed surveyor, was unimpressed by the advice preferring to continue for the time being with the arrangements of a Military Board. He was concerned that there were no plans for mobilisation, or local defence, noting that "there were few reliable maps, even of the most important localities". These were the important national defence issues that Ewing recommended to Bridges for his immediate attention. The Department of Defence and the Government considered a number of options to address the important and urgent need for a military survey, finally deciding in late 1907 to raise the Australian Intelligence Corps (AIC) manned by part-time Citizen Military Force (CMF) officers who were trained in surveying or draughting and whose duties included the preparation of strategic and tactical maps and plans. In Victoria the military survey was the responsibility of Lieutenant-Colonel John Monash who was then the senior AIC militia officer in the 3rd Military District. By 1909 the limitations of this arrangement were evident, and after advice from a senior British Army Royal Engineer Survey Officer, it was decided to embark on a systematic military survey conducted full-time by a Survey Section, Royal Australian Engineers (RAE) (Permanent Forces), allotted for duty under the supervision of the AIC. The Section was to be commanded by an Australian survey officer and staffed by Australian warrant officer draughtsmen and non-commissioned officers (NCO) topographers and four NCO topographers on an initial two-year loan from the British Army Royal Engineers. The Royal Engineer topographers (Corporal Lynch, Lance-Corporals Barrett, Davies and Wilcox) arrived in Melbourne on 11 April 1910 and on 16 April 1910, draughtsman Warrant Officer John J Raisbeck was the first Australian appointed to the Survey Section and soon after he was joined by draughtsman Warrant Officer Class 1 George Constable. Raisbeck was a survey draughtsman from the Department of Mines, Bendigo, and a Second-Lieutenant in the CMF 9th Light Horse Regiment. He relinquished his commission to enlist in the Permanent Military Forces. He was granted the Honorary rank Second-Lieutenant and was retired with the rank Lieutenant-Colonel 33 years later at age 63 years having served in France in World War I and in World War II. Fitzgerald said that JJ Raisbeck was the 'pioneer of military mapping in Australia'. The first officer appointed to the position Lieutenant Survey Section RAE (Permanent) was Lieutenant William Lawrence Whitham, a licensed surveyor from South Australia, having been highly recommended by the Surveyor-General South Australia. He assumed his appointment on 1 July 1910 at which time there were seven members of the Section. All men were professional surveyors and draftsman. CMF officers of the AIC in the Military District Headquarters supervised the work of the Section. In 1912 the Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia State Governments each agreed to loan a Lands Department Survey Officer to the Survey Section RAE for two years to supervise the work of the Section in each State. Each Survey Officer was a militia officer in the AIC. The Section was divided into two sub-sections and employed in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia producing scale one-mile-to-one-inch military maps ('one-mile' map) mainly of areas around cities and key infrastructure. By mid-1913 the Section had completed topographic field sheets by plane-tabling for eight maps around Newcastle, Melbourne and Canberra. The initial method of using parish plans to position the topographic detail was soon found to be inadequate and a geodetic subsection was established in 1914 to provide surveys by geodetic triangulation as spatial frameworks for the field sheets produced by the topographers. The triangulation work started at Werribee south-west of Melbourne and proceeded west along the coast to Warrnambool. This work included the 1860 Geodetic Survey of Victoria where appropriate – much of which was produced by Royal Engineer officers. The AIC was disbanded in 1914 but the work of the Survey Section continued under the supervision and control of the Intelligence Section of the General Staff under the general direction of the Chief of the General Staff (CGS). First World War The outbreak of the First World War on 4 August 1914 did not, at first, seriously affect the work of the members of the Section as the highest priority and urgent work of the Permanent Forces was military survey for defence of the major cities and ports in Australia. Indeed, the Section gained an increase in personnel and equipment. At that stage it was understood that the British Army would provide the maps required for the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) war fighting. However, by 17 August the Draughting sub-Section of the Survey Section RAE in Melbourne had prepared a map of the north-east frontier of France for reproduction of 1,000 copies by photo-lithography by the Victorian Lands Department for issue to the Australian Imperial Force. On 3 July 1915, Military Order 396 of 1915 promulgated that His Excellency the Governor-General has been pleased to approve of: 'A Corps to be called the Australian Survey Corps being raised as a unit of the Permanent Military Forces. All officers, warrant officers, non-commissioned officers and men now serving in the Survey Section of the Royal Australian Engineers being transferred to the Australian Survey Corps with their present ranks and seniority.' The effective date of the foundation of the Corps was 1 July 1915 – on that day there were two officers and seventeen warrant officers and NCOs of the Corps (at that stage there were no sappers in the Corps). The Australian Survey Corps was placed fourth in the Order of Precedence of Corps after the Royal Australian Engineers. Raising the Australian Survey Corps had nothing to do with supporting the AIF then at Gallipoli, but provided for the key tasks of military survey of the high defence priority areas of Australia without direction or control of Intelligence Staff or the Royal Australian Engineers. The first Officer Commanding Australian Survey Corps was Honorary Captain Cecil Verdon Quinlan who had been appointed Lieutenant Survey Section RAE in March 1913 after Lieutenant Whitham resigned. Quinlan later gave credit to the creation of the Australian Survey Corps to the then General Staff Director of Military Operations – Major Brudenell White (later General Sir, Chief of the General Staff). Survey Corps members started to enlist in the AIF in November 1915, with three Warrant Officer draughtsmen (Murray, Shiels and MacDonald) working with the Headquarters of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force by late 1916. Then in late 1917, General Headquarters in France/Belgium requested survey personnel for topographic surveys in that theatre and a volunteer Australian Survey Corps AIF draft of four officers and seven NCOs arrived in France early in 1918. Military Survey in Australia then came to a virtual standstill when the AIF members departed for the Middle East and the Western Front. 2nd Lieutenant Raisbeck, Sergeants Anderson and Clements and Corporal Watson served with the Australian Corps Topographic Section (not a unit of the Australian Survey Corps) in France/Belgium and Lieutenants Vance and Lynch, 2nd Lieutenant Davies, Sergeants Clews and Rossiter and Corporals Blaikie and Roberts served with General Headquarters Royal Engineer Survey Companies employed amongst other things on evaluating the suitability of the French triangulation networks for the purposes of military survey and mapping. In late 1916, Warrant Officer Class 1 Hector E McMurtrie was enlisted into the Corps as a draughtsman for duty with the survey staff (not Australian Survey Corps) working on land title surveys for the military administration by the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force in the New Guinea area. In 1919 he died from a service related illness, and is commemorated on the Australian War Memorial Roll of Honour. He was the first Australian Survey Corps member to die in war. In early 1918 fourteen Corps members were serving with the AIF and eight were in Australia working on the military survey. One Survey Corps member (Warrant Officer Class 1 Alan Stewart Murray) and one Topographic Section Topographer Corporal Stafford were awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal for mapping under enemy fire, Topographic Section Topographer Sergeant Finlason was recommended for a Military Medal but was awarded the French Croix De Guerre, Topographic Section Draughtsman Sergeant Wightman was awarded the Meritorious Service Medal. the Officer Commanding the 1st ANZAC Topographic Section in 1917 and the Australian Corps Topographic Section in 1918 Lieutenant Buchanan was awarded the Belgian Croix De Guerre and Topographic Section Lithographer Sergeant Dunstan was awarded the French Croix De Guerre. Warrant Officer Murray's citation for his work in Sinai and Palestine read "for conspicuous gallantry and dedication to duty. For a prolonged period this Warrant Officer was engaged on surveying the area between the lines repeatedly working under machine gun fire and sniping. In order not to attract attention he usually worked alone with his plane table and instruments. Owing to his energy and coolness he has mapped a piece of country accurately and his work has been most valuable." In March 1919 Warrant Officer Class 1 Norman Lyndhurst Shiels was mentioned in the despatches of the General Officer Commanding Egyptian Expeditionary Force, possibly for his work with the Royal Air Force in mapping from aerial photography. Between the World Wars When the AIF members returned to Australia in 1919 they were discharged and most were re-appointed to the Survey Section RAE (Permanent) or the Australian Survey Corps (Permanent). Military reorganisation after World War I, and the general reduction in military capability, saw the numbers reduced to fourteen all ranks. In 1920 the Corps was suspended and reverted, in title, to the Survey Section, RAE (Permanent). Mapping continued, mainly the 'one-mile' maps, albeit at a reduced rate consistent with the allocated resources, with priority given to areas around Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne. By 1929 the Section had produced fifty-four 'one-mile' maps including five revised maps. Technical developments provided for improved efficiencies. These included use of single photographs and strips of air photographs to supplement ground surveys by plane-table for topographic detail. The first military map produced with a significant component of aerial photography flown by the Royal Australian Air Force was the Albury 'one-mile' map published in 1933. Compilation of this map highlighted inconsistencies in State triangulation systems and once again demonstrated the need for a national geodetic survey which had been identified by colonial survey officers in the 1890s. The Survey Corps undertook this field and computation work linking QLD, NSW, VIC and SA with a 1st Order trigonometric network by 1939. In 1932, the Army decided that the Order in Council which created the Corps in 1915 had never been broken and so the title of the military survey unit was once again the Australian Survey Corps (Permanent Forces) with the personnel establishment of fourteen all ranks as it had been for twelve years. Recruiting recommenced and in 1935 the Corps establishment was raised to twenty-five all ranks. Increments allowed for a Survey (Topographic) Section to be based in each of three states, New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland, a Survey (Geodetic) Section and the Survey (Draughting) Section in Melbourne. Then in 1938, with war clouds once again on the horizon, a three-year Long Range Mapping Programme was approved, with additional funding bringing the total to ninety-seven all ranks. These extra resources would provide for a total of about thirty-five new '1 mile' maps each year. However, at the outbreak of the Second World War there were only fifty members in the Australian Survey Corps. Most of the men were professionally qualified, and the Corps was very knowledgeable of emerging technical developments which would improve efficiencies in map production. That there were no militia units of the Corps was due mainly to the fact that little progress in the mapping programme was achieved with part-time effort. The Corps was well equipped for the range of field survey and office mapping tasks with the exception of printing presses. Maps were printed by the Victorian State Government Printer. At this stage, just before the Second World War, the total coverage of military 'one-mile' maps was eighty-one maps or about or only about 40% of the identified military mapping requirement at that stage. Sections (all Permanent Forces) from the end of the First World War to pre-Second World War were: Survey Section, RAE No 1 Survey (Draughting) Section (Melbourne) No 1 Survey (Topographic) Section (Queensland, South Australia and Victoria) No 2 Survey (Topographic) Section (Victoria) No 3 Survey (Topographic) Section (New South Wales) No 4 Survey (Geodetic) Section (1st Order triangulation Southern Queensland – New South Wales – Victoria – South Australia) Second World War In July 1939 'Instructions for War – Survey' were issued, outlining the military survey organisation required to undertake an Emergency Mapping Programme to complete the outstanding Long Range Mapping Programme and be the nucleus for expansion to war establishment. The Emergency Mapping Programme was initially for strategic mapping at scale eight-miles-to-one-inch of inland Australia, four-miles-to-one-inch ('four-mile maps') covering a coastal strip 200 miles (300 km) inland from Townsville to Port Augusta and 100 miles (200 km) inland from Albany to Geraldton and key strategic areas in Tasmania and around Darwin, and 'one-mile' maps of populated places. Map production was from existing State Lands Department's information and conducted jointly between State Lands Departments and Survey Corps units. The programme expanded to include more of Australia, New Guinea, New Britain and New Ireland. Many maps were of a preliminary standard only, but provided general coverage critical at the time. Initially, the Australian Survey Corps continued its mapping for the defence of Australia, proceeded with basic survey triangulation and provided training cadre for new field and training units. In January 1940, Field Survey Units RAE (Militia) were established in 1st Military District – Queensland, 2nd Military District – New South Wales and 3rd Military District – Victoria to accelerate the mapping effort. Deputy Assistant Directors – Survey were appointed to Military District Headquarters to advise on survey needs and to liaise with State agencies. In April 1940 the 2/1 Corps Field Survey Company RAE was raised as part of the 2nd Australian Imperial Force for service overseas and a Survey staff was appointed to the formation (Corps) headquarters. In September 1940 significant expansion of the Australian Survey Corps was approved by Cabinet to include a Survey Directorate on Army Headquarters (AHQ) and higher formation headquarters, an AHQ Survey Company, an AHQ Cartographic Company, regional command field survey companies, a Survey Section 7th Military District (Darwin) and a Corps Survey Mobile Reproduction Section. Four militia Field Survey Companies RAE were established in the regional commands (1 Field Survey Coy RAE – Queensland, 2 Field Survey Coy RAE – New South Wales, 3 Field Survey Coy RAE – Victoria, 4 Field Survey Coy RAE – Western Australia) absorbing the Australian Survey Corps Sections and the Field Survey Units RAE (M) in the Commands. In early 1941, 2/1 Corps Field Survey Company RAE, sailed with the 2nd Australian Imperial Force, to provide survey and mapping to the Australian Corps in the Middle East theatre including Greece, Egypt, Cyrenaica and the border zones of Palestine, Syria, Trans-Jordan and Turkey. In response to the Japanese late-1941 and early-1942 offensives in South-East Asia and the Pacific, the 2/1 Corps Field Survey Company RAE returned to Australia in early 1942 with a large part of I Aust Corps. Over the next four years fifteen survey units with various roles relating to production of topographic maps provided survey and mapping support to military operations in the South West Pacific Area theatre of the war including Northern Territory, Papua, New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland, Bougainville, Dutch New Guinea, Borneo, Philippines and the States of Australia, in particular northern Australia. Women of the Australian Women's Army Service served in Survey units and formation headquarter sections in Australia and in New Guinea. In June 1943 all topographic survey-related units were transferred from Royal Australian Engineers and concentrated in the Australian Survey Corps. Acknowledgement of the value of survey support organic to the combat forces increased as the war progressed. Early doctrine was that survey support was at Army Corps level, but additional support was added at Army and Force levels, and by the end of the war survey sections of 5th Field Survey Company were assigned to both 7th Australian Infantry Division and 9th Australian Infantry Division for the large scale amphibious landings at Labuan and Balikpapan in Borneo. Later, the General Staff of Headquarters 1 Australian Corps said "...never in this war have Australian troops been so well provided with accurate maps, sketches and photo reproductions..." More than 1440 new maps were made of the theatres of war (Middle East 28, Australian mainland 708, New Guinea area 364, Borneo 147, Mindanao Philippines 200), with more than 15 million copies printed. Many of the Second World War maps are available online from the National Library of Australia. The highly valued efforts of the survey units did not go unnoticed by senior commanders. On 13 November 1942, Lieutenant-General Edmund Herring, General Officer Commanding New Guinea Force, wrote to Director of Survey Advanced Land Headquarters thanking him for the noteworthy efficiency and splendid cooperation in having an urgently needed map of Buna, Papua, sent to 2/1st Army Topographic Survey Company RAE in Toowoomba QLD for printing, and then returned for issue to forward troops 48 hours later. On 1 June 1943, Lieutenant-General John Northcott, Chief of the General Staff, wrote a letter of appreciation of the work of the Survey units in New Guinea to the Director of Survey, Advanced Land Headquarters. On 19 October 1943, soon after the successful assaults on Lae and Finschhafen in New Guinea, General Douglas MacArthur, Commander-in-Chief, South West Pacific Area wrote a letter of high commendation of the performance of 2/1st Aust Army Topographic Survey Company, 3rd Aust Field Survey Company, 69th US Engineer Topographic Company and 8th Field Survey Section to General Thomas Blamey, Commander, Allied Land Forces, South West Pacific Area. At Morotai, the 1st Mobile Lithographic Section was given the privilege of preparing the Instrument of Surrender signed by Commander, Second Japanese Army and countersigned by General Blamey, Commander-in-Chief, Australian Military Forces. The unit then printed thousands of copies of the surrender document for souvenirs. At the end of the war more than half of the Corps strength of 1,700 was on active service outside Australia. After the cessation of hostilities maps were prepared to assist in the recovery of Australian prisoners of war. The achievements of the Corps during the Second World War were its greatest contributions to the nation; in recognition, in 1948 King George VI granted the title 'Royal' to the Australian Survey Corps. Sixteen members of the Australian Survey Corps, or soldiers serving with Corps units, died during the war and are commemorated on the Australian War Memorial Roll of Honour. Five members of the Corps were formally recognised with awards and twenty-one members were mentioned-in-despatches. Awards – Colonel L Fitzgerald OBE, Captain HAJ Fryer MBE US Legion of Merit, Major HA Johnson MBE, Lieutenant-Colonel AF Kurrle MBE twice Mentioned in Despatches, Lieutenant-Colonel D Macdonald US Medal of Freedom Mentioned in Despatches. Others Mentioned in Despatches – Lieutenant NT Banks, Lieutenant FD Buckland, Captain TM Connolly, Sergeant HJ Curry, Captain FJ Cusack, Lieutenant LN Fletcher, Lance-Corporal BA Hagan, Lieutenant HM Hall, Warrant Officer Class 2 LG Holmwood, Lieutenant JD Lines, Captain LJ Lockwood, Lieutenant NG McNaught, Captain JE Middleton, Captain RE Playford, Lieutenant LB Sprenger, Captain CR Stoddart, Captain AJ Townsend, Warrant Officer Class 2 JE Turnbull, Lieutenant NLG Williams. Australian Survey Corps units (from June 1943, earlier being RAE units) during the Second World War were: 2nd/1st Australian Army Topographical Survey Company, formerly 2nd/1st Corps Field Survey Company RAE – Middle East, Papua, New Guinea, Hollandia and Morotai No 6 Aust Army Topographical Survey Company, formerly No 2 Army Topographical Survey Company, absorbed Army/Land Headquarters Survey Company – Victoria, Northern Territory, Western Australia, Queensland, New Guinea, New Britain Land Headquarters Cartographic Company, formerly Army Headquarters Cartographic Company – Melbourne and Bendigo, Victoria No 2 Aust Field Survey Company – absorbed the 2 MD Field Survey Unit RAE(M) and Australian Survey Corps (P) No 3 Survey Sect – New South Wales, Queensland, Dutch New Guinea, New Guinea, New Britain, Bougainville No 3 Aust Field Survey Company – absorbed the 3 MD Field Survey Unit RAE(M) and Australian Survey Corps (P) No 1 Survey Sect – Victoria, Papua, New Guinea, Queensland No 4 Aust Field Survey Company – Western Australia No 5 Aust Field Survey Company, formerly 1 Aust Field Survey Company which absorbed the 1 MD Field Survey Unit RAE(M) – Queensland, Dutch New Guinea, Labuan and Balikpapan in Borneo No 7 Field Survey Section, formerly 7th Military District Survey Section, Northern Territory Force Field Survey Section and 1 Aust Field Survey Section – Northern Territory No 8 Aust Field Survey Section, formerly New Guinea Field Survey Section and No 2 Field Survey Section – Papua, New Guinea No 1 Mobile Lithographic Section, formerly 2 Army Survey Mobile Reproduction Section – Melbourne, Brisbane and Morotai No 11 Aust Field Survey Depot – Bendigo, Victoria No 12 Aust Field Survey Depot – Queensland and Morotai No 13 Aust Field Survey Depot – Sydney, New Guinea Field Survey Training Depot – Bacchus Marsh and Melbourne, Victoria In addition there were Survey Directorates and Survey Staff on formation headquarters: General Headquarters South-West Pacific Area Advanced Land Headquarters – Melbourne, Brisbane, Hollandia and Morotai Headquarters First Australian Army – New Guinea Headquarters I Australian Corps – Middle East, Morotai Headquarters II Australian Corps – New Guinea Headquarters New Guinea Force Headquarters Northern Territory Force Headquarters of Queensland, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania Lines of Communication areas Headquarters Kanga Force – New Guinea Headquarters Merauke Force – Dutch New Guinea At the end of the Second World War, the Australian Survey Corps was the best organised, best manned and best equipped geodetic and topographic survey and mapping organisation in Australia. The Director of Survey expected that the organisation would play a major role in the future survey and mapping of Australia. Post Second World War Defence survey and mapping programmes (not including Defence international cooperation) After the Second World War the Corps reverted to its peace time role of the military survey of Australia retaining a capability in the Permanent Force Interim Army in 1946, and the Australian Regular Army from 1947 with a desired Corps strength of 460 all ranks, although a strength of 400 was not reached until the early 1960s. By 1950 the all ranks numbers were down to 210 as civilian employment opportunities significantly improved. The Australian Survey Corps structure and size was both the force-in-being and the base for expansion in war. In the early post-war years the Corps continued mainly with the 'one-mile' map military survey programme and provided Defence assistance to nation building projects for water conservation and settlement in the Burdekin River basin in Queensland (194x–1949), investigative surveys for the Snowy River Diversion Scheme (1946–1949) in New South Wales and Victoria, surveys for water flows between the Murrumbidgee and Murray Rivers near Urana, New South Wales (1946), production of maps for the 1947 Australian Census and survey and mapping projects for the Woomera Rocket Range (1946–1953) in South Australia and Western Australia and the atomic test range at Maralinga in South Australia. Corps units were established in each of the regional military districts, except Tasmania and Northern Territory, and a survey school was established in Victoria. In 1956 Australia adopted decimal/metric scales for mapping, largely for military interoperability with major allies and the global trend. After the 'one-mile' military maps were discontinued in 1959, and although Defence preferred 1:50,000 maps for tactical operations, it recognised the resources needed for such a programme over large regional areas of Australia and accepted the 1:100,000 map as a practical substitute with 1:50,000 maps over specific areas of interest and military training areas. Then in 1983 Defence endorsed a program for more than 2600 scale 1:50,000 maps in Defence priority areas in north and north-west Australia, its territories and the main land communication routes. By 1996 the Corps had completed more than 1900 of these maps by – field surveys using mainly US TRANSIT and GPS satellite positioning systems and aircraft mounted laser terrain profiling, new coverage aerial photography, aerotriangulation, compilation and cartographic completion on computer assisted mapping systems and produced both digital and printed topographic products. Production of the military specification Joint Operation Graphics scale 1:250,000 is mentioned in the section "National Survey and Mapping Programmes" below. In addition, there was a miscellany of surveys, maps and information produced by the Corps for units of each of the Armed Services. These included: production of air navigation charts for the Royal Australian Air Force covering Australia and a large area of its region totalling about eight per cent of the earth's surface; printing hydrographic charts for the Hydrographer Royal Australian Navy; joint and single service training area special surveys, maps and models including live fire requirements; vital asset protection maps; safeguarding maps for ammunition depots; digital terrain data and models for command and control, communications, intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance, simulation, weapons and geographic information systems; photomaps using air and satellite photography. Corps units, officers and soldiers were deployed on operations and conflicts of various types including: 1946 – staff posted to British Commonwealth Occupation Force, Japan 1955–1960 – Malayan Campaign, officers posted to Force Headquarters 1965 – 1st Topographical Survey Troop raised in Sydney NSW based at Randwick 1966–1971 Detachment 1st Topographical Survey Troop deployed with the 1st Australian Task Force in Vietnam, in 1967 re-designated A Section 1st Topographical Survey Troop 1975 – Cyclone Tracy – rapid response production of orthophotomaps and a senior Corps officer seconded as Staff Officer to the Army General commanding the emergency operations 1987 – Operation Morris Dance – rapid response mapping of Fiji 1988 – Operation Sailcloth – rapid response mapping of Vanuatu 1990–1991 – Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, Corps officers posted in United States and United Kingdom mapping agencies and units on operations 1992 – support to ADF elements of UN peacekeeping force in Western Sahara 1993 – support to ADF elements of UN peacekeeping force in Somalia 1993 – Corps soldiers posted to UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia 1995 – Corps officers posted to UN Protection Force Headquarters in Bosnia-Herzegovina Defence international cooperation Commencing in 1954, the Corps was again involved in surveys and mapping the New Guinea area, initially in cooperation with the United States Army Map Service for two years, and again as solely an Australian force from the early 1960s. The 1956 survey (Project Cutlass) of ship-to-shore triangulation included a 300-kilometre theodolite and chain traverse on New Ireland. From 1962 the Corps resumed geodetic surveys as part of the National Geodetic Survey, linking to the global US HIRAN survey and the high order Division of National Mapping traverse and triangulation through the PNG highlands. There was a continuous Survey Corps presence in Papua New Guinea (PNG) from 1971 to 1995, with 8th Field Survey Squadron raised in PNG and based at Popondetta, Wewak and Port Moresby for geodetic surveys, topographic surveys, map compilation, field completion of compiled maps, to support the Papua New Guinea Defence Force and to provide advice to PNG National Mapping Bureau. During this period the Corps completed the national/defence mapping programme of scale 1:100,000 topographic maps covering the entire country, the derived 1:250,000 Joint Operations Graphic – Ground and Air charts, large scale military city orthophotomaps and participated with the Royal Australian Navy in beach surveys of most of the coastline. In the 1970s up to 60% of the Corps' capability was engaged on PNG surveys and mapping. This mapping programme was based on high altitude (40,000 feet) air photography, acquired by No. 2 Squadron RAAF using Canberra bombers fitted with Army Wild RC-10 mapping cameras (Operation Skai Piksa 1973-75 and 1981), supported by Survey Corps surveyors and photogrammetrists to plan the photography requirements and for quality control to ensure that the photography met the high technical standards for the subsequent mapping processes. Under the Defence Cooperation Programme, the Corps completed many cooperative and collaborative projects with nations in Australia's area of strategic interest. These projects included ground surveys, definition of geodetic datums, air photography, assistance with definition of exclusive economic zones, mapping, provision of equipment and technology transfer and training of officers and technicians. Projects commenced in 1970 in Indonesia and expanded over 25 years to include Solomon Islands, Fiji, Tonga, Kiribati, Nauru, Tuvalu, Vanuatu and Western Samoa. Technical Advisers were posted to national survey and mapping organisations in Fiji, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. All field survey operations outside of Australia, and indeed in Australia, would not have been possible without essential support of most other Army Corps (Engineers; Signals; Aviation – Cessna, Porter, Nomad, Sioux, Kiowa; Chaplains, Medical, Dental, Transport, Ordnance, Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, Pay, Catering, Service), the Royal Australian Navy (Hydrographic Service, Landing Craft, Patrol Boats) and at times the Royal New Zealand Navy (Hydrographic Service), the Royal Australian Air Force (Canberra, Hercules, Caribou, Iroquois) and civil charter fixed wing and helicopters for aerial survey work and transport. Two members of the Australian Defence Force died on military survey operations in the 1970s in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia and are commemorated on the Australian War Memorial Roll of Honour. Associations with other Armies commenced during the First World War and for more than 50 years after the Second World War the Corps participated in mapping, charting and geodesy projects for standardisation and interoperability with major allies including Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom and United States. From the 1960s, the Corps participated in cooperative and collaborative geodetic satellite programs with the United States, firstly astro-triangulation of passive satellites Echo and Pageos being observed with Wild BC4 cameras at Thursday Island in Queensland, Narrabri in New South Wales, Perth in Western Australia and Cocos Island, a TRANET fixed station at Smithfield in South Australia in the global network observing US Navy Navigation Satellites (TRANSIT) from 1976 to 1993 and the first observations of US Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites in Australia, at Smithfield, during the development and early operational phases of the system from 1981 to 1994. The Corps managed bi-lateral Defence and Army map exchange arrangements with major allies and regional nations. Personnel exchange programs included Canada, United Kingdom and United States. Participation in national survey and mapping programmes In 1945 the National Mapping Council (NMC) of Australia, comprising Commonwealth and State authorities, was formed to coordinate survey and mapping activities after the Second World War. Despite the huge wartime mapping achievements of producing 224 'four-mile' strategic maps and 397 'one-mile' tactical maps, there was much to be done for a basic coverage of reliable topographic maps for national development and defence. In 1947 a National Mapping Section in the Department of Interior was established and together with the Survey Corps commenced work on the 1954 Cabinet approved general purpose (national development and defence) national topographic map programme, initially the 'four-mile' map then soon after scale 1:250,000 maps (series R502). Army agreed that when not required for solely military purposes, Survey Corps units would be available to work in the Defence priority areas in the Government approved national geodetic survey and topographic mapping programmes. This programme involved control surveys by astronomical fixes, theodolite and chain triangulation and traverse by theodolite and electro-magnetic distance measurement and all aspects of map compilation from aerial photography, final cartography and map printing. The Corps' geodetic surveys were integrated with other Commonwealth and State Government surveys to create the NMC sponsored Australian Geodetic Datum 1966 (AGD66) and the associated Australian Map Grid 1966 (AMG66) of Australia and Papua New Guinea and the Australian Height Datum 1971 (AHD71). By 1968 the Corps had completed its commitment of about half of the 540 series R502 maps and it then embarked on the Defence priority part of the 1965 Cabinet endorsed national programme of general purpose scale 1:100,000 topographic maps. This programme required densification of the national geodetic and height survey networks with mapping quality control surveys of Cape York, Gulf of Carpentaria, northern Northern Territory and north-west Western Australia using mainly airborne electromagnetic distance measurement systems (Aerodist). The Corps completed its commitment of 862 of these maps in 1982. In areas of higher defence interest the Survey Corps replaced the series R502 1:250,000 maps with the military specification 1:250,000 Joint Operation Graphic (JOG) Ground and the companion Air version using materials from the 1:100,000 and Defence 1:50,000 mapping programmes and from other suitable sources. Units and command staff post-Second World War Army Headquarters Directorate of Survey – Army Headquarters Field Force Command – Senior Staff Officer and Survey Section Army Survey Regiment based at Bendigo, Victoria, formerly AHQ Survey Regiment and Southern Command Field Survey Section, AHQ Cartographic Unit, LHQ Cartographic Company and AHQ Cartographic Company 1st Field Survey Squadron based at Gaythorne and Enoggera Barracks Brisbane, Qld, formerly Northern Command Field Survey Section and Northern Command Field Survey Unit – Queensland, Territory Papua and New Guinea 1st Topographic Survey Squadron, now part of the Royal Australian Engineers, based at Enoggera Barracks in Brisbane, formed from 1st Field Survey Squadron and 1st Division Survey Section 2nd Field Survey Squadron based at Sydney, formerly Eastern Command Field Survey Section and Eastern Command Field Survey Unit – New South Wales, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, nations of South West Pacific 4th Field Survey Squadron including a Reserve component, based at Keswick Barracks, Adelaide, South Australia, formerly Central Command Field Survey Section and Central Command Field Survey Unit – South Australia, Northern Territory, Papua and New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu 5th Field Survey Squadron including a Reserve component, based Perth, formerly Western Command Field Survey Section and Western Command Field Survey Unit – Western Australia, Indonesia New Guinea Field Survey Unit 8th Field Survey Squadron raised and disbanded in Papua New Guinea based at Popondetta, Wewak, Port Moresby 1st Topographical Survey Company (CMF) based in Sydney, NSW 2nd Topographical Survey Company (CMF) based in Melbourne, VIC (an element was absorbed by Army Survey Regiment when the company was disbanded) 1st Topographical Survey Troop – raised and based in Sydney NSW 1st Topographic Survey Troop – Detachment thereof later re designated A Sect in Vietnam, B Sect based in Sydney, NSW 9th Topographic Survey Troop (CMF) based in Sydney, NSW 7th Military Geographic Information Section based at Darwin, NT ANZUK Survey Map Depot, Singapore – formerly 16 Field Survey Depot formerly AHQ Field Survey Depot Detachment Army Map Depot, formerly AHQ Field Survey Depot and Army Field Survey Depot – Victoria School of Military Survey – initially based at Balcombe, Victoria and subsequently at Bonegilla, Victoria. In 1996 the School was integrated into the School of Military Engineering as the Geomatic Engineering Wing now at Holsworthy Barracks in Sydney Joint Intelligence Organisation Printing Section Re-integration with the Royal Australian Engineers The Survey Corps was subject to many Government and Defence reviews since the 1950s, with seven from the early 1980s. Review outcomes led to many reorganisations. In the late 1980s and early 1990s efficiency reviews led to an Army direction that the non-core strategic mapping functions of the Corps were to be tested as part of the Defence Commercial Support Program. Army decisions as part of that review were that: the combat support survey force (1st Topographical Survey Squadron) would be increased significantly; the non-core work, mainly systematic mapping of Australia would be performed by a new Army agency with civilian personnel; and, that the core strategic mapping would be retained by Army until it could be transferred to Defence Intelligence. This last component was achieved in 2000 when the Defence Imagery and Geospatial Organisation (now Australian Geospatial-Intelligence Organisation) was formed. These changes meant that the majority of Survey Corps staff positions would be removed, and so in September 1995 the Chief of the General Staff (CGS) decided that the remaining combat support force and training force functions of the Corps would be once again integrated with the combat force and training force of the Royal Australian Engineers. At the integration parade of the two Corps on 1 July 1996, 81 years after the formation of the Australian Survey Corps, the CGS said that "Since 1915 the Survey Corps has not just been a major contributor to the tactical success of the Australian Army in two World Wars and other conflicts, it has played an outstanding role in the building of this nation – the Commonwealth of Australia – and the building of other nations such as Papua New Guinea". In 2014, the 1st Topographical Survey Squadron RAE came under the command of the 1st Intelligence Battalion. In 2018, the Army geospatial capability, less the field surveying capability, was transferred from RAE to the Australian Army Intelligence Corps. As a part of this process, the 1st Topographical Survey Squadron RAE was retitled 5 Company, 1st Intelligence Battalion while the Geomatic Engineering Wing was retitled the Geospatial Intelligence Wing and transferred from School of Military Engineering to Defence Force School of Intelligence. Corps Appointments and its people Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II approved the appointment, on 1 July 1988, of Her Royal Highness the Princess of Wales as Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal Australian Survey Corps. Colonels Commandant (honorary appointment), Royal Australian Survey Corps: Brigadier D. Macdonald (Retd), AM (August 1967 – January 1973) Brigadier F.D. Buckland (Retd), OBE (January 1973 – January 1976) Colonel J.L. Stedman (Retd) (September 1978 – February 1983) Lieutenant-Colonel T.C. Sargent (Retd) (February 1983 – February 1989) Colonel N.R.J. Hillier (Retd) (February 1989 – January 1993) Colonel D.G. Swiney (Retd), MBE (January 1993 – January 1996) Officers Commanding, Survey Section RAE: Lieutenant W.L. Whitham (July 1910 – September 1912) Captain C.V. Quinlan (March 1913 – June 1915) Officers Commanding, Australian Survey Corps: Captain C.V. Quinlan (July 1915 – January 1916) Captain J. Lynch (January 1916 – May 1934) Major T.A. Vance (March 1936 – December 1940) Directors of Military Survey (or Survey – Army): Lieutenant-Colonel T.A. Vance (January 1941 – June 1942) Colonel L. Fitzgerald, OBE (June 1942 – January 1960) Colonel D. Macdonald, (January 1960 – March 1967) Colonel F.D. Buckland, OBE (March 1967 – August 1972) Colonel J.K. Nolan (August 1972 – June 1975) Colonel J.L. Stedman (July 1975 – February 1978) Colonel N.R.J. Hillier (March 1978 – July 1983) Colonel A.W. Laing (July 1983 – November 1988) Colonel D.G. Swiney, MBE (November 1988 – January 1991) Colonel S.W. Lemon (January 1991 – June 1996) The high reputation and esteem in which the Corps was held within the Australian Defence Force, the surveying and mapping profession and amongst Australia's military allies and friends was based on its achievements largely possible only by the quality of its people. This was greatly enhanced by the camaraderie and espirit-de-corps of the members of the Corps, knowing the high military value and high quality of the work that they produced. After World War II eight Corps officers were later appointed Surveyors-General or Directors of Survey/Mapping/Lands in the States or Commonwealth organisations. Many personnel went on to leadership positions in professional institutions. The first five members of the Institution of Surveyors, Australia, to be recognised for outstanding service to the profession and awarded a special medial, with a gold medal for exceptional service, had all been Second World War officers of the Survey Corps (Brigadier L Fitzgerald OBE, Lieutenant-Colonel JG Gillespie MBE (gold medal), Lieutenant-Colonel HA Johnson MBE, Captain SE Reilly MBE, Brigadier D Macdonald AM. From the 1960s, most Corps officers were tertiary educated with many at the post-graduate level in either mapping or computer disciplines and military command and staff training. This was the key to understanding the potential, application and implementation of emerging technologies and techniques across all aspects of Corps capability. Corps soldier training was both broad within a trade, across Corps trades and specific to specialised equipment with military training for various levels of leadership. Officers and soldiers posted outside Corps positions were highly regarded. Until the 1970s the Corps sponsored and trained soldiers in trades other than the mapping related trades essential to its operations. These included drivers, storemen and clerks. After some rationalisation the Corps retained career and training responsibility for all mapping related trades, and also photographers (non-public relations), illustrators and projectionists who were posted mainly to training institutions and headquarters. More than 6,300 people served in the Survey Section (RAE), Australian Survey Corps units and Royal Australian Survey Corps units from 1910 to 1996, including more than 580 women from 1942 to 1996. A Survey Corps Nominal Roll 1915–1996 may be accessed from the front page of the website of the Royal Australian Survey Corps Association linked on External Links below. The Corps participated in the national service scheme in the 1950s, training and maintaining two Citizen Military Force topographic survey companies in Sydney and Melbourne from 1951 to 1957, mainly for national servicemen to complete their obligations. National servicemen then served with the Survey Corps in Vietnam from 1966 to 1971. The Army Audio Visual Unit was the only Corps unit not to have a mapping related role. Equipment, Technology and Techniques Significant examples: 1910–1915: established the standard for the Australian Military Map Series, based on United Kingdom Ordnance Survey maps; mainly 'one-mile-to-one-inch' maps (known as the 'one-mile' map) produced from field survey sheets 'one-mile-to-two-inches' using plane-tabling and parish plans for position, scale and orientation, final map compilation by ink fair drawing at 'one-mile-to-two-inches' using a polyconic projection and lithographic draughting for colour separation (seven colours) and photographic reduction to 'one-mile-to-one-inch' for printing by the Victorian Government Printer. The Military Survey sheet numbering system was that of the International Map Congress of 1912. Standard map sheet extent was 30 min longitude x 15 min latitude. Standard height contour interval was 50 feet. 1914: commenced geodetic triangulation (angles by theodolite, azimuth by astronomy and scale by baselines measured with metal tapes) replacing parish plans as the basis for topographic mapping 1923–1927: used No 1 Squadron, Royal Australian Air Force air photography to complement topographic survey by plane-tabling 1930–1933: the first map produced from a significant use of air photography for topographic compilation using graphical methods of perspective rectification – Albury, New South Wales, '1 mile' map. Work on this map highlighted the disparity between the Victoria and New South Wales state survey triangulation networks. The grid on this sheet was most likely the first instance of cartographic scribing in Australia, done by Warrant Officer Harry Raisbeck engraving the emulsion of a glass plate negative using one tip of a broken ruling pen for the thicker 10,000-yard grid lines and a steel needle to scribe the 1,000-yard grid. This was 23 years before the first map was fully scribed. 1933: adopted Sydney Observatory as the geodetic datum for the eastern states, the Clarke 1858 reference ellipsoid and a British modified map grid based on the Transverse Mercator map projection with Australian zones. The first map with the British modified grid, for artillery purposes, was Albury '1 mile' although it was on the polyconic projection. This grid system was used for Australian topographic mapping until 1966. 1934–1939: undertook a 1st Order geodetic survey triangulation program to connect Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia into one coherent network. Cooke, Troughton and Sims Tavistock 5 1/2-inch theodolites, reading direct to half-second for 1st Order work, replaced the larger and heavier 8-inch instruments and 3 1/2-inch Tavistocks reading direct to one second were used for second order work. Baselines of four to six miles in length were placed every 200 to 250 miles and measured with invar tapes standardised by steel bands. The use of field thermometers to estimate temperature corrections for thermal expansion of the measuring bands, was replaced with a system of measuring electrical resistance to estimate temperature coefficient of expansion to achieve accuracies of about 1 in 1 million (1 mm in 1 km) of the measured baselines. This world class research and development was in conjunction with Professor Kerr Grant, Department of Physics of University of Adelaide. Baselines for connecting the eastern Australia trigonometric network were measured at Jondaryn (QLD), Somerton (NSW), Benambra (VIC) and Tarlee (SA). 1936: the first map produced on the Transverse Mercator projection and the British modified grid – Helidon, Queensland 'one-mile' 1936: the first map compiled entirely from overlapping strip of air photography and graphical methods of rectification (Arundel method of radial line plotting) – Sale, Victoria 'one-mile'. Second World War: many innovative adaptions of equipment and processes for surveying, aerial photography for topographic compilation, cartography, photo-lithography, various printing methods and battlefield terrain modelling in base and field mobile situations to provide rapid response military survey/mapping support under adverse conditions of extreme heat, cold, high humidity, dust and rain in desert and jungle environments and at times under enemy attack 1952: topographic mapping by multi-projector (Multiplex anaglyph) stereoplotting from overlapping air photography, replacing graphical methods of rectification for map compilation 1953: large format Klimsch Commodore cartographic camera (remained in continuous use until December 1978) 1956: changed to decimal (also known as metric) scale mapping, largely as part of standardisation with allies in the South East Asia Treaty Organisation and adoption of an improved Australian spheroid of reference for mapping, first map Mildura 1:50,000. The 'one-mile' map was discontinued in 1959. 1956: cartographic scribing of map detail replaced fair drawing with ink, first map Mildura 1:50,000 1957: helicopter transport of survey parties revolutionised transport in remote areas 1957: Geodimeter light-based electromagnetic distance measurement (EDM) equipment 1958: Tellurometer MRA1 microwave EDM (and later models) man-portable systems improved geodetic survey efficiencies for rapid network extension and densification replacing triangulation with EDM and theodolite traverse sometimes using Bilby Towers to extend line lengths 1960: adoption of the '165 Spheroid' in Australia (same as World Geodetic System 1960 spheroid) 1961: manual hill-shading of 1:250,000 maps by photographing carved wax terrain models from the north-west corner on the Klimsch camera 1962: Wild A9, B9, B8 optical/mechanical photogrammetric plotters for topographic compilation from super-wide angle (focal length 88.5mm) Wild RC9 air photography started to replace Multiplex plotters; presensitised lithographic printing plates 1963: Zeiss (Jena) Stecometer analytic stereocomparator for air photography; block aerotriangulation by digital computer; Aristo coordinatograph for grid production; radar airborne profile recorder (Canadian Applied Research Ltd, Mark V, Airborne Profiler Recorder) 1964: vehicle mounted Johnston ground elevation meter; Aerodist MRC2 airborne EDM system for topographic surveys over long distances by trilateration to replace traverse requiring survey station intervisibility 1966–1971: adopted the Australian Geodetic Datum 1966 (AGD66)/Australian Map Grid 1966 (AMG66)(Transverse Mercator projection – Universal Transverse Mercator Grid) and the Australian Height Datum 1971(AHD71)for all mapping of Australia and Papua New Guinea. The local datum AGD/AMG66 was used for surveying and mapping until it was replaced by the local datum AGD84 and later the geocentric datum World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84)/Geodetic Datum Australia 1994 (GDA94). 1970: Calcomp 718 digital coordinatograph flat-bed plotter for grids, graticules and base compilation sheets with aerial triangulated model control 1971: Wild RC10 super wide angle air survey cameras with virtual distortion free lenses for supplementary, spot and special photography 1972: Aerodist MRB3/201 computer assisted second generation airborne EDM for topographic surveys 1972–1973: IBM 1130 computer; OMI/Nistri AP/C-3 analytical plotter with coordinatograph and OP/C orthophoto projector and Zeiss Planimat D2 stereoplotters with SG-1/GZ-1 orthophoto projectors for orthophoto production from colour and monochrome film air photography 1974–1975: Magnavox AN/PRR-14 portable Doppler satellite (US Navy Navigation Satellite System – TRANSIT) receivers and computing system provided independent three-dimensional point positions anywhere in the world, anytime, in any weather accurate to about 1.5metres with precise satellite ephemerides (station coordinates computed using program DOPPLR at Directorate of Survey – Army in Canberra ACT), to replace geodetic astronomy for absolute positioning and Aerodist airborne EDM; the Australian developed WREMAPS II airborne laser terrain profile recorder to replace terrain heighting by barometry for 1:100,000 mapping; grid and graticule production on Footscray Ammunition Factory's Gerber flatbed plotter 1975: AUTOMAP 1 computer assisted cartography and mapping system (Input Sub-System of four Wild B8s and three Gradicon digitising tables, Optical Line Following Sub-System – Gerber OLF, Verification Sub-System – Gerber 1442 drum plotter, General Purpose Sub-system – HP21MX computer and Output Sub-System – Gerber 1232 flatbed plotter), the first map was published in 1978 (Strickland 3665-3, 1:50,000) 1977: PDP 11/70 computer and OMI/C-3T and AP/C-4 analytical plotters 1978: new cartographic specifications (SYMBAS Symbolisation All Scales) for map and air chart production by digital cartographic methods 1982: Schut's Bundle analytic adjustment was set up on the PDP 11/70 to augment the Schut polynomial strip adjustment of block air photography triangulation; Magnavox MX1502 second generation TRANSIT receivers for relative positioning 1983: Kongsberg flatbed plotter for air triangulation output and associated grids 1983–1984: AUTOMAP 2-second generation computer assisted cartography and mapping system as a precursor to collection of digital geographic information and creation of Geographic Information Systems in support of emerging digital military systems. Supplied by Intergraph Pty Ltd it comprised; superimposition of compiled graphics in the optical train of Wild B8 stereoplotters, dual screen interactive graphic edit workstations, raster scanner/plotter, VAX computers (the first map published was De Grey 2757 1:100,000 including screens and stipples) 1986–1988: Texas Instruments TI4100 portable Global Positioning System (GPS) geodetic receivers and Ferranti FILS3 helicopter and vehicle mounted Inertial Positioning System to replace TRANSIT satellite receivers 1988–1990: established the baseline for a GPS controlled air camera and photogrammetric system to significantly reduce the requirement for ground survey to accurately control air photography for topographic mapping 1988–1992: adopted the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84 – used by GPS) as the reference framework and spheroid for all military geospatial products of Australia and the rest of the world. In 1994 the Australian Government adopted the Geodetic Datum Australia 1994 which for practical purposes is coincident with the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84). The associated map grids remain based on the Transverse Mercator projection. 1990: Heidelberg Speedmaster 102 five colour printing press; AUTOMAP 2 upgrade to increase storage capacity and computer memory to speed-up data processing, to process all forms of remotely sensed imagery, to install the inhouse developed automated masking and stippling system, to enhance production of Digital Elevation Models, and to further develop the aeronautical chart database; large format film colour processor; large format automatic printing plate processor for positive and negative processing; investigated techniques for rapid kinematic GPS surveys 1990–1992: participation with military allies, Canada, United Kingdom and United States, in research and development of digital geospatial product standards to produce the Digital Chart of the World (DCW) and associated standards which became the baseline for international exchange of digital geospatial information 1991: Wild RC10 air mapping camera, pod mounted in a chartered Air Scan Aust Pty Ltd 35A Lear Jet, operated by the RA Svy Aerial Photography Team; established a digital topographic data Portable Demonstration System; Optical Disk Storage and Retrieval System for mainly AUTOMAP 2 data; desktop and laptop computers with mapping software for field survey, topographic survey and military geographic information sections; printing quality control stations; large format plan printers for topographic survey sections; air photography film processors for field units 1993–1995: high capacity large format process print press for rapid response map printing and print on demand Acknowledgement of Corps history On 1 July 2015, on the occasion of the Centenary of the Royal Australian Survey Corps Wreathlaying Ceremony at the Australian War Memorial, His Excellency General the Honourable Sir Peter Cosgrove AK MC (Retd), Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia, delivered the commemorative address. He acknowledged the essential nature of mapping for military operations, the work that the Survey Corps did for conflicts around the world and also for the nation building of Australia. He said "But it is the active service, the sacrifices and the contributions made by the men and women of the Royal Australian Survey Corps that we commemorate here today. On this 100th anniversary, we pay tribute to those whose skill and passion for surveying became integral to the work of the Australian military. And of course we offer our deepest respects to the 20 men who have given their lives serving with the Survey Corps or as members of the ADF on military survey operations. It was their duty to serve and it is our duty to remember them—and that is what we do today, and every day." On 9 July 2007, His Excellency Major General Michael Jeffery AC CVO MC Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia, unveiled a plaque at the Australian War Memorial to commemorate Royal Australian Survey Corps units which served in war. In his address the Governor-General praised the efforts of all personnel of the Corps over its 81 years of service to the nation in both war and peace. On the occasion of the 75th Anniversary of the Corps in 1990, the Survey Corps' contribution to the effectiveness of the ADF was acknowledged in a Notice of Motion from the Senate of the Australian Parliament. Moved by Senator MacGibbon on 31 May 1990, the Notice states: "I give notice that, on the next day of sitting, I shall move: That the Senate – (a) notes that 1 July 1990 marks the 75th anniversary of the foundation of the Royal Australian Survey Corps which produces maps and aeronautical charts required by Australia's defence forces; (b) notes that from the time of the explorer Sir Thomas Mitchell, Surveyor General NSW, who as a Lieutenant on Wellington's staff served as a surveyor in the Peninsular War, military surveying has played a vital role in the mapping of and development of Australia; (c) acknowledges the Corps' contribution to the knowledge of Australia's geography, topography and environment; (d) notes that the Royal Australian Survey Corps with its high level of professionalism, has served Australia well in war and in peace; (e) acknowledges the valuable mapping service rendered to New Guinea, Indonesia and the south west Pacific by the Survey Corps as part of Australia's overseas aid program; and (f) congratulates the Royal Australian Survey Corps on its meritorious achievements through the 75 years of existence." Also on the 75th anniversary, Australia Post issued a commemorative first day issue prestamped envelope of the Royal Australian Survey Corps. In his official history of the Royal Australian Survey Corps as part of the Australian Army History Series, the much published author and highly regarded military historian, Chris D. Coulthard-Clark, concluded that "Australians as a whole might still be blissfully unaware and hence unappreciative of the debt of gratitude owed to the generations of surveyors who have helped make possible the enviable standard of living generally enjoyed today across the country. Should that situation ever change, and the story receive the wider recognition that it deserves, then the part within that tale occupied by military mapmakers is worthy of special acclaim by a grateful nation." Gallery – Corps badges and unit colour patches On the left is the coloured badge of the Australian Survey Corps 1915–1948. In the middle is the unit colour patch of Survey Corps units in the 2nd AIF (Second World War) from 1943 – it is based on the colour patch of the First World War 1st ANZAC and Australian Corps Topographic Sections. The triangle shape shows that Survey Corps units were generally assigned at higher formation (Corps) level; the colour purple (Engineers) acknowledges the heritage link to the Royal Australian Engineers and the central vertical white stripe completed the Survey patch; the grey background was that of the 2nd AIF – this patch (minus the AIF grey background) was the basis of Survey Corps unit colour patches when Army reintroduced unit colour patches in 1987. On the right is the coloured badge of the Royal Australian Survey Corps 1952–1996. The badge 1948–1952 was similar except for the Kings Crown. See also Royal Australian Engineers Australian Army Intelligence Corps References Footnotes Citations Further reading External links Royal Australian Survey Corps Association A link to a Survey Corps Nominal Roll 1915–1996 is on the front page of this website. Australian Army Museum of Military Engineering Military units and formations established in 1915 Military units and formations disestablished in 1996 Survey
4886461	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who%20Killed%20the%20Electric%20Car%3F	Who Killed the Electric Car?	Who Killed the Electric Car? is a 2006 American documentary film directed by Chris Paine that explores the creation, limited commercialization and subsequent destruction of the battery electric vehicle in the United States, specifically the General Motors EV1 of the mid-1990s. The film explores the roles of automobile manufacturers, the oil industry, the federal government of the United States, the California government, batteries, hydrogen vehicles and consumers in limiting the development and adoption of this technology. After a premiere at the 2006 Sundance Film Festival, it was released theatrically by Sony Pictures Classics on June 28, 2006. A follow-up documentary, Revenge of the Electric Car, was released in 2011. Topics addressed The film deals with the history of the electric car, its modern development, and commercialization. The film focuses primarily on the General Motors EV1, which was made available for lease mainly in Southern California, after the California Air Resources Board (CARB) passed the zero-emissions vehicle (ZEV) mandate in 1990 which required the seven major automobile suppliers in the United States to offer electric vehicles in order to continue sales of their gasoline powered vehicles in California. Nearly 5000 electric cars were designed and manufactured by Chrysler, the Ford Motor Company, General Motors (GM), Honda, Nissan, and Toyota; and then later destroyed or donated to museums and educational institutions. Also discussed are the implications of the events depicted for air pollution, oil dependency, Middle East politics, and global warming. The film details the California Air Resources Board's reversal of the mandate after relentless pressure and suits from automobile manufacturers, continual pressure from the oil industry, orchestrated hype over a future hydrogen car, and finally the George W. Bush administration. A portion of the film details GM's efforts to demonstrate to California that there was no consumer demand for their product, and then to take back every EV1 and destroy them. A few were disabled and given to museums and universities, but almost all were found to have been crushed. GM never responded to the EV drivers' offer to pay the residual lease value; $1.9 million was offered for the remaining 78 cars in Burbank, California before they were crushed. Several activists, including actresses Alexandra Paul and Colette Divine, were arrested in the protest that attempted to block the GM car carriers taking the remaining EV1s off to be crushed. The film explores some of the motives that may have pushed the auto and oil industries to kill off the electric car. Wally Rippel offers, for example, that the oil companies were afraid of losing their monopoly on transportation fuel over the coming decades; while the auto companies feared short-term costs for EV development and long-term revenue loss because EVs require little maintenance and no tuneups. Others explained the killing differently. GM spokesman Dave Barthmuss argued it was lack of consumer interest due to the maximum range of 80–100 miles per charge, and the relatively high price. The film also showed the failed attempts by electric car enthusiasts trying to combat auto industry moves and save the surviving vehicles. Towards the end of the film, a deactivated EV1 car #99 is found in the garage of Petersen Automotive Museum, with former EV sales representative, Chelsea Sexton, invited for a visit. The film also explores the future of automobile technologies including a deeply critical look at hydrogen vehicles, an upbeat discussion of plug-in hybrids, and examples of other developing EV technologies such as the Tesla Roadster (2008), released on the market two years after the film. Interviews The film features interviews with celebrities who drove the electric car, such as Ed Begley Jr., Mel Gibson, Tom Hanks, Peter Horton, and Alexandra Paul. It also features interviews with a selection of public figures including Jim Boyd, S. David Freeman, Frank Gaffney, Alan C. Lloyd (Chairman of the California Air Resources Board), Alan Lowenthal, Edward H. Murphy (representative of the American Petroleum Institute), Ralph Nader and James Woolsey (former Director of Central Intelligence), as well as news footage from the development, launch and marketing of EVs. The film also features interviews with some of the engineers and technicians who led the development of modern electric vehicles and related technologies, such as Wally Rippel, Chelsea Sexton, Alec Brooks, Alan Cocconi, Paul MacCready, Stan and Iris M. Ovshinsky, and other experts such as Joseph J. Romm (author of Hell and High Water and The Hype about Hydrogen). Romm gives a presentation intended to show that the government's "hydrogen car initiative" is a bad policy choice and a distraction that is delaying the exploitation of more promising technologies, such as electric and hybrid cars which could reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase America's energy security. Also featured in the film are spokespersons for the automakers, such as GM's Dave Barthmuss, a vocal opponent of the film and the EV1, John Wallace from Ford, and Bill Reinert from Toyota. Production and release The film was written and directed by Chris Paine, and produced by Jessie Deeter, and executive produced by Tavin Marin Titus, Richard D. Titus of Plinyminor and Dean Devlin, Kearie Peak, Mark Roskin, and Rachel Olshan of Electric Entertainment. The film features a film score composed by Michael Brook. It also features music by Joe Walsh, DJ Harry and Meeky Rosie. Jeff Steele, Kathy Weiss, Natalie Artin and Alex Gibney were also part of the producing team. The documentary was featured at the Sundance, San Francisco, Tribeca, Los Angeles, Berlin, Deauville, and Wild and Scenic Environmental film festivals and was released in theaters worldwide in June 2006. The suspects The later portion of the film is organized around the following hypothesized culprits in the downfall of the electric car: American consumers While few American consumers ever heard of the electric cars in California, those who did were not necessarily critical mass for this new technology. Thanks to lower gas prices and infatuation with sport utility vehicles (SUVs), few people sought out this new technology. While some were fans (as chronicled in the film), many more needed time to consider the advantages and disadvantages of these new cars; whether freedom from oil or with the perceived limitations of a city car with a 100-mile range. Although allegations are made about consumers by industry representatives in the film, perhaps explaining the film's "guilty" verdict, the actual consumers interviewed in the film were either unaware that an electric car was ever available to try or dismayed that they could no longer obtain one. Batteries In a bit of an unexpected turn, the film's sole "not-guilty" suspect is batteries, one of the chief culprits if one were to ask the oil or auto industries. At the time GM's EV1 came to market, it came with a lead acid battery with a range of 60 miles. The film suggests that since the average driving distance of Americans in a day is 30 miles or less, for 90% of Americans, electric cars would work as a daily commute car or second car. The second generation EV1 (and those released by Honda, Toyota, and others) from 1998 to the end of the program, featured nickel-metal-hydride or even lithium-ion (Nissan) batteries with a range of 100 or more miles. The film documents that the company which had supplied batteries for EV1, Ovonics, had been suppressed from announcing improved batteries, with double the range, lest CARB be convinced that batteries were improving. Later, General Motors sold the supplier's majority control share to the Chevron Corporation and Cobasys. As part of the not-guilty verdict, the famed engineer Alan Cocconi explains that with laptop computer lithium-ion batteries, the EV1 could have been upgraded to a range of 300 miles per charge. He makes this point in front of his T-Zero prototype, the car that inspired the Tesla Roadster (2008). Oil companies The oil industry, through its major lobby group the Western States Petroleum Association, is brought to task for financing campaigns to kill utility efforts to build public car-charging stations. Through astroturfing groups like "Californians Against Utility Abuse", the oil-industry lobbyists posed as consumers instead of the industry interests that they actually represented. Mobil and other oil companies are also shown to be advertising directly against electric cars in national publications, even when electric cars seem to have little to do with their core business. At the end of the film, Chevron bought patents and a controlling interest in Ovonics, the advanced battery company featured in the film, ostensibly to prevent modern NiMH batteries from being used in non-hybrid electric cars. The documentary also refers to manipulation of oil prices by overseas suppliers in the 1980s as an example of the industry working to kill competition and to keep customers from moving toward alternatives to oil. Car companies With GM as its primary example, the film documents that car makers engaged in both positive and negative marketing of the electric car as its intentions toward the car and California legislation changed. In earlier days, GM ran Super Bowl commercials produced by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) for the EV1. In later days it ran "award-winning" doomsday-style advertising featuring the EV1 and ran customer surveys which emphasized drawbacks to electronic vehicle technology which were not actually present in the EV1. (As a side note, CARB officials were quoted claiming that they removed their zero-emission vehicle quotas in part because they gave weight to such surveys purportedly showing no demand existing for the EV1s.) Other charges raised on GM included sabotaging their own product program, failing to produce cars to meet existing demand, and refusing to sell cars directly (they only leased them). The film also describes the history of automaker efforts to destroy competing technologies, such as their destruction (through front companies) of public transit systems in the United States in the early 20th century. In addition to EV1, the film also depicted how Toyota RAV4 EV, and Honda EV Plus were being cancelled by their respective car companies. The crushing of Honda EV Plus only gained attention after appearing quite by accident on an episode of PBS's California's Gold with Huell Howser. In an interview with retired GM board member, physicist, and former Caltech president Tom Everhart, the film points out that GM killed the EV1 to focus on more immediately profitable enterprises such as its Hummer and truck brands, instead of preparing for future challenges. Ralph Nader, in a brief appearance, points out that auto makers usually only respond to government regulation when it comes to important advances whether seat belts, airbags, catalytic converters, mileage requirements or, by implication, hybrid/electric cars. The film suggests Toyota supported the production of Toyota Prius hybrid in part as a response to Bill Clinton's Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles and other U.S. Government pressure that was later dropped. Though GM cited cost as a deterrent to continuing with the EV1, the film interviewed critics contending that the cost of batteries and electric vehicles would have been reduced significantly if mass production began, due to economies of scale. There is also discussion about electric cars threatening dealer profits since they have so few service requirements—no tuneups, no oil changes, and less frequent brake jobs because of regenerative braking. U.S. government While not overtly political, the film documents that the federal government of the United States under the Presidency of George W. Bush joined the auto-industry suit against California in 2002. This pushed California to abandon its ZEV mandate regulation. The film notes that Bush's chief of staff Andrew Card had recently been head of the American Automobile Manufacturers Alliance in California and then joined the White House with Dick Cheney, Condoleezza Rice, and other federal officials who were former executives or board members of oil and auto companies. By failing to increase mileage standards in a meaningful way since the 1970s and now interfering in California, the federal government had again served short-term industry interests at the expense of long-range leadership on issues of oil dependency and cleaner cars. California Air Resources Board In 2003, the California Air Resources Board (CARB), headed by Democrat Alan Lloyd, finally caved to industry pressure and drastically scaled back the ZEV mandate. CARB had previously defended the regulation for more than 12 years. While championing CARB's efforts on behalf of California's with its 1990 mandate (and other regulations over the years), the film suggests Lloyd may have had a conflict of interest, as the director of the California Fuel Cell Partnership. The ZEV change allowed a marginal number of hydrogen fuel cell cars to be produced in the future, versus the immediate continued growth of its electric car requirement. Footage shot in the meetings showed Lloyd shutting down battery electric car proponents while giving the car makers all the time they wanted to make their points. Hydrogen fuel cell The hydrogen fuel cell was presented by the film as an alternative that distracts attention from the real and immediate potential of electric vehicles to an unlikely future possibility embraced by auto makers, oil companies and a pro-business administration in order to buy time and profits for the status quo. The film corroborates the claim that hydrogen vehicles are a mere distraction by stating that "A fuel cell car powered by hydrogen made with electricity uses three to four times more energy than a car powered by batteries" and by interviewing Joseph J. Romm, the author of The Hype about Hydrogen, who lists five problems he sees with hydrogen vehicles: High cost, limits on driving range due to current materials, high costs of hydrogen fuel, the need for entirely new fueling compounds, and competition from other technologies in the marketplace, such as hybrids. The price of hydrogen has since come down to $4–6/kg (without carbon sequestering) due to reduction in the price of natural gas as a feedstock for steam reforming owing to the proliferation of hydraulic fracturing of shales. A kilo of hydrogen has the same energy yield as a gallon of gasoline although production currently creates 12.5 kg CO2, 39% more than the 8.91 kg CO2 from a gasoline gallon. Response from General Motors General Motors (GM) responded in a 2006 blog post titled "Who Ignored the Facts About the Electric Car?" written by Dave Barthmuss of GM's communications department. In his June 15, 2006 post—published 13 days before the film was released in the U.S.—Barthmuss claims not to have seen the film, but believes "there may be some information that the movie did not tell its viewers." He repeats GM's claims that, "despite the substantial investment of money and the enthusiastic fervor of a relatively small number of EV1 drivers—including the filmmaker—the EV1 proved far from a viable commercial success." He submits it is "good news for electric car enthusiasts" that electric vehicle technology since the EV1 was still being used. It was used in two-mode hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and fuel cell vehicle programs. Barthmuss also cites "GM's leadership" in flex-fuel vehicles development, hydrogen fuel cell technology, and their new "active fuel management" system which improve fuel economy, as reasons they feel they are "doing more than any other automaker to address the issues of oil dependence, fuel economy and emissions from vehicles." Responding to the film's harsh criticisms for discontinuing the EV1, Barthmuss outlines GM's reasons for doing so, implying that GM did so due to inadequate support from parts suppliers, as well as poor consumer demand despite "significant sums (spent) on marketing and incentives to develop a mass market for it." Barthmuss claimed he personally regretted the way the decision not to sell the EV1s was handled, but stated it was because GM would no longer be able to repair it or "guarantee it could be operated safely over the long term," with lack of available parts making "future repair and safety of the vehicles difficult to nearly impossible." He also claimed that "no other major automotive manufacturer is producing a pure electric vehicle for use on public roads and highways." In March 2009, however, outgoing CEO of GM Rick Wagoner said the biggest mistake he ever made as chief executive was killing the EV1 car and failing to direct more resources to electrics and hybrids after such an early lead in this technology. GM has since championed its electric-car expertise as a key factor in development of its 2010 Chevrolet Volt, Chevy Spark EV, and the Chevrolet Bolt. Reception On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an 89% approval rating based on 105 reviews, with an average rating of 7.19/10. Metacritic, another review collator, reported a positive rating of 70, based on 28 reviews polled. Manohla Dargis of The New York Times wrote, "It's a story Mr. Paine tells with bite. In 1996 a Los Angeles newspaper reported that 'the air board grew doubtful about the willingness of consumers to accept the cars, which carry steep price tags and have a limited travel range.' Mr. Paine pushes beyond this ostensibly disinterested report, suggesting that one reason the board might have grown doubtful was because its chairman at the time, Alan C. Lloyd, had joined the California Fuel Cell Partnership." Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter noted Alan Lloyd's conflict of interest in the film. Pete Vonder Haar of Film Threat commented, "Boasting a particularly articulate and colorful bunch of noncelebrity talking heads, including former president Jimmy Carter, energy adviser S. David Freeman and Bill Reinert, the straight-shooting national manager of advanced technologies for Toyota who doesn't exactly sing the praises of the much-touted hydrogen fuel cell, the lively film maintains its challenging pace." Matt Coker of OC Weekly stated, "Like most documentaries, 'Who Killed the Electric Car?' works best when it sticks to the facts. Showing us the details about the California Air Resources Board caving in to the automakers and repealing their 1990 Zero Emissions Mandate, for example, is much more effective than coverage of some goofy mock funeral for the EV1 with Ed Begley Jr. providing the eulogy. As most of the lazy media, prodded by the shameless oil men in the White House, spin their wheels over false 'solutions' like hybrids and biodiesel and hydrogen and ethanol and ANWR, Korthof and his all-electric army continue to boost EV technology." Coker also interviewed EV activist Doug Korthof, who stated, "We don't deserve the catastrophe in Iraq, and the two madmen arguing over oil supply lines seem intent on martyrdom for Iraq in a widening war. With EV, we need not get involved in seizing and defending the oil supplies of the Mideast; nor need we maintain fleets, bomb and incarcerate people we can't stand, give foreign aid to oily dictators, and so on. It's not anything to laugh about." The film won the 2006 MountainFilm in Telluride (Colorado, USA) Special Jury Prize, the Canberra International Film Festival Audience Award, and also nominated for Best Documentary in the 2006 Environmental Media Awards, Best Documentary in Writers Guild of America, 2007 Broadcast Film Critics Association Best Documentary Feature. In 2008 socially conscious musician Tha truth released a song that summarized the film on the CD Tha People's Music." See also Battery electric vehicle Compressed air car Electric vehicle General Motors EV1 Great American streetcar scandal Hybrid vehicle Hydrogen vehicle Patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries Plug-in hybrid Revenge of the Electric Car The Hype about Hydrogen Tribrid vehicle Zero-emissions vehicle References External links Who Killed the Electric Car? at the Sony Classics website PBS Chris Paine video interview Associated Press: Smithsonian dumps EV1 exhibit just one week before the film's opening "GM, which is a Smithsonian museum donor, is accused of killing the technology" Chris Paine interview video at the Woods Hole Film Festival 2006 films 2006 in the environment 2006 documentary films 2006 independent films American documentary films Conflict of interest Documentary films about the automotive industry Documentary films about environmental issues Documentary films about automobiles Electric vehicle industry Films scored by Michael Brook General Motors Sony Pictures Classics films 2000s English-language films 2000s American films
4886900	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle%20East%20Institute	Middle East Institute	The Middle East Institute (MEI) is a non-profit, non-partisan think tank and cultural centre in Washington, D.C., founded in 1946. It seeks to "increase knowledge of the Middle East among the United States citizens and promote a better understanding between the people of these two areas." History Founding years In 1946, architect George Camp Keiser felt strongly that the Middle East, a region he had traveled through before World War II, should be better understood in the United States, so he brought together a group of like-minded people to form the Middle East Institute in Washington, D.C. His colleagues on the original Board of Governors included Halford L. Hoskins, Director of the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS); Christian A. Herter, then-congressman from Massachusetts and later Dwight Eisenhower's Secretary of State; Ambassador George V. Allen; Harold Glidden, Director of the Islamic Department at the Library of Congress; and Harvey P. Hall, the first Editor of the Middle East Journal, professor at the American University of Beirut and Robert College. Keiser was also MEI's chief source of financial support. In 1946, the Institute found a temporary home at 1906 Florida Avenue NW at SAIS. At the time, they have linked administratively through the Diplomatic Affairs Foundation, the parent organisation of both SAIS and MEI. In its early years, MEI concentrated on establishing a library, publishing the Middle East Journal, holding annual conferences and sponsoring formal courses in Middle East studies at SAIS. Keiser and his group recognised the need for studying the Middle East using the framework of area studies. This interdisciplinary approach to training diplomats and businesspeople was a new phenomenon and closely linked to foreign policy initiatives in the United States. During its founding years, the Institute was small, its membership resembling that of a club. The annual conference, held at the Friends Meeting House on Florida Avenue, brought together a close-knit group of approximately 150 people accustomed to writing short articles for the Institute's newsletter to inform fellow members about their trips to the Middle East. George Camp Keiser: founder of the Institute George Camp Keiser was born on November 2, 1900, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. After graduating from Harvard University with a Bachelor of Arts in 1924, he went to Columbia University to complete his graduate degree in Architecture by 1930. Over the following years, he worked as a draftsman for David Hyer and James Gamble Rogers until he opened his own practice in 1938. Following his younger brother's career path, Keiser also became director of the Cuban-American Sugar Company and the Guantanamo Sugar Company. George Keiser built his family home inspired by Islamic architecture, showcasing his fascination with the Middle East and Middle Eastern architecture in particular. In 1947, he founded the Middle East Institute. During World War II, Keiser was a first lieutenant in the U.S. Signal Corps. Further positions held over the course of his life include trustee of the Foreign Service Educational Foundation, the American Research Center in Egypt, and the Visitors Committee of the Harvard Center for Middle Eastern Studies. He was also a member of the American Institute of Architects and president of the Symphony Orchestra of Central Florida. On March 23, 1956, he died after a brief illness and was buried in Wilton, Connecticut. The 1950s MEI continuously built its reputation by creating a language- as well as a publications program; St John Philby's Arabian Highlands was published for MEI by Cornell University Press in 1952. MEI also increased the number of lectures, art exhibits, and conferences. Themes of annual conferences like "The Evolution of Public Responsibility in the Middle East" (1955), "Current Tensions in the Middle East" (1956), and "Neutralism, Communism: The Struggle for Power" (1959) reflected the post-World War II uncertainties about the Middle East. After having split from SAIS in 1948, MEI needed to find a new location. After spending a year at 2002 P Street, Keiser discovered and negotiated in late 1954 the purchase of two inter-connecting townhouses in the Dupont Circle neighbourhood at 1761–1763 N Street NW with a joint garden and carriage house. The house, formerly occupied by Senator James B. Eustis and by architect Henry Ives Cobb, is MEI's current location. Keiser's death in 1956 triggered a period of re-evaluation. Edwin M. Wright took over as the second president until 1960, with Angus Sinclair briefly serving in 1958. The 1960s Following Keiser's death, MEI faced financial troubles. A series of part-time presidents including Edwin M. Wright, James Terry Duce, and Kermit Roosevelt, Jr., who all served in addition to their professional or business responsibilities, chiefly launched new projects with the hope that they would be self-supporting. Among these were Lands East, an illustrated magazine, and the Middle East Report of the Week, an "insiders" newsletter which was produced on a mimeograph machine. By 1966, MEI realized it could not survive without full-time leadership. Ambassador Raymond A. Hare stabilised the organisation at a relatively low level of activity appropriate with its resources, concentrating on fundraising and expanding the base of corporate donations. As a result of these efforts, additional projects were financed by the Ford Foundation, a few conferences were organised for the U.S. Department of State, and the Rockefeller Foundation financed a series of discussion dinners. Georgetown University invited the Institute to hold its annual conference there, providing free accommodations and volunteer staff. In 1969, Ambassador Parker T. Hart led MEI into renewed activity. His vision for MEI to become an important national player led to an increased number of programs (like an annual conference on Middle East Business) and partnerships across the country and the world, a new internship program for undergraduate and graduate students, renewal of the MEI language program, and the publication of the Middle East Problem Papers. The 1970s The 1970s were marked by an unprecedented number of timely programs and events, many on the Cold War. Panels on Soviet Aims and Interests such as "The Arab–Israeli Conflict in View of the U.S.–Soviet Conflict" and "The Strategic and Political Dimensions on the Cold War" meant to provide the public with in-depth information. Furthermore, MEI started a program called "Dialogue" in 1974 in cooperation with the Arabist Travel Program. It sent small teams of scholars and students to seven Arab countries. The program was repeated in 1978, funded by the United States Information Agency and the State Department. MEI also introduced The Middle East Monitor, an insider newsletter, published between 1971 and 1975. Its logo is the source of MEI's current logo, which is adapted from the design on a 10th-century platter unearthed near Nishapur, Iran, and now in the collections of New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art. The 1980s Taking on the MEI president's role in 1975, L. Dean Brown served until 1986—the longest presidential tenure in MEI's history. Under Ambassador Brown, MEI focused on business and investment opportunities between the Middle East and the United States. The 1980s also saw a continued increase in MEI's research and program ventures on issues like the theocracy of Iranian Islamic Clergy and Egyptian perceptions of the U.S. presence in Egypt. After having already served a short term as MEI's president from 1974 to 1975, Ambassador Lucius D. Battle returned from 1986 to 1990. Under his leadership, MEI absorbed the American Institute for Islamic Affairs (AIIA) functions, dedicated to the Sultan Qaboos bin Said Research Center, and its endowment. He and then-Vice President Ambassador Christopher Van Hollen also began a tradition of traveling throughout the Middle East to gain support for MEI's mission. The 1990s The MEI's agenda in the 1990s was shaped by persistent volatility in the Persian Gulf States, the Arab–Israeli peace process, women in the Arab world, and contentious U.S. foreign policy. Ambassador Robert Keeley succeeded Ambassador Brown and served as President until 1995. During his tenure, MEI became a leading source for information on the Persian Gulf region, in particular, organised its first language-focused trip to the Middle East, set up a meeting between Israeli and Palestinian officials in Cairo, and renovated the building extensively. The next man to assume this post was Ambassador Roscoe S. Suddarth, who stayed on as President until 2001. During this time, the Foundation for Middle East Peace began renting space in the building (1996) and MEI celebrated its 50th anniversary. Furthermore, MEI established the Public Policy Center in 1999, bringing together MEI scholars-in-residence and adjunct scholars to provide expert commentaries on pressing issues in the Middle East. The 2000s Ambassador Edward S. Walker, Jr., assumed the presidency in 2001 and left the post in 2006. Walker highlighted America's struggle with the Arab–Israeli conflict, the challenge of global terrorism, and the Iraq War. In 2007, Ambassador Wendy Chamberlin became the first woman to hold this position. She was succeeded in 2018 by Paul Salem, the current president. The 2010s and funding The UAE contributed $20 million during 2016 and 2017 to the Middle East Institute. During 2016−2017, UAE and Saudi sources were the largest contributors to MEI, in addition to oil and military supply companies. Organisational structure Programs The Middle East Institute hosts public events, which range from panel presentations and book signings to roundtables and policy workshops. MEI invites experts from the Middle East and around the world to participate in its programs and conferences. Its larger events include annual conferences on Turkey and Egypt and its main event of each year, the Annual Conference and Banquet, held in November. Communications The Institute's roster of over 40 scholars is composed of former U.S. ambassadors, government officials, and academics, and analysts. MEI's scholars are routinely called upon by domestic and international media outlets to provide informed commentary and analysis of events and key issues in the region. Publications The Publications Department is best known for the quarterly Middle East Journal, MEI's only print publication. In addition to the Journal, analyses and opinion pieces are posted on the website. Additionally, the members-only bulletin @MEI is distributed on a regular basis. The Middle East Journal The Journal was first published in 1947, making it the oldest U.S. peer-reviewed publication on the modern Middle East. In its early years, the Journal covered regional issues and history from the 19th and 20th centuries. However, in the 1980s, the Journal restricted its coverage to the post-World War II era. It now carries analyses of political, economic, and social developments as well as historical events in North Africa, the Middle East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. Each issue features articles by a diverse array of scholars, book reviews, and a chronology of regional events organized by topic and country for each quarter. The fundamental policy of the Journal is to provide a forum that represents all views on issues facing the Middle East while maintaining a non-partisan stance. The current editor is Jacob Passel. His predecessor, Michael Collins Dunn, had been in this post since 1998. The Oman Library The library, originally named after MEI's founder George Camp Keiser, was created at MEI's founding in 1946 and is housed in an old carriage house behind MEI's main building. Following a major contribution by Qaboos bin Said al Said, the Sultan of Oman, the library was renamed as the Oman Library and completed a renovation of its facilities in 2013. The library comprises the largest collection of literature on the Middle East in Washington, D.C., outside of the Library of Congress and holds materials in regional languages. It is estimated to house over 20,000 books and periodicals, all devoted to the region. The library is open to the public for in-house use. Centers of Study Center for Pakistan Studies Founded in April 2009, the Center for Pakistan Studies aims to foster closer relations and increased understanding between Pakistan and the United States. While Pakistan is not part of the "traditional" Middle East, it was included in MEI's original definition of the region due to its strong ties to Middle Eastern countries as well as its connection with the United States. The center's main focus is to create an online think tank of Pakistan experts where a unique online forum facilitates scholarly exchange between Pakistanis and Americans. This forum features a daily news feed as well as a collection of documents and publications from the U.S. government. The Center's two main concerns are Pakistani news as well as longer-term issues like water, energy, and the Kashmir conflict. Marvin Weinbaum is the current Director of the Center for Pakistan Studies. Center for Turkish Studies MEI established the Center for Turkish Studies in Summer 2009 to promote increased knowledge and understanding of Turkish politics, economics, and society. The distinctive feature of the Center for Turkish Studies is its analysis of Turkey within the context of its relationship with the Middle East. The Center for Turkish Studies aims to also enhance understanding and dialogue between the United States and Turkey through providing a channel of communication for academic and policy circles. The founding head of MEI's Center for Turkish studies is Gönül Tol. Sultan Qaboos Cultural Center (SQCC) The Sultan Qaboos Cultural Center (SQCC) was established in 2005 following an agreement with the Sultanate of Oman. SQCC's establishment replaced the Sultan Qaboos bin Said Research Center for Middle East Studies, located at MEI since the mid-1980s. Kathleen Ridolfo, SQCC Executive Director, leads the center in its mission to educate Americans and Omanis about the breadth and richness of the two cultures. In 2011, SQCC opened a Cultural Center, which showcased Omani crafts and serves as a space for workshops and other events. In 2013, SQCC parted with MEI and relocated to new offices. Middle East-Asia Project (MAP) The Middle East-Asia Project (MAP) is an initiative to serve two broad objectives: To promote awareness and understanding of the multidimensional relations between the Middle East and Asia by providing information and analysis on cross-regional economic, political, security, and social/cultural interactions and their implications; and To foster collaborative research and other activities regarding Middle East-Asia relations through establishing an online community of experts and forging institutional partnerships. The Cyber Library contains publication details, abstracts, and live links to full-text versions of previously published works on Middle East-Asian affairs organized by country and by topic/issue. The Experts Directory contains the profiles and contact details of a worldwide network of academics, business leaders, diplomats, journalists, researchers and other practitioners affiliated with the MAP. The Infographics project element consists of periodically updated charts, tables, and timelines depicting key trends and developments in trade, investment, migration, and other spheres of cross-regional activity. The Publications element is organized as follows: Partner Content: refers to original works produced by MAP-affiliated experts for non-MEI outlets but made available to and posted to the MAP microsite in full-text format and later integrated into the Cyber Library. New MAP Publications: Analysis: Short analytical essays (2,000 words) on key issues grouped under three main headings (i.e., politics/security, energy/commerce, and culture/society). Dialogues: Brief commentaries by two or more contributors (every 500 words) on specific cross-regional developments or viewed from cross-regional perspectives. Interviews: Online text-based conversations conducted with diplomats, businessmen, or others drawing upon their own cross-cultural experiences, as well as insights and observations about the evolution of Middle East-Asian relations. Iran Program MEI’s Iran program covers Iranian domestic politics, civil society and social trends, and Tehran’s soft- and hard-power approach to geopolitical competition with other regional states through research, articles, papers, and public and private events. Executive leadership John Abizaid: Chairman of the Board Dr. Paul Salem: President Kate Seelye: Senior Vice President Brian Katulis: Vice President of Policy References External links Middle East Institute 1946 establishments in Washington, D.C. Middle Eastern-American culture in Washington, D.C. Middle Eastern studies in the United States Organizations established in 1946 Think tanks based in Washington, D.C. United States–Middle Eastern relations
4887471	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%20Gwang-jo	Jo Gwang-jo	Jo (, 23 August 1482 – 10 January 1520), also often called by his art name Jeong-am (), was a Korean Neo-Confucian scholar who pursued radical reforms during the reign of Jungjong of Joseon in the early 16th century. He was framed with charges of factionalism by the power elite that opposed his reform measures and was sentenced to drink poison in the Third Literati Purge of 1519. He has been widely venerated as a Confucian martyr and an embodiment of "seonbi spirit" by later generations in Korea. Some historians consider him one of the most influential figures in 16th century Korea. He is known as one of the 18 Sages of Korea () and honored as Munmyo Baehyang (). Life Early years Jo Gwang-jo was the son of Jo Wongang () and was from the . Jo studied under neo-Confucian scholar Kim Gwoeng-pil, Kim Jong-jik's disciple who was in exile at the time following the First Literati Purge of 1498. When Kim Gwoeng-pil was later executed (by poison) following the Second Literati Purge of 1504, Jo was exiled for being Kim's disciple. At this time, Joseon Dynasty politics was primarily marked by the power struggle between two aristocratic yangban factions - the established "Hungu" power elites who were generally conservative and the upstart Sarim scholars called seonbis, who belonged to the neo-Confucian school of Kim Jong-jik and other thinkers. The Sarim faction had entered court politics during the reign of King Seongjong in the late 15th century but suffered two bloody purges under his successor Yeonsangun. When Yeonsangun was eventually deposed in 1506, Jungjong was placed on the throne as the eleventh king of Joseon by the Hungu leaders who led the coup. For first ten years of his reign, Jungjong could not truly rule the country with regal authority (he was forced to depose his faithful queen because her father was killed by the coup leaders, and they feared that the queen might take revenge.) However, three main coup leaders died of natural causes by then, and Jungjong began to welcome Sarim scholars to his court to check Hungu faction's power. The Sarim faction considered Hungu faction as a whole as greedy and corrupt men unworthy of respect and sought to establish ideal neo-Confucian society. (Indeed, many of coup leaders had enjoyed Yeonsangun's favor during most of his reign, and their chief Park Won-jong led the coup mainly for personal revenge for his sister was raped by Yeonsangun.) Jo Gwang-jo came from a prominent family that belonged to Hungu faction but was called "crazy man" and "source of disaster" by people around him for studying neo-Confucianism under exiled Sarim scholar Kim Gwoeng-pil at the height of persecution of the Sarim faction. In 1510, Jo passed the gwageo exam and became a student at Royal Academy called Seonggyungwan. He was often recommended for a court position by high officials and fellow students at Seonggyngwan, but he delayed entering civil service to pursue further study until 1515, when he was recommended to King Jungjong by Minister of Personnel Ahn Dang and 200 Seonggyungwan students and was immediately appointed to a position of junior sixth rank. However, he was ashamed to take office with others' help and took Al-seung-si exam, and his essay caught Jungjong's attention. By then, Jo was already known for unbending and outspoken character as he soon emerged as the leader of Sarim faction. For instance, when he became a jung-un, lowest position at Office of Censors, the first thing he did on the following day was to petition the king to fire all his superiors at the Office of Censors and Office of Inspector General. At the time, two Sarim officials had petitioned the king to restore status of the deposed queen, who was deposed by Hungu faction. Office of Inspector General and Office of Censors had them exiled for their impertinent petition. Jo argued that two offices violated their given function by suppressing free speech and petitioned the king to fire his superiors or accept his resignation since he could not work with them. To the surprise of everyone, Jungjong replaced everyone in two offices except Jo. This event reflected Jungjong's complete trust and confidence in Jo, who rose in a series of unprecedented promotions from rank of junior sixth rank to junior second rank in only three years. Jo's reforms King Jungjong wanted to bring new talents to the royal court that was dominated by Hungu faction, and Jo complied by introducing a new system of government recruitment via recommendations that were based on the candidates' moral character as well as scholarship. He argued that existing officer examination were too philosophical and placed too much emphasis on literary skills, detached from the practical needs of the government. The supplementary examination that Jo introduced was called an "examination for the learned and the virtuous" (hyeollanggwa). This was an abbreviated examination for candidates recommended by local magistrates as men of highest integrity in the presence of the king, who chose the winning candidates. This system allowed Jo to recruit many talented Sarim scholars who had been living secluded life in rural provinces. However, it also left him open to Hungu faction's attack that Jo formed a clique of his supporters by placing them in key positions. Jo and his supporters then pushed forth a series of radical reforms as they established local self-government system called Hyang'yak to strengthen local autonomy and communal spirit among people. In this system, deference was placed according to seniority of villagers rather than their social status. The Sarim faction also sought to reduce gap between the rich and poor with a land reform that would distribute land to farmers equally and limit amount of land and number of slaves that one could own. This measure also targeted Hungu faction's accumulation of land and wealth. Deeply influenced by Zhu Xi's neo-Confucianism, j believed that ideal world of mythical Chinese Emperor Yao and Shun, could be achieved if all people from the king down to low-born became morally refined and followed Confucius' teachings. The Sarim faction therefore promulgated Confucian writings among the populace by translating them in Korean hangul and distributing them widely. They also suppressed Buddhism and Taoism as superstitious religions by destroying the royal Taoist temple and confiscating properties of Buddhist temples. As Inspector General, he impeached many officials for corruption and bribery. According to Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, it was said that no official dared to receive a bribe or exploit the populace during this time because of such strict enforcement. He also sought to trim the size of government by reducing the number of bureaucrats and their wages. Jo also believed that any talented people including slaves should be appointed as officials regardless of social status. He was said to judge people by moral character and did not greet superior officials if he considered them of unworthy characters while he was courteous even to his servants. For instance, he formed a friendship with a butcher/tanner of lowest class (baekjeong) who did not even have a name and admired his learning so much that he discussed state affairs with him and wanted to appoint him as a court official. But the tanner repeatedly refused Jo's offer and then disappeared without a trace according to Records of Yeonryeoshil (연려실기술), a collection of official and unofficial history books compiled by Yi Geung-ik in late Joseon Dynasty. (It is said that King Injong, Jungjong's successor who admired his tutor j, listed the "tanner" as Chief State Councillor for his future cabinet for he was greatly admired by Jo.) According to famous Korean philosopher Yi I, Jo was admired so much by populace that when he appeared on streets people gathered before him saying, "Our master is coming." Sarim's Power Base Jo's radical reforms were popular with the populace, who called him the "living Buddha", but he faced fierce opposition and hostility from the Hungu faction. In early 1519, several Hungu officials began a plot to assassinate Sarim officials, though they were discovered in time. Jo's power base was concentrated in four offices: Inspector General's Office (사헌부; whose main function was to impeach corrupt or unprincipled government officials in court and local administration), Office of Censors (사간원; whose role was to criticize wrong policies of the king or ministers), Hongmoongwan (홍문관; an advisory council that answered the king's questions and educated the king with history and Confucian philosophy), and Royal Secretariat (승정원; which served as liaison between the king and ministries). The first three offices were collectively called Three Offices, or Samsa (삼사), as they provided checks and balance on the power of the king and the ministers and also served as organ of press that influenced general opinion of the court. However, the Sarim faction did not control any army nor had financial base. Sarim's power was solely dependent on the king's support, which Jo believed to be steadfast in their mutual pursuit of reforms. However, Jo's unbending character and his frequent remonstrations to Jungjong to support his radical programs began to irritate the king. Even when he disagreed with Jo, Jungjong almost always ended up adopting Jo's petition because Jo would refuse to bend his will and Three Offices would threaten to resign en masse. Furthermore, Jo and Hongmoongwan officials often instructed Jungjong on the ways of king in long lessons. Because Jungjong was not a crown prince, he had not received a thorough royal education expected of future king, and Sarim scholars sought to rectify this, believing that only learning could prevent a despot like Yeonsangun. Jungjong began to feel hounded by his subjects and resented it. The Hungu faction, which sensed Jungjong's irritation with Jo, found an opportunity to strike Sarim faction when Jo decided to go after the "heroes" of the 1506 coup that brought Jungjong to power. According to Jo, many officials who were awarded with special privileges including tax exemptions and huge stipends did not actually contribute much to the coup but gained their status through bribes or familial connections. He petitioned Jungjong to revoke such status from two thirds out of 110 people who received special status in connection with the coup. This move infuriated the Hungu faction, and they soon after proceeded to frame Jo with charges of disloyalty. "Jo will become the King" At the behest of Hungu leaders including Hong Kyung-ju, Nam Gon, and Shim Jung, Consort Gyeong of Park clan and Consort Hui of Hong clan (Hong Kyung-ju's daughter) sought to estrange Jungjong and Jo by often questioning Jo's loyalty and claiming that popular support was shifting to Jo. They told Jungjong that people were saying that it was actually Jo who ruled the country and that populace wanted to make him their king. Even if Jo was not disloyal, he would not be able to stop his supporters from doing so, they said. According to Annals of Joseon Dynasty, Nam Gon now set out to slander Jo and wrote a phrase "Ju cho will become the king" (주초위왕, 走肖爲王)" with honey or sugary water on mulberry leaves so that caterpillars left behind such phrase on leaves in the palace. When two hanja (Chinese) characters "ju"(走) and "cho"(肖) are put together, they form a new Hanja character "jo"(趙), which happen to be Jo's family name. Consort Hong or Consort Park showed the leaf to Jungjong and claimed that this was the heaven's warning that Jo would take the throne himself after eliminating Hungu faction. Jungjong, who himself rose to the throne through a coup d'état, began to distrust Jo. When Goryeo dynasty fell and was replaced by Joseon dynasty, there was popular saying "Son of wood will gain the country" (). When two Hanja characters meaning wood(木) and son(子) are combined, they form a new character "yi" (李), which happens to be the family name of Yi Seong-gye, who deposed the last king of Goryeo and founded Joseon dynasty. These phrases helped Yi Seong-gye win popular support for the new dynasty as heaven's will. When Jo petitioned Jungjong to revoke special privileges of people who falsely contributed to 1506 coup, Jungjong's suspicion was further heightened. Now feeling certain that Jungjong was sufficiently estranged from Jo, Hong Kyung-ju secretly entered the palace to warn King Jungjong that the court was filled with Jo's supporters and that no one could dare oppose him openly. Jungjong dispatched a secret letter to Hong Kyung-ju, expressing his fear that Jo would next go after Hungu officials who did contribute to the coup by questioning legitimacy of the coup and then turn against the king himself. Jungjong instructed Hungu leaders to kill Jo and then inform him. On November 15, 1519, Hungu leaders entered the palace secretly at night to bypass Royal Secretariat and present to the king written charges against Jo: he and his supporters "deceived the king and put the state in disorder by forming a clique and abusing their positions to promote their supporters while excluding their opponents, and thereby misleading young people to make extremism into habit, causing the young to despise the old, the low-born to disrespect the high-born." Inspector General Jo, Justice Minister Kim Jung, and six others were immediately arrested, and they were about to be killed extra-judicially without trial or even investigation. The whole event had appearance of coup d'état except that it was sanctioned by the king. "What is their crime?" They would have been immediately killed except that War Minister Yi Jang-gon, who arrested Sarim officials, entreated that ministers should be consulted for such decision. The cabinet meeting on the following day regarding Jo's fate is described in detail in the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty. Most officials expressed their shock at Jo's arrest and Jungjong's intention to kill him. They entreated that he may have been extreme in his youthful zeal to improve the country but could not possibly have private agenda. Chief State Councillor Jeong Gwang-pil said in tears: "I have frequently witnessed horrid calamities during the reign of deposed king (Yeonsangun), but how could I imagine to see such thing again even after meeting the wise king?" When Jungjong tried to leave, he even grasped the royal cloth to entreat further. He "could not understand on what charges the king wanted to punish them" for "mere demotion of 2-3 ranks would be already excessive." Eighteen younger officials requested to the king to imprison them with Jo. State Council and Six Ministries jointly entreated that punishing Jo and others on such charges without evidence would become a blot on the king's reputation. Even Hong Sook, who became Justice Minister overnight and interrogated Jo, reported to the king that he was "deeply moved" by Jo's loyalty. New Inspector General Yu Eun, who replaced Jo, protested in even stronger terms: "If Jo is guilty of crime, he should be punished in open and just manner... Instead, Your Majesty is handing out such punishment according to secret words by two people in the middle of night... What is so difficult about punishing few seonbis with authority of king that Your Majesty should do so covertly by sending a secret message?... If there is a crime, it should be dealt with clearly and justly, but Your Majesty appeared to trust and be friendly with them on the outside while thinking of eliminating them in mind." He was finally dismissed after asking Jungjong to "cut my head to please the wicked people." Meanwhile, 150 Seonggyungwan students stormed the palace to protest Jo's arrest and filled the palace with shouts of entreaties, and later 240 students petitioned to claim Jo's innocence and requested to be imprisoned together. There was such popular outpouring for Jo's release that it may have increased Jungjong's suspicion and anger. Third Literati Purge of 1519 Jo was completely caught off guard with this turn of events. The Sarim faction had scored its biggest victory just four days ago when Jungjong granted their petition to revoke special status for 70 Hungu officials. He continued to believe that Jungjong was misled by his enemies and was confident that he could persuade the king of his loyalty once he could face him in the interrogation. He wrote to Jungjong of his fear for this incident becoming a bloody purge and entreated that he would not regret dying ten thousand times if only he could be granted an audience. However, he would never have a chance to see Jungjong again. Amid petitions for leniency, Jungjong commuted the death sentence to exile, and Jo was exiled to Neung-ju. Nevertheless, Jungjong was determined to put Jo to death. In the Annals, there was no official demand for Jo's death, not even by Hong Kyung-joo, Nam Gon, and Shim Jung, except for a petition by three Seunggyungwan students (as opposed to 300 who petitioned for his release). Nam Gon rather urged against executing Jo multiple times even as he was adding more and more names to the list of people to be purged through exile or dismissal. Yet Jungjong turned against Jo with the same intensity as when he favored him. He reinstated death sentence by poison for Jo less than a month after their exile. He fired many ministers who entreated on Jo's behalf including Chief State Councillor Jeong Gwang-pill, Deputy State Councillor Ahn Dang, and even War Minister Yi Jang-gon, who took part in arresting Sarim officials. Jo still could not believe Jungjong's heart really turned against him and hoped to be recalled by the king, keeping a north door open each day during exile. Even when soldiers arrived with poison, he was suspicious that Hungu leaders might be trying to kill him without Jungjong's approval. But when he learned that Nam Gon and Shim Jung became Vice State Councillor and Minister of Personnel, he finally realized that Jungjong's change of heart was final. Before drinking the poison, Jo wrote a poem declaring his loyalty, asked his people not to make coffin too heavy, and apologized to the owner and servant of the house for not paying his debt and instead showing them terrible sight and desecrating their house. He then bowed four times toward the north in the direction of palace. (It was customary to pay respect to the king in gratitude for granting poison, which was not an official method of execution and was considered more honorable form of death, instead of beheading or hanging.) When he drank poison, he did not die immediately and soldiers tried to strangle him. Jo rebuked them saying that the king intended to spare his neck by sending the poison and requested for another bowl of poison. He died at the age of 37. Later when there was a severe drought in the country, the populace blamed that it was heaven's punishment for killing an innocent seonbi. Many of remaining Sarim scholars left the central government in protest and retreated to rural provinces. Most of Jo's reforms were revoked with his fall. The Third Literati Purge of 1519 (기묘사화 己卯士禍) was widely viewed as a missed opportunity to reform Joseon Dynasty by later generations because Joseon politics soon degenerated into power struggle among in-laws and relatives of the royal family. A year after the purge, a histographer wrote that bribery and corruption became widespread in the court and local administrations. Later, purge victims were venerated as "Wise Men of Gimyo" (Gimyo is the Korean calendar name for year 1519) while three main instigators (Hong Kyung-ju, Nam Gon, and Shim Jung) were collectively called "Evil Three of Gimyo". Hong Kyung-ju died two years later of natural causes, but Shim Jung and Consort Kyung of Park clan were later executed on a framed charge of cursing the crown prince in a plot concocted by their rival Kim Anro (Kim Anro was killed by rival Yoon Won-hyung, who in turn was purged by King Myeongjong - Shim, Kim, and Yoon are all considered some of the most corrupt officials in Joseon dynasty). Nam Gon, who was reportedly deeply saddened at Jo's death, regretted his role in the purge and willed that all his writings be burnt, saying that he "deceived the world with vain name," so no writing of his remains except for one short poem although he was one of the most famous writers of his time. Nam Gon, initially of Sarim faction as a disciple of Kim Jong-jik, was a moderate supporter of reforms and supposedly sought Jo's friendship but was rebuffed by Jo and his supporters as a petty Hungu official. Ten years after the purge, King Jungjong again began to advance Sarim scholars by recalling them from exile and reappointing them to the royal court. Nevertheless, Jungjong did not rehabilitate Jo's name to the end despite endless petitions, saying at one time that what happened in 1519 was "neither right nor wrong." (There is speculation as to what Jungjong really believed about the leaf incident since Jungjong never accused Jo of disloyalty or anything but pure intentions after first few days of Jo's arrest. From very early on, Jungjong's official position has been that Jo intended well but caused a situation that could only be rectified with a purge.) Jo was finally rehabilitated by his son Injong of Joseon, and was posthumously honored as a chief state councillor by Seonjo of Joseon in 1568. Legacy Jo was greatly venerated by later generations of Korean neo-Confucianists as their spiritual head, but was also criticized for mistakes that led to the failure of his reforms. Yi Hwang and Yi I, often considered Joseon's two greatest Confucian philosophers, lamented that he entered politics too early before his scholarship was completed and pursued his reforms too rapidly. Nevertheless, Yi Hwang praised him as one of "Four Wise of the East" along with Kim Gwoeng-pil, Jeong Yeo-chang, and Yi Eonjeok and said that Jo showed the direction for all seonbis to aim and follow and unveiled the foundation of governing a country. Jo's emphasis on neo-Confucian ethics as practical philosophy has been very influential as the previous focus has been on more literary aspects of Confucianism. It was also during his time that Confucianism finally took roots deeply among the common populace. Even though Confucianism was the official state religion since the founding of Joseon Dynasty, Confucian practices were largely limited to aristocratic class. His dream of making neo-Confucianism the predominant philosophy of Joseon was soon accomplished by the reign of Seonjo, fifty years after his death. He was canonized and enshrined in the Seonggyungwan in 1610, one of only eighteen Korean Confucian scholars so honored by the Joseon Dynasty. However, Sarim faction that venerated Jo's name did not attempt to carry out his reforms when they seized political power during Seonjo's reign and all the while they maintained power until the end of Joseon dynasty. Some people blame Jo for dogmatism of Korean Neo-Confucianism, which became very conservative and caused Korea to resist changes and new learnings from abroad. Today his name remains a byword for reform in Korea, and his example is often raised when there is a controversy about a reform. In popular culture Jo was the protagonist of 1996 KBS TV series Jo and was a prominent character in 2001 SBS TV series Ladies of the Palace. In MBC TV series Dae Jang Geum (2003-4), he does not appear as a character, but his name is mentioned frequently (often as Jo Jung-ahm) as the political foe of fictitious villain Right Minister Oh. Main protagonist Jang-geum and Lady Han are falsely accused of being in conspiracy with Jo while male protagonist Min Jung-ho is portrayed as his supporter (Min Jung-ho found a doctor for him and is shown recruiting his followers to return to politics). In the musical version of Dae Jang Geum, Jo is a prominent character as a friend of Min Jung-ho. In KBS TV series Immortal Admiral Yi Sun-sin (2004-5), Yi Sun-shin's grandfather is described to have been executed for supporting Jo and Yi's father is arrested while holding a memorial rite at Jo's abandoned house. In 2006 KBS series Hwang Jini, the male protagonist Kim Jeong-han is portrayed as Jo's disciple while another character Lee Saeng become Hwang Jini's bodyguard after he leaves his father's home in disgust because his father is Jo Gwango-jo's friend but betrays him to become prime minister. See also List of Korean philosophers Neo-Confucianism Nam Gon Kim Jong-jik References Sources Neo-Confucian scholars 1482 births 1520 deaths 16th-century Korean poets Korean Confucianists 16th-century Korean philosophers Forced suicides People executed by poison
4887573	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V/Line%20VLocity	V/Line VLocity	The V/Line VLocity, sometimes called the VLocity 160, is a diesel multiple unit train built by Bombardier Transportation (later Alstom) in Dandenong for V/Line, the regional rail operator in the Australian state of Victoria. Continuously in production since 2003, the VLocity is the highest-speed train in the V/Line fleet, with a top speed of . As of August 2023 with set 109 entering service, 108 3-car sets are in revenue service, 2 collision damaged sets are in storage, and 8 more are under construction on the current order. History Design origins and testing To honour a commitment made when it was awarded the V/Line franchise, National Express requested tenders in early 2000 for 29 two-carriage diesel multiple units. The order, which coincided with the Regional Fast Rail project then being undertaken by the state government, was awarded to Adtranz's Dandenong rolling stock factory in mid-November with a value of . The contract was extended to 38 two-car units and an initial fifteen-year maintenance contract. By the time the first was delivered, the V/Line franchise had reverted to the state government, while Adtranz had been taken over by Bombardier Transportation. The design was an evolution of the Xplorer/Endeavour railcars. Although Bombardier originally intended to use the same body shell design as the Endeavour, difficulties with the aerodynamic drag characteristics of this shape for the intended operational speed of the VLocity led to a complete redesign of the train body. Ultimately, the VLocity was designed concurrently with the B series being developed for Transperth as an electric multiple unit, resulting in a number of shared design elements. The original plan was for the 29 sets to be fitted with 2+3 seating, for a total capacity of 173 passengers per two-carriage set. However, in February 2003, that was changed to 144 seats in a 2+2 formation. In 2003, it was announced that the units would be built in Bombardier's Dandenong factory, with the bogies to be constructed at Bombardier's Derby Litchurch Lane Works in England, and the control system to be supplied by Bombardier's plant in Västerås, Sweden. The first unit was completed in July 2004, and testing began shortly after. The trains were tested at for the first time on 17 September, when Premier Steve Bracks joined a test run along a route from Warragul to Moe. Safety improvements were suggested at various stages in the development of the VLocity and, following the Waterfall accident in New South Wales, in which a train derailed when travelling too fast around a curve, and the Cairns Tilt Train derailment in Queensland, which occurred in similar circumstances, the State Government announced in December 2004 that the Train Protection & Warning System (TPWS) would be installed on Regional Fast Rail lines and the VLocity trains. In August 2005, the State Government commissioned an investigation into the fitting of seat belts on the trains, although the concept was considered potentially expensive and technically challenging. Testing revealed noise levels were too high in the cabin, delaying the introduction of the trains into service while the completed sets were modified. Into service The VLocity was introduced into service on the Ballarat line on 22 December 2005, with Bracks and Transport Minister Peter Batchelor travelling on the inaugural service from Southern Cross station. An unveiling ceremony was held at Ballarat and the train returned as a regular service. Services on the Geelong and Bendigo lines followed on 3 February 2006 and 24 February 2006 respectively. Services to Traralgon and Seymour were introduced in September 2006. A timetable allowing the VLocity to operate at its design speed was introduced on 3 September, despite allegations by the State Opposition of ongoing issues with the TPWS. In addition, the Ararat and Echuca services are operated by VLocitys. From 2010, one Ballarat line service each day was extended to Maryborough. In 2005, the VLocity received an Australian Design Award, the first rail vehicle to do so, as well as an accolade from Engineers Australia. On 10 November 2008, seven-carriage-long VLocity trains (2x 2 carriage + 1x 3 carriage sets) commenced regular operation on peak-hour Geelong line services. Previously, the longest trains were six carriages (3x 2 carriage sets). With the introduction of fixed 3 carriage sets it was no longer possible to run 7 carriage trains but as of June 2022 limited 9 carriage trains run to Wyndham Vale in peak times Additions to the fleet After the initial order of 38 units, a further two VLocity units were later ordered to bring the total to 40, along with 22 new intermediate trailers to be inserted in the middle of existing VLocity sets. The first 14 were promised during the 2006 State Election, and the order was placed in December the same year. The order for the next eight was announced on 12 October 2007. In July 2008, the State Government ordered nine new three-car units, and an additional intermediate car to be inserted into an existing two-car unit, with an extra four carriages added in February 2009. The final unit of the order was delivered in September 2011. With the availability of improved technologies for train control, from mid-2012, sets 3VL30, 3VL40 and 3VL50 were selected by Bombardier as test sets for equipment upgrades, in order to minimise the number of sets containing non-standard systems. In November 2012, the State Government announced an additional 40 carriages will be delivered between 2014 and 2016. The order comprised seven additional 3-car sets plus 19 intermediate cars to increase the remaining 2-car sets to 3-cars. In March 2014, the order for 40 carriages was increased to 43. Further orders were placed for 21 carriages In May 2015 and 27 carriages in April 2016. All 2 carriage VLocity sets had been converted to 3 carriage sets by May 2018. In December 2017, a further nine sets were ordered. Once all have been delivered, the fleet will comprise 88 3-car sets. Of these, sets 76-79 will be of a modified configuration, with a single toilet per three-carriage set instead of two, improvements to CCTV, downrating of the engines to each for fuel economy and altered standing and seating arrangements. Sets from 80 to 88 will revert to two toilets with modified seating and a different front to accommodate a safer driving cabin. As of 6 November 2020 units 80-88 have entered revenue service. After jockey Michelle Payne won the 2015 Melbourne Cup horse race riding Prince of Penzance, becoming the first female jockey to win the race, set 3VL9 was named Michelle Payne in honour of her regional Victorian ancestry. The set was the first VLocity to be named and the first V/Line train to be named since the Sprinters in the late 20th century. In the 2018 Victorian state election campaign, the Andrews government promised that, if re-elected, it would place an order for 18 additional three-car VLocity sets to be delivered from 2021. In the 2022 Victorian state election campaign, the Andrews government promised that, if re-elected, it would place an order for an additional 23 three-car VLocity sets, as part of a promise to boost regional weekend services. The government also committed to introducing nine-car VLocity trains to service the Melton railway line in Melbourne's west. Wheel wear restrictions In January 2016, V/Line removed approximately a quarter of VLocity units from service after identifying unusually high rates of wear to wheel flanges. Compared to a normal rate of , Bombardier's service regime noted a maximum wear rate of . Although unusual wear patterns had been observed since December of the previous year across the V/Line fleet, V/Line CEO Theo Taifalos ordered the withdrawal of the most badly affected units for safety reasons. Meanwhile, on 15 January 2016 a VLocity set failed to activate boom gates at the Progress Street level crossing in Dandenong. This led Metro Trains to ban all sets from operating on suburban lines until the issue had been resolved. The combined restrictions on the VLocity fleet led to the daily cancellation of nearly 70 V/Line services from mid-January. By the beginning of March, Bombardier had increased its capacity to remachine affected wheels, and track identified as potentially contributing to the wheel wear situation had been reprofiled; as a consequence, VLocity units were gradually returned to service. In April, a report by the Institute of Railway Technology at Monash University identified tight curves and an inadequate track lubrication on the newly opened Regional Rail Link, particularly along the North Melbourne Flyover near North Melbourne Station, which was upgraded as part of the project as a means of allowing V/Line services to access Platforms 1-8 at Southern Cross without needing to use Metropolitan tracks, as the root cause of the increase in wheel wear, and suggested that the relatively stiff suspension of the VLocity was the reason it had been most severely affected. Design evolution The New Generation Rollingstock ordered for Queensland Rail from Bombardier, although built in India, are based on the VLocity design and the 4000 class EMU used by Adelaide Metro, which was itself based on the VLocity shell. The Transperth B Series Train is closely related to the VLocity as both were designed at the same time by the same company. A 2016 asset management report presented by V/Line noted that the VLocity would be unsuitable for higher passenger loads without a complete body redesign, and acknowledged that the operational performance of the VLocity was hampered by the inferior acceleration of V/Line's locomotive-hauled fleet. The 2016–17 Victorian budget allocated funds for a project to redesign the VLocity for long-haul services, particularly those to Shepparton, Warrnambool and Albury/Wodonga. By late 2017, design work had begun on modifications to the interior for Many of the changes were required for improved compliance with the Disability Discrimination Act. For the later order of 3VL80 and above, more significant alterations to the crash protection in the driver's cabin were introduced. In October 2018, the state government announced that a new interior layout would be introduced on units 3VR76-3VR79 and 3VL80-3VL88 with 14 extra seats per three-carriage set, at the expense of removing a toilet and bike storage rack from each set. Cycling lobby groups criticised the new layout, but the government argued that the sets would be restricted to short-distance routes where the additional capacity would be valuable. The first of the updated type entered service in August 2019. As at February 2023 the current confirmed orders for new sets will bring the total to 118. Introduction to long-distance service In the lead up to the 2018 Victorian election, opposition leader Matthew Guy announced that his party, if elected to government, would order 16 6-car VLocity variants from Bombardier for dedicated long-distance operation, with catering and first class facilities. From May 2018, improvements to level crossing infrastructure saw VLocity test runs to Bairnsdale, ahead of an introduction to revenue service on the line later in the year. At the same time, government representatives announced that the long-haul variant of the VLocity would include onboard refreshment facilities and improved seats. A media event was held at Bairnsdale in July of that year, at which it was announced that 2 of 3 daily Bairnsdale trains would be taken over by VLocity sets. In May 2018, the Rail Tram and Bus Union (RTBU) announced that it had received confirmation that a buffet facility would be included in new intermediate carriages, added to existing sets to form 4-car trains for long-distance services. In April 2020, designs for standard gauge VLocity sets, to be used on the Albury line, were released by the Department of Transport showing a standard 3 carriage layout with a centre trailer carriage kiosk. Standard gauge sets VS93 and VS94 entered service on 30 December 2021 on the Albury line. As at June 2022 there is six 3 carriage standard gauge sets in service numbered VS93-98. Design Technical There are four car types in the VLocity class: The Driver Motor with Disabled Access cars, numbered 11xx & 21xx and designated DM(D) and; The Driver Motor cars, numbered 12xx & 22xx and designated DM with either; The standard Trailer Motor cars, numbered 13xx & 23xx and designated TM or; The Kiosk fitted Trailer Motor cars, numbered 15xx and designated TMC. It is usual for the set of semi-permanently coupled cars to be described as zVLxx where z indicates the number of carriages in the fixed set while xx is the final two digits of the car designation – for example, the set 1150-1350-1250 would be described as 3VL50 while standard gauge sets use the VSxx format., the 2VL designation has not been used since May 2018 when the last remaining 2 carriage VLocity Set was converted to 3 carriages. Together, a permanently coupled three-car unit has a mass of 171 tonnes. With the introduction of set 100 onward the VL designation will continue as VL100 and so on however set 100 onward use 2xxx carriage numbering, for example set VL101 consists of 2101-2301-2201 Power is provided by a Cummins QSK 19R diesel engine () in each car, attached on a separate underframe. The engine powers both axles on one bogie in each car, while the other bogie is unpowered. The engine is supplemented by an Cummins auxiliary power unit for lighting and air-conditioning purposes. The VLocity uses a Voith T312 hydraulic transmission system with dynamic braking capabilities. According to Cummins, as a result of that propulsion system the VLocity is the most reliable diesel railcar in the world, with a mean distance between failures (MDBF) of . V/Line reported a MDBF of in the 2016–17 financial year. The primary suspension system of the VLocity is composed of a traction rod, with two elastomer bushes, linking the axle box and bogie frame. Among the design innovations in the VLocity units are the integration of the air-conditioning unit into the ceiling superstructure, and a structurally isolated crumple zone in the nose which can be entirely replaced with a new module following a crash. VLocity units use Scharfenberg couplers, enabling them to operate with other VLocity units. VLocitys operate throughout the V/Line broad gauge passenger network and also on the ARTC controlled standard gauge line to Albury (NSW), as with most other V/Line services. The bogies were manufactured by Bombardier's Derby Litchurch Lane Works, and are fully gauge-convertible. The VLocity units have a design life of 35 years. Interior The driver's console for the VLocity is a dashboard mounted slightly below the one-piece front windscreen of the train. There are two seats in the driving cabin; the active driver's seat is positioned slightly to the left of the train's centre, with the second seat slightly behind. The train is controlled by a combined throttle and brake lever, which has six power levels and the ability to vary the brake application. There is also an independent brake lever and a reverser handle in the driver's primary controls. When the trailer cars were added to the existing 2 carriage sets the driver cabs were retro fitted with the extra gauges to monitor the trailer unit driveline. The seating layout for the VLocity is 2+2, with a mix of club-style seats facing each other, and aircraft-style rows. The seats cannot be rotated to face any particular direction, and seat backs do not recline. Four wheelchair spaces are provided in each set through the provision of tip-up seats. The VLocity offers economy-class seating only, although the seat width is equivalent to first class seating on V/Line locomotive-hauled services. In response to passenger feedback, the seatback angle in the intermediate carriages was made 2.5 degrees more upright than the original carriages. New deliveries from July 2010 onwards (3VL42 and above) featured a changed seatback angle and new seat fabrics. While VLocity carriages have tinted windows, they lack the curtains as provided by older V/Line rolling stock. Passengers may move freely between the three semi-permanently coupled vehicles in a set, but not between the sets themselves. Conductors move between coupled sets at station stops. Tables were installed in one unit (2VL28) for evaluation purposes, but were later removed. In three-car VLocity units, 32 seats in the intermediate carriage have fold-down tray tables, much like the first class seats on locomotive-hauled services. Overhead racks exist for small baggage, while larger baggage is stored in designated baggage areas, with some spaces large enough for surfboards and bicycles. In January 2008, passengers were banned from taking bicycles on VLocity trains during peak hours, despite the designated bike area, with the ban repealed in February 2008. The standard gauge long distance sets have kiosk style catering. The all metal construction and metalised window tinting of the VLocity trains is an effective (measured at 20dB) blocker of all forms of radio communications into and out of the carriages including Mobile phone signals preventing passengers from making reliable calls or utilising data devices. To overcome this in an Australian first a joint venture between Telstra, V/Line, VicTrack, Alstom and CommScope to retrofit specially designed 3G/4G Mobile Phone Repeater units into all existing VLocity sets in 2018 was created, this included the installation of repeater units in all new VLocity sets built after the joint venture commencement date. The Node AM repeater is manufactured by CommScope and is designed to rebroadcast the main 3G & 4G frequency spectrum utilised by the three Mobiles Phone network providers, Telstra, Optus and TPG Telecom (Vodafone Australia) in Australia. The program included state government funding for 35 additional Mobile base stations to fix coverage Black Spots for the three networks that the innternal repeaters could not overcome. Livery The original VLocity livery consisted of purple and green facings on a stainless steel car body. In March 2008, newly built VLocity set 3VL41 was outshopped with an altered cab livery following recommendations in recent level crossing accident reports to make trains more visible to motorists. Portions of reflective yellow were added to the cabs, along with more reflective silver directly beneath the cab windscreen. All units were retrospectively treated. In June 2010, newly built set 3VL42 was released in a new livery of crimson stripe at roof level replacing the purple, and red replacing the green, a red stripe along the car body below the windows, white doors, and yellow front. The set also received high-intensity discharge (HID) headlights which project light for up to , modified windscreen wipers and cab windows. In 2014, 3VL40 had a new Public Transport Victoria livery applied. All sets from 3VL52 were delivered in this purple livery. Reception and impact The VLocity seating layout is 2+2 instead of the 2+3 seating provided in other V/Line saloon-type carriages. A single VLocity car seats around 70 passengers, compared to 89 in the previous generation Sprinter with its narrower 2+3 seats. The Regional Fast Rail project for which the VLocitys were built was criticised for cost blow-outs during construction. These included the cost of installing extra safety measures deemed necessary for 160 km/h operation, which were added to the project after the Waterfall rail accident in New South Wales. By 2012, the VLocity trains and attendant decreases in travel time were regarded as major factors in the economic revival of towns along V/Line routes. The combined effect of the trains' comfort, speed and reliability was noted to have enabled the creation of new commuter belt locations outside of Melbourne, and the increases in train frequency which followed the introduction of the VLocity sets was said to have substantially improved the convenience of accessing Melbourne from the Bendigo, Ballarat and Geelong regions. A 2014 report by the federal government's Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development found that the VLocity trains had contributed to the overall success of the Regional Fast Rail project in increasing the accessibility of rail services for regional Victoria. The case study concluded that the improved ride quality of the trains was a significant contributor to improved passenger perceptions of rail services, and that the increased service frequency made possible by the trains was ultimately more beneficial from an operational perspective than any real or perceived time savings. Accidents and incidents On 28 April 2006, set 2VL29 was involved in a collision at a level crossing at Trawalla while travelling from Ararat. It collided with a large triaxle road trailer carrying a 16-tonne block of stone and two heavy press machines. The front of the train withstood the impact with the trailer, but the press machines were thrown loose, striking and penetrating the cab. The incident caused two fatalities. At the time of the impact, three people were in the cab: the driver, who was seriously injured, and two off-duty Pacific National drivers, one of whom was injured, and the other killed. As the train continued through the crossing, the rear trailer swung around and the stone block was thrown off, striking and partially penetrating the side of the leading car 1129, killing one passenger and injuring forty others. The unit had been in service for seven days before the accident. After the accident, both cars were taken to Newport Workshops for examination. Carriage 1129 suffered the most damage and was written off. Carriage 1229, having received relatively minor damage, was sent to Bombardier, Dandenong for repairs. It was later renumbered 1241 and marshalled together with new cars 1141 and 1341. On 5 May 2006, VLocity set 2VL4 travelling on the 09:38 service from Southern Cross to Ararat collided with a car at the protected Rockbank level crossing near Melton. Thirty train passengers and the driver of the car were taken to hospital. During a passenger service to Bendigo on 26 February 2010, the driver of sets 2VL6, 2VL5 and 2VL17, at the time three two-car sets coupled in that order, was alerted to the smell of smoke in the leading car of 2VL5. The train stopped at Watergardens, where the driver and a relief driver also on board the train discovered a fire in the park brake system of 2VL5, which they were able to extinguish quickly. 2VL6 was decoupled and continued to Bendigo without incident. An investigation found that the park brake had either not been released on departure or had been inadvertently activated by the relief driver, who was travelling in the empty cab of the 2VL5 lead car. On 22 August 2014, a Metro Trains Comeng train, which had departed Laverton en route to Flinders Street, stopped after the driver noticed a loud noise and an apparent fault in his train's braking system. VLocity set 2VL5, which was being transferred from Geelong to Southern Cross without passengers, passed a red automatic signal without adhering to safe procedures for that situation, and the driver was unable to stop before colliding with the stationary Metro train. The driver of the VLocity and 8 passengers on the Metro train sustained minor injuries. An investigation by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau found that the driver of the VLocity, travelling too fast for the situation, was distracted and failed to notice the inadequate rear marker lights of the Metro train. On 15 February 2017, VLocity set 3VL34 collided with a vehicle that had been abandoned on the line near and was derailed. Two people were injured. 30 May 2020 3VL70 failed to stop due to a braking issue at the Ballarat station and collided with the historic Lydiard St swing gate level crossing at 93km/h finally stopping some 600m past its intended stopping point. 14 July 2022 3VL35, on a scheduled Echuca - Southern Cross service, collided with a semi trailer on an uncontrolled level crossing near Goornong (30km NE of Bendigo), none of the train's 40 passengers were injured, but both the train and truck driver were transported to hospital. VL35 has since been repaired and returned to revenue service. Operations Technically, a maximum of four three car VLocity sets may be coupled together for operation as a single consist. Between 2008 and 2016, seven-car VLocity trains operated on the Geelong line, made up of two two-car sets and a three-car set. However, following the conversion of the entire VLocity fleet to three-car sets, all trains have operated as three or six cars. From 30 May 2022, nine-car VLocity trains started operating between Wyndham Vale and Southern Cross during peak hours. The VLocity is authorised to run in revenue service: on the North East line from Melbourne to Seymour, Shepparton, and on standard gauge to Albury on the Gippsland line from Melbourne to Traralgon and Bairnsdale on the Bendigo line from Melbourne to Bendigo, and then to Eaglehawk on the Swan Hill line and Echuca on the Echuca line on the Warrnambool line from Melbourne to Waurn Ponds on the Serviceton line to Ballarat and then to Ararat, and from Ballarat to Maryborough on the Mildura line. VLocity trains are permitted to run up to only on lines where all level crossings are protected by boom gates and lights and track upgrades have been completed. However, services to Echuca and Ararat (past Wendouree) run on lines that do not meet these standards, and as a result, cannot reach their full speed. The Echuca line is currently undergoing works to allow trains to reach . In 2017, the State Government announced upgrade works to extend VLocity services to Warrnambool, Albury and Bairnsdale, and in 2019 announced upgrades to allow them to run to Shepparton. A V/Locity simulator is used by V/Line for driver training. The simulator replicates the driving cabin of the V/Locity and includes forward vision and rear mirror graphics and audio effects. An instructor positioned outside the simulator can control track conditions and replicate some faults with the train itself. With the completion of the new Avon River Bridge at Stratford and various line upgrade works V/Locity services commenced to Bairnsdale in July 2018. On 21 June 2020, a 9-car train, consisting of sets 3VL7, 3VL63 and 3VL23, undertook a test run from Southern Cross to Wyndham Vale to test 9-car operation and platform fit at several stations. As of June 2022 there is now 9 carriage services from Wyndham Vale and Southern Cross in peak periods. Standard gauge V/Locity services on the Albury line began on 30 December 2021, while V/Locity services to Shepparton began revenue services from 31 October 2022. Notes Explanatory notes Citations References Bombardier Transportation multiple units Diesel multiple units of Victoria (state) Alstom multiple units
4888396	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl%20W.%20Bascom	Earl W. Bascom	Earl Wesley Bascom (June 19, 1906 – August 28, 1995) was an American painter, printmaker, sculptor, cowboy, rodeo performer, inventor, and Hollywood actor. Raised in Canada, he portrayed in works of fine art his own experiences of cowboying and rodeoing across the American and Canadian West. Bascom was awarded the Pioneer Award by the ProRodeo Hall of Fame in 2016 and inducted into several halls of fame including the Canadian Pro Rodeo Hall of Fame in 1984. Bascom was called the "Cowboy of Cowboy Artists," the "Dean of Rodeo Cowboy Sculpture" and the "Father of Modern Rodeo." He was a participant member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Childhood Bascom was born on June 19, 1906, in a sod-roofed log cabin on the Bascom 101 Ranch in Vernal, Utah, United States, the son of rancher and lawman John W. Bascom and Rachel Lybbert. His father had been a Uintah County deputy sheriff and later a constable in the town of Naples in northeast Utah, who chased members of Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch Gang and other outlaws including Harry "Mad Dog" Tracy. Both of his grandfathers, Joel A. Bascom and C. F. B. Lybbert, were Mormon pioneers, frontier lawmen and ranchers. Joel Bascom was a member of the Nauvoo Legion (the Utah militia), serving in the Utah War of 1857 and the Utah Black Hawk War of 1865. He also served as Chief of Police in Provo, Utah, and as the first constable in Mona, Utah. Lybbert, who served in the Danish army before coming to America, was a blacksmith who served as constable of Levan, Utah and as Justice of the Peace in Naples, Utah. Members of Earl's family include his grand uncle Ephraim Roberts who was a pony express rider, and grand uncle William Lance who was a soldier in the Mormon Battalion – Army of the West 1846–1848. Another Bascom relative was Wyoming rancher and Wyoming Governor Bryant Brooks who served from 1905 to 1911. Also the Army Lieutenant George Bascom who arrested Apache Chieftain Cochise in 1861 which started the Apache Wars. Three famous mountain men, Jedediah Smith, Doc Newell, and J. T. Warner, were related to Bascom. Bascom's paternal ancestors were French Basque and Huguenot. Bascom's maternal family was of Norwegian, Danish, Dutch, and German ancestry. In 1912, when Earl Bascom was six years old, his mother Rachel died of breast cancer, leaving five children – Raymond, Melvin, Earl, Alice, and Weldon – ranging in age from 11 years to nine months. In 1913, Earl's father, who had cowboyed in Utah and Colorado and worked on ranches in Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana, went to Alberta, Canada, securing a job as a foreman on the Knight Ranch. In 1914, the Bascom family loaded their belongings into a covered wagon, traveled a week to the nearest railroad in Price, Utah, and rode the train to Canada. After working for the Knight Ranches headquartered on the Milk River Ridge in Alberta and managing Ray Knight's Butte Ranch north of the town of Raymond, Alberta, John W. Bascom and his sons began ranching on their own using the Bar-B-3 brand. Over the following years, the Bascom family lived at Welling Station and ranched along Pot Hole Creek, ran cattle on the open range at New Dayton on the Fort Whoop-up Trail near Deadman Coulee, and Milk River Ridge, and ranched east of Lethbridge on the Old Man River and near Stirling east of Nine Mile Lake. By Canadian law, all minor children who immigrated to Canada before 1915 and whose parent became a naturalized citizens, automatically became Canadian citizens. Earl Bascom's father became a naturalized Canadian citizen. Earl Bascom was an American Canadian. During the winter of 1916, the Bascom family moved back to Naples, Utah, returning to Canada in the spring of 1917. Schooled mostly in one-room schools, Bascom quit school while in grade three to work on the Hyssop 5H Ranch, east of Lethbridge. It was not long before a Canadian Mountie, who was visiting the Hyssop Ranch, thought that one of the cowboys was just too young looking to be a seasoned cowpuncher and bronc peeler. The Mountie asked Earl Bascom just how old he was – he was 13 years old. Earl was returned to school. Attending school felt better after Earl's father, who had a school district transportation contract, gave him the job of driving an old stagecoach pulled by a team of Bascom horses each day to the surrounding ranches transporting fellow students to and from school. In 1918, Bascom gained a stepmother and a stepbrother, Frank, when his father married Ada Romeril Dawley. The couple had five children, making a total of eleven children in the Bascom family. Charles was a member of the Royal Canadian Air Force, who died a hero during the war having saved two fellow soldiers before losing his own life. Cowboy career Bascom was known as the Cowboy of Cowboy Artists due to his wide range of western experiences as a professional bronc buster, bull rider, cowpuncher, trail driver, blacksmith, freighter, wolf hunter, wild horse chaser, rodeo champion, cattle rancher, dude wrangler, and Hollywood actor. Bascom was among the last of those who experienced the Old West before the end of free-range ranching. Bascom reminisced: For Bascom, ranch life and cowboy life was his life. "The life of a cowboy and the West, I know," he stated. Bascom worked on some of the largest horse and cattle ranches in the United States and Canada – ranches that ran thousands of cattle on a million acres (4000 km2) of land. He broke and trained hundreds of horses. He worked on ranches where he chased and gathered horses, cows and even donkeys in Utah, Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Wyoming, Montana, Texas, Mississippi, Washington, California and western Canada. He worked on cattle drives out of the Rockies and horse drives through the Teton Range. He took part on large roundups of horses and cattle, and brandings. He made saddles and stirrups, quirts, chaps, spurs, bridles and bits, ropes and hackamores, and even patched his own boots. Earl's brothers and their father, John W. Bascom, were all experienced ranch hands and professional horsemen who were known as the "Bronc Bustin' Bascom Boys." A professional rodeo cowboy, Bascom followed the rodeo circuit internationally, rodeoing from 1916 to 1940, where he won several all-around championships. He competed in the rough stock events of saddle bronc riding, bareback riding and bull riding, and in the timed events of steer decorating and steer wrestling. In 1933, he set a new arena record, a new world record time and won third place in the world standings in the steer decorating event. He also was a rodeo announcer, performed trick riding and competed in the rodeo events of wild cow milking and wild horse racing. Bascom has been inducted into several rodeo, cowboy and sports Halls of Fame in Canada and the United States. He received international publicity for his rodeo equipment inventions and designs. Earl's brothers – Raymond "Tommy" Bascom, Melvin "High Pockets" Bascom and Weldon "Preacher" Bascom, along with their father John W. Bascom – were also professional rodeo cowboys and Hall of Fame inductees. Rodeoing financed Earl Bascom's college education at Brigham Young University where he was given the title of "Rodeo's First Collegiate Cowboy" and from which institution he graduated in 1940. Bascom has been honored as the "Father of Modern Rodeo" and known as "rodeo's greatest innovator and inventor." He is known in rodeo history for designing and making rodeo's modern bucking chute in 1916 and modified in 1919. He also made rodeo's first hornless bronc saddle in 1922 and rodeo's first one-hand bareback rigging in 1924, for which he has been called the "Father of the Modern-day Bareback Rigging" and the "Father of Rodeo Bareback Riding." In 1926, he designed and made the modern rodeo riding chaps, and then in 1928, a rodeo exerciser made of spring steel. Bascom has been recognized by rodeo associations around the world for his rodeo inventions. During his college years, Earl and his brother Weldon produced the first rodeos in Columbia, Mississippi, in 1935, 1936, and 1937 while working for Sam Hickman's B Bar H Ranch near Arm, Mississippi. This first rodeo in Columbia is known in cowboy history as the first rodeo held outdoors at night under electric lights. In March 2019 as part of the 200th year celebration of Columbia's birth, an official Mississippi State Historical Marker was erected and dedicated, honoring the "Birthplace of Mississippi Rodeo." In 1936, under the direction of Earl Bascom, using his designs, a new rodeo arena was built which was the first permanent rodeo arena constructed in Mississippi. The bucking horses used in the rodeo were shipped in from West Texas. Sam Hickman and Earl Bascom went to New Orleans where they purchased brahma bulls for the rodeo bucking stock. This was the first recorded use of brahma bulls in rodeo. Sam Hickman financed these rodeos through his Wild West Rodeo Company. Between rodeos of 1936 and 1937, Earl was a missionary for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Mississippi, serving under Mission President LeGrand Richards of the Southern States Mission. The Bascom brothers were honored fifty years later for being the "Fathers of Mississippi Rodeo" and given the "Key to the City of Columbia," along with a congratulatory telegram from President Ronald Reagan. In 2016, Earl Bascom and his brother Weldon were officially recognized by the ProRodeo Hall of Fame as the "Fathers of Brahma Bull Riding." In 1939, Bascom married Nadine Diffey. She was of American Indian heritage, being a descendant of Pocahantas' sister. Her ancestors include Chief Powhatan of the Pamunkey Tribe, Chief Long Knife of the Mohawks, Chief Mattabesetts of the Montauketts, and Chief Tatobem of the Pequots. She also descends from the Croatan, Creek, and Catawba tribes. Earl and Nadine met in Mississippi while he was cowboying and rodeoing there. They were married in Salt Lake City, Utah, in the Salt Lake LDS Temple, and raised five children. Nadine Bascom was an artist of floral arrangement, painting and sculpture, creating many bas-relief sculptures. Besides being a professional rodeo contestant, Bascom tried his hand as a rodeo clown and rodeo bullfighter during his rodeo career. Just after his 89th birthday, Earl was honored as the oldest living rodeo clown in the world. At the age of 88, Bascom helped roundup longhorn steers on the Shahan Ranch in west Texas and received honors for his art during the 1994 Texas Longhorn Quincentennial Cattle Drive and Celebration. Bascom's bronze sculpture The American Longhorn, 1494–1994 was declared the most authentic example of a classical Texas longhorn steer. In 2014, Bascom was honored posthumously during the tenth anniversary celebration of the National Day of the Cowboy, for his international contributions to cowboy culture and the cowboy way of life. Artist Influences While working for the Nilsson Rafter-E-N Ranch, Bascom happened to read a story in a western magazine about Native American Jim Thorpe, who had excelled in sports and became an Olympic champion. Thorpe's life touched Bascom: "I felt like I had walked in his boots," Earl said. "Like Jim Thorpe, cowboy life was the only life that I knew. But what about my art, what about art school?" Wanting to be an artist since childhood, Bascom filled the pages of his school books in the one-room school house he attended with cowboy scenes. His desire to be a cowboy artist was greatly enhanced after seeing art works of the two great icons of Old West art, Charles M. Russell and Frederic S. Remington - both cousins to his father, John W. Bascom (Remington and Russell were both related to Bascom through their mothers, Clarissa "Clara" Bascom Sackrider Remington and Mary Elizabeth Mead Russell, respectively). Both Remington and Russell were artists that spent time in Canada producing art. In the late 1920s, Earl worked on a ranch south of the Sweetgrass Hills in Montana that was once owned by the artist Charlie Russell and only a few months after Russell's death. Russell was on the Knight Ranch when Bascom was working there, and had drawn a sketch on the bunkhouse wall and also finished a large oil painting of Raymond Knight on his favorite mount, Blue Bird, roping a steer. Although Bascom was educated in one-room school houses and only completed one full school year, never finishing high school, he never lost his desire to be an artist. He subscribed to a correspondence art course wherein both Russell and Remington gave instructions on their drawing techniques. "Through those art lessons these two masters of western art were my first real art teachers," Bascom recalled. "In fact the only instructions I ever had in western art were from Remington and Russell." Even though he had no high school diploma, the Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah, accepted him as a student in the fall of 1933. "There I was a 27 years old college freshman who hadn't been to school in years," Bascom recalled. "I felt like a wild horse in a pen." But as a BYU student, he was persistence, taking every art course the college offered. He studied painting and drawing under professors E.H. Eastmond and B.F. Larsen, and sculpture under Torleif S. Knaphus. In the summertime between school years, Bascom was a rodeo contestant where he gained notoriety as a cowboy artist and rodeo champion. He interrupted his college education in 1934 with the intent to compete, along with his three brothers, at the World Championship Rodeo in London, England. During his freshman year of 1933–34, Bascom won the Studio Guild Award for the best student art work of the year. He won that top art award again in 1936, as well as the Honorable Mention Award. He was a member of the BYU Art Club and the Canada Club as well as the Delta Phi fraternity. He was a popular entertainer with his cartoon drawings at the University Dames Club of which his wife Nadine was a member. He graduated from BYU with a degree in Fine Art in 1940. His fellow art students voted him "most likely to succeed" as an artist. He was a member of the Brigham Young University Alumni Association and elected to the BYU Emeritus Club in 1990. Later he attended classes at Long Beach City College, Victor Valley College, and the University of California Riverside. Employment In 1917, Bascom saw his first Hollywood movie The Silent Man starring William S. Hart. Earl and his older brother Melvin were extras in a silent movie in 1920 being filmed in Lethbridge, Alberta. In 1924, a team of palomino horses from the Bascom Ranch was used by Hoot Gibson in a Roman race in the movie The Calgary Stampede. Earl later worked in the movie industry with his brother Weldon Bascom in the 1954 Hollywood western, The Lawless Rider, starring Weldon's wife Texas Rose Bascom. Earl was one of the outlaws in the movie. Weldon was the sheriff and one of the stuntmen. After graduating from college, Bascom and his wife moved to Southgate, California. Retiring from rodeo after one last season, he pursued his art career and ranched. Earl Bascom and his brother Weldon Bascom worked on a ranch in Perris, California, which was formerly owned by Louis B. Mayer of Hollywood's MGM Studios. Earl worked on the Rex Ellsworth Ranch in Chino, California. Earl was a distant cousin on the Bascom side to Mitch Tenney who was Ellsworth's horse trainer. Earl worked on Al Hamblin's Flying V Ranch in the Beaumont area. Earl had his own cattle ranch in Ontario in San Bernardino Valley using the Two Bar Quarter Circle brand, before moving to the high desert, living in Hesperia, Apple Valley and Victorville. His Diamond B Ranch on the Mojave River had buildings dating from the 1870s and was once the temporary residence of Albert Einstein in the mid 1930s. During World War II, Bascom was a member of the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship Builders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers union and worked as a shipfitter in the Long Beach shipyards building ships for the war effort. Later, Earl Bascom and his son-in-law Mel Marion worked with Roy Rogers being filmed for TV commercials for the Roy Rogers Restaurant chain. The restaurant chain was then owned by the Marriott Corporation. When the Roy Rogers Riding Stables operated in Apple Valley, California, managed by Mel Marion and later Billy Bascom, Earl and his son John worked there wrangling horses and driving the hay wagon. Earl and his son John were in the television documentary Take Willy With Ya, a tribute to the life of rodeo champion Turk Greenough and his rodeo riding siblings and family members. In 1966, after getting his teaching certificate from Brigham Young University and teaching art classes as a student teacher at the Springville (Utah) High School held in the Springville Art Museum, Bascom taught high school art classes in Barstow, California, at John F. Kennedy High School and at Barstow High School. He also served as president of the High Desert Artists (now Artists of the High Desert), and later as president of the Buckaroo Artists of America. With his classic cowboy look and dressed in his authentic cowboy attire, he was a popular art studio model. Other artists who associated with Bascom were Bill Bender, Charles LaMonk, Leslie B. DeMille, Glen Turner, Cecil Smith, Trevor Bennett, Ray Bennett, Hughes Curtis, Pete Plastow, and Grant Speed. Earl Bascom was a published historian with his writings on cowboy and rodeo history printed in books, magazines and newspapers. He was a member of the Western Writers of America association. His first-known published writing was in 1926 for the Cardston newspaper, narrating a week-long trek into the Canadian Rocky Mountains that he and his friends took on horseback and pack horse. He was interviewed on radio and television. He was a popular lecturer on pioneer and cowboy history at schools and other academic centers. Earl also assisted his nephew Billy Bascom in teaching horsemanship, as well as cowboy and rodeo history at the Victor Valley College in Victorville, California. Earl Bascom was later inducted into the Victor Valley College Alumni Hall of Fame having taken art classes at the college when it first opened. International artist Bascom became internationally known as a cowboy artist and sculptor with his art being exhibited in the United States, Canada, Europe, and Asia. Bascom rounded-up horses in the Sweetgrass Hills area of Montana along Kicking Horse Creek in the late 1920s. The Montana Historical Society Museum in Helena exhibited Bascom's cowboy gear and his art work, along with Charlie Russell's art work, in two exhibits titled "Riders Under the Big Sky" and "The Horse in Art." In 1994, Bascom was commissioned by the Texas Longhorn Quincentennial Celebration Committee to produce his sculpture of what was deemed "the most authentic example of a classical Texas longhorn steer." He was honored by the Professional Rodeo Cowboy Artists Association as the first rodeo cowboy to become a professional cowboy artist and sculptor. He was the first cowboy artist to be honored as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts of London since the society's beginning in 1754. In the summer of 2005, the week-long Earl W. Bascom Memorial Rodeo was held in Berlin, Germany, during the German-American Heritage Celebration where his cowboy art was exhibited as an honor by the European Rodeo Cowboys Association for Bascom's worldwide influence upon the sport of rodeo. "It was an honor to memorialize Earl Bascom," said Steve Witt, vice-president of European Rodeo Cowboy Association. "The rodeo equipment he designed back in 1920s has had an influence on rodeo worldwide." Equestrian historian Kathy Young said, "Earl Bascom was noted for bridging two worlds, that of rodeo competition and western art." On July 24, 2014, Bascom was made the international honoree of the National Day of the Cowboy and given the "Cowboy Keeper" award. In June 2015, Bascom was inducted into Canada's Sports Hall of Fame, as the first rodeo champion ever honored and given Canada's highest sports honor as a "Canadian Sports Legend." "As a Canadian rodeo athlete and cowboy artist, Earl Bascom is a national treasure," stated Helena Deng, senior curator of Canada's Sports Hall of Fame. "Bascom's incredible achievements are now to be shared with all Canadians in perpetuity," said Mario Siciliano, president of Canada's Sports Hall of Fame, "inspiring generations of Canadians in sports and in life." In 2017, Canada's Sports Hall of Fame had an exhibit titled "The Horse in Sports" which included Bascom's cowboy gear and his cowboy art. Bascom's bucking chute is listed among famous moments in sports for the year of 1919 by sports history writer Marc Bona. The 2021 video documentary "The Last Buckaroo" featured Bascom, his cowboy history and art. Bascom is featured in the award-winning book Why Cows Need Cowboys. Bascom said of his own art work, "I've tried to portray the West as I knew it - rough and rugged and tough as a boot but with a good heart and honest as the day is long." Death Bascom died on August 28, 1995, on his ranch in Victorville, California. Tribute statements The U.S. House of Representatives honored Earl Bascom as an "American Hero" in 1985 and gave tribute honor in the Congressional Record in 1995. United States Congressman, the Honorable Jerry Lewis, said in 1995 in "A Tribute to Earl Wesley Bascom" as printed in the Congressional Record, that Earl Bascom was a "cowboy hero and a true inspiration...(who) lived one of the most interesting lives ever known in modern cowboy history." Bascom was listed in Who's Who in American Art, Who's Who in Western Writers of America, Who's Who in the West, Who's Who in California, Who's Who in America and Who's Who in the World. Paul de Fonville, curator of the Cowboy Memorial Museum, gave tribute to Earl Bascom as "one of the great pioneers of rodeo – a cowboy through and through." The American Cowboy magazine and others have called Earl Bascom a "Renaissance Cowboy" – one who was a main contributor and participant in the renewed interest in cowboy life including the sport of rodeo and western art. Bascom is listed among the Famous Cowboys – Legends of the Old West. Cowboy celebrity Roy Rogers, who worked with Earl Bascom in TV commercials and was a collector of Bascom art, once said, "Earl Bascom is a walking book of history. His knowledge of the Old West was acquired the old fashioned way – he was born and raised in it." An Idaho newspaper had the quote, "Earl Bascom is a cowboy legend and one of the most famous rodeo pioneers in the world." "Earl Bascom's 2013 induction into the Rodeo Hall of Fame is one of the top honors bestowed upon a cowboy," said Pam Minick, president of the Rodeo Historical Society. He is credited with designing the first side-delivery bucking chute in 1916, and then the first reverse-opening side-delivery chute, the first hornless bronc saddle, and the first one-hand bareback rigging. A member of the Cowboys' Turtle Association, he won bareback and saddle bronc titles across North America." Earl Bascom was honored as the 2014 International Honoree of the National Day of the Cowboy with these words – "As a rodeo pioneer, an all-around champion, an internationally known artist and a cowboy, Earl W. Bascom has been inducted into more halls of fame than any cowboy in the world." The Guide to the Calgary Stampede published, "With the induction of Earl W. Bascom in 2015, Canada's Sports Hall of Fame welcomed its first Honoured Member known for Rodeo. With the help of innovators like Bascom, the modernized version of the sport features new methods and equipment which helped shape the face and spirit of the Greatest Outdoor Show on Earth (the Calgary Stampede)." In 2016, Earl Bascom and his brother Weldon were the first rodeo cowboys to be given the ProRodeo Hall of Fame Ken Stemler Pioneer Award. At hall of fame ceremonies, director Kent Sturman declared Earl Bascom to be a "true rodeo pioneer." He recognized Bascom for "his complete dedication to the sport of professional rodeo spanning several decades; for his contributions as a rodeo equipment and gear inventor and designer; for his innovation and foresight as the 'Father of Modern Rodeo' and the 'Father of Brahma Bull Riding'; and for his contributions as a rodeo athlete and champion, producer, stock contractor, announcer, clown, trick rider, historian, author, artist and sculptor, and western movie actor that helped advance the development and success of professional rodeo." "Earl Bascom is the Michael Phelps of rodeo," stated Ken Knopp, historian of the Mississippi Rodeo Hall of Fame. Author of Rodeo History and Legends, Bob Jordan, said – "The Bascom boys helped shape the sport of rodeo more than any other family in the world." Earl Bascom was chosen by the Toronto Star as one of 150 of Canada's greatest athletes, including Wayne Gretsky and Steve Nash, to represent Canada during its 150th year (1867–2017) of Confederation. Sports writer Kerry Gillespie wrote, "Angry bulls to wild horses, there wasn't anything on four legs that Earl Bascom couldn't get the better of..." The Cardston Historical Society recorded, "Earl Bascom and his brothers designed and built the first side-delivery bucking chute on the Bascom Ranch at Welliing Station. In 1922, Earl made a hornless rodeo saddle, which the cowboys called the "mulee", and first used it at the Cardston Stampede. Bascom's rodeo innovations helped change rodeo from a cowboy's pastime to an international sport and placed him on the list of Canada's most famous inventors." Wyoming radio personality Rich Roddam named Earl Bascom in 2018 as one of 13 famous people from small Wyoming towns - "In a state full of cowboys, Earl Bascom may have been the best. Considered the "Father of Modern Rodeo", Bascom gained fame as an actor, artist, inventor, and writer." Earl Bascom is the only cowboy mentioned in the official Mississippi Encyclopedia, was the first inductee of the Mississippi Rodeo Hall of Fame and honored on a Mississippi State Historical Marker at the birthplace of Mississippi rodeo. Mississippi academicians consider Bascom to be one of the greatest cowboys in their state's history. The Fence Post magazine wrote, "Variations of Bascom’s rigging of 1924 and his bucking chute of 1919 have since become world-wide rodeo standards, used at rodeos in North America, Central America, and South America, from Hawaii to Japan to New Zealand and Australia, as well as in Europe and South Africa." Awards and honors Tributes Hall of Fame inductions and other honors Canadian Pro Rodeo Hall of Fame (Ponoka, Alberta Canada), 1984 Marion County Cattlemen's Hall of Fame (Mississippi), 1985 Key to the city of Columbia (Mississippi), 1985 Utah Sports Hall of Fame (Salt Lake City, Utah), 1985 Raymond Sports Hall of Fame (Raymond, Alberta Canada), 1987 Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts (London, England), 1993 Cowboy Memorial and Museum (Caliente, California), 2000 United States Sports Academy Walk of Fame (Georgia), 2002 Trailblazers Hall of Fame (Alberta, Canada), 2010 Lethbridge Sports Hall of Fame (Alberta, Canada), 2012 Victor Valley College Alumni Hall of Fame (California), 2012 Victor Valley Museum (California), 2012 Alberta Sports Hall of Fame (Red Deer, Alberta, Canada,) 2013 National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum Rodeo Hall of Fame (Oklahoma City, Oklahoma), 2013 Utah Rodeo Hall of Fame (Ogden, Utah), 2013 National Day of the Cowboy honoree, 2014 Cowboy Keeper Hall of Fame, 2014 Canada's Sports Hall of Fame (Calgary, Alberta Canada), 2015 Mississippi Rodeo Hall of Fame (Columbia, Mississippi), 2016 Idaho Rodeo Hall of Fame (Gooding, Idaho), 2016 Utah Cowboy Hall of Fame, Emeritus Honoree (Ogden, Utah), 2016 ProRodeo Hall of Fame, Pioneer Award (Colorado Springs, Colorado), 2016 Official State Historical Marker "Birthplace of Mississippi Rodeo" erected 2018 (Columbia, Mississippi) National Bareback Riding Hall of Fame, 2019 Canadian Order of Sport, 2020 Canadian Trick Riding Hall of Fame 2021 All Cowboy and Arena Champions Hall of Fame 2022 Rodeo innovations Bascom is known as an innovator and designer of rodeo equipment and rodeo gear. His inventions include: first side-delivery bucking chute (1916) at Welling, Alberta (assisted by brothers Raymond, Melvin and father John W. Bascom) first reverse-opening side-delivery bucking chute (1919) at Lethbridge, Alberta (assisted by his father John W. Bascom) first hornless rodeo bronc saddle (1922) at Lethbridge, Alberta first one-hand bareback rigging (1924) at Stirling, Alberta first high-cut rodeo chaps (1926) at Raymond, Alberta rodeo exerciser (1928) at Raymond, Alberta first rodeo held in the state of Mississippi first night rodeo held outdoors under electric lights (September 24, 1935), at Columbia, Mississippi first use of brahma bulls in rodeo at Columbia, Mississippi, 1935 first permanent rodeo arena with bucking chutes and grandstands in the state of Mississippi (1936) at Columbia, Mississippi See also Rodeo Bronc riding Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood List of ProRodeo Hall of Fame inductees List of Canadian Pro Rodeo Hall of Fame inductees Raymond Stampede Stock contractor List of cowboys and cowgirls List of Brigham Young University alumni List of Latter-day Saints List of members of Canada's Sports Hall of Fame List of famous Canadian sports personalities List of Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts List of people considered father or mother of a field References External links Encyclopedia Britannica, "Rodeo" Bascom Rigging Earl Bascom, Mormon Wiki Earl Bascom, Canada History Famous Bascoms 1906 births 1995 deaths Cowboys 20th-century American historians 20th-century American male actors 20th-century American painters 20th-century American sculptors 20th-century American male artists 20th-century Canadian male actors 20th-century Canadian painters Canadian male painters 20th-century Mormon missionaries Alberta Sports Hall of Fame inductees American emigrants to Canada American expatriate male actors in Canada American inventors American Latter Day Saint artists American magazine writers American male film actors American male painters American male sculptors American male television actors American male non-fiction writers American Mormon missionaries in the United States American people of Basque descent American people of Danish descent American people of Dutch descent American people of German descent American people of Norwegian descent Schoolteachers from Utah Artists of the American West Brigham Young University alumni Historical preservationists Male Western (genre) film actors Male actors from Utah Male models from Utah Patriarchs (LDS Church) Latter Day Saints from Utah University of California, Riverside alumni Western (genre) writers ProRodeo Hall of Fame inductees Rodeo clowns Steer wrestlers All-Around Saddle bronc riders Stock contractors Trick riding Bull riders Bareback bronc riders 20th-century American educators Canadian Pro Rodeo Hall of Fame inductees People from Victorville, California People from Vernal, Utah Historians from California Inventors from Utah
4888909	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems%20Programming%20Language	Systems Programming Language	Systems Programming Language, often shortened to SPL but sometimes known as SPL/3000, was a procedurally-oriented programming language written by Hewlett-Packard for the HP 3000 minicomputer line and first introduced in 1972. SPL was used to write the HP 3000's primary operating system, Multi-Programming Executive (MPE). Similar languages on other platforms were generically referred to as system programming languages, confusing matters. Originally known as Alpha Systems Programming Language, named for the development project that produced the 3000-series, SPL was designed to take advantage of the Alpha's stack-based processor design. It is patterned on ESPOL, a similar ALGOL-derived language used by the Burroughs B5000 mainframe systems, which also influenced a number of 1960s languages like PL360 and JOVIAL. Through the mid-1970s, the success of the HP systems produced a number of SPL offshoots. Examples include ZSPL for the Zilog Z80 processor, and Micro-SPL for the Xerox Alto. The later inspired Action! for the Atari 8-bit family, which was fairly successful. The latter more closely followed Pascal syntax, losing some of SPL's idiosyncrasies. SPL was widely used during the lifetime of the original integrated circuit-based versions HP 3000 platform. In the 1980s, the HP 3000 and MPE were reimplemented in an emulator running on the PA-RISC-based HP 9000 platforms. HP promoted Pascal as the favored system language on PA-RISC and did not provide an SPL compiler. This caused code maintenance concerns, and 3rd party SPL compilers were introduced to fill this need. History Hewlett-Packard introduced their first minicomputers, the HP 2100 series, in 1967. The machines had originally been designed by an external team working for Union Carbide and intended mainly for industrial embedded control uses, not the wider data processing market. HP saw this as a natural fit with their existing instrumentation business and initially pitched it to those users. In spite of this, HP found that the machine's price/performance ratio was making them increasingly successful in the business market. During this period, the concept of time sharing was becoming popular, especially as core memory costs fell and systems began to ship with more memory. In 1968, HP introduced a bundled system using two 2100-series machine running HP Time-Shared BASIC, which provided a complete operating system as well as the BASIC programming language. These two-machine systems, collectively known as HP 2000s, were an immediate success. HP BASIC was highly influential for many years, and its syntax can be seen in a number microcomputer BASICs, including Palo Alto TinyBASIC, Integer BASIC, North Star BASIC, Atari BASIC, and others. Designers at HP began to wonder "If we can produce a time-sharing system this good using a junky computer like the 2116, think what we could accomplish if we designed our own computer." To this end, in 1968 the company began putting together a larger team to design a new mid-sized architecture. New team members included those who had worked on Burroughs and IBM mainframe systems, and the resulting concepts bore a strong resemblance to the highly successful Burroughs B5000 system. The B5000 used a stack machine processor that made multiprogramming simpler to implement, and this same architecture was also selected for the new HP concept. Two implementations were considered, a 32-bit mainframe-scale machine known as Omega, and a 16-bit design known as Alpha. Almost all effort was on the Omega, but in June 1970, Omega was canceled. This led to an extensive redesign of Alpha to differentiate it from the 2100's, and it eventually emerged with plans for an even more aggressive operating system design. Omega had intended to run in batch mode and use a smaller computer, the "front end", to process interactions with the user. This was the same operating concept as the 2000 series. However, yet-another-2000 would not be enough for Alpha, and the decision was made to have a single operating for batch, interactive and even real time operation. To make this work, it needed an advanced computer bus design with extensive direct memory access (DMA) and required an advanced operating system (OS) to provide quick responses to user actions. The B5000 was also unique, for its time, in that its operating system and core utilities were all programmed in a high-level language, ESPOL. ESPOL was a derivative of the ALGOL language tuned to work on the B5000's, a concept that was highly influential in the 1960s and led to new languages like JOVIAL, PL/360 and BCPL. The HP team decided they would also use an ALGOL-derived language for their operating systems work. HP's similar language was initially known as the Alpha Systems Programming Language. Alpha took several years to develop before emerging in 1972 as the HP 3000. The machine was on the market for only a few months before it was clear it simply wasn't working right, and HP was forced to recall all 3000's already sold. It was reintroduced in late 1973 with most of its problems having been fixed. A major upgrade to the entire system, the CX machine, and MPE-C to run on it, reformed its image and the 3000 went on to be another major success during the second half of the 1970s. This success made SPL almost as widespread as the 2000 series' BASIC, and like that language, SPL resulted in a number of versions for other platforms. Notable among them was Micro-SPL, a version written for the Xerox Alto workstation. This machine had originally used BCPL as its primary language, but dissatisfaction with its performance led Henry Baker to design a non-recursive language that he implemented with Clinton Parker in 1979. Clinton would then further modify Micro-SPL to produce Action! for the Atari 8-bit family in 1983. HP reimplemented the HP 3000 system on the PA-RISC chipset, running a new version of the operating system known as MPE/iX. MPE/iX had two modes, in "native mode" it ran applications that had been recompiled for the PA-RISC using newer Pascal compilers, while under "compatible mode" it could run all existing software via emulation. HP did not supply a native mode compiler for MPE/iX so it was not an easy process to move existing software to the new platform. To fill the need, Allegro Consultants wrote an SPL-compatible language named "SPLash!" that could compile to original HP 3000 code to run within the emulator, or to native mode. This offered a porting pathway for existing SPL software. Language Basic syntax SPL generally follows ALGOL 60 syntax conventions, and will be familiar to anyone with experience in ALGOL or its descendants, like Pascal and Modula-2. Like those languages, program statements can span multiple physical lines and end with a semicolon. Comments are denoted with the keyword, or by surrounding the comment text in << and >>. Statements are grouped into blocks using BEGIN and END, although, as in Pascal, the END of a program must be followed by a period. The program as a whole is surrounded by BEGIN and END., similar to Pascal, but lacking a PROGRAM keyword or similar statement at the top. The reason for this is that SPL allows any block of code to be used as a program on its own, or compiled into another program to act as a library. The creation of code as a program or subprogram was not part of the language itself, handled instead by placing the compiler directive at the top of the file. The language provided the keyword to provide an easy method for declaring external procedures, thus avoiding the need for the programmer to declare the procedure parameter types and order. All user-accessible system service declarations (such as file system, process handling, communications, and the like) were available through this mechanism, and users could also add their own procedure declarations to the system's list. This is similar to, but more refined and narrower scope than the C-language #include mechanism. In contrast to Pascal, where and were separate concepts, SPL uses a more C-like approach where any can be prefixed with a type to turn it into a function. In keeping with the syntax of other ALGOL-like languages, the types of the parameters were listed after the name, not part of it. For instance: INTEGER PROCEDURE FACT(N); VALUE N; INTEGER N; Declares a function FACT that takes a value N that is an integer. The indicates that this variable is "pass-by-value" and therefore changes to it inside the procedure will not be seen by the caller. The procedure sets its return value by an assignment statement to its name: FACT := expression; Although frowned upon, ALGOL and Pascal allowed code to be labeled using a leading name ending with a colon, which could then be used for the target of loops and statements. One minor difference is that SPL required the label names to be declared in the variable section using the keyword. SPL added to this concept with the statement which allowed these labels to be further defined as "entry points" that could be accessed from the command line. Labels named in the entry statement(s) were exposed to the operating system and could be called from the RUN command. For instance, one could write a program containing string functions to convert to uppercase or lowercase, and then provide ENTRY points for these two. This could be called from the command line as . Data types Where SPL differs most noticeably from ALGOL is that its data types are very machine specific, based on the 3000's 16-bit big endian word format. The type is a 16-bit signed type, with 15 bits of value and the least significant bit as the sign. is a 32-bit integer, not a floating-point type. is a 32-bit floating-point value with 22 bits for the mantissa and 9 for the exponent, while is a 64-bit floating-point value with 54 bits of mantissa and 9 bits exponent. is used for character processing, consisting of a 16-bit machine word holding a single 8-bit character in the least-significant bits. Arrays of type BYTE pack two 8-bit characters per 16-bit machine word. is an unsigned 16-bit integer type that, when used in a conditional expression, returns true if the least-significant bit is 1 and false otherwise. Unsigned integer arithmetic can be performed on LOGICAL data and any overflow is ignored. There is no equivalent of a modifier as found in Pascal, so is somewhat wasteful of memory when used only to store a single binary digit, although SPL offers bit string manipulation as an alternative. Like C, data is weakly typed, memory locations and variable storage are intermixed concepts, and one can access values directly through their locations. For instance, the code: INTEGER A,B,C LOGICAL D=A+2 defines three 16-bit integer variables, A, B and C, and then a LOGICAL, also a 16-bit value. The , like Pascal, means "is equivalent to", not "gets the value of", which uses in Algol-like languages. So the second line states "declare a variable D that is in the same memory location as A+2", which in this case is also the location of the variable C. This allows the same value to be read as an integer via C or a logical through D. This syntax may seem odd to modern readers where memory is generally a black box, but it has a number of important uses in systems programming where particular memory locations hold values from the underlying hardware. In particular, it allows one to define a variable that points to the front of a table of values, and then declare additional variables that point to individual values within the table. If the table location changes, only a single value has to change, the initial address, and all of the individual variables will automatically follow in their proper relative offsets. Pointers were declared by adding the modifier to any variable declaration, and the memory location of a variable dereferenced with the . Thus declares a pointer whose value contains the address of the variable A, not the value of A. can be used on either side of the assignment; puts the value of A into P, likely resulting in a dangling pointer, makes P point to A, while puts the value of A into the location currently pointed to by P. In a similar fashion, SPL includes C-like array support in which the index variable is a number-of-words offset from the memory location set for the initial variable. Unlike C, SPL only provided one-dimensional arrays, and used parentheses as opposed to brackets. Variables could also be declared , in which case no local memory was set aside for them and the storage was assumed to be declared in another library. This mirrors the keyword in C. Literals can be specified with various suffixes, and those without a suffix are assumed to be . For instance, would be interpreted as an , while was a . denoted a and a . String constants were delimited by double-quotes, and double-quotes within a line were escaped with a second double-quote. Variable declarations could use constants to define an initial value, as in . Note the use of the assign-to rather than is-a. Additionally, SPL had a keyword that allowed a string of text to be defined as a variable, and then replaced any instances of that variable in the code with the literal string during compiles. This is similar to the keyword in C. Memory segmentation The classic HP 3000 organized physical memory into 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16 banks of 64K (65536) 16-bit words (128K bytes). Code (shared, non-modifiable) and data were separate from each other and stored in variable-length segments of up to 32K words each. Within a process, data addresses such as pointers were 16-bit offsets from a base regsiter (known as DB), or relative offsets from a pointer register (Q or S) that resulted in a valid address within the process's data area (called the stack). While primarily 16-bit word-oriented, the system supported addressing of individual bytes in an array by using the word address where the byte was stored shifted left 1 bit then adding 0 to access the upper byte, or 1 for the lower byte. Thus byte addresses were separate and distinct from word addresses and the interpretation of an address was purely contextual. This proved to be quite troublesome and was the source of numerous bugs in both system and user code. Care had to be taken to treat byte addresses as 16-bit unsigned (that is, type LOGICAL) when using them in, for example, length computations, because otherwise a byte address of 2^16 or more would be treated as a 2s-complement signed value resulting in erroneous calculation of lengths or offsets. An individual process had access to up to 254 code segments of up to 32K words each. The code segments were divided into two domains: the first 191 were "system" segments shared by all processes, and the remaining 63 were "user" segments shared by all running the same program. Control transfer specified either an routine number within the current segment, or an external segment number and a routine number within it. A small table at the end of the segment provided the entry point address for the routine. A process's code acted on data in the stack, a single private segment also up to 32K words in size. Unlike stacks in other architectures, the HP 3000 stack was used for process globals, state preservation, procedure locals (supporting nested calls and re-entrancy), and numeric computation/evaluation. The operating system provided facilities for access to additional memory-based (non-stack) data segments, but these were not natively addressed by the instruction set and so the program was responsible for moving data from and to such "extra data segments" as necessary. SPL included a variety of support systems to allow programs to be easily segmented and then make that segmentation relatively invisible in the code. The primary mechanism was to use the compiler directive which defined which segment the following code should be placed in. The default was , but the programmer could add any number of additional named segments to organize the code into blocks. Other features SPL included a "bit-extraction" feature that allowed simplified bit fiddling. Any bit, or string of bits, in a word could be accessed using the syntax, where x and y were the start and end bit positions from 0 to 15. (Significantly, x and y must be constants known at compile time.) Thus returned the lower byte of the word storing A. This format could be used to split and merge bits as needed. Additionally, additional operations were provided for shifts and rotates, and could be applied to any variable with the , for instance . Example This simple program, from the 1984 version of the reference manual, shows most of the features of the SPL language. The program as a whole is delimited between the and . It begins with the definition of a series of global variables, A, B and C, defines a single procedure and then calls it twenty times. Note that the procedure does not have a BEGIN and END of its own because it contains only one line of actual code, the is not considered part of the code itself, it is indicating the type of the three parameters being passed in on the line above and is considered part of that line. BEGIN INTEGER A:=0, B, C:=1; PROCEDURE N(X,Y,Z); INTEGER X,Y,Z; X:=X*(Y+Z); FOR B:=1 UNTIL 20 DO N(A,B,C); END. References Citations Bibliography Systems programming languages HP software
4888949	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20podcasting	History of podcasting	Podcasts, previously known as "audioblogs", had its roots dating back to the 1980s. With the advent of broadband Internet access and portable digital audio playback devices such as the iPod, podcasting began to catch hold in late 2004. Today there are more than 115,000 English-language podcasts available on the Internet, and dozens of websites available for distribution at little or no cost to the producer or listener. Precursors The Illusion of Independent Radio is a Russian samizdat "radio program" created in 1989 in Rostov-on-Don and distributed on magnetic tape and cassettes. It was the first Soviet Russian prototype of the media phenomenon that was widely developed in the 2000s as podcasting. Before the advent of the internet, in the 1980s, RCS (Radio Computing Services), provided music and talk-related software to radio stations in a digital format. Before online music digital distribution, the MIDI format as well as the Mbone, Multicast Network was used to distribute audio and video files. The MBone was a multicast network over the Internet used primarily by educational and research institutes, but there were audio talk programs. Many other jukeboxes and websites in the mid-1990s provided a system for sorting and selecting music or audio files, talk, segue announcements of different digital formats. There were a few websites that provided audio subscription services. In 1993, the early days of Internet radio, Carl Malamud launched Internet Talk Radio which was the "first computer-radio talk show, each week interviewing a computer expert". It was distributed "as audio files that computer users fetch one by one". A 1993 episode of The Computer Chronicles described the concept as "asynchronous radio". Malamud said listeners could pause and restart the audio files at will, as well as skip content they did not like. Some websites allowed downloadable audio shows, such as the comedy show The Dan & Scott Show, available on AOL.com from 1996. Additionally, in 1998, Radio Usach, radio station from the University of Santiago, Chile, explored the option to broadcast online and on demand streaming talk shows. However, the development of downloaded music did not reach a critical mass until the launch of Napster, another system of aggregating music, but without the subscription services provided by podcasting or video blogging aggregation client or system software. Independent of the development of podcasting via RSS, a portable player and music download system had been developed at Compaq Research as early as 1999 or 2000. Called PocketDJ, it would have been launched as a service for the Personal Jukebox or a successor, the first hard-disk based MP3-player. In 2001, Applian Technologies of San Francisco introduced Replay Radio (later renamed into Replay AV), a TiVo-like recorder for Internet Radio Shows. Besides scheduling and recording audio, one of the features was a Direct Download link, which would scan a radio publisher's site for new files and copy them directly to a PC's hard disk. The first radio show to publish in this format was WebTalkGuys World Radio Show, produced by Rob and Dana Greenlee. Timeline In September 2000, the first system that enabled the selection, automatic downloading and storage of serial episodic audio content on PCs and portable devices was launched from early MP3 player manufacturer, i2Go. To supply content for its portable MP3 players, i2Go introduced a digital audio news and entertainment service called MyAudio2Go.com that enabled users to download episodic news, sports, entertainment, weather, and music in audio format for listening on a PC, the eGo portable audio player, or other MP3 players. The i2GoMediaManager and the eGo file transfer application could be programmed to automatically download the latest episodic content available from user selected content types to a PC or portable device as desired. The service lasted over a year, but succumbed when the i2Go company ran out of capital during the dot-com crash and folded. The RSS connection In October 2000, the concept of attaching sound and video files in RSS feeds was proposed in a draft by Tristan Louis. The idea was implemented by Dave Winer, a software developer and an author of the RSS format. Winer had received other customer requests for "audioblogging" features and had discussed the enclosure concept (also in October 2000) with Adam Curry, a user of Userland's Manila and Radio blogging and RSS aggregator software. Winer included the new functionality in RSS 0.92 by defining a new element called "enclosure", which would simply pass the address to a media aggregator. On January 11, 2001, Winer demonstrated the RSS enclosure feature by enclosing a Grateful Dead song in his Scripting News weblog. For its first two years, the enclosure element had relatively few users and many developers simply avoided using it. Winer's company incorporated both RSS-enclosure and feed-aggregator features in its weblogging product, Radio Userland, the program favored by Curry, audioblogger Harold Gilchrist and others. Since Radio Userland had a built-in aggregator, it provided both the "send" and "receive" components of what was then called "audioblogging".<ref>Gilchrist, Harold October 27, 2002 Audioblog/Mobileblogging News this morning I'm experimenting with producing an audioblogging show... </ref> All that was needed for "podcasting" was a way to automatically move audio files from Radio Userland's download folder to an audio player (either software or hardware)—along with enough compelling audio to make such automation worth the trouble. In June 2003, Stephen Downes demonstrated aggregation and syndication of audio files in his Ed Radio application. Ed Radio scanned RSS feeds for MP3 files, collected them into a single feed, and made the result available as SMIL or Webjay audio feeds. The first on-demand radio show and the first podcast In August 2000, the New England Patriots launched the Internet radio show PFW in Progress. It was a live show that was recorded and made available for on-demand download to visitors of Patriots.com, although this wasn't technically a podcast at the time, since the technology had not yet been invented to automatically download new episodes—a key differentiator that sets podcasts apart from simple audio files that can be downloaded manually. In 2005, two years after the introduction of the iTunes platform, the show was also offered there as a bona fide podcast. Today, it is still in existence, under the name Patriots Unfiltered, and is available on all podcast platforms. The first podcast, however, was IT Conversations by Doug Kaye; the show ran from 2003 to 2012. In September 2003, the aforementioned Dave Winer created a special RSS-with-enclosures feed for his Harvard Berkman Center colleague Christopher Lydon's weblog, which previously had a text-only RSS feed. Lydon, a former New York Times reporter, Boston TV news anchor and NPR talkshow host, had developed a portable recording studio, conducted in-depth interviews with bloggers, futurists and political figures, and posted MP3 files as part of his Harvard blog. When Lydon had accumulated about 25 audio interviews, Winer gradually released them as a new RSS feed. Announcing the feed in his weblog, Winer challenged other aggregator developers to support this new form of content and provide enclosure support. Not long after, Pete Prodoehl released a skin for the Amphetadesk aggregator that displayed enclosure links. Doug Kaye, who had been publishing MP3 recordings of his interviews at IT Conversations since June, created an RSS feed with enclosures, thus creating the first true podcast. Lydon's blog eventually became Radio Open Source; its accompanying podcast, titled Open Source (not to be confused with Adam Curry's Daily Source Code, which was also one of the first podcasts), is now the oldest still-running podcast. BloggerCon October 2003, Winer and friends organized the first BloggerCon weblogger conference at Berkman Center. CDs of Lydon's interviews were distributed as an example of the high-quality MP3 content enclosures could deliver; Bob Doyle demonstrated the portable studio he helped Lydon develop; Harold Gilchrist presented a history of audioblogging, including Curry's early role, and Kevin Marks demonstrated a script to download RSS enclosures and pass them to iTunes for transfer to an iPod. Curry and Marks discussed collaborating. Pushing audio to a device After the conference, Curry offered his blog readers an RSS-to-iPod script (iPodder, re-sourced at https://github.com/cisene/daily-source-code-podcast/tree/main/iPod) that moved MP3 files from Userland Radio to iTunes, and encouraged other developers to build on the idea. In November 2003, the company AudioFeast (later renamed PodBridge, then VoloMedia) filed a patent application for "Method for Providing Episodic Media" with the USPTO based on its work in developing the AudioFeast service launched in September 2004. Although AudioFeast did not refer to itself as a podcasting service and was not built on RSS, it provided a way of downloading episodic audio content through desktop software and portable devices, with a system similar to the MyAudio2Go.com service four years before it. (AudioFeast shut down its service in July 2005 due to the unwillingness of its free customers to pay for its $49.95 paid annual subscription service, and a lack of a strong competitive differentiation in the market with the emergence of free RSS podcatchers.) In May 2004, Eric Rice, then of SlackStreet.com, along with Randy Dryburgh of VocalSpace.com launched Audioblog.com as the first commercial podcasting hosting service. Audioblog.com became Hipcast.com in June 2006 and has hosted hundreds of thousands of podcasts since. In September 2004, the media-in-newsfeed idea was picked up by multiple developer groups. While many of the early efforts remained command-line based, the very first podcasting client with a graphic user interface was iPodderX (later called Transistr after a trademark dispute with Apple), developed by August Trometer and Ray Slakinski. It was released first for the Mac, then for the PC. Shortly thereafter, another group (iSpider) rebranded their software as iPodder and released it under that name as Free Software (under GPL). The project was terminated after a cease and desist letter from Apple (over iPodder trademark issues). It was reincarnated as Juice and CastPodder. The name Writing for The Guardian in February 2004, journalist Ben Hammersley suggested the term "podcasting" as a name for the nascent technology. Seven months later, Dannie Gregoire used the term "podcasting" to describe the automatic download and synchronization of audio content; he also registered several "podcast"-related domains (e.g. podcast.net). The first documented use of "podcasting" in the definition known today (i.e., broadcasting rather than downloading) was mentioned in a podcast episode of the Evil Genius Chronicles on September 18, 2004, by Dave Slusher, who also mentioned the emerging technology of torrenting as well as pondering if he should monetise the podcast (and, if so, whether it should be through sponsorship or through voluntary donations, which is a dilemma that many professional podcasters face today). As of March 2021, the recording is still available to be streamed or downloaded. The use of "podcast" by Gregoire was picked up by podcasting evangelists such as Slusher, Winer and Curry, and entered common usage. Also in September, Adam Curry launched a mailing list; then Slashdot had a 100+ message discussion, bringing even more attention to the podcasting developer projects in progress. On September 28, 2004, Blogger and technology columnist Doc Searls began keeping track of how many "hits" Google found for the word "podcasts". His first query reportedly returned 24 results. Google Trends marks the beginning of searches for "podcast" at the end of September. On October 1, 2004, there were 2,750 hits on Google's search engine for the word "podcasts". This number continued to double every few days. By October 11, 2004, capturing the early distribution and variety of podcasts was more difficult than counting Google hits. However, by the end of October, The New York Times had reported on podcasts across the United States and in Canada, Australia and Sweden, mentioning podcast topics from technology to veganism to movie reviews. Wider noticeUSA Today told its readers about the "free amateur chatfests" the following February, profiling several podcasters, giving instructions for sending and receiving podcasts, and including a "Top Ten" list from one of the many podcast directories that had sprung up. Those Top Ten programs gave further indication of podcast topics: four were about technology (including Curry's Daily Source Code, which also included music and personal chat), three were about music, one about movies, one about politics, and—at the time number one on the list—The Dawn and Drew Show, described as "married-couple banter", a program format that (as USA Today noted) was popular on American broadcast radio in the 1940s (e.g. Breakfast with Dorothy and Dick). After Dawn and Drew, such "couplecasts" became quite popular among independent podcasts, the most notable being the London couple Sowerby and Luff (consisting of comedy writers Brian West (Luff) and Georgina Sowerby), whose talk show The Big Squeeze quickly achieved a global audience via the podcast Comedy 365. On October 18, 2004, the number of hits on Google's search engine for the word "podcasts" ballooned to more than 100,000 after being just 24 results three weeks prior. In October 2004, detailed how-to-podcast articles had begun to appear online, and a month later, Liberated Syndication, Inc. known in the industry as Libsyn launched the first Podcast Service Provider, offering storage, bandwidth, and RSS creation tools. This was the same month that Podtrac started providing its free download tracking service and audience demographics survey to the podcasting industry. "Podcasting" was first defined in Wikipedia. In November 2004, podcasting networks started to appear on the scene with podcasters affiliating with one another. One of the earliest adopters from the mainstream media of on-demand audio (although not strictly a podcast) was the BBC, with the BBC World Service show, Go Digital, in August 2001. The first domestic BBC show to be podcasted was In Our Time, made available as a podcast in November 2004. Apple adds podcasts to iTunes In June 2005, Apple added podcasting to its iTunes 4.9 music software and building a directory of podcasts at its iTunes Music Store.iTunes 4.9 with podcasting available for download—still no formal announcement Engadget The new iTunes could subscribe to, download and organize podcasts, which made a separate aggregator application unnecessary for many users. Apple also promoted creation of podcasts using its GarageBand and QuickTime Pro software and the MP4 format instead of MP3. Prior to iTunes' seamless integration, acquiring and organising podcasts required dedicated "podcatching" software that was often clunky and intimidating for the average user. In July 2005, U.S. President George W. Bush became a podcaster of sorts, when the White House website added an RSS 2.0 feed to the previously downloadable files of the president's weekly radio addresses. Also in July, the first People's Choice Podcast Awards were held during the Podcast Expo. Awards were given in 20 categories. On September 28, 2005, exactly a year after first tracking hits for the word "podcasts" on Google's search engine, Google found more than 100 million hits on the word "podcasts". In November 2005, the first Portable Media Expo and Podcasting Conference was held at the Ontario Convention Center in Ontario, California. The annual conference changed its name to the Podcast and New Media Expo, which stopped being held in 2015. On December 3, 2005, "podcast" was named the word of the year in 2005 by the New Oxford American Dictionary and would be in the dictionary in 2006. Expansion In may 2005 Swedish Radio first published podcast for the listeners to download. The first podcasts offered were Ekots lördagsintervju i P1, Spanarna i P1 and Salva i P3 but shortly after the offer was expanded to include several other titles. In February 2006, following London radio station LBC's successful launch of the first premium-podcasting platform, LBC Plus, there was widespread acceptance that podcasting had considerable commercial potential. UK comedian Ricky Gervais, whose first season of The Ricky Gervais Show became a big hit, launched a new series of the popular podcast. The second series of the podcast was distributed through audible.co.uk and was the first major podcast to charge consumers to download the show (at a rate of 95 pence per half-hour episode). The first series of The Ricky Gervais Show podcast had been freely distributed by the Positive Internet Company and marketed through The Guardian newspaper's website, and it was the world's most successful podcast for several years, eventually gaining more than 300 million unique downloads by March 2011. Even in its new subscription format, The Ricky Gervais Show was regularly the most-downloaded podcast on iTunes. The Adam Carolla Show claimed a new Guinness world record, with total downloads approaching 60 million, but Guinness failed to acknowledge that Gervais's podcast had more than 5 times as many downloads as Carolla's show at the time that this new record was supposedly set. In February 2006, LA podcaster Lance Anderson became nearly the first to take a podcast and create a live venue tour. The Lance Anderson Podcast Experment (sic) included a sold-out extravaganza in The Pilgrim, a central Liverpool (UK) venue (February 23, 2006), followed by a theatrical event at The Rose Theatre, Edge Hill University (February 24, 2006), which included appearances by Mark Hunter from The Tartan Podcast, Jon and Rob from Top of the Pods, Dan Klass from The Bitterest Pill via video link from Los Angeles, and live music from The Hotrod Cadets. In addition, Anderson was also invited to take part in the first-ever Podcast Forum at CARET, the Centre for Applied Research in Educational Technologies at the University of Cambridge (February 21, 2006). Organised and supported by Josh Newman, the university's Apple Campus Rep, Anderson was joined at this event by Dr. Chris Smith from the Naked Scientists podcast; Debbie McGowan, an Open University lecturer and advocate for podcasting in education; and Nigel Paice, a professional music producer and podcasting tutor. In March 2006, Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper became the second head of government to issue a podcast, the Prime Minister of Canada's Podcast (George W. Bush technically being the first one back in July 2005). In July 2009, the company VoloMedia is awarded the "Podcast patent" by the USPTO in patent number 7,568,213. Dave Winer, the co-inventor of podcasting (with Adam Curry), points out that his invention predated this patent by two years. On February 2, 2006, Virginia Tech (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University) launched the first regular schedule of podcast programming at the university. Having four regularly scheduled podcasts was a first for a major American university, which was launched as part of Virginia Tech's "Invent the Future" campaign. In April 2006, comedy podcast Never Not Funny began when Matt Belknap of ASpecialThing Records interviewed comedian Jimmy Pardo on the podcast for his popular alternative comedy forum A Special Thing. The two had previously discussed producing a podcast version of Jimmy's Los Angeles show "Running Your Trap", which he hosted at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre, but they hit it off so well on AST Radio that Pardo said "This is the show." Shortly after, Never Not Funny started simulcasting both a podcast stream and a paid video version. The podcast still uses this format, releasing two shows a week—one free and one paid—along with paid video feed. In October 2006, the This American Life radio program began to offer a podcast version to listeners. Since debuting, This American Life has consistently been one of the most-listened-to podcasts, averaging around 2.5 million downloads per episode. In March 2007, after being on-air talent and being fired from KYSR (STAR) in Los Angeles, California, Jack and Stench started their own subscription-based podcast. At $5.00 per subscription, subscribers had access to a one-hour podcast, free of any commercials. They had free local events at bars, ice cream parlors and restaurants all around Southern California. With a successful run of 12 years and over 2,700 episodes, the Jack and Stench Show is among the longest-running monetized podcasts. In March 2007, the Cambridge CARET Centre also helped to give birth to the first as-live podcast channel for women politicians in the UK and globally called Women's Parliamentary Radio. A former BBC correspondent and political editor in the East, Boni Sones OBE, worked with three other broadcast journalists—Jackie Ashley, Deborah McGurran, and Linda Fairbrother—to create an online radio station where women MPs of all parties could be interviewed impartially. The MP3 files could be streamed or downloaded. Their resulting 550 interviews over 15 years can now be found in one of four audio archives nationally at the British Library, the London School of Economics, The History of Parliament Trust and the Churchill Archives University of Cambridge. Sones has also written four books about these podcast interviews and archives, which are in all the major libraries in the UK.The Adam Carolla Show started as a regular weekday podcast in March 2009; by March 2011, 59.6 million episodes had been downloaded in total, claiming a record; however, as previously mentioned, Gervais's podcast had already received five times Carolla's downloads by the time the record was supposedly set. The BBC noted in 2011 that more people (eight million in the UK or about 16% of the population, with half listening at least once a week—a similar proportion to the USA) had downloaded podcasts than had used Twitter. Besides the aforementioned Adam Carolla Show, 2009 saw a huge influx of many other popular new comedy podcasts, including the massively successful talk-style podcasts with a comedic bent such as WTF with Marc Maron, The Joe Rogan Experience, How Do Podcast, and the David Feldman Show. 2009 also saw the launch of the surrealist comedy show Comedy Bang! Bang! (which was known as Comedy Death-Ray Radio at the time), which was later turned into a TV show with the same name. With a run of eight years (as of October 2013), the various podcasts provided by Wrestling Observer/Figure Four Online, including Figure Four Daily and the Bryan and Vinny Show with host Bryan Alvarez, and Wrestling Observer Radio with hosts Alvarez and Dave Meltzer, have produced over 6,000 monetized podcasts at a subscription rate of $10.99 per month. Their subscription podcast model launched in June 2005. Alvarez and Meltzer were co-hosts in the late 1990s at Eyada.com, the first Internet-exclusive live streaming radio station, broadcasting out of New York City. In 2014, This American Life launched the first season of their Serial podcast. The podcast was a surprise success, achieving 68 million downloads by the end of Season 1 and becoming the first podcast to win a Peabody Award. The program was referred to as a "phenomenon" by media outlets and popularized true crime podcasts. True crime programs such as My Favorite Murder, Crimetown, and Casefile were produced after the release of Serial and each of these titles became successful in their own right. From 2012 to 2013, surveys showed that the number of podcast listeners had dropped for the first time since 2008. However, after Serial debuted, audience numbers rose by 3%. Podcasting reached a new stage of growth in 2017 when The New York Times debuted The Daily news podcast. The Daily is designed to match the fast pace of modern news, and the show features original reporting and recordings of the newspaper's top stories. As of May 2019, it has the highest unique monthly US audience of any podcast. Download records Due to the fragmented delivery mechanisms and various other factors, it is difficult to externally nail down a precise listenership figure for any one podcast (although podcasters themselves can generally get fairly accurate data if they so please, which is especially useful for securing advertising contracts). As of December 2018, Serial was believed by some sources to be the most downloaded podcast of all time, with 420 million total downloads, surpassing Gervais's 300 million figure from back in 2011. However, Stuff You Should Know has accrued more than a billion downloads, and there are others still that have also hit this figure. According to Podtrac, NPR is the most popular podcast publisher, with over 175 million downloads and streams every month; however, Joe Rogan claimed in 2019 that his podcast alone was receiving 190 million downloads a month—a claim that is very likely true—and therefore makes his show the most downloaded podcast of all time in terms of both average viewership and total downloads. Indeed, Rogan signed a $100 million licensing deal with Spotify due to his unprecedented success with the medium. Nielsen and Edison Research reported in April 2019 that they had logged 700,000 active podcasts worldwide. Their research also revealed that, per capita, South Korea leads the world in podcast listeners, with 58% of South Koreans listening to podcasts every month. For comparison, in 2019, 32% of Americans had listened to podcasts in the last month. In 2020, 24% of Americans had listened to podcasts weekly. Comedy is the most popular podcast genre in the United States. There are more than 1,700,000 shows and nearly 44 million episodes as of January 19, 2021. Podtrac reports iHeartRadio's shows had more than 243 million downloads. IAB and PWC project that U.S. podcast advertising revenues will surpass $1 billion by 2021. Video podcasting A video podcast or vodcast is a podcast that contains video content. Web television series are often distributed as video podcasts. Dead End Days, a serialized dark comedy about zombies released from October 31, 2003, through 2004, is commonly believed to be the first video podcast. Never Not Funny was a pioneer in providing video content in the form of a podcast. Joe Rogan Experience has great examples of a litany of video podcasts, with many of them now being hosted on YouTube rather than as part of a feed (which was much more common when video podcasting was a brand-new medium). The key difference between a vlog and a video podcast is the length. While a vlog could technically be a video podcast, long-form conversational-style videos are generally considered to be a video podcast. Popularization Business model studies Classes of MBA students have been commissioned to research podcasting and compare possible business models, and venture capital flowing to influential content providers. Podnography As is often the case with new technologies, pornography has become a part of the scene, producing what is sometimes called podnography. Podsafe music The growing popularity of podcasting introduced a demand for music available for use on the shows without significant cost or licensing difficulty. Out of this demand, a growing number of tracks, by independent as well as signed acts, are now being designated "podsafe". Use by conventional media Podcasting has been given a major push by conventional media. (See Podcasting by traditional broadcasters.) Broadcast media Podcasting has presented both opportunities and challenges for mainstream radio outlets, which on one hand see it as an alternative medium for their programs while on the other hand struggle to identify its unique affordances and subtle differences. In a famous example of the way online statistics can be misused by those unused to the nuances of the online world, marketing executives from the ABC in Australia were unsure of how to make sense of why Digital Living, at that stage a little-known podcast from one of their local stations, outrated all of their expensively produced shows. It turned out that a single segment on Blu-ray had been downloaded a massive 150,000 times in one day from a single location in China. Print media For example, podcasting has been picked up by some print media outlets, which supply their readers with spoken versions of their content. One of the first examples of a print publication to produce an audio podcast to supplement its printed content was the international scientific journal Nature. The Nature Podcast was set up in October 2005 by Cambridge University's award-winning "Naked Scientist", Chris Smith, who produces and presents the weekly show. Although firm business models have yet to be established, podcasting represents a chance to bring additional revenue to a newspaper through advertising, subscription fees and licensing. Podcamps Chris Brogan and Christopher S. Penn launched the PodCamp unconference series aimed at bringing together people interested in blogging, social media, social networking, podcasting, and video on the net, and in so doing, Brogan won the Mass High Tech All Stars award for 2008. Podcast Movement Podcaster Gary Leland joined forces with Dan Franks and Jared Easley to form a new international conference for podcasters in early 2014 called Podcast Movement. Unlike other new media events, Podcast Movement was the first conference of its size in over a decade that was focused specifically on podcasting, and has tracks for both new and experienced podcast creators, as well as industry professionals. The sixth annual conference is expected to be attended by over 3,000 podcasters, and is scheduled for August 2019 in Orlando, FL. Adaptions Some popular podcasts, such as Lore, Homecoming, and My Brother, My Brother, and Me have been adapted as films or television series. Coping with growth While podcasting's innovators took advantage of the sound-file synchronization feature of Apple Inc.'s iPod and iTunes software—and included "pod" in the name—the technology was always compatible with other players and programs. Apple was not actively involved until mid-2005, when it joined the market on three fronts: as a source of "podcatcher" software, as publisher of a podcast directory, and as provider of tutorials on how to create podcasts with Apple products GarageBand and QuickTime Pro''. Apple CEO Steve Jobs demonstrated creating a podcast during his January 10, 2006, keynote address to the Macworld Conference & Expo using new "podcast studio" features in GarageBand 3. When it added a podcast-subscription feature to its June 28, 2005, release of iTunes 4.9, Apple also launched a directory of podcasts at the iTunes Music Store, starting with 3,000 entries. Apple's software enabled AAC-encoded podcasts to use chapters, bookmarks, external links, and synchronized images displayed on iPod screens or in the iTunes artwork viewer. Two days after release of the program, Apple reported one million podcast subscriptions. Some podcasters found that exposure to iTunes' huge number of downloaders threatened to make great demands on their bandwidth and related expenses. Possible solutions were proposed, including the addition of a content delivery system, such as Liberated Syndication, aka Libsyn; Podcast Servers; Akamai; a peer-to-peer solution, BitTorrent; or use of free hosting services, such as those offered by the Internet Archive or Anchor. Since September 2005, a number of services began featuring video-based podcasting, including Apple (via its iTunes Music Store), and the Participatory Culture Foundation. These services handle both audio and video feeds. See also List of podcast clients Uses of podcasting History of the Internet History of iTunes History of radio History of YouTube References Podcasting
4889002	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oskar%20Seidlin	Oskar Seidlin	Oskar Seidlin (February 17, 1911 – December 11, 1984) was a Jewish emigre from Nazi Germany first to Switzerland and then to the U.S. He taught German language and literature as a professor at Smith College, Middlebury College, Ohio State University, and Indiana University from 1939 to 1979. He authored a number of fictional and non-fictional works. Early years and education He was born Salo Oskar Koplowitz to Johanna (1885–1943?) and Heinrich Koplowitz (1872–1938), a lumber dealer in Königshütte in the Upper Silesia Basin of Germany (now Chorzów in southwestern Poland) who served for many years as a city council alderman and was an active Zionist and member of the Jewish community. After completing secondary schooling at the humanities-focused Realgymnasium in Beuthen (now Bytom) in 1929, he enrolled for one semester at the University of Freiburg and then transferred to the recently founded University of Frankfurt, which enjoyed a reputation as Germany's most progressive university and also had the highest percentage of Jewish students and professors. Here he was joined by his sister Ruth, five years his senior, and attended courses on German literature (taught by Wolfgang Pfeiffer-Belli, Julius Schwietering, Franz Schultz, Max Herrmann), French literature, philosophy (Paul Tillich), and history. He also audited courses in sociology (Theodor Adorno, Norbert Elias, Karl Mannheim). In a seminar on baroque literature taught by Martin Sommerfeld, he made the acquaintance of the gay Jewish student Richard Plaut, beginning a friendship they maintained when they later emigrated to Switzerland and the U.S. In the fall of 1930, he transferred with Plaut for one semester to the University of Berlin, where they became acquainted with the Kattowitz editor Franz Goldstein and through him with Klaus Mann, both of whom were infatuated with Koplowitz. Upon returning to Frankfurt in 1931, he met the history student Dieter Cunz, who became his lifetime partner. He also met the students Wilhelm Rey (1911–2007) and Wilhelm Emrich (1909–1998) who became lifelong friends and eventually colleagues, despite their later accommodation with the Nazi regime; Rey served in the Wehrmacht, and Emrich authored a doctrinaire anti-Semitic essay in 1943. In the closing years of the Weimar Republic, Koplowitz, Cunz, Plaut, Rey, and Emrich sympathized with Frankfurt's leftist student political group that was increasingly on the defensive when the growing Nazi Students League felt emboldened to disrupt courses taught by Jewish professors, including Sommerfeld. Koplowitz's primary interest was theater directing, and in 1932 he mounted a production of John Gay's The Beggar's Opera with student friends. Studies in Switzerland In February 1933, following Hitler's rise to power, Plaut left Germany for Switzerland, where he was joined in April by Koplowitz. They initially regarded the move as a temporary transfer, not a permanent emigration, and expected to return to Frankfurt once the Nazis had been turned out of office. While Plaut and Koplowitz enrolled at the University of Basel in 1933, Cunz, a gentile, remained in Frankfurt but after completing his Ph.D. in 1934 also relocated to Switzerland. Hard pressed financially and constrained in employment by their Swiss student visas, Koplowitz and Plaut relied on writing under pseudonyms as their primary source of income. Together with Cunz, they coauthored three detective novels under the collective pen name Stefan Brockhoff that were published in Nazi Germany. Contemporaries of Friedrich Glauser, Koplowitz et al. are recognized as pioneers of the Swiss crime story genre (distinguished by setting and the occasional use of dialect). In 1936, Koplowitz completed a Ph.D. with a summa cum laude dissertation on the Naturalistic theater work of the leftist German Jewish director Otto Brahm, written under the supervision first of Franz Zinkernagel, who died in 1935, and then Eduard Hoffmann-Krayer. He then relocated with Cunz to Lausanne, where he pursued postgraduate studies in French language and literature. One year later Plaut also finished his doctorate. Since their student visas were no longer extended following the completion of the Ph.D., Plaut and Koplowitz were under increasing pressure to leave Switzerland. In 1937, Koplowitz used the pen name Oskar Seidlin (possibly devised because of its similarity both to his mother's maiden name, Seidler, and to Hölderlin) for his young readers' tale Pedronis muss geholfen werden! A collection of his poems entitled Mein Bilderbuch was published under the same nom de plume in 1938. Together with Plaut, Koplowitz and Cunz decided to emigrate to the U.S. Emigration to the U.S. In 1938, the three left Switzerland for New York, where within a year their paths diverged. Koplowitz worked briefly as a dishwasher before finding employment as an amanuensis for the emigres Thomas Mann and Erika Mann. In 1939, he obtained a lecturership in German language and literature at Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts, where he advanced to an assistant professorship in 1941. Cunz was awarded a grant to conduct historical research in Maryland, and in 1939 he received a teaching appointment at the University of Maryland, where he rose through the ranks and long chaired the Department of German. Plaut remained in New York City, where he officially changed his name to Plant and worked for the emigre Klaus Mann. Koplowitz would officially change his name to Seidlin in 1943, when he was naturalized as a U.S. citizen. With Plant, he coauthored S.O.S. Geneva, a young readers' book with a cosmopolitan and pacifistic theme that was published in English in October 1939, just before the outbreak of World War II. Under the title Der goldene Apfel, an abridged and annotated version of Seidlin's Pedronis muss geholfen werden! was published in 1942 for use in German language instruction. Between 1942 and 1946, he was granted an extended wartime leave from his teaching position at Smith to serve with the "Ritchie Boys" (Military Intelligence Service). A second lieutenant, he served under Hans Habe in Germany, and he coauthored the screenplay of Death Mills (Die Todesmühlen), a documentary film about Nazi concentration camps that was directed by Billy Wilder. While his father died in 1938 and his sister Ruth was imprisoned at hard labor from 1935 to 1940 for political activities before emigrating first to the Shanghai Ghetto and then to Australia, his mother was killed in Auschwitz, probably in 1943. In 1946, Seidlin recorded his religion as Lutheran on a personnel information form. Ohio State University Following World War II, Seidlin made the acquaintance of Bernhard Blume while teaching at the German Summer School of Middlebury College in Vermont. Also an emigre who had left Nazi Germany in 1936, Blume chaired the Department of German at Ohio State University beginning in 1945, and he offered Seidlin an assistant professorship there. Seidlin moved to Columbus in the autumn of 1946, and he solidified his credentials with an essay on Goethe's Faust that appeared in the Publications of the Modern Language Association (1947). This signaled a growing shift in Seidlin's scholarly focus from the politically and socially informed studies of his Frankfurt and Basel years to the canonical works of Weimar Classicism and German Romanticism favored in Germanistics during the Cold War period. He collaborated on An Outline‑History of German Literature (1948) with the prominent Swiss-American comparatist Werner Paul Friederich (1905–1993), professor at the University of North Carolina, and Philip Allison Shelley (1907–1974), head of the German Department at Pennsylvania State University. In rapid order, Seidlin was promoted to an associate professorship in 1948 and to a full professorship in 1950. He revisited the subject of his doctoral dissertation by editing the correspondence of Otto Brahm with Arthur Schnitzler (1953). To escape the summer heat in Columbus, Seidlin regularly taught at the Middlebury Summer School up to 1957, and he often spent the remaining summer weeks with Cunz and Plant on holiday at the beach of Manomet, Massachusetts, where they hobnobbed with the vacationing Hannah Arendt. In the following years, Seidlin's political outlook shifted strongly to the right under the influence of Arendt's concept of totalitarianism yoking together Nazism and Stalinism. Starting in 1954, Seidlin traveled frequently to West Germany to give guest lectures. In 1957, following Blume's departure from Ohio State for a position at Harvard University, Cunz was tapped to chair the German Department in Columbus. He and Seidlin contracted to have a house built in the suburb Worthington that was completed in 1958, and in 1961 both were relieved by the addition of central air conditioning. These were the happiest and most productive years in Seidlin's career. In quick succession, he published Essays in German and Comparative Literature (1961), followed by Von Goethe zu Thomas Mann. Zwölf Versuche (1963) and Versuche über Eichendorff (1965), which he personally regarded as his most heartfelt work, in part because he and Eichendorff shared a Silesian upbringing. He also authored the essay collection Klassische und moderne Klassiker. Goethe, Brentano, Eichendorff, Gerhart Hauptmann, Thomas Mann (1972). In 1966, he was named a Regents' Professor at Ohio State University, and he served on the Advisory Council of Princeton University for several terms. The final years Seidlin was alarmed by the leftist turn of literary studies in West Germany and the U.S. in the late 1960s and 1970s and vehemently declined professorships proffered by the University of Mainz in 1966 and the University of Munich in 1968 because of widespread student unrest at West German universities, which he found reminiscent of the events one generation earlier, leading up to totalitarian dictatorship in Nazi Germany. He was criticized by some within the profession as an ivory tower conservative at pains to conceal both his gay and Jewish identities, and he resigned from the Modern Language Association, regarding it as overly politicized. Following the death of Cunz at age 58 in 1969, Seidlin felt isolated in the Worthington house they had shared and found himself increasingly at odds with the chair of the German Department at Ohio State University, Cunz's successor. In 1972, he accepted an offer from Indiana University, where he taught as Distinguished Professor of Germanic languages and literatures until his retirement in May 1979. He published a second, expanded edition of the Brahm-Schnitzler correspondence, and he also reissued his doctoral dissertation on Brahm in a new printing. His final book publication was the essay collection Von erwachendem Bewusstsein und vom Sündenfall. Brentano, Schiller, Kleist, Goethe (1979). A selection of Seidlin's correspondence with Wilhelm Rey, who taught alongside Seidlin at Ohio State University in 1947–48, was published posthumously under the title "Bete für mich, mein Lieber..." in 2001. Written between 1947 and 1984, these letters document that Seidlin was increasingly tormented by self-doubts about his teaching performance and needed the tranquilizers Miltown and Valium to enter the classroom. Deeply depressed by the passing of Dieter Cunz, he chose to undergo electroshock treatment in 1970. In 1972, he found a new partner in the 35-year-old Hans Høgel, whom he visited regularly in Denmark and with whom he vacationed in the Great Smoky Mountains and the Caribbean. In 1982, he moved into the newly built Indiana University Retirement Community, an assisted living facility. A heavy smoker, he suffered a heart attack in June 1984 and was diagnosed with a malignant tumor at the beginning of October; he died nine weeks later. In accordance with his wishes, his mortal remains were interred alongside those of Dieter Cunz at the Walnut Grove Cemetery in Worthington. Achievements and awards Internationally acclaimed for his adeptness at close reading and text-immanent literary interpretation, Seidlin lectured widely in the U.S. and West Germany. His broadly informed and thorough essays cunningly revealed how seemingly minor details and apparent coincidences meld seamlessly into the higher order of a literary artwork, and his writing aspired to an expository virtuosity that matched the dignified elegance of his public presentations. He wrote over 200 contributions to scholarly journals. In 1958, he chaired the Germanic Section of the Modern Language Association. In the summer of 1959, he was named Ford Professor-in-Residence at the Free University of Berlin. In 1961, he received the Eichendorff Medal conferred by the Eichendorff Museum in Wangen im Allgäu. He was twice the recipient of Guggenheim Fellowships, in 1962 and 1976. In 1963, the Goethe Institute awarded him the Goethe Medal in Gold for meritorious work in the service of German culture in a foreign country. In 1965, he was elected first vice-president of the Modern Language Association. In 1968, he was conferred an honorary doctorate by the University of Michigan and awarded the Prize for Germanic Studies Abroad by the Deutsche Akademie für Sprache und Dichtung. In 1973, he was elected to the Göttingen Academy of Sciences as a corresponding member. In 1974, he received the Eichendorff Medal of the Eichendorff Society. In 1975, he received the Culture Prize of Upper Silesia awarded by the state of North Rhine-Westphalia and on this occasion delivered an address describing his Silesian boyhood, including the everyday anti-Semitism he had experienced there. On his sixty-fifth birthday in 1976, he was honored with a Festschrift. That year, he also received the Friedrich Gundolf Prize for Conveying German Culture Abroad from the Deutsche Akademie für Sprache und Dichtung. In 1983, he was awarded the Georg Dehio Prize for Cultural and Intellectual History. References Books Stefan Brockhoff (i.e., Oskar Koplowitz, Dieter Cunz, and Richard Plaut). 1935. Schuß auf die Bühne. Detektiv-Roman. Goldmanns Detektiv-Romane. Leipzig: Wilhelm Goldmann. 244 pages. 2nd ed.: Schuß auf die Bühne. Kriminal-Roman. Goldmanns Kriminal-Romane, no. 79. Munich: Wilhelm Goldmann, 1965. 214 pages. Stefan Brockhoff (i.e., Oskar Koplowitz, Dieter Cunz, and Richard Plaut). 1936. Musik im Totengässlein. Detektiv-Roman. Goldmanns Roman-Bibliothek, no. 29. Leipzig: Wilhelm Goldmann. 217 pages. 2nd ed.: Musik im Totengässlein. Kriminal-Roman. Goldmanns Kriminal-Romane, no. 69. Munich: Wilhelm Goldmann, 1965. 203 pages. 3rd ed.: Musik im Totengässlein. Detektiv-Roman, ed. Paul Ott and Kurt Stadelmann. Schweizer Texte, Neue Folge, no. 25. Zurich: Chronos, 2007. 205 pages. Oskar Koplowitz. 1936. Otto Brahm als Theaterkritiker. Mit Berücksichtigung seiner literarhistorischen Arbeiten. Doctoral dissertation, University of Basel. Zurich: Max Niehans. viii + 218 pages. Oskar Seidlin. 1978. Der Theaterkritiker Otto Brahm. Bonn: Bouvier. viii + 216 pages. Stefan Brockhoff (i.e., Oskar Koplowitz, Dieter Cunz, and Richard Plaut). 1937. Drei Kioske am See. Goldmanns Roman-Bibliothek. Leipzig: Wilhelm Goldmann. 217 pages. 2nd ed.: Drei Kioske am See. Kriminal-Roman. Goldmanns Kriminal-Romane, no. 73. Munich: Wilhelm Goldmann, 1964. 204 pages. Oskar Seidlin. 1937. Pedronis muss geholfen werden! Eine Erzählung für die Jugend, with illustrations by Felix Hoffmann. Aarau: H. R. Sauerländer. 232 pages. Oskar Seidlin. 1942. Der goldene Apfel. Eine Erzählung für die Jugend, abridged ed. with questions, exercises, and vocabulary by Ann Elizabeth Mensel. New York: F. S. Crofts. x + 189 pages. London: George G. Harrap, 1948. x + 189 pages. Oskar Seidlin. 1943. Green Wagons, trans. Senta Jonas Rypins and illustrations by Barbara Cooney. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 130 pages. Special ed.: Cadmus Books. Eau Claire: E. M. Hale, 1943. 130 pages. Oskar Seidlin. 1969. Waldwyl und die Theaterleute. Kleine Bücherei für schreib-leseschwache Kinder (Legastheniker). Aarau: H. R. Sauerländer. 47 pages. Oskar Seidlin. 1938. Mein Bilderbuch. Gedichte. Zurich: Oprecht. 72 pages. Oskar Seidlin and Richard Plaut. [1939]. S.O.S. Genf. Ein Friedensbuch für Kinder, with 40 illustrations by Susel Bischoff. Zurich: Humanitas. 256 pages. Oskar Seidlin and Richard Plant. 1939. S.O.S. Geneva, with 29 illustrations by William Pène du Bois. Adapted into English by Ralph Manheim. New York: Viking Press. 246 pages. Werner Paul Friedrich, Oskar Seidlin, and Philip Allison Shelley. 1948. An Outline‑History of German Literature. College Outline Series, no. 65. New York: Barnes & Noble. 396 pages. 2nd rev. ed. 1963. viii + 356 pages. Werner Paul Friedrich, Oskar Seidlin, and Philip Allison Shelley. 1961. Historia de la literatura alemana, trans. Aníbal Leal. México: Hermes. 321 pages. Oskar Seidlin, ed. 1953. Der Briefwechsel Arthur Schnitzler—Otto Brahm. Berlin: Gesellschaft für Theatergeschichte. 266 pages. Oskar Seidlin, ed. 1975. Briefwechsel Arthur Schnitzler—Otto Brahm. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. 362 pages. Stefan Brockhoff (i.e., Oskar Seidlin, Dieter Cunz, and Richard Plant). 1955. Begegnung in Zermatt. Kriminal-Roman. Goldmanns Taschen-Krimi, no. 61. Munich: Goldmann, 1955. 182 pages. Oskar Seidlin. 1961. Essays in German and Comparative Literature. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 254 pages. 2nd ed., New York: Johnson Reprint, 1966. 254 pages. Oskar Seidlin. 1963. Von Goethe zu Thomas Mann. Zwölf Versuche. Kleine Vandenhoeck-Reihe, no. 1705. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. 246 pages. 2nd, rev. ed., Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1969. 246 pages. Oskar Seidlin. 1965. Versuche über Eichendorff. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. 303 pages. 2nd printing, 1978. 3rd printing, 1985. Oskar Seidlin. 1972. Klassische und moderne Klassiker. Goethe, Brentano, Eichendorff, Gerhart Hauptmann, Thomas Mann. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. 154 pages. Oskar Seidlin. 1979. Von erwachendem Bewusstsein und vom Sündenfall. Brentano, Schiller, Kleist, Goethe. Stuttgart: E. Klett–J. G. Cotta. 171 pages. Bibliography "Seidlin, Oskar". In Archiv Bibliographia Judaica, ed., Lexikon deutsch-jüdischer Autoren, vol. 19: Sand–Stri, pp. 212–218. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2012. "Seidlin, Oskar". In Franz Heiduk, Oberschlesisches Literatur-Lexikon, part 3, pp. 95–96. Heidelberg: Palatina, 2000. Peter Boerner, "Oskar Seidlin". In John M. Spalek et al., eds, Deutschsprachige Exilliteratur seit 1933, vol. 3: USA, supplement 1, pp 307–315. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2010. "Seidlin, Oskar". In Werner Röder and Herbert A. Strauss, eds., International Biographical Dictionary of Central European Emigrés 1933-1945, vol. 2, part 2, p. 1071. Munich: Saur, 1983. External links Photo of Oskar Koplowitz (at left) with Dieter Cunz (right) and Richard Plaut (center) at the Gornergrat, ca. 1935 Photo of Oskar Seidlin, ca. 1982 Photo of the Dieter Cunz / Oskar Seidlin tombstone in Worthington, Ohio Ohio State University personnel files 1911 births 1984 deaths German crime fiction writers German children's writers German LGBT novelists German LGBT poets Germanists Silesian Jews Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to Switzerland Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States Prussian emigrants to the United States German-language poets Indiana University faculty Middlebury College faculty Middlebury College Department of German faculty Professors of German in the United States Jewish American writers Ohio State University faculty People from the Province of Silesia People from Chorzów Princeton University people Smith College faculty American gay writers German gay writers 20th-century German novelists 20th-century German poets German male novelists German male poets 20th-century German male writers Gay novelists Gay poets Gay academics People with acquired American citizenship Ritchie Boys United States Army personnel of World War II 20th-century American Jews 20th-century American LGBT people
4889202	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octopus%20%28genus%29	Octopus (genus)	Octopus is the largest genus of octopuses, comprising more than 100 species. These species are widespread throughout the world's oceans. Many species formerly placed in the genus Octopus are now assigned to other genera within the family. The octopus has 8 arms, averaging 20 cm long for an adult. Species Octopus alatus Sasaki, 1920 (taxon inquirendum) Octopus alecto Berry, 1953 Octopus araneoides * Iw. Taki, 1964 (taxon inquirendum) Octopus arborescens Hoyle, 1904 (taxon inquirendum) Octopus argus Krauss, 1848 Octopus australis Hoyle, 1885 – hammer octopus Octopus balboai Voss, 1971 Octopus berenice Gray, 1849 Octopus berrima Stanks & Norman, 1992 – southern keeled octopus Octopus bimaculatus Verrill, 1883 – California two-spot octopus or Verrill's two-spot octopus Octopus bimaculoides Pickford & McConnaughey, 1949 – California two-spot octopus Octopus bocki Adam, 1941 – Bock's pygmy octopus Octopus briareus Robson, 1929 – Caribbean reef octopus Octopus bulbus Norman, 2001 Octopus californicus Berry, 1911 – North Pacific bigeye octopus Octopus campbelli Smith, 1902 Octopus chierchiae Jatta, 1889 – lesser Pacific striped octopus Octopus conispadiceus Sasaki, 1917 – chestnut octopus Octopus cyanea Gray, 1849 – big blue octopus or Cyane's octopus, Octopus diminutus Kaneko & Kubodera, 2008 Octopus djinda Amor, 2021 Octopus favonius Gray, 1849 Octopus filamentosus Blainville, 1826 (taxon inquirendum) Octopus filosus Howell, 1867 Octopus fitchi Berry, 1953 – Fitch's pygmy octopus Octopus fujitai Sasaki, 1929 (taxon inquirendum) Octopus gardineri Hoyle, 1905 Octopus globosus Appellöf, 1886 (taxon inquirendum) – globe octopus Octopus gorgonus Huffard, 2007 Octopus harpedon Norman, 2001 Octopus hattai Sasaki, 1929 Octopus hawaiiensis Eydoux & Souleyet, 1852 Octopus hongkongensis Hoyle, 1885 (taxon inquirendum) Octopus hubbsorum Berry, 1953 – Hubb's octopus Octopus humilis Huffard, 2007 Octopus hummelincki Adam, 1936 – bumblebee two-spot octopus or Caribbean two-spot octopus Octopus huttoni Benham, 1943 Octopus incella Kaneko & Kubodera, 2007 Octopus insularis Leite & Haimovici, 2008 Octopus jeraldi Pratt, Baldwin & Vecchione, 2020 Octopus joubini Robson, 1929 - Atlantic pygmy octopus or small-egg Caribbean pygmy octopus Octopus kaharoa O'Shea, 1999 Octopus kaurna Stranks, 1990 – southern sand octopus Octopus kermedecensis Berry, 1914 Octopus laqueus Kaneko & Kubodera, 2005 Octopus longispadiceus Sasaki, 1917 (taxon inquirendum) Octopus mariles Huffard, 2007 Octopus maya Voss & Solís, 1966 – Mexican four-eyed octopus Octopus mercatoris Adam, 1937 Octopus mernoo O'Shea, 1999 Octopus microphthalmus Goodrich, 1896 Octopus micropyrsus Berry, 1953 – California Lilliput octopus Octopus micros Norman, 2001 Octopus mimus Gould, 1852 Octopus minor Sasaki, 1920 (taxon inquirendum) O. m. minor Sasaki, 1920 · accepted, alternate representation Octopus mutilans Taki, 1942 Octopus nanhaiensis Dong, 1976 (taxon inquirendum) Octopus nanus Adam, 1973 Octopus niveus Lesson, 1831 (taxon inquirendum) Octopus occidentalis Steenstrup in Hoyle, 1885 Octopus ochotensis Sasaki, 1920 (taxon inquirendum) Octopus oculifer Hoyle, 1904 – Galapagos reef octopus Octopus oliveri Berry, 1914 Octopus oshimai Sasaki, 1929 (taxon inquirendum) Octopus pallidus Hoyle, 1885 – pale octopus Octopus parvus Sasaki, 1917 – Japanese pygmy octopus Octopus penicillifer Berry, 1954 Octopus pentherinus Rochebrune & Mabille, 1889 ('nomen dubium)Octopus prashadi Adam, 1939 (taxon inquirendum)Octopus pricei * Berry, 1913 (taxon inquirendum)Octopus pumilus Norman & Sweeney, 1997Octopus pyrum Norman, Hochberg & Lu, 1997Octopus rubescens Berry, 1953 – East Pacific red octopusOctopus salutii Vérany, 1836 – spider octopusOctopus sanctaehelenae Robson, 1929Octopus sasakii Taki, 1942 (taxon inquirendum)Octopus selene Voss, 1971 – moon octopusOctopus sinensis d'Orbigny, 1841 - East Asian Common octopus Octopus stictochrus Voss, 1971Octopus spinosus Sasaki, 1920 (taxon inquirendum)Octopus superciliosus Quoy & Gaimard, 1832frilled pygmy octopusOctopus tehuelchus d'Orbigny, 1834 – Tehuelche or Patagonian octopusOctopus tenebricus Smith, 1884Octopus tetricus Gould, 1852 – gloomy octopus or common Sydney octopusOctopus tsugarensis Sasaki, 1920 (taxon inquirendum)Octopus validus Sasaki, 1920 (taxon inquirendum)Octopus veligero Berry, 1953 – veiled octopusOctopus verrucosus Hoyle, 1885Octopus vitiensis Hoyle, 1885 – bighead octopusOctopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 – common octopusOctopus warringa Stranks, 1990 – club pygmy octopusOctopus wolfi Wülker, 1913 – star-sucker pygmy octopusOctopus yendoi Sasaki, 1920 (taxon inquirendum)Octopus zonatus Voss, 1968 – Atlantic banded octopus The species listed above with an asterisk (*) are questionable and need further study to determine if they are valid species or synonyms. Species brought into synonymy Octopus abaculus Norman & Sweeney, 1997: synonym of Abdopus abaculus (Norman & Sweeney, 1997) Octopus aculeatus d'Orbigny, 1834: synonym of Abdopus aculeatus (d'Orbigny, 1834)Octopus adamsi]' Benham, 1944 : synonym of Octopus huttoni Benham, 1943 Octopus aegina Gray, 1849: synonym of Amphioctopus aegina (Gray, 1849) Octopus albus Rafinesque, 1814: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus alderii Vérany, 1851: synonym of Callistoctopus macropus (Risso, 1826) Octopus alpheus, Capricorn night octopus: synonym of Callistoctopus alpheus (Norman, 1993) Octopus alpheus Norman, 1993: synonym of Callistoctopus alpheus (Norman, 1993) Octopus americanus Froriep, 1806: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus apollyon (S. S. Berry, 1912): synonym of Enteroctopus dofleini (Wülker, 1910) Octopus arcticus Prosch, 1849: synonym of Bathypolypus arcticus (Prosch, 1849) Octopus areolatus de Haan, 1839: synonym of Amphioctopus fangsiao (d'Orbigny, 1839) Octopus aspilosomatis Norman, 1993, plain-body night octopus: synonym of Callistoctopus aspilosomatis (Norman, 1993) Octopus bairdii Verrill, 1873: synonym of Bathypolypus bairdii (Verrill, 1873) Octopus bakerii d'Orbigny, 1826: synonym of Octopus americanus Montfort, 1802: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus bermudensis Hoyle, 1885: synonym of Callistoctopus furvus (Gould, 1852) Octopus bitentaculatus Risso, 1854: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus brevitentaculatus Blainville, 1826: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus brocki Ortmann, 1888: synonym of Amphioctopus fangsiao (d'Orbigny, 1839) Octopus bunurong Stranks, 1990: synonym of Callistoctopus bunurong (Stranks, 1990) – southern white-spot octopus Octopus burryi Voss, 1950: synonym of Amphioctopus burryi (Voss, 1950) Octopus carolinensis Verrill, 1884: synonym of Amphioctopus carolinensis (Verrill, 1884), Carolinian octopus Octopus cassiopea Gray, 1849: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus cassiopeia Gray, 1849 (incorrect subsequent spelling of specific epithet): synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus catenulatus Philippi, 1844: synonym of Ocythoe tuberculata Rafinesque, 1814 Octopus chromatus Heilprin, 1888: synonym of Callistoctopus furvus (Gould, 1852) Octopus cirrhosus Lamarck, 1798: synonym of Eledone cirrhosa (Lamarck, 1798) Octopus cocco Risso, 1854: synonym of Scaeurgus unicirrhus (Delle Chiaje [in de Férussac & d'Orbigny], 1841) Octopus cocco Vérany, 1846: synonym of Pteroctopus tetracirrhus (Delle Chiaje, 1830) Octopus coerulescentes Fra Piero, 1895: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus communis Park, 1885: synonym of Macroctopus maorum (Hutton, 1880) Octopus cuvieri d'Orbigny, 1826: synonym of Callistoctopus lechenaultii (d'Orbigny, 1826) Octopus dana Robson, 1929: synonym of Macrotritopus defilippi (Vérany, 1851) Octopus defilippi Vérany, 1851: synonym of Macrotritopus defilippi (Vérany, 1851) Atlantic longarm octopus or Lilliput longarm octopus Octopus didynamus Rafinesque, 1814: synonym of Callistoctopus macropus (Risso, 1826) Octopus dierythraeus Norman, 1992: synonym of Callistoctopus dierythraeus (Norman, 1992) – red-spot night octopus Octopus digueti Perrier & Rochebrune, 1894: synonym of Paroctopus digueti (Perrier & Rochebrune, 1894) – Diguet's pygmy octopus Octopus dofleini (Wülker, 1910): synonym of Enteroctopus dofleini (Wülker, 1910) Octopus dollfusi Robson, 1928: synonym of Amphioctopus aegina (Gray, 1849) Octopus duplex Hoyle, 1885: synonym of Octopus superciliosus Quoy & Gaimard, 1832 Octopus equivocus Robson, 1929: synonym of Macrotritopus defilippi (Vérany, 1851) Octopus ergasticus P. Fischer & H. Fischer, 1892: synonym of Bathypolypus ergasticus (P. Fischer & H. Fischer, 1892) Octopus eudora Gray, 1849: synonym of Octopus americanus Montfort, 1802: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus exannulatus Norman, 1992: synonym of Amphioctopus exannulatus (Norman, 1992) Octopus fangsiao d'Orbigny, 1839: synonym of Amphioctopus fangsiao (d'Orbigny, 1839) Octopus fasciatus Hoyle, 1886: synonym of Hapalochlaena fasciata (Hoyle, 1886) Octopus fimbriatus d'Orbigny, 1841: synonym of Abdopus horridus (d'Orbigny, 1826) Octopus flindersi Cotton, 1932: synonym of Macroctopus maorum (Hutton, 1880) Octopus fontanianus d'Orbigny, 1834: synonym of Robsonella fontaniana (d'Orbigny, 1834) Octopus frayedus Rafinesque, 1814: synonym of Callistoctopus macropus (Risso, 1826) Octopus furvus Gould, 1852: synonym of Callistoctopus furvus (Gould, 1852) Octopus geryonea Gray, 1849: synonym of Octopus americanus Montfort, 1802: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus gibbsi O'Shea, 1999: synonym of Octopus tetricus Gould, 1852 Octopus gilbertianus Berry, 1912: synonym of Enteroctopus dofleini (Wülker, 1910) Octopus glaber Wülker, 1920: synonym of Octopus cyanea Gray, 1849 Octopus gracilis Verrill, 1884: synonym of Macrotritopus equivocus (Robson, 1929) Octopus gracilis Eydoux & Souleyet, 1852: synonym of Tremoctopus gracilis (Eydoux & Souleyet, 1852) Octopus granosus Blainville, 1826: synonym of Callistoctopus macropus (Risso, 1826) Octopus granulatus Lamarck, 1799: synonym of Amphioctopus granulatus (Lamarck, 1799) Octopus graptus Norman, 1992: synonym of Callistoctopus graptus (Norman, 1992) – scribbled night octopus Octopus groenlandicus Steenstrup, 1856: synonym of Bathypolypus arcticus (Prosch, 1849) Octopus guangdongensis Dong, 1976: synonym of Abdopus guangdongensis (Dong, 1976) Octopus hardwickei Gray, 1849: synonym of Amphioctopus aegina (Gray, 1849) Octopus harmandi Rochebrune, 1882: synonym of Abdopus aculeatus (d'Orbigny, 1834) Octopus herdmani Hoyle, 1904: synonym of Octopus cyanea Gray, 1849 Octopus heteropus Rafinesque, 1814: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus horridus d'Orbigny, 1826: synonym of Abdopus horridus (d'Orbigny, 1826) Octopus horsti Joubin, 1898: synonym of Octopus cyanea Gray, 1849 Octopus hoylei (S. S. Berry, 1909): synonym of Pteroctopus hoylei (S. S. Berry, 1909) Octopus indicus Rapp, 1835: synonym of Cistopus indicus (Rapp, 1835) Octopus januarii Hoyle, 1885: synonym of Muusoctopus januarii (Hoyle, 1885) Octopus kagoshimensis Ortmann, 1888: synonym of Amphioctopus kagoshimensis (Ortmann, 1888) Octopus kempi Robson, 1929: synonym of Macrotritopus defilippi (Vérany, 1851) Octopus kermadecensis (Berry, 1914): synonym of Callistoctopus kermadecensis (Berry, 1914) Octopus koellikeri Vérany, 1851: synonym of Tremoctopus violaceus delle Chiaje, 1830 Octopus lechenaultii d'Orbigny, 1826: synonym of Callistoctopus lechenaultii (d'Orbigny, 1826) Octopus leioderma (Berry, 1911): synonym of Benthoctopus leioderma (Berry, 1911) Octopus lentus Verrill, 1880: synonym of Bathypolypus bairdii (Verrill, 1873) Octopus leschenaultii d'Orbigny, 1826: synonym of Callistoctopus macropus (Risso, 1826) Octopus leucoderma San Giovanni, 1829: synonym of Eledone leucoderma (San Giovanni, 1829) Octopus lobensis Castellanos & Menni, 1969: synonym of Octopus tehuelchus d'Orbigny, 1834 – lobed octopus Octopus lothei Chun, 1913: synonym of Bathypolypus ergasticus (P. Fischer & H. Fischer, 1892) Octopus lunulatus Quoy & Gaimard, 1832: synonym of Hapalochlaena lunulata (Quoy & Gaimard, 1832) Octopus luteus (Sasaki, 1929): synonym of Callistoctopus luteus (Sasaki, 1929) – starry night octopus Octopus macropodus Sangiovanni, 1829: synonym of Callistoctopus macropus (Risso, 1826) Octopus macropus Risso, 1826: synonym of Callistoctopus macropus (Risso, 1826) – Atlantic white-spotted octopus Octopus maculatus Rafinesque, 1814: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus maculosus Hoyle, 1883: synonym of Hapalochlaena maculosa (Hoyle, 1883) Octopus magnificus Villanueva, Sanchez & Compagno, 1992: synonym of Enteroctopus magnificus (Villanueva, Sanchez & Compagno, 1992) Octopus maorum Hutton, 1880: synonym of Macroctopus maorum (Hutton, 1880) – Maori octopus Octopus marginatus Taki, 1964: synonym of Amphioctopus marginatus (Iw. Taki, 1964) Octopus marmoratus Hoyle, 1885: synonym of Octopus cyanea Gray, 1849 Octopus membranaceus Quoy & Gaimard, 1832: synonym of Amphioctopus membranaceus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1832) Octopus microstomus Reynaud, 1830: synonym of Tremoctopus violaceus delle Chiaje, 1830 Octopus moschatus Rafinesque, 1814: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus moschatus Lamarck, 1798: synonym of Eledone moschata (Lamarck, 1798) Octopus mototi Norman, 1992: synonym of Amphioctopus mototi (Norman, 1992) Octopus neglectus Nateewathana & Norman, 1999: synonym of Amphioctopus neglectus (Nateewathana & Norman, 1999) Octopus nierstraszi W. Adam, 1938: synonym of Hapalochlaena nierstraszi (W. Adam, 1938) Octopus nierstrazi [sic]: synonym of Octopus nierstraszi W. Adam, 1938: synonym of Hapalochlaena nierstraszi (W. Adam, 1938) Octopus niger Risso, 1854: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus niger Rafinesque, 1814: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus nocturnus Norman & Sweeney, 1997: synonym of Callistoctopus nocturnus (Norman & Sweeney, 1997) Octopus obesus Verrill, 1880: synonym of Bathypolypus bairdii (Verrill, 1873) Octopus ocellatus Gray, 1849: synonym of Amphioctopus fangsiao (d'Orbigny, 1839) Octopus octopodia Tryon, 1879: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus ornatus Gould, 1852: synonym of Callistoctopus ornatus (Gould, 1852) – ornate octopus or white-striped octopus Octopus ovulum Sasaki, 191: synonym of Amphioctopus ovulum (Sasaki, 1917) Octopus rapanui Voss, 1979: synonym of Callistoctopus rapanui (Voss, 1979) Octopus patagonicus Lönnberg, 1898: synonym of Enteroctopus megalocyathus (Gould, 1852) Octopus pictus Brock, 1882: synonym of Hapalochlaena fasciata (Hoyle, 1886) Octopus pictus Verrill, 1883: synonym of Octopus verrilli Hoyle, 1886 Octopus pilosus Risso, 1826: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus piscatorum Verrill, 1879: synonym of Bathypolypus bairdii (Verrill, 1873) Octopus polyzenia Gray, 1849: synonym of Amphioctopus polyzenia (Gray, 1849) Octopus punctatus Gabb, 1862: synonym of Enteroctopus dofleini (Wülker, 1910) Octopus pustulosus Sasaki, 1920: synonym of Octopus madokai Berry, 1921 Octopus rabassin Risso, 1854: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus reticularis Petangna, 1828: synonym of Ocythoe tuberculata Rafinesque, 1814 Octopus rex Nateewathana & Norman, 1999: synonym of Amphioctopus rex (Nateewathana & Norman, 1999) Octopus robsoni Adam, 1941: synonym of Amphioctopus robsoni (Adam, 1941) Octopus robustus Brock, 1887: synonym of Hapalochlaena fasciata (Hoyle, 1886) Octopus roosevelti]' Stuart, 1941: synonym of Octopus oculifer Hoyle, 1904 Octopus ruber Rafinesque, 1814: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus rufus Risso, 1854: synonym of Scaeurgus unicirrhus (Delle Chiaje [in de Férussac & d'Orbigny], 1841) Octopus salebrosus Sasaki, 1920: synonym of Sasakiopus salebrosus (Sasaki, 1920) Octopus saluzzii Naef, 1923: synonym of Octopus salutii Vérany, 1836 Octopus saluzzii Vérany, 1840: synonym of Octopus salutii Vérany, 1836 Octopus scorpio (Berry, 1920): synonym of Macrotritopus defilippi (Vérany, 1851) Octopus semipalmatus Owen, 1836: synonym of Tremoctopus violaceus delle Chiaje, 1830 Octopus siamensis Nateewathana & Norman, 1999: synonym of Amphioctopus siamensis (Nateewathana & Norman, 1999) Octopus smedleyi Robson, 1932: synonym of Amphioctopus aegina (Gray, 1849) Octopus sponsalis Fischer & Fischer, 1892: synonym of Bathypolypus sponsalis (P. Fischer & H. Fischer, 1892) Octopus striolatus Dong, 1976: synonym of Amphioctopus marginatus (Iw. Taki, 1964) Octopus taprobanensis Robson, 1926: synonym of Callistoctopus taprobanensis (Robson, 1926) Octopus tenuicirrus Sasaki, 1929: synonym of Octopus hongkongensis Hoyle, 1885 Octopus tetracirrhus Delle Chiaje, 1830: synonym of Pteroctopus tetracirrhus (Delle Chiaje, 1830) Octopus tetradynamus Rafinesque, 1814: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus titanotus Troschel, 1857: synonym of Pteroctopus tetracirrhus (Delle Chiaje, 1830) Octopus tonganus Hoyle, 1885: synonym of Abdopus tonganus (Hoyle, 1885) Octopus tritentaculatus Risso, 1854: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus troscheli Targioni-Tozzetti, 1869: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus troschelii Targioni-Tozzetti, 1869: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus tuberculatus Risso, 1854: synonym of Ocythoe tuberculata Rafinesque, 1814 Octopus tuberculatus Targioni-Tozzetti, 1869: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus tuberculatus de Blainville, 1826: synonym of Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797 Octopus unicirrhus Delle Chiaje [in de Férussac & d'Orbigny], 1841: synonym of Scaeurgus unicirrhus (Delle Chiaje [in de Férussac & d'Orbigny], 1841) Octopus varunae Oommen, 1971: synonym of Amphioctopus varunae (Oommen, 1971) Octopus velatus Rang, 1837: synonym of Tremoctopus violaceus delle Chiaje, 1830 Octopus velifer de Férussac, 1835: synonym of Tremoctopus violaceus delle Chiaje, 1830 Octopus veranyi Wagner, 1829: synonym of Ocythoe tuberculata Rafinesque, 1814 Octopus vincenti Pickford, 1955: synonym of Amphioctopus burryi (Voss, 1950) Octopus violaceus Risso, 1854: synonym of Ocythoe tuberculata Rafinesque, 1814 Octopus westerniensis d'Orbigny, 1834: synonym of Octopus superciliosus Quoy & Gaimard, 1832 Octopus winckworthi Robson, 1926: synonym of Macrochlaena winckworthi'' (Robson, 1926) References External links Tree of Life website gives information about the classification of cephalopod groups Octopodidae Cephalopod genera Taxa named by Georges Cuvier
4889209	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20Young%20%28Neighbours%29	Mike Young (Neighbours)	Mike Young is a fictional character from the Australian television soap opera Neighbours, played by Guy Pearce. Pearce was in his final year at school and only had amateur theatre experience when he auditioned for the role. After winning the part of Mike, Pearce soon relocated to Melbourne and began filming in December 1985. He made his first appearance during the episode broadcast on 20 January 1986. Mike's arrival was part of an attempt to give the serial a youthful look. He was given immediate links to the other character through a friendship with Scott Robinson (Jason Donovan), who helps him secure work at the local coffee shop. Mike is portrayed as an ambitious, hardworking, responsible, well adjusted young man. However, Mike and his mother Barbara (Rona McLeod; Diana Greentree) are physically abused by his father David Young (Stewart Faichney). The storyline led to Pearce receiving hundreds of letters from children, who confided in him about their own abusive parents. Eventually, Mike is taken in by Daphne Lawrence (Elaine Smith) and her partner Des Clarke (Paul Keane), who later become his guardians. Mike has a long-running romance with Jane Harris (Annie Jones), and they form a popular friendship group with Scott and Charlene Mitchell (Kylie Minogue). The relationship does not last and Jane later becomes engaged to Des, while Mike dates Bronwyn Davies (Rachel Friend). Jones later stated that Mike was the love of Jane's life. Mike pursues a teaching career and returns to his high school for a student placement, where he almost gets himself fired for kissing a student. Mike temporarily leaves Erinsborough to tour in a band in late 1988. The storyline was a cover for Pearce, who took a break to shoot a feature film. On his return, Mike reveals that he was in a motorbike accident with Jenny Owens (Danielle Carter). Mike feels immense guilt that she has been paralyzed after he tried to show her a trick. Pearce decided not to renew his contract upon its expiration in October 1989, as he wanted to pursue more challenging roles. Mike's exit storyline saw him leave Erinsborough to be with his sick mother on 6 December 1989. Pearce reprised the role for the show's finale on 28 July 2022, as Mike returns to Erinsborough with his daughter, and returned again on 18 September 2023. Casting Guy Pearce was in his final year at Geelong College and appearing in amateur theatre when he "bombarded" the Grundy Organisation with tapes of his performances. He then attended a general audition at Grundys, where he auditioned for Neighbours casting director Jan Russ. He was cast as teenager Mike Young, who became one of several characters introduced in 1986 to give the show "a more youthful look". Two days after finishing his HSC exams, Pearce relocated from Geelong to Melbourne. He started work at Neighbours on 2 December 1985. Mike was his first professional acting role. Pearce was critical of his early performances, saying "I was really awful because I didn't know what I was doing." He admitted that for the first two and a half years, he "was running behind the eight-ball" as he filmed two and a half hours worth of episodes a week, but he eventually settled into his acting and the character began to come naturally to him. Pearce later stated that being cast as Mike was "a fantastic break for an 18-year-old". He said "I'd been doing amateur theatre in Geelong and suddenly I was in a national television show." Pearce made his debut as Mike on 20 January 1986, which was the first episode broadcast on Network Ten following the show's move from Seven Network. Development Characterisation and introduction Mike is introduced as a school friend of Scott Robinson (Jason Donovan). His official character's biography states that he is "a thoroughly nice young man. Scott Robinson recommends him for the job at the coffee shop which he does outside school hours. He is ambitious and hardworking, and often studies in the coffee shop." He is also characterised as "a nice well adjusted young guy with a bright future." Unbeknown to his friends, Mike and his mother Barbara (Rona McLeod; Diana Greentree) are physically abused by his father David Young (Stewart Faichney). This motivates Mike to take the job at the coffee shop, as he wants to earn enough money to get himself and his mother away from David. His boss Daphne Lawrence (Elaine Smith) finds out about his situation and tries to help persuade Barbara to leave her husband, so she and Mike can start afresh, but Barbara is so afraid of David that she cannot make the break. Daphne later suggests that Mike comes to live with her and her partner Des Clarke (Paul Keane), who become his guardians. The storyline led to Pearce receiving hundreds of letters from children, who confided in him, as Mike, about their own experiences with abusive parents. He told Lou Anson of Aberdeen Press and Journal that some of them asked him to become their pen-pal, but he was only able to write back advising them to seek help. He also told Anson that until he joined Neighbours, he had no idea "such terrible things happened." Neil Wallis and Dave Hogan of The Neighbours Factfile noted that the child abuse "still haunts" Mike, who is later abandoned by his mother when she moves overseas following the death of his father. As he settles into Ramsay Street, Mike dates Nikki Dennison (Charlene Fenn). The Guardians Patrick Barkham described him at this time as "the slightly square boy next door" and a "nice-but-lonely orphan". Mike and Scott are the victims of "a cruel practical joke" by Sue Parker (Kate Gorman), who learns that they have written a pop song and sent it to a producer. Sue poses as Molly Meldrum's secretary and invites them to come and sing the song in front of Molly. Scott and Mike re-record the song and tell all their friends at school. When they turn up at Molly's house, they soon learn the appointment is a hoax and Sue publicly gloats about what happened. In March 1988, Pearce spoke to Eithne Power of the Radio Times about upcoming storylines for his character and stated "Mike will have developed a bit more by then. He certainly needs to. Though he's a good, responsible guy he goes really fuddy-duddy when it comes to girls. He can handle his work and his study and his friendships, but with girls he's a real twit. I'm all for that, it makes him more believable, rounds him out. Who needs someone who's got nothing left to learn?" Relationship with Jane Harris One of the character's most notable storylines was his relationship with Jane Harris (Annie Jones). Jane was introduced a few months after Mike and they formed a friendship group with Scott and Charlene Mitchell (Kylie Minogue), which became popular with viewers and the media. Author Josephine Monroe said that until Jane's arrival, Mike often felt like "a bit of a gooseberry" when he was with Scott and Charlene. Jane took "an instant shine" to Mike, but believed that he had not noticed her as she wore big glasses and was "a geeky brainbox". However, Mike soon began paying her attention, despite receiving jibes from his school friends. One of the serial's most memorable plots occurred when Mike asked Jane to the school dance and she received a makeover from Daphne and Helen Daniels (Anne Haddy), which left him proud to escort his girlfriend to the dance. The relationship initially faces opposition from Jane's grandmother Nell Mangel (Vivean Gray), and is tested by the return of Nikki, who tries to come between the couple, and Mike's jealously when he realises Shane Ramsay (Peter O'Brien) likes Jane, after they become lost in the bush together. Monroe noted that Mike and Jane were good for each other, but they never seemed "madly in love" like Scott and Charlene, whose wedding they attended as best man and bridesmaid respectively. Mike's interest in photography led to a modelling opportunity for Jane, after he took a photo of her that was selected to be the poster for the first Lassiters Girl. The relationship ends when Mike goes off to university and later meets Megan Downey (Michelle O'Grady), who tries to get him to move in with her. Mike has "a change of heart" and then begins trying to win Jane back. Pearce told Patrice Fidgeon from TV Week: "He's been wooing her, sending her flowers and finally she gives in. I think she feels sorry for him and eventually realises she really does like him." The former couple were not on good terms prior to working together taking test shots for a modelling campaign with Scott's help. After Scott decides to swim back to the shore after they become stranded at sea, Mike and Jane have a chance to resolve their past issues and Jane re-evaluates her feelings for Mike. Fidgeon observed that it is clear both Mike and Jane care deeply for one another. Pearce told him that up to that point, their relationship had been "a fairly platonic one". Jane is also dating pilot Glen Matheson (Richard Moss), who is much older than her, but she realises their relationship is not going to work and ends it. Mrs Mangel, who was not initially in favour of Mike dating her granddaughter, changes her mind about him following Jane's involvement with Glen. Fidgeon speculated that Mike and Jane might follow in Scott and Charlene's footsteps and marry. Pearce refused to say how the relationship worked out, but was pleased with the direction his character was taking. Jane and Mike's relationship does not last, and she is later paired with Des. While preparing for Mike's birthday, Des helps Mike set up his own photography dark room. Jane also offers to help out, but she receives a big electric shock and Des saves her. A romance soon develops between them, and Jones commented that "it builds towards a full on affair." This results in end of her relationship with Mike, with Jones adding "Mike gets the flick, basically." Producers then paired Mike with Bronwyn Davies (Rachel Friend) for a brief romance storyline. Friend admitted to being scared in her "first encounter" with Pearce, but after kissing him she realised that while she was self-conscious, nobody took any notice. Bronwyn soon chooses Henry Ramsay (Craig McLachlan) over Mike. Mike later believes he and Jane have a chance of reconciling, but learns she is in love with Des. When Jane is almost hit by a car, this makes Des realise how much he loves Jane and asks her to marry him. While everyone is pleased for the couple, Mike is upset when he hears the news, as he realises that both of the women in his life have chosen other men over him. While reflecting on her character's relationships in June 2022, Jones believed Mike was the love of Jane's life. She said Jane was heartbroken when he broke up with her, adding "There will always be a hole in her heart for Mike." Later storylines Mike pursues a career as a school teacher at university and he returns to Erinsborough High on a student placement. While there, Mike privately tutors 16 year old Jessie Ross (Michelle Kearley) and learns that she is being abused by her mother Adele Ross (Marian Sinclair). McCready and Furlong of Neighbours The Official Annual 1991 pointed out the story was ironic as Mike had also been the victim of paternal abuse. Mike is angered when Jessie's father Ted Ross (Doug Bennett) learns what is happening and appears to be more concerned about his business reputation, rather than his daughter. McCready and Furlong stated "Even though he is only young, Mike has had enough experience to be able to deal with such dramatic incidents in a sensible way." Mike later shares a kiss with Jessie in an empty classroom, but they are caught by principal Kenneth Muir (Roger Boyce) and he decides to take some time away. Pearce took a two month break from Neighbours in late 1988 to film a role in Heaven Tonight. He confirmed that he was not leaving the show and had in fact signed for another year. He was grateful to Grundys for letting him go and writing him out of the scripts. On-screen, Mike temporarily departs Erinsborough to tour with a jazz band. Portraying Mike as a jazz musician came easy to Pearce, as he is a musician himself and enjoys playing and writing rock songs. Upon his return, he is moody and becomes hostile towards Henry, who has moved into his home and is staying in Bronwyn's room. Mike later punches Henry. The cause of Mike's bad mood is later revealed. Off-screen, he had met Jenny Owens (Danielle Carter), who seemed to share his sense of adventure. Mike initially keeps their relationship a secret from his friends and their story is told through a dream sequence. Pearce told Darren Devlyn of TV Week: "They zip around from town to town on Mike's motorbike... it's a bit thrill for them." However, Mike "flirts with danger" and forgets his sense of responsibility when he goes to show Jenny a trick. Jenny loses her grip when Mike accelerates and she falls from the bike. Her spine takes the brunt of the fall and she becomes a paraplegic, who has to use a wheelchair. Carter joined the cast for six weeks, as Mike spends time with Jenny at a convalescence home. His feelings of guilt lead him to try and make her life more comfortable, and they eventually grow closer. Departure In June 1989, David Brown and Patrice Fidgeon of TV Week reported that Pearce was set to quit Neighbours, along with Jones. They reported that the pressure was on Pearce and Jones to stay following the departures of Minogue and Donovan, but Pearce wanted to prioritise his film and music careers. Brown and Fidgeon also reported that Network Ten wanted to keep the departures "under wraps" to minimise negative publicity in the lead up to the show's 1000th episode. Pearce decided not to renew his contract when it ran out in October that year. Pearce said Neighbours had opened a lot of doors for him, but he wanted more of a challenge. He explained "I've been doing Neighbours now for some three and a half years and when I stepped away for two months to do Heaven Tonight it was like I had to remember how to act again. You've always had to act in Neighbours, but you fall into a routine. I didn't have to think about what Mike does anymore, I just naturally do it." Pearce had thought about leaving the show for around a year, and after starring in Heaven Tonight he realised that he wanted to continue making feature films. He also felt that playing Mike had become stale and he had achieved everything he could from the role, stating "I've been incredibly lucky. It's been a really good launching pad and the best thing for me was that it was the first professional job I'd ever done on television, so I learned a great deal about working with cameras and direction." On-screen, Des informs Mike that his mother has been injured in a plane crash and urges him to visit her. Marion MacDonald of The Sydney Morning Herald observed that Mike showed "an unfilial reluctance" to fly out to Barbara, as she had been a bad parent. However, Mike eventually decides to leave Erinsborough to reconcile with her. His exit aired in December 1989. Return When Neighbours was cancelled, Pearce discussed a hypothetical return with Donovan. In March 2022, producers approached Pearce with the invitation to reprise the role for few episodes in June that year. Pearce informed Donovan, who himself would soon reprise his famous role. On 3 June 2022, Duncan Lindsay of the Metro confirmed Pearce would be reprising his role for the Neighbours finale, following its cancellation earlier in the year. He appears in the final three episodes, which air back-to-back on 28 July 2022. Of his return, Pearce stated "It is very exciting and surreal at the same time being back on set again, however it feels like coming home. It's where it all started for me professionally. I've been asked to come back on occasions over the years and wondered if it was the right thing to do, but once I knew the show was finishing, I knew I had to do it." Executive producer Jason Herbison said Pearce was returning for "a very special story arc" and that he had been involved in the development of the storyline, which will answer the question "who is Mike Young today?" Pearce later told Angela Bishop of Studio 10 that Mike's return sees him and his daughter relocate from Perth to Erinsborough. Pearce also revealed that his friend and fellow actor Kate Winslet was a fan of the show and his character, so he and the producers considered naming the mother of Mike's daughter after her. However, Pearce felt that was "a little personal" to him, as his former wife is called Kate, so they named her Rose, after Winslet's character in Titanic. In May 2023, following the series' return to production, Pearce indicated that he was in discussions to make a further appearance in order to provide closure to Mike's relationship with Jane. His return was confirmed on Neighbours''' social media accounts shortly after. Storylines Mike and his mother, Barbara, live in fear of being beaten by Mike's father, David. Mike befriends Scott Robinson at Erinsborough High School. Through Scott, Mike secures a job at Daphne Lawrence's coffee shop. He begins staying overnight to avoid going home and Daphne's friend Zoe Davis (Ally Fowler) finds his sleeping bag. She also notices bruises on Mike's face and asks whether his father beats him. He later confides in her about how his father was having problems at work and started hitting him around a year ago. He also says that he is saving money so he and his mother can move away. Zoe soon tells Daphne about Mike's father. Mike eventually goes home, but his father soon turns violent and Mike stands up to him. He later turns up at the coffee shop and tells Daphne that he thinks he has killed his father, as he hit his head when Mike pushed him. Daphne calls Barbara and learns David is okay. She tells them that Mike will be staying with her, and has Clive Gibbons (Geoff Paine) look at Mike's facial injuries. Mike refuses to go back home with his parents and Barbara brings him his belongings. Mike later moves in with Daphne and her partner Des Clarke, who offer to become his legal guardians. He briefly dates Scott's cousin Nikki Dennison, but he later falls for Jane Harris when she moves in with her grandmother, Nell Mangel. Jane falls for Mike straight away, but it takes a while before Mike realises his feelings due to Jane's plain image. Helen Daniels and Daphne give her a makeover for a school dance, which consists of replacing her glasses with contacts, a new haircut and makeup. Mike likes her new image and they begin dating. Mrs Mangel is not happy that her granddaughter is dating Mike and when she receives letters about Mike's reputation with other girls, Mrs Mangel stops Jane from seeing him. Daphne eventually catches school bully, Sue Parker, posting the letters and Sue explains that she is jealous of Mike and Jane's relationship. Mrs Mangel then lets Jane and Mike continue dating. When Nikki returns to Ramsay Street, Mike helps comfort her when she discovers her mother is ill, leading Jane to become jealous of their friendship. Mike becomes jealous when Shane Ramsay shows an attraction to Jane, but she tells Mike that he is the only one for her. Following their final exams, Jane focuses on her modelling career and Mike decides to become a teacher. As they are leading separate lives, Jane and Mike split up amicably and remain friends. Not long after, Daphne is killed in a car crash and Mike is left feeling guilty as he had not been around for a few weeks. Mike is angry and upset and he finds the two men who had crashed into Daphne's car. He attacks them and is later arrested. When Mike finishes university, he gets a job teaching maths at Erinsborough High. Mike becomes close to one of his students, Jessie Ross, who admits that she has an abusive father too. Mike confronts her father, but soon learns that her mother is the one abusing her. Mike becomes close to Jessie and they share a kiss, which is witnessed by principal Kenneth Muir. Mr Muir suspends Mike, who decides to leave Erinsborough for a while. On his return, Mike finds Des and Jane have forged a strong friendship. Mike becomes moody as he settles back in. When Jenny Owens comes to see him, it is revealed that Mike and Jenny took a ride on his motorbike and she fell off. Jenny is paralysed and uses a wheelchair. Mike blames himself for Jenny's condition and cannot bring himself to accept that the event was an accident. Jenny eventually convinces him that it was not his fault. At the same time, Des and Jane begin dating and Mike is disgusted with the both of them. He refuses to accept the relationship and leaves Erinsborough again. He returns in the middle of Des and Jane's engagement party and he interrupts it. Mike eventually accepts that Des and Jane love each other and gives them his blessing. Mike begins to feel like there is not much left for him in Erinsborough and when he hears that his mother had been in a plane crash, and with his father long dead, Mike decides to leave Ramsay Street and join her to help her recovery. Years later, when Jane returns to Erinsborough, she reveals that Mike is teaching underprivileged children in the Philippines. Thirty-three years later, Mike drives his motorbike through Ramsay Street and sees Jane in her driveway and unawarely interrupts Clive trying to win her back. Mike leaves and goes to Lassiters, where Shane recognises him. Mike goes to see his daughter, Sam Young (Henrietta Graham), who works at the hotel and sees Paul again. Mike bumps into Jane, who drops all her belongings on the floor, and the two are stunned to see each other once again. Mike has drinks with his old friends and waves goodbye to Jane when she leaves. Clive approaches Mike and asks if he is interested in another relationship with Jane, as Clive is trying to restart his with her. Mike says he is not and Jane gives her a tour of all the houses on Ramsay Street. A drunken Clive sees them together and speaks aggressively towards Mike. The two have a fight, but once the alcohol has worn off Clive, he accepts that his and Jane's relationship is over. Mike takes Jane on a ride on his motorbike. He later tells Jane that he still loves her and they hug, rekindling their relationship. Mike and Jane are reunited with Scott and Charlene when they return and the four of them watch over Ramsay Street as its residents party. Two years following moving back to Ramsay Street, Mike and Jane planned a trip to London with Mike heading there before Jane as they couldn't get airfares together. The two reunited in Surrey, with Mike's plans to propose to Jane being derailed by news of the possible closure of Erinsborough High. Mike eventually realised his impulse got the better of him and he retrieved the lost engagement ring and finally proposed to Jane, to which she accepted. Jane returned to Australia with Mike embarking on a motorcycle tour around the UK for a few weeks. He later contacted Jane and told her he was offered a job hosting motorcycle tours for four months, to which Jane tells him to accept. Reception Critics often remarked on the character's good looks and nice personality. Mike was named "Ramsay Street's favourite boy next door" by Rob Scully of the Aberdeen Evening Express. He also called Mike "wholesome", while the Daily Mirrors Hilary Bonner called him "nice" and a "fresh-face heart throb". David Astle of The Sydney Morning Herald dubbed the character "a mullet-mopped kid" and a "hunky young teacher." A writer for Sunday Life observed that Mike was introduced to the show as "a troubled teenager beaten up by his father." A writer for the BBC's Neighbours website stated that Mike's most notable moment was when he saw Jane's "transformation at the school dance." In 2010, to celebrate Neighbours' 25th anniversary Sky, a British satellite broadcasting company, included Mike in their 25 most memorable characters in the show's history. Describing him they state: "The Erinsborough economy is studied the world over for being the only one in the world that can sustained on just four professions: you can work in 'business', or be a journalist, a doctor, or a teacher. Mike chose the latter, probably because he was the nice, fairly quiet boy out of the legendary original set of teens on the show. His romance with plain Jane Harris unfortunately ended up with her engaged to his father figure of a friend, Des, one of many reasons why he left the show to care for his sick mother." Robin Wilks from The Daily Telegraph included Pearce at number three in his feature on the "Top five ex-Neighbours stars", following his successful acting career. While discussing his time on the show, Wilks thought there was a lot of "unresolved sexual tension" between Mike and Lucy Robinson. Lorna Cooper of MSN TV has listed Mike as one of soap opera's forgotten characters and claimed he was a favourite out of the golden era of the serial. Orange UK describe Mike as one of the serial's "hottest spunks". LoveFilm describe Mike's storylines as serious and give him the nickname "motorbike Mike". A writer from Heat magazine called Mike "cheesy, but gorgeous". In 2022, Kate Randall (also from Heat) included Mike and Jane in the magazine's top ten Neighbours characters of all time feature. Randall stated that Mike assumed the role of the "quiet teen". Mike was placed at number twenty-nine on the Huffpost's "35 greatest Neighbours characters of all time" feature. Journalist Adam Beresford described him as a "quiet teenager" who transformed into "a Speedo-clad pin up at the height of 80s Neighbours'' mania." He added that Mike was part of the show's dream team quartet" which consisted of Mike, Jane, Scott and Charlene. References Bibliography External links Mike Young at BBC Online Neighbours characters Fictional schoolteachers Fictional mathematicians Television characters introduced in 1986 Male characters in television
4889250	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel%20Samuels	Joel Samuels	Joel Samuels is a fictional character from the Australian television soap opera Neighbours, played by Daniel MacPherson. MacPherson secured the role after auditioning for casting director Jan Russ, who suggested that the script producers write the part of Joel for him. He relocated to Melbourne for filming, and made his first appearance during the episode broadcast on 13 May 1998. Joel was introduced as a friend of Malcolm Kennedy (Benjamin McNair) and comes to Erinsborough to stay with his family. MacPherson decided to leave Neighbours after four years and his exit scenes aired on 29 January 2002, as Joel leaves to work with a marine explorer. MacPherson reprised the role for the show final episodes, which aired in July 2022. Creation and casting Neighbours casting director Jan Russ auditioned MacPherson; she approached the script producers and suggested they write the role of Joel for him. MacPherson joined the cast in February 1998, when he was seventeen, and he moved from Sydney to Melbourne for filming. He later recalled: "I'm not ashamed to say I bawled my eyes out that night going, 'What the hell am I doing? I've never acted, I've never lived out of home, I've never been to Melbourne, I've never been on a TV set. What the hell am I thinking?'" Development Characterisation Whilst travelling, Joel meets and becomes friends with Malcolm Kennedy (Benjamin McNair) and he comes to Ramsay Street "out of the blue" to stay with Malcolm's family. Upon his arrival, Joel was described as being "good-looking, down-to-earth, friendly and a champion triathlete." Annette Dasey of Inside Soap called Joel a "heart-throb" and said that he appears to be Mr Perfect. However, MacPherson told her that Joel is unlucky in love, saying "A couple of the girls throw themselves at him, but he's so naïve he doesn't really notice." The BBC said "Being a fit, young tri-athlete, Joel certainly set a few hearts a flutter among the Ramsay St girls." Accident When Anne Wilkinson (Brooke Satchwell) crashes her car into a riverbank, Joel and Karl Kennedy (Alan Fletcher) are first on the scene and try to help her. The car slides down the riverbank and Joel becomes trapped underneath the vehicle. A storm causes the water level to rise rapidly and Karl tries to help Joel breathe. Filming for the stunt took three days and McPherson spent most of his time underwater. He said "Luckily, that meant I didn't have too many lines to learn, half the time I had to just sit under the water, hold my breath and wonder if they were still shooting!" Joel is eventually rescued and taken to hospital and McPherson told Inside Soap that there is a chance that Joel may not be able to walk again due to his injuries. The actor said "That is a tremendous shock. The triathlon is his life." Joel tries to keep his injury from his sponsors, but Karl reveals to them that Joel may not walk again. Joel is "absolutely furious" with Karl and McPherson said "I think in his heart of hearts, Joel knew they would find out eventually, but he hasn't learnt how to deal with the consequences yet." Joel then faces a long recovery process, but he has a "good chance of pulling through." Relationships Joel has a brief relationship with Natalie Rigby (Nicki Paull), a woman ten years his senior. Joel meets Natalie after auditioning to be a stripper and she asks him for a date. Natalie reveals that she has a teenage son, but refuses to introduce Joel to him until she is sure their relationship is serious. Joel and Natalie argue and Soaplife said Joel feels "belittled" by Natalie's over-protective attitude towards her son. The magazine added "Emotional baggage and not the age gap ruined the relationship in the end, as Natalie put her son first." Joel begins a relationship with Dee Bliss (Madeleine West), which progresses steadily. Joel later finds himself "immediately drawn" to Dee's best friend, Carrie Clark (Vanessa Rossini), after Dee introduces him to her. MacPherson explained, "It's quite a complicated situation. He is over the moon about Dione, but I think it's a little more lust than love." Joel tries to keep his feelings about Carrie to himself, but Soaplife said this is not easy as his eyes "practically pop out of his head every time Carrie's name is mentioned." MacPherson said that Joel does not want to hurt Dee, but inevitably when feelings for someone become strong the truth comes out. West revealed that Dee feels awful after realising that Joel likes another woman, but the situation becomes worse for her as she becomes aware that it is Carrie Joel likes. Of Joel's love triangle storyline, Soaplife said "After playing the singles game for such a long time, you would think he'd want to focus all his energies on one girl. But it seems one lovely lass is not enough for him!" Joel is delighted when his father, Bernie (Sean Scully), arrives in town, but he is unaware that Bernie has been flirting with Dee. Of the interesting storyline, MacPherson said "Joel has Bernie up on a pedestal, but it turns out he's the last one to find out what he's really like. Everyone else can see that he has his faults, but nothing they can say or do make Joel realise it. He just thinks his old man is the best." Joel is "quite cut up" when he realises that his father is not the hero he perceives him to be. McPherson said the storyline was good for his character as everyone got to learn more about his background. After their relationship ends, Dee is keen to remain friends with Joel, while Joel finds it awkward and wants them to get back together. Joel eventually moves on with his friend and neighbour Felicity Scully (Holly Valance). The official website said that they are "two of the sexiest residents in Ramsay Street" and that it was not surprising they would be getting together. The website said that up until now there has not been any attraction between Joel and Felicity. McPherson said Joel had always been aware of Felicity, but because he was dating Dee he just did not think about her. After Lance Wilkinson (Andrew Bibby) asks Joel and Felicity to star in his film, they have to kiss in a scene and McPherson said "they do a little more acting than is strictly necessary!" The actor said Joel backs off straight away and pretends it did not happen because Felicity is in high school and is "probably a little too young for him." However, Lance and Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) tease Joel about the kiss and Felicity's crush, so he cannot get away from it. Felicity invites Joel to the Erinsborough High debutante ball as her partner and McPherson explained that she is not exactly truthful, saying "Flick asks Joel to be her partner, and says it's because she can't find anyone else to go with. But she's actually already asked Paul, and as you can imagine, it leads to a bit of strife!" Departure After four years of playing Joel, MacPherson decided to leave Neighbours. He told Inside Soap'''s Jason Herbison: "I've learned a lot, worked with some amazing people, and got to travel. It really was the best possible way for me to break into the industry, and even though it's time for me to move on, I'll always be grateful for it." MacPherson admitted that his final week on set was sad, especially when he filmed his last scenes at Number 30. He also called his final day "weird" because he only had to film one scene early in the morning. MacPherson relocated to the United Kingdom to appear in a pantomime, followed by an appearance in a production of Godspell. MacPherson's last scenes aired in January 2002. The following year, MacPherson admitted that he occasionally watched the serial "just to see what everyone's doing." He also said that he would like to go back for a few days or weeks to see everyone. On-screen, Joel reunites with Dee and is offered the chance to travel the world, after securing a job working with marine explorer Vernon Wells (Vincent Gil). Dee later agrees to accompany Joel on his trip, after he convinces her that it is a good opportunity. MacPherson explained "They've come though a lot together, and recently Dee confided in Joel about her miscarriage. So they've reached a new level in their relationship, and Joel thinks that going away together will be a fresh start." However, their plans are thrown into doubt when Joel loses his temper with Dee's former boyfriend Darcy Tyler (Mark Raffety), who makes it clear that he thinks Dee going away with Joel is a mistake. Joel then accidentally reveals that Dee had a miscarriage and that the baby was Darcy's. MacPherson told Herbison that Dee sees what Joel has done as a "betrayal" and as he struggles to defend himself, it is too late for their relationship. He continued, "Dee can't see that they have much of a future together if she can't trust him. Of course, this means she won't be going away with him anymore." The Ramsay Street residents throw a farewell party for the pair, unaware that Dee has changed her mind and she does not say anything. MacPherson commented that it was "a weird send-off". Joel tells Dee that she knows what time the boat is leaving if she changes her mind, and he goes to the wharf to meet Vernon. Shortly before he is due to depart, Dee turns up to say goodbye. Joel then leaves Erinsborough alone. Return In May 2022, it was announced MacPherson would be reprising his role for the show's final episodes. Of his return, the actor stated "Joining Neighbours at age 17, little did I know, was going to kick start a career that continues to be the adventure of a lifetime. To go back and play Joel one more time, was a small way to show my enormous gratitude to cast, crew and fans of the show." Storylines Joel meets Malcolm Kennedy in London and the two quickly become friends. Malcolm tells Joel that he will always be welcome in Erinsborough, where his parents live. Not long after, Joel turns up at the Kennedy's house in Ramsay Street and introduces himself to Malcolm's mother Susan and younger brother, Billy (Jesse Spencer). Karl, Malcolm's father has reservations about Joel staying as the Kennedys hardly know him but relents. Joel later settles in and makes friends and catches the eye of Hannah Martin (Rebecca Ritters), who has a crush on him and goes through the effort of buying a takeaway meal and passing it off as her own in order to impress him. Hannah is crushed when Joel tells her he only likes her as a friend. Joel later gets a job at Across the Line, a local sports store and later falls for Libby (Kym Valentine), Malcolm's sister. Joel is too scared to tell her his feelings but she eventually figures it out and the pair remain friends. After a number of problems at the Kennedys', including the breakdown of Karl and Susan's marriage, Joel moves in next door to Number 30 with Sarah Beaumont (Nicola Charles) and Toadfish Rebecchi. Toadie later introduces Joel to his co-host, Sally Upton (Sally Davis) at Uni FM, the radio station at Eden Hills University. Joel and Sally begin dating but things fall apart after Sally becomes jealous of Joel's closeness with Libby and accuses him of cheating. When Joel decides to join the Ramsay Street teenagers at a campsite to celebrate the end of Year 12 and exams, Karl offers him a lift. When they drive by a river bank, they find Anne Wilkinson sitting in a bogged down ute by the riverbank crying. Joel and Karl stop to help and begin to push the vehicle from the front, but the vehicle slips down the bank and traps Joel's knee. As the water level rises due to drains bursting and a heavy downpour of rain, Karl battles to keep Joel breathing during the rise. Joel loses consciousness and Anne raises the alarm. After being airlifted to Erinsborough Hospital, Joel wakes up and Sally visits him. Joel thinks she wants to get back together, but she tells him of her attraction to his friend, Drew Kirk (Dan Paris). Sally leaves and Joel finds it hard to be positive. Joel's mother, Brenda Samuels (Pixie Jones) visits but she has a hard time getting close to her son as he has made so many friends in the community. Joel is later discharged from hospital and moves back in with the Kennedys temporarily, as Toadie and Sarah are finding his mood swings difficult to live with. When Joel recovers, he takes part in a routine based on the movie The Full Monty along with Bill, Karl, Drew and Toadie. Joel later meets Natalie Rigby, the manager of a pub when he auditions as a solo stripper and they begin dating, but are opposed by Natalie's son, Liam (Damien Bodie) and the relationships fizzle out. After a while of being single, Joel and Toadie decide to go out one evening to Foxy's in February 2000, a local nightclub and meet Dione Bliss and her friend, Vanessa Bradshaw (Julieanne Tait) on under the pretence of Joel being an Argentine Footballer and Toadie being a lawyer (a partial truth as Toadie is studying law). The girls ultimately see through this but play along and during one date leave the boys stranded at Italian restaurant, Lanzini's when the time comes to pay the bill. Dione later reappears and Joel falls for her but cheats on her with her friend, Carrie Clark. Joel is dumped and goes out of his way to win Dione back. They get back together but their reunion is fraught with jealousy problems and things are not made easier when Joel's father, Bernie arrives and tries to make advances towards Dione every chance he gets. Dione tells Joel who disbelieves her at first but then he comes to realize Dione is telling the truth about Bernie and soon sends his father packing. Joel and Dione begin playing jokes on each other, but Joel ultimately takes it too far when he enlists Malcolm's help by pretending to be a distant relative of Joel's interested in Dione's art. This proves too much and Joel and Dione split once again. After helping Lance Wilkinson film a home-made Sci-Fi movie, where he and Felicity Scully are the leads who share a kiss, Joel agrees to be Flick's date to Erinsborough High's debutante ball. As the ball nears, Joel finds himself falling for Flick. At the after party Joel and Flick spend all night talking and they share a kiss the next morning by the pool. Joel and Flick try to keep their relationship a secret but gradually their neighbours and friends find out. Flick's father, Joe (Shane Connor) catches the couple together one evening and angrily confronts Joel and pushes him, injuring his shoulder. Flick refuses to return home after this and stays with Joel. When Flick opts to move out after Joe comes down hard on her, she suggests that she moves in with Joel. Joel realises things are moving too seriously and decides to join the Kennedys on a trip to London to attend Malcolm's wedding to Sarah's sister, Catherine O'Brien (Radha Mitchell). When Joel returns, problems still have not eased and things don't get any easier when Flick moves in temporarily much to the annoyance of Toadie and Dee. After an argument with Flick on her 18th birthday about spending so much time with Dee, Joel breaks up with her and is chastized by Dee and Joe for doing so on Flick's birthday of all days. Flick later begs Joel to take her back but he tells her they are not right for each other. Joel and Dee become close again and begin dating. This is nearly wrecked when Joel accidentally tells Dee's former boyfriend, Darcy Tyler that she miscarried his baby. Dee is furious but forgives Joel. Joel begins diving with marine biologist Vernon Wells, who soon offers him a job in Queensland. Dee agrees to go with him but on the day Joel leaves, she changes her mind and they share one final kiss at the docks and Joel walks away and sets off on his journey. Twenty years later, Toadie finds a present on his dining table that contains an empty pizza box and some dead flower clippings, and he immediately calls out for Joel to make himself present. Joel runs into the room and hugs Toadie, then meets Toadie's fiancée, Melanie Pearson (Lucinda Cowden). Joel gives Toadie and Melanie an update on his life and explains that he is working and has two children, but is divorced. Joel also apologises to them for not being able to make it to their wedding. Having learned about their old friend Amy Greenwood's (Jacinta Stapleton) declaration of love to Toadie, Joel tracks her down in Cairns and helps her realise that she is mistaken, prompting her to return for Toadie's wedding. Despite having believed himself unable to attend the wedding, Joel briefly appears at the reception on Ramsay Street. Reception Upon Joel's arrival, Robin Oliver of The Sydney Morning Herald said "We sent them Jason and Kylie and now the Poms have sent us Daniel Macpherson, who plays newcomer Joel Samuels and has survived the first week of coaching at the pool. Just what Erinsborough needs, a Pom to teach Aussies how to swim. But no doubt it'll give the UK ratings a lift. Joel was told by best pal Mal Kennedy to stay at his parents' place, but Mal forgot to tell anybody, so the week has been spent clearing that up. Stretch things thin, don't they?" In 1999, MacPherson received a Logie Award for "Most Popular Male Talent" for his portrayal of Joel. In 2001, MacPherson was nominated for "Most Popular Actor". The BBC said Joel's most notable moment was "Almost dying while being pinned under a ute in a river." Viewers voted Joel's rescue from beneath the car in the river the "Best storyline of 1999" in the Neighbours.com Awards. Inside Soap called the storyline one of the show's "most dramatic moments." In 2010, Joel was included in a TV Week poll to find the Top twenty-five Neighbours characters. The character was popular in terms of his appearance. Nick Levine of media and entertainment website Digital Spy included MacPherson in a picture feature on male soap stars. Holy Soap called Joel a "beefcake." Lorna Cooper of MSN also commented on Joel's "Hunky" appearance, saying "In effect, he was Neighbours''' major piece of totty. Joel's sporty prowess was put to good use on the show; I've lost count of the number of times his toned physique was on display." References External links Joel Samuels at BBC Online Neighbours characters Television characters introduced in 1998 Male characters in television Fictional shopkeepers Fictional male sportspeople
4889333	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clive%20Gibbons	Clive Gibbons	Clive Gibbons is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Geoff Paine. Paine was spotted by the Reg Grundy Organisation and offered the role of Clive. He made his first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 21 January 1986. Clive's storylines included running a gorillagram agency, setting up a gardening business, saving Lucy Robinson's life and falling in love with Susan Cole. Paine decided not to renew his contract, as he feared being typecast and felt the role was no longer believable. He departed Neighbours on 27 February 1987, but made a brief return in 1989. Paine reprised the role 28 years later, and Clive returned on a semi-regular basis from 9 March 2017. He was reintroduced as the chief operating officer of Erinsborough Hospital. Paine felt that Clive had matured during his time away from Erinsborough, but said his "cheeky side" would still appear every so often. He was restored to the series' main cast in July 2020 and appeared in the final episode of the original run of Neighbours on 28 July 2022. Casting Neighbours marks Paine's first professional acting role. The Grundy Organisation discovered him while he was performing in a college production at the Victoria Arts Centre, and they asked him to come in for a screen test, before offering him the role of Clive. Paine almost turned down the role as he looked down on acting in a soap. He said "I suppose at the time I was a bit too idealistic about the world of acting. Playing a messenger in a gorilla suit might not be King Lear, but at least it pays the rent." Paine later explained that he was reluctant to take the role because of credibility with soap operas. But he was encouraged to take the opportunity and do what he could with the part. He also knew that his experience on Neighbours would be invaluable due to its fast production and high publicity. Development Characterisation Stephen Cook of TV Week wrote that Clive was unusual, as his life was not beset with romances and traumas that were typically associated with other TV bachelor characters. He called him "a thoroughly 'normal' guy, a young man having a good time and trying to find his niche in life." Paine asked producers not to give his character a romantic storyline straight off, so he would have a chance to enter the series and develop on his own. He told Cook that Clive is trying to work out what he wants to do with his life, which is all he can think about, not that he is not interested in romance. Little is known about Clive when he arrives in Erinsborough, except that he runs a gorillagram agency. Later scenes explored his fictional backstory and revealed that Clive is the son of a wealthy doctor, and he too had a medical career, but became disillusioned with it. He performs an emergency tracheotomy on Lucy Robinson (Kylie Flinker) when she is stung by a bee. Paine explained, "Clive tried to reject his medical history, but it was thrown back at him when he had to perform the tracheotomy on Lucy. But he wasn't worried about doing the operation; he just did it." Paine also told Cook that Clive has cut himself off from his family and rejected the lifestyle they set up for him. He is taking responsibility for himself and enjoys the freedom he now has. He added, "But he's a serious guy who has made a serious decision to have some fun." Josephine Monroe, author of Neighbours: The First 10 Years, said Clive brought a breath of fresh air to Ramsay Street when he moved in. She described the character as "one of life's eccentrics" and said he took care of people and often lured them into his latest harebrained scheme. Simon Plant from the Herald Sun said Clive was "mild-mannered". Dave Hogan and Neil Wallis of The Neighbours Factfile said Clive was "cheerful and slightly wacky." They called him the "court jester" of Ramsay Street, and said he was the model on which the character of Henry Ramsay (Craig McLachlan) was based. Clive's gorillagram agency outraged some of neighbours, particularly Max Ramsay (Francis Bell). Following the character's 2017 return, Paine thought Clive was "a different man". Where the younger Clive was "happy-go-lucky", the older Clive has matured and become more conservative. Paine confirmed that Clive's "cheeky side" would still appear every so often. He also said that he enjoys playing the character, as he is "fun and irreverent". Departure After little more than a year in the role, Paine decided not to renew his contract after fearing that he may be typecast. He also wanted to develop his acting abilities in stage productions, having gone straight from drama school to Neighbours. His departure was publicised in the 8 November 1986 edition of TV Week, where Stephen Cook reported that Paine had quit the serial and would finish up when production took a break at the end of the year, with his final scenes airing in early 1987. Paine's decision came shortly after co-star Peter O'Brien left to take a role in The Flying Doctors on a rival network. Network 10 tried to keep Paine's departure a secret and he was not allowed to speak to TV Week about his exit. Paine later explained that Clive was too nice and the role was no longer believable. He said, "Clive was becoming just too good to be true. I mean, the guy was only 24 but he spent every spare minute either fixing someone's love life or Daphne's coffee machine." He did not regret leaving the show despite its popularity at the time, and was pleased with the career direction he took. In July 1989, Kevin Sadlier of The Sydney Morning Herald said that during research for an article on the show's 1000th episode, he heard of a plan to bring back a popular cast member from the previous year, and speculated that it was Paine. Paine went on to make a brief return later that year. Reintroduction In a December 2016 interview with Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy, Neighbours executive producer Jason Herbison teased the return of a series regular from 1986 to 1987. Herbison said the character would return in a recurring capacity and would be seen in "a work environment". Paine's management later confirmed that he had reprised his role as Clive. Paine told Johnathon Hughes of the Radio Times that he had enquired about a return through his agent and the show's producers agreed to bring the character back. Paine also said that he had been asked to return numerous times since his departure, but he had always been busy with his acting career or personal life. Clive made his return during the episode broadcast on 9 March 2017. He was introduced as the Chief operating officer (COO) of Erinsborough Hospital. Paine said that in his time away from Erinsborough, Clive had "matured and is bit more buttoned up", but he wants to "re-establish a part of his life that he enjoyed, which was his time in Ramsay Street." Speaking about Clive's friendly rivalry with Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis), whom he was once in a love triangle with, Paine said that they would have "their moments", but Clive would not be a push over, especially as he holds a senior position career-wise, while Paul is something of "a wheeler dealer" and tends to get what he wants. He thought it would be interesting to see how they get on during the future. The character was added to the opening titles in July 2020 despite not being a full-time cast member. Herbison stated that Paine will continue appearing on a semi-regular basis, but Clive was added to the titles due to his popularity, adding "We've included him in the titles to reflect Dr Clive's importance to the community and we know the fans wanted it too – including fan club president Colette Mann!" Relationship with Sheila Canning Paine teased a potential romance for Clive following his reintroduction, commenting "anything is possible". Shortly after, a relationship was established between Clive and Sheila Canning (Colette Mann). Both actors were glad to be paired up for the storyline, as they had previously worked together in a stage production and had known each other for a number of years. The couple get off to a bad start when Clive wrongly accuses Sheila's granddaughter Xanthe Canning (Lily Van Der Meer) of stealing hospital medication. They clash a few more times, before Clive asks Sheila out on a date as he thinks she is "fiery, and a bit barmy." Mann commented that Sheila loves that Clive is the COO of the Erinsborough Hospital, but she is wary of his intellect. Paine thought Clive and Sheila were very different people, but found that Sheila "harks back to Clive’s gorilla-gram days, she loosens him up and brings out his cheeky side, and she enjoys the affection that comes back her way. The relationship has happened organically through our chemistry. Clive describes Sheila as provocative and irritating but he's enjoying being with her!" Clive and Sheila's relationship is initially short lived, after she receives a letter from a former partner, who is ill and wants to see her. Mann confirmed that Herbison had promised to reintroduce Clive into Sheila's life "with a big bang". Their new relationship lasts until 2021 and Clive begins dating Jane Harris (Annie Jones). Character reflection Upon the news that Neighbours would be concluding in July 2022, Paine told Digital Spy of filming the finale, "It's a tad emotional, I've got to say. As you get closer to the end of everything, you realise you'll be finishing up a storyline, or that might be the last time you work with a particular director or actor. We are having those moments where they will say 'that's the final scene for this director, or this crew member'. It is emotional, but of course we can't stop, so it's also ramping up. We don't have that luxury of three more months to tie things up. There is an end date and we just have to build to it, shoot and get everything in the can. The work is happening, but there is that background bass note that it is coming to an end." Paine explained that announcement of the show's cancellation was and was not a surprise for him, since it had been teased in the months beforehand. Teasing Clive's part in the final episode, Paine explained, "Things don't always run smoothly in the world and Clive is no exception to that rule. He will have some challenges before the end of the show." Paine also explained his absence from the show in the early months of 2022, saying that he was busy with stage shows and that writers chose to pop Clive "in and out, as he can be utilised". When asked of his fondest memories of being on the serial, Paine said, "You're talking to a guy who had this as a first acting job. I didn't know what I was doing and I was bluffing, as we all do with our first jobs. You bluff a level of confidence that you don't really have. I do remember being in the gorilla suit, which we shot in day one for my character. I was wondering what on earth I was doing in this gorilla suit and: 'Is this the future of showbusiness? I just wear funny outfits?'" Paine said that he "found the show to be a wonderful, fast-paced storytelling factory", and that he "loved the 'gift of the gab' stuff" he did. Paine also recalled a Christmas episode where Clive had a dream sequence showing Santa Claus and his neighbours as Christmas characters, calling is wonderful, imaginative and creative. After expressing his gratitude for being reintroduced into the cast in 2017, Paine responded to whether Sheila or Jane was more suited to Clive by saying, "It depends on the mood Clive's in! Sheila was this extraordinary, bold, emotional sort of character, while Jane is much more contained and controlled. They brought out different aspects of Clive's personality." Additionally, Paine told Daniel Kilkelly that giving his experience to younger cast members was something he enjoyed and he hopes that Home and Away will become the new training ground for people in the television industry after Neighbours ceases production. Storylines 1986–1989 Clive runs a gorillagram agency from Number 22 Ramsay Street, which upsets neighbour Max Ramsay. Clive and Max clash right away, but Clive manages to win over the other residents. Clive invites Daphne Lawrence (Elaine Smith) to move into his spare room when her engagement to Des Clarke (Paul Keane) falls apart. They are briefly joined there by Daphne's best friend, Zoe Davis (Ally Fowler) and then by Mike Young (Guy Pearce). As well as running his gorillagram business, Clive teamed up with Shane Ramsay (Peter O'Brien) to form a gardening business called Ramsay and Gibbons Gardening Service or RAGGS. Clive's real profession is revealed when he saves Lucy Robinson's (Kylie Flinker) life after she is stung by a bee and cannot breathe. Clive performs a Tracheotomy on Lucy on the Robinson's kitchen table and saves her life. Clive tells his neighbours that he is a doctor, but he quit medicine when he made a mistake, which led to the death of his girlfriend, Linda. Clive's brother, Graham (Peter Harvey-Wright), a GP visits with his wife, Kate (Jenny Seedsman) and daughter Vicki (Charmaine Gorman). Clive realises that Graham would badger him about returning to medicine and he tells him about Linda's death. Graham continues to badger Clive until he agrees to become a doctor again. Graham and his family leave after Alex Carter (Kevin Summers), a robber threatens them. Clive befriends Susan Cole (Gloria Ajenstat) and offers her and her son, Sam, a place to live. Clive falls in love with Susan, but she falls for her boss, Paul Robinson. When his uncle Ted (Max Meldrum) comes to visit, Clive asks Susan to pretend to be his wife in order for Clive to say he is a successful family man. Susan agrees, but Ted sees her kissing Paul and confronts Clive. Clive tells Ted the truth. When Paul rejects her, Susan is comforted by Clive and he tells her that he is in love with her. Susan accepts a marriage proposal from Clive, but as Clive starts planning a wedding, Susan realises that she does not love Clive and she leaves Erinsborough. Clive suffers from depression and takes his anger out on Paul. He eventually bounces back and decides to move into the flat behind his surgery before leaving Erinsborough. Two years later, Clive makes a brief return and stays at Number 28 while Des is away and makes friends with Melanie Pearson (Lucinda Cowden). He also provides Paul with a shoulder to cry on following the end of his marriage. Clive gets a call from Graham who is injured in an accident and needs someone to run his surgery in the country. Clive then leaves Ramsay Street again for the outback. 2017–2022 Nearly 28 years later, Clive returns to Erinsborough as the new COO of the local hospital. He meets with David Tanaka (Takaya Honda) and Aaron Brennan (Matt Wilson) to discuss the public opening of the new spinal unit. He later catches up with Paul in The Waterhole. After a meeting about attracting donors, Aaron asks Clive for his help in finding a record of David and his brother Leo Tanaka's (Tim Kano) father, as they were born in a Western Sydney hospital, where Clive once worked. Jasmine Udagawa (Kaori Maeda-Judge) offers to make a donation to the spinal unit if Clive calls off his search. Clive later tells David that he could not find any information on his father, before admitting to Paul that he had already called in the favour when Jasmine offered him the money. Leo confronts Clive about accepting a bribe from Jasmine, but Clive tells him that there was no information about their father, but Jasmine was unaware when she made her donation. Clive interviews Brooke Butler (Fifi Box) for a fundraising job, but Sheila Canning warns him that Brooke is a scam artist, before she tries to take back what she said. However, Clive reveals that he has spoken to Paul and Karl Kennedy (Alan Fletcher), who confirmed Sheila's allegations, so he will not be offering Brooke the job. A few months later, Clive asks Karl to investigate some missing morphine. He finds Sheila checking up on her granddaughter, Xanthe and asks her out to lunch, but she cancels when Xanthe is accused of taking the morphine. Clive comes across Sheila in the city and he helps her to search Xanthe, who has run away from school. Clive and Sheila spend the rest of the afternoon together and Clive asks her out on a date to an art gallery. Clive and Sheila spend a lot of time together in the ensuing weeks, and he mentions to her that he has at least two children. Their relationship ends when Sheila is contacted by her former partner, Russell Brennan (Russell Kiefel) Sheila tells Clive that she needs to know the relationship is definitely over, before moving on with him. Clive vouches for Nick Petrides (Damien Fotiou), an oncologist who was arrested for poisoning Paul with unnecessary chemotherapy. Clive's testimony ensures Nick's release from prison so he can advise with Terese Willis's (Rebekah Elmaloglou) cancer treatment. Months later, Sheila offers to help Clive with community outreach for the new hospital wing, before asking if they can rekindle their relationship. Clive is reluctant as he was hurt by their break up. Clive teaches an adult class at the local community centre, which Sheila attends. After the first class, Sheila confronts Clive for being harsh on her and he admits that he still has feelings for her. They arrange a date and give their relationship another chance. Clive allows Izzy Hoyland (Natalie Bassingthwaite) to have the naming rights to the new hospital wing, following a $20 million donation, which upsets Paul. But following Izzy's departure, Clive informs Karl the new wing is cancelled. Karl is left without a job as a result, until Clive offers him a job with research trials. Clive arranges for Ross Wilson to play at The Waterhole for Sheila, but she runs off when she is invited up on stage, and admits that she has been having memory problems. Clive reassures her and run some tests, which show the memory issues are a side effect of her heart medication. Karl suggests implementing an MRI screening program, but Clive rejects the idea for being too expensive. Karl secures funding from Rita Newland (Lisa Kay), who plots to have Clive removed from his job. Clive rejects a remyelination therapy trial for the hospital and backs David for a position on the board, but he changes his vote to Karl, knowing that his position as COO is tenuous. As the trial goes ahead, Clive receives an anonymous call telling him the results have been tampered with and he shuts it down. He later offers Karl a job as a GP. Clive and Sheila break up, and he begins a relationship with Beverly Robinson (Shaunna O'Grady). Sheila is jealous and constantly tries to sabotage their dates. After an argument, Clive and Sheila have sex and begin an affair. Clive eventually breaks up with Beverly for Sheila, and a furious Beverly throws a bucket of manure over Sheila in revenge. Clive goes travelling and when he returns, he and Sheila agree that while neither of them wants to remarry, they are committed to their future together. Sheila is devastated when her son Gary Canning (Damien Richardson) is murdered, and Clive supports her as she grieves. Months later, Clive supports Sheila when she admits that she covered up an attack on her grandson Levi Canning (Richie Morris) when he was a child, which lead to Levi developing epilepsy. Levi undergoes a medical review to assess whether he is able to continue as a police officer. Feeling guilty, Sheila tampers with the review but soon confesses when she realises the severity of her actions. Clive then breaks up with her and quickly starts a relationship with Sheila's neighbour, Jane Harris. Sheila is devastated and attempts to break them up by bringing Jane's ex-partner, Des to Erinsborough. Her scheming fails and she comes to accept that Clive and Jane are serious. Jane and Clive's relationship strengthens and she cares for his fern while he is away. Jane is panicked when the fern dies and Clive distances himself from her in his upset. They reconcile and Clive briefly stays with Jane, her daughter Nicolette Stone (Charlotte Chimes) and Nicolette's girlfriend Chloe Brennan (April Rose Pengilly) while his house is being worked on. Nicolette becomes quickly exasperated by Clive's particular ways and he moves out when he overhears her venting about how unreasonable he is. Clive supports Jane when Nicolette flees Erinsborough after her engagement to Chloe collapses. When she returns, she and Jane move in with David. Clive backs David and nurse Freya Wozniak (Phoebe Roberts) when their conduct in the death of Gareth Bateman (Jack Pearson) is investigated. He's devastated when they later confess that they let Gareth die. Jane urges Clive to speak with David but he chooses to keep his distance. Jane's son Byron Stone (Joe Klocek) moves to Erinsborough and becomes suspicious that one of his escort clients Danielle Pendbury (Christine Stephen-Daly) is involved with Clive. Nicolette catches Clive and Danielle in a compromising position, forcing Clive to confess to Jane that Danielle is a benefactor to the hospital who he previously had a sexual relationship with while she was his patient. Jane is upset when Danielle admits that Clive was considering her offer to spend one more night together. Jane breaks up with Clive and shortly after, he receives a call from Sheila, who departed Erinsborough a number of months prior. Clive dresses up in his gorillagram to try and win Jane back, but is interrupted by someone on their motorbike. Clive sees that same person at Lassiters and yells at them, but then realises it is Mike, Jane's old love. Clive asks Mike if he is trying to restart a relationship with Jane and Mike says no. Later, Clive has a few drinks and becomes drunk, then picks a fight with Mike when he sees him spending time with Jane. They fight and Clive is forced to accept that his relationship is over. Clive attends a party on Ramsay Street later in the day, and has drinks with Des and parties with the residents. Reception TV Week'''s Stephen Cook observed that ever since he joined Neighbours, Paine had become a favourite with viewers who liked "his nice-guy on-screen personality." To celebrate the 20th anniversary of Neighbours, a reporter from the BBC asked readers to nominate their twenty favourite obscure characters. Clive was not included in the list, but the reporter revealed they had received many suggestions asking him to be included. They said that Clive's popularity disqualified him and that he "lacked sufficient obscurity". Another writer for the BBC called Clive the "true genius of Neighbours." Lorna Cooper of MSN said Clive was "lovely", while Tom Adair of The Scotsman dubbed the character "wacky". A Lowculture writer stated that Clive performing an emergency tracheotomy on Jim Robinson's kitchen table was one of Neighbours' great moments. A BBC reporter agreed, saying Clive's most notable moment was "Performing an emergency operation on the Robinson's kitchen table and saving Lucy." Daniel Martin of The Guardian included Clive's 1986 dream on his list of Favourite Christmas Soap Moments. Martin commented, "Not the greatest dream sequence in Neighbours history (that gong has to go to the iconic Bouncer's Dream), but this candy-coated reminder to the grim British contingent of how it should be done is burned onto the brains of twentysomethings nationwide. Doctor Clive – refereeing a boxing match between Mike and Shane for the heart of Plain Jane Superbrain – is knocked out and goes into a bizarre festive dream sequence where the cast were re-imagined as pantomime characters. Clive was Santa, Mike and Shane were Tweedle Dum and Dee, Paul Robinson some nameless panto villain – and Scott and Charlene were in Europe pretending to be pop stars." In her 1994 book, The Neighbours Programme Guide, Josephine Monroe revealed that Clive became popular with viewers and his 1989 return was scripted to set up a spin-off series, City Hospital. A pilot was made, but it was not picked up by any television networks. Polly Hudson of the Daily Mirror wondered why Paine did not go on to have an acting career in Hollywood, like "mean old Jim Robinson", commenting that he was "surely the most talented comedy actor of all time". Laura-Jayne Tyler of Inside Soap praised Clive's 2017 return, saying "Treat of the week was the return of Dr Clive Gibbons to Neighbours. A real 80s favourite!" Clive was placed at number twenty-seven on the Huffpost's'' "35 greatest Neighbours characters of all time" feature. Journalist Adam Beresford credited "loveable" Clive with "helping to establish the show's wacky tone during its early heyday." Beresford added that Clive's reintroduction "gave long-term viewers a nostalgia hit." References Bibliography External links Clive Gibbons at BBC Online Neighbours characters Fictional physicians Television characters introduced in 1986 Male characters in television Fictional business executives
4889378	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Gottlieb%20%28Neighbours%29	Mark Gottlieb (Neighbours)	Mark Gottlieb is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, acted by Bruce Samazan. Samazan hoped the role would help him further his aspirations to become a popular Australian actor. He relocated from Sydney to Melbourne for filming and signed a six-month contract, which he then required to extend. He made his first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 13 August 1993. Mark was introduced as the brother of established regular Stephen Gottlieb (Lochie Daddo). The role initially required Samazan to put on a French accent, which he based on his own father's. In order to distinguish Mark from his E Street character Max Simmons, Samazan got a Caesar cut and Mark had a trendy European wardrobe. Mark is a chef, and was portrayed as being "down-to-earth" and keen to settle down. He attracts the attentions of several female characters, but producers established a romantic relationship between him and Annalise Hartman (Kimberley Davies), which resulted in their engagement. During their wedding, Mark announces that he wants to dedicate his life to God and become a priest. Samazan believed the storyline gave both Mark and Annalise longevity. Mark's religious beliefs annoy his friends and neighbours, and Samazan described Mark as "pretty fanatical". The storyline led to Samazan's departure, as he felt the producers wanted to take his character in a different direction than he wanted. Mark's exit aired on 29 November 1995, as he leaves Erinsborough to pursue a career as a TV chef. Samazan reprised the role for the show's 35th anniversary celebrations, and his return scenes aired on 26 February 2020. Casting Actor Bruce Samazan joined the cast of Neighbours as Mark, shortly after the cancellation of rival soap E Street in which he starred as Max Simmons. Samazan told Shelli-Anne Couch of The Sydney Morning Herald that he hoped a stint on Neighbours would help him further his aspirations of becoming a popular Australian actor. Samazan initially signed a six-month contract, but he wanted to extend it to make it a year and then decide whether he would continue in the role or look for a new acting job. Joining Neighbours meant Samazan had to relocate to Melbourne from Sydney for filming. Speaking to Brett Thomas from The Sun-Herald, Samazan admitted that he was "a little bit rusty" because he had not worked for two months after E Street, but thought it was a good thing as the nerves helped him to get his lines right. He continued, "That's the best way to get rid of cobwebs. I'm almost nervous and that makes for a better performance because you're really thinking – you're thinking all the time. It makes it more of a challenge when you've got to adjust to a new situation." Samazan made his debut screen appearance on 13 August 1993. Development Introduction and characterisation Upon his introduction, Mark assumes a French persona as part of a ruse. Samazan had to act with a French accent that he developed with the help of real life experiences. He told Thomas, "A lot of the accent is from just listening to my father – he has such a rich French accent, even after 15 years of living here and people still have trouble understanding him. So I know how a Frenchman is going to say an English word." It is not long before Mark's real identity is revealed and it emerges that he has come to Erinsborough to reconcile with his brother Stephen Gottlieb (Lochie Daddo). The brothers had fallen out when Mark spiked Stephen's drink, so he was incapable of driving himself and his fiancée Libby home. Libby took a taxi instead, but it crashed and Libby was killed. Stephen blamed Mark for causing Libby's death. While talking about their days living with their parents in a hippy commune, where Mark was called Cosmic, the brothers realise that they have lots in common and finally reconcile. Samazan had to change his appearance for the role to distinguish Mark from his E Street character. Mark wore "a trendy and expensive European wardrobe" and a Caesar cut, which initially shocked Samazan. He called the look "very old European", but pointed out the short hair was appropriate for Mark's job as a chef. Thomas thought Samazan might have been reluctant to change his look and the actor admitted that it had to be done, as he did not want viewers to confuse Mark with Max. An Inside Soap columnist described Mark as being "down-to-earth" and keen to settle down. He resented his parents for his upbringing and their "backwards ways". After moving into Number 30 Ramsay Street, Mark took over the lease of the Coffee Shop and ran a successful business. Relationship with Annalise Hartman Mark finds himself torn between two women – Gaby Willis (Rachel Blakely) and Annalise Hartman (Kimberley Davies). Mark feels that he has a lot to offer Annalise and that is why he chooses her over Gaby, who is looking for a long-term relationship. Mark sees past Annalise's flirty persona and falls in love with her. Samazan said Mark loved the attention he got from both women, especially when they argued over him. He also told Mary Fletcher from Woman's Own, "It was great for Mark's ego – and it didn't do mine any harm either!" Mark comforts Annalise when her affair with her boss ends and they grow closer when Mark learns more about Annalise's upbringing. Samazan explained, "Her own mother was a gold-digger who brought her up to think of men as paycheques. When Mark finds out, he starts to think differently about her and they end up setting up home together." Samazan added that because Neighbours was a family show, there would not be any actual sex scenes between Mark and Annalise, but he thought the audience would know what the couple were up to by their various displays of affection and comments. Despite his relationship with Annalise, Mark continues to attract admirers. First, teenager Danni Stark (Eliza Szonert) develops a crush on Mark and then charity fundraiser Katerina Torelli (Josephine Mitchell) spots Mark out driving with Annalise and also develops a crush on him. Mark and Katerina flirt with each other and Katerina dedicates songs to him on radio, which makes Annalise jealous. While Annalise is away, Mark kisses Katerina. When Annalise finds out what happened, she is shocked that Mark cheated on her, but they stay together. The couple argue more, as Mark becomes broody and wants to settle down, but Annalise does not feel the same way. Samazan thought that Mark was looking for stability in his life, following his upbringing with his hippy parents. He also believed that Mark's mother's death "hit him very hard" and it made him think more about where his life and relationship with Annalise is heading. A few months later, Mark proposes to Annalise and she accepts. In the lead up to the wedding, Annalise pressures Mark to be baptised and attend church services. As a result, Mark realises that he wants "bigger and better things" and falls in love with religion. During the wedding, Mark suddenly announces to a devastated Annalise that he wants to dedicate his life to God and become a priest. Samazan told Arnold that he was happy to get the scripts for the storyline, as it meant that there would be more to come from Mark and Annalise's relationship. He said, "When I realised there was going to be a bit more longevity for both our characters I was thrilled. I was worried that Mark and Annalise would get written into a corner but there's lots of juicy stuff to come." Religious views As the character's "religious fervour" grows more intense, his more secular neighbours are shown to be annoyed by it. Mark's behaviour causes trouble for his sister, Serendipity Gottlieb (Raelee Hill), and he manages to alienate his friends when he tries to dictate how they should lead their lives. Samazan described Mark as "pretty fanatical" and thought he should be talking to his friends, instead of ramming his beliefs down their throats. Mark vows to be celibate, but this is tested by his attraction to Lucy Robinson (Melissa Bell). Following "a series of narrow escapes", Mark starts to have delusions of immortality. When he comes away from a collision with a car without injury, he is convinced it is a sign from God. However, when Lucy leaves town, this causes Mark to have an emotional breakdown and he throws himself further into his religious preaching, which sees him become an outcast. Samazan said "He has a very close brush with death and thinks he's invincible. But he's been through some tough times – there was his mum's death, jilting Annalise and seeing her get together with Sam, and then to top it all Lucy left him just as he finally fell for her." The character's faith is tested when he starts to feel shut out and he sees Annalise moving on with someone else. The storyline comes to a conclusion when Mark falls from a ladder and ends up in a coma. As Mark lies in his hospital bed, Serendipity becomes "increasingly distraught" as it seems that no one else cares about her brother. As he wakes up from his coma, Mark comes to his senses and works hard to win his friends back. Departure and return The character's religious storyline led to Samazan's departure from the serial, as he felt the producers wanted to take Mark in a different direction than he wanted. He said, "I wasn't happy with Mark's character anymore, he had run his course. I don't think I'd ever go back to doing a soap – except E Street that is." Samazan departed Neighbours in 1995, along with several other cast members. On-screen, Mark makes an appearance on a cooking show, which leads to a job offer in Sydney. He decides to leave Erinsborough to pursue his new career as a TV chef. On 24 November 2019, Neighbours confirmed that Samazan had reprised the role for the serial's 35th anniversary celebrations. His scenes began airing from 26 February 2020. Samazan thought the opportunity to return for "an amazing milestone was a no brainer." He told Maddison Hockey of TV Week that he had been asked to return before, but the timing this time worked out perfectly and he felt honoured to be involved in the 35th anniversary. Samazan was also pleased to have the chance to work with former Neighbours and E Street co-star Melissa Bell again. Storylines After arriving in Erinsborough, Mark assumes the identity of Marcel Amadieu and poses as a French chef to get a job at Lassister's Hotel. Annalise Hartman soon uncovers the ruse and Mark asks her to keep quiet, explaining that he has come to reconcile with his brother Stephen. Mark spiked Stephen's drink during a party, leaving him unable to drive his fiancée, Libby, home. Libby took a taxi, which crashed and killed her. Stephen blames Mark for the accident. When Mark visits Stephen at his home in Ramsay Street, he is shocked to find him in a wheelchair following an explosion at the local pub. Stephen suffers a relapse triggered by Mark's arrival. Mark wants to make amends, but Stephen's wife, Phoebe (Simone Robertson) and friend Wayne Duncan (Jonathon Sammy-Lee) want him to stay away from Stephen. Mark perseveres and eventually Stephen forgives him. After Stephen and Phoebe move to Ansons Corner, Mark moves into the house with Beth Brennan (Natalie Imbruglia). Several local women develop crushes on Mark, including Annalise, Gaby Willis and Lucy Robinson. Mark pursues Annalise and woos her with grand gestures. Mark and Annalise soon begin dating and their relationship is fraught with many arguments. Mark receives a letter from his mother, Sally (Jane Little; Helen Rollinson), who is dying of cancer and he finds this hard to take as he has not seen her or his father in a number of years. Mark visits the hippy commune where he and his siblings were raised and clashes with his father, Dave (David Murray; Ivar Kants), but soon relents and makes his peace with Sally on her deathbed. Annalise also attends and things between her and Mark are strengthened. Mark proposes to Annalise and she accepts, but on the day of the wedding, he jilts her and decides he wants to become a priest. This decision hurts Annalise and soon Mark begins alienating his friends when he becomes serious about his new life path and becomes sanctimonious. Mark struggles with his feelings for Annalise, and later tells her he will become a lay preacher, so they can still marry and he can devote his life to the church. Annalise realises that she no longer loves Mark and he leaves to do some charity work. On his return, Mark finds Lucy Robinson working as a go-go dancer at a nightclub. He learns that her marriage and modelling career have both ended, so he persuades her to go and see her family. Mark is attracted to Lucy and he helps her overcome an alcohol problem with counselling. During this time, he buys the lease to the coffee shop from Annalise and renames it The Holy Roll. Mark is impressed with Lucy when she gives a talk about addiction at a youth centre, and they have dinner together. Mark and Lucy have sex, and he is tempted to forgo joining the priesthood to be with her. However, Lucy tells him that she needs to leave Erinsborough and she takes a job in New York. Lucy's departure sends Mark into a depression. After coming away from three minor accidents and a collision with a car unscathed, Mark feels that he is immortal. He alienates himself when his friends and neighbours become fed up of his lectures. When Mark slips and falls while cleaning Lou Carpenter's (Tom Oliver) gutters, he is left comatose for several weeks. He eventually regains consciousness, much to the relief of his sister, Serendipity Gottlieb who has been by his bedside. Mark suffers memory loss, but soon has flashbacks to his pious behaviour and realises he had become unlikeable. Shortly after being released from hospital, Mark briefly dates Annalise's half-sister Joanna Hartman (Emma Harrison), but he feels things are too weird as he was engaged to Annalise the previous year. After realising that being a chef is what he wants to do with his life, Mark sells The Holy Roll. He is then offered a job on the popular television show Healthy, Wealthy and Wise. Mark proves to be a natural in front of the camera and a rival show offers him a hosting job, which is based in Sydney. After encouragement from his house mate Cody Willis (Peta Brady), Mark accepts the job and he has one final breakfast at Number 30, before leaving for Sydney. Mark returns to Erinsborough twenty-five years later to meet with Jack Callahan (Andrew Morley), who is conflicted about whether to return to the priesthood. Mark meets Lucy Robinson, who is also in town for the Lassiters wedding expo, and they reconnect over their shared history. Mark extends his stay and they eventually rekindle their relationship, despite Lucy's concerns about Mark's commitment to his faith. When Mark learns that Lucy has to return to the United States for work, he decides to propose to her and move to New York, so they can be together. Mark and Lucy have a ceremonial wedding on the first day of the expo, before leaving for New York, so Mark can meet Lucy's daughter, followed by a visit to Las Vegas for Lucy's job, and eventually Paris for their honeymoon. Reception For his portrayal of Mark, Samazan earned a nomination for Most Popular Actor at the 1st National Television Awards. A writer for the BBC's Neighbours website said Mark's most notable moment was "Calling off his wedding to become a priest." Matthew Clifton, writing for entertainment website Heckler Spray included Mark in his list of "The Best Ever Mid-90s Neighbours Characters." Of Mark, Clifton said "Joined the soap pretending to be a French chef to get a job at the coffee shop, Marcel Amadeu 'a votre service'. Mark had a religious conversion after nearly been killed by a kitchen knife accident, and in the end jilted strumpet Annalise to become a priest. He also changed the name of the café to The Holy Roll". During a feature on Neighbours actors turned pop stars Iain Hepburn of the Daily Record did not remember Samazan's character, saying "Bruce played Mark Gottlieb – no, we didn't immediately remember him either." Tony Squires from The Sydney Morning Herald disliked Mark's hair during his time on the show, asking him to "get rid of the Caesar haircut" and branding it "unfortunate". A Daily Mirror reporter called the character "hunky". While an Inside Soap writer quipped that Mark was "Ramsay Street's unlikely heart-throb". A columnist for All About Soap placed Annalise and Mark's wedding at number eight on their twenty greatest soap weddings list. They said "Annalise looked more likely to make a priest renounce his vows than drive a man into the arms of the church, but that's exactly what happened when Mark ditched Neighbours''' hottest babe at the altar to devote his life to God. Strange but true..." Inside Soap'' ran a feature compiling "The 100 greatest soap stories ever told". They featured Mark's story about finding God as their 55th choice. References External links Mark Gottlieb at BBC Online Mark Gottlieb at Neighbours.com Catholicism in television Fictional Christians Fictional chefs Male characters in television Neighbours characters Television characters introduced in 1993
4889465	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bien%20Hoa%20Air%20Base	Bien Hoa Air Base	Bien Hoa Air Base (Vietnamese: Sân bay Biên Hòa) is a Vietnam People's Air Force (VPAF) military airfield located in South-Central southern Vietnam about from Ho Chi Minh City, across the Dong Nai river in the northern ward of Tân Phong, and within the city of Biên Hòa within Đồng Nai Province. The boomburb city is densely populated and rings the base, despite significant levels of agent orange toxins simply left there for decades. The base is scheduled to begin cleanup by 2019. During the Vietnam War the base was used by the Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF). The United States used it as a major base from 1961 through 1973, stationing Army, Air Force, Navy and Marine units there. Origins Bien Hoa is located on flat grounds in a rural area northeast of Saigon. The French Air Force established an air base, the Base aérienne tactique 192, which was very active during the First Indochina War. In February 1953 the French Air Force established a facility at Bien Hoa to overhaul its F8F Bearcats. In April 15 airmen and USAF civilians from the 6410th Materiel Control Group arrived in Saigon to help the French set up their F8F overhaul facility and they were deployed to Bien Hoa. On 1 June 1955, Bien Hoa Air Base became the RVNAF's logistics support base when the French evacuated their main depot at Hanoi. At this time the base had a single by PSP runway. In December 1960, the U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group Vietnam (MAAG) requested the U.S. Navy, as the designated contract construction agent for the Department of Defense in Southeast Asia, to plan and construct several jet-capable airfields in South Vietnam, including at Bien Hoa. In December 1961, the American construction company RMK-BRJ was directed by the Navy's Officer in Charge of Construction RVN to begin construction of a new concrete runway, the first of many projects built by RMK-BRJ at the Bien Hoa Air Base over the following ten years. American use during the Vietnam War With the influx of USAF tactical air units in the early 1960s, Bien Hoa became a joint operating base for both the RVNAF and USAF. The USAF forces stationed there were under the command of the Pacific Air Forces (PACAF). Bien Hoa was the location for TACAN station Channel 73 and was referenced by that identifier in voice communications during air missions. Its military mail address was APO San Francisco, 96227. From September 1962 the 33rd Transportation Company (Light Helicopter) arrived with Piasecki CH-21C Shawnee's. A Company, 501st Aviation Battalion arrived during December 1964 with Bell UH-1 Hueys. Det. 2 4400th Combat Crew Training Squadron/1st Air Commando Squadron (Composite) On 11 October 1961, President John F. Kennedy directed, in NSAM 104, that the Defense Secretary "introduce the Air Force 'Jungle Jim' Squadron into Vietnam for the initial purpose of training Vietnamese forces." The 4400th Combat Crew Training Squadron was to proceed as a training mission and not for combat. The unit would be officially titled Detachment 2 of the 4400th Combat Crew Training Squadron, code named Farm Gate. The unit would administratively and operationally belong to the Air Force section of MAAG Vietnam. Detachment 2A would be the B-26 Invader unit; Detachment 2B would be the T-28 Trojan unit. In late October an advance party from the 6009th Tactical Support Group arrived at Bien Hoa to prepare the base for Farm Gate operations and on 15 November they were joined by Detachment 9, 6010th Tactical Support Group responsible for aircraft maintenance. In late December 4 B-26s arrived at Bien Hoa and began operations. Farm Gate would quickly grow to 4 SC-47s, 4 B-26s and 8 T-28s. In June 1962 2 Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) soldiers guarding the base perimeter were killed by Viet Cong (VC) and as a result CINCPAC Admiral Harry D. Felt recommended the defoliation of the jungle area north of the base and this was carried out by RVNAF H-34 helicopters in July. In May 1962 2 RB-26C night photo-reconnaissance aircraft joined the Farm Gate planes at the base. One of the aircraft was destroyed in a ground accident on 20 October. In July 1963 the 19th Tactical Air Support Squadron was activated at the base, becoming operational on 15 September. Initially equipped with 4 O-1 Bird Dogs and 20 crew. It was tasked with training RVNAF pilots and observers in forward air control and visual reconnaissance. By the end of 1963 it had 16 O-1s at Bien Hoa and had flown 3862 sorties. By June 1963, the USAF presence in South Vietnam had grown to almost 5,000 airmen. As the buildup continued, USAF directed the activation of a more permanent organizational structure to properly administer the forces being deployed. On 8 July 1963 the Farm Gate squadrons at Bien Hoa were redesignated the 1st Air Commando Squadron (Composite) comprising two strike sections, one of 10 B-26s and 2 RB-26s and the other of 13 T-28s, in addition support squadrons operated 6 C-47s and 4 psychological warfare U-10s. Also on 8 July the 34th Tactical Group was established at the base, taking control of the 19th Tactical Air Support Squadron and the 34th Air Base Squadron. In December 1963 U-2 reconnaissance aircraft operating from the base conducted surveillance missions over Laos and North Vietnam. In early 1964 the USAF and RVNAF were only able to provide half of all requested air support. On 11 February a B-26 operating from Eglin Air Force Base lost a wing in flight and this led to the grounding of all B-26s in South Vietnam. With the loss of the B-26s CINCPAC and Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV) proposed that they be replaced by B-57B Canberra tactical bombers operating under Farm Gate procedures with RVNAF markings and joint USAF/RVNAF crews. At the end of March 48 B-57s flew from Yokota Air Base in Japan to Clark Air Base in the Philippines. On 8 April the remaining B-26s at Bien Hoa flew to Clark Air Base for scrapping. On 24 March a T-28 lost a wing during a bombing run near Sóc Trăng Airfield killing both crewmen and on 9 April another T-28 lost a wing during a strafing run and crashed. Two officials from North American Aviation, the manufacturers of the T-28, visited Bien Hoa and reviewed these losses and advised that the T-28 wasn't designed for the stresses it was being subjected to as a close air support aircraft. As a result, 5 older T-28s were retired and 9 newer aircraft were borrowed by the RVNAF and operational restrictions imposed. Despite this augmentation, accidents and aircraft transfers meant that by late May the 1st Air Commando Squadron had only 8 T-28s left but these were retired on 30 May and replaced by more capable A-1E Skyraiders. B-57 Canberras Following the Gulf of Tonkin incident on 4 August 1964, the Joint Chiefs of Staff began a buildup of U.S. airpower in South Vietnam and 36 B-57B Canberras of the 8th and 13th Bombardment Squadrons at Clark Air Base were ordered to Bien Hoa. As the B-57s approached Bien Hoa on the evening of 5 August one crashed on approach and two skidded on the rain-soaked runway colliding with each other and blocking the runway forcing the rest of the flight to divert to Tan Son Nhut Air Base. One of the B-57Bs was hit by ground fire and dived into the ground during approach at Tan Son Nhut and was destroyed, killing both crew members. Ground rescue parties were unable to reach the planes due to strong Viet Cong fire. The deployment of the B-57s would be the first deployment of jet combat aircraft to Vietnam, however as this was a violation of the Geneva Protocols which forbade the introduction of jet combat aircraft to Vietnam, the squadrons were ostensibly assigned to the 405th Fighter Wing at Clark Air Base and carried out rotational deployments to South Vietnam on a 'temporary' basis. During the next few weeks, more B-57Bs were moved from Clark to Bien Hoa to make good the losses of 5 August and to reinforce the original deployment. The B-57s shared an open-air, three-sided hangar with the RVNAF resulting in overcrowding that forced 18 of the B-57s to be sent back to Clark in October. In late August Detachment 1, Pacific Air Rescue Service was established at the base equipped with HH-43Bs. In October Detachment 4 was established at the base equipped with 3 improved HH-43Fs and in November Detachment 1 was sent to Takhli Royal Thai Air Force Base. The HH-43s were responsible for search and rescue, local base rescue and firefighting. With the activation of the 38th Air Rescue Squadron on 30 June 1965 the detachment at Bien Hoa was renamed Detachment 6. In October 1964 the 602nd Fighter Squadron (Commando) was organised at the base equipped with A-1Es. 1964 Mortar attack On the night of 1 November 1964 a VC mortar team penetrated the base perimeter and launched a 30-minute barrage on the base destroying 5 B-57s, 3 A-1Hs and 1 HH-43 and damaging 13 B-57s, 3 A-1Hs, 3 HH-43s and 2 C-47s and killing 4 U.S. and 2 Vietnamese. The VC claimed to have destroyed 59 aircraft and killed hundreds of U.S. personnel. The Joint Chiefs of Staff recommended reprisal attacks against the North Vietnamese but President Lyndon Johnson ordered the replacement of the lost aircraft and convened a National Security Council working group to consider available political and military options. On 6 November the RVNAF led by Air Vice Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ launched a 32 aircraft retaliatory attack against a VC base area, claiming to have killed 500 VC. On 2 December 1964 the equipment for the conversion of two 1st Air Commando Squadron C-47s into FC-47 gunships arrived at Bien Hoa. The first FC-47 was ready for testing on 11 December and the second on 15 December. The FC-47s began daytime patrols on 15 December with their first engagement on 21 December killing 21 VC. The first night mission took place on the night of 23/4 December. On 19 February 1965 the Bien Hoa-based B-57Bs mission conducted the USAF's first combat mission bombing VC bases in Phước Tuy Province, in contrast to the preceding Farm Gate missions which were ostensibly conducted by the RVNAF, though in reality carried out by the USAF). This strike was, incidentally, the first time that live ordnance had been delivered against an enemy in combat from a USAF jet bomber. The B-57s conducted further strikes from 21 to 24 February and on 24 February USAF units rescued an ARVN unit under attack in the Mang Yang Pass. On 9 March 1965 the Joint Chiefs of Staff formally approved the use of USAF aircraft for offensive operations in South Vietnam, ending the advisory era. From 3 to 6 May 1965 USAF transport aircraft deployed the 173rd Airborne Brigade from Okinawa to Bien Hoa to secure the airbase and surrounding areas and the port of Vũng Tàu. 1965 Bien Hoa Disaster The use of the B-57s in combat continued to increase as the VC stepped up their attacks on ARVN outposts throughout South Vietnam and the jets were also used on Operation Barrel Roll missions over Laos. On the morning of 16 May 1965, 4 loaded B-57s were awaiting takeoff at the base for a Barrel Roll mission, when a U.S. Navy F-8 Crusader made an emergency landing and was being inspected on the ramp. The lead B-57 suddenly exploded and burst into flames causing a chain reaction of explosions destroying other aircraft, fuel and pre-armed ordnance. The explosions destroyed 10 B-57s, 2 A-1Es and the Navy F-8, killed 28 Americans and 6 Vietnamese and wounded more than 100 more and damaged 25 RVNAF A-1s in what was described as one of the "worst disasters in Air Force history". Among the dead was 34-year-old USAF Major Robert G. Bell, who in 1959 had been one of the 32 finalists for NASA Astronaut Group 1. The Bien Hoa Air Base Vietnam May 16, 1965 Conflagration/Fire Accident Investigation Board concluded that the disaster was caused by the accidental explosion of a bomb on a parked B-57 triggering a series of blasts. The aircraft and the ammunition were stored too close together which allowed the fires and explosions to spread. The accident investigation board recommended improvements. In the face of such experience, engineers initiated a major program to construct revetments and aircraft shelters to protect individual aircraft. The 10 surviving B-57s were transferred to Tan Son Nhut Air Base and continued to fly sorties on a reduced scale until replacement aircraft arrived from Clark AB. As the B-57B was withdrawn from active front-line service, some B-57Bs had to be transferred to Vietnam from the Kansas Air National Guard, and 12 B-57Es had to be withdrawn from target-towing duties and reconfigured as bombers to make good these losses. In June 1965, the B-57s were moved from Tan Son Nhut Air Base to Da Nang Air Base. On 23 June the 416th Tactical Fighter Squadron equipped with F-100D Super Sabres moved from Da Nang Air Base to Bien Hoa. On 13 July 1965 the newly arrived 307th Tactical Fighter Squadron also equipped with F-100Ds arrived at the base. 3rd Tactical Fighter Wing On 8 November 1965 the 3d Tactical Fighter Wing moved to Bien Hoa, becoming the host unit at the base. The 3rd TFW briefly absorbed the assets of the 1st and 602nd Air Commando Squadrons, however in January 1966 the 1st Air Commando Squadron moved to Pleiku Air Base and the 602nd Air Commando Squadron moved to Nha Trang Air Base. On 8 February 1966 the 90th Tactical Fighter Squadron equipped with F-100Ds arrived at Bien Hoa. F-100 units attached to the 3rd TFW were: 90th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 8 February 1966 - 31 October 1970 307th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 21 November - 6 December 1965 308th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 2 December 1965 – 25 December 1966 416th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 16 November 1965 - 15 April 1967 429th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 21 November - 14 December 1965 510th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 8 November 1965 – 15 November 1969 531st Tactical Fighter Squadron, 7 December 1965 – 31 July 1970 Other attached units were: 1st Air Commando Squadron, 21 November- 8 March 1966 8th Attack Squadron (later redesignated 8th Special Operations Squadron), 15 November 1969 - 30 September 1970 10th Fighter Squadron (Commando), 8 April 1966 - 17 April 1967 311th Attack Squadron, 15 November - 15 December 1969 602nd Air Commando Squadron, 21 November- 8 March 1966 604th Air Commando Squadron, 15 November 1967 - 1 March 1970 In addition AC-47 Spooky gunships of Flight D, 4th Air Commando Squadron were deployed to Bien Hoa. These would later be replaced by Flight C of the 14th Air Commando Squadron with 4 AC-47s. F-5 Skoshi Tiger evaluation In late October 1965, 12 F-5A Freedom Fighters belonging to the 4503rd Tactical Fighter Squadron arrived at Bien Hoa for combat evaluation under a program known as Skoshi Tiger. The planes mostly flew close air support missions near Bien Hoa flying 1500 sorties by the end of December and losing one aircraft to ground fire. On 1 January 1966 the squadron moved north to Da Nang Air Base. The squadron moved back to Bien Hoa in early February and then returned to Da Nang on 20 February performing operations over Laos and across the Vietnamese Demilitatrized Zone against targets in North Vietnam. The squadron returned to Bien Hoa on 8 March completing the evaluation program. The squadron remained in South Vietnam and in April it was redesignated the 10th Fighter Squadron, Commando. On 1 April the first Combat Skyspot Ground-directed bombing radar system was installed at the base. The rapid growth of units at Bien Hoa led to issues of overcrowding and electricity and water shortages which were only gradually addressed throughout 1966, while many units were undermanned for the increased demands placed on them. On 23 February 1967 the base was the loading port for 845 paratroopers of the 173rd Airborne Brigade when they performed the first combat parachute jump of the war in Operation Junction City. 604th Air Commando Squadron A-37A Combat Dragon Program On 17 July 1967 the 604th Air Commando Squadron flying the A-37A Dragonfly began arriving at the base to test the A-37 in combat over three months under a program named Combat Dragon. Testing began on 15 August flying 12 close air support sorties daily, increasing to 60 by 5 September. In late October, some of the planes moved to Pleiku Air Base to perform armed and visual reconnaissance missions and night interdiction flights in the Tiger Hound operational area over southeastern Laos. The tests ended successfully in mid-December with only one aircraft lost and the squadron was then attached to the 14th Air Commando Wing at Nha Trang Air Base but it continued to fly out of Bien Hoa. 1968 Tet Offensive and subsequent attacks In the early morning of 31 January at the start of the Tet Offensive VC and People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) forces hit the base with mortar and rocket fire and then attacked the eastern perimeter of the base, establishing a defensive position in an engine test stand. While the base security moved to attack this VC force, PAVN units infiltrated the perimeter in 3 different places and began firing on the base's III Corps Direct Air Support Center. An ARVN security force cornered a group of VC/PAVN in a supply shed and engaged them with recoilless rifle fire before USAF Security Police and ARVN forces finished them off with grenades and rifle fire. At dawn U.S. Army forces arrived at the base to engage the VC/PAVN. The main gate was near the active runway of the 145th Aviation Battalion, a U.S. Army helicopter unit. The battalion's pilots lived off-base at the Honour-Smith Compound, a villa on Cong Ly Street in the city of Bien Hoa, some 2 kilometers away. Some were on base or made it there before the fire got too heavy and some of the gunships took off to patrol the base perimeters. Later intelligence reported that there were three main VC units that were to attack the base; the most critical attack was to force the main gate, overwhelm the helicopter active area and prevent gunships from taking off. Other attacks were to proceed across open ground to the main Air Force bunkers and to bring mounted machine guns to sweep the base runway. Due to the battle raging at the east end of the runway F-100 fighter operations were curtailed for most of the day while USAF, RVNAF and U.S. Army forces engaged the VC. At about 16:00 two 531st TFS F-100s were launched to the east through the ground-fire with the intent of delivering ordnance on the battle raging on their own airbase. The actual strike was delayed because friendly forces were so close to the enemy forces. After about an hour of waiting the separation between forces was still small but considered adequate for the F-100s to deliver. The F-100 run-ins were from west to east releasing their ordnance in front of their own squadron for impact on the desired targets. This meant that crew chiefs and armorers actually got to see their aircraft in action. At the conclusion of the airstrike the F-100s landed to the east. The after action correspondence from the strike controller credited the airstrike with essentially ending the battle. This is perhaps the only time in USAF history that pilots have conducted a controlled airstrike on their own airbase. USAF losses were 4 killed in action with another dying of a heart attack, while 26 were wounded. VC/PAVN losses were 137 killed and 25 captured. One A-37 and 1 F-100 were destroyed while a further 17 aircraft were damaged. The bodies of the VC/PAVN killed in the attack were buried in an unmarked mass grave on the edge of the base that was only uncovered in 2017. The Tet Offensive attacks and previous losses due to mortar and rocket attacks on air bases across South Vietnam led the Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Nitze on 6 March 1968 to approve the construction of 165 "Wonderarch" roofed aircraft shelters at the major air bases. In addition airborne "rocket watch" patrols were established in the Saigon-Bien Hoa area to reduce attacks by fire. On 7 April 1968, following nighttime mortar attacks on the base, 14 C-130s each dropped 4 pallets of 16 55 gallon drums of Napalm over the forested area north of the base which ignited by rockets causing a massive fire across the area. After midnight on 5 May during the May Offensive the PAVN/VC shelled the base twice for 3 hours and then shelled it again at dawn wounding 11 USAF personnel and damaging 13 aircraft, 5 trucks and 3 50,000-gallon rubber fuel bladders. A further artillery attack on 7 May caused minimal damage. On 26 February 1969 as part of the Tet 1969 attacks, elements of the PAVN 275th Regiment prepared to attack the base but were engaged about 3 km south of the base around the village of Thai Hiep. From March 1969 the Combat Skyspot radar site at the base directed B-52 strikes against targets in Cambodia as part of the secret Operation Menu bombings. On 1 September 1969 with the inactivation of the 3rd Special Operations Squadron, the 4th Special Operations Squadron took over its gunship role at Bien Hoa basing 3 AC-47s there until it too was inactivated on 15 December 1969. On 21 January 1970 an artillery attack on the base damaged a C–123, a C–7 and a UH–1. A rocket attack on 27 February damaged 3 A-37s, 2 F-100s and a C-7. Two USAF personnel were killed in these attacks and 74 wounded. 3rd Tactical Fighter Wing phasedown In 1971, the 3rd TFW was preparing to inactivate and the wing began phasing down for inactivation as part of the American drawdown of forces. On 15 March 1971 the 3rd TFW inactivated at Bien Hoa and was simultaneously activated at Kunsan Air Base, South Korea, taking over the defensive mission there. The 3rd TFW transferred its remaining resources to the 315th Tactical Airlift Wing at Phan Rang Air Base on 31 July 1971. Still flying its A-37s, the 8th Special Operations Squadron was attached to the 315th TAW, but physically remained at Bien Hoa Air Base. Then the 8th SOS was attached to the 377th Air Base Group (later 377th Air Base Wing) at Tan Son Nhut Air Base on 15 January 1972. Base rescue was provided by a daily rotation of 2 HH-43Fs of Detachment 14, 3d Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Group from Tan Son Nhut Air Base. Easter Offensive In response to the North Vietnamese Easter Offensive, the U.S. military built up its air forces in South Vietnam under Operation Constant Guard. On 14 April 1972 a turnaround service for F-4 Phantoms was established at the base. In addition a detachment of 6 AC–119K Stinger gunships and 150 men from the 18th Special Operations Squadron deployed from Nakhon Phanom Royal Thai Navy Base. On 17 May, 32 U.S. Marine Corps A-4 Skyhawks of VMA-211 and VMA-311 arrived at Bien Hoa as part of Marine Aircraft Group 12 (Forward). The 8th Special Operations Squadron conducted familiarization flights in their A-37s for the Marines who were soon engaged in the Battle of An Lộc. On 21 May Company K, 3rd Battalion, 9th Marines was deployed to Bien Hoa to augment the USAF 6251st Security Police Squadron who were providing base security. The PAVN attacked the base by fire repeatedly with the heaviest attack of 101 rockets on 1 August resulting in 1 Marine killed. Company K, 3/9 Marines was relieved by Company I 3/9 Marines on 10 August. On 30 August the PAVN fired more than 50 rockets into the base, destroying one USAF A-37 and damaging two USAF A-37s and one F-4 and three USMC A-4s and two RVNAF transport planes. On 10 September a PAVN/VC sapper attack caused an RVNAF ammunition storage dump to explode killing two South Vietnamese and wounding 29 Americans and 20 South Vietnamese, and at least 30 UH-1 helicopters were damaged On 22 October the PAVN hit the base with 61 rockets. On 29 January 1973 Marine Aircraft Group 12 (Forward), the last U.S. combat aviation unit in South Vietnam, left Bien Hoa. RVNAF use On 1 June 1956 the RVNAF's 1st Fighter Squadron (redesignated the 514th Fighter Squadron in January 1963) was formed here equipped with 25 F8F Bearcats, later re-equipping with AD-6s. From this point Bien Hoa became the base of newly formed and continually growing air units. The RVNAF 2311th Air Group, later to become an air wing, and the 311th Air Division were also stationed there and the base supported the greatest number of air combat units than any other in South Vietnam. On 18 March 1964 the newly formed 518th Fighter Squadron began operations from the base with an original strength of 10 A-1Hs, it would grow to 25 aircraft authorized. The RVNAF pilots were trained by crews from the U.S. Navy's VA-152. In June 1964 the RVNAF formed the 23rd Tactical Wing at the base incorporating the 514th, 518th and the newly formed 520th Fighter Squadrons and the 112th Liaison Squadron. The 520th Fighter Squadron would be activated in October. On 1 June 1967 the US Ambassador Ellsworth Bunker presented the 20 F-5As of the 10th Fighter Squadron (Commando) to Vice-President Nguyễn Cao Kỳ at the base. These aircraft would be used by the RVNAF to form the 522nd Fighter Squadron, their first jet squadron with training support provided by the USAF Air Training Command. Following the final withdrawal of U.S. forces from South Vietnam in February 1973, Bien Hoa remained a major RVNAF base hosting the headquarters of the RVNAF 3d Air Division and the Air Logistics Command. On 6 November 1973 a PAVN rocket attack on the base destroyed 3 F-5As. On 3 June 1974 the PAVN hit the base with at least 40 122 mm rockets doing minor damage to runways and destroying 500 napalm canisters, but without damaging any aircraft. Other rockets exploded in hamlets surrounding the base, killing and wounding civilians. June 1974 Table of Organization: 23d Tactical Wing 112th/124th Liaison squadron: O-1A, U-17A 514th/518th Fighter Squadron: A-1H 43d Tactical Wing 221st/223d/231st/245th/251st Helicopter Squadrons: UH-1H 237th Helicopter Squadron: CH-47A Det E 259th Helicopter Squadron: UH-1H (Medevac) 63d Tactical Wing 522nd/536th/540th/544th Fighter Squadrons: F-5A/B/C RF-5A On 10 August 25 rockets hit the base with 7 hitting the F-5A storage area, slightly damaging a few planes. Capture of Bien Hoa Air Base In early April 1975 the PAVN were closing in on the ARVN's last defensive line before Saigon. The town of Xuân Lộc stood at a strategic crossroads 70 km east of Bien Hoa and was defended by the ARVN 18th Division. On 9 April the PAVN 4th Corps comprising 3 Divisions attacked Xuân Lộc. The 18th Division defended the town tenaciously with air support from the RVNAF 3rd Division at Bien Hoa and the 5th Division at Tan Son Nhut AB. On the morning of 15 April a PAVN sapper squad penetrated the base blowing up an ammunition dump and 4 PAVN 130mm field guns began shelling the base, later joined by 122mm rocket batteries which cratered the runways and severely restricted flight operations. By 19 April Xuân Lộc was completely surrounded and the ARVN command ordered its forces there to withdraw to defend Saigon. On 20 April after launching a diversionary attack east of Xuân Lộc, the ARVN units in the town broke out and on 21 April the PAVN captured the town. On 25 April the 3rd Armored Regiment which was fighting at the town of Hung Nghia was ordered to withdraw west along Route 1 to defend Bien Hoa. The ARVN formed a new defensive line east of Bien Hoa at the town of Trảng Bom which was defended by the remnants of the 18th Division, the 468th Marine Brigade and the reconstituted 258th Marine Brigade, which had disgraced itself during the fall of Da Nang. At 04:00 on 27 April the 341st Division attacked Trang Bom, the initial attack was repulsed but by 08:00 attacks on the flanks broke through and the town was captured with the 18th Division suffering heavy casualties in their retreat. The PAVN then advanced to the town of Hố Nai (now Tân Hòa), which was held by the Marines. Hố Nai was defended by the 6th Marine Battalion, an M48 tank from the 3rd Armored and Popular Forces. Following an artillery barrage the PAVN attacked Hố Nai, but were met by ARVN artillery losing 30 dead and one T-54 tank destroyed before they pulled back. On 28 April the 341st renewed their attack using 5 T-54s supported by an infantry regiment, but were repulsed in 3 separate attacks losing 3 T-54s and many soldiers. On 29 April the entire 341st Division attacked Hố Nai and were again repulsed in 2 hours of fighting. At midday the Marines were ordered to withdraw to defend Bien Hoa and Long Binh. Brigadier General Trần Quang Khôi, commander of the 3rd Armored was given responsibility for defending Bien Hoa, although PAVN shelling had rendered the base unusable. Seeing the regular forces leaving Hố Nai the PAVN renewed their assault at midnight on 30 April, but the town's Popular Forces fought back and were not subdued until dawn. The PAVN then advanced to Bien Hoa where they were met by the 3rd Armored, at this point the PAVN 4th Corps changed the axis of their advance to the south. On the morning of 30 April the 18th Division and Marines were ordered to retreat from Long Binh to the west bank of the Đồng Nai river, while the ARVN 81st Rangers held Bien Hoa Air Base and the 3rd Armored held Bien Hoa. The 3rd Armored was moving from Bien Hoa to attack PAVN forces when they heard the surrender broadcast of President Dương Văn Minh and BG Khôi halted his advance and disbanded the unit. The 81st Rangers had abandoned the base and had moved west of the Đồng Nai river when they heard the surrender broadcast and then marched towards Saigon to surrender to the PAVN. VPAF use The VPAF 935th Fighter Regiment equipped with Sukhoi Su-30MK2 is based at Bien Hoa. In April 2019 it was announced that the United States Agency for International Development was beginning a 10-year US$183 million project to decontaminate the base of Dioxin caused by Agent Orange defoliant stored at the base during the Vietnam War. The base was described as the most contaminated site in Vietnam and Dioxin had contaminated the soil and waterways. Accidents and incidents In March 1966 a C-123 of the 311th Air Commando Squadron carrying 6 tons of artillery shells was hit by ground fire while climbing from the base, starting a fire in the left engine, it turned back and made an emergency landing and was destroyed by fire after landing. On 13 December 1968, a USAF Douglas AC-47D Spooky (#43-49274) collided in mid-air with OV-10 Bronco (#67-14627) while both aircraft were on a night-time combat operation at Truc Giang. Both aircraft attempted to return to Bien Hoa Air Base but the OV-10 crashed, killing both crew. The AC-47D was damaged beyond economic repair when its undercarriage collapsed on landing. See also Khmer Air Force Royal Lao Air Force Republic of Vietnam Air Force United States Pacific Air Forces Seventh Air Force References Bibliography Endicott, Judy G. (1999) Active Air Force wings as of 1 October 1995; USAF active flying, space, and missile squadrons as of 1 October 1995. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. CD-ROM. Kelley, Michael P., Where We Were in Vietnam, Hellgate Press, 2002, Martin, Patrick (1994). Tail Code: The Complete History of USAF Tactical Aircraft Tail Code Markings. Schiffer Military Aviation History. . Mesco, Jim (1987) VNAF Republic of Vietnam Air Force 1945-1975 Squadron/Signal Publications. Mikesh, Robert C. (2005) Flying Dragons: The Republic of Vietnam Air Force. Schiffer Publishing, Ltd. USAF Historical Research Division/Organizational History Branch - 35th Fighter Wing, 366th Wing VNAF - The Republic of Vietnam Air Force 1951-1975 USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers--1908 to present External links The Battle of Bien Hoa and Long Binh TDY at Bien Hoa Bien Hoa Air Base: 1964-1969 (Video) Bien Hoa Air Base Vietnam May 16 1965 Conflagration / Fire (Video) Installations of the Vietnam People's Air Force Installations of the United States Air Force in South Vietnam Military installations of South Vietnam Airports in Vietnam Bien Hoa Buildings and structures in Đồng Nai province Installations of the United States Army in South Vietnam
4889835	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phan%20Rang%20Air%20Base	Phan Rang Air Base	Phan Rang Air Base (also called Thành Sơn Air Base) is a Vietnam People's Air Force (VPAF) (Khong Quan Nhan Dan Viet Nam) military airfield in Vietnam. It is located north-northwest of Phan Rang – Tháp Chàm in Ninh Thuận Province. Initially built by the Imperial Japanese Army about 1942, the airfield was also used by the French Air Force () during the First Indochina War then abandoned in 1954. The United States rebuilt the airfield in 1965 and it was used by the Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) and the United States Air Force during the Vietnam War in the II Corps Tactical Zone of South Vietnam. It was seized by the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) in April 1975 and has been in use by the VPAF ever since. Origins The airfield at Phan Rang was used by the Japanese during World War II. In the late 1940s and early 1950s the French Air Force used the same runway, and abandoned the facility when French control over Indochina ended in 1954. USAF use during the Vietnam War 1965-6 Reconstruction In April 1965 CINCPAC instructed an engineering survey for a new airfield at Phan Rang. In July 1965 it was planned that 3 fighter squadrons would be deployed to Phan Rang Air Base once it was completed in October. In late-August 1965 the newly arrived US Army 62nd Engineer Battalion (Construction) was ordered to build a jet-capable airfield at Phan Rang. Commencing construction in September the Army Engineers built a AM-2 aluminum matting runway and open aircraft revetments. Bad weather and shortages of concrete, piping and aluminum matting delayed the base construction, with the completion date progressively delayed to December 1965 and then April 1966. With the movement of the 1st Brigade, 101st Airborne Division to Phan Rang to provide security for base construction the 62nd Engineer Battalion was also required to construct a base for the 1st Brigade. While the 62nd Engineers constructed the temporary runway, American construction consortium RMK-BRJ was working on a permanent concrete runway, taxiways and parking areas. In January 1966 the USAF 554th RED HORSE Squadron arrived at the base to assist with construction. The temporary aluminum runway became operational on 20 February and by mid-March all the interim facilities were operational. Heavy rain in May 1966 and rushed construction led to damage to the aluminum runway and taxiways and in June the 62nd Engineers rebuilt the taxiways while the 554th RED HORSE and RMK-BRJ rebuilt the runway, reducing its available length to . The 62nd Engineers also built a 46,000-barrel fuel storage area, a six-inch pipeline to the beach and two 8-inch submarine pipelines from the beach to an offshore floating mooring and discharge facility. On 12 October 1966 RMK-BMJ completed the concrete runway and 4 connecting taxiways. By the end of the year the base was fully completed with powerplant, water and sewage system, operations, accommodation and other structures. The USAF forces stationed there were under the command of the United States Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) Seventh Air Force. In addition, the United States Navy, and United States Marine Corps had aviation and other support units stationed at Phan Rang. 366th Tactical Fighter Wing Due to the delays in completion of the base, the F-4C Phantom II equipped 391st Tactical Fighter Squadron was diverted from Phan Rang to Cam Ranh Air Base and the 480th Tactical Fighter Squadron went to Da Nang Air Base. On 14 March 1966 the F-4C equipped 389th Tactical Fighter Squadron arrived at the base becoming the first USAF squadron to deploy there. On 20 March 1966 the 366th Tactical Fighter Wing was the first permanent USAF organization to be stationed at Phan Rang Air Base. The rain damage to the base in May 1966 delayed the deployment of the 391st Tactical Fighter Squadron from Cam Ranh AB and the 480th TFS from Da Nang AB. The squadrons assigned to the 366th TFW during this period were: 352d Tactical Fighter Squadron: from 15 August 1966 (F-100D/F Super Sabre) 389th Tactical Fighter Squadron Detachment 1, 612th Tactical Fighter Squadron: from 15 May 1966 (F-100) 614th Tactical Fighter Squadron: from 18 September 1966 (F-100D/F) 615th Tactical Fighter Squadron: from 16 July 1966(F-100D/F) The US population at the base increased dramatically from 118 in March 1966 to over 4,500 in September 1966. This increase led to pressure on accommodation and maintenance facilities which were still under construction; the growth of prostitution in the "sin strip" outside the base; and an increase in employment of Vietnamese on the base, growing to 1000 by the end of 1966. On 10 October 1966, the 366th TFW and the 389th Tactical Fighter Squadron moved to Da Nang AB and the 35th Tactical Fighter Wing at Da Nang AB moved to Phan Rang. 35th Tactical Fighter Wing On 10 October 1966 the 35th Tactical Fighter Wing took over as the host unit at Phan Rang. Units assigned to the 35th TFW were: 120th Tactical Fighter Squadron: 30 April 1968 – 18 April 1969 (F-100C/F Tail Code: VS) 352d Tactical Fighter Squadron: 10 October 1966 – 31 July 1971 (F-100D/F Tail Code: VM) 612th Tactical Fighter Squadron: 10 October 1966 – 8 January 1967 and 14 April 1969 – 15 March 1971 (F-100D/F Tail Code: VS) 614th Tactical Fighter Squadron: 10 October 1966 – 31 July 1971 (F-100D/F Tail Code: VP) 615th Tactical Fighter Squadron: 10 October 1966 – 31 July 1971 (F-100D/F Tail Code: VZ) Missions included air support of ground forces, interdiction, visual and armed reconnaissance, strike assessment photography, escort, close and direct air support, and rapid reaction alert. It struck enemy bases and supply caches in the Parrot's Beak just inside the Cambodian border, April–May 1970 and provided close air support and interdiction in support of South Vietnamese operations in Laos and Cambodia, January–June 1971. B-57 Tactical Bombers The B-57 Canberra equipped 8th and 13th Bombardment Squadrons relocated to Phan Rang with the 35th TFW. B-57 units assigned to the 35th TFWA at Phan Rang were as follows: 8th Tactical Bombardment Squadron: 12 October 1966 – 15 November 1969 (B-57B/C/E Tail Code: PQ) 13th Tactical Bombardment Squadron: 12 October 1966 – 15 January 1968 (B-57B/C/E Tail Code: PV) 2 Squadron, Royal Australian Air Force: 19 April 1967 – 4 June 1971 (Canberra B.20) On 24 December 1966, 3 Operation Tropic Moon II B-57s, experimentally fitted with a low light level television system carried in a pod underneath the port wing arrived at Phan Rang. By November 1969 the 8th Bombardment Squadron's strength was down to only 9 aircraft, and it was decided that it was time to retire the B-57B from active service. The surviving aircraft were sent back to the United States in September and October and the 8th Bombardment Squadron was moved to Bien Hoa Air Base and redesignated the 8th Special Operations Squadron. The RAAF Canberras continued operations from Phan Rang AB until they were withdrawn in June 1971. Further developments, deployments and attacks Detachment 1, 38th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron equipped with HH-43 Huskies relocated to the base from Nakhon Phanom Royal Thai Air Force Base. In November 1967 Phan Rang became a forward operating location for 4 AC-47 Spooky gunships of the newly-activated 14th Air Commando Squadron. On 31 January 1968 at the start of the Tet Offensive, naval gunfire from was used to deter a VC attack on the base and gunfire from the later deterred a similar attack. On 15 April 1968 the 550-man 821st Combat Security Police Squadron was deployed to the base on temporary duty, they were replaced by the 822nd Combat Security Police Squadron in August 1968. The 822nd was replaced by the 823rd Combat Security Police Squadron in March 1969 and was then replaced by the 821st in August 1969. The 821st remained at Phan Rang until February 1971 when it was inactivated. In mid-September 1968 the Federalized Utah National Guard 116th Engineer Combat Battalion deployed to Phan Rang Air Base to begin a ten-month tour of duty. Between 10 August 1968 and 31 May 1969, the 554th Civil Engineering Squadron built an armament and electronics shop, fire station, a concrete access taxiway, 6 troop barracks and 2 officers quarters protecting by a revetment wall, a 49,000-square-yard asphalt hardstand, and a base theater. Commencing in October 1968, USAF engineers built 61 "Wonderarch" aircraft shelters at Phan Rang. On 3 May 1970 VC sappers attacked the base but were repulsed with minor damage and no Allied casualties. On 10 September VC attacked the main gate but were also repulsed with little damage and no Allied casualties. 315th Air Commando Wing/Special Operations Wing The 315th Air Commando Wing (Troop Carrier) moved to Phan Rang from Tan Son Nhut Air Base on 15 June 1967 and became a tenant unit supported by the 35th Combat Support Group.Initially designated as the 315th Air Commando Wing, it was redesignated the 315th Special Operations Wing on 1 August 1968. Squadrons assigned were: 12th Special Operations Squadron: 15 June 1967 – 30 September 1970 (C-123B/K) 19th Special Operations Squadron: 15 June 1967 – 30 June 1971 (C-123B/K Tail Code: WE) 309th Special Operations Squadron: 15 June 1967 – 31 July 1970 (C-123B/K Tail Code: WH) 310th Special Operations Squadron: 15 June 1967 – 15 January 1972 (C-123B/K Tail Code: WM) 311th Special Operations Squadron: 15 June 1967 – 15 October 1971 (C-123B/K Tail Code: WV) Operations included aerial movement of troops and cargo, flare drops, aeromedical evacuation, and air-drops of critical supplies and paratroops. In 1971–1972 the unit helped to train C-123 aircrews for the RVNAF. The wing was redesignated as the 315th Tactical Airlift Wing on 1 January 1970 and was inactivated on 31 March 1972. Counter-insurgency aircraft In 1971 the 315th TAW expanded its mission with the control of the interdiction and the psychological warfare and visual reconnaissance operations of the following counter-insurgency squadrons: 8th Special Operations Squadron: 31 July 1971 – 15 January 1972 (A-37B Dragonfly Tail Code: CG) 9th Special Operations Squadron: 30 September 1971 – 29 February 1972 (O-2 Skymaster) On 15 January 1972, the 8th Special Operations Squadron was reassigned to Bien Hoa AB as part of the USAF drawdown at Phan Rang. The 9th SOS was inactivated on 29 February 1972. 14th Special Operations Wing The 14th Special Operations Wing operated from Phan Rang from 15 October 1969, transferring operational squadrons from Nha Trang Air Base and became a tenant unit supported by the 35th Combat Support Group. The 14th SOW's operations included close and direct air support, interdiction, unconventional warfare, counter-insurgency operations, psychological warfare (including leaflet dropping and aerial broadcasting) and flare drops. Squadrons assigned were: 4th Special Operations Squadron: 15 October 1969 – 15 December 1969 (AC-47D Spooky) 9th Special Operations Squadron: 15 October 1969 – 30 September 1971 (C-47) 15th Special Operations Squadron: 15 October 1969 – 31 October 1970 (C-130E Combat Talon) 17th Special Operations Squadron: 15 October 1969 – 30 September 1971 (AC-119G Shadow) 18th Special Operations Squadron: 15 October 1969 – 25 August 1971 (AC-119K Stinger) 20th Special Operations Squadron: 15 October 1969 – 1 September 1971 (UH-1P) 90th Special Operations Squadron: 31 October 1970 – 1 September 1971 (AC-123K) 604th Special Operations Squadron (detached): 15 October 1969 - I March 1970 (A-37A) Flying from Phan Rang sorties were flown over target areas consisting of the Mekong Delta and the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The aerial gunships destroyed trucks, attacked enemy encampments, ammunition dumps and other ground targets using night vision equipment. It also trained RVNAF personnel in AC-119 operations and maintenance, from February to June 1971. The first crews graduated in April 1971 and with AC-119s transferred to the RVNAF formed the 819th Combat Squadron. USAF withdrawal The 35th TFW was inactivated on 31 July 1971 as part of the general drawdown of United States forces in South Vietnam with the wing's remaining resources passing to the 315th Tactical Airlift Wing. The 352d TFS and the 615th TFS were inactivated in place along with the 35th TFW, standing down from operations on 26 June 1971. The 612th TFS and 614th TFS were inactivated in place on 31 July 1971. The 315th TAW inactivated in place on 30 September 1971 as part of the US withdrawal from South Vietnam, and jurisdiction of Phan Rang Air Base was turned over to the South Vietnamese. RVNAF use of Phan Rang Air Base The base was progressively handed over to the RVNAF in March–May 1972. After the American withdrawal the RVNAF 92d Tactical Wing at Nha Trang AB moved to Phan Rang Air, operating A-37s and UH-1 helicopters. In addition to the operational missions, the RVNAF 920th Training Squadron operated T-37Bs for initial jet training for its aviation cadets. American policy in Vietnam after 1970 was aimed at self-sufficiency for the RVNAF so the South Vietnamese could maintain the level of security that had been won jointly by the United States and South Vietnam. The United States would continue to provide material support for the defense of South Vietnam, but it was expected that the RVNAF would have the capability to use United States equipment effectively. If that capability could be developed, the RVNAF would be judged self-sufficient. However, this training had to be halted in June 1974 for lack of logistic support and financial reasons due to United States aid reduction. Units at Phan Rang Air Base were under the command of the RVNAF 2d Air Division at Nha Trang AB. 92d Tactical Wing 524th/534th/548th Fighter Squadron A-37 Det D 259th Helicopter Squadron UH-1H (Medevac) On 15 September 1974 a hijacker took control of an Air Vietnam Boeing 727-121C on a flight from Da Nang to Saigon and demanded to be flown to Hanoi. The crew attempted to land at the base, overshot the landing and then crashed while turning to make another approach killing all 75 onboard. Capture of Phan Rang Air Base Following the defeat of Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) forces in the Central Highlands in mid-March 1975, People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) forces pursued the ARVN to the coast, capturing Nha Trang and Nha Trang AB on 2 April, however most of the flyable aircraft of the RVNAF 2nd Air Division had already moved south to Phan Rang AB. On 1 April crowds of ARVN and civilians began descending on the base from Nha Trang and Cam Ranh seeking evacuation to Saigon. That night the ARVN 3rd Airborne Brigade arrived on trucks at Phan Rang AB having retreated from the M'Đrăk Pass and it proceeded to deploy around the base and clear away VC around the base perimeter. On 2 April the 2nd Air Division commander BG Nguyễn Văn Lương left Phan Rang in his C-47 to go for meetings at Tan Son Nhut setting off panic among the RVNAF and ARVN forces at the base who believed he was abandoning them and leading to a chaos as panicked South Vietnamese swarmed aircraft that departed haphazardly for bases further south. Two RAAF C-130s landed at the base to evacuate civilians and were mobbed as they tried to leave. Order was eventually restored by the 3rd Airborne Brigade as the refugees were evacuated. On the morning of 3 April 1975 the RVNAF at Phan Rang launched a heliborne operation comprising more than 40 UH-1s and 6 CH-47s escorted by A-37s to rescue the remnants of the ARVN 2nd, 5th and 6th Airborne Battalions that had been cut off at the M'Đrăk Pass successfully evacuating over 800 soldiers. That day the PAVN 10th Division captured Cam Ranh Bay and Cam Ranh Air Base north of Phan Rang. The approached Phan Rang and over the next 2 days picked up over 3500 South Vietnamese refugees. Also that day 6th Air Division commander BG Pham Ngoc Sang met with the III Corps commander LG Nguyễn Văn Toàn at Phan Thiết and Sang was given responsibility for holding Phan Rang. On 4 April the 2 remaining provinces of II Corps were incorporated into II Corps and LG Nguyễn Vĩnh Nghi arrived at Phan Rang to take over the defense of the area from BG Sang. The Phan Rang A-37s continued to operate under difficult conditions with ground crews being forced to service aircraft in Flak jackets due to rocket and mortar fire on the base and intermittent supplies after Highway 1 was cut off east of Xuân Lộc. Half of the wing was rotated daily to Tan Son Nhut for servicing, resupply and crew rest. From 7 to 8 April the 2nd Airborne Brigade flew into Phan Rang to replace the 3rd Airborne Brigade which moved back to Saigon. On 8 April the 3rd Airborne Battalion cleared Highway 1 and recaptured the villages of Bà Râu () and Ba Thap () from the VC and the 11th Airborne Battalion then deployed by helicopters to recapture Du Long town () and the Du Long Pass (), meanwhile the 5th Airborne Battalion secured the area around Phan Rang AB and cleared Route 11. On 10 April the PAVN 10th Division left Cam Ranh and moved along Route 450 to join up with Route 11 to take Dalat, passing within of Phan Rang AB. When RVNAF reconnaissance aircraft observed the movement of the 10th Division, Phan Rang based A-37s began attacking the column, destroying 6 river-crossing vehicles on 10 April, 5 trucks on 11 April, 7 trucks on 12 April and 9 trucks on 13 April. On 11 April the 5th Airborne Battalion was withdrawn to Saigon and on 12 April the rest of the 2nd Airborne Brigade was ordered to withdraw to Saigon. On 13 April the 31st Rangers arrived by air from Bien Hoa while the ARVN 4th and 5th Regiments, 2nd Division arrived by road from Phan Thiết to replace the Airborne. The 31st Rangers deployed to Du Long to replace the 11th Airborne Battalion on the evening of 13 April. The PAVN meanwhile had decided to eliminate Phan Rang and at 05:30 on 14 April the PAVN 3rd Division began an artillery attack on the 31st Rangers at Du Long Pass and the 3rd Airborne at Bà Râu. At 06:30 PAVN tanks and infantry attacked to 31st Rangers' position but were forced back. At 07:00 2 A-37s accidentally bombed the Rangers. The PAVN then bypassed the Rangers and attacked Du Long Town quickly defeating the Regional Forces there and outflanking the 31st Rangers at the pass. Reinforcements from the 52nd Rangers were sent to support the 31st Rangers, but they were unable to break through and at 16:00 the 31st Rangers were ordered to withdraw with only 80 Rangers successfully returning to Phan Rang AB. At the same time as the attack on Du Long, the PAVN 25th Regiment infiltrated to attack Phan Rang AB. Despite helicopter gunship fire they successfully penetrated the base and headed for the hangar area where they were met by the 11th Airborne Battalion awaiting transport back to Saigon and 4 M113 armored personnel carriers which together with air support from the helicopter gunships and A-37s forced the PAVN back outside the perimeter, killing over 100 for the loss of 6 ARVN killed and 1 M113 destroyed. At dawn on 15 April the PAVN shelled the 3rd Airborne Battalion at Bà Râu and Kien Kien () on Route 1 and then attacked their position. Although outnumbered, the Airborne held back the assault until midday when it blew the highway bridge and then withdrew onto Ca Dau mountain to the east. At 02:00 on 16 April an RVNAF EC-47 intercepted a PAVN radio transmission indicating an armored attack on Phan Rang would start at 05:00. A-37 aircraft were launched to attack PAVN positions along Route 1 and at 03:00 reconnaissance reported a large PAVN force moving through the Du Long Pass. Meanwhile, VC forces began attacking the base perimeter and on Ca Dau Mountain. At 05:00 the PAVN artillery bombardment commenced and this was soon followed by an armored spearhead of 20 tanks and armored personnel carriers of the 4th Battalion, 203rd Tank Brigade supported by truck mounted infantry of the 101st Regiment and anti-aircraft guns. While the lead tank was destroyed by an ARVN rocket, the PAVN force quickly cut through the 3rd Airborne platoon holding Kien Kien. The RVNAF at the base mounted numerous airstrikes on the armored column destroying vehicles, taking losses from the antiaircraft fire and by 08:00 the armored vehicles were on the outskirts of the city. However the truck-mounted infantry had dispersed to avoid the airstrikes and the anti-aircraft vehicles had not kept up with the advance, leaving the 101st Regiment vulnerable to further air attacks which destroyed or damaged another 16 vehicles and killing numerous PAVN soldiers. The PAVN 3rd Division then attacked the Airborne troops on Ca Dau Mountain and allowed the 101st Regiment to resume its advance. After overcoming a Regional Force roadblock on the outskirts of the city for the loss of 2 tanks and many infantry, the PAVN pushed into the city capturing the Provincial Headquarters. By 09:30 the PAVN had captured the port and a bridge on Route 1 south of the city sealing off all sea and land escape routes. At 08:45 a battalion-sized PAVN mechanized force attacked along Route 11 towards the base. While one element attacked the 5th Regiment defending Route 11, the other moved around it to attack the base directly and at the same time the 25th Regiment attacked the north of the base. The 5th Regiment soon broke and ran allowing the PAVN to attack the base's main gate, while the 25th Regiment penetrated the north perimeter with explosives and captured the bomb storage area. The Airborne attempted a counterattack against the 25th Regiment, but were forced back and then squeezed between the PAVN and by 09:30 the PAVN had captured the base. LG Nghi ordered his remaining forces to retreat from the base to the Ca Na peninsula () south of the base and after cutting through the perimeter fence a large group of RVNAF, ARVN and South Vietnamese civilians fled the base joining up with the 11th Airborne outside the base. At midnight on 17 April the ARVN Airborne attacked a PAVN force on Route 11, but in the confusion of the attack LG Nghi, his command group and CIA Agent James Lewis became separated and at 02:00 were captured by the PAVN. As the base was falling an A-37 braved the PAVN fire and landed rescuing RVNAF 92nd Wing commander Colonel Le Van Thao. Of the Wing's 72 A-37s, only 24 escaped on 16 April with the rest having been shot down or abandoned. Post 1975 VPAF use With its capture, Phan Rang Air Base became a VPAF base. It is unclear to what extent the former USAF facilities were used, although aerial imagery shows that a large amount of the station was torn down over the years, the large base simply being too big for the VPAF, in addition the 04R/22L runway was inactivated, and today is almost obliterated. A few of the hangars remain standing, others have been torn down. The large aircraft parking ramp and concrete aircraft shelters remain, although the shelters appear to have been left unused. Steel and sand revetments also remain on the ramp. The captured aircraft at Phan Rang AB were later used by the VPAF in missions during the Cambodian–Vietnamese War. The A-37s flew most of the ground support missions in those conflicts, being more suited to the role than the VPAF's MiG-17s and MiG-21s. Several squadrons of captured UH-1H Hueys were also operated by the VPAF for many years from Phan Rang. The base is now used by the VPAF 937th Fighter Regiment equipped with Sukhoi Su-30MK2Vs, Sukhoi Su-27SK and Su-27UBK fighters. See also Republic of Vietnam Air Force United States Air Force in South Vietnam United States Pacific Air Forces Seventh Air Force References Bibliography Endicott, Judy G. (1999) Active Air Force wings as of 1 October 1995; USAF active flying, space, and missile squadrons as of 1 October 1995. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. CD-ROM. Martin, Patrick (1994). Tail Code: The Complete History of USAF Tactical Aircraft Tail Code Markings. Schiffer Military Aviation History. . Mesco, Jim (1987) VNAF Republic of Vietnam Air Force 1945–1975 Squadron/Signal Publications. Mikesh, Robert C. (2005) Flying Dragons: The Republic of Vietnam Air Force. Schiffer Publishing, Ltd. USAF Historical Research Division/Organizational History Branch – 35th Fighter Wing, 366th Wing VNAF – The Republic of Vietnam Air Force 1951–1975 USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers—1908 to present External links SE Asia and Vietnam War History: Royal Australian Air Force No. 2 Squadron Royal Australian Air Force The B-57 in Vietnam Phan Rang Air Base 315 SOW Phan Rang Air Base Early "Gray Eagle" Period A Pilot Returns, by John Nettleton 1882nd Communications Squadron Phan Rang AB 1942 establishments in Vietnam Military airbases established in 1942 Installations of the United States Air Force in South Vietnam Military installations of South Vietnam Buildings and structures in Ninh Thuận province
4889856	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tan%20Son%20Nhut%20Air%20Base	Tan Son Nhut Air Base	Tan Son Nhut Air Base () (1955–1975) was a Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) facility. It was located near the city of Saigon in southern Vietnam. The United States used it as a major base during the Vietnam War (1959–1975), stationing Army, Air Force, Navy, and Marine units there. Following the Fall of Saigon, it was taken over as a Vietnam People's Air Force (VPAF) facility and remains in use today. Tan Son Nhat International Airport, (IATA: SGN, ICAO: VVTS) has been a major Vietnamese civil airport since the 1920s. Early history Tan Son Nhat Airport was built by the French in the 1930s when the French Colonial government of Indochina constructed a small unpaved airport, known as Tan Son Nhat Airfield, in the village of Tan Son Nhat to serve as Saigon's commercial airport. Flights to and from France, as well as within Southeast Asia were available prior to World War II. During World War II, the Imperial Japanese Army used Tan Son Nhat as a transport base. When Japan surrendered in August 1945, the French Air Force flew a contingent of 150 troops into Tan Son Nhat. After World War II, Tân Sơn Nhất served domestic as well as international flights from Saigon. In mid-1956 construction of a runway was completed and the International Cooperation Administration soon started work on a concrete runway. The airfield was run by the South Vietnamese Department of Civil Aviation with the RVNAF as a tenant located on the southwest of the airfield. In 1961, the government of the Republic of Vietnam requested the U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) to plan for expansion of the Tan Son Nhut airport. A taxiway parallel to the original runway had just been completed by the E.V. Lane company for the U.S. Operations Mission, but parking aprons and connections to the taxiways were required. Under the direction of the U.S. Navy Officer in Charge of Construction RVN, these items were constructed by the American construction company RMK-BRJ in 1962. RMK-BRJ also constructed an air-control radar station in 1962, and the passenger and freight terminals in 1963. In 1967, RMK-BRJ constructed the second 10,000-foot concrete runway. Republic of Vietnam Air Force use In late 1951, the French Air Force established the RVNAF 312th Special Mission Squadron at Tan Son Nhat Airfield equipped with Morane 500 Criquet liaison aircraft. In 1952 a heliport was constructed at the base for use by French Air Force medical evacuation helicopters. In 1953, Tan Son Nhut started being used as a military air base for the fledgling RVNAF, and in 1956 the headquarters were moved from the center of Saigon to Tan Son Nhut. But even before that time, French and Vietnamese military aircraft were in evidence at Tan Son Nhut. On 1 July 1955, the RVNAF 1st Transport Squadron equipped with C-47 Skytrains was established at the base. The RVNAF also had a special missions squadron at the base equipped with 3 C-47s, 3 C-45s and 1 L-26. The 1st Transport Squadron would be renamed the 413rd Air Transport Squadron in January 1963. In June 1956 the 2nd Transport Squadron equipped with C-47s was established at the base and the RVNAF established its headquarters there. It would be renamed the 415th Air Transport Squadron in January 1963. In November 1956, by agreement with the South Vietnamese government, the USAF assumed some training and administrative roles of the RVNAF. A full handover of training responsibility took place on 1 June 1957 when the French training contracts expired. On 1 June 1957 the RVNAF 1st Helicopter Squadron was established at the base without equipment. It operated with the French Air Force unit serving the International Control Commission and in April 1958 with the departure of the French it inherited its 10 H-19 helicopters. In October 1959 the 2nd Liaison Squadron equipped with L-19 Bird Dogs moved to the base from Nha Trang. In mid-December 1961 the USAF began delivery of 30 T-28 Trojans to the RVNAF at Tan Son Nhut. In December 1962 the 293rd Helicopter Squadron was activated at the base, it was inactivated in August 1964. In late 1962 the RVNAF formed the 716th Composite Reconnaissance Squadron initially equipped with 2 C-45 photo-reconnaissance aircraft. In January 1963 the USAF opened an H-19 pilot training facility at the base and by June the first RVNAF helicopter pilots had graduated. In January 1963 the 211th Helicopter Squadron equipped with UH-34s replaced the 1st Helicopter Squadron. In December 1963 the 716th Composite Reconnaissance Squadron was activated at the base, equipped with C-47s and T-28s. The squadron would be inactivated in June 1964 and its mission assumed by the 2nd Air Division, while its pilots formed the 520th Fighter Squadron at Bien Hoa Air Base. In January 1964 all RVNAF units at the base came under the control of the newly established 33rd Tactical Wing. By midyear, the RVNAF had grown to thirteen squadrons; four fighter, four observation, three helicopter, and two C-47 transport. The RVNAF followed the practice of the U.S. Air Force, organizing the squadrons into wings, with one wing located in each of the four corps tactical zones at Cần Thơ Air Base, Tan Son Nhut AB, Pleiku Air Base and Da Nang Air Base. In May 1965 the Douglas A-1 Skyraider equipped 522nd Fighter Squadron was activated at the base. Command and control center As the headquarters for the RVNAF, Tan Son Nhut was primarily a command base, with most operational units using nearby Biên Hòa Air Base. At Tan Son Nhut, the RVNAF's system of command and control was developed over the years with assistance from the USAF. The system handled the flow of aircraft from take-off to target area, and return to the base it was launched from. This was known as the Tactical Air Control System (TACS), and it assured positive control of all areas where significant combat operations were performed. Without this system, it would not have been possible for the RVNAF to deploy its forces effectively where needed. The TACS was in close proximity to the headquarters of the RVNAF and USAF forces in South Vietnam, and commanders of both Air Forces utilized its facilities. Subordinate to TACS was the Direct Air Support Centers (DASC) assigned to each of corps areas (I DASC – Da Nang AB, DASC Alpha – Nha Trang Air Base, II DASC – Pleiku AB, III DASC – Bien Hoa AB, and IV DASC – Cần Thơ AB). DASCs were responsible for the deployment of aircraft located within their sector in support of ground operations. Operating under each DASC were numerous Tactical Air Control Party (TACPs), manned by one or more RVNAF/USAF personnel posted with the South Vietnamese Army (ARVN) ground forces. A communications network inked these three levels of command and control, giving the TACS overall control of the South Vietnamese air situation at all times. Additional information was provided by a radar network that covered all of South Vietnam and beyond, monitoring all strike aircraft. Another function of Tan Son Nhut Air Base was as an RVNAF recruiting center. Use in coups The base was adjacent to the headquarters of the Joint General Staff of South Vietnam, and was a key venue in various military coups, particularly the 1963 coup that deposed the nation's first President Ngô Đình Diệm. The plotters invited loyalist officers to a routine lunch meeting at JGS and captured them in the afternoon of 1 November 1963. The most notable was Colonel Lê Quang Tung, loyalist commander of the ARVN Special Forces, which was effectively a private Ngô family army, and his brother and deputy, Le Quang Trịeu. Later, Captain Nguyễn Văn Nhung, bodyguard of coup leader General Dương Văn Minh, shot the brothers on the edge of the base. On 14 April 1966 a Viet Cong (VC) mortar attack on the base destroyed 2 RVNAF aircraft and killed 7 USAF and 2 RVNAF personnel. The base was attacked by the VC in a sapper and mortar attack on the morning of 4 December 1966. The attack was repulsed for the loss of 3 US and 3 ARVN killed and 28 VC killed and 4 captured. 1968 Tet Offensive The base was the target of major VC attacks during the 1968 Tet Offensive. The attack began early on 31 January with greater severity than anyone had expected. When the VC attacked much of the RVNAF was on leave to be with their families during the lunar new year. An immediate recall was issued, and within 72 hours, 90 percent of the RVNAF was on duty. The main VC attack was made against the western perimeter of the base by three VC Battalions. The initial penetration was contained by the base's 377th Security Police Squadron, ad-hoc Army units of Task Force 35, ad-hoc RVNAF units and two ARVN Airborne battalions. The 3rd Squadron, 4th Cavalry Regiment was sent from Củ Chi Base Camp and prevented follow-on forces west of the base from reinforcing the VC inside the base and engaged them in a village and factory west of the base. By 16:30 on 31 January the base was secured. U.S. losses were 22 killed and 82 wounded, ARVN losses 29 killed and 15 wounded, VC losses were more than 669 killed and 26 captured. Fourteen aircraft were damaged at the base. Over the next three weeks, the RVNAF flew over 1,300 strike sorties, bombing and strafing PAVN/VC positions throughout South Vietnam. Transport aircraft from Tan Son Nhut's 33d Wing dropped almost 15,000 flares in 12 nights, compared with a normal monthly average of 10,000. Observation aircraft also from Tan Son Nhut completed almost 700 reconnaissance sorties, with RVNAF pilots flying O-1 Bird Dogs and U-17 Skywagons. At 01:15 on 18 February a VC rocket and mortar attack on the base destroyed 6 aircraft and damaged 33 others and killed one person. A rocket attack the next day hit the civilian air terminal killing one person and six further rocket/mortar attacks over this period killed another six people and wounded 151. On 24 February another rocket and mortar attack damaged base buildings killing four US personnel and wounding 21. On 12 June 1968 a mortar attack on the base destroyed two USAF aircraft and killed one airman. The Tet Offensive attacks and previous losses due to mortar and rocket attacks on air bases across South Vietnam led the Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Nitze on 6 March 1968 to approve the construction of 165 "Wonderarch" roofed aircraft shelters at the major air bases. In addition airborne "rocket watch" patrols were established in the Saigon-Biên Hòa area to reduce attacks by fire. Vietnamization and the 1972 Easter Offensive On 2 July 1969 the first 5 AC-47 Spooky gunships were handed over to the RVNAF to form the 817th Combat Squadron which became operational at the base on 31 August. In 1970, with American units leaving the country, the RVNAF transport fleet was greatly increased at Tan Son Nhut. The RVNAF 33rd and 53rd Tactical Wings were established flying C-123 Providers, C-47s and C-7 Caribous. In mid 1970 the USAF began training RVNAF crews on the AC-119G Shadow gunship at the base. Other courses included navigation classes and helicopter transition and maintenance training for the CH-47 Chinook. By November 1970, the RVNAF took total control of the Direct Air Support Centers (DASCs) at Bien Hoa AB, Da Nang AB and Pleiku AB. At the end of 1971, the RVNAF were totally in control of command and control units at eight major air bases, supporting ARVN units for the expanded air-ground operations system. In September 1971, the USAF transferred two C-119 squadrons to the RVNAF at Tan Son Nhut. In 1972, the buildup of the RVNAF at Tan Son Nhut was expanded when two C-130 Hercules squadrons were formed there. In December, the first RVNAF C-130 training facility was established at Tan Son Nhut, enabling the RVNAF to train its own C-130s pilots. As more C-130s were transferred to the RVNAF, older C-123s were returned to the USAF for disposal. As the buildup of the RVNAF continued, the success of the Vietnamization program was evident during the 1972 Easter Offensive. Responding to the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) attack, the RVNAF flew more than 20,000 strike sorties which helped to stem the advance. In the first month of the offensive, transports from Tan Son Nhut ferried thousands of troops and delivered nearly 4,000 tons of supplies throughout the country. The offensive also resulted in additional deliveries of aircraft to the RVNAF under Operation Enhance. Also, fighter aircraft arrived at Tan Son Nhut for the first time in the F-5A/B Freedom Fighter and the F-5E Tiger II. The F-5s were subsequently transferred to Bien Hoa and Da Nang ABs. 1973 Ceasefire The Paris Peace Accords of 1973 brought an end to the United States advisory capacity in South Vietnam. In its place, as part of the agreement, the Americans retained a Defense Attaché Office (DAO) at Tan Son Nhut Airport, with small field offices at other facilities around the country. The technical assistance provided by the personnel of the DAOs and by civilian contractors was essential to the RVNAF, however, because of the cease-fire agreement, the South Vietnamese could not be advised in any way on military operations, tactics or techniques of employment. It was through the DAO that the American/South Vietnamese relationship was maintained, and it was primarily from this source that information from within South Vietnam was obtained. The RVNAF provided statistics with regards to the military capability of their units to the DAO, however the information was not always reliable. From the Easter Offensive of 1972, it was clear that without United States aid, especially air support, the ARVN would not be able to defend itself against continuing PAVN attacks. This was demonstrated at the fighting around Pleiku, An Lộc and Quảng Trị where the ARVN would have been defeated without continuous air support, mainly supplied by the USAF. The ARVN relied heavily on air support, and with the absence of the USAF, full responsibility fell on the RVNAF alone. Although equipped with large numbers of Cessna A-37 Dragonfly and F-5 attack aircraft to carry out close air support, during the 1972 offensive, heavy bombardment duty was left to USAF aircraft. As part of the Paris Peace Accords, a Joint Military Commission was established and VC/PAVN troops were deployed across South Vietnam to oversee the departure of US forces and the implementation of the ceasefire. 200-250 VC/PAVN soldiers were based at Camp Davis (see Davis Station below) at the base from March 1973 until the fall of South Vietnam. Numerous violations of the Paris Peace Accords were committed by North Vietnamese beginning almost as soon as the United States withdrew its last personnel from South Vietnam by the end of March 1973. The North Vietnamese and the Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam continued their attempt to overthrow President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu and remove the U.S.-supported government. The U.S. had promised Thiệu that it would use airpower to support his government. On 14 January 1975 Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger stated that the U.S. was not living up to its promise that it would retaliate in the event North Vietnam tried to overwhelm South Vietnam. When North Vietnam invaded in March 1975, the promised American intervention never materialized. Congress reflected the popular mood, halting the bombing in Cambodia effective 15 July 1973, and reducing aid to South Vietnam. Since Thiệu intended to fight the same kind of war he always had, with lavish use of firepower, the cuts in aid proved especially damaging. Capture In early 1975 North Vietnam realized the time was right to achieve its goal of re-uniting Vietnam under communist rule, launching a series of small ground attacks to test U.S. reaction. On 8 January the North Vietnamese Politburo ordered a PAVN offensive to "liberate" South Vietnam by cross-border invasion. The general staff plan for the invasion of South Vietnam called for 20 divisions, it anticipated a two-year struggle for victory. By 14 March, South Vietnamese President Thiệu decided to abandon the Central Highlands region and two northern provinces of South Vietnam and ordered a general withdrawal of ARVN forces from those areas. Instead of an orderly withdrawal, it turned into a general retreat, with masses of military and civilians fleeing, clogging roads and creating chaos. On 30 March 100,000 South Vietnamese soldiers surrendered after being abandoned by their commanding officers. The large coastal cities of Da Nang, Qui Nhơn, Tuy Hòa and Nha Trang were abandoned by the South Vietnamese, yielding the entire northern half of South Vietnam to the North Vietnamese. By late March the US Embassy began to reduce the number of US citizens in Vietnam by encouraging dependents and non-essential personnel to leave the country by commercial flights and on Military Airlift Command (MAC) C-141 and C-5 aircraft, which were still bringing in emergency military supplies. In late March, two or three of these MAC aircraft were arriving each day and were used for the evacuation of civilians and Vietnamese orphans. On 4 April a C-5A aircraft carrying 250 Vietnamese orphans and their escorts suffered explosive decompression over the sea near Vũng Tàu and made a crash-landing while attempting to return to Tan Son Nhut; 153 people on board died in the crash. As the war entered its conclusion, RVNAF pilots flew sortie after sortie, supporting the retreating ARVN after it abandoned Cam Ranh Bay on 14 April. For two days after the ARVN left the area, the Wing Commander at Phan Rang Air Base fought on with the forces under his command. Airborne troops were sent in for one last attempt to hold the airfield, but the defenders were finally overrun on 16 April and Phan Rang Air Base was lost. On 22 April Xuân Lộc fell to the PAVN after a two-week battle with the ARVN 18th Division which inflicted over 5000 PAVN casualties and delayed the Ho Chi Minh Campaign for two weeks. With the fall of Xuân Lộc and the capture of Bien Hoa Air Base in late April 1975 it was clear that South Vietnam was about to fall to the PAVN. By 22 April 20 C-141 and 20 C-130s flights a day were flying evacuees out of Tan Son Nhut to Clark Air Base, some 1,000 miles away in the Philippines. On 23 April President Ferdinand Marcos of the Philippines announced that no more than 2,500 Vietnamese evacuees would be allowed in the Philippines at any one time, further increasing the strain on MAC which now had to move evacuees out of Saigon and move some 5,000 evacuees from Clark Air Base on to Guam, Wake Island and Yokota Air Base. President Thiệu and his family left Tan Son Nhut on 25 April on a USAF C-118 to go into exile in Taiwan. Also on 25 April the Federal Aviation Administration banned commercial flights into South Vietnam. This directive was subsequently reversed; some operators had ignored it anyway. In any case this effectively marked the end of the commercial airlift from Tan Son Nhut. On 27 April PAVN rockets hit Saigon and Cholon for the first time since the 1973 ceasefire. It was decided that from this time only C-130s would be used for the evacuation due to their greater maneuverability. There was relatively little difference between the cargo loads of the two aircraft, C-141s had been loaded with up to 316 evacuees while C-130s had been taking off with in excess of 240. On 28 April at 18:06, three A-37 Dragonflies piloted by former RVNAF pilots, who had defected to the Vietnamese People's Air Force at the fall of Da Nang, dropped six Mk81 250 lb bombs on the base damaging aircraft. RVNAF F-5s took off in pursuit, but they were unable to intercept the A-37s. C-130s leaving Tan Son Nhut reported receiving PAVN .51 cal and 37 mm anti-aircraft (AAA) fire, while sporadic PAVN rocket and artillery attacks also started to hit the airport and air base. C-130 flights were stopped temporarily after the air attack but resumed at 20:00 on 28 April. At 03:58 on 29 April, C-130E, #72-1297, flown by a crew from the 776th Tactical Airlift Squadron, was destroyed by a 122 mm rocket while taxiing to pick up refugees after offloading a BLU-82 at the base. The crew evacuated the burning aircraft on the taxiway and departed the airfield on another C-130 that had previously landed. This was the last USAF fixed-wing aircraft to leave Tan Son Nhut. At dawn on 29 April the RVNAF began to haphazardly depart Tan Son Nhut Air Base as A-37s, F-5s, C-7s, C-119s and C-130s departed for Thailand while UH-1s took off in search of the ships of Task Force 76. Some RVNAF aircraft stayed to continue to fight the advancing PAVN. One AC-119 gunship had spent the night of 28/29 April dropping flares and firing on the approaching PAVN. At dawn on 29 April two A-1 Skyraiders began patrolling the perimeter of Tan Son Nhut at until one was shot down, presumably by an SA-7 missile. At 07:00 the AC-119 was firing on PAVN to the east of Tan Son Nhut when it too was hit by an SA-7 and fell in flames to the ground. At 08:00 on 29 April Lieutenant General Trần Văn Minh, commander of the RVNAF and 30 of his staff arrived at the DAO Compound demanding evacuation, signifying the complete loss of RVNAF command and control. At 10:51 on 29 April, the order was given by CINCPAC to commence Operation Frequent Wind, the helicopter evacuation of US personnel and at-risk Vietnamese. In the final evacuation, over a hundred RVNAF aircraft arrived in Thailand, including twenty-six F-5s, eight A-37s, eleven A-1s, six C-130s, thirteen C-47s, five C-7s, and three AC-119s. Additionally close to 100 RVNAF helicopters landed on U.S. ships off the coast, although at least half were jettisoned. One O-1 managed to land on the , carrying a South Vietnamese major, his wife, and five children. The ARVN 3rd Task Force, 81st Ranger Group commanded by Maj. Pham Chau Tai defended Tan Son Nhut and they were joined by the remnants of the Loi Ho unit. At 07:15 on 30 April the PAVN 24th Regiment approached the Bay Hien intersection () 1.5 km from the base's main gate. The lead T-54 was hit by M67 recoilless rifle and then the next T-54 was hit by a shell from an M48 tank. The PAVN infantry moved forward and engaged the ARVN in house to house fighting forcing them to withdraw to the base by 08:45. The PAVN then sent 3 tanks and an infantry battalion to assault the main gate and they were met by intensive anti-tank and machine gun fire knocking out the 3 tanks and killing at least 20 PAVN soldiers. The PAVN tried to bring forward an 85mm antiaircraft gun but the ARVN knocked it out before it could start firing. The PAVN 10th Division ordered 8 more tanks and another infantry battalion to join the attack, but as they approached the Bay Hien intersection they were hit by an airstrike from RVNAF jets operating from Binh Thuy Air Base which destroyed 2 T-54s. The 6 surviving tanks arrived at the main gate at 10:00 and began their attack, with 2 being knocked out by antitank fire in front of the gate and another destroyed as it attempted a flanking manoeuvre. At approximately 10:30 Maj. Pham heard of the surrender broadcast of President Dương Văn Minh and went to the ARVN Joint General Staff Compound to seek instructions, he called General Minh who told him to prepare to surrender, Pham reportedly told Minh "If Viet Cong tanks are entering Independence Palace we will come down there to rescue you sir." Minh refused Pham's suggestion and Pham then told his men to withdraw from the base gates and at 11:30 the PAVN entered the base. Following the war, Tan Son Nhut Air Base was taken over as a base for the Vietnam People's Air Force. Known RVNAF units (June 1974) Tan Son Nhut Air Base was the Headquarters of the RVNAF. It was also the headquarters of the RVNAF 5th Air Division. 33d Tactical Wing 314th Special Air Missions SquadronVC-47, U-17, UH-1, DC-6B 716th Reconnaissance Squadron R/EC-47, U-6A 718th Reconnaissance Squadron EC-47 429th Transport Squadron C-7B 431st Transport Squadron C-7B Det H 259th Helicopter Squadron Bell UH-1H (Medevac) 53d Tactical Wing 819th Combat Squadron AC-119G 821st Combat Squadron AC-119G 435th Transport Squadron C-130A 437th Transport Squadron C-130A Use by the United States During the Vietnam War Tan Son Nhut Air Base was important for both the USAF and the RVNAF. The base served as the focal point for the initial USAF deployment and buildup in South Vietnam in the early 1960s. Tan Son Nhut was initially the main air base for MAC flights to and from South Vietnam, until other bases such as Bien Hoa and Cam Ranh opened in 1966. After 1966, with the establishment of the 7th Air Force as the main USAF command and control headquarters in South Vietnam, Tan Son Nhut functioned as a headquarters, a Tactical Reconnaissance base, and as a Special Operations base. With the drawdown of US forces in South Vietnam after 1971, the base took on a myriad of organizations transferred from deactivated bases across South Vietnam. Between 1968 and 1974, Tan Son Nhut Airport was one of the busiest military airbases in the world. Pan Am schedules from 1973 showed Boeing 747 service was being operated four times a week to San Francisco via Guam and Manila. Continental Airlines operated up to 30 Boeing 707 military charters per week to and from Tan Son Nhut Airport during the 1968–74 period. It was from Tan Son Nhut Air Base that the last U.S. airman left South Vietnam in March 1973. The Air Force Post Office (APO) for Tan Son Nhut Air Base was APO San Francisco, 96307. Military Assistance Advisory Group Davis Station On 13 May 1961 a 92-man unit of the Army Security Agency, operating under cover of the 3rd Radio Research Unit (3rd RRU), arrived at Tan Son Nhut AB and established a communications intelligence facility in disused RVNAF warehouses on the base (). This was the first full deployment of a US Army unit to South Vietnam. On 21 December 1961 SP4 James T. Davis of the 3rd RRU was operating a mobile PRD-1 receiver with an ARVN unit near Cầu Xáng when they were ambushed by VC and Davis was killed, becoming one of the first Americans killed in the Vietnam War. In early January 1962 the 3rd RRU's compound at Tan Son Nhut was renamed Davis Station. On 1 June 1966 the 3rd RRU was redesignated the 509th Radio Research Group. The 509th RR Group continued operations until 7 March 1973, when they were among the last US units to leave South Vietnam. 507th Tactical Control Group In late September 1961, the first permanent USAF unit, the 507th Tactical Control Group from Shaw Air Force Base deployed sixty-seven officers and airmen to Tan Son Nhut to install MPS-11 search and MPS-16 height-finding radars and began monitoring air traffic and training of RVNAF personnel to operate and service the equipment. Installation of the equipment commenced on 5 October 1961 and the unit would eventually grow to 314 assigned personnel. This organization formed the nucleus of South Vietnam's tactical air control system. Tactical Reconnaissance Mission On 18 October 1961, four RF-101C Voodoos and a photo processing unit from the 15th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron of the 67th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing, based at Yokota AB Japan, arrived at Tan Son Nhut, with the reconnaissance craft flying photographic missions over South Vietnam and Laos from 20 October under Operation Pipe Stem. The RF-101s would depart in January 1962 leaving Detachment 1, 15th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron to undertake photo-processing. In March 1962 a C-54 Skymaster outfitted for infrared reconnaissance arrived at the base and remained until February 1963, when it was replaced by a Brave Bull Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter. In December 1962 following the signing of the International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos, which banned aerial reconnaissance over Laos, all four Able Marble RF-101Cs arrived at Tan Son Nhut from Don Muang Royal Thai Air Force Base. On 13 April 1963 the 13th Reconnaissance Technical Squadron was established at the base to provide photo interpretation and targeting information. Following the Gulf of Tonkin Incident on 4 August 1964, six additional RF-101Cs deployed to the base. The 67th TRW was soon followed by detachments of the 15th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron of the 18th Tactical Fighter Wing, based at Kadena AB, Okinawa, which also flew RF-101 reconnaissance missions over Laos and South Vietnam, first from bases at Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand from 31 March 1965 to 31 October 1967 and then from South Vietnam. These reconnaissance missions lasted from November 1961 through the spring of 1964. RF-101Cs flew pathfinder missions for F-100s during Operation Flaming Dart, the first USAF strike against North Vietnam on 8 February 1965. They initially operated out of South Vietnam, but later flew most of their missions over North Vietnam out of Thailand. Bombing missions against the North required a large amount of photographic reconnaissance support, and by the end of 1967, all but one of the Tactical Air Command RF-101C squadrons were deployed to Southeast Asia. The reconnaissance Voodoos at Tan Son Nhut were incorporated into the 460th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing in February 1966. 1 RF-101C was destroyed in a sapper attack on Tan Son Nhut AB. The last 45th TRS RF-101C left Tan Son Nhut on 16 November 1970. The need for additional reconnaissance assets, especially those capable of operating at night, led to the deployment of two Martin RB-57E Canberra Patricia Lynn reconnaissance aircraft of the 6091st Reconnaissance Squadron on 7 May 1963. The forward nose section of the RB-57Es were modified to house a KA-1 36-inch forward oblique camera and a low panoramic KA-56 camera used on the Lockheed U-2. Mounted inside the specially configured bomb bay door was a KA-1 vertical camera, a K-477 split vertical day-night camera, an infrared scanner, and a KA-1 left oblique camera. The Detachment flew nighttime reconnaissance missions to identify VC base camps, small arms factories, and storage and training areas. The Patricia Lynn operation was terminated in mid-1971 with the inactivation of the 460th TRW and the four surviving aircraft returned to the United States. On 20 December 1964 Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV) formed the Central Target Analysis and Research Center at the base as a component of its J-2 Intelligence staff branch to coordinate Army and USAF infrared reconnaissance. On 30 October 1965 the first RF-4C Phantom IIs of the 16th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron arrived at the base and on 16 November they began flying missions over Laos and North Vietnam. Farm Gate On 11 October 1961, President John F. Kennedy directed, in NSAM 104, that the Defense Secretary "introduce the Air Force 'Jungle Jim' Squadron into Vietnam for the initial purpose of training Vietnamese forces." The 4400th Combat Crew Training Squadron was to proceed as a training mission and not for combat. The unit would be officially titled 4400th Combat Crew Training Squadron, code named Farm Gate. In mid-November the first eight Farm Gate T-28s arrived at the base from Clark Air Base. At the same time Detachments 7 and 8, 6009th Tactical Support Group were established at the base to support operations. On 20 May these detachments were redesignated the 6220th Air Base Squadron. In February 1963 four RB-26C night photo-reconnaissance aircraft joined the Farm Gate planes at the base. Tactical Air Control Center The establishment of a country-wide tactical air control center was regarded as a priority for the effective utilisation of the RVNAF's limited strike capabilities, in addition an air operations center for central planning of air operations and a subordinate radar reporting center were also required. From 2–14 January the 5th Tactical Control Group was deployed to the base, beginning operations on 13 January 1962. In March 1963 MACV formed a flight service center and network at the base for the control of all US military flights in South Vietnam. Mule Train On 6 December 1961, the Defense Department ordered the C-123 equipped 346th Troop Carrier Squadron (Assault) to the Far East for 120 days temporary duty. On 2 January 1962 the first of 16 C-123s landed at the base commencing Operation Mule Train to provide logistical support to US and South Vietnamese forces. In March 1962 personnel from the 776th Troop Carrier Squadron, began replacing the temporary duty personnel. 10 of the C-123s were based at Tan Son Nhut, 2 at Da Nang Air Base and 4 at Clark Air Base. In April 1963 the 777th Troop Carrier Squadron equipped with 16 C-123s deployed to the base. In July 1963 the Mule Train squadrons at the base became the 309th and 310th Troop Carrier Squadrons assigned to the 315th Air Division. Dirty Thirty Additional USAF personnel arrived at Tan Son Nhut in early 1962 after the RVNAF transferred two dozen seasoned pilots from the 1st Transportation Group at Tan Son Nhut to provide aircrews for the newly activated 2nd Fighter Squadron then undergoing training at Bien Hoa AB. This sudden loss of qualified C-47 pilots brought the 1st Transportation Group's airlift capability dangerously low. In order to alleviate the problem, United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, on the recommendation of MAAG Vietnam, ordered thirty USAF pilots temporarily assigned to the RVNAF to serve as C-47 co-pilots. This influx of U.S. personnel quickly returned the 1st Transportation Group to full strength. Unlike the USAF Farm Gate personnel at Bien Hoa Air Base, the C-47 co-pilots actually became part of the RVNAF operational structure – though still under U.S. control. Because of their rather unusual situation, these pilots soon adopted the very unofficial nickname, The Dirty Thirty. In a sense they were the first U.S. airmen actually committed to combat in Vietnam, rather than being assigned as advisors or support personnel. The original Dirty Thirty pilots eventually rotated home during early 1963 and were replaced by a second contingent of American pilots. This detachment remained with the RVNAF until December 1963 when they were withdrawn from Vietnam. 509th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron Starting on 21 March 1962 under Project Water Glass and later remaining under Project Candy Machine, the 509th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron began rotating F-102A Delta Dagger interceptors to Tan Son Nhut Air Base from Clark AB on a rotating basis to provide air defense of the Saigon area in the event of a North Vietnamese air attack. F-102s and TF-102s (two-seat trainer version) were deployed to Tan Son Nhut initially because ground radar sites frequently painted small aircraft penetrating South Vietnamese airspace. The F-102, a supersonic, high altitude fighter interceptor designed to intercept Soviet bombers was given the mission of intercepting, identifying and, if necessary, destroying small aircraft, flying from treetop level to 2000 ft at speeds less than the final approach landing speed of the F-102. The TF-102, employing two pilots with one acting solely as radar intercept operator, was considered to be safer and more efficient as a low altitude interceptor. The T/F-102s would alternate with US Navy AD-5Qs. In May 1963 due to overcrowding at the base and the low-probability of air attack the T/F-102s and AD-5Qs were withdrawn to Clark AB from where they could redeploy to Tan Son Nhut on 12–24 hours' notice. Following the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, 6 F-102s from the 16th Fighter Squadron deployed to the base. Before the rotation ended in July 1970, pilots and F-102 aircraft from other Far East squadrons were used in the deployment. Air rescue In January 1962 5 USAF personnel from the Pacific Air Rescue Center were assigned to the base to establish a Search and Rescue Center, without having any aircraft assigned they were dependent on support from US Army advisers in each of South Vietnam's four military corps areas to use US Army and Marine Corps helicopters. In April 1962 the unit was designated Detachment 3, Pacific Air Rescue Center. On 1 July 1965 Detachment 3 was redesignated the 38th Air Rescue Squadron and activated with its headquarters at the base and organized to control search and rescue detachments operating from bases in South Vietnam and Thailand. Detachment 14, an operational base rescue element, was later established at the base. On 8 January 1966 the 3d Aerospace Recovery Group was established at the base to control search and rescue operations throughout the theater. On 1 July 1971 the entire 38th ARRS was inactivated. Local base rescue helicopters and their crews then became detachments of the parent unit, the 3d Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Group. In February 1973 the 3d Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Group left Tan Son Nhut AB and moved to Nakhon Phanom Royal Thai Navy Base. Miscellaneous units From December 1961, the 8th and 57th Transportation Companies (Light Helicopter) arrived with Piasecki CH-21C Shawnee's. From 1962 the Utility Tactical Transport Helicopter Company (UTTHCO) was based here initially with Bell HU-1A Huey's then UH-1B's. The 1964th Communications Squadron was designated and organized at Tan Son Nhut on 1 May 1962, in accordance with AFCS G-23 instructions of 29 March 1962. It was assigned to the Southeast Asia Communications Region (itself part of the Pacific Communications Area), Air Force Communications Service. It was upgraded to become the 1964th Communications Group on 1 October 1962 and appears to have directed about 10 squadrons in the Republic of Vietnam. It provided communications and navaids for Air Force fixed bases in the country. One of its squadrons was the 1876th Communications Squadron, designated and organized at Tan Son Nhut on 1 November 1965. The 1876th Communications Squadron was reassigned on 1 April 1972, and moved to the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado. The 57th Medical Detachment (Helicopter Ambulance) with UH-1B Hueys from January 1963. During December 1964 the 145th Aviation Battalion were deployed here. In April 1964 5 EC-121D airborne early warning aircraft began staging from the base. In June 1964 Detachment 2, 421st Air Refueling Squadron equipped with KB-50 aerial refueling aircraft deployed to the base to support Yankee Team operations over Laos. In April 1965 a detachment of the 9th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron comprising 4 RB–66Bs and 2 EB–66Cs arrived at the base. The RB–66Bs were equipped with night photo and infrared sensor equipment and began reconnaissance missions over South Vietnam, while the EB–66Cs began flying missions against North Vietnamese air defense radars. By the end of May, two more EB–66Cs arrived at the base and they all then redeployed to Takhli Royal Thai Air Force Base. In mid-May 1965, following the disaster at Bien Hoa the 10 surviving B-57 bombers were transferred to Tan Son Nhut AB and continued to fly sorties on a reduced scale until replacement aircraft arrived from Clark AB. In June 1965, the B-57s were moved from Tan Son Nhut AB to Da Nang AB. On 8 October 1965 the 20th Helicopter Squadron equipped with 14 CH-3 helicopters was activated at the base, it moved to Nha Trang Air Base on 15 June 1966. 33rd Tactical Group On 8 July 1963 the units at the base were organized as the 33d Tactical Group, with subordinate units being the 33rd Air Base Squadron, the 33rd Consolidated Aircraft maintenance Squadron and the Detachment 1 reconnaissance elements. The Group's mission was to maintain and operate base support facilities at Tan Son Nhut, supporting the 2d Air Division and subordinate units by performing reconnaissance. 505th Tactical Air Control Group The 505th Tactical Air Control Group was assigned to Tan Son Nhut on 8 April 1964. The Unit was primarily responsible for controlling the tactical air resources of the US and its allies in South Vietnam, Thailand, and to some extent Cambodia and Laos. Carrying out the mission of providing tactical air support required two major components, radar installations and forward air controllers (FACs). The radar sites provided flight separation for attack and transport aircraft which took the form of flight following and, in some cases control by USAF Weapons Directors. FACs had the critical job of telling tactical fighters where to drop their ordnance. FAC's were generally attached to either US Army or ARVN units and served both on the ground and in the air. Squadrons of the 505th located at Tan Son Nhut AB were: 619th Tactical Control Squadron activated at the base on 8 April 1964 It was responsible for operating and maintaining air traffic control and radar direction-finding equipment for the area from the Mekong Delta to Buôn Ma Thuột in the Central Highlands with detachments at various smaller airfields throughout its operational area. It remained operational until 15 March 1973. 505th Tactical Control Maintenance Squadron Close air support Following the introduction of US ground combat units in mid-1965, two F-100 squadrons were deployed to Tan Son Nhut AB to provide close air support for US ground forces: 481st Tactical Fighter Squadron, 29 June 1965 – 1 January 1966 416th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 1 November 1965 – 15 June 1966 The 481st returned to the United States; the 416th returned to Bien Hoa. 6250th Combat Support Group The first tasks facing the USAF, however, were to set up a workable organizational structure in the region, improve the area's inadequate air bases, create an efficient airlift system, and develop equipment and techniques to support the ground battle. Starting in 1965, the USAF adjusted its structure in Southeast Asia to absorb incoming units. Temporarily deployed squadrons became permanent in November. A wing structure replaced the groups. On 8 July 1965, the 33d Tactical Group was redesignated the 6250th Combat Support Group. The number of personnel at Tan Son Nhut AB increased from 7780 at the beginning of 1965 to over 15,000 by the end of the year, placing substantial demands for accommodation and basic infrastructure. On 14 November 1965 the 4th Air Commando Squadron equipped with 20 AC-47 Spooky gunships arrived at the base and was assigned to the 6250th Group. The aircraft were soon deployed to forward operating locations at Binh Thuy, Da Nang, Nha Trang and Pleiku Air Bases. In May 1966 the 4th Air Commando Squadron moved its base to Nha Trang AB where it came under the control of the 14th Air Commando Wing. 460th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing On 18 February 1966 the 460th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing was activated. Its headquarters were shared with the Seventh Air Force Headquarters and MACV. When it stood up, the 460th TRW, alone, was responsible for the entire reconnaissance mission, both visual and electronic, throughout the whole theater. On 18 February 1966 the wing began activities with 74 aircraft of various types. By the end of June 1966, that number climbed to over 200 aircraft. When the 460th TRW stood up, the Wing gained several flying units at Tan Son Nhut: 16th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron (RF-4C) 20th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron: 12 November 1965 – 1 April 1966 (RF-101C) Detachment 1 of the 460th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing On 15 October 1966, the 460th TRW assumed aircraft maintenance responsibilities for Tan Son Nhut AB, including being responsible for all depot-level aircraft maintenance responsibility for all USAF organizations in South Vietnam. In addition to the reconnaissance operations, the 460th TFW's base flight operated in-theater transport service for Seventh Air Force and other senior commanders throughout South Vietnam. The base flight operated T-39A Saberliners, VC-123B Providers (also known as the "White Whale"), and U-3Bs between 1967 and 1971. Photographic reconnaissance 45th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron: 30 March 1966 – 31 December 1970 (RF-101C Tail Code: AH) 12th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron: 2 September 1966 – 31 August 1971 (RF-4C Tail Code: AC) On 18 September 1966, the 432d Tactical Reconnaissance Wing was activated at Takhli Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand. After the 432d TRW activated it took control of the reconnaissance squadrons in Thailand. With the activation of the 432d TRW, the 460th TRW was only responsible for RF-101 and RF-4C operations. In 1970 the need for improved coordinate data of Southeast Asia for targeting purposes led to Loran-C-equipped RF–4Cs taking detailed photographs of target areas which were matched with the Loran coordinates of terrain features on the photo maps to calculate the precise coordinates. This information was converted into a computer program which by mid-1971 was used by the 12th Reconnaissance Intelligence Technical Squadron at the base for targeting. Electronic reconnaissance A few months after the 460th TRW's activation, two squadrons activated on 8 April 1966 as 460th TRW Det 2: 360th Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron: 8 April 1966 – 31 August 1971 (EC-47N/P/Q Tail Code: AJ) 361st Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron: 8 April 1966 – 31 August 1971 (EC-47N/P/Q Tail Code: AL) (Nha Trang Air Base) 362d Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron: 1 February 1967 – 31 August 1971 (EC-47N/P/Q Tail Code: AN) (Pleiku Air Base) Project Hawkeye conducted radio direction finding (RDF), whose main target were VC radio transmitters. Before this program RDF involved tracking the signals on the ground. Because this exposed the RDF team to ambushes, both the US Army and USAF began to look at airborne RDF. While the US Army used U-6 Beaver and U-8 Seminole aircraft for its own version of the Hawkeye platform, the USAF modified several C-47 Skytrains. Project Phyllis Ann also used modified C-47s, however, the C-47s for this program were highly modified with an advanced navigational and reconnaissance equipment. On 4 April 1967, project Phyllis Ann changed to become Compass Dart. On 1 April 1968, Compass Dart became Combat Cougar. Because of security concerns the operation's name changed two more times first to Combat Cross and then to Commando Forge. Project Drillpress also used modified C-47s, listening into VC/PAVN traffic and collected intelligence from it. This data gave insights into the plans and strategy of both the VC and the PAVN. Information from all three projects contributed in a major way to the intelligence picture of the battlefield in Vietnam. In fact about 95 percent of the Arc Light strikes conducted in South Vietnam were based, at least partially, on the data from these three programs. On 6 October 1967, Drillpress changed to Sentinel Sara. The US would go to great lengths to prevent this equipment from falling into enemy hands, when an EC-47 from the 362d TEWS crashed on 22 April 1970, members of an explosive ordnance unit policed the area destroying anything they found and six F-100 tactical air sorties hit the area to be sure. Detachments of these squadrons operated from different locations, including bases in Thailand. Each of the main squadrons and their detachments moved at least once due to operational and/or security reasons. Personnel operating the RDF and signal intelligence equipment in the back of the modified EC-47s were part of the 6994th Security Squadron. On 1 June 1969 the unit transferred to become 360th TEWS Det 1. Inactivation As the Vietnamization program began, Vietnamese crews began flying with EC-47 crews from the 360th TEWS and 6994th SS, on 8 May 1971, to get training on operating the aircraft and its systems. The wing was inactivated in-place on 31 August 1971. Decorations awarded to the wing for its Vietnam War service include: Presidential Unit Citation: 18 February 1966 – 30 June 1967; 1 September 1967 – 1 July 1968; 11 July 1968 – 31 August 1969; l February-31 March 1971. Air Force Outstanding Unit Award with Combat "V" Device: 1 July 1969 – 30 June 1970; 1 July 1970 – 30 June 1971. Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross with Palm: 1 August 1966 – 31 August 1971. 315th Air Commando Wing, Troop Carrier In October 1962, there began what became known as the Southeast Asia Airlift System. Requirements were forecast out to 25 days, and these requirements were matched against available resources. In September 1962 Headquarters 6492nd Combat Cargo Group (Troop Carrier) and the 6493rd Aerial Port Squadron were organized and attached to the 315th Air Division, based at Tachikawa AB. On 8 December 1962 the 315th Air Commando Group, (Troop Carrier) was activated replacing the 6492nd Combat Cargo Group and became responsible for all in-country airlift in South Vietnam, including control over all USAF airlift assets. On the same date the 8th Aerial Port Squadron replaced the 6493rd Aerial Port Squadron.The 315th Group was assigned to the 315th Air Division, but came under the operational control of MACV through the 2d Air Division. On 10 August 1964 6 Royal Australian Air Force RAAF Transport Flight Vietnam DHC-4 Caribous arrived at the base and were assigned to the airlift system. In October 1964 the 19th Air Commando Squadron equipped with C-123s was established at the base and assigned to the 315th Troop Carrier Group. On 8 March 1965 the 315th Troop Carrier Group was redesignated the 315th Air Commando Group. The 315th Air Commando Group was re-designated the 315th Air Commando Wing on 8 March 1966. Squadrons of the 315th ACW/TC were: 12th Air Commando Squadron (Defoliation), 15 October 1966 – 30 September 1970 (Bien Hoa) (UC-123 Provider) Det 1, 834th Air Division, 15 October 1966 – 1 December 1971 (Tan Son Nhut) (C-130B Hercules) 19th Air Commando Squadron 8 March 1966 – 10 June 1971 (Tan Son Nhut) (C-123 Provider) (including 2 Royal Thai Air Force-operated C-123s named Victory Flight) 309th Air Commando Squadron 8 March 1966 – 31 July 1970 (Phan Rang) (C-123) 310th Air Commando Squadron 8 March 1966 – 15 January 1972 (Phan Rang) (C-123) 311th Air Commando Squadron 8 March 1966 – 5 October 1971 (Phan Rang) (C-123) Det 1., HQ 315th Air Commando Wing, Troop Carrier 1 August – 15 October 1966 Det 5., HQ 315th Air Division (Combat Cargo) 8 March – 15 October 1966 Det 6., HQ 315th Air Division (Combat Cargo) (8 March – 15 October 1966) 903rd Aeromedical Evacuation Squadron 8 July 1966 RAAF Transport Flight, Vietnam (RTFV) 8 March – 15 October 1966 The unit also performed C-123 airlift operations in Vietnam. Operations included aerial movement of troops and cargo, flare drops, aeromedical evacuation, and air-drops of critical supplies and paratroops Operation Ranch Hand The 315th ACG was responsible for Operation Ranch Hand Defoliant operations missions. After some modifications to the aircraft (which included adding armor for the crew), 3 C-123B Provider aircraft arrived at the base on 7 January 1962 under the code name Ranch Hand. The 315th ACW was transferred to Phan Rang Air Base on 14 June 1967. 834th Air Division On 15 October 1966 the 834th Airlift Division was assigned without personnel or equipment, to Tan Son Nhut AB to join the Seventh Air Force, providing an intermediate command and control organization and also act as host unit for the USAF forces at the base. The 315th Air Commando Wing and 8th Aerial Port Squadron were assigned to the 834th Division. Initially the 834th AD had a strength of twenty-seven officers and twenty-one airmen, all of whom were on permanent assignment to Tan Son Nhut. The Air Division served as a single manager for all tactical airlift operations in South Vietnam, using air transport to haul cargo and troops, which were air-landed or air-dropped, as combat needs dictated, through December 1971. The 834th Air Division became the largest tactical airlift force in the world. In addition to airlift of cargo and personnel and RVNAF training, it took on Ranch Hand defoliation and insecticide spraying; psychological/propaganda leaflet distribution; helicopter landing zone preparation; airfield survey; the operation of aerial ports; and other special missions. Units it directly controlled were: 315th Air Commando (later, 315th Special Operations; 315th Tactical Airlift) Wing: 15 October 1966 – 1 December 1971) Located at: Tan Son Nhut AB; later Phan Rang AB (15 June 1967 – 1 December 1971) UC-123 Provider. Composed of four C-123 squadrons with augmentation by C-130 Hercules transports from the 315th Air Division, Tachikawa AB, Japan. Two C-123 Squadrons (32 a/c) at Tan Son Nhut AB; There were 23 C-130B aircraft assigned by 1 November 1966 483d Troop Carrier (later, 483d Tactical Airlift) Wing: 15 October 1966 – 1 December 1971 2d Aerial Port Group (Tan Son Nhut) 8th Aerial Port Squadron, Tan Son Nhut (16 detachments) Detachments were located at various points where airlift activity warranted continuous but less extensive aerial port services. Aerial port personnel loaded, unloaded, and stored cargo and processed passengers at each location. The Air Division also supervised South Vietnamese air transport operations (primarily C-47s), six DHC-4 Caribou transports operated by the No. 35 Squadron RAAF at Vung Tau Air Base and two Republic of Korea Air Force Curtiss C-46 Commando transport aircraft from 29 July 1967, later replaced by C-54s. The Air Division received the Presidential Unit Citation recognizing their efforts during the Battle of Khe Sanh. In late 1969 C Flight, 17th Special Operations Squadron equipped with five AC-119G gunships was deployed at the base. By the end of 1970 this Flight would grow to nine AC-119Gs to support operations in Cambodia. During its last few months, the 834th worked toward passing combat airlift control to Seventh Air Force. On 1 December 1971 the 834th AD was inactivated as part of the USAF withdrawal of forces from Vietnam. 377th Air Base Wing The 377th Air Base Wing was responsible for the day-to-day operations and maintenance of the USAF portion of the facility from April 1966 until the last USAF personnel withdrew from South Vietnam in March 1973. In addition, the 377th ABW was responsible for housing numerous tenant organizations including Seventh Air Force, base defense, and liaison with the RVNAF. In 1972 inactivating USAF units throughout South Vietnam began to assign units without equipment or personnel to the 377th ABW. From Cam Ranh AB: 21st Tactical Air Support Squadron: 15 March 1972 – 23 February 1973. From Phan Rang AB: 8th Special Operations Squadron: 15 January – 25 October 1972 (A-37) 9th Special Operations Squadron: 21 January – 29 February 1972 (C-47) 310th Tactical Airlift Squadron: January–June 1972 and March–October 1972 (C-123, C-7B) 360th Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron: 1 February – 24 November 1972 (EC-47N/P/Q) All of these units were inactivated at Tan Son Nhut AB. An operating location of the wing headquarters was established at Bien Hoa AB on 14 April 1972 to provide turnaround service for F-4 Phantom IIs of other organizations, mostly based in Thailand. It was replaced on 20 June 1972 by Detachment l of the 377th Wing headquarters, which continued the F-4 turnaround service and added A-7 Corsair IIs for the deployed 354th Tactical Fighter Wing aircraft based at Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand on 30 October 1972. The detachment continued operations through 11 February 1973. The 377th ABW phased down for inactivation during February and March 1973, transferring many assets to the RVNAF. When inactivated on 28 March 1973, the 377th Air Base Wing was the last USAF unit in South Vietnam. Post-1975 Vietnam People's Air Force use Following the war, Tan Son Nhut Air Base was taken over as a base for the VPAF which is referred to by the name Tân Sơn Nhất. Tân Sơn Nhất Air Base was home of 917th Mixed Air Transport Regiment (a.k.a. Đồng Tháp Squadron) of 370th Air Force Division. The regiment's fleet consisted of: Bell UH-1 Iroquois Mil Mi-8 Mil Mi-17 917th Mixed Air Transport Regiment was moved to Cần Thơ International Airport in 2017. Only air defense and logistics units remained at the airport today. In November 2015, the site of Camp Davis was recognized as a national historical relic by the Monuments Conservation Center of Ho Chi Minh City Department of Culture and Sports and the Ho Chi Minh City Monuments Review Board. Accident and incidents 25 October 1967: F-105D Thunderchief #59-1737 crashed into a C-123K #54-0667 on landing in bad weather. The F-105 pilot was killed and both aircraft were destroyed. 19 June 1968 at 14:15 a pallet of ammunition exploded on a truck in the munitions area north of the base killing one U.S. soldier. An ambulance crossing the runway to the scene of the explosion was hit by a U.S. Army U-21 on takeoff killing two USAF medics in the ambulance. 11 October 1969: an AC-119G of the 17th Special Operations Squadron crashed shortly after takeoff. Six crewmembers were killed and the aircraft was destroyed. 28 April 1970: an AC-119G of the 17th Special Operations Squadron crashed shortly after takeoff. Six crewmembers were killed and the aircraft was destroyed. References Other sources Endicott, Judy G. (1999) Active Air Force wings as of 1 October 1995; USAF active flying, space, and missile squadrons as of 1 October 1995. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. CD-ROM. Martin, Patrick (1994). Tail Code: The Complete History of USAF Tactical Aircraft Tail Code Markings. Schiffer Military Aviation History. . Mesco, Jim (1987) VNAF Republic of Vietnam Air Force 1945–1975 Squadron/Signal Publications. Mikesh, Robert C. (2005) Flying Dragons: The Republic of Vietnam Air Force. Schiffer Publishing, Ltd. USAF Historical Research Division/Organizational History Branch – 35th Fighter Wing, 366th Wing VNAF – The Republic of Vietnam Air Force 1951–1975 USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers—1908 to present External links 505th Tactical Control Group – Tactical Air Control in Vietnam and Thailand C-130A 57–460 at the National Air And Space Museum The Tan Son Nhut Association Electronic Warfare "Electric Goon" EC-47 Association website The Defense of Tan Son Nhut Air Base, 31 January 1968 The Fall of Saigon Installations of the United States Air Force in South Vietnam Military installations of South Vietnam Airports in Vietnam Buildings and structures in Ho Chi Minh City Military airbases established in 1955
4891298	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese%20War	Soviet–Japanese War	The Soviet–Japanese War, known in Mongolia as the Liberation War of 1945, was a military conflict within the Second World War beginning soon after the Soviet declaration of war against Japan on 7 August 1945, followed by the Soviet invasion of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. The Soviets and Mongolians ended Japanese control of Manchukuo, Mengjiang (Inner Mongolia), northern Korea, Karafuto (South Sakhalin), and the Chishima Islands (Kuril Islands). The defeat of Japan's Kwantung Army helped bring about the Japanese surrender and the termination of World War II. The Soviet entry into the war was a significant factor in the Japanese government's decision to surrender unconditionally, as it was made apparent that the Soviet Union was not willing to act as a third party in negotiating an end to hostilities on conditional terms. Summary At the Tehran Conference in November 1943, Joseph Stalin agreed that the Soviet Union would enter the war against Japan once Germany was defeated. An Anglo-American delegation visited Moscow in October 1944 to discuss the Soviet Union joining the war against Japan. The meeting with Stalin on 15 October discussed the Soviet Union’s participation, and Stalin said that the Soviet offensive could need American material assistance because of the limited freight capacity of the Trans-Siberian Railway; see Pacific Route. British participants included Winston Churchill, Anthony Eden, Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, and General Hastings Ismay. The American representative was W. Averell Harriman. At the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Stalin agreed to Allied pleas to enter World War II in the Pacific Theater within three months of the end of the war in Europe. On 26 July, the US, the UK, and China made the Potsdam Declaration, an ultimatum calling for the Japanese surrender that if ignored would lead to their "prompt and utter destruction". The commencement of the invasion fell between the US atomic bombings of Hiroshima on 6 August and Nagasaki on 9 August. Although Stalin had been told virtually nothing of the US and UK's atomic bomb program by Allied governments, the date of the invasion was foreshadowed by the Yalta agreement, the date of the German surrender, and the fact that, on 3 August, Marshal Aleksandr Vasilevsky reported to Stalin that, if necessary, he could attack on the morning of 5 August. The timing was well-planned and enabled the Soviet Union to enter the Pacific Theater on the side of the Allies, as previously agreed, before the war's end. The invasion of the second largest Japanese island of Hokkaido was originally planned by the Soviets to be part of the territory taken, and finally on 7 August, the Soviets declared war on Japan. At 11 pm Trans-Baikal time on 8 August 1945, Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov informed Japanese ambassador Naotake Satō that the Soviet Union had declared war on Japan, and that from 9 August the Soviet Government would consider itself to be at war with Japan. At one minute past midnight Trans-Baikal time on 9 August 1945, the Soviets commenced their invasion simultaneously on three fronts to the east, west and north of Manchuria. The operation was subdivided into smaller operational and tactical parts: Khingan–Mukden Offensive Operation (9 August 1945 – 2 September 1945) Harbin–Kirin Offensive Operation (9 August 1945 – 2 September 1945) Sungari Offensive Operation (9 August 1945 – 2 September 1945) and subsequently South Sakhalin Operation (11 August 1945 – 25 August 1945) Soviet assault on Maoka (19 August 1945 – 22 August 1945) Chongjin Landing Operation (13 August 1945 – 16 August 1945) Kuril Landing Operation (18 August 1945 – 1 September 1945) Though the battle extended beyond the borders traditionally known as Manchuria – that is, the traditional lands of the Manchus – the coordinated and integrated invasions of Japan's northern territories has also been called the Battle of Manchuria. Since 1983, the operation has sometimes been called Operation August Storm, after American Army historian Lieutenant-Colonel David Glantz used this title for a paper on the subject. It has also been referred to by its Soviet name, the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation, but this name refers more to the Soviet invasion of Manchuria than to the whole war. This offensive should not be confused with the Soviet–Japanese border conflicts (particularly the Battle of Khalkhin Gol of May–September 1939), that ended in Japan's defeat in 1939, and led to the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact. Background and buildup The Russo-Japanese War of the early 20th century resulted in a Japanese victory and the Treaty of Portsmouth by which, in conjunction with other later events including the Mukden Incident and Japanese invasion of Manchuria in September 1931, Japan eventually gained control of Korea, Manchuria and South Sakhalin. In the late 1930s were a number of Soviet-Japanese border incidents, the most significant being the Battle of Lake Khasan (Changkufeng Incident, July–August 1938) and the Battle of Khalkhin Gol (Nomonhan Incident, May–September 1939), which led to the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact of April 1941. The Neutrality Pact freed up forces from the border incidents and enabled the Soviets to concentrate on their war with Germany and the Japanese to concentrate on their southern expansion into Asia and the Pacific Ocean. With success at the Battle of Stalingrad and the eventual defeat of Germany becoming increasingly certain, the Soviet attitude to Japan changed, both publicly, with Stalin making speeches denouncing Japan, and privately, with the Soviets building up forces and supplies in the Far East. At the Tehran Conference (November 1943), Stalin, Churchill, and Franklin D. Roosevelt agreed that the Soviet Union would enter the war against Japan once Germany was defeated. Stalin faced a dilemma since he wanted to avoid a two-front war at almost any cost but also wanted to extract gains in the Far East as well as Europe. The only way that Stalin could make Far Eastern gains without a two-front war would be for Germany to surrender before Japan. The Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact caused the Soviets to make it policy to intern Allied aircrews who landed in Soviet territory after operations against Japan, but airmen held in the Soviet Union under such circumstances were usually allowed to "escape" after some period of time. Nevertheless, even before the defeat of Germany, the Soviet buildup in the Far East had steadily accelerated. By early 1945, it had become apparent to the Japanese that the Soviets were preparing to invade Manchuria, but they were unlikely to attack prior to Germany's defeat. In addition to their problems in the Pacific, the Japanese realised that they needed to determine when and where a Soviet invasion would occur. At the Yalta Conference (February 1945), Stalin secured from Roosevelt the promise of Stalin's Far Eastern territorial desires in return for agreeing to enter the Pacific War within two or three months of the defeat of Germany. By mid-March 1945, things were not going well in the Pacific for the Japanese, who withdrew their elite troops from Manchuria to support actions in the Pacific. Meanwhile, the Soviets continued their Far Eastern buildup. The Soviets had decided that they did not wish to renew the Neutrality Pact. The Neutrality Pact required that twelve months before its expiry, the Soviets must advise the Japanese and so on 5 April 1945, they informed the Japanese that they did not wish to renew the treaty. That caused the Japanese considerable concern, but the Soviets went to great efforts to assure the Japanese that the treaty would still be in force for another twelve months and that the Japanese had nothing to worry about. On 9 May 1945 (Moscow Time), Germany surrendered and so if the Soviets were to honour the Yalta Agreement, they would need to enter war with Japan by 9 August 1945. The situation continued to deteriorate for the Japanese, now the only Axis power left in the war. They were keen to remain at peace with the Soviets and extend the Neutrality Pact and also wanted to achieve an end to the war. Since Yalta, they had repeatedly approached or tried to approach the Soviets to extend the Neutrality Pact and to enlist the Soviets in negotiating peace with the Allies. The Soviets did nothing to discourage the Japanese hopes and drew the process out as long as possible but continued to prepare their invasion forces. One of the roles of the Cabinet of Admiral Baron Suzuki, which took office in April 1945, was to try to secure any peace terms short of unconditional surrender. In late June, they approached the Soviets (the Neutrality Pact was still in place), inviting them to negotiate peace with the Allies in support of Japan, providing them with specific proposals and in return, they offered the Soviets very attractive territorial concessions. Stalin expressed interest, and the Japanese awaited the Soviet response. The Soviets continued to avoid providing a response. The Potsdam Conference was held from 16 July to 2 August 1945. On 24 July, the Soviet Union recalled all embassy staff and families from Japan. On 26 July, the conference produced the Potsdam Declaration whereby Churchill, Harry S. Truman and Chiang Kai-shek (the Soviet Union was not officially at war with Japan) demanded the unconditional surrender of Japan. The Japanese continued to wait for the Soviet response and avoided responding to the declaration. The Japanese had been monitoring Trans-Siberian Railway traffic and Soviet activity to the east of Manchuria and the Soviet delaying tactics, which suggested to them that the Soviets would not be ready to invade east Manchuria before the end of August. They did not have any real idea and no confirming evidence as to when or where any invasion would occur. They had estimated that an attack was not likely in August 1945 or before spring 1946, but Stavka had planned for a mid-August 1945 offensive and had concealed the buildup of a force of 90 divisions. Many had crossed Siberia in their vehicles to avoid straining the rail link. Combatant forces Soviets The Far East Command, under Vasilevsky, had a plan for the conquest of Manchuria that was simple but huge in scale by calling for a massive pincer movement over all of Manchuria. The pincer movement was to be performed by the Transbaikal Front from the west and by the 1st Far East Front from the east. The 2nd Far East Front was to attack the center of the pocket from the north. The only Soviet equivalent of a theater command that operated during the war (apart from the short-lived 1941 "Directions" in the west), Far East Command, consisted of three Red Army fronts. Each Front had "front units" attached directly to the front, instead of an army. The forces totaled 89 divisions with 1.5 million men, 3,704 tanks, 1,852 self propelled guns, 85,819 vehicles and 3,721 aircraft. One third of its strength was in combat support and services. Its naval forces contained 12 major surface combatants, 78 submarines, numerous amphibious craft, and the Amur River flotilla, consisting of gunboats and numerous small craft. The Soviet plan incorporated all the experience in maneuver warfare that the Soviets had acquired fighting the Germans, and also used new improved weapons, such as the RPD light machine gun, the new main battle tank T-44 and a small number of JS-3 heavy tanks. Western Front of Manchuria The Transbaikal Front, under Marshal Rodion Malinovsky, was to form the western half of the Soviet pincer movement and to attack across the Inner Mongolian desert and over the Greater Khingan mountains. These forces had the objective to secure Mukden (now Shenyang), then meet troops of the 1st Far East Front at the Changchun area in south-central Manchuria and so end the double envelopment. Eastern Front of Manchuria The 1st Far East Front, under Marshal Kirill Meretskov, was to form the eastern half of the pincer movement. The attack involved striking towards Mudanjiang (or Mutanchiang), and once that city was captured, the force was to advance towards the cities of Jilin (or Kirin), Changchun, and Harbin. Its final objective was to link up with forces of the Trans-Baikal Front at Changchun and Jilin thus closing the double envelopment movement. As a secondary objective, the 1st Far East Front was to prevent Japanese forces from escaping to Korea and to then invade the Korean Peninsula up to the 38th parallel, establishing in the process what later became North Korea. Northern Front of Manchuria The 2nd Far East Front, under General Purkayev, was in a supporting attack role. Its objectives were the cities of Harbin and Tsitsihar and the prevention of an orderly withdrawal to the south by Japanese forces. Once troops from the 1st Far East Front and Trans-Baikal Front had captured the city of Changchun, the 2nd Far East Front was to attack the Liaotung Peninsula and seize Port Arthur (present day Lüshun). Japanese The Kwantung Army of the Imperial Japanese Army, under General Otozō Yamada, was the major part of the Japanese occupation forces in Manchuria and Korea and consisted of two Area Armies: the First Area Army (northeastern Manchukuo) and the Third Area Army (southwestern Manchukuo), as well as three independent armies (responsible for northern Manchuria, North Korea, Mengjiang, South Sakhalin, and the Kurils). Each area army (Homen Gun, the equivalent of a Western "army") had headquarters units and units attached directly to it, in addition to the field armies (the equivalent of a Western corps). In addition was the 40,000-strong Manchukuo Defense Force, composed of eight weak, poorly-equipped, and poorly-trained Manchukuoan divisions. The combined forces of the Kwantung Army in Manchuria and the Seventeenth Area Army in Korea came close to one million men. The two armies had no fewer than 31 divisions and 13 brigades (including two tank brigades) between them, together with numerous separate regiments and fortress units. In Manchuria alone there were approximately 700 armored vehicles and 5,000 guns and mortars (excluding 50 mm grenade dischargers), while the Japanese Air Forces had 2,004 planes in Manchuria and Korea, of which only 627 were combat types. The Imperial Japanese Navy did not contribute surface forces to the defense of Manchuria, the occupation of which it had always opposed on strategic grounds. Additionally, by the time of the invasion, the few remnants of its fleet were stationed in defense of the Japanese home islands in anticipation of a possible invasion by Western Allied forces. Despite its large size, the Kwantung Army was badly trained, poorly equipped, and had only limited supplies: overall ammunition stockpiles were sufficient to meet the needs of only 13 divisions for 3 months, compared with 24 divisions then in Manchuria. Most of its heavy equipment and all of its best troops had been transferred to the Pacific Front over the previous three years, with second-rate units raised to replace them. As a result, it had essentially been reduced to a light infantry counterinsurgency force with limited mobility or ability to fight a conventional land war against a co-ordinated enemy. Compounding the problem, the Japanese military made many wrong assumptions and major mistakes, the two most significant the following: They wrongly assumed that any attack coming from the west would follow either the old rail line to Hailar or head into Solun from the eastern tip of Mongolia. The Soviets attacked along those routes, but their main attack from the west went through the supposedly-impassable Greater Khingan range south of Solun and into the center of Manchuria. Japanese military intelligence failed to determine the nature, location, and scale of the Soviet buildup in the Far East. Based on initial underestimates of Soviet strength and the monitoring of Soviet traffic on the Trans-Siberian Railway, the Japanese believed that the Soviets would not have sufficient forces in place before the end of August and that an attack was most likely in the autumn of 1945 or the spring of 1946. The withdrawal of the Kwantung Army's elite forces for redeployment into the Pacific Theatre made new operational plans for the defence of Manchuria against a seemingly-inevitable Soviet attack prepared by the Japanese in the summer of 1945. They called for the redeployment of most forces from the border areas, which were to be held lightly with delaying actions. The main force was to hold the southeastern corner in strength to defend Korea from attack. Furthermore, the Japanese had observed Soviet activity only on the Trans-Siberian Railway and along the East Manchurian front and so prepared for an invasion from the east. They believed that when an attack occurred from the west, their redeployed forces would be able to deal with it. Although the redeployment had been initiated, it was not supposed to be completed until September and so the Kwantung Army was in the process of redeployment when the Soviets launched their attack simultaneously on all three fronts. Campaign The operation was carried out as a classic double pincer movement over an area the size of Western Europe. In the western pincer, the Red Army advanced over the deserts and mountains from Mongolia, far from their resupply railways. That confounded the Japanese military analysis of Soviet logistics, and the defenders were caught by surprise in unfortified positions. The Kwantung Army commanders, involved in a planning exercise at the time of the invasion, were away from their forces for the first 18 hours of conflict. Communication infrastructure was poor, and communication was lost with forward units very early. The Kwantung Army had a formidable reputation as fierce and relentless fighters, and even though weak and unprepared, they put up strong resistance in the town of Hailar, which tied down some of the Soviet forces. At the same time, Soviet airborne units were used to seize airfields and city centers in advance of the land forces and to ferry fuel to the units that had outrun their supply lines. Due to Japanese 37mm and 47mm anti-tank guns only being suitable for fighting light Soviet tanks, the Japanese employed suicide bomber squads strapped with grenades and explosives as their main improvised anti-tank weapon. At same time, there are some reports said Japanese Army aviation were using kamikaze planes attempt to stop Soviet advance. The Soviet pincer from the east crossed the Ussuri and advanced around Khanka Lake and attacked towards Suifenhe. Although Japanese defenders fought hard and provided strong resistance, the Soviets proved to be overwhelming. Nevertheless, the prospect of a quick defeat to the Japanese Army seemed far from clear. Given the fanatical and sometimes suicidal resistance put up by the Japanese forces similar in April-June 1945 battle on Okinawa, there was every reason to believe that a long, difficult campaign for the capture of the last remaining Japanese fortified areas was expected. In some parts of the Soviet offensive these expectations were fully fulfilled. Attacks from the Soviet Union overpowered Japanese forces. From behind Japanese lines, Soviet paratroopers decimated the Kwangtung Army as Japanese anti-tank bullets bounced off the sides of Soviet tanks. After launching a crushing offensive on the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchuria just days before Japan's surrender, the Russians handled the Japanese with the worst cruelty. Japanese troops in Manchuria retreated out of fear. Russian forces captured Japanese soldiers and physically fit Japanese men in Manchuria and sent them to Siberian labor camps, where many of them would perish. From the Russian's perspective, this was seen as revenge for Russia's defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1905. Japanese evacuees fled to Beijing, and told stories of the Soviet forces' mistreatment of the Japanese, which sparked created panic among the Japanese populace. Nevertheless, the Russians stayed out of China proper in accordance with their agreement with Chiang Kai-shek. The exact situation occurred in Inner Mongolia, except the Soviet forces were largely Mongols from Outer Mongolia. The Japanese forces in Inner Mongolia didn't resist the Soviet forces, abandoned their city stronghold of Kalgan, and fled south. After a week of fighting during which Soviet forces had penetrated deep into Manchukuo, Japanese Emperor Hirohito recorded the Gyokuon-hōsō, which was broadcast on radio to the Japanese nation on 15 August 1945. The idea of surrender was incomprehensible to the Japanese people, and combined with Hirohito's use of formal and archaic language, the fact that he did not use the word "surrender", the poor quality of the broadcast, and the poor lines of communication, there was some confusion for the Japanese about what the announcement meant. The Imperial Japanese Army Headquarters did not immediately communicate the ceasefire order to the Kwantung Army, and many elements of the Army either did not understand it or ignored it. Hence, pockets of fierce resistance from the Kwantung Army continued, and the Soviets continued their advance, largely avoiding the pockets of resistance, reaching Mukden, Changchun and Qiqihar by 20 August. On the Soviet right flank, the Soviet-Mongolian Cavalry-Mechanized Group had entered Inner Mongolia and quickly took Dolon Nur and Kalgan. The Emperor of Manchukuo and former Emperor of China, Puyi, was captured by the Soviet Red Army. The ceasefire order was eventually communicated to the Kwantung Army but not before the Soviet Union had made most of their territorial gains. On 18 August, several Soviet amphibious landings had been conducted ahead of the land advance: three in northern Korea, one in South Sakhalin, and one in the Chishima Islands. In Korea at least, there were already Soviet soldiers waiting for the troops coming overland. In Karafuto and the Chishimas, that meant a sudden and undeniable establishment of Soviet sovereignty. On 10 August, the US government proposed to the Soviet government to divide the occupation of Korea between them at the 38th parallel north. The Americans were surprised that the Soviet government accepted. Soviet troops were able to move freely by rail, and there was nothing to stop them from occupying the whole of Korea. Soviet forces began amphibious landings in northern Korea by 14 August and rapidly took over the northeast of the peninsula, and on 16 August, they landed at Wonsan. On 24 August, the Red Army entered Pyongyang and established a military government over Korea north of the 38th parallel. American forces landed at Incheon on 8 September and took control of the south. Aftermath Since the first major Japanese military defeats in the Pacific in the summer of 1942, the civilian leaders of Japan had come to realise that the Japanese military campaign was economically unsustainable, as Japan did not have the industrial capacity to fight the United States, China and the British Empire at the same time, and there were a number of initiatives to negotiate a cessation of hostilities and the consolidation of Japanese territorial and economic gains. Hence, elements of the non-military leadership had first made the decision to surrender as early as 1943. The major issue was the terms and conditions of surrender, not the issue of surrender itself. For a variety of diverse reasons, none of the initiatives was successful, the two major reasons being the Soviet Union's deception and delaying tactics and the attitudes of the "Big Six", the powerful Japanese military leaders. Impact on the Japanese decision to surrender The Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation, along with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, combined to break the Japanese political deadlock and force the Japanese leaders to accept the terms of surrender demanded by the Allies. In the "Sixty Years after Hiroshima" issue of The Weekly Standard, the American historian Richard B. Frank points out that there are a number of schools of thought with varying opinions of what caused the Japanese to surrender. He describes what he calls the "traditionalist" view, which asserts that the Japanese surrendered because the Americans dropped the atomic bombs. He goes on summarize other points of view in conflict with the traditionalist view: namely, that the Japanese government saw their situation as hopeless and was already ready to surrender before the atomic bombs – and that the Soviets went to war against Japan. Tsuyoshi Hasegawa's research has led him to conclude that the atomic bombings were not the principal reason for Japan's capitulation. He argues that Japan's leaders were impacted more by the swift and devastating Soviet victories on the mainland in the week after Stalin's 8 August declaration of war because the Japanese strategy to protect the home islands was designed to fend off an Allied invasion from the south and left virtually no spare troops to counter a Soviet threat from the north. Furthermore, the Japanese could no longer hope to achieve a negotiated peace with the Allies by using the Soviet Union as a mediator with the Soviet declaration of war. That, according to Hasegawa, amounted to a "strategic bankruptcy" for the Japanese and forced their message of surrender on 15 August 1945. Others with similar views include the Battlefield series documentary, among others, but most, including Hasegawa, state that the surrender was not caused by only one factor or event. Ward Hayes Wilson, however, has argued extensively that the Soviet declaration of war was the sole cause of Japan's surrender. He cites the June 1945 meeting of the Supreme Council at which they concluded that maintaining Soviet neutrality would "determine the fate of the Empire," and the general lack of regard for the importance of city bombing in Japan's ruling circles. Soviet occupation The Soviet invasion and occupation of the defunct Manchukuo marked the start of a traumatic period for the more than one million residents of the puppet state who were of Japanese descent. The situation for the Japanese military occupants was clear, but the Japanese colonists who had made Manchukuo their home, particularly those born in Manchukuo, were now stateless and homeless, and the (non-Japanese) Manchurians wanted to be rid of these foreigners. Many residents were killed, and others ended up in Siberian prisons for up to 20 years. Some made their way to the Japanese home islands, where they were also treated as foreigners. Prior to withdrawing from Manchuria, Soviet forces and bureaucracy dismantled almost all of the portable parts of the considerable Japanese-built industry in Manchuria and relocated it to "restore industry in war-torn Soviet territory". However, anything that was not portable was either disabled or destroyed since the Soviets had no desire for Manchuria to be an economic rival, particularly to the underdeveloped Far Eastern Soviet Territories. After the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil and the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the USSR began providing economic assistance to the new government, the bulk of which went into rebuilding Manchuria's industrial base. Manchuria was "cleansed" by Soviet forces of any potential military resistance. With Soviet support for the spread of communism, Manchuria provided the main base of operations for Mao Zedong's forces, who proved victorious in the following four years of the Chinese Civil War. The military successes in Manchuria and China by the Communist Chinese led to the Soviet Union giving up their rights to bases in China, promised by the Western Allies, because all of the land deemed by the Soviets to be Chinese, as distinct from what the Soviets considered to be Soviet land that had been occupied by the Japanese, was eventually turned over to the People's Republic of China. Prior to withdrawing from Manchuria, Soviet forces and bureaucracy dismantled almost all of the portable parts of the considerable Japanese-built industry in Manchuria and relocated it to "restore industry in war-torn Soviet territory". However, anything that was not portable was either disabled or destroyed since the Soviets had no desire for Manchuria to be an economic rival, particularly to the underdeveloped Far Eastern Soviet Territories. After the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil and the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the USSR began providing economic assistance to the new government, the bulk of which went into rebuilding Manchuria's industrial base. As agreed at Yalta, the Soviet Union had intervened in the war with Japan within three months of the German surrender and so was therefore entitled to annex the territories of South Sakhalin, which Russia had lost to Japan in aftermath of the Russo-Japanese War, and the Kuril Islands and also to preeminent interests over Port Arthur and Dalian, with its strategic rail connections, via the China Changchun Railway, a company owned jointly by China and the Soviet Union that operated all railways of the former Manchukuo. The territories on the Asian mainland were transferred to the full control of the People's Republic of China in 1955. The other possessions are still administered by the Soviet Union's successor state, Russia. The annexation of South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands is of great importance as the Sea of Okhotsk became a Soviet inland sea, which continues to have great strategic benefit to Russia. The division of Korea between the Soviet and US occupations led to the creation of the separate states of North and South Korea, a precursor to the Korean War five years later. See also Battles of Khalkhin Gol Battle of Mutanchiang Battle of Shumshu Military history of Japan Military history of the Soviet Union Kuril Islands dispute Project Hula Soviet–Japanese border conflicts Notes References Further reading Despres, J, Dzirkals, L, et al. (1976). Timely Lessons of History : The Manchurian Model for Soviet Strategy. Santa Monica, RAND: 103. (available on-line) Duara, P. (2006). The New Imperialism and the Post-Colonial Developmental State: Manchukuo in comparative perspective. Japan Focus. Garthoff, R L. (1966). Soviet Military Policy : A Historical Analysis. London, Faber and Faber. Garthoff, R L. (1969). The Soviet Manchurian Campaign, August 1945. Military Affairs XXXIII(Oct 1969): 312–336. Glantz, David M. (1983a). August Storm: The Soviet 1945 Strategic Offensive in Manchuria, Leavenworth Paper No.7, Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, February 1983. Glantz, David M. (1983b). August Storm: Soviet Tactical and Operational Combat in Manchuria, 1945, Leavenworth Paper No.8, Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, June 1983. Glantz, David M. (1995) The Soviet Invasion of Japan. Quarterly Journal of Military History, vol. 7, no. 3, Spring 1995. Gordin, Michael D. (2005). Five Days in August: How World War II Became a Nuclear War. (Extracts on-line) Hallman, A L. (1995). Battlefield Operational Functions and the Soviet Campaign against Japan in 1945. Quantico, Virginia, United States Marine Corps Command and Staff College. Hasegawa, T. (Ed.) (2007). The End of the Pacific War. (Extracts on-line) Ishiwatari, H, Mizumachi, K, et al. (1946) No.77 – Japanese Preparations for Operations in Manchuria (prior to 1943). Tokyo, Military History Section, Headquarters, Army Forces Far East, US Army. Phillips, S. (2004). The Sino-Japanese War, 1937–1945 : The Military Struggle – Research Guide and Bibliography. Towson University. available on-line USMCU CSC (1986). The Soviet Army Offensive : Manchuria, 1945. (US Marine Corps University, Command and Staff College) Japanese Monographs The "Japanese Monographs" and the "Japanese Studies on Manchuria" – The 187 Japan Monographs are a series of operational histories written by former officers of the Japanese army and navy under the direction of General Headquarters of the U.S. Far East Command. Monographs of particular relevance to Manchuria are: No. 77 Japanese preparations for Operations in Manchuria (1931–1942) No. 78 The Kwangtung Army in the Manchurian Campaign (1941–1945) Plans and Preparations No. 119 Outline of Operations prior to the Termination of War and activities connected with the Cessation of Hostilities (July – August 1945) No. 138 Japanese preparations for Operations in Manchuria (January 1943 – August 1945) No. 154 Record of Operations against Soviet Russia, Eastern Front (August 1945) No. 155 Record of Operations against Soviet Russia, Northern and Western Fronts (August – September 1945) List of the 13 Studies on Manchuria Vol. I Japanese Operational Planning against the USSR (1932–1945) Vol. II Imperial Japanese Army in Manchuria (1894–1945) Historical Summary Vol. III STRATEGIC STUDY ON MANCHURIA MILITARY TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHY Terrain Study Vol. IV AIR OPERATIONS (1931–1945) Plans and Preparations Vol. V INFANTRY OPERATIONS Vol. VI ARMOR OPERATIONS Vol. VII SUPPORTING ARMS AND SERVICES Vol. VIII LOGISTICS IN MANCHURIA Vol. IX CLIMATIC FACTORS Vol. X Japanese Intelligence Planning against the USSR (1934–1941) Vol. XI Small Wars and Border Problems Vol. XII Anti-Bandit Operation (1931–1941) Vol. XIII Study of Strategic and Tactical peculiarities of Far Eastern Russia and Soviet Eastern Forces (1931–1945) External links Japanese Air Order of Battle and Operations Against 'August Storm', August 1945. WW2DB: Operation August Storm Observations over Soviet Air Arm in Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation: Aerial actions over Kuriles Soviet Order of Battle Soviet naval aerial kills Soviet side information: Comment over Soviet Pacific Fleet during Russian-German Conflict and Japanese forces actions in this period Comment about Soviet Russian Pacific Fleet actions during Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation General information over Soviet Invasion to Japanese land in Karafuto and Kuriles from August 1945, with some photos, only in Russian language. Soviet battle maps: Soviet viewpoint map of the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation Soviet viewpoint map of Battle against Japanese fortifications in Shumushu and Paramushiro islands Soviet viewpoint map of Battle against Koton Japanese fortifications in way to Shikuka city, in north Karafuto area Japanese POWs: The Notes of Japanese soldier in USSR Operation August Storm photo gallery: http://ww2db.com/photo.php?source=all&color=all&list=search&foreigntype=B&foreigntype_id=167 Japanese in Manchuria and Korea following the war Conflicts in 1945 Pacific theatre of World War II Battles of World War II involving Japan Battles involving the Soviet Union Wars involving Mongolia 1940s in Mongolia Mongolia–Soviet Union relations World War II operations and battles of the Pacific theatre Invasions Mengjiang History of Manchuria History of Inner Mongolia 1945 in Japan Japan–Soviet Union relations 1945 in Mongolia Wars involving Manchukuo Wars involving Japan August 1945 events in Asia September 1945 events in Asia
4891580	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical%20Assistant%20%28Royal%20Navy%29	Medical Assistant (Royal Navy)	The Medical Assistant is a Royal Navy medical rating in the United Kingdom. Medical Assistants serve on all types of ships in the surface fleet, submarine fleet, Royal Marines, Fleet Air Arm or ashore in a sick bay, hospitals, or other establishment. The equivalent rate in the United States Navy (USN) is hospital corpsman. Overview The Medical Assistant provides a broad spectrum of skills in primary care, occupational health, secondary care, pre-hospital trauma life support, medical administration, teaching first aid and disease prevention, providing health briefs, and basic environmental health. These are performed in a variety of roles at sea in a ship or submarine, with Royal Marines Commandos, Fleet Air Arm, shore establishments, Ministry of Defence Hospital Units, UKSF, and other Tri-Service departments. Predominantly they provide day-to-day healthcare for their crew mates as a vital part of the ship's company. On larger ships, they are part of a medical team, while on smaller ships they may be the only medic on board. History The Medical Assistant was previously known as Sick Berth Attendant and Sick Berth Steward (19th–20th century) and earlier as loblolly boy (16th–19th century). Medical Assistants are colloquially known as "scablifters" or "doc" in Royal Naval Jackspeak. The Sick Berth Branch of the Royal Navy originated on 4 May 1833 when an Admiralty order was issued to Commanding Officers to organise a "Sick Berth Attendant" in ships of the 5th rate and upwards a man of good character is to be selected from the complement and rated as Sick Berth attendant, whose duty it will be to attend exclusively on the sick, without being called away by the ordinary duties of the ship, and who is to be paid as an able seaman. They received no formal medical training and it was not until June 1883 that a Committee, known as the Hoskins Committee, after its chairman, Rear Admiral A. H. Hoskins was formed to enquire into the organization and training of the Sick Berth and Nursing Staff of the Royal Navy Hospitals. The committee, after visiting Naval and Military Hospitals as well as the larger London Hospitals reported their findings to the Admiralty in the autumn of 1884. The Admiralty gave their verdict in an Order in Council dated 17 October 1884. This Order authorised the establishment of a trained Sick Berth Rating Staff with the following Rates: 1st and 2nd Class Boys Sick Berth Attendant Sick Berth Steward 2nd Class Sick Berth Steward 1st Class Chief Sick Berth Steward The Order also supported the formation of trained female nursing staff in naval hospitals, which in 1902 was to become the Queen Alexandra's Royal Naval Nursing Service. It was thought that boys from the Greenwich Hospital School, later the Royal Hospital School, would fill the vacancies. This proved not to be the case, so entry was opened to the Royal Marines and civilians. In 1900, three new posts were created, known as Head Wardmasters, one for each of the three main hospitals. In 1891 Sick Berth personnel received a new style of uniform. Instead of the blue serge jumper, blue cloth collar and bell bottom trousers, known as 'Square Rig, they received a single or double breasted jacket and trousers with black buttons, red badges and a peaked cap. This was known as 'fore and aft' rig, and issued to 'all ratings not dressed as seamen. This uniform was also issued to tradesmen known as "Artificers", who were collectively known as "Tiffies". So it was natural that sick berth attendants were also known as "Sick Berth Tiffies". In 1903 the Saint John Ambulance Brigade provided staff to create the Royal Navy Auxiliary Sick Berth Reserve (R.N.A.S.B.R.). Initially suggested in 1899, the Lord Commissioners of the Admiralty expressed their desire for the Brigade to provide and auxiliary sick berth reserve for ships at war, hospital ships and naval hospitals at home and abroad. Regulations for this reserve were issued to every Corps division. The Chief Commissioner requested that the officer in charge of every ambulance unit of the Brigade will be good enough to assemble members without delay. The reserve was formed for the purpose of supplementing Sick Berth staff of the Royal Navy in time of national emergency and maritime war only and would be subject to the Naval Discipline act when activated. Volunteers were issued the same uniforms as their regular SBA counterparts, but wore an arm badge indicating that they belonged to the Auxiliary Sick Berth Reserve. There were two grades of ratings, junior and senior Auxiliary Royal Navy Sick Berth Attendants. However they would be able to become Sick Berth Stewards and even reserve Ward masters, if qualified and on a vacancy arising. During peace time they would be required to attend one annual inspection. Special First Aid courses and nursing instruction were provided to the auxiliaries, normally carried out at the nearest Royal Naval Hospital. The auxiliaries would serve with distinction in the Great War at sea, in hospitals, and with the Royal Naval Divisions on land. In World War 2 they again served with honour in Dunkirk, at sea, on the raid at Loften islands, during the withdrawal of Polish Forces from France 1940, the attack on Dieppe, the battle of Crete, the capture of sciliy, and in the Far Eastern theatre of war. On 16 December 1914 Royal Marine Medical Units were formed to support the RM Brigade of the RN Divisions that were to fight on land during WW1 as there were not enough SBAs or RNASBR ratings to fulfill this role. They were trained at Crystal Palace. The majority made up the Field Ambulance sections for the RN divisions. The medical unit was borne on the strength of the Royal Marine Depot, Deal. And were allotted the service number: Depot (S) and entered on same register as Engineer and Army Service Corps unit. The excerpt form 'OFFICIAL HISTORY OF THE MEDICAL UNIT OF THE ROYAL NAVAL DIVISION FROM ITS INCEPTION TO THE EVACUATION OF GAILIPOLI.' by Arthur Gaskell: "The position then was that the A.D.M.S. knew exactly what personnel he wanted, and Mr. Darvil-Smith knew exactly how to get them. The G.0.U. of the Division referred the matter to the Administrative Headquarters, and here unforeseen difficulties and delays arose as to how these men should be entered. Should they be Sick Berth ratings or Royal Marines? Should they be Royal Marines ashore or Royal Marines afloat? Should they be under the Army Act or under the Naval Discipline Act? what rate of pay should they receive'? What allowances were they entitled to, more especially should they have separation allowance? This last point was especially insisted upon by Mr. Darvil-Smith. At last a round-table discussion among Mr. Darvil-Smith, Lieutenant-Colonel Blumberg, R.M.L.I., Fleet Surgeon Stewart and the A.D.1\f.S. (Fleet Surgeon Gaskell), with the D.A.D.M.S. (Captain Casement, R.A.M.C.), settled all these knotty points." They would see action in France on the Western front and Gallipoli. At the end of the great war the Royal Marine Medical Units were disbanded along with a reduction of the Sick Berth Branch. In 1920, the term Steward was dropped in favour of Petty Officer. Another major change took place in 1965 which affected the Royal Navy as a whole when the "Fore and Aft" rig was abolished in favour of the "Square Rig". Also in 1965 the term Medical Assistant replaced Sick Berth, and so it remains to this day. The Royal Navy Medical Assistant, throughout their history, whether as a Loblollyboy, or Sick Berth Rating, has seen action during war and in peace. From assisting the ships surgeons in amputating limbs to nursing the injured sailors and Marines from wars and battles throughout Britain's history, from the 16th century onwards. Most notably they served with distinction during the Napoleonic Wars at sea, the Crimean War, the Boer and other African wars, the Chinese Boxer Rebellion, and in World War I at sea and on the land. Both Sick Berth Staff of the Navy and the Medical Attendants of the Royal Marines served with distinction at the Battle of Jutland, Flanders, Gallipoli, the Western Front, Battle of Heligoland Bight, Zeebrugge Raid, the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force, Siege of Antwerp, the Battle of Dogger Bank, and the British Campaign in the Baltic (Russia) to name a few. During World War II the Sick Berth Branch once again served with distinction from the Atlantic to the Pacific, in Commando raids at St Nazaire and the D-Day landings at Normandy, the far East, and with the British Pacific Fleet at Okinawa. Post-war they served with further recognition and distinction in Op Musketeer (Suez Crisis), Korea, Aden, Malaya, Malaysia/Borneo Operation Claret, Op Banner N. Ireland, Op Corporate Falkland Islands, Gulf War 1, Bosnia, Kosovo, Op Herrick Afghanistan, Op Telic Iraq, various humanitarian and other peacetime Operations, both at sea and with the Royal Marine Commandos. A total of 992 have died in service, Their name liveth for evermore. Honours and awards So far recorded the Sick Berth/Medical Assistant branch rating has earned: Albert Medal x 4 Conspicuous Gallantry Medal x 4 George Medal x 3 Distinguished Service Medal x 85 Distinguished Conduct Medal x 2 Military Cross x 3 Military Medal (4 with Bar) x 106 Queen's Gallantry Medal x 1 British Empire Medal x 180 Member of the Royal Victorian Order x 1 Royal Victorian Medal x 6 Order of St John Serving Brother x 27 Venerable Order of Saint John (Serving Sister) x 1 Royal Humane Society Medal x 2 Member of the Order of the British Empire Medal x 17 Meritorious Service Medal x 93 Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct x 3 Mention in Despatches x 337 Royal Red Cross 2nd Class x 7 Queens Commendation for Valuable Service x 3 (Foreign awards listed are only those of which the reigning monarch of the time provided permission to wear, and therefore noted in the London Gazette. Many hundreds of foreign decorations have been awarded to the medical branch which have not been noted in the London Gazette) Cross of St George 4th Class (Russia) x 1 Croix de Guerre (French) (1 with palm) x 4 Croix de Guerre (Belgium) x 2 Croix de Virtute Militara 2nd Class (Romania) x 1 Krzyz Walecznych (Polish Cross of Valour) x 1 Romanian Distinguished Conduct Medal 2nd class x 1 Medal of the Order of Orange-Nassau Gold with crossed swords (Netherlands) x 1 Gold Medal for Zealous service (Serbia) x 1 Medal of the Order of Orange-Nassau Silver (Netherlands) x 1 Silver Medal of Military Valor (Italy) x 1 Bronze Medal of Military Valor (Italy) x 2 Médaille militaire (French) x 6 Decoration Militaire (Belgium) x 1 Medal D'Honneur des Epidemies (Bronze) (French) x 1 Medal of Military Merit (Greece) x 1 Cross of Valour (Greece) x 1 Imperial Order of the Dragon of Annam Chevalier (French Vietnamese)]] x 1 An ongoing project is underway to find all honours and awards that have been recorded in the London Gazette for the Sick Berth/Medical Assistant ratings. Many more are being discovered. Training Basic training (10 weeks) is conducted at shore establishment in Torpoint, Cornwall. Medical training (39 weeks) is conducted at the Defence Medical Academy at Whittington Barracks in Lichfield. The first 13 weeks is called Common Core and is also completed with the medics from the British Army and RAF. This training includes: Anatomy and physiology Disorders and their treatments Basic pharmacology and dispensing Basic environmental health Preventative medicine Wounds and dressings Medical administration Geneva Convention First-Aid Military Acute Care Course, involving Pre-Hospital Trauma, Life Support. An exam is taken on each week, those unable on the pass on their second attempt of each exam are 'back classed'. Once complete a clinical placement of 6 weeks is conducted in a Ministry of Defence Hospital Unit (MDHU) on various wards. Trainees then return to DMSTG Whittington barracks to complete 6 weeks of Single Service (SS) training. SS training involves learning all aspects of Royal Navy medical administration, medical care in the CBRN environment and the care of those suffering from CBRN causes. Included in this is a week spent on board the training ship, to practice casualty extraction, treatment, casualty simulation, organising of First-Aid exercises and the management of First-Aid Parties during peace and action stations. The final set of clinical placements covers a period of 12 weeks. The first 6 weeks are conducted at a Medical Centre at a shore establishment to put into practice clinical primary care and administrative skills. The next 6 weeks are spent once again at a MDHU, this time culminating in shifts at Emergency Rooms and Medical and Surgical Acute Care wards. On return from the final phase of clinical placements the trainees return to DMSTG for 2 weeks which involves final exams on everything learned and if successful, graduation. The final phase, called 'Part IV training' is then concluded by a consolidation period of 'on the job' supervised training (12 weeks) on board a ship or shore establishment sick bay. Continuation of training Throughout their career an MA must complete a rolling OPS task book, which was introduced in to the MA branch in 2010. This task book covers all skills required for the MA to maintain their clinical skills in the primary care, secondary care and emergency care environments as well as medical administration and various maritime components. The various sections vary from being required to be completed annually to three yearly. The task book must be kept up to date and is an annual requirement if the rating is to be expected to even meet the basic qualifying criteria for further promotion. This ensures the MA remains current and motivated with their knowledge and skills. The rolling OPS task book is currently required for the MA, Leading Medical Assistant (LMA) and Petty Officer Medical Assistant (POMA) rates. Pre-front line assignment training Prior to joining a ship, submarine or 3 Commando Brigade, MAs must conduct either the Maritime or Commando MA's Pre-Joining training of 6 weeks duration. This is conducted at the Institute of Naval Medicine and involves refresher and update training in primary and emergency care, medical administration and dental first-aid. The Maritime component involves exercising on board . Those completing the commando component practice field exercises in the Role 1 and 2 field medical environments at Commando Logistic Regiment Medical Squadron. Included in the pre-joining training is the Battle Field Advanced Trauma Life Support course (BATLS). Commando Medical Assistant Royal Navy Medical Assistants who volunteer for service with the Royal Marines must pass the All Arms Commando Course (9-weeks) held at the Commando Training Centre Royal Marines (CTCRM) in Lympstone, Devon. Prior to this the Pre-All Arms Commando Course (4 weeks, Commando Logistic Regiment) must be taken to ensure candidates are suitable, selected and prepared prior to the All Arms Commando Course. The MA branch is also open to Royal Marines who are designated as Royal Marines Medical Assistants (RMMA). Those that go on to work with reconnaissance sections of 3 Commando Brigade complete the basic military parachutist course. Medical Assistants working in support of United Kingdom Special Forces Those (Commando trained or Royal Marine Commando only) who have completed at least two operational tours and have passed the arduous Black Serpent course can be selected to provide medical support to UK Special Forces (UKSF) for either the Special Air Service (SAS), Special Reconnaissance Regiment (SRR), Special Forces Support Group (SFSG) or the Special Boat Service (SBS). They then go on to complete the basic military parachutist course and, if required the HAHO and HALO Para courses. Black Serpent selection and training The Black Serpent course is Tri-Service and open to RN, RAF and Army personnel. It is run by the Medical Support Unit (MSU), Hereford and features various physical and other tests including a hills phase with march routes across the Brecon Beacons similar to those done for UKSF selection. Candidates will be expected to carry out simulated medical treatments during these marches. The goal of such exercises is to test a medic's ability to successfully perform while under pressure and exhausted. Submariner Medical Assistant Those who volunteer for Service in the Submarine Service are responsible for the monitoring of air and water supplies and carrying out vital health and environmental safety checks. The training is undertaken at in Gosport and at the Institute of Naval Medicine in Alverstoke. On completion of this training, Medical Assistant Submariners, MA(SM)'s are awarded a City and Guilds Certificate in Radiation Protection and optional membership of the Guild of Radiation Workers. Additional qualifications Other additional specialisations open to the MA Cadre are the newly formed Paramedic Sub Cadre. Others may transfer to beocome a Pharmacy Technician and Operating Department Practitioner. These were previously additional qualifications which are civilian accredited and have become Medical Technician branches. Insignia/badge The insignia of the Medical Assistant badge is the Red Cross of Geneva on a white background with gold circling. A Royal Crown above the insignia denotes that the rating is qualified at the senior rate level (PO). Rating structure The branch structure of the Medical Assistant follows the same as structures of the other branches of the Royal Navy. Medical Assistant 2 (under training) (MA 2) Medical Assistant (MA) Leading Medical Assistant (LMA) Petty Officer Medical Assistant (POMA) Chief Petty Officer Medical Assistant (CPOMA) Warrant Officer Medical Assistant Class 2 (WO2MA) Warrant Officer Medical Assistant Class 1 (WO1MA) Medical Services Officer Those who are at PO level who are qualified, recommended and selected, can go on to become Medical Services Officers (MSO). They undertake their initial training at Britannia Royal Naval College (BRNC) Dartmouth. The MSO are commissioned officers who provide policy, guidance and other managerial, administrative and staff skills to the Medical Branches of the Royal Navy and Tri-service environment. The highest level they can reach is that of Captain, although there has been one instance of a Commodore. The MSOs were also previously called ward masters. See also Combat Medical Technician Hospital corpsman Kate Nesbitt Medical assistant Royal Navy Medical Service References External links Medical Assistant (General Service), RN Careers Virtual Naval Hospital – a digital library of military medicine and humanitarian medicine Medical Assistant Liam O'Grady MC Combat Medics Falklands conflict Military medicine in the United Kingdom Royal Navy Medical Service Royal Navy specialisms

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