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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirate%20television
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Pirate television
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A pirate television station is a broadcast television station that operates without a broadcast license. Like its counterpart pirate radio, the term pirate TV lacks a specific universal interpretation. It implies a form of broadcasting that is unwelcome by the licensing authorities within the territory where its signals are received, especially when the country of transmission is the same as the country of reception. When the area of transmission is not a country, or when it is a country and the transmissions are not illegal, those same broadcast signals may be deemed illegal in the country of reception. Pirate television stations may also be known as "bootleg TV", or confused with licensed low-power broadcasting (LPTV) or amateur television (ATV) services.
History
The apparently first pirate TV station in the US was Lanesville TV, active between 1972-1977 and operated by the counter-cultural video collective the Videofreex from Lanesville, New York. Another documented pirate TV station in the 1970s was Lucky 7, which broadcast for a single weekend in April 1978 from Syracuse, New York.
Techniques
There are several techniques for pirate TV broadcasting, most of which have been made very difficult, or obsolete, by better security measures and the move to digital television.
Relay hijack (analogue)
Many analogue relay transmitters would "listen" to a more powerful main transmitter and relay the signal verbatim. If the main transmitter ceases broadcasting (for example, if a station closes down overnight) then a pirate signal on the same frequency as the main transmitter could cause the relay to "wake up" and relay unauthorized programming instead. Typically this would be done by outputting a very weak RF signal within the immediate vicinity of the relay: for example, a video cassette recorder (such as a 12v system designed for use in trucks) sending its signal to a home-made antenna pointed at the relay. As the pirate signal is relatively weak, the source can be difficult to locate if it is well hidden.
A significant benefit of this attack is that the potential viewers do not have to re-tune their televisions to view the content. The content simply appears on an existing channel, after close-down.
This attack is generally now prevented by the channels broadcasting 24 hours per day (e.g. showing test cards instead of closing down), by using satellite feeds instead of repeating terrestrial signals, by electronic security to lock the relay to the authorised source, or by the switch to digital television.
Unsecured analogue satellite transponders have also been reported to have been hijacked in a similar manner.
Source hijack (analogue or digital)
In this scenario, a man-in-the-middle attack is performed upon the source material, such that authorized official transmissions are fed with unauthorized programming from the central studio or play-out facility. For example, a link feed (e.g. outside broadcast) is hijacked by a stronger pirate signal, or pre-recorded media (such as videotapes or hard drives) are swapped over for unauthorised content. This attack would generally have to be performed by an insider or by gaining access to studio facilities by social engineering.
Unauthorized transmitter (analogue)
As with most pirate radio stations, reasonably powerful VHF/UHF transmitters can be built relatively easily by any sufficiently experienced electronics hobbyist, or imported from a less strict country. The primary challenge to this technique is finding a suitable yet inconspicuous vantage point for the transmission antenna, and the risk of getting caught. If the pirate signal is strong enough to be received directly, it will also be strong enough to be tracked down.
Unauthorized multiplex (digital)
The advent of digital television makes pirate television broadcasting more difficult. Channels are broadcast as part of a multiplex that carries several channels in one signal, and it is almost impossible to insert an unauthorized channel into an authorized multiplex, or to re-activate an off-air channel. In order to broadcast an unauthorized digital TV channel, not only must the perpetrator build or obtain a VHF/UHF transmitter, they must also build or obtain, and configure, the equipment and software to digitally encode the signal and then create a stand-alone multiplex to carry it.
In Spain, in major provincial capital cities, usually operates one or more than one pirate TV digital multiplex. Some multiplexes started to operate after digital switch-over migrating pirate channels from analogue pirate television to DVB-T digital multiplexes.
Since shortly after digital switch-over and still today in secondary cities, some channels broadcast by means of a DVB-T transmitter with four analog input sources (in this case, four tuned satellite receivers connected by composite video cable) and then to amplifier, and digital signal is feed to antenna or tower. This method is the one used by most pirate TV channels. However, over the years and due to economic returns, some have begun broadcasting almost professionally. New equipment that they have been installing since three years ago allows remultiplexing of DVB-S programs into DVB-T multiplexes and most parameters can be configured at will.
Since 2010, its number has been increasing in Madrid and in Valencia, for example, and, as of March 2016, there are more than ten DVB-T pirate multiplex in Madrid metropolitan area transmitting without authorization with programming ranging from divinatory, esoteric and occult tarot or fundamentalist Christian to community television (which isn't regulated in Spain as of 2016).
In other countries, there are reports of pirate TV digital multiplexes, but they are very rare and usually suspected to have been false reports, mistaking overspill from authorized multiplexes in neighboring regions or nearby foreign countries. Viewing numbers may be much smaller than analogue pirate TV since re-tuning a digital television may be an entirely automated process which may ignore unauthorized multiplexes, or place such channels in an obscure section of the electronic program guide.
Stations
Known stations
beoutQ - Saudi Arabia. Started broadcasting after Qatar-based programs like beIN Sports were banned following the Qatar diplomatic crisis. Primarily airs sports programs.
3 Antena - Rio de Janeiro, June to August 1990.
OèYAM SPORTS Marsa, Tunisia (the second headquarters is Paris) is a pirate project for Tunisian entertainment, sports and free broadcasting channels operating 24 hours a day, criminally with unofficial clients by Tunisian and Moroccan TV piracy, similar to the pirate channels BeoutQ, which I started to create on YouTube in 2022, which is A partner of the YouTuber Mondo Group and a Tunisian national TV, it also shows a sports match that has been pirated from the rights of beIN channels only and foreign and international programmes, series and films.
Channel D - Dublin, Ireland (c. 1981)
iStreetTV! - Palmers Cross, Jamaica, a project of !Mediengruppe Bitnik (2008)
Kanal X - Leipzig, Germany. Operated during the final days of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany).
Lanesville TV - Lanesville, New York, United States. Operated on VHF channel 3 by the video collective Videofreex and broadcast on Saturdays from 1972 to 1977 (a total of 258 broadcasts). The collective and its station is detailed in Parry D. Teasdale's book Videofreex: America's First Pirate TV Station & the Catskills Collective That Turned It On.
Lucky 7 - Syracuse, New York, United States. Operated during the evenings of April 14–16, 1978 on VHF channel 7
NeTWork 21 - London, England - Broadcast for around 30 minutes on Friday evenings in 1986
New Stations Broadcasting Network - New York City, New York, United States. Intermittent series of broadcasts in Brooklyn, New York beginning in 2007 created by artist James Case Leal. In New York operates on UHF channel 17, but is also responsible for television programming in other cities including Havana, Cuba (April 20, 2009 - May 22, 2009 Ch. 16), Minneapolis, Minnesota during the RNC 2008 (Ch. 15), and Piedras Negras, Mexico (July 2008 Ch. 23).
Northern Access Network - Canada, various locations in the late 1970s
Nova TV - Dublin, Ireland (c. 1985)
Odelia TV - Operated briefly in 1981 on UHF channel 58, offshore of Israel.
Pirate Cat TV - Operated on VHF channel 13 by Pirate Cat Radio of San Francisco, California, United States
Star Ray TV - Broadcasting on UHF channel 15 in the Beaches neighborhood of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Telstar TV (c. 1984) Birmingham, United Kingdom. Broadcast for about eight weeks on the BBC2 transmitter in the Northfield and Rubery areas of Birmingham. Showed a mixture of films and pop videos after BBC2 closed at weekends and went unnoticed by the authorities for several weeks, much to their embarrassment.
Telestreet - Italy - Movement that set up pirate TV micro-stations
Thameside TV - London, England - A very early pirate TV station set up by Thameside Radio. There were only two known broadcasts in December 1987.
TV Noordzee - A 1964 TV station on VHF channel 11 which, along with Radio Noordzee (not to be confused with the later Radio North Sea International), broadcast from "REM Island", an artificial platform 6 miles offshore of Noordwijk in the Netherlands. Both of the stations were knocked off the air by a sea and air raid by the armed forces of the Netherlands.
TV Randers Syd - Randers, Denmark. Operated during 1981 and 1982. It was mostly broadcasting TV shows with music and entertainment recorded from German and Swedish TV channels and American movies. After two years of broadcasting the pirate was found in the suburb of Vorup and the station was closed by the authorities.
TV Syd - A short-lived offshore TV station that broadcast on UHF channel 41. It was the sister station of Radio Syd and broadcast from the MV Cheeta 2 anchored off the Swedish coast.
Voice of Nuclear Disarmament - Operating in the 1960s and technically a radio station, it broadcast pre-recorded programs from high-rise rooftops in the Greater London area on the audio portion of BBC1's television frequency after the station signed off for the night. Programming consisted of interviews, announcements, folk songs, and field recordings.
WGUN - Mentioned in an article by Shannon Huniwell in Popular Communications magazine, this was a short-lived pirate station in the Lynchburg, Virginia area that broadcast on channel 45 during the late 1970s. The sole broadcast consisted of a water pistol with "WGUN 45 TV" in cut out letters mounted on a phonograph turntable with audio from "an unmercifully scratchy Baja Marimba Band album". The station was located by radio station technicians after being informed by the mother of a young viewer who found the station while tuning the UHF TV band. When asked, the young unnamed pirate stated he purchased the transmitter, an EMC Model TXRU-100 UHF transmitter, at a rummage sale from a church that had intended to start a UHF-TV station. Upon being informed that his broadcasts were illegal, the station was shut down. The transmitter was reportedly re-sold at a yard sale.
W10BM - Morehead, Kentucky, United States - Originally a licensed LPTV station on VHF channel 10, it operated from 1998 to 2019 on a canceled license, making it a pirate broadcaster.
During the 1980s, large numbers of pirate TV stations operated in Italy, Greece, Spain and Israel. Subsequent legislation lead to the licensing of many of these stations and the closure of (most of) the remainder.
Proposed stations
Caroline TV - Advertised in 1970, this was to have been a project related to Radio Caroline, which at the time was off the air. Artwork showing the proposed station's identification graphics were released, but the station, which was to be broadcast from an airplane (similar to Stratovision), never materialized, although there are two website domains, called www.carolinetv.co.uk. And carolinetelevision.com
City TV - Was to have broadcast from a decommissioned minesweeper offshore of England. Plans for the station were announced on 8 June 1965, and was to have broadcast on VHF channel 3, but the station never materialized. It is not to be confused with the later CityTV in Toronto and Vancouver, Canada, which began operation in 1972 and are fully licensed and legal full-power stations.
Sealand Television - Was to have broadcast on Channel 28 from the Principality of Sealand, a micronation established on a World War Two gunnery platform off the coast of Essex, England. The station, which was announced to start in September 1987, was to have been financed by Wallace Kemper, who was facing fraud and conspiracy charges.
Tower TV - Was to have broadcast from Sunk Head Fort, 14 miles offshore of Essex, England. Reportedly held a test transmission at 4:20 AM on Tuesday 9 November 1965. If this station had gone on air it would have probably caused interference with a legitimate transmitter at Peterborough on the same frequency.
Pirate television in popular culture
Movies
Movies often show Pirate TV channels simply "breaking in" over the top of existing channels, often all of them simultaneously.
The American Way (1986) (also known as Riders of the Storm) - Disgruntled Vietnam War veterans operate S&M TV, a pirate TV station, from an airborne B-29 airplane.
Band Waggon (1940) - British film about a pair of out-of-work performers who are evicted from squatting on the roof of Broadcasting House (where BBC's studios were located). After moving into a supposedly haunted castle, they discover television transmission equipment used by German secret agents and use it to put on a show on the BBC's frequencies.
Batman (1989) - The Joker overpowers a TV signal to broadcast a commercial for his deadly "Smilex", a gimmick in keeping with his comics counterpart (see below).
Bedwin Hacker (2003) - A Tunisian woman hijacks TV signals as a form of political protest, broadcasting short text messages with pictures of a cartoon Camel. A French counter-intelligence (DST) computer expert attempts to track her down by way of a spy sent to infiltrate the hacker's social circle. Note this was several years before the Arab Spring.
Death Race 2000 (1975) - Political revolutionaries use broadcast signal intrusion to announce their plans to sabotage a transcontinental road race.
District 13 (2004) - The protagonists force a Defense Secretary into admitting he was planning to detonate a neutron bomb, and the videotaped confession is broadcast via pirate transmission.
Free Amerika Broadcasting (1981) - During a state of political upheaval in the US, a group of rebels in Michigan set up a pirate television station.
Hackers (1995) - One of the characters, Dade "Zero Cool" Murphy, hacks into a TV station's network feed and switches the programming to an episode of The Outer Limits. A fictional TV show, Hack the Planet, is shown on a pirate TV channel.
Iron Man 3 (2013) - Crippled scientist Aldrich Killian covers up his illegal Extremis failures, which are 3000 °C explosions, by using broadcast signal intrusion to broadcast terrorist threats, which are performed by actor Trevor Slattery under the alias The Mandarin.
Johnny Mnemonic (1995) - The Lo-Teks, an underground, anti-establishment group, broadcast calls to action to the public by hijacking corporate video feeds.
The Pink Panther Strikes Again (1976) - Charles Dreyfus uses a broadcast intrusion to deliver his ultimatum to the world: kill Jacques Clouseau or be annihilated by laser.
RoboCop 3 (1993) - Dr. Lazarus and Nikko transmit over Mediabreak to tell the city about the goings-on in Cadillac Heights.
The Running Man (1987) - Revolutionaries use broadcast signal intrusion to "detour" a popular TV game show.
Serenity (2005) - Criminals with a sense of honor use a pirate television broadcast to expose a large governmental cover-up.
Simon (1980) - A psychology professor, brainwashed by scientists as a prank to believe he is of extraterrestrial origin, attempts to reform American society by broadcasting his pronouncements with a high-power transmitter that overrides TV network feeds, becoming a national celebrity in the process.
They Live (1988) - A group, seeking to warn the populace of an alien invasion, use broadcast signal intrusion on local TV programming.
Used Cars (1980) - Feuding used car lot owners use broadcast signal intrusion to discredit each other.
V for Vendetta (2005) - The main character, a revolutionary named "V", hacks into the TV, broadcasting his plans all over Britain. The film has influenced many in real life to do the same.
Videodrome (1983) - A TV technician discovers an encrypted pirate TV signal transmitting what appear to be snuff films.
Television
Al TV (1980s–90s) - Series of MTV specials hosted by "Weird Al" Yankovic, using his own pirate transmitter to take over MTV's signal to play unusual music videos and comedy bits.
Batman (1966–68) - In the episode "The Minstrel's Shakedown", the titular villain uses a broadcast signal intrusion to threaten the police and the stock exchange of Gotham City.
Channel Umptee-3 (1997) - Animated children's educational television series. The main characters operate a pirate TV station "located in the white space between channels".
Club Mario (1990–91) - A repackaged version of The Super Mario Bros. Super Show!. The new wrap-around segments had the hosts hijacking a TV signal to broadcast video of their antics, the Super Mario Bros. and Legend of Zelda cartoon shorts used in Super Show!, and redubbed clips from the short-lived Photon TV series.
Feral TV (1995–97) - Australian children's comedy television series. The main characters find an underground cable TV feed and use it to broadcast a pirate TV station.
Disney Club (Brazil) (1997–2002) - in the Brazilian version, later renamed to Disney CRUJ, the protagonists operate a pirate TV station.
Dark Angel (2000–2002) - One of the series protagonists, Logan Cale, operated a pirate television broadcast known as "Eyes Only" primarily to broadcast news reports, expose political/corporate corruption, issue public alerts, etc.
Ed, Edd N Eddy (1999–2009) - In the episode "A Town Called Ed", the Eds use a pirate TV transmitter to inform the neighborhood kids of Eddy's roots as a founding father.
Family Guy - On the episode "PTV", Peter Griffin, angered that authorities are censoring TV broadcasts, starts his own well-liked pirate TV station, PTV, containing deleted risqué scenes from movies and TV shows, partial nudity from TV programs and dogs mating.
G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero (1989 TV series) - The main antagonist Cobra Commander will sometimes hijack TV signals to broadcast his threats and demands, notably in the episode Money to Burn.
Green Acres - In the episode "How to Succeed In Television Without Really Trying", a Hooterville whiz-kid builds a pirate TV station in Mr. Douglass' barn. Mr. Douglass gets undressed in the barn, not knowing that he is now starring on TV in Hooterville. The FCC drops in to shut Mr. Douglass down, and he tries to deny the whole thing, but at the same time, Mr. Haney drives up with a rack full of men's underwear. He tells Mr. Douglass that he needs some new shorts for his next undressing show.
Max Headroom (1987) - One of the TV series' characters, "Blank Reg", runs Big Time Television, a pirate station, from a converted bus.
Rock 'N' America was a 1984 US series in which Rick Ducommun played a VJ named Rick, who would play rock videos by "jamming into" existing TV channels. The character was relentlessly, but always unsuccessfully, pursued by an FCC agent. When the agent asked if Rick was doing it for a lark, Rick replied (via his illegal transmission) that his father had invented the system and offered it to the US military for jamming into Nazi propaganda broadcasts during World War II, but had been rebuffed.
The Simpsons - In the episode "Sideshow Bob's Last Gleaming", Springfield is ordered by Sideshow Bob to shut down all its television stations or face nuclear devastation. Krusty the Clown refuses to comply with the demands and uses an abandoned Emergency Broadcast System transmitter to operate a pirate TV station and broadcast heavily improvised material.
Torchwood (2006–11) - In "Children of Earth: Day Five," a pirate television station broadcasts footage of soldiers taking children to a rendezvous point on "Digital 141."
Music
Flaunt It (1986) - The debut album by British band Sigue Sigue Sputnik was notable for containing paid advertisements between the tracks and in the liner notes, including one for London pirate TV station NeTWork 21.
Books
The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress (1966) - In this science fiction novel, a self-aware computer helps revolutionaries by generating and broadcasting synthesized TV transmissions of their non-existent leader "Adam Selene" via an internal TV network.
Mockingjay (2010) - This book, the third in The Hunger Games trilogy, describes the hacking of official government television broadcasts at several points in the novel, replacing them with calls to revolution, before the original broadcasts are restored by the government.
Comic books
Batman villain the Joker often announces his crimes to Gotham City this way, in keeping with his theme as a showman. In the character's earliest appearances (including his debut in Batman #1 from the spring of 1940), he used radio broadcasts to this effect.
American Flagg! (1983–1989) - A science fiction comic book series created by Howard Chaykin set in the early 2030s. A plot device in the story is Q-USA, a pirate TV station that broadcasts illegal sports, pornography, and movies and television shows made before the collapse of the pre-existing order .
WRAB: Pirate Television (1985) A graphic novel by Matt Howarth and part of his Post Brothers story arc. An off-shore pirate television station operating in international waters interrupts satellite broadcasts with the intention of gaining a global audience.
See also
Broadcast signal intrusion—the intentional "hacking" into a licensed facility for broadcasting pirate television
References
Broadcast law
History of television
Television terminology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple%20Knowledge%20Organization%20System
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Simple Knowledge Organization System
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Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS) is a W3C recommendation designed for representation of thesauri, classification schemes, taxonomies, subject-heading systems, or any other type of structured controlled vocabulary. SKOS is part of the Semantic Web family of standards built upon RDF and RDFS, and its main objective is to enable easy publication and use of such vocabularies as linked data.
History
DESIRE II project (1997–2000)
The most direct ancestor to SKOS was the RDF Thesaurus work undertaken in the second phase of the EU DESIRE project . Motivated by the need to improve the user interface and usability of multi-service browsing and searching, a basic RDF vocabulary for Thesauri was produced. As noted later in the SWAD-Europe workplan, the DESIRE work was adopted and further developed in the SOSIG and LIMBER projects. A version of the DESIRE/SOSIG implementation was described in W3C's QL'98 workshop, motivating early work on RDF rule and query languages: A Query and Inference Service for RDF.
LIMBER (1999–2001)
SKOS built upon the output of the Language Independent Metadata Browsing of European Resources (LIMBER) project funded by the European Community, and part of the Information Society Technologies programme. In the LIMBER project CCLRC further developed an RDF thesaurus interchange format which was demonstrated on the European Language Social Science Thesaurus (ELSST) at the UK Data Archive as a multilingual version of the English language Humanities and Social Science Electronic Thesaurus (HASSET) which was planned to be used by the Council of European Social Science Data Archives CESSDA.
SWAD-Europe (2002–2004)
SKOS as a distinct initiative began in the SWAD-Europe project, bringing together partners from both DESIRE, SOSIG (ILRT) and LIMBER (CCLRC) who had worked with earlier versions of the schema. It was developed in the Thesaurus Activity Work Package, in the Semantic Web Advanced Development for Europe (SWAD-Europe) project. SWAD-Europe was funded by the European Community, and part of the Information Society Technologies programme. The project was designed to support W3C's Semantic Web Activity through research, demonstrators and outreach efforts conducted by the five project partners, ERCIM, the ILRT at Bristol University, HP Labs, CCLRC and Stilo. The first release of SKOS Core and SKOS Mapping were published at the end of 2003, along with other deliverables on RDF encoding of multilingual thesauri and thesaurus mapping.
Semantic web activity (2004–2005)
Following the termination of SWAD-Europe, SKOS effort was supported by the W3C Semantic Web Activity in the framework of the Best Practice and Deployment Working Group. During this period, focus was put both on consolidation of SKOS Core, and development of practical guidelines for porting and publishing thesauri for the Semantic Web.
Development as W3C Recommendation (2006–2009)
The SKOS main published documents — the SKOS Core Guide, the SKOS Core Vocabulary Specification, and the Quick Guide to Publishing a Thesaurus on the Semantic Web — were developed through the W3C Working Draft process. Principal editors of SKOS were Alistair Miles, initially Dan Brickley, and Sean Bechhofer.
The Semantic Web Deployment Working Group, chartered for two years (May 2006 – April 2008), put in its charter to push SKOS forward on the W3C Recommendation track. The roadmap projected SKOS as a Candidate Recommendation by the end of 2007, and as a Proposed Recommendation in the first quarter of 2008. The main issues to solve were determining its precise scope of use, and its articulation with other RDF languages and standards used in libraries (such as Dublin Core).
Formal release (2009)
On August 18, 2009, W3C released the new standard that builds a bridge between the world of knowledge organization systems – including thesauri, classifications, subject headings, taxonomies, and folksonomies – and the linked data community, bringing benefits to both. Libraries, museums, newspapers, government portals, enterprises, social networking applications, and other communities that manage large collections of books, historical artifacts, news reports, business glossaries, blog entries, and other items can now use SKOS to leverage the power of linked data.
Historical view of components
SKOS was originally designed as a modular and extensible family of languages, organized as SKOS Core, SKOS Mapping, and SKOS Extensions, and a Metamodel. The entire specification is now complete within the namespace http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#.
Overview
In addition to the reference itself, the SKOS Primer (a W3C Working Group Note) summarizes the Simple Knowledge Organization System.
The SKOS defines the classes and properties sufficient to represent the common features found in a standard thesaurus. It is based on a concept-centric view of the vocabulary, where primitive objects are not terms, but abstract notions represented by terms. Each SKOS concept is defined as an RDF resource. Each concept can have RDF properties attached, including:
one or more preferred index terms (at most one in each natural language)
alternative terms or synonyms
definitions and notes, with specification of their language
Concepts can be organized in hierarchies using broader-narrower relationships, or linked by non-hierarchical (associative) relationships.
Concepts can be gathered in concept schemes, to provide consistent and structured sets of concepts, representing whole or part of a controlled vocabulary.
Element categories
The principal element categories of SKOS are concepts, labels, notations, documentation, semantic relations, mapping properties, and collections. The associated elements are listed in the table below.
Concepts
The SKOS vocabulary is based on concepts. Concepts are the units of thought—ideas, meanings, or objects and events (instances or categories)—which underlie many knowledge organization systems. As such, concepts exist in the mind as abstract entities which are independent of the terms used to label them. In SKOS, a Concept (based on the OWL Class) is used to represent items in a knowledge organization system (terms, ideas, meanings, etc.) or such a system's conceptual or organizational structure.
A ConceptScheme is analogous to a vocabulary, thesaurus, or other way of organizing concepts. SKOS does not constrain a concept to be within a particular scheme, nor does it provide any way to declare a complete scheme—there is no way to say the scheme consists only of certain members. A topConcept is (one of) the upper concept(s) in a hierarchical scheme.
Labels and notations
Each SKOS label is a string of Unicode characters, optionally with language tags, that are associated with a concept. The prefLabel is the preferred human-readable string (maximum one per language tag), while altLabel can be used for alternative strings, and hiddenLabel can be used for strings that are useful to associate, but not meant for humans to read.
A SKOS notation is similar to a label, but this literal string has a datatype, like integer, float, or date; the datatype can even be made up (see 6.5.1 Notations, Typed Literals and Datatypes in the SKOS Reference). The notation is useful for classification codes and other strings not recognizable as words.
Documentation
The Documentation or Note properties provide basic information about SKOS concepts. All the concepts are considered a type of skos:note; they just provide more specific kinds of information. The property definition, for example, should contain a full description of the subject resource. More specific note types can be defined in a SKOS extension, if desired. A query for <A> skos:note ? will obtain all the notes about <A>, including definitions, examples, and scope, history and change, and editorial documentation.
Any of these SKOS Documentation properties can refer to several object types: a literal (e.g., a string); a resource node that has its own properties; or a reference to another document, for example using a URI. This enables the documentation to have its own metadata, like creator and creation date.
Specific guidance on SKOS documentation properties can be found in the SKOS Primer Documentary Notes.
Semantic relations
SKOS semantic relations are intended to provide ways to declare relationships between concepts within a concept scheme. While there are no restrictions precluding their use with two concepts from separate schemes, this is discouraged because it is likely to overstate what can be known about the two schemes, and perhaps link them inappropriately.
The property related simply makes an association relationship between two concepts; no hierarchy or generality relation is implied. The properties broader and narrower are used to assert a direct hierarchical link between two concepts. The meaning may be unexpected; the relation <A> broader <B> means that A has a broader concept called B—hence that B is broader than A. Narrower follows in the same pattern.
While the casual reader might expect broader and narrower to be transitive properties, SKOS does not declare them as such. Rather, the properties broaderTransitive and narrowerTransitive are defined as transitive super-properties of broader and narrower. These super-properties are (by convention) not used in declarative SKOS statements. Instead, when a broader or narrower relation is used in a triple, the corresponding transitive super-property also holds; and transitive relations can be inferred (and queried) using these super-properties.
Mapping
SKOS mapping properties are intended to express matching (exact or fuzzy) of concepts from one concept scheme to another, and by convention are used only to connect concepts from different schemes. The concepts relatedMatch, broadMatch, and narrowMatch are a convenience, with the same meaning as the semantic properties related, broader, and narrower. (See previous section regarding the meanings of broader and narrower.)
The property relatedMatch makes a simple associative relationship between two concepts. When concepts are so closely related that they can generally be used interchangeably, exactMatch is the appropriate property (exactMatch relations are transitive, unlike any of the other Match relations). The closeMatch property that indicates concepts that only sometimes can be used interchangeably, and so it is not a transitive property.
Concept collections
The concept collections (Collection, orderedCollection) are labeled and/or ordered (orderedCollection) groups of SKOS concepts. Collections can be nested, and can have defined URIs or not (which is known as a blank node). Neither a SKOS Concept nor a ConceptScheme may be a Collection, nor vice versa; and SKOS semantic relations can only be used with a Concept (not a Collection). The items in a Collection can not be connected to other SKOS Concepts through the Collection node; individual relations must be defined to each Concept in the Collection.
Community and participation
All development work is carried out via the mailing list which is a completely open and publicly archived mailing list devoted to discussion of issues relating to knowledge organisation systems, information retrieval and the Semantic Web. Anyone may participate informally in the development of SKOS by joining the discussions on [email protected] – informal participation is warmly welcomed. Anyone who works for a W3C member organisation may formally participate in the development process by joining the Semantic Web Deployment Working Group – this entitles individuals to edit specifications and to vote on publication decisions.
Applications
Some important vocabularies have been migrated into SKOS format and are available in the public domain, including EuroVoc, AGROVOC and GEMET. Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) also support the SKOS format.
SKOS has been used as the language for the thesauri used in the SWED Environmental Directory developed in the SWAD-Europe project framework.
A way to convert thesauri to SKOS, with examples including the MeSH thesaurus, has been outlined by the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.
Subject classification using DITA and SKOS has been developed by IBM.
SKOS is used to represent geographical feature types in the GeoNames ontology.
Tools
Unilexicon is a web based visual editor and taxonomy manager for authoring controlled vocabularies with tagging integration and JSON API. Its primary visualisation uses hyperbolic tree.
ThesauRex is an open-source, web-based SKOS editor. It is limited to broader/narrower relations among concepts and offers tree-based interaction and with thesauri and drag&drop creation of new thesauri based on a master thesaurus.
Mondeca's Intelligent Topic Manager (ITM) is a full-featured SKOS-compliant solution for managing taxonomies, thesauri, and other controlled vocabularies.
Opentheso is an open source web-based thesaurus management system compliant with ISO 25964:2011 and ISO 25964-2:2012 standards (Information and Documentation. Thesauri and Interoperability with other vocabularies). It offers SKOS and csv exports and imports, REST and SOAP web services and manages persistent identifiers (ARK). It has been developed at the French National Center for Scientific Research since 2007. It is currently used by the French archaeological libraries network Frantiq and by research teams and by the Hospices Civils de Lyon as a collaborative thesaurus management tool. It can be downloaded on github.
OpenSKOS is a web service-based approach to publication, management and use of vocabulary data that can be mapped to SKOS. Its source code is available on GitHub. It includes CRUD like RESTful operations on SKOS concepts and a web-based editor for searching and editing concepts. It was developed by Picturae and funded by the Dutch heritage fond CATCHPlus.
TemaTres Vocabulary Server is an open source web-based vocabulary server for managing controlled vocabularies, taxonomies and thesauruses and other formal representations of knowledge. TemaTres provides complete export of vocabularies into SKOS-core in addition to Zthes, TopicMaps, MADS, Dublin Core, VDEX, BS 8723, SiteMap, SQL and text.
ThManager is a Java open-source application for creating and visualizing SKOS vocabularies.
The W3C provides an experimental on-line validation service.
Vocbench is an open-source, web-based RDF/OWL/SKOS/SKOS-XL editor developed by a collaboration between the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the University of Rome Tor Vergata and the Malaysian research centre MIMOS. It supports the FAO's multilingual agricultural thesaurus AGROVOC, among other resources of FAO and the European Community.
SKOS files can also be imported and edited in RDF-OWL editors such as Protégé, SKOS Shuttle and TopBraid Composer.
SKOS synonyms can be transformed from WordNet RDF format using an XSLT style sheet; see W3C RDF
PoolParty is a commercial-quality thesaurus management system and a SKOS editor for the Semantic Web including text analysis functionalities and Linked Data capabilities.
qSKOS is an open-source tool for performing quality assessment of SKOS vocabularies by checking against a quality issue catalog.
SKOSEd is an open source plug-in for the Protégé 4 OWL ontology editor that supports authoring SKOS vocabularies. SKOSEd has an accompanying SKOS API written in Java that can be used to build SKOS-based applications.
Model Futures SKOS Exporter for Microsoft Excel allows simple vocabularies to be developed as indented Excel spreadsheets and exported as SKOS RDF. BETA version.
Lexaurus is an enterprise thesaurus management system and multi-format editor. Its extensive API includes full revision management. SKOS is one of its many supported formats.
SKOS Shuttle is a thesaurus management service which allows users to import, maintain, process and synchronize thesauri in SKOS using also special extensions of SKOS.
TopBraid Enterprise Vocabulary Net (EVN) and TopBraid Enterprise Data Governance (EDG) are web-based solutions that support development and management of interconnected controlled vocabularies such as taxonomies, thesauri, business glossaries and ontologies. SKOS and SKOS-XL are supported.
Thesaurus Master, for creating, developing, and maintaining taxonomies and thesauri, is part of Access Innovations' Data Harmony knowledge management software line. It offers SKOS-compliant export.
Fluent Editor 2014 – an ontology editor which allows users to work and edit directly OWL annotations and SKOS. Annotations will be processed also for referenced ontologies as well as imported/exported to OWL/RDF and can be processed on the server.
Smartlogic Semaphore Ontology Editor – a SKOS and SKOS-XL based ontology editor which allows creating models based strictly on the SKOS standards.
Data
There are publicly available SKOS data sources.
SKOS Datasets wiki The W3C recommends using this list of publicly available SKOS data sources. Most data found in this wiki can be used for commercial and research applications.
Relationships with other standards
Metamodel
The SKOS metamodel is broadly compatible with the data model of ISO 25964-1 – Thesauri for Information Retrieval. This data model can be viewed and downloaded from the website for ISO 25964.
Thesaurus standards
SKOS development has involved experts from both RDF and library community, and SKOS intends to allow easy migration of thesauri defined by standards such as NISO Z39.19 – 2005 or ISO 25964.
Other semantic web standards
SKOS is intended to provide a way to make a legacy of concept schemes available to Semantic Web applications, simpler than the more complex ontology language, OWL. OWL is intended to express complex conceptual structures, which can be used to generate rich metadata and support inference tools. However, constructing useful web ontologies is demanding in terms of expertise, effort, and cost. In many cases, this type of effort might be superfluous or unsuited to requirements, and SKOS might be a better choice. The extensibility of RDF makes possible further incorporation or extension of SKOS vocabularies into more complex vocabularies, including OWL ontologies.
See also
Glossary
Knowledge representation
Metadata registry
References
External links
SKOS Simple Knowledge Organization System Reference
W3C SKOS Home Page
W3C Simple Knowledge Organization System Primer
Presentation of SKOS at XTech 2005 Conference
W3C Invites Implementations of SKOS (Simple Knowledge Organization System) Reference; Primer Also Published
SKOS Validator and Zthes Converter
Knowledge representation
Semantic Web
Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester
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4916690
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1921%20Tampa%20Bay%20hurricane
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1921 Tampa Bay hurricane
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The Tampa Bay hurricane of 1921 (also known as the 1921 Tarpon Springs hurricane) was a destructive and deadly major hurricane which made landfall in the Tampa Bay area of Florida in late October 1921. The eleventh tropical cyclone, sixth tropical storm, and fifth hurricane of the season, the storm developed from a trough in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on October 20. Initially a tropical storm, the system moved northwestward and intensified into a hurricane on October 22 and a major hurricane by October 23. Later that day, the hurricane peaked as a Category 4 on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale with maximum sustained winds of . After entering the Gulf of Mexico, the hurricane gradually curved northeastward and weakened to a Category 3 before making landfall near Tarpon Springs, Florida, late on October 25. It was the first major hurricane to make landfall in the Tampa Bay area since the hurricane of 1848 and the last to date.
The storm weakened to a Category 1 hurricane while crossing the Florida peninsula, and it reached the Atlantic Ocean early the following day. Thereafter, the system moved east-southeastward and remained fairly steady in intensity before weakening to a tropical storm late on October 29. The storm was then absorbed by a larger extratropical cyclone early the next day, with the remnants of the hurricane soon becoming indistinguishable.
The storm brought strong winds to the Swan Islands, including hurricane-force winds on the main island. Heavy rains fell in Cuba, particularly in Pinar del Río Province, but only minor damage occurred. In Florida, storm surge and abnormally high tides caused damage along much of the state's west coast from Pasco County southward. Several neighborhoods in Tampa were inundated, especially the interbay neighborhoods of Ballast Point, DeSoto Park, Edgewater Park, Hyde Park, Palmetto Beach, and other areas in the vicinity of Bayshore Boulevard. Strong winds also damaged hundreds of trees, signs, buildings, and homes. Four deaths occurred in Tampa, three from drownings and another after a man touched a live wire. The storm left two additional fatalities in St. Petersburg. A number of streets in Tarpon Springs were littered with masses of debris, with many structures and trees suffering extensive damage. Southward in Manatee County and Sarasota County, many waterfront communities along Sarasota Bay and the Gulf of Mexico, such as Cortez and Sarasota, suffered heavy structural losses. Strong winds occurred as far east as the Atlantic coast of the state, though wind damage east of the Tampa Bay area was generally limited to downed trees and power lines, resulting in power outages, particularly in Orlando. Agriculture throughout the state experienced significant impact as well, including over $2 million (equivalent to $ million in ) in damage and the loss of at least 800,000 boxes of citrus crops alone. Overall, the hurricane left at least eight deaths and about $10 million (equivalent to $ million in ) in damage.
Meteorological history
In mid-October, a significant drop in atmospheric pressures over the western Caribbean Sea coincided with the development of a trough on October 17. Observations suggested that a circulation formed on October 20, with the Atlantic hurricane database listing a tropical storm beginning at 00:00 UTC, with the system was situated about southeast of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina. The cyclone initially moved slowly northwestward due to a high pressure system over Bermuda. Early on October 22, the storm intensified into a Category 1 hurricane, based on sustained winds of on Great Swan Island. The hurricane strengthened significantly over the northwestern Caribbean, becoming a Category 2 hurricane at 00:00 UTC on October 23 and a Category 3 hurricane six hours later. Around 18:00 UTC, the cyclone reached Category 4 intensity and peaked with maximum sustained winds of and a minimum barometric pressure of . The latter was observed by the schooner Virginia, while the former was estimated using the southern wind-pressure relationship.
Early on October 24, the hurricane moved northward across the Yucatán Channel and entered the Gulf of Mexico. Thereafter, the system gradually curved to the northeast as the high pressure weakened and the storm became under the influence of a southwesterly air current. At 12:00 UTC on October 25, the cyclone weakened to a Category 3 hurricane. About 10 hours later, the hurricane made landfall near Tarpon Springs, Florida, with maximum sustained winds of . The storm further weakened to a Category 1 hurricane over Central Florida early on October 26, about six hours before emerging into the Atlantic Ocean near New Smyrna Beach. Reaching the Atlantic with winds of , the hurricane briefly re-strengthened to reach winds of early on October 27. It then moved east-southeastward after the high pressure weakened further. Late on October 29, the system accelerated northeastward and weakened to a tropical storm, before being absorbed by a large extratropical cyclone about southeast of Bermuda at 00:00 UTC on October 30. About six hours later, the remnants of the hurricane became indistinguishable. These remnants were the second storm encountered by USS Olympia in its Atlantic crossing with the American unknown soldier from World War I.
Preparations
Forecasters at the United States Weather Bureau issued advisories for ships and oceangoing vessels, while posting hurricane warnings for areas in western Florida stretching from Key West to Apalachicola on October 24 and October 25. Additionally, storm warnings were issued eastward from mouth of the Mississippi River and along the east coast of Florida.
Impact
In Cuba, heavy rainfall in Pinar del Río Province caused rivers and creeks to rise. However, only minimal damage was reported.
The hurricane passed to the west of the Florida Keys as a Category 4 hurricane. Its large wind field caused tropical storm force winds to the islands, with the highest wind report being in Key West. Rainfall from the hurricane's outer bands was intermittent, and storm tides of were reported. Further north, Captiva and Sanibel islands were completely inundated with water. In Punta Rassa, the majority of homes were either extensively damaged or washed away. Most highways leading out of Fort Myers were impassible due to high water. Damage to railroad tracks resulted in a suspension of service for three days. On Estero Island, a number of buildings were damaged, including the casinos, cottages, and Crescent Beach resort. The storm also destroyed the mausoleum of Dr. Cyrus Teed, the founder of Koreshanity. Damage in Lee County reached about $1.5 million. Along the Myakka River near Boca Grande, the railroad bridge washed away, while the storm also destroyed two vehicular bridges over the Charlotte Harbor Bay. The streets of Punta Gorda were inundated, where a tide of above normal was recorded. One death occurred in the city due to drowning. At Egmont Key, above normal tides forced 75 people to seek shelter in the lighthouse. The entire island was inundated by water.
In Manatee County, the storm demolished much of the waterfront not only along Tampa Bay, but also Sarasota Bay and the Gulf of Mexico, On Passage Key, sustained winds of and a storm surge of . During the storm, a cyclone-induced tidal wave was reported to have washed away the island's vegetation, which never rebounded. Southward on Anna Maria Island, the storm washed away high ground that was once a characteristic of the north end of the island. In the small fishing village of Cortez, the storm destroyed all of the community's fish houses and docks. The storm surge completely flooded the area up to 67th Street in Bradenton. Cortez's residents, with little forewarning of the storm, sought refuge in their rural graded schoolhouse, which withstood the storm while many houses floated away. Inland, the storm caused flooding along the Myakka River and the destruction of many wharfs along the Manatee River.
The hurricane brought a storm surge of to Tampa Bay. The highest rainfall total in Tampa was at . However, the observer noted that winds probably blew water out of the gauge. The barometric pressure fell to , breaking a previous record set in 1910. The hurricane also brought sustained winds of and a storm tide of . Damage from the wind was generally minor, while most of the impact wrought by the storm was due to abnormally high tides in Tampa and elsewhere in the area. Much of the city was flooded, with the worst along Bayshore Boulevard, where some of the most expensive properties were located. At Hyde Park, dwellings were inundated about halfway up the first story, prompting several people to be rescued by boat. Electrical poles and wires were washed away near the intersection of Bayshore Boulevard and Howard Avenue. The latter was also left impassible by car. In the Palmetto Beach neighborhood, much of the section was inundated. A group of about 40 volunteers rescued a number of women and children. A total of 50 homes were destroyed by cedar logs used to construct cigar boxes at the Tampa Box Company on 22nd Street.
At Ballast Point, the pavilion and bathhouse were destroyed by the storm. Nearby, the Tampa Yacht and Country Club suffered severe damage. Many cars along the waterfront were severely damaged and nearly all flat railroad cars were submerged. The Malloy Line dock was also left under several feet of water. A number of waterfront warehouses were also damaged by floodwaters. After the Tampa Electrical Company power house experienced water damage, the electricity was shut off. Additionally, the company's cable station was flooded under several feet of water. Winds downed hundreds of trees and sign across roadways and tore-up awnings. At least 50 awnings were ripped from a bank building on Franklin Street alone. Falling trees also damaged the post office and the YMCA. Almost 500 dwellings in the neighborhood of Ybor City were demolished. Five people were killed in the city, three from people coming into contact with a live wire and the other two from drowning. Only minor damage occurred in Plant City. Throughout Hillsborough County, many county roads were impassable due to downed telegraph poles and other debris, especially between Tampa and Plant City.
Tides above normal and storm surge in St. Petersburg damaged or destroyed all four fishing piers. Many ships and boats of all sizes capsized or were beached, including the trawler Hypnotist, which ejected the crew of seven into the water, all of whom were rescued. The St. Petersburg Beach Hotel was destroyed, after employees swam through the lobby for safety. At the office of the St. Petersburg Times, then located at Fifth Street and First Avenue South, the loss of electricity resulted in staff working overnight with lanterns. With no power to operate the typesetting machine, the employees connected their linotype machine to a two-cylinder motorcycle to publish the "Motorcycle Extra". Two deaths occurred in St. Petersburg, one from a heart attack during preparations for the storm and the other from a man being crushed by a falling roof.
Initially, there were rumors and unconfirmed reports that Pass-a-Grille (today a neighborhood of St. Pete Beach) was wiped out and that up to 150 deaths occurred. Though the town was hit particularly hard, there were no fatalities and damage was less severe than indicated, reaching about $50,000. Storm surge was partially diverted to Boca Ciega Bay, but Pass-a-Grille generally suffered severe impact due to of water covering some areas. The island's luxury resort hotel was extensively damaged, and its dancing pavilion was destroyed. It never reopened and was destroyed by fire the following year. A number of cottages were badly damaged. The storm destroyed a casino in Gulfport. The casino in Indian Rocks Beach collapsed after the sand foundation was washed away. In Largo, nearly all of the buildings at the Pinellas County Fairgrounds were rendered unusable.
Buildings were severely damaged in Clearwater, including the ice and power plants, a theater, and a hotel. Many residences were also damaged. Electric and telephone wires were downed, leaving the city without power or telephone service. Boats were tossed about in the bay. The city of Oldsmar was devastated by storm surge, with portions of the town being inundated by of water. Many homes were practically demolished. Although no loss of human life occurred, many cattle drowned.
In Tarpon Springs, streets were littered with masses of debris. Sections of the city along the Anclote River were flooded. Primarily, impact consisted of structures being unroofed, windows shattering, and tree being uprooted. Throughout the city, electrical and telephone lines were downed, but telephone was partially maintained and electricity was restored quickly. Two hotels suffered extensive damage due to flooding. Although the high school was also severely damaged, classrooms remained usable. The cupola was torn away and the roof was partially damaged, including over the auditorium. The Odd Fellows Hall was thrown off its foundation and virtually destroyed. In the business district, most of the buildings leaked, resulting in damage to merchandise. Crop damage in Pinellas County was extensive, totaling about $1 million, which included a loss of 50%–70% of fruit lost and considerable damage to citrus trees.
The hurricane also brought extensive impact to portions of Pasco County. In New Port Richey, a few churches suffered severe damage or were destroyed. Nearly all walls collapsed and many windows were shattered at the school house. Only one shop remained standing at a plaza with several industrial stores. The vast majority of homes in the city received some degree of damage. Local crops experienced extensive impact, with a local farm losing about 800 boxes worth of fruit. Similar effects occurred in Port Richey. All stores received water damage, while two homes were destroyed and several others were inflicted with varying degrees of impact.
In Dade City, Mt. Zion Baptist Church was demolished, which was never rebuilt. Only the church cemetery remains. Another church, which opened early in the year, was nearly demolished by falling trees. A turpentine plant was damaged, including the loss of about one-third of the lumber stored in the building. The Sunnybrook Tobacco Company suffered significant impact, with nine large barns destroyed and about of trees toppled. A number of other companies sustained damage, including the Dade City Packing Company and the Dade City Ice, Light and Power Company. Damage to the business reached $100,000. Several homes were damaged. Electrical, telegraph, and telephone wires were downed throughout the city. During the storm, electricity was maintained in the downtown section, while residential areas were left without power for two days. In San Antonio and Trilby, a number of buildings were moved off their foundations. The old city hall in Zephyrhills was moved about . At a hotel, the building lost a portion of its roof and several windows were broken. In addition, the hurricane virtually destroyed much of Passage Key, part of which was later rebuilt.
In Polk County, the storm left light property damage in Lakeland, reaching under $5,000, which included the school building being deroofed. Damage to crops was mostly limited to grapefruit and oranges, with losses estimated to have been less than 10%. In the rural communities outside Lakeland, several small building suffered damage. This was considered the worst tropical cyclone in the area since 1897. Lake County experienced sustained winds of and of rain in some areas. Much of the impact was confined to large trees being uprooted and ornamental vines suffering damage. A number of trees fell on electrical wires, causing power outages and disruptions to telephone service. Additionally, it is possible that a tornado touched down, based on some pine trees being "splintered from top to bottom and curled up like molasses candy." Damage to citrus crops was light, with losses conservatively estimated at less than 5%. Strong winds in Orange County left the entire city of Orlando without electricity, disrupting commerce. Citrus crops suffered no more than 5% in losses in the county. In St. Augustine, wind downed wires, some of which caused small fires in the business district.
A steamship capsized sailing from Jacksonville to Miami capsized offshore Jupiter and there were reports of damage to several other small boats offshore. Agricultural damage from the hurricane was high, reaching over $2 million, with more than $1 million incurred to crops and the remainder to fertilizer and other materials. Citrus crops were especially hard hit, with 800,000 to 1,000,000 boxes of fruit lost. Salt water, caused by coastal flooding, prevented cultivation of soil in some areas, though rainfall eventually washed away the salt. In all, the hurricane left at least eight people dead and about $10 million in damage.
Aftermath
After receiving reports of mass casualties and destruction at Pass-a-Grille, the American Red Cross stocked a United States Navy subchaser with pine caskets and relief supplies, but found no bodies and only a fraction of the reported damage. Because of fears that the hurricane might hinder the Florida land boom of the 1920s, rebuilding and cleanup of the area commenced quickly and the land boom in the Tampa Bay region and in southern Florida continued. Local officials, businessmen, realtors, and later the press soon attempted to cover up or downplay the damage, which threatened to distort Tampa's advertised image as the "Year Round City". On October 28, a writer for The Tampa Tribune stated, "Everyone is accepting the storm as an incident and all are going to work to rebuild the devastated areas, with the firm conviction that there will not be another storm of such severity during the life of anyone now living." One of the destroyed buildings at the Ballist Point Pavilion was soon rebuilt after the storm. However, the building was destroyed again by fire in 1922. In 1925, a new pavilion was built. On Captiva Island, the Wayside Chapel suffered extensive damage, but was repaired and reopened as Captiva School and Chapel-by-the-Sea, which has been listed as a National Historic Place since 2013. Many farmers on the island sold their land for a significantly reduced price to Clarence B. Chadwick, who would transform more than of property into the South Seas Island Resort.
The hurricane was the first major hurricane to strike the Tampa Bay region since a hurricane in 1848 and the most recent to date. Additionally, since this storm, only a hurricane in 1946 has made landfall in the area. In the past few decades especially, local officials have been concerned about a major hurricane impacting the area due to population increases, older building codes, storm surge projections, and complacency among some residents. The combined population of Citrus, Hernando, Hillsborough, Pasco, and Pinellas counties has increased from about 135,000 people in 1921 to approximately 2.7 million by 2011. In Pasco County, more than half of the homes were constructed prior to the enactment of stronger building codes in the aftermath of Hurricane Andrew. A Sea, Lake, and Overland Surge from Hurricanes (SLOSH) computer model from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) indicates that portions of Downtown Tampa would be flooded with over of water in the event of a Category 4 hurricane, while St. Petersburg would be surrounded by water. CoreLogic, an international property information firm, estimated in 2016 that nearly 455,000 homes were at risk of being damaged by storm surge, with costs of property damage and repairs reaching approximately $80.6 billion (2016 USD). Another property firm, Karen Clark & Co., estimated in 2015 that storm surge could inflict as much as $175 billion (2015 USD) in damage in a worst-case scenario.
See also
1946 Florida hurricane – Most recent hurricane to directly impact the Tampa Bay Area
Hurricane Zeta – Latest major hurricane to strike the continental United States in the calendar year on record
Hurricane Ian
List of Florida hurricanes (1900–1949)
Notes
References
General
Specific
External links
Tampa Bay Hurricane of 1921 best track data
Hurricane Effects in Pasco County and Tarpon Springs
Tampa Bay Hurricane, 1921
Tampa Bay Hurricane, 1921
20th century in Tampa, Florida
1921
(1921)
1921 natural disasters in the United States
History of Tampa, Florida
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4917401
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%2066%20in%20Oklahoma
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U.S. Route 66 in Oklahoma
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The historic U.S. Route 66 (US-66, Route 66), sometimes known as the Will Rogers Highway after Oklahoma native Will Rogers, ran from west to northeast across the state of Oklahoma, along the path now taken by Interstate 40 (I-40) and State Highway 66 (SH-66). It passed through Oklahoma City, Tulsa, and many smaller communities. West of the Oklahoma City area, it has been largely replaced by I-40; the few independent portions that are still state-maintained are now I-40 Business. However, from Oklahoma City northeast to Kansas, the bypassing I-44 is mostly a toll road, and SH-66 remains as a free alternate.
History
The history of Route 66 in Oklahoma can be traced back to two auto trails—the St. Louis, Missouri–Las Vegas, New Mexico, main route of the Ozark Trails network, and the Fort Smith, Arkansas–Amarillo, Texas, Postal Highway. In the state highway system, approved in mid-1924, the portions of these in Oklahoma, which crossed at Oklahoma City, became SH-7 and SH-3 respectively. US 66 was designated in late 1926, and followed these state highways with one exception: a new SH-39 was created to carry Route 66, leaving SH-7 at Commerce and heading east and north to the state line in the direction of Baxter Springs, Kansas. (The short stub of SH-7 north of Commerce remained until it became part of US-69 in the mid-1930s.)
Over the years, many portions of Route 66 west of Oklahoma City were replaced with I-40. On the other hand, the Turner Turnpike and Will Rogers Turnpike were built parallel to Route 66 east of Oklahoma City, and Route 66 remained on the old road as a free alternate to the turnpikes. Route 66 was eliminated by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials on April 1, 1985. In Oklahoma, the portions west of Oklahoma City that had not been rerouted onto I-40 became business loops of I-44 through Sayre, Elk City, Clinton, and El Reno. The still-independent route, starting at US-81 in southeastern El Reno, became SH-66, using surface streets except through Oklahoma City and Tulsa, where Route 66 had been rerouted onto the freeways. SH-66 ends at US-60 west of Vinita, where Route 66 overlapped US-60 and US-69 to east of Commerce. The remaining independent portion to the Kansas state line became part of a new US-69 Alternate.
Route description
Texas border to Elk City
By 1916, a series of unpaved state roads was laid out from Texola, just east of the Texas state line, east via Erick to Delhi, north to Sayre, and east and north via Doxey to Elk City. It became part of Route 66 in 1926; this initial alignment ran along the state line from a bit south of the old railroad grade south to E1240 Road, and then ran east through Texola on Fifth Street. After a mile south on N1680 Road, it turned east on E1250 Road to Erick, then south again on N1750 Road, east on E1260 Road, south on N1810 Road, and east on E1270 Road to Delhi. Traffic turned north at N1870 Road (now US-283), jogging west on E1250 Road at the mismatch in the section lines, and entered Sayre on N1870 Road. The bridge over the North Fork of the Red River in Sayre was built of timber in 1924 and upgraded and widened with steel in 1933. It was bypassed in 1958, and has been demolished; its remains are on private property. The original Route 66 passed through Sayre on Main Street (now SH-152) and Fourth Street, leaving to the east on Benton Boulevard (E1180 Road). It then turned north on N1900 Road, east on E1170 Road (there was a cutoff on the southeast side of the railroad at this turn), north on N1960 Road, east on E1160 Road, and north on N2000 Road into Elk City on Randall Avenue. Short sections of this — a bridge on E1170 Road east of N1950 Road (SH-34) and the crossing of Elk City Lake on N2000 Road — no longer exist.
A new alignment from the state line to Elk City was built in the late 1920s. It only coincided with the earlier route through Texola and through Sayre; the rest was entirely separate. Except in Sayre, where the city had paved the road with Portland cement (PC) in 1926, the state began paving the road in 1928 and 1929 with asphalt over a concrete base from Elk City to several miles east of Hext. It switched to PC in 1929, paving the remainder from east of Hext to the state line from 1929 to 1931. This alignment followed E1240 Road from the state line to Texola, and then the present main road through Erick and Hext to south of Sayre. The old cement lies in the center of the four-lane road through Texola, and then mainly follows the westbound lanes to Erick, through which it again lies in the center. A short abandoned piece of PC, including ruins from a former bridge over a creek, is located to the south of the road, between N1700 and N1710 Roads. Beyond Erick, the PC was again built in the present location of the westbound lanes, but has since been paved over until the I-40 interchange (exit 11). Just past exit 11, the road becomes two lanes, and the original road — mostly built as PC, but later resurfaced in asphalt, and once the westbound lanes of a divided highway - is now abandoned to the north of the open roadway; a 1928 concrete federal aid primary marker lies west of Hext. Beyond Hext, where I-40 comes in from the south, the two-lane road crosses to the original roadway; the later eastbound lanes are now the westbound lanes of I-40. The 1929 alignment curved to the north into N1870 Road west of exit 20, following Main Street and Fourth Street as the original route did. However, it continued beyond Benton Boulevard to Sayre Avenue, turning off onto the present four-lane I-40 Bus. towards I-40 exit 25. Just prior to the exit, Route 66 curved northeast along the northside frontage road. It crossed to the south side after exit 26, crossing Timber Creek on a 1928 through truss bridge, and crossed again just east of the N1910 Road overpass. This part of the north frontage road, from east of N1910 Road to exit 32, retains the original 1928-1929 paving, as well as a 1926 box drain. Between exit 32 and Elk City, the original road (resurfaced) is now the westbound lanes of I-40 Bus., where another 1926 box drain still stands.
A second set of lanes was added, mostly on the south side of the two-lane road, from 1955 to 1961, except through Texola, Erick, and Sayre, where the existing road was widened to four lanes. The old road was bypassed in several places: west of Texola, where the new road went diagonally northwest to the state line; between N1700 and N1710 Roads, where a straighter alignment was built to the north; entering Sayre from the south, where it continued on what is now the northside frontage road to Fourth Street (effective July 14, 1958); and at Timber Creek, where the two-lane road used the southside frontage road, and both directions of the four-lane road used the present I-40. Between the Sayre and Elk City business loops, except over Timber Creek, the new eastbound lanes are now the eastbound lanes of I-40; further west, between Sayre and Hext, they are the present westbound lanes.
I-40 was completed in its present state in 1966 between Sayre and Elk City; the bypasses of both cities opened in October 1970, with the Sayre bypass project extending west to the point east of Hext where I-40 curves away from the old road. (The relocation here was made on June 1, 1970.) The rest of I-40 west to Texas opened on September 2, 1975. Except for the bypasses around Sayre and Elk City, Route 66 was moved to the new I-40; most of it was given to Beckham County, but the old route through Erick, which had overlapped SH-30, became SH-30 Business. When Route 66 was decommissioned on April 1, 1985, the Sayre and Elk City business loops were created. I-40 Business through Erick, between exits 5 and 11, replaced SH-30 Bus. in 1987, based on traffic data.
Through Oklahoma City
Route 66 was signed in Oklahoma City by 1929. Its initial routing entered from the west on 39th Street and turned south on Classen Boulevard and east on 23rd Street. SH-7 entered from the south on Robinson Avenue, which also carried SH-4, SH-9, and US 77. At the intersection of 23rd Street and Lincoln Boulevard, just north of the State Capitol, SH-3 and SH-9 continued east, along with US 266, while the other routes, including Route 66, turned north. After leaving the city limits, continuing on Lincoln Boulevard (including the present Beverly Drive), it jogged east on Grand Boulevard (now I-44) to reach Kelley Avenue. By 1931, traffic was routed via Western Avenue rather than Classen Boulevard, and a new US 66 Alternate bypassed downtown, turning north rather than south on Western Avenue to Britton and east on Britton Road to Kelley Avenue. By 1935 Route 66 used May Avenue rather than Western Avenue; the alternate route continued to use Western Avenue, moving to Classen Boulevard south of 53rd Street on March 18, 1936. The alternate route was eventually moved to May Avenue on May 6, 1947.
On March 2, 1953, about the time the Northwest Expressway, Northeast Expressway, and Turner Turnpike were completed, US 66 was realigned to make use of this bypass. It turned north from 39th Street at May Avenue to reach the expressways, and followed them to Kelley, where it continued to turn north towards Edmond. The continuation of the Northeast Expressway to the Oklahoma City Terminus of the turnpike was labeled SH-66A; this route had extended west to May Avenue before March 2. (SH-3 used the Northwest Expressway west of May Avenue.) The old Route 66 through downtown, via May Avenue, 23rd Street, and Lincoln Boulevard, became US 66 Business, and the alternate route was eliminated. A short realignment was made on August 2, 1954, using the new West Expressway from 39th Street and May Avenue to the Northwest Expressway west of Classen Boulevard.
SH-66A became part of Route 66 by 1956, when the new road (now I-35) was built from the Turner Turnpike north to Route 66 east of Edmond. The old route via Edmond became SH-66 (and SH-77, since it had replaced US 77). The business route was deleted on March 5, 1979, and at about the same time the new route of the West Expressway, bypassing Classen Circle, was completed.
Through Tulsa
By 1929, Route 66 had been marked through Tulsa, entering from the southwest on Southwest Boulevard (then Quanah Avenue) to the old 11th Street Bridge over the Arkansas River, being a concrete arch bridge from 1916 that is now on the National Register of Historic Places. The route left the bridge on Maybelle Avenue, and turned east on 11th Street, north on Cheyenne Avenue, east on 7th Street, north on Detroit Avenue, east on 2nd Street, north on Lewis Avenue, and east on Admiral Place to the city limits. Outside the city, the original route turned south on Mingo Road and east on 11th Street, turning north on 193rd Avenue to reach Catoosa. A relocation, approved on July 7, 1932, simplified the routing through Tulsa, taking it east on 11th Street all the way from the bridge to 193rd Avenue. (US 75 and SH-11 remained on Admiral Place, the former using the old Route 66 alignment through downtown.)
US 66 Bypass was established on June 4, 1951, along the proposed Skelly Drive, which was not finished until the late 1950s, when it became part of I-44. Route 66 itself was moved to Skelly Drive on November 3, 1959, and the old route on Southwest Boulevard and 11th Street, west of the Skelly Drive interchange east of downtown, became US 66 Business. (The only change in this route was made in the early 1970s, during construction of I-444, when it was moved to 12th Street west of Denver Avenue.) The business route was eliminated on January 15, 1973, removing all state highways from surface streets in downtown Tulsa, except for a temporary routing of US 64 and SH-51 on 15th Street until the Broken Arrow Expressway was completed.
Tulsa to Kansas border
As with the rest of Route 66 in Oklahoma, the majority of this segment follows SH-66, with a number of older alignments that take Route 66 through many of the communities along the way. From the northeast side of Tulsa, at the intersection of 193rd Ave and I-44/SH-66, two routes are available, depending on which sources one considers to be official:
The first route proceeds north on 193rd Ave, crossing under I-44, and turns northeast onto Cherokee St. This route turns east onto Rice St, crosses SH-66, and then turns northeast onto "Old US Highway 66". This road turns north as it joins with 225th St. This road splits into a "Y" just before it intersects with SH-66. Maps indicate that both sides of the "Y" intersect with SH-66, and that the right side of this "Y" leads the traveler to cross SH-66 again, to find an abandoned segment of Route 66 on the other side.
A second route proceeds north on 193rd Ave, past I-44, and turns northeast onto Cherokee St. One then turns hard right onto Antry Dr., then left onto SH-66. The route turns east onto Rice St, then northeast onto "Old US Highway 66", north on 225th St, and then northeast back onto SH-66.
Route 66 then follows SH-66 northeast through Verdigris and into Claremore. One may either continue on SH-66 all the way through town, or divert one block west and take the older alignment down J.M Davis Blvd. The route re-joins SH-66 via Stuart Roosa Dr., at the north end of town.
Route 66 then proceeds north and east via SH-66. Other communities along this stretch of road include Sequoyah, Foyil, and Busyhead. In Chelsea, SH-28 briefly merges with SH-66, then diverges north after about 5 blocks, while SH-66 continues toward White Oak. After White Oak, US 60/US 69 join the route. Just beyond this intersection, SH-2 joins the route as the road continues to Vinita. In the downtown area of Vinita, SH-2 diverges to the north while US 60/US 69/Route 66 turn to the right. The highway crosses I-44 just east of the city and intersects with SH-82 and SH-85. At the latter junction, the highway takes a turn to the north and continues through Afton.
Just east of Afton, there are two possible alignments:
One may turn off to the right onto E 220 Road. This is actually a stretch of the original "sidewalk" highway. The driver would follow the road straight at first, then follow the original roadbed as it curves to the right, avoiding the 90-degree intersection ahead. This joins with S 520 road and intersects with and crosses US 69. One should proceed straight on S 520 Road, crossing US 69 and eventually crossing over I-44. Less than later, the roadbed curves to the east onto 210th road, again avoiding the 90-degree intersection. Less than after this, the sidewalk road becomes regular paved roadway, which then intersects with US 69. At this point, Route 66 turns north to follow the main highway.
Alternatively, one may remain on US 69, bypassing the sidewalk road entirely and continuing northeast. After about , US 59 joins the route (about halfway between the two ends of the sidewalk route). At the US 60/US 69/I-44 interchange, US 69 continues north while US 60 diverts east.
Shortly after Narcissa, another section of the old Route 66 alignment is available, again as a stretch of sidewalk highway:
At 140th road, the original Route 66 alignment turns to the right, onto another stretch of sidewalk highway. The roadbed turns north onto 540th road after , then east onto 130th road after another mile. After about , the route turns north onto "E" St. SW. The route continues north through a rural-looking residential area and joins with SH-125 after one mile (1.6 km). After another , the road bends to the right and crosses the Neosho River, then bends to the left and joins with Main Street in Miami, Oklahoma. The Route continues north through town. Like the stretch of road near Afton, the sidewalk roadbed bends and curves around the corners, avoiding the actual 90-degree intersections entirely.
Alternatively, one may remain on US 59/US 69, bypassing the sidewalk road. SH-10 joins the route about beyond Narcissa, and US 59 diverts to the west at this intersection. US 69/Route 66 continues northeast into Miami. At the intersection with Main Street, SH-10 proceeds east, while US 69/Route 66 diverges to the north.
Route 66/US 69 continues north through Miami. As the highway exits to the north, an alternate alignment becomes available:
At the intersection with Newman Road, US 69 bends northeast. Just past Newman Road is an exit that takes one back onto Main Street; a sign is currently in place directing travelers to take this exit to remain on Route 66. From here, Route 66 proceeds north through the "back" side of Commerce, Oklahoma. Route 66 turns east at Commerce St. and proceeds through the downtown area of Commerce. Route 66 turns north at Mickey Mantle Boulevard to rejoin with US 69.
Alternatively, one may remain on US 69, bypassing the downtown area of Commerce.
US 69/Route 66 bends to the east as it exits the north side of Commerce. About after this bend, US 69 diverts to the north. Alternate US 69 begins at this point, and Alternate 69/Route 66 continues east, bending north as the highway enters the south end of Quapaw, Oklahoma. The route continues through Quapaw and proceeds northeast beyond the Oklahoma/Kansas state line to Riverton, Kansas, where US 66 splits from alternate 69 and heads eastward as Kansas state highway 66 (K-66).
Major intersections
This list follows the final non-freeway alignment.
Structures
US 66 in Oklahoma is home to many National Register of Historic Places sites connected in some way with the historic highway.
Fort Reno served as a US military post from 1874 (long before Oklahoma attained statehood) through World War II. The Chandler Armory, built under the Works Progress Administration during the Great Depression, served as home of the 45th Infantry Division of the Oklahoma National Guard during World War II and continued in service until replaced by a modern building in 1971. It was restored in 2007 as Chandler's Route 66 information site and convention hall.
Miami's Coleman Theatre, established 1929. has long entertained visitors with everything from live music to cinema. Miami also has the Miami Original Nine-Foot Section of Route 66 Roadbed, which along with the Coleman Theater is on the National Register of Historic Places listings in Ottawa County, Oklahoma. A drive-in theater, The Tee Pee, is located in Sapulpa.
The restored native folk art collection of Ed Galloway's Totem Pole Park in Foyil dates from 1937.
Tulsa landmarks include the giant Meadow Gold neon sign at 11th & Peoria. Originally at 11th & Lewis, this 1934 sign has two faces and has been mounted on a pavilion at its new location for visibility.
Arcadia's Round Barn has served as a de facto community hall since 1898. The distinctive large dome of the Beckham County Courthouse has stood over downtown Sayre since 1911.
McLain Rogers Park, constructed as a Clinton city park as part of a Great Depression Federal Emergency Relief Administration, the Civil Works Administration, and the Works Progress Administration joint project, includes playgrounds, tennis and volleyball courts, miniature golf, picnic areas, a baseball field and a bandstand.
Various Oklahoma road segments are of historical importance, including the 11th Street Arkansas River Bridge in Tulsa, the Lake Overholser Bridge in Oklahoma City and the Bridge #18 at Rock Creek (which has been restored and is open) in Sapulpa.
Restaurants, stores and motels
The 1939 sandstone Rock Café contains a large collection of both local memorabilia and souvenirs from Pixar's research of US 66 in the area for the animated film Cars. Proprietor Dawn Welch is the model on which Sally Carrera, the Radiator Springs hotelier who fights to rebuild and restore the town, is based.
A Milk Bottle Grocery occupies a tiny corner of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma near the Gold Dome, its small building overshadowed by a huge milk bottle constructed as an advertisement on the store's roof.
A 66-foot-tall neon roadside sign in the shape of a soda pop bottle marks Pops restaurant in Arcadia. Pops is a modern attraction situated near the Arcadia round barn.
The Chelsea Motel in Chelsea and West Winds Motel in Erick, once lured many weary travellers from US 66 but lost their clientele when the road was bypassed. Both are still extant but have been converted to other uses; they are no longer open to the public.
Filling stations
Lucille Hamons operated the Provine Service Station near Hydro, Oklahoma from 1941 until her death in 2000, earning the title "Mother of the Mother Road" for her widely reputed generosity to travellers during hard economic times. After the freeway bypassed the site, the Interstate highway passed directly in front of old Route 66 and the Hamons' Court but was separated by a fence and provided no easy access to the site as the only off-ramps were in Hydro and Weatherford.
Other historic stations which remain on US 66 in Oklahoma include Avant's Cities Service Station and Jackson Conoco Service Station in El Reno, Oklahoma, a Marathon Station in Miami, the Seaba Station in Warwick, the Threatt Filling Station in Luther, the Vickery Phillips 66 Station in Tulsa and the Y Service Station and Café in Clinton.
Museums and monuments
The National Route 66 Museum in Elk City, Oklahoma, is operated by the Elk City Chamber of Commerce. It includes history and displays about all eight states through which Route 66 runs, from Illinois to California. The Route 66 museum is part of the larger Old Town Museum Complex which showcases pioneer life in western Oklahoma.
The Oklahoma Route 66 Museum in Clinton was built on land donated by the late Walter S. Mason Jr., a retired country veterinarian who once served as president of the Best Western hotel chain. It is designed to display the iconic ideas, images, and myths of the Mother Road.
Tulsa, Oklahoma, has The Cyrus Avery Centennial Plaza, located next to the east entrance of the historic 11th Street Bridge. The bridge was one of the large motivating factors in building the Route through Tulsa, avoiding having to build another bridge over the Arkansas. The Plaza contains a giant sculpture weighing and costing $1.178 million called "East Meets West" of the Avery family riding west in a Model T Ford meeting an eastbound horse-drawn carriage. In 2020, Avery Plaza Southwest opened at the west end of the bridge, which features a “neon park” with replicas of the neon signs from Tulsa-area Route 66 motels of the era, including the Tulsa Auto Court, the Oil Capital Motel, and the famous bucking-bronco sign of the Will Rogers Motor Court. Other future plans for that area include a Route 66 Museum. Tulsa has also installed "Route 66 Rising," a 70' by 30' sculpture on the road's former eastern approach to town at East Admiral Place and Mingo Road. On Southwest Boulevard, between W. 23rd and W. 24th Streets there is a granite marker dedicated to Route 66 as the Will Rogers Highway which features an image of namesake Will Rogers together with information on the route from Michael Wallis, author of Route 66: The Mother Road; and, at Howard Park just past W. 25th Street, three Indiana limestone pillars are dedicated to Route 66 through Tulsa, with Route 66 #1 devoted to Transportation, Route 66 #2 devoted to Tulsa Industry and Native American Heritage, and Route 66 #3 devoted to Art Deco Architecture and American Culture. At 3770 Southwest Blvd. is the Route 66 Historical Village, which includes a tourism information center modeled after a 1920s-1930s gas station, and other period-appropriate artifacts such as the Frisco 4500 steam locomotive with train cars. Elsewhere, Tulsa has constructed twenty-nine historical markers scattered along the 26-mile route of the highway through Tulsa, containing tourist-oriented stories, historical photos, and a map showing the location of historical sites and the other markers. The markers are mostly along the highway's post-1932 alignment down 11th Street, with some along the road's 1926 path down Admiral Place.
Just west of Tulsa in Sapulpa is the Heart of Route 66 Auto Museum which opened in August 2016 in an Armory built in 1948. It features the world's tallest replica of an antique visible gas pump, being 66 feet in height. The globe was placed on top and lights turned on July 20, 2017.
The Afton Station Packard Museum in Afton is a former filling station restored as a privately owned museum, offering souvenirs and Route 66 information.
A Memorial Museum to Will Rogers is located in Claremore, Oklahoma, while his Birthplace Ranch is maintained in Oologah, Oklahoma.
References
Further reading
External links
Route 66 on TravelOK.com by the Oklahoma Tourism & Recreation Department
Route 66 on Two Wheel Oklahoma
National Route 66 Museum
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland%20Route%20355
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Maryland Route 355
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Maryland Route 355 (MD 355) is a north–south road in western central Maryland in the United States. The southern terminus of the route, Wisconsin Avenue, is located in Bethesda in Montgomery County, at the county's border with Washington, D.C. It continues south into Washington, D.C. as Wisconsin Avenue NW. The northern terminus is just north of a bridge over Interstate 70 (I-70)/U.S. Route 40 (US 40) in the city of Frederick in Frederick County, where the road continues north as Market Street through Frederick towards MD 26.
MD 355 serves as a major thoroughfare through Frederick and Montgomery counties, passing through Bethesda, Rockville, Gaithersburg, Germantown, Clarksburg, Hyattstown, Urbana, and Frederick, roughly parallel to I-270. The southern portion of the route from the Washington, D.C., border to Germantown is a suburban four- to six-lane divided highway lined with many businesses. North of Germantown, the route is predominantly a two-lane rural road until it reaches Frederick, where it passes through commercial areas in the southern part of the city. The road changes names along its route: from south to north, it is called Wisconsin Avenue, Rockville Pike, Hungerford Drive, Frederick Road, and Urbana Pike.
MD 355 is the original route of US 240, which was planned in 1926 to run from Washington, D.C., north to Harrisburg, Pennsylvania; instead, the route was designated a part of US 15 north of Frederick. This route served as the primary connector linking Frederick and points west to Washington, D.C. During the 1950s, US 240 was moved in stages to the Washington National Pike, a freeway between Bethesda and Frederick shared with I-70S (now I-270). MD 355 was designated onto the former alignment of US 240 between Bethesda and Frederick as each stage of freeway was built. MD 355 was also designated through Frederick along Market Street, which was the former alignment of US 15 through the city before it was moved to a bypass in 1959. US 240 was decommissioned in 1972, and MD 355 was extended south along the former US 240 to the Washington, D.C. border. In 2006, the interchange with US 15 at the route's northern terminus was removed, resulting in MD 355 ending just short of US 15 at a dead end. By 2009, a four-lane divided bypass of Urbana for MD 355, funded by private developers, was completed. The former alignment of MD 355 through Urbana was designated as MD 355 Business (MD 355 Bus.) before being removed from the state highway system. The same year, the portion of MD 355 north of I-70 was transferred to the city of Frederick and is no longer considered part of the route.
Route description
MD 355 is a part of the main National Highway System from the District of Columbia line to I-495, in Bethesda. The highway is also a part of the National Highway System as an intermodal connector from I-495 to Shady Grove Road in Rockville, and as a principal arterial from Shady Grove Road to MD 27 in Germantown.
Montgomery County
MD 355 begins in the Bethesda CDP, at the intersection with Western Avenue NW / Western Avenue (Maryland), the northwestern border between Washington, D.C., and the state of Maryland. It heads north from this point as Wisconsin Avenue, a six-lane divided highway. Washington Metro's Red Line runs in a tunnel underneath the road. Wisconsin Avenue NW traverses southeastward inside Washington, D.C., ending in Georgetown at an intersection with K Street NW underneath US 29 (Whitehurst Freeway NW), just north of the Potomac River. From the Washington, D.C. border, MD 355 heads north through areas of retail and high-rise buildings in Friendship Heights, and the Village of Friendship Heights, including The Shops at Wisconsin Place and the Friendship Heights station along the Red Line. North of Friendship Heights, the route continues into the wooded residential area of Somerset, before passing the Chevy Chase Country Club on the east side of the road, and the residential areas of the town of Chevy Chase, and its associated villages, to the west. It then forms an intersection with MD 191 (Bradley Boulevard) and Bradley Lane. Past this intersection, MD 355 enters downtown Bethesda, where it heads back into commercial areas with high-rise buildings.
In downtown Bethesda, the road intersects MD 410 (Montgomery Avenue) one-way eastbound, the westbound direction of MD 410 (East West Highway), and MD 187 (Old Georgetown Road), a short distance north, near the Red Line's Bethesda station. The road continues through the community and passes by Bethesda Theatre, a 1938 Art Deco cinema. It leaves the downtown area of Bethesda and becomes Rockville Pike at the intersection with Glenbrook Parkway / Woodmont Avenue. From here, the road passes west of Naval Support Activity Bethesda, which is home to the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, one of the United States' most prominent military hospitals, and east of the National Institutes of Health, which is home to the United States National Library of Medicine, the world's largest medical library. The Medical Center station along the Red Line is located in this area.
Past the naval hospital and the NIH, the road passes west of Stone Ridge School of the Sacred Heart and intersects Cedar Lane. After this intersection, the route heads north into wooded areas, passing near residences as well as the Bethesda Meeting House, an 1850 wood-frame church. MD 355 continues north through more suburban residential areas before coming to an interchange that provides access to I-495 (Capital Beltway) and the southern terminus of I-270, where the Metro Red Line comes above the surface in the median of the route and passes over I-495. Past this interchange, the road skirts the edge of Rock Creek Park, coming to an intersection with Grosvenor Lane that features a northbound jughandle. The route passes to the west of the Linden Oak at the Grosvenor Lane intersection. MD 355 continues into residential areas of North Bethesda, where the Red Line parallels the route to the east to the Grosvenor–Strathmore station before returning to running under the road. Farther north, the route comes to the intersection with MD 547 (Strathmore Avenue) east of Georgetown Preparatory School.
The route heads through some residential neighborhoods before entering a commercial area with strip malls and some high-rise buildings where White Flint Mall, once one of the D.C. metropolitan area's largest shopping malls, was located on the east side of the road. MD 355 passes to the west of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission headquarters and heads past the North Bethesda station along the Red Line. The road comes to an intersection with Old Georgetown Road as well as a grade-separated interchange at Montrose Parkway. The Metro Red Line tunnel draws farther east from MD 355 before it crosses into Rockville, the county seat of Montgomery County. In Rockville, the road passes more commercial development with the Metro Red Line and CSX's Metropolitan Subdivision railroad line paralleling the road a short distance to the east. The route intersects MD 911 (First Street) and Wootton Parkway. MD 355 intersects MD 660 (Dodge Street), which is a short connector to MD 28 (Veirs Mill Road) that the route intersects a short distance later.
Past this intersection, MD 355 continues into downtown Rockville, where it becomes Hungerford Drive. The road passes by the Rockville station, which is used by the Metro's Red Line, MARC's Brunswick Line, and Amtrak's Capitol Limited (MARC and Amtrak trains run along the CSX line). MD 355 heads into more commercial areas and passes the Rockville Campus of Montgomery College before intersecting Gude Drive. Past this intersection, MD 355 becomes Frederick Road and heads northwest into a mix of commercial and residential areas in Derwood, drawing further away from the railroad tracks. The route leaves Rockville and intersects Shady Grove Road. Past Shady Grove Road, MD 355 has an interchange with I-370 and crosses into Gaithersburg. Here, the road heads through more commercial areas before heading into residential neighborhoods. It heads into business areas again and passes northeast of Gaithersburg High School as it approaches downtown Gaithersburg, where the route has an interchange with MD 117 (Diamond Avenue) and passes over CSX's Metropolitan Subdivision before continuing northwest past more businesses. MD 355 passes southwest of the former Lakeforest Mall before intersecting MD 124 (Montgomery Village Avenue). MD 355 passes more strip malls past this intersection before crossing over Great Seneca Creek and leaving Gaithersburg. The route continues northwest into Germantown through residential areas before passing businesses again and intersecting Middlebrook Road. It passes through residential developments, with the road narrowing to four lanes before it reaches an intersection with MD 118 (Germantown Road). From here, the road passes more homes and a shopping center prior to crossing MD 27 (Ridge Road).
Past MD 27, the road passes more suburban developments before narrowing to a two-lane undivided road and heading through some woodland. It continues northwest through a mix of rural woodland and suburban development in Clarksburg, where MD 355 passes northeast of Clarksburg High School and intersects MD 121 (Clarksburg Road). Past this intersection, the route passes Little Bennett Regional Park on the east and businesses on the west, running closely parallel to I-270 located to the west. The route eventually draws farther east of I-270 and heads through residential neighborhoods and woodland before reaching Hyattstown. In Hyattstown, MD 355 intersects MD 109 (Old Hundred Road).
Frederick County
After passing through Hyattstown, MD 355 crosses into Frederick County, where it becomes Urbana Pike. Here, it passes some businesses before intersecting MD 75 (Green Valley Road). Past this intersection, the road continues into a more rural setting consisting of farmland, woods, and some residential areas and businesses. The route reaches Urbana, where it heads onto a four-lane divided bypass called Worthington Boulevard to the east of the community, while the former alignment of MD 355 continues through Urbana as Urbana Pike. MD 355 intersects MD 80 (Fingerboard Road) and passes through residential areas in the Villages of Urbana subdivision, encountering two roundabouts. Upon leaving Urbana, the route intersects Lew Wallace Street and returns to its alignment along two-lane undivided Urbana Pike as it continues north through areas of woods and farms with some rural residences. The road passes Monocacy National Battlefield, the site of the Battle of Monocacy Junction in the American Civil War fought on July 9, 1864. Past the battlefield, the road crosses the Monocacy River and CSX's Old Main Line Subdivision railroad line.
In a short distance, MD 355 heads from rural areas into a commercial district on the outskirts of Frederick. The road widens to four lanes as it passes by the Francis Scott Key Mall and several other businesses. It intersects MD 85 (Buckeystown Pike), which provides access to and from I-70/US 40. MD 355 passes over I-70/US 40 and ends just north of the overpass, with the road continuing north into Frederick as locally maintained Market Street.
History
The Rockville Pike portion of MD 355 dates back to what was a Native American trail that led from the mouth of Rock Creek to the great Conestoga Trail. In later times it was used as an escape route from Washington during the War of 1812 as well as a route for settlers to travel from Montgomery County to developing areas north and west.
The stretch in the District of Columbia was renamed Wisconsin Avenue in 1891, as was the part in Bethesda by 1913.
In 1911, a small portion of state highway leading northwest out of Rockville was completed, with the remainder between Rockville and Gaithersburg under contract. A state highway was proposed between Gaithersburg and Germantown. The state road between Gaithersburg and Germantown was finished by 1915.
By 1921, the portions of state highway between the Washington, D.C., border and Rockville, to the northwest of Germantown, and between northwest of Urbana and Frederick were completed. At this time, a state highway was proposed between northwest of Germantown and northwest of Urbana. The state road was completed between Germantown and Clarksburg and through Urbana to a point southeast of the community by 1923. The entire length of the state road connecting Washington, D.C. and Frederick was completed by 1927. In the approved plan for the U.S. Highway System in 1926, US 240 was planned to run from Washington, D.C. to Harrisburg, Pennsylvania via Frederick. In 1927, US 240 was designated along the proposed 1926 route south of US 15/US 40 in Frederick with the US 15 designation given to the road north of Frederick. In 1950, US 240 was widened into a divided highway between the Washington, D.C. border and Bethesda.
In 1947, plans were made to construct a freeway, the Washington National Pike (now I-270), parallel to US 240. In 1953, the US 240 freeway was completed between MD 121 in Clarksburg and US 15 (now MD 85) in Frederick. The former alignment of US 240 between Clarksburg and Frederick was designated as US 240 Alt. A year later, the freeway was extended down to MD 118 in Germantown. At this time, the original alignment between Germantown and Frederick was designated MD 355, replacing what was US 240 between Germantown and Clarksburg and the entire length of US 240 Alt. between Clarksburg and Frederick. The US 240 freeway was extended south to MD 28 in Rockville in 1956, and MD 355 was subsequently extended south along the former alignment to the MD 28 intersection in Rockville. Also, the US 240 freeway was completed from US 15 north to US 40. In 1957, US 240 was upgraded to a divided highway between Bethesda and Rockville. The US 240 freeway was extended south to Montrose Road in 1958, resulting in MD 355 being extended south along the former alignment to Montrose Road. I-70S was designated onto the US 240 freeway in 1959. In addition, MD 355 was extended north to US 15 north of Frederick, passing through the city on Market Street, the one-way pair of Market Street northbound and Bentz Street southbound in the downtown area, and Market Street to the north of downtown. The route replaced US 15/US 240 south of downtown Frederick and US 15 north of downtown Frederick, with US 15 shifted to a bypass west of the city. In 1960, I-70S/US 240 was extended south to the Capital Beltway, and MD 355 was extended south along former US 240 between Montrose Road and the Capital Beltway.
In 1972, the American Association of State Highway Officials approved for the US 240 designation to be removed. As a result, MD 355 was extended south along the former US 240 alignment to the Washington, D.C. border. MD 355 was widened into a divided highway between Rockville and Gaithersburg in 1977. The divided highway was extended north from Gaithersburg to Germantown by 1997. In 2006, the northern terminus of MD 355 at the interchange with US 15 in Frederick was truncated to a dead end a short distance south of that route. In 2009, the portion of MD 355 north of the I-70 overpass was transferred to the city of Frederick, with the MD 355 designation officially being removed from this stretch. In 2010, an interchange was completed at Montrose Parkway.
In Frederick County, the two bridges that carry portions of MD 355 receive annual inspections, as part of the Federal Highway Administration's National Bridge Inventory (NBI). The Monocacy River crossing was built in 1930, and reconstructed in 1980. Its June 2016 NBI report noted that this bridge is possibly eligible to be listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The CSX crossing was built in 1931, but never reconstructed. This bridge's NBI report, from September 2016, determined that its deck was in poor condition, with advanced section loss or deterioration. The 2016 inspection reports for both bridges concluded that both of these MD 355 carriers' deck geometries were "[b]asically intolerable requiring high priority of replacement."
A four-lane divided bypass of Urbana was constructed for MD 355 in the 2000s. The primary reason for constructing the bypass was to relieve traffic heading through the community brought on by the construction of numerous shopping centers in the area, and the costs for constructing the bypass were entirely paid for by the developers of an area shopping center. The proposal for the bypass called for two roundabouts to control traffic. The first portion of the road opened in late 2005 from MD 355 south to a roundabout at Sugarloaf Parkway. On October 30, 2008, construction began to build the connection of the bypass to MD 355 south of MD 80. The bypass was completed by January 2009, at which point MD 355 was realigned onto it and the former alignment became MD 355 Bus. In 2013, maintenance of the bypass of MD 355 around Urbana was transferred from the developers to the state.
Junction list
Related routes
MD 355 Business
Maryland Route 355 Business (MD 355 Bus.) was the designation of a business route of MD 355 in Urbana that ran along Urbana Pike. The route began at MD 355 south of Urbana, heading west as a two-lane undivided road and coming to an intersection with MD 80. Past this intersection, the road continued northwest through residential areas. The business route reached its terminus at another intersection with MD 355. The entire length of MD 355 Bus. originally followed MD 355C. In 2014, all of MD 355C except for a portion between a point south of Urbana Church Road and Sprigg Street was turned over to county maintenance. The remainder of MD 355C was turned over to county maintenance in an agreement dated December 8, 2017.
Junction list
Auxiliary routes
MD 355A runs along an unnamed road from MD 355 north to a cul-de-sac in Frederick, Frederick County. The route is long.
MD 355B ran along an unnamed road from MD 355 Bus. east to a dead end in Urbana, Frederick County. The route was long. MD 355B was turned over to county maintenance in 2014.
See also
References
External links
MD 355 at MDRoads.com
Maryland Roads - MD 355
Washington Evening Star (November 2, 1913): Motoring by Howard S. Fisk, a description of the route from Washington to Frederick, including the newly macadamized Rockville Pike.
Maryland Route 355
Maryland Route 355
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corvus
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Corvus
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Corvus is a widely distributed genus of birds ranging from medium-sized to large-sized in the family Corvidae. It includes species commonly known as crows, ravens, and rooks. The species commonly encountered in Europe are the carrion crow, hooded crow, common raven, and rook; those discovered later were named "crow" or "raven" chiefly on the basis of their size, crows generally being smaller. The genus name is Latin for "raven".
The 46 or so members of this genus occur on all temperate continents except South America, and several islands. The Corvus genus makes up a third of the species in the family Corvidae. The members appear to have evolved in Asia from the corvid stock, which had evolved in Australia. The collective name for a group of crows is a "flock" or a "murder".
Recent research has found some crow species capable of not only tool use, but also tool construction. Crows are now considered to be among the world's most intelligent animals with an encephalization quotient equal to that of many non-human primates.
Description
Medium-large species are ascribed to the genus, ranging from of some small Mexican species to of the large common raven and thick-billed raven, which together with the lyrebird represent the larger passerines.
These are birds with a robust and slender appearance, equipped with a small, rounded head with a strong, conical beak, elongated and pointed, with a slightly curved end towards the bottom; the legs are strong and the tail is short and wedge-shaped.
The coloration of the livery is dominated by shades of black, with some species having plumage with metallic iridescence and others that have white or gray areas on the neck or torso. Australian species have light eyes, while generally the irises of other species are dark.
Sexual dimorphism is limited.
Evolutionary history and systematics
The members of the genus Corvus are believed to have evolved in Central Asia and radiated out from there into North America, Africa, Europe, and Australia. The center of diversity of Corvus is within Melanesia, Wallacea, and the island of New Guinea and surrounding islands, with numerous species endemic to islands in the area; other areas with a large number of crow species include South and Southeast Asia, East Africa, and Australia. A high density of endemics is also present in Mexico and the Caribbean.
The diversification of Corvus corresponded with a quick geographic expansion. The radiation of the genus resulted in rapid expansion of morphological diversity and fast speciation rates, especially around the beginning of the genus' radiation around 10 million years ago.
The genus was originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. The name is derived from the Latin corvus meaning "raven". The type species is the common raven (Corvus corax); others named by Linnaeus in the same work include the carrion crow (C. corone), hooded crow (C. cornix), rook (C. frugilegus), and two species which have since been moved to other genera, the western jackdaw (now Coloeus monedula) and the Eurasian magpie (now Pica pica). At least 42 extant species are now considered to be members of Corvus, and at least 14 extinct species have been described.
The fossil record of crows is rather dense in Europe, but the relationships among most prehistoric species are not clear. Corvids are found in major cities across the world, and a major increase in the number of crows in urban settings has occurred since the 1900s. Historical records suggest that the population of American crows found in North America has been growing steadily since the introduction of European colonization, and spread east to west with the opening of the frontier. Crows were uncommon in the Pacific Northwest in the 1900s, except in riparian habitats. Populations in the west increased substantially from the late 1800s to the mid-1900s. Crows and ravens spread along with agriculture and urbanization into the western part of North America.
Species
Behavior
Communal roosting
Crows gather in large communal roosts numbering between 200 and tens of thousands of individuals during nonbreeding months, particularly in the winter. These gatherings tend to happen near large food sources such as garbage dumps and shopping centers.
Play
Countless incidents are recorded of corvids at play. Many behaviourists see play as an essential quality in intelligent animals.
Calls
Crows and the other members of the genus make a wide variety of calls or vocalizations. Crows have also been observed to respond to calls of other species; presumably, this behavior is learned because it varies regionally. Crows' vocalizations are complex and poorly understood. Some of the many vocalizations that crows make are a "koww", usually echoed back and forth between birds, a series of "kowws" in discrete units, a long caw followed by a series of short caws (usually made when a bird takes off from a perch), an echo-like "eh-aw" sound, and more. These vocalizations vary by species, and within each species they vary regionally. In many species, the pattern and number of the numerous vocalizations have been observed to change in response to events in the surroundings (e.g. arrival or departure of crows).
Foraging
Along with other birds, ravens have been known to associate with other animals such as coyotes and wolves. These associations are linked to feeding and hunting. Ravens use their calls to notify these animals when an injured prey is near. This interaction is most noticeable in winter where ravens are associated with wolf packs nearly 100% of the time. As a result of this connection, studies have been conducted on the reaction of prey animals to the call of the raven. In areas where ravens associate with predators, prey animals are more likely to avoid predation by leaving after hearing the call. They are also capable of distinguishing between coyotes and wolves and have shown a preference for wolves. This may be due to the fact that wolves kill larger prey. When hunting, ravens can locate injured animals, like elk, and can call out to wolves to kill them. At times, ravens associate with wolves even when there is no carcass and can even be seen forming relationships with them. This includes playing with cubs by using sticks, picking at their tails, or flying around them.
Ravens have been mostly seen among travelling wolf packs rather than resting wolves, possibly due to the increased likelihood of food. They are also known to trust wolves in the pack they follow, when encountering a carcass killed by animals other than wolves, they are more apprehensive to eat from it. This symbiotic relationship between ravens and wolves is shown to be mutualistic, ravens help wolves find prey and when the wolves kill them the ravens can eat too. However, this relationship is not without its faults. Ravens may at times eat more of the prey than the wolf does. This problem has also been linked to wolf pack size, with some researchers suggesting that one of the reasons wolves hunt in larger packs is so that ravens (and other scavengers) get less of the food. Along with contention in wolves, ravens can also bother each other. By feeding off of the same carcass it is possible that some ravens will steal from their conspecifics. This behaviour is related to the ravens' ability to make quick decisions about eating the food then or storing it for later, and to their dominance and fighting ability.
Intelligence
As a group, crows show remarkable examples of intelligence. Natural history books from the 18th century recount an often-repeated, but unproven anecdote of "counting crows"—specifically a crow whose ability to count to five (or four in some versions) is established through a logic trap set by a farmer. Crows and ravens often score very highly on intelligence tests. Certain species top the avian IQ scale. Wild hooded crows in Israel have learned to use bread crumbs for bait-fishing. Crows engage in a kind of midair jousting, or air "chicken" to establish pecking order. They have been found to engage in activities such as sports, tool use, the ability to hide and store food across seasons, episodic-like memory, and the ability to use individual experience in predicting the behavior of proximal conspecifics.
One species, the New Caledonian crow, has also been intensively studied recently because of its ability to manufacture and use tools in the day-to-day search for food. On 5 October 2007, researchers from the University of Oxford presented data acquired by mounting tiny video cameras on the tails of New Caledonian crows. They pluck, smooth, and bend twigs and grass stems to procure a variety of foodstuffs. Crows in Queensland have learned how to eat the toxic cane toad by flipping the cane toad on its back and violently stabbing the throat where the skin is thinner, allowing the crow to access the nontoxic innards; their long beaks ensure that all of the innards can be removed.
The western jackdaw and the Eurasian magpie have been found to have a nidopallium about the same relative size as the functionally equivalent neocortex in chimpanzees and humans, and significantly larger than is found in the gibbons.
Crows have demonstrated the ability to distinguish individual humans by recognizing facial features. Evidence also suggests they are one of the few nonhuman animals, along with insects like bees or ants, capable of displacement (communication about things that are not immediately present, spatially or temporally).
In Japan, crows have demonstrated the ability to learn how to use public drinking fountains for both water and bathing purposes. In the Gumyoji Park of Yokohama, crows have shown the ability to both activate public drinking fountains and adjust the water flow to appropriate levels for either bathing or drinking.
In the past, many studies were conducted on how ravens and corvids in general learn. Some have concluded that the brains of ravens and crows compare in relative size to great apes. The encephalization quotient (EQ) helps to expose the similarities between a great ape brain and a crow/raven brain. This includes cognitive ability. Though the brains differ significantly between mammals and birds, larger forebrains are seen in corvids compared to other birds (except some parrots), especially in areas associated with social learning, planning, decision making in humans and complex cognition in apes. Along with tool use, ravens can recognize themselves in a mirror. This complex cognition can also be extended to socio-cognitive abilities. Studies have been conducted regarding the development and evolution of social abilities in ravens. These results help to show how ravens prefer to form stable relationships with siblings and close social partners as opposed to strangers. The development in social abilities is essential for raven survival, including identifying whether something poses a threat and how ravens alert others nearby of an incoming threat.
Diet
Crows are omnivorous, and their diets are very diverse. They eat almost any food, including other birds, fruits, nuts, mollusks, earthworms, seeds, frogs, eggs, nestlings, mice, and carrion. The origin of placing scarecrows in grain fields resulted from the crow's incessant damaging and scavenging, although crows assist farmers by eating insects otherwise attracted to their crops.
Reproduction
Crows reach sexual maturity around the age of three years for females and five years for males. Clutch size is around three to nine eggs, and the nesting period lasts between 20 and 40 days. Crows often mate for life, and young from previous years often help nesting pairs protect a nest and feed nestlings.
Crow nestlings in urban areas face threats such as nest entanglement from anthropogenic nesting materials and stunted growth due to poor nutrition.
Lifespan and disease
Some crows may live to the age of 20, and the oldest known American crow in the wild was almost 30 years old. The oldest documented captive crow died at age 59.
The American crow is highly susceptible to the recently introduced North American strain of West Nile virus. American crows typically die within one week of acquiring the disease and very few survive exposure.
Conservation status
Two species of crows have been listed as endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service - the Hawaiian crow and the Mariana crow.
The American crow, despite having its population reduced by 45% since 1999 by the West Nile virus, is considered a species of least concern.
Problems and methods of control
Intelligence and social structures make most crow species adaptable and opportunistic. Crows frequently cause damage to crops and property, strew trash, and transfer disease. In densely populated areas around the world, corvids are generally regarded as nuisance animals. Crows are protected in the U.S. under the federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, but because of their perceived destructive nature, control of the species is allowed in certain areas. Because of their intelligence, control is often difficult or expensive. Methods for control include hunting, chemical immobilization, harassment and scare tactics, and trapping. Before any measure is used to confine, trap, kill, poison, immobilize, or alter the habits of any wild bird species, a person must check local, state, and federal regulations pertaining to such actions.
Hunting
In the United States, hunting is allowed under state and federal regulation. Crow hunting is considered a sport in rural areas of the U.S. because the birds are not considered a traditional edible game species. Some cultures do treat various corvid species as a food source. Liability and possible danger to persons and property limit the use of hunting or shooting as control methods in urban areas. Crows' wariness and cunning make harvesting crows in sufficient numbers difficult.
Scare tactics
Scare tactics have been the most widely used aversion tactic for crows in areas frequented by humans and domestic animal species. This safe method does not require constant maintenance or manpower to operate or monitor. However, corvids quickly become habituated to most tactics such as blast cannons, predator decoys, and traditional scarecrows. Greater success has been achieved by adding sound and motion to predator decoys to mimic a distressed crow being caught by a predator such as an owl or hawk. Work is currently being done which uses multiple aversion techniques in one area. The theory is that multiple techniques used together will confuse the crows, thereby lessening the probability of habituation to stimuli.
Trapping
Trapping is a rarely used technique in the U.S., but is being used with success in parts of Europe and Australia. The ladder-style trap (e.g., Australian Crow Trap or Modified Australian Crow Trap) seems to be the most effective in crow-trapping techniques. Ladder traps are constructed in such a way that unintentional catch of nontarget species is avoided. If a nontarget species is caught, it can be easily released without harm to the bird. The traps are cost-efficient because they are inexpensive and simple to construct, and require little manpower to monitor. The bait used in the traps can also be specific to corvids. Carrion, grains, unshelled raw peanuts, and shiny objects in the trap are effective baits. When removing crows from a ladder trap, one living crow is left as an effective decoy for other crows. Trapping is considered the most humane method for crow removal because the crows can be relocated without harm or stress. However, most wild birds in general have a knack for returning to their home ranges.
Other methods
Other methods have been used with little or limited success. Lasers have been used successfully to remove large flocks of birds from roost structures in urban areas, but success in keeping crows off roosts has been short-lived. Homeowners can reduce the presence of crows by keeping trash stored in containers, feeding pets indoors, and hanging tin pie-pans or reflective gazing globes around garden areas.
As food
Crows were hunted for survival by Curonians, a Baltic tribe, when common food was exhausted and the landscape changed so that farming was not as productive during the 18th and 19th centuries. Fishermen supplemented their diet by gathering coastal bird eggs and preserving crow meat by salting and smoking it. It became a traditional food for poor folk and is documented in a poem, "The Seasons" by K. Donelaitis. After the nonhunting policy was lifted by the Prussian government in 1721–1724 and alternative food supplies increased, the practice was forgotten. The tradition re-emerged after World War I; in marketplaces, butchered crows that were sought after and bought by townsfolk were common. The hunted crows were not the local, but the migrating ones; each year during the spring and autumn, crows migrated via the Curonian Spit between Finland and the rest of Europe. In 1943, the government even issued a hunting quota for such activities. Crows were usually caught by attracting them with smoked fish or grains soaked in spirits and then collecting them with nets. It was a job for the elderly or young who were unable to go to sea to fish, and it was common to catch 150 to 200 birds during a hunting day.
Human interaction
The common raven and carrion crow have been blamed for killing weak lambs and are often seen eating freshly dead corpses probably killed by other means. The Australian raven has been documented chasing, attacking, and seriously injuring lambs. Rooks have been blamed for eating grain in the UK and brown-necked ravens for raiding date crops in desert countries.
Crows have been shown to have the ability to visually recognize individual humans and to transmit information about "bad" humans by squawking. Crows appear to show appreciation to humans by presenting them with gifts.
Cultural depictions
In folklore and mythology
In Ancient Greece and Rome, several myths about crows and jackdaws included:
An ancient Greek and Roman adage, told by Erasmus runs, "The swans will sing when the jackdaws are silent," meaning that educated or wise people will speak after the foolish become quiet.
The Roman poet Ovid saw the crow as a harbinger of rain (Amores 2,6, 34).
Pliny noted how the Thessalians, Illyrians, and Lemnians cherished jackdaws for destroying grasshoppers' eggs. The Veneti are fabled to have bribed the jackdaws to spare their crops.
Ancient Greek authors tell how a jackdaw, being a social creature, may be caught with a dish of oil into which it falls while looking at its own reflection.
In Greek legend, princess Arne was bribed with gold by King Minos of Crete and was punished for her avarice by being transformed into an equally avaricious jackdaw, which still seeks shiny things.
In the Bible account at 1 Kings 17:6, ravens are credited with providing Elijah food.
In Australian Aboriginal mythology, Crow is a trickster, culture hero, and ancestral being. Legends relating to Crow have been observed in various Aboriginal language groups and cultures across Australia; these commonly include stories relating to Crow's role in the theft of fire, the origin of death, and the killing of Eagle's son.
Crows are mentioned often in Buddhism, especially Tibetan disciplines. The Dharmapala (protector of the Dharma) Mahakala is represented by a crow in one of his physical/earthly forms.
In the Chaldean myth, the Epic of Gilgamesh, Utnapishtim releases a dove and raven to find land; however, the dove merely circles and returns. Only then does Utnapishtim send forth the raven, which does not return, and Utnapishtim concludes the raven has found land.
In Chinese mythology, the world originally had 10 suns either spiritually embodied as 10 crows and/or carried by 10 crows; when all 10 decided to rise at once, the effect was devastating to crops, so the gods sent their greatest archer Houyi, who shot down nine crows and spared only one.
In Denmark, the night raven is considered an exorcised spirit. A hole in its left wing denotes where the stake used to exorcise it was driven into the earth. He who looks through the hole will become a night raven himself.
In Hinduism, crows are thought of as carriers of information that give omens to people regarding their situations. For example, when a crow crows in front of a person's house, the resident is expected to have special visitors that day. Also, in Hindu literature, crows have great memories which they use to give information. Symbolism is associated with the crow in the Hindu faith. On a positive note, crows are often associated with worship of ancestors because they are believed to be embodying the souls of the recently deceased. However, many other associations with crows are seen in Hinduism. Crows are believed to be connected with both the gods and goddesses, particularly the controversial ones such as Sani, the god of the planet Saturn, who uses a crow as his vehicle. In Hindu astrology, it is said that one who has the effect of Sani in their horoscope are angered easily, and may be unable to take control of their futures, but are extremely intelligent at the same time. Thus the presence of a crow, the vehicle of Sani is believed to have similar effects on the homes it lays its eyes on. Whether these effects are positive or negative is a source of debate in Hinduism. Crows are also considered ancestors in Hinduism and during Śrāddha, the practice of offering food or pinda to crows is still in vogue. Crows are associated with Dhumavati the form of mother goddess that invokes quarrel and fear. Crows are also fed during the fifteen day period of Pitru Paksha, which occurs in the autumn season, as an offering and sacrifice to the ancestors. During the time of Pitra Paksha, it is believed that the ancestors descend on earth from pitra-loka, and are able to eat food offered to them by the means of a crow. This can also occur during the time of Kumbha, many Hindus prepare entire vegetarian meals that are eaten solely by the crows and other birds.
In Irish mythology, crows are associated with Morrigan, the goddess of war and death.
In Islam, the Surat Al-Ma'ida of the Qur'an describes the story of how the crow teaches the son of Adam to cover the dead body of his brother: "Then Allah sent a crow digging a grave in the ground for a dead crow, in order to show him how to bury the corpse of his brother. He cried, 'Alas! Have I even failed to be like this crow and bury the corpse of my brother?' So he became regretful."
In Japanese mythology, a three-legged crow called is depicted.
In Korean mythology, a three-legged crow is known as Samjokgo (hangul: 삼족오; hanja: 三足烏).
In Norse mythology, Huginn and Muninn are a pair of common ravens that range the entire world, Midgard, bringing the god Odin information.
In Sweden, ravens are held to be the ghosts of murdered men.
In Welsh mythology, the god Brân the Blessed – whose name means "crow" or "raven"—is associated with corvids and death; tradition holds that Bran's severed head is buried under the Tower of London, facing France—a possible genesis for the practice of keeping ravens in the Tower, said to protect the fortunes of Britain. In Cornish folklore, crows—magpies particularly—are associated with death and the "other world", and must be greeted respectfully. The origin of "counting crows" as augury is British; however, the British version rather is to "count magpies"—their black and white pied colouring alluding to the realms of the living and dead.
In some Native American mythologies, especially those in the Pacific Northwest, the raven is seen as both the Creator of the World and, separately, a trickster god.
In medieval times, crows were thought to live abnormally long lives. They were also thought to be monogamous throughout their long lives. They were thought to predict the future, anticipate rain and reveal ambushes. Crows were also thought to lead flocks of storks while they crossed the sea to Asia.
In popular culture
Literature
In Aesop's Fables, the jackdaw embodies stupidity in one tale (by starving while waiting for figs on a fig tree to ripen), vanity in another (the jackdaw sought to become king of the birds with borrowed feathers, but was shamed when they fell off), and cunning in yet another (the crow comes up to a pitcher and knows that his beak is too short to reach the water, and if he tips it over, all the water will fall out, so the crow places pebbles in the pitcher so the water rises and he can reach it to relieve his thirst).
The British Poet Laureate Ted Hughes combined some of the Amerindian and Celtic myths mentioned above in writing the 1970 poetry collection Crow: From the Life and Songs of the Crow (1970).
In Mrs. Frisby and the Rats of NIMH Mrs. Frisby helps Jeremy, a young crow who was tied with a silver ribbon, and they managed to escape from Dragon, the farmer's cat, in gratitude for saving his life, Jeremy flies Mrs. Frisby to The Great Owl's tree, so that the owl can give the necessary answers to Mrs. Frisby.
In Ovid's Metamorphoses, in Greek mythology, the god Apollo became enraged when the crow exposed his lover Coronis' tryst with a mortal, his ire transmuting the crow's feathers from white to black.
In the Story of Bhusunda, a chapter of the Yoga Vasistha, a very old sage in the form of a crow, Bhusunda, recalls a succession of epochs in the earth's history, as described in Hindu cosmology. He survived several destructions, living on a wish-fulfilling tree on Mount Meru.
Edgar Allan Poe's "The Raven"
J. R. R. Tolkien's The Hobbit states that crows are agents of the evil goblins, while ravens are allies of the Dwarves.
In Hans Christian Andersen's 1844 fairy tale The Snow Queen, the protagonist Gerda meets a crow and his mate who help her trying to find her friend Kai.
Games
In a science-fantasy tabletop game Warhammer 40,000 one of 20 demigods called Primarchs is named Corvus Corax, and many of his weapons and armor are raven-themed. He's the spiritual father of a space marine legion (later changed to a chapter) called the Raven Guard.
Music
Both ravens and crows have commonly featured in the lyrics of heavy metal songs. A 2019 study showed that ravens are the most frequent birds mentioned in heavy metal lyrics, while crows are the fourth (eagles and vultures being the second and third).
See also
Corvus (heraldry)
Eating crow
Ischys for the Greek myth of why the raven's feathers are black
Scarecrows
References
Further reading
External links
Frequently Asked Questions About Crows - Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Crows.net: The Language and Culture of Crows
Tool making and use by Crows - Behavioural Ecology Research Group, Oxford University
"A Murder of Crows" - PBS documentary (2010)
Talking birds
Scavengers
Bird genera
Extant Burdigalian first appearances
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-body%20simulation
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N-body simulation
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In physics and astronomy, an N-body simulation is a simulation of a dynamical system of particles, usually under the influence of physical forces, such as gravity (see n-body problem for other applications). N-body simulations are widely used tools in astrophysics, from investigating the dynamics of few-body systems like the Earth-Moon-Sun system to understanding the evolution of the large-scale structure of the universe. In physical cosmology, N-body simulations are used to study processes of non-linear structure formation such as galaxy filaments and galaxy halos from the influence of dark matter. Direct N-body simulations are used to study the dynamical evolution of star clusters.
Nature of the particles
The 'particles' treated by the simulation may or may not correspond to physical objects which are particulate in nature. For example, an N-body simulation of a star cluster might have a particle per star, so each particle has some physical significance. On the other hand, a simulation of a gas cloud cannot afford to have a particle for each atom or molecule of gas as this would require on the order of particles for each mole of material (see Avogadro constant), so a single 'particle' would represent some much larger quantity of gas (often implemented using Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics). This quantity need not have any physical significance, but must be chosen as a compromise between accuracy and manageable computer requirements.
Dark Matter Simulation
Dark matter plays an important role in the formation of galaxies. The time evolution of the density f (in phase space) of dark matter particles, can be described by the collisionless Boltzmann equation
In the equation, is the velocity, and Φ is the gravitational potential given by Poisson's Equation. These two coupled equations are solved in an expanding background Universe, which is governed by the Friedmann equations, after determining the initial conditions of dark matter particles. The conventional method employed for initializing positions and velocities of dark matter particles involves moving particles within a uniform Cartesian lattice or a glass-like particle configuration. This is done by utilizing a linear theory approximation or a low-order perturbation theory.
Direct gravitational N-body simulations
In direct gravitational N-body simulations, the equations of motion of a system of N particles under the influence of their mutual gravitational forces are integrated numerically without any simplifying approximations. These calculations are used in situations where interactions between individual objects, such as stars or planets, are important to the evolution of the system.
The first direct gravitational N-body simulations were carried out by Erik Holmberg at the Lund Observatory in 1941, determining the forces between stars in encountering galaxies via the mathematical equivalence between light propagation and gravitational interaction: putting light bulbs at the positions of the stars and measuring the directional light fluxes at the positions of the stars by a photo cell, the equations of motion can be integrated with effort. The first purely calculational simulations were then done by Sebastian von Hoerner at the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut in Heidelberg, Germany. Sverre Aarseth at the University of Cambridge (UK) has dedicated his entire scientific life to the development of a series of highly efficient N-body codes for astrophysical applications which use adaptive (hierarchical) time steps, an Ahmad-Cohen neighbour scheme and regularization of close encounters. Regularization is a mathematical trick to remove the singularity in the Newtonian law of gravitation for two particles which approach each other arbitrarily close. Sverre Aarseth's codes are used to study the dynamics of star clusters, planetary systems and galactic nuclei.
General relativity simulations
Many simulations are large enough that the effects of general relativity in establishing a Friedmann-Lemaitre-Robertson-Walker cosmology are significant. This is incorporated in the simulation as an evolving measure of distance (or scale factor) in a comoving coordinate system, which causes the particles to slow in comoving coordinates (as well as due to the redshifting of their physical energy). However, the contributions of general relativity and the finite speed of gravity can otherwise be ignored, as typical dynamical timescales are long compared to the light crossing time for the simulation, and the space-time curvature induced by the particles and the particle velocities are small. The boundary conditions of these cosmological simulations are usually periodic (or toroidal), so that one edge of the simulation volume matches up with the opposite edge.
Calculation optimizations
N-body simulations are simple in principle, because they involve merely integrating the 6N ordinary differential equations defining the particle motions in Newtonian gravity. In practice, the number N of particles involved is usually very large (typical simulations include many millions, the Millennium simulation included ten billion) and the number of particle-particle interactions needing to be computed increases on the order of N2, and so direct integration of the differential equations can be prohibitively computationally expensive. Therefore, a number of refinements are commonly used.
Numerical integration is usually performed over small timesteps using a method such as leapfrog integration. However all numerical integration leads to errors. Smaller steps give lower errors but run more slowly. Leapfrog integration is roughly 2nd order on the timestep, other integrators such as Runge–Kutta methods can have 4th order accuracy or much higher.
One of the simplest refinements is that each particle carries with it its own timestep variable, so that particles with widely different dynamical times don't all have to be evolved forward at the rate of that with the shortest time.
There are two basic approximation schemes to decrease the computational time for such simulations. These can reduce the computational complexity to O(N log N) or better, at the loss of accuracy.
Tree methods
In tree methods, such as a Barnes–Hut simulation, an octree is usually used to divide the volume into cubic cells and only interactions between particles from nearby cells need to be treated individually; particles in distant cells can be treated collectively as a single large particle centered at the distant cell's center of mass (or as a low-order multipole expansion). This can dramatically reduce the number of particle pair interactions that must be computed. To prevent the simulation from becoming swamped by computing particle-particle interactions, the cells must be refined to smaller cells in denser parts of the simulation which contain many particles per cell. For simulations where particles are not evenly distributed, the well-separated pair decomposition methods of Callahan and Kosaraju yield optimal O(n log n) time per iteration with fixed dimension.
Particle mesh method
Another possibility is the particle mesh method in which space is discretised on a mesh and, for the purposes of computing the gravitational potential, particles are assumed to be divided between the surrounding 2x2 vertices of the mesh. Finding the potential energy Φ is easy, because the Poisson equation
where G is Newton's constant and is the density (number of particles at the mesh points), is trivial to solve by using the fast Fourier transform to go to the frequency domain where the Poisson equation has the simple form
where is the comoving wavenumber and the hats denote Fourier transforms. Since , the gravitational field can now be found by multiplying by and computing the inverse Fourier transform (or computing the inverse transform and then using some other method). Since this method is limited by the mesh size, in practice a smaller mesh or some other technique (such as combining with a tree or simple particle-particle algorithm) is used to compute the small-scale forces. Sometimes an adaptive mesh is used, in which the mesh cells are much smaller in the denser regions of the simulation.
Special-case optimizations
Several different gravitational perturbation algorithms are used to get fairly accurate estimates of the path of objects in the Solar System.
People often decide to put a satellite in a frozen orbit.
The path of a satellite closely orbiting the Earth can be accurately modeled starting from the 2-body elliptical orbit around the center of the Earth, and adding small corrections due to the oblateness of the Earth, gravitational attraction of the Sun and Moon, atmospheric drag, etc.
It is possible to find a frozen orbit without calculating the actual path of the satellite.
The path of a small planet, comet, or long-range spacecraft can often be accurately modeled starting from the 2-body elliptical orbit around the Sun, and adding small corrections from the gravitational attraction of the larger planets in their known orbits.
Some characteristics of the long-term paths of a system of particles can be calculated directly. The actual path of any particular particle does not need to be calculated as an intermediate step. Such characteristics include Lyapunov stability, Lyapunov time, various measurements from ergodic theory, etc.
Two-particle systems
Although there are millions or billions of particles in typical simulations, they typically correspond to a real particle with a very large mass, typically 109 solar masses. This can introduce problems with short-range interactions between the particles such as the formation of two-particle binary systems. As the particles are meant to represent large numbers of dark matter particles or groups of stars, these binaries are unphysical. To prevent this, a softened Newtonian force law is used, which does not diverge as the inverse-square radius at short distances. Most simulations implement this quite naturally by running the simulations on cells of finite size. It is important to implement the discretization procedure in such a way that particles always exert a vanishing force on themselves.
Softening
Softening is a numerical trick used in N-body techniques to prevent numerical divergences when a particle comes too close to another (and the force goes to infinity). This is obtained by modifying the regularized gravitational potential of each particle as
(rather than 1/r) where is the softening parameter. The value of the softening parameter should be set small enough to keep simulations realistic.
Results from N-body simulations
N-body simulations give findings on the large-scale dark matter distribution and the structure of dark matter halos. According to simulations of cold dark matter, the overall distribution of dark matter on a large scale is not entirely uniform. Instead, it displays a structure resembling a network, consisting of voids, walls, filaments, and halos. Also, simulations show that the relationship between the concentration of halos and factors such as mass, initial fluctuation spectrum, and cosmological parameters is linked to the actual formation time of the halos. In particular, halos with lower mass tend to form earlier, and as a result, have higher concentrations due to the higher density of the Universe at the time of their formation. Shapes of halos are found to deviate from being perfectly spherical. Typically, halos are found to be elongated and become increasingly prolate towards their centers. However, interactions between dark matter and baryons would affect the internal structure of dark matter halos. Simulations that model both dark matters and baryons are needed to study small-scale structures.
Incorporating baryons, leptons and photons into simulations
Many simulations simulate only cold dark matter, and thus include only the gravitational force. Incorporating baryons, leptons and photons into the simulations dramatically increases their complexity and often radical simplifications of the underlying physics must be made. However, this is an extremely important area and many modern simulations are now trying to understand processes that occur during galaxy formation which could account for galaxy bias.
Computational complexity
Reif and Tate prove that if the n-body reachability problem is defined as follows – given n bodies satisfying a fixed electrostatic potential law, determining if a body reaches a destination ball in a given time bound where we require a poly(n) bits of accuracy and the target time is poly(n) is in PSPACE.
On the other hand, if the question is whether the body eventually reaches the destination ball, the problem is PSPACE-hard. These bounds are based on similar complexity bounds obtained for ray tracing.
Example simulations
Common Boilerplate Code
The simplest implementation of N-body simulations where is a naive propagation of orbiting bodies; naive implying that the only forces acting on the orbiting bodies is the gravitational force which they exert on each other. In object-oriented programming languages, such as C++, some boilerplate code is useful for establishing the fundamental mathematical structures as well as data containers required for propagation; namely state vectors, and thus vectors, and some fundamental object containing this data, as well as the mass of an orbiting body. This method is applicable to other types of N-body simulations as well; a simulation of point masses with charges would use a similar method, however the force would be due to attraction or repulsion by interaction of electric fields. Regardless, acceleration of particle is a result of summed force vectors, divided by the mass of the particle:
An example of a programmatically stable and scalable method for containing kinematic data for a particle is the use of fixed length arrays, which in optimised code allows for easy memory allocation and prediction of consumed resources; as seen in the following C++ code:
struct Vector3
{
double e[3] = { 0 };
Vector3() {}
~Vector3() {}
inline Vector3(double e0, double e1, double e2)
{
this->e[0] = e0;
this->e[1] = e1;
this->e[2] = e2;
}
};
struct OrbitalEntity
{
double e[7] = { 0 };
OrbitalEntity() {}
~OrbitalEntity() {}
inline OrbitalEntity(double e0, double e1, double e2, double e3, double e4, double e5, double e6)
{
this->e[0] = e0;
this->e[1] = e1;
this->e[2] = e2;
this->e[3] = e3;
this->e[4] = e4;
this->e[5] = e5;
this->e[6] = e6;
}
};Note that contains enough room for a state vector, where:
, the projection of the objects position vector in Cartesian space along
, the projection of the objects position vector in Cartesian space along
, the projection of the objects position vector in Cartesian space along
, the projection of the objects velocity vector in Cartesian space along
, the projection of the objects velocity vector in Cartesian space along
, the projection of the objects velocity vector in Cartesian space along
Additionally, contains enough room for a mass value.
Initialisation of simulation parameters
Commonly, N-body simulations will be systems based of some type of equations of motion; of these, most will be dependent on some initial configuration to "seed" the simulation. In systems such as those dependent on some gravitational or electric potential, the force on a simulation entity is independent on its velocity. Hence, to seed the forces of the simulation, merely initial positions are needed, but this will not allow propagation- initial velocities are required. Consider a planet orbiting a star- it has no motion, but is subject to gravitational attraction to its host star. As a time progresses, and time steps are added, it will gather velocity according to its acceleration. For a given instant in time, , the resultant acceleration of a body due to its neighbouring masses is independent of its velocity, however, for the time step , the resulting change in position is significantly different due the propagation's inherent dependency on velocity. In basic propagation mechanisms, such as the symplectic euler method to be used below, the position of an object at is only dependent on its velocity at , as the shift in position is calculated via
Without acceleration, is static, however, from the perspective of an observer seeing only position, it will take two time steps to see a change in velocity.
A solar-system-like simulation can be accomplished by taking average distances of planet equivalent point masses from a central star. To keep code simple, a non-rigorous approach based on semi-major axes and mean velocities will is used. Memory space for these bodies must be reserved before the bodies are configured; to allow for scalability, a malloc command may be used:
OrbitalEntity* orbital_entities = malloc(sizeof(OrbitalEntity) * (9 + N_ASTEROIDS));
orbital_entities[0] = { 0.0,0.0,0.0, 0.0,0.0,0.0, 1.989e30 }; // a star similar to the sun
orbital_entities[1] = { 57.909e9,0.0,0.0, 0.0,47.36e3,0.0, 0.33011e24 }; // a planet similar to mercury
orbital_entities[2] = { 108.209e9,0.0,0.0, 0.0,35.02e3,0.0, 4.8675e24 }; // a planet similar to venus
orbital_entities[3] = { 149.596e9,0.0,0.0, 0.0,29.78e3,0.0, 5.9724e24 }; // a planet similar to earth
orbital_entities[4] = { 227.923e9,0.0,0.0, 0.0,24.07e3,0.0, 0.64171e24 }; // a planet similar to mars
orbital_entities[5] = { 778.570e9,0.0,0.0, 0.0,13e3,0.0, 1898.19e24 }; // a planet similar to jupiter
orbital_entities[6] = { 1433.529e9,0.0,0.0, 0.0,9.68e3,0.0, 568.34e24 }; // a planet similar to saturn
orbital_entities[7] = { 2872.463e9,0.0,0.0, 0.0,6.80e3,0.0, 86.813e24 }; // a planet similar to uranus
orbital_entities[8] = { 4495.060e9,0.0,0.0, 0.0,5.43e3,0.0, 102.413e24 }; // a planet similar to neptune
where is a variable which will remain at 0 temporarily, but allows for future inclusion of significant numbers of asteroids, at the users discretion. A critical step for the configuration of simulations is to establish the time ranges of the simulation, to , as well as the incremental time step which will progress the simulation forward:
double t_0 = 0;
double t = t_0;
double dt = 86400;
double t_end = 86400 * 365 * 10; // approximately a decade in seconds
double BIG_G = 6.67e-11; // gravitational constant
The positions and velocities established above are interpreted to be correct for .
The extent of a simulation would logically be for the period where .
Propagation
An entire simulation can consist of hundreds, thousands, millions, billions, or sometimes trillions of time steps. At the elementary level, each time step (for simulations with particles moving due to forces exerted on them) involves
calculating the forces on each body
calculating the accelerations of each body ()
calculating the velocities of each body ()
calculating the new position of each body ()
The above can be implemented quite simply with a while loop which continues while exists in the aforementioned range:
while (t < t_end)
{
for (size_t m1_idx = 0; m1_idx < 9 + N_ASTEROIDS; m1_idx++)
{
Vector3 a_g = { 0,0,0 };
for (size_t m2_idx = 0; m2_idx < 9 + N_ASTEROIDS; m2_idx++)
{
if (m2_idx != m1_idx)
{
Vector3 r_vector;
r_vector.e[0] = orbital_entities[m1_idx].e[0] - orbital_entities[m2_idx].e[0];
r_vector.e[1] = orbital_entities[m1_idx].e[1] - orbital_entities[m2_idx].e[1];
r_vector.e[2] = orbital_entities[m1_idx].e[2] - orbital_entities[m2_idx].e[2];
double r_mag = sqrt(
r_vector.e[0] * r_vector.e[0]
+ r_vector.e[1] * r_vector.e[1]
+ r_vector.e[2] * r_vector.e[2]);
double acceleration = -1.0 * BIG_G * (orbital_entities[m2_idx].e[6]) / pow(r_mag, 2.0);
Vector3 r_unit_vector = { r_vector.e[0] / r_mag, r_vector.e[1] / r_mag, r_vector.e[2] / r_mag };
a_g.e[0] += acceleration * r_unit_vector.e[0];
a_g.e[1] += acceleration * r_unit_vector.e[1];
a_g.e[2] += acceleration * r_unit_vector.e[2];
}
}
orbital_entities[m1_idx].e[3] += a_g.e[0] * dt;
orbital_entities[m1_idx].e[4] += a_g.e[1] * dt;
orbital_entities[m1_idx].e[5] += a_g.e[2] * dt;
}
for (size_t entity_idx = 0; entity_idx < 9 + N_ASTEROIDS; entity_idx++)
{
orbital_entities[entity_idx].e[0] += orbital_entities[entity_idx].e[3] * dt;
orbital_entities[entity_idx].e[1] += orbital_entities[entity_idx].e[4] * dt;
orbital_entities[entity_idx].e[2] += orbital_entities[entity_idx].e[5] * dt;
}
t += dt;
}
Focusing on the inner four rocky planets in the simulation, the trajectories resulting from the above propagation is shown below:
See also
References
Further reading
.
Physical cosmology
Gravity
Simulation
Cosmological simulation
Articles containing video clips
Computational physics
Particles
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4917774
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal%20from%20the%20European%20Union
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Withdrawal from the European Union
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Withdrawal from the European Union is the legal and political process whereby an EU member state ceases to be a member of the Union. Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU) states that "Any Member State may decide to withdraw from the Union in accordance with its own constitutional requirements".
Currently, the United Kingdom is the only former member state to have withdrawn from the European Union. The process to do so began when the UK Government triggered Article 50 to begin the UK's withdrawal from the EU on 29 March 2017 following a June 2016 referendum, and the withdrawal was scheduled in law to occur on 29 March 2019. Subsequently, the UK sought, and was granted, a number of Article 50 extensions until 31 January 2020. On 23 January 2020, the withdrawal agreement was ratified by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and on 29 January 2020 by the European Parliament. The UK left the EU on 31 January 2020 at 23:00 GMT ending 47 years of membership.
Four territories of EU member states have withdrawn: French Algeria (in 1962, upon independence), Greenland (in 1985, following a referendum), Saint Pierre and Miquelon (also in 1985, unilaterally) and Saint Barthélemy (in 2012), the latter three becoming Overseas Countries and Territories of the European Union.
Background
The states who were set to accede to the EU in 2004 pushed for an exit right during the 2002–2003 European Convention. The acceding states wanted the option to exit the EU in the event that EU membership would adversely affect them. During negotiations, eurosceptics in states such as the UK and Denmark subsequently pushed for the creation of Article 50.
Article 50, which allows a member state to withdraw, was originally drafted by British cross-bench peer and former diplomat Lord Kerr of Kinlochard, the secretary-general of the European Convention, which drafted the Constitutional Treaty for the European Union. Following the failure of the ratification process for the European Constitution, the clause was incorporated into the Treaty of Lisbon which entered into force in 2009.
Prior to this, no provision in the treaties or law of the EU outlined the ability of a state to voluntarily withdraw from the EU. The absence of such a provision made withdrawal technically difficult but not impossible. Legally there were two interpretations of whether a state could leave. The first, that sovereign states have a right to withdraw from their international commitments; and the second, the treaties are for an unlimited period, with no provision for withdrawal and calling for an "ever closer union" – such commitment to unification is incompatible with a unilateral withdrawal. The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties states where a party wants to withdraw unilaterally from a treaty that is silent on secession, there are only two cases where withdrawal is allowed: where all parties recognise an informal right to do so and where the situation has changed so drastically, that the obligations of a signatory have been radically transformed.
Procedure
Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union, enacted by the Treaty of Lisbon on 1 December 2009, introduced for the first time a procedure for a member state to withdraw voluntarily from the EU. The article states that:
This provision does not cover certain overseas territories which under TFEU Article 355 do not require a full treaty revision.
Invocation
Thus, once a member state has notified the European Council of its intention to leave, a period begins during which a withdrawal agreement is negotiated, setting out the arrangements for the withdrawal and outlining the country's future relationship with the Union. Commencing the process is up to the member state that intends to leave.
The article allows for a negotiated withdrawal, due to the complexities of leaving the EU. However, it does include in it a strong implication of a unilateral right to withdraw. This is through the fact that a state would decide to withdraw "in accordance with its own constitutional requirements" and that the end of the treaties' application in a member state that intends to withdraw is not dependent on any agreement being reached (it would occur after two years regardless).
Negotiation
The treaties cease to apply to the member state concerned on the entry into force of the withdrawal agreement or, in the absence of such an agreement, two years after the member state notified the European Council of its intention to leave, although this period can be extended by unanimous agreement of the European Council.
The leaving agreement is negotiated on behalf of the EU by the European Commission on the basis of a mandate given by the remaining Member States, meeting in the Council of the European Union. It must set out the arrangements for withdrawal, taking account of the framework for the member state's future relationship with the EU, though without itself settling that framework. The agreement is to be approved on the EU side by the Council of the EU, acting by qualified majority, after obtaining the consent of the European Parliament. For the agreement to pass the Council of the EU it needs to be approved by at least 72 percent of the continuing member states representing at least 65 percent of their population.
The agreement is concluded on behalf of the Union by the council and must set out the arrangements for withdrawal, including a framework for the State's future relationship with the Union, negotiated in accordance with Article 218(3) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. The agreement is to be approved by the council, acting by qualified majority, after obtaining the consent of the European Parliament. Should a former Member State seek to rejoin the European Union, it would be subject to the same conditions as any other applicant country.
Remaining members of the EU would need to manage consequential changes over the EU's budgets, voting allocations and policies brought about by the withdrawal of any member state.
Failure of negotiations
This system provides for a negotiated withdrawal, rather than an abrupt exit from the Union. This preference for a negotiated withdrawal is based on the expected complexities of leaving the EU (including concerning the euro) when so much European law is codified in member states' laws. However, the process of Article 50 also includes a strong implication of unilateral right to withdraw. This is through the fact the state would decide "in accordance with its own constitutional requirements" and that the end of the treaties' application in said state is not dependent on any agreement being reached (it would occur after two years regardless). In other words, the European Union can not block a member state from leaving.
If negotiations do not result in a ratified agreement, the seceding country leaves without an agreement, and the EU Treaties shall cease to apply to the seceding country, without any substitute or transitional arrangements being put in place. As regards trade, the parties would likely follow World Trade Organization rules on tariffs.
Re-entry or unilateral revocation
Article 50 does not spell out whether Member States can rescind their notification of their intention to withdraw during the negotiation period while their country is still a Member of the European Union. However, the President of the European Council said to the European Parliament on 24 October 2017 that “deal, no deal or no Brexit” is up to Britain. Indeed, the prevailing legal opinion among EU law experts and the EU institutions themselves is that a member state intending to leave may change its mind, as an “intention” is not yet a deed and intentions can change before the deed is done. Until the Scottish Government did so in late 2018, the issue had been untested in court. On 10 December 2018, the European Court of Justice ruled that it would be “inconsistent with the EU treaties’ purpose of creating an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe to force the withdrawal of a member state” against its wishes, and that consequently an Article 50 notification may be revoked unilaterally by the notifying member without the permission of the other EU members, provided the state has not already left the EU, and provided the revocation is decided “following a democratic process in accordance with national constitutional requirements”.
The European Parliament resolution of 5 April 2017 (on negotiations with the United Kingdom following its notification that it intends to withdraw from the European Union) states, "a revocation of notification needs to be subject to conditions set by all EU-27, so that it cannot be used as a procedural device or abused in an attempt to improve on the current terms of the United Kingdom’s membership." The European Union Policy Department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs has stated that a hypothetical right of revocation can only be examined and confirmed or infirmed by the EU institution competent to this purpose, namely the CJEU. In addition the European Commission considers that Article 50 does not provide for the unilateral withdrawal of the notification.
Lord Kerr, the British author of Article 50, also considers the process is reversible as does Jens Dammann. Professor Stephen Weatherill disagrees. Former Brexit Secretary David Davis has stated that the British Government "does not know for sure" whether Article 50 is revocable; the British prime minister [then Theresa May] "does not intend" to reverse it.
Extension of the two years time from notification to exit from the union, still requires unanimous support from all member countries, that is clearly stated in Article 50(3).
Should a former member state seek to rejoin the European Union after having actually left, it would be subject to the same conditions as any other applicant country and need to negotiate a Treaty of Accession, ratified by every Member State.
Outermost regions
TFEU Article 355(6), introduced by the Treaty of Lisbon allows the status of French, Dutch and Danish overseas territories to be changed more easily, by no longer requiring a full treaty revision. Instead, the European Council may, on the initiative of the member state concerned, change the status of an overseas country or territory (OCT) to an outermost region (OMR) or vice versa.
Withdrawals
Some former territories of European Union members broke formal links with the EU when they gained independence from their ruling country or were transferred to an EU non-member state. Most of these territories were not classed as part of the EU, but were at most associated with OCT status, and EC laws were generally not in force in these countries.
Some current territories changed or are in the process of changing their status so that, instead of EU law applying fully or with limited exceptions, EU law mostly will not apply. The process also occurs in the opposite direction, as formal enlargements of the union occur. The procedure for implementing such changes was made easier by the Treaty of Lisbon.
Past withdrawals
Territories
Algeria
French Algeria had joined the European Communities as part of the French Republic (since legally it was not a colony of France, but rather one of its overseas departments). Upon independence in 1962, Algeria left France and thus left the European Communities.
Greenland
Greenland chose to leave the EU predecessor without also seceding from a member state. It initially voted against joining the EEC when Denmark joined in 1973, but because Denmark as a whole voted to join, Greenland, as a county of Denmark, joined too. When home rule for Greenland began in 1979, it held a new referendum and voted to leave the EEC. After wrangling over fishing rights, the territory left the EEC in 1985, but remains subject to the EU treaties through association of Overseas Countries and Territories with the EU. This was permitted by the Greenland Treaty, a special treaty signed in 1984 to allow its withdrawal.
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Saint Pierre and Miquelon, a territory of France, used to be part of the EU but left on 11 June 1985.
Saint Barthélemy
Saint Martin and Saint-Barthélemy in 2007 seceded from Guadeloupe (overseas department of France and outermost region (OMR) of the EU) and became overseas collectivities of France, but at the same time remained OMRs of the European Union. Later, the elected representatives of the island of Saint-Barthélemy expressed a desire to "obtain a European status which would be better suited to its status under domestic law, particularly given its remoteness from the mainland, its small insular economy largely devoted to tourism and subject to difficulties in obtaining supplies which hamper the application of some European Union standards." France, reflecting this desire, requested at the European Council to change the status of Saint Barthélemy to an overseas country or territory (OCT) associated with the European Union. The status change came into effect from 1 January 2012.
Member states
United Kingdom
The UK formally left the EU on 31 January 2020, following on a public vote held in June 2016. However, the country benefitted from a transition period to give time to negotiate a trade deal between the UK and the EU.
The British government led by David Cameron held a referendum on the issue in 2016; the electorate decided by a 3.8% majority to favour leaving the European Union. On 29 March 2017, arising from a decision by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, Prime Minister Theresa May invoked Article 50 in a letter to the President of the European Council, Donald Tusk. The UK ceased to be an EU member state as from 00:00, 1 February 2020 Central European Time (UTC+1) (23:00, 31 January 2020 Western European Time (GMT, UTC+0). Following the UK Parliament's decisions not to ratify the Brexit withdrawal agreement negotiated between the European Council and the UK government, several extensions of the deadline were agreed.
Following a decisive election victory for Prime Minister Boris Johnson and the Conservative Party in December 2019, the UK Parliament ratified the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020, approving the terms of withdrawal as formally agreed between the UK government and the EU Commission. After the European Parliament ratified the agreement on 29 January, the United Kingdom withdrew from the European Union at 23:00 London time (GMT) on 31 January 2020, with a withdrawal agreement in place.
Advocates in other countries for withdrawal
Several states have political parties represented in national assemblies or the European Parliament that advocate withdrawal from the EU.
As of 2022, no country other than the United Kingdom has voted on whether to withdraw from the EU. Political parties criticizing the federative trend of the European Union and advocating withdrawal have gained prominence in several member states since the European Parliament election in 2014, similarly to the rise of UKIP in the United Kingdom. The EU Exit Index, which measures the risk of member states leaving the EU, shows that the UK was a clear outlier and no other state is likely to leave the EU in the foreseeable future.
Bulgaria
In Bulgaria, the far-right Revival party, and third largest party in the National Assembly as of 2023, supports either "renegotiation" for special status within the EU, or withdrawal. Additionally, other smaller non-parliamentary parties, mostly from the coalition Neutral Bulgaria support withdrawal, such as Attack who called the politicians who signed the treaty to join the EU "traitors."
Czechia
In Czechia, the far-right Freedom and Direct Democracy opposes Czech membership of the European Union.
Denmark
In the Danish Parliament, the national conservative New Right party opposes Denmark's membership in the EU. The ideologically similar Danish People's Party in principle opposes EU membership, but has since 2001 in practice supported pro-EU right-wing coalitions. The party's support of the common market and opt-in/opt-out solutions was reflected in the slogan Mere Danmark, mindre EU ("More Denmark, less EU"). In 2020, the party proclaimed a strengthening of its anti-EU stance. The left-wing Red Green Alliance which is the 3rd largest party in the country, still officially opposes EU membership, but its members are divided on the issue.
In the European Parliament, the Danish People's Movement against the EU was represented from the first direct elections in 1979 until 2019. The Unity List is a collective member of The People's Movement and used to only participate in European Elections as candidates for The People's Movement. At the 2019 EP Election the Unity List participated independently and gained a seat, in an electoral alliance with The People's Movement who lost their seat. Former MEP for The People's Movement Rina Ronja Kari resigned her personal membership of the Unity List.
Opinion polls have mostly shown that Danes are pro EU membership, but eurosceptic. A 2018 opinion poll suggested that while a minority of Danes wanted withdrawal (12% "to a high degree" and 16% "to some degree"), a large majority were against abolishing the opt-outs (57 % against and 22 % for the euro; 42 % against and 30 % for defense cooperation; 47 % against and 22 % for judicial cooperation). A 2019 opinion poll showed that 37 % of voters of the New Right wanted withdrawal and other 50 % were eurosceptic ("remain in the EU, but the EU should have less influence on Danish conditions"). Among voters of the Danish People's party, the numbers were 18% and 57%, and of the Unity List, 11% and 42%, respectively. In all other parties, withdrawal was supported by 5% of voters or less, but there was substantial euroscepticism (between 26 and 32%), although less among voters of the Social Liberal Party (15%) and The Alternative (20%).
Occasionally, polls about a choice between the EU and a Nordic cooperation have shown equally divided support; a 2020 poll showed 39% support for each alternative. In a 2019 poll, the same question showed 42.7% support for the Nordic option and 40.5% for the EU option.
Finland
In Finland, the Finns Party proposed the withdrawal from the EU.
France
Until 2018, the far-right National Rally advocated for France to leave the EU. However, shortly after the party's renaming (from ), the party leader Marine Le Pen ruled out that policy, proposing instead to focus on changing the European Union's institutions.
Greece
In Greece, Greek Solution is campaigning for a withdrawal, as was Golden Dawn.
Hungary
As a result of the approval of an anti-LGBT law, it has been suggested that Hungary should leave the EU. Currently, Our Homeland Movement is the only party that has proposed doing so through a referendum.
Italy
In July 2020, Italian journalist and senator Gianluigi Paragone formed Italexit, a new political party with a main goal to withdraw Italy from the European Union.
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the main party advocating for a withdrawal is Forum for Democracy, additionally Party for Freedom also supports a withdrawal from the European Union.
Poland
In Poland, the far-right party Confederation Liberty and Independence is against the membership of the country in the European Union. Following the 2019 Polish parliamentary election, the party has eleven (out of 460) members of the Sejm, zero members of the Senate, zero members of the European Parliament and zero members of Regional Assemblies.
Romania
In Romania, the small right-wing party Noua Dreaptă opposes Romania's membership of the European Union and NATO. At the end of 2020, the party had no members of the national assembly or in the European Parliament. By December 2020, the fellow Eurosceptic and far-right party Alliance for the Union of Romanians (AUR) entered the parliament for the first time and became the 4th largest party in the country, although it is unclear whether the party supports leaving the EU or not.
Secession from a member state
There are no clear agreements, treaties or precedents covering the scenario of an existing EU member state breaking into two or more states. The question is whether one state is a successor rump state which remains a member of the EU and the other is a new state which must reapply and be accepted by all other member states to remain in the EU, or alternatively whether both states retain their EU membership following secession.
In some cases, a region leaving its state would leave the EU – for example, if any of the various proposals for the enlargement of Switzerland from surrounding countries were to be implemented at a future date.
During the failed Scottish independence referendum of 2014, the European Commission said that any newly independent country would be considered as a new state which would have to negotiate with the EU to rejoin, though EU experts also suggested transitional arrangements and an expedited process could apply. Political considerations are likely to have a significant influence on the process; in the case of Catalonia, for example, other EU member states may have an interest in blocking an independent Catalonia's EU membership in order to deter independence movements within their own borders.
Legal effect on EU citizenship
Citizenship of the European Union is dependent on citizenship (nationality) of a member state, and citizenship remains a competence entirely vested with the member states. Citizenship of the EU can therefore only be acquired or lost by the acquisition or loss of citizenship of a member state. A probable but untested consequence of a country withdrawing from the EU is that, without otherwise negotiated and then legally implemented, its citizens are no longer citizens of the EU. But the automatic loss of EU citizenship as a result of a member state withdrawing from the EU is the subject of debate.
Expulsion
While a state can leave, there is no provision for a state to be expelled. But TEU Article 7 provides for the suspension of certain rights of a member state if a member persistently breaches the EU's founding values.
See also
Anti-Europeanism
Withdrawal from the eurozone
Withdrawal from NATO
Footnotes
References
External links
Official EU Consolidated treaties – Charter of Fundamental Rights
The Guardian (UK) – Article 50 special report
Withdrawal and expulsion from the EU and EMU – some reflections
Adrian Williamson, The case for Brexit: lessons from the 1960s and 1970s, History and Policy (2015)
Draft Withdrawal Document – TF50 (2018) 55 – Commission to EU27 – 14 Nov 2018 (with United Kingdom)
Euroscepticism
Geography of the European Union
International law
Politics of the European Union
Treaty of Lisbon
Withdrawal from international organizations
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4918316
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darkzone
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Darkzone
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Darkzone, Laserzone, Megazone, Ultrazone and Zone 3 are a group of laser skirmish sites that use laser tag systems manufactured by P&C Micros of Melbourne, Australia. These systems and sites are sometimes collectively referred to as being a part of the "Zone Empire" and in most cases incorporate the word "Zone" in their name.
The names Darkzone, Zone 3. Megazone, and Laserzone are more commonly used in Australia while Ultrazone is used in the U.S. Canada is also known to use the Darkzone name. Not all Zone Empire sites are known by these names, even in these regions; some sites use the Zone equipment and have their own distinctive name.
Zone sites are in the business of providing both recreational and competitive indoor laser games (or laser tag). The games require players to wear vests, or packs that contain a number of infrared sensors, and carry around a laser emitting phasor which activate these sensors and deactivate the hit player's pack and phasor for a period of time. There are many different kinds of game formats, many of which are team-based and played with three teams total. In most cases the games are played in large indoor arenas.
Many Zone sites run weekly leagues in which players of various skill levels compete. Regular leagues are run in Darkzone Perth (WA), Laserzone (QLD), Zone 3 (ACT), Laser Realm (VIC) & Megazone (SA). There are also inter-site competitions, such as a North vs. South competition between the sites based in Western Australia, the two SE Queensland sites and the state competition for the Victorian sites. Once a year there is also an annual National Titles competition between sites from all over Australia and New Zealand. The National Titles has been running since 1999 and has had between 18 and 22 teams attend each year since 2004.
Technology
T2 "Infusion"
Packs
Vests, or packs, are strapped onto players, and have on them a number of sensors encased in clear plastic which are designed to detect the infrared light which is shot by the phasors. Six sensors are located on the front and back of the pack, on each shoulder and on the phasor itself. The sensors are surrounded by coloured LEDs which light up in the colour of the player's team. Players are known to be active when their pack lights are flashing. When a player's sensors are shot by another player, the player is said to be deactivated, and will remain this way for a number of seconds. During this time the player's sensors and pack lights are turned off, along with the player's phasor, so he or she cannot shoot for this time either. The player will be reactivated after a period of time that differs depending on the game's settings.
The pack's display usually holds information, such as remaining time, or power, depending on the game being played. There is a black button on the front that players can press to light up the display, or that is sometimes used to join some games called black button games, where knowing how many players are participating is important. There is also a round part on the front that receives a member's login button, or login tab, which is used to attribute statistics from certain games to a member account, so that a member can see how they compare to other players over an accumulated number of games.
Phasors
The phasors are relatively small and are operated by a trigger, shooting infrared light which is detected by other player's sensors, and base devices, and also emit a visible dot of red light roughly to where the phasor is aimed. The phasors are connected to the packs by a cable, and have sensors on them, on the top, like the packs do, which allow the player to receive return-fire, even when the pack sensors are hidden. The phasors also have a touch-sensitive sensor underneath them, near the front of the phasor, which a player must place their hand on while playing, otherwise will be unable to shoot. This ensures that players hold their phasors with both hands and do not carelessly drop them. However some "cheats" will take along items like Blu-Tac to cover the sensor, enabling one-handed shots, and many experienced players can cover the sensor and pull the trigger with the same hand. This is widely considered cheating and some newer packs seem to be less affected by these "cheats".
Bases
Bases, or base devices, are the devices located in areas around the arena. The device itself and the area around the device are both known as "bases" to players, although it is clear to players that the device is what is being referred to when talking about destroying a base or shooting at a base and the area around the base is being referred to when talking about going to a base or sitting in a base. The device is contained by an open box which is mounted on a wall somewhere, and the device itself is hemispherical in appearance, black, and decorated by flashing lights. There are many red lights on it for decoration. However, there are three green lights located around it which are also sensors and which players shoot at; inexperienced players often have trouble because they aim at the red lights, which are not sensors. If a player shoots the base a sufficient number of times (determined by the game's settings), the player will eventually deactivate or destroy the base, which means that the player has just collected a large number of points for their team, and also that the base has been deactivated for a period of time. Depending on the game's settings, the base may shoot back once it has been deactivated, or while a player is shooting at it. Players hit by a base are deactivated for a period of time. In some games, the bases are used for completely different purposes, or not at all.
In games in which bases are used, a particular focus is placed on the bases because often they are the largest source of points for players. In games such as these, common team tactics are to invade and occupy an enemy base area in the hopes that each player on the team can destroy the base, thereby earning a large number of points. Because in these games the points earned by deactivating other players pales in comparison to the points earned by destroying bases, deactivating players is often merely used as a means whereby a player can stop an enemy from destroying a base and earning points, or a means whereby a player can secure a period of time in which they can destroy the base.
Reload Bays
Some games are played with reloads enabled, which means that the number of shots a player can fire, or the number of times a player can be deactivated, is limited by a power level the player has. Each player has a certain amount of power for their pack, which is used up slowly by shooting and used up more quickly by being deactivated. Once that power is used up, in order to resume play the player must go to a reload bay, which are walk-in areas around the arena which will resupply the player with power. The actual device that reloads the packs is a green, flashing device on the wall or roof of the reload bay. Shots and deactivations use up the same supply of energy, so if a player is continually deactivated, they will not only have a lower number of deactivations left until they must reload, they will also have a lower number of shots to use. After a player reloads there is a short delay before they are reactivated.
Games that use reloads are different from games that do not because of the way players are forced to act. A common tactic in games involving bases, is to sit in a base area and camp there for a long time, defending it or waiting to attack it. In games that use reloads, players are forced to vacate areas from time to time, so that attackers can buy time in which they can safely attack the base, by shooting the defenders until they must reload. Likewise, defenders can shoot attackers until they have to reload, and then take up the freedom to position players in areas best suited to attacking the base, so that the attackers cannot easily attack the base.
Nexus Generation (FEC)
The first Nexus system was Nexus Generation FEC (Family entertainment centre). The system brought an entirely new different laser tag experience being one of the first laser tag systems to use true colour LEDs and sets a new standard for future laser systems. Like its predecessors it has the ability to change settings through the software to whatever game the players may desire. Nexus FEC is primarily aimed at parties and other groups. It has the option of membership for regular players, however in some cases this was never put to use by some laser tag centres.
Nexus Generation Pro
An upgrade from Nexus FEC with some new hardware and pack alterations as well as software and firmware alterations. The standard LCDs, similar to those in the Infusion packs were scrapped from Nexus FEC and replaced with a brand new coloured LCD display. Many other features have altered including the shoulders sensors with built in speakers. As for looks there is not really much difference between both version, with the exception of the shoulders which had speakers placed within them and the Nexus logo removed from inside.
Packs
Phasors
Unlike its predecessors, Nexus has a totally new design in both the phasor and pack. The older model, black plastic phasor cases were scrapped and replaced with a new transparent case complete with members button reader on the side of the phasor (Infusion has it located on the front of the vest). Nexus is also one of the first laser tag systems to use green lasers rather than the standard red lasers used in most laser tag systems. New LCD screens in Nexus Pro replaced standard LCDs used in Infusion and Nexus FEC.
Bases
Another significant change from the earlier infusion system. The old dome shaped bases featuring surrounding LEDs were completely redesigned for a slimmer more flat square shaped base with the speaker located in the middle. True colour LEDs flash simultaneously around the base when not under attack. As with the packs, the main computer uses the software to change the settings of the bases. Like the nexus gun plastics the bases are transparent, enabling players to see exactly what colour the base is.
Helios
In 2014 Zone launched a new laser tag system called Helios. It features the same vest as Nexus Pro but with a completely redesigned phaser. The phaser has a 3-inch led screen on the rear of the phaser capable of displaying game information and showing pictures of who shot you when you die.
The system also features a new membership system using qr code cards to log in by touching the right front sensor with it. The players score are automatically loaded into an online database ad can be used in any zone site worldwide.
The 2015 Australasian titles were the first to use the new system and meant that most teams had very little experience with the system
Game rules
There are many different types of games at Darkzone stores. Standard games are typically played during regular store hours, and there are special novelty games which are played at special events or other times. Also there is a special kind of game for the Darkzone Leagues, which is similar to the standard game, but with variations to make it more challenging and competitive.
Standard games
Standard games are the games that are most often played in stores during the day. They come in two varieties, depending on preference and the amount paid: Solo games and Team-based games. Team-based games have the players divided into three teams. The players from each of the three teams must start the game in their team's base area. A major goal is to attack and destroy the enemy bases, of which there are two, and it is possible to destroy each of them twice. To destroy the bases, a player must shoot at the base three times in succession; a substantial pause in between, such as might be caused by a distraction, or deactivation of the player attacking the base, will require that the player start all over again. Also, if one player attacks the base, and then another player shoots it, the first player might have to start again. Around 2,000 points are earned for players who destroy a base, meaning that players can gain around 4,000 points by destroying all of the bases in the time allocated.
In a standard game it is possible to shoot and deactivate enemy players, but not teammates. Each player has an unlimited number of shots to fire and there is no limit on the number of times the player can be deactivated. Each time a player shoots another player they receive a number of points, depending on which sensor they shot at, and the player who was shot loses a smaller number of points. (Rules have recently been changed - no points lost for being shot). Solo games function by similar rules, with two noted exceptions: Players are able to tag all bases for points, and that the friendly fire condition in Team games has been disabled, allowing players to freely tag each other with no restrictions. Both forms of the standard game can be variated with a 'fast mode', in which deactivation times are halved and fire rates increased. In these modes, it is not uncommon for the base to be able to deactivate players when destroyed (resulting in a long deactivation period for the player).
League Games
League games (or League X) are similar to standard games but differ from standard games in a number of ways. First of all there is a long list of technical rules, related to how players are allowed to move, hold their phasors, etc. to prevent cheating or dangerous movement. League games last for only 12 minutes and in that time each player is only allowed to destroy each enemy base once. League games are played with reloads, so there is a limit on the number of shots or deactivations a player can have in a row, and it is possible to shoot and deactivate teammates, although not possible to shoot your team's base or yourself.
Shooting bases is different in league games also, for whenever a player shoots a base, they lose 500 points. The player shoots the base twice, losing 500 points each time, and then when the player shoots it a final time, gains 1000 points to regain the points lost from the first two shots, and 3001 points for destroying the base. If a player shoots the base once or twice without destroying it, and is deactivated, or distracted for long enough, then the player will have to start all over again, losing even more points the next time the player shoots the base; the player will only gain 4001 points for destroying the base, so failing to shoot the base too many times may result in a significant loss in points for the team. This means that players must be very careful to destroy the base on the first attempt. If a defending player deactivates an attacking player after they have shot the base once or twice and before the attacker has destroyed the base, the defending player earns 500 points for that deactivation, in addition to the fact that the attacker has just lost 500 or 1000 points.
League games are overlooked by a number of referees who stand in the arena with the players, watching for violations of the rules. Referees hold what are commonly known as god boxes, which are remotes with three buttons on them that can be used to punish players who break the rules, either by shielding them or terminating them. The shield is a warning punishment used for minor offences, and it has the effect that a player cannot shoot or be shot for a period of time, like being deactivated, except that the lights on the pack stay on, and the player does not lose power. Terminations deactivate a player for a period of time, and in addition they remove a large number of points from the player, and these are used for major offences. There are two types of terminations, level ones and level twos, the level two termination being the more severe of the two. If a player receives three level two terminations, then the player leaves the game and receives a zero score.
League games are faster paced than standard games, because of their competitive nature and also because of the shorter time the game is played in. League games are also more challenging and difficult, because many experienced players can learn some very advanced techniques, for instance standing or sitting in certain, legal positions, that obscure their sensors effectively, the ability to bounce shots off reflective surfaces, and various other skills related to attacking bases or defending against other players.
There are variations between the implementations of the league game formats and the rules used for league games, from store to store, league to league, or season to season, as the organizers might make changes to improve the challenge and quality of the game.
One Base Denial
One Base Denial is a team game where every team (usually three teams) goes for one base. The rules are the same as league games. Every player can destroy the base as many times as they can but this can be difficult as they are usually denied (deactivated) by another player while taking the base due to the large number of players.
Vampire
Vampire is a novelty game played sometimes at Darkzone stores. The game does not involve bases, and is not actually team-based, instead it involves players known as peasants and vampires. The game begins with one vampire, who has unlimited shots and lives, and the rest of the players are peasants who have a limited number of shots and lives. The aim of the game is for the vampires to turn everyone else into vampires, and for the peasants to survive until the end of the time limit of the game. Often the vampire is given some sort of advantage, such as a shorter deactivation time and increased fire rate (Peasants can also be given a disadvantage of longer deactivations times and reduced fire rates. In some arenas, both of these rules are in effect simultaneously). Vampires can shoot one another and peasants can shoot one another.
Zone Ball
Zone Ball is a novelty game played sometimes at Darkzone stores. The game involves bases, but instead of trying to destroy the bases, players use the bases as a sort of soccer goal. The game is team-based, and the aim of the game is for each team to score the highest number of goals in the game. In the beginning, players must stand in their team's base, and then the bases lights will turn on. The first player to shoot any base anywhere, is given the ball, and an audible signal will be heard every few seconds to confirm that the player has the ball. There is only one ball at any one time in the game. The goal is then to make it into an enemy base and shoot their base to score a point. Players can pass the ball to teammates by shooting them, and players may steal the ball from enemy players by shooting the player with the ball. Players can shoot enemies who do not have the ball, in order to deactivate them for a period of time, so that they cannot steal the ball or cause any trouble. Once a player has scored a goal by shooting an enemy base while in possession of the ball, there is a short delay before the ball is up for grabs again, at which point players can grab the ball by being the first to shoot any base.
Time Warrior
Time Warrior is a novelty game played sometimes at Darkzone stores. The game does not involve bases and is not team-based. At the beginning of the game, each player is given a certain amount of time. Time is constantly being used up, but the player can gain more time by shooting and deactivating enemy players. A player who is deactivated will have effectively lost the time they spent deactivated in, because in that time they are unable to shoot players to gain more time. A player who is constantly being deactivated, or who cannot shoot and deactivate any enemy players, will eventually run out of time and will leave the arena. The winner of the game is the player who is the last player in the game, or who has the most time left when the time limit for the game is over.
Stratego
This is the classic game of Stratego that has become so popular. At the game start, each team will choose someone from their team to be their "General" and someone to be their "Decoy". When the game is running, the general and decoy packs will be orange with their team colour flashing for shoulders. This means that other players will not be able to distinguish between the general and the decoy during the game. This is an eliminator game. The objective is to eliminate the other teams' generals. If a general is eliminated, the entire team is automatically eliminated.
The winner at the end is decided by first looking at the General, if more than one team has the general still in, then the decoy is looked at. If more than one team still has the general and decoy in, then the number of deacs remaining on the general is looked at, then the decoy, then the number of remaining players. Ties should rarely happen.
Domination
This game originated from the Unreal Tournament game style. When the game begins, none of the bases will be active but will still be waiting for shots. The first player to tag a base turns it to their color (only 1 shot). No points are immediately awarded. After 5 seconds if the base is still the same, that player receives 50 points for themselves and their team. After 3 more seconds, they receive 100 more points. Then every 3 seconds after they receive 200 points. At any time during the game, an opponent can tag the base just once to turn it to their color and restart the timer for themselves.
If your team holds 2 bases at the same time then both base values are doubled. If your team holds all 3, then all 3 base values are quadrupled.
Base flags
Base flags is a simple game where you try to score as many points as you can for your team by destroying opponents bases. Each base only takes one shot to destroy. However, each player will need to return to their home base to reload every time they are deactivated. No points are awarded for tagging players.
Terminator
Terminator is a game style similar to Vampires, and is generally used with larger groups. Players are divided into teams of Humans and Terminators. A certain number of players are chosen to become Terminators, and are sent in after the remaining players enter the arena. These remaining players have some time to obtain a secure position before the game starts. The Terminators are sent in to eliminate the Humans, while the Humans are able to win either by surviving for the time period of the game or by destroying the Terminators. Human players are given limited lives and have slower firing rates and longer deactivation times, while Terminators have more lives, faster firing rates and shorter deactivation times (This balances out the numerical advantage given to the Humans).
Australian and New Zealand Leagues and Competitions
Western Australian Leagues
Perth, Western Australia has three stores, a store in Willetton called Darkzone, a store in Northbridge called Zone 3 and a store in Malaga called Darkzone. The Northbridge store has since shut down, and the Willetton and Malaga stores were renamed to Lazer Blaze in the 2010s. A third Lazer Blaze was opened in Port Kennedy. All stores have regular social leagues that people can play in for a greater challenge and a good time. All three stores are owned and run by Wombat, so the leagues are very similar and there is also an annual League played between the three stores, (formerly known as North vs. South), where regular players from each store compete against one another over three weekends. Finally there is an occasional doubles tournament consisting of many teams of two players, and a solos tournament that are played at both stores.
The format of the regular social League is a team-based competition where teams consist of 5 players and compete for league points for most of the league, to earn a position on the competition ladder that runs for about 11 weeks. The competition is a very rough round-robin style where each team plays three games each week and eventually plays all of the other teams. Points are awarded to teams depending on the results of the game, and the player with the highest individual score for a game also earns bonus points for their team. On the 10th week of the league an elimination tournament is held, where the players who are lowest on the competition ladder play first and continue playing until eliminated. The final three teams remaining in the elimination play three games together to decide the winner of the league.
Players in the social leagues are graded according to skill and a percentage handicap calculated from the combined skills of the players, so that teams with less skill are still able to win some games. There are rules that players must abide by and there are referees standing in the arena watching the game, who are able to punish rule-breakers. Trophies are awarded to the winning team, highest individual average score, fairest and best and most improved.
The North vs. South competition was the competition played between the Northbridge and Willetton stores, so-called because both stores are on either side of the Swan River, which divides Perth. There is no handicap system, there are referees, and there are six players per team. Three rounds are held over a length of three weeks, played on Sundays, and the teams play at one venue for the first round, the other venue for the second round, and then both venues for the final round. A shield is awarded to the store with the winning team, and medals are awarded to the winning team, player with the highest average score, and for the best and fairest player, voted for by the referees.
ACT League
The ACT has been running a successful league for about 13 years. The format changes every season (which last about 6 months) to keep more people around. Canberra is running the Nexus Pro system. There is a shield for the winning team which is mounted on the wall at Zone 3 in Canberra, as well as trophies given out to individual players on the top 3 teams, as well as best and fairest, most improved, and high score. Canberra also has a horses-arse award, given to the player who is involved in the most idiotic part of the season.
South East Queensland Leagues
Laserzone have sites in Lawnton and Sunshine Coast that run weekly leagues. Both sites run Infusion equipment and cater for all skill levels at the weekly league. Experienced players will take on new blood to help them get started, and a handicap system similar to the Western Australian system has been adopted to encourage new teams to enter. Each month a competition is run for intermediate and experienced player only. This is a chance for the experienced players to play as hard as they can, and for the intermediate players to get a tase of what competitive laser tag is all about. Competitions include a Brisbane v Sunshine Coast teams event (North v South), Doubles, Triples & Zone Ball tournaments.
The format of the regular social League is a team-based competition similar to the Western Australia system. The main differences is that individual high scorers do not earn a bonus point for their team in SEQ leagues and seasons vary from 8 – 12 weeks. SEQ sites also play with no denial scoring on which means players do not lose extra points for being deactivated whilst destroying a base station. At the end of the season medallions are awarded to the 3 finalists.
New Zealand Leagues
The Megazone Laser Tag centre in Mt Wellington is currently the only centre in New Zealand to run competitive leagues. Usually they are only friendly leagues with no prizes however once in a while they have a ten-week team-based league which is competitive with each team having the same people on it every week. Variations of league games such as doubles and triples (2/3 players on each team) are also sometimes played on these nights.
Australian Nationals
The Australian Zone Nationals has been held annually since 1999. The main event is the team competition, which currently attracts approximately 20 teams of between 5 and 6 players (plus alternates) from every Australian state and territory. Teams play about 24 games before semi-finals. All games have three teams playing. Typically all teams get a go in semifinals, but the system is stacked to favour teams who finished higher on the ladder at the end of the preliminary rounds. The scheme used is typically an Ascension or Skip Ascension. In 2007 the decision was made to switch final systems to System D. The top three teams go into a grand final, which is a three-game series in which each team plays on each colour once.
There are a number of minor tournaments held at the Nationals, including Solos, Doubles and Triples, which attract 90 to 100 players each. Solos typically has 20 players in each game, with no bases or reloads. Doubles typically has 10 teams of two in each game, with each player being able to shoot all three bases. Triples has approximately 7 teams of three in each game, with each player being able to shoot all bases, with the exact format being announced on the day of Triples starting. Other minor events include Masters (over 32s) and Women's.
Australian National Tournament Results
2007 Australian National Tournament
The 2007 National competition held in Bendigo was a significant event as it witnessed the entry of a team from the United States. "WMD" as they called themselves came to Australia, learnt to use Infusion (The system which Nationals is run on), and competed in the Teams, Triples, Doubles, Solos, Women's and Masters comps. A group of 3 Americans took out the triples competition, and the team ended up coming 5th in the competition.
New Zealand Competitions
2008 New Zealand Invitationals
The inaugural New Zealand Invitational was held from Monday 18th to Thursday 21 February 2008. The team competition was 9 teams of 6 players plus substitutes. Main part of the team competition was 48 games; each team played 16 games. The competition was spread over three different sites: Ponsonby (System Q), North Shore (Infusion), and Mt. Wellington (Infusion). Games at Ponsonby were played with only 5 players per side, and with stuns. HoCo was made up from players from both Hobart and Sunshine Coast.
2010 New Zealand Invitationals
The 2010 New Zealand Invitationals were held 6–10 September 2010 across the three Auckland Megazone sites (North Shore (Infusion), Ponsonby (Nexus FEC) and Mt Wellington (Infusion)). The rules were the same as the Darwin 2010 Nationals and the World Championships.
2012 New Zealand Invitationals
The 2012 New Zealand Invitationals were held from August 27–31, 2012 across the three Auckland Megazone sites (Mt Wellington (Infusion), Ponsonby (Nexus PRO) and North Shore (Infusion)). The rules were to be similar to the 2012 Australian Nationals competition.
2014 Australasian Titles
For the first time ever, the Australian National Titles were held in New Zealand in 2014 at Megazone Mt Wellington. It was also the first time a New Zealand team (Silverbacks) won the competition and the second time in a row that a NZ player had won the women's competition (Arcane). The competition was run using brand new Nexus Pro packs.
Zone World Championships
2009 Zone World Championships
The 2009 Zone World Championships was held in Tampere, Finland over May/June 2009. Teams from Australia, USA, Finland and Sweden competed in a range of game types, including an international team format game, a team eliminator game, doubles without bases, solos and LOR.
Key: USA = American Team or Player, FIN = Finnish Team or Player, SWE = Swedish Team or Player, AUS = Australian Team or Player
2011 Zone World Championships
This was held in Syracuse, NY, America from 5/11/2011 - 11/11/2011
See also
Lasertag
Q-Zar - also developed in Australia
References
Darkzone WA website, on the topic of the game formats, Vampire, Time Warrior, Zone Ball, and League X (league game format).
Darkzone WA information page, information about the general games (packs, phasors, etc.)
Darkzone Boxhill, details about scoring in games
External links
Darkzone Laval Website Canada's longest running Laser Tag facility, located in Laval, Quebec
Zone Empire Website - company who produces the technology that Darkzone / Zone 3 uses for its games
Play Zone Laser Lists many of the world's Zone Laser Sites
auszone.net Information regarding the Australian Zone National Championships, and Australian and New Zealand Leagues
Zone Elite
Lasertag Wiki
Indoor sports
Laser tag
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1915%20Galveston%20hurricane
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1915 Galveston hurricane
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The 1915 Galveston hurricane was a tropical cyclone that caused extensive damage in the Galveston area in August 1915. Widespread damage was also documented throughout its path across the Caribbean Sea and the interior of the United States. Due to similarities in strength and trajectory, the storm drew comparisons with the deadly 1900 Galveston hurricane. While the newly completed Galveston Seawall mitigated a similar-scale disaster for Galveston, numerous fatalities occurred along unprotected stretches of the Texas coast due to the storm's storm surge. Overall, the major hurricane inflicted at least $30 million in damage (equivalent to $ million in ) and killed 403–405 people. A demographic normalization of landfalling storms suggested that an equivalent storm in 2005 would cause $68.0 billion in damage in the United States.
Reanalyses of the Atlantic hurricane database concluded the storm formed near Cabo Verde on August 5, gradually strengthening into a hurricane as it tracked westward. However, it remained undetected by the United States Weather Bureau until it passed over the Lesser Antilles as a hurricane on August 10. The storm inflicted damage to shipping on the islands and flooded docks and streets in Martinique and Dominica. Two days later, the intensifying storm passed north of Jamaica, bringing winds to the northern coast. Significant losses were reported to the island's banana, beet, and sugar plantations, while coastal surge washed out roads and destroyed wharves; fifteen people in Jamaica were killed. Most houses and coconut trees were destroyed on Cayman Brac west of Jamaica, and substantial damage occurred across the Cayman Islands. On August 14, the hurricane clipped the western extremity of Cuba, killing fourteen. The storm's winds were estimated at 145 mph (230 km/h)—a on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale; this was ultimately the hurricane's peak intensity.
Over the Gulf of Mexico, the hurricane caused 101 deaths, mostly from the sinking of the steamer Marowjine in the Yucatán Channel. During the early morning hours of August 17, the hurricane made landfall with winds of 130 mph (210 km/h) at San Luis Pass, Texas, approximately southwest of Galveston. Much of coastal Texas was affected by the storm's rough surf, with a total death toll of 275. Cities along Galveston Bay were inundated by storm surge, destroying entire towns and damaging numerous buildings. Galveston was largely protected by its seawall, but the strong waves caused extensive beach erosion that undermined 200 outlying homes. Ninety percent of homes outside the protection of the seawall on Galveston Island were destroyed. Most buildings in Houston were impacted, incurring $1 million in damage. The storm brought strong winds and torrential rainfall across East Texas, causing widespread cotton losses and damage to infrastructure—the highest rainfall total from the storm was in San Augustine, Texas.
The hurricane weakened as it tracked farther inland, degenerating into a tropical storm within a day of its landfall in Texas. A northeast curve soon followed, resulting in a track into the Ozarks and Ohio River Valley; the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on August 20 over the Ozarks and dissipated over the Gulf of Saint Lawrence three days later. Heavy rainfall and significant river flooding occurred along the storm's path during this latter phase of its evolution. Levee breaches in along the White River in Arkansas and the Mississippi River in Illinois flooded entire towns. St. Louis, Missouri recorded its rainiest 24-hour period in history, experiencing a deadly flood of the River Des Peres and Meramec River that impacted much of the city and surrounding suburbs, killing 20 people and destroying over a thousand homes.
Meteorological history
On August 5, 1915, observations from Cabo Verde and the marine vicinity suggested the presence of a nearby tropical depression. On this basis, a 2008 reanalysis of the official hurricane database concluded that the depression formed by 12:00 UTC that day. Tracking west, the system gradually strengthened over the tropical Atlantic, attaining tropical storm intensity on August 6 and eventually reaching hurricane intensity three days later while well east of the Lesser Antilles. Despite the storm's power, the United States Weather Bureau was unaware of its existence for at least five days due to the sparsity of data over the open ocean; in a summary of the storm published in the Monthly Weather Review the following month, the Bureau noted that "there was nothing to indicate that conditions were favorable for the formation of a tropical storm, nor [...] was there anything pronounced to indicate its direction of progression ..." More conclusive evidence from weather observations in the Windward Islands allowed the Weather Bureau to begin monitoring the hurricane and disseminating warnings on the morning of August 10; at the time, the hurricane was situated roughly between Barbados and Dominica. The storm crossed into the Caribbean Sea the following day, passing south of St. Croix with growing intensity as indicated by rapidly falling pressures throughout the region.
Between August 12–13, the intensifying hurricane traversed the Caribbean Sea between Haiti and Jamaica with a bearing slightly north of west. Shortly after passing Jamaica, the storm became a major hurricane on the morning of August 13. On August 14, the storm moved near Cuba's Isle of Pines and across the Guanahacabibes Peninsula as a with sustained winds of 145 mph (230 km/h). This was ultimately the storm's peak intensity as it weakened slightly once over the south-central Gulf of Mexico, though the storm still maintained Category 4 strength. At 07:00 UTC on August 17—in the early morning hours—the hurricane made landfall near San Luis Pass, approximately southwest of Galveston, Texas. Upon moving ashore, the hurricane had winds estimated at 130 mph (215 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 940 mbar (hPa; 27.76 inHg); these values were estimated using a peripheral pressure of 953 mbar (hPa; 28.14 inHg) measured at Velasco, Texas. At the time, the pressure measured at Texas landfall was the lowest ever measured in the United States. After moving inland, the storm quickly weakened, passing southwest of Houston, Texas, as a before diminishing to a weak tropical storm within a day of landfall. Concurrently, the storm began to slowly curve towards the north and northeast, moving into northeast Texas on August 18. Two days later, the system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while tracking northeast across Arkansas and southeastern Missouri; fronts extended outward from the cyclone's center. This trajectory continued before the storm's remnants were last noted in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence; HURDAT, the official database of storm paths in the Atlantic, indicates the storm dissipated after 18:00 UTC on August 23.
Preparations
The United States Weather Bureau began issuing notices warning of the storm's presence on August 10, with information first sent to the Caribbean islands, followed by distribution to the Weather Bureau's stations along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts of the United States via their Arlington, Virginia, radio station. Initial forecasts predicted that the storm would cross Hispaniola and southeastern Cuba, but these landfalls did not materialize. Later anticipating that the hurricane would cross western Cuba, the Weather Bureau issued a northeast storm warning for Key West and Miami, Florida, on August 13. These warnings were briefly elevated later that day to hurricane warnings and extended northwards along to the Florida coast to Boca Grande. While these warnings were scaled down after the hurricane moved away from the state, falling pressures throughout the U.S. Gulf Coast on August 15 led the Weather Bureau to issue storm and hurricane warnings along the U.S. coast from Brownsville, Texas, to Apalachicola, Florida, eventually narrowing in extent to the Texas coast as landfall drew nearer. The head of the bureau's local office in Galveston, Texas, W. P. Stewart, cited the warnings as the sole reason for the relatively low number of fatalities in unprotected areas of the city.
Ships off of Jamaica were brought to their moorings in advance of the storm, including the United Fruit Company steamer Saramacca, whose trek to New York City was cut short by the approaching hurricane. The Havana Harbor was closed on August 13. Some residents in Key West, Florida, evacuated by train to Miami, Florida, ahead of the storm, taking refuge in Miami's hotels and boarding houses. Thousands evacuated Galveston, Texas, for the mainland, crowding train cars to capacity while automobile traffic pervaded the roads. A total of 7,000 evacuees from areas along the Galveston bay stayed in Houston during the storm, including 4,000 from Galveston proper. Interurban routes began operating special service via Galveston early on August 16 to aid evacuations, carrying 175–200 people per arrival; an estimated 2,500 people evacuated via the interurban service to Houston. Rail service between coastal cities and Houston remained in special overnight operation during the evacuation process. The final interurban railcar from Galveston with evacuees on board arrived in Houston at 7:10 p.m. CST on August 16 (00:10 UTC August 17). The 25 convicts held at a prison in Morgan's Point were relocated to the county jail in Houston. Port Aransas residents evacuated by boat to the Texas mainland. Roughly half of the combined population of Port Arthur and Beaumont evacuated, while nearly 200 residents of Port O'Connor—most of the city's population—evacuated via the St. Louis–San Francisco Railway to a hotel in Victoria on August 16. Ships along the coast were held at port to weather the hurricane.
Impact
The brought gusty winds and heavy rainfall throughout its path from the Lesser Antilles into the Midwestern United States. The storm caused at least $30 million in damage, including $20 million in the United States and $10 million in Jamaica. According to research compiled by the National Hurricane Center in 1997, either 403 or 405 deaths were associated with the hurricane throughout its path.
Caribbean Sea
Damage caused by the hurricane east of Hispaniola was generally minor and limited to shipping. Docks were flooded at Fort-de-France in Martinique by the high tides. Telephone lines in the island's interior were downed. Other islands in the Lesser Antilles reported "some damage to small shipping", as summarized by the Monthly Weather Review. At Kingstown in Saint Vincent, two vessels were grounded inland and several lighters damaged or destroyed; debris was littered on the harbor beach. Strong winds buffeted the island of Dominica on August 10, where heavy rains caused rivers to rise and flood streets. Roseau was impacted by a power outage as telephone and electric poles were downed. Damage to buildings in Rouseau was limited to siding and fencing. Crops sustained some losses, particularly limes. Dwellings in some communities were either destroyed or damaged. Telecommunication lines were also downed in Saint Thomas and a schooner was grounded in Saint Kitts. Crops were damaged in the southwestern Haiti, and communications between Port-au-Prince and the United States were cut off.
Three-fourths of the 270 houses on Cayman Brac were destroyed, leaving 1,800 people destitute. All homes were destroyed in Stake Bay after the storm surge penetrated 0.5 mi (0.8 km) inland; collapsing walls killed one child there. Nearly all of the island's coconut trees were also destroyed, while half of coconut trees were downed on Little Cayman. All buildings in Little Cayman were destroyed. Several schooners were also driven ashore by the storm, and another bearing oil and gasoline cargo was lost. Ten people were killed after the schooner Curaçao bound for Grand Cayman with lumber sank just offshore. Hundreds of cattle and swine were killed on Grand Cayman. Recently completed government buildings there were displaced from their foundations.
Western extents of Cuba were severely affected by the hurricane, with the storm's effects classified as impacts. Fourteen people were killed in the country. All homes in Cape San Antonio collapsed, along with a lighthouse, radio station, and steel tower. The Weather Bureau's meteorological equipment stationed on the cape was entirely destroyed; the weather station had been recently established for monitoring the 1915 hurricane season, and documented the calm of the hurricane's eye. Two schooners were destroyed by the storm without fatalities. Though initial reports indicated several hundred thousands of dollars of damage was wrought to crops on the Isle of Pines, this figure was revised downwards to $50,000, stemming from the manageable loss of one-third of the island's grapefruit crop. Winds in Havana topped out at .
Jamaica
The hurricane passed north of Jamaica on the night of August 12–13 as an intensifying hurricane, with winds reaching along the island's northern shores. The storm inflicted an estimated $10 million in damage in Jamaica, destroying banana, beet, and sugar plantations on the northern and northeastern parts of the island nation; however, coconut trees throughout the island largely withstood the hurricane. Fifteen people were killed, primarily by drowning. The damage along the immediate coastline was more severe than the 1903 Jamaica hurricane despite the weaker intensity. Communications were cut in the outlying districts. Along the coast, rough surf ahead of the storm sank one boat and damaged several others at Port Royal. The earliest gusts damaged banana plantations in Saint Thomas Parish as the storm's fringes brought strong winds and showers to the eastern end of the island on the evening of August 13; the parish ultimately lost 70 percent of its banana crop. Significant damage was wrought to the parishes of Saint Mary and Portland. Coastal extents of Portland Parish from Manchionel to Port Antonio saw significant damage, leaving many families homeless or otherwise destitute. The coastal railway sustained "unprecedented" damage, with all segments of track nearest to the coastline destroyed. The wharf at Manchionel was destroyed and the main coastal road damaged at several points. Thirty families were rendered homeless and four people were killed at Buff Bay. A stretch of seawall there was destroyed by the wave action. Port Antonio proper sustained relatively minor damage from the storm compared to the 1903 hurricane.
In Saint Mary Parish, hundreds of homes were destroyed at Port Maria and Annotto Bay. Wharves on the Port Maria seafront were badly damaged, with others washed into the sea. Several ships were destroyed and others severely damaged; one boat was left atop a building on the town's Main Street. A hundred buildings were destroyed. The damage toll for the town was estimated at £20,000, with as high as 99 percent loss of bananas locally; the banana crop was expected not to recover for 8–9 months. Between 250–300 people were displaced in Port Maria, requiring temporary shelter at the town hall and courthouse. The main thoroughfare connecting Port Maria and Annotto Bay was damaged, while the primary road connecting Annotto Bay and Port Antonio was washed away. The worst damage in Annotto Bay was along the coast, where several wharves were destroyed; five of the six lighters moored at Annotto Bay were torn apart. Sections of the town were washed away by the hurricane. In low-lying areas, all homes were destroyed, leaving hundreds of people homeless. The town's post office was flooded and boats were pushed atop wharves and destroyed. A stretch of railway nearby was torn by the storm surge. Early reports from The Daily Gleaner indicated 3–4 people in Annotto Bay were missing. In Saint Catherine Parish, banana trees were snapped by the storm's winds and homes were unroofed; an estimated 40–50 percent of banana trees in the parish were lost. Complete loss of bananas was reported in Appleton, Balaclava, and Christiana, with a total loss of all fruit at Cambridge, Jamaica.
To a lesser extent, Saint Ann, Saint James, and Trelawny along Jamaica's northern shores were also impacted by the storm. Many pimento and mature banana crops in Saint Ann's Bay were lost. Wharves and coastal buildings in the town were damaged. On the south side of the island, ackee, breadfruit, mangoes, and other tree crops were blown down in Saint Andrew Parish. The Rio Cobre at Riversdale flooded its banks, inundating nearby roads. The capital city, Kingston, experienced winds of , but avoided the storm's worst impacts, resulting in slight damage limited to fallen fences and trees. Gusty winds also reached Montego Bay without considerable consequence. Some railways were partially inundated, including the Kingston to Montego Bay railway between Cambridge and Appleton.
Yucatán Channel and Gulf of Mexico
In the Yucatán Channel the hurricane sank the U.S. steamer Marowijne, bound from British Honduras. Despite sufficient radio capabilities, the ship was lost with the presumed deaths of all 96 passengers and crew. Efforts were made by the United Fruit Company to rescue the missing people, but such efforts were called off on August 25. Found marine wreckage was later associated with the ship, confirming its sinking. In the northern Gulf of Mexico, a schooner sank several miles south of Mobile, Alabama, killing three. Off the coast of Pensacola, Florida, there were two more fatalities when a fishing boat ran aground. Two marines on the battleship USS New Hampshire (BB-25) en route for Veracruz, Mexico, were washed overboard and drowned off the Florida coast. The battleship USS Louisiana (BB-19), traveling in tandem with the New Hampshire, was also caught in the storm, though neither ship was damaged. In all, the hurricane left 101 people dead in the Gulf of Mexico and Yucatán Channel.
United States
The 1915 Galveston hurricane made landfall near San Luis Pass, Texas, along the end of West Bay, southwest of Galveston, at 2 a.m. (07:00 UTC) on August 17. Maximum sustained winds were estimated at , making the storm a low-end on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. These maximum winds radially extended out from the center of the storm. Storm surge heights peaked at , with wave crests reaching . The hurricane's most significant impacts occurred in Galveston and surrounding areas where 122 people were killed; 69 of these fatalities occurred due to the sinking of three ships. Another 102 persons were listed as missing, though the Monthly Weather Review indicated that "it was probable that many of these were later accounted for".
Widespread flooding occurred throughout the storm's track across the United States, primarily towards the north and northwest of the center of circulation. The rainfall at any one point within the storm's swath lasted 36–72 hours. The largest contributor to the hurricane's damage toll was ship-related: several hundreds of vessels were wrecked offshore East Texas and western Louisiana. According to the Monthly Weather Review for August 1915, the hurricane caused an estimated $50 million in damage, though the Weather Bureau noted this figure was likely an overestimate. In the 1916 Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau, the Weather Bureau estimated $20 million in damage from the hurricane in the country. In 2018, an analysis of historical U.S. landfalls suggested that a storm striking the same areas as the 1915 hurricane would inflict $109.8 billion in damage when normalizing for 2018 demographics and inflation.
Florida and northern Gulf Coast
Although the hurricane did not make landfall on Florida as initially feared, the outer rainbands of the storm still produced tropical storm force winds and scattered downpours. Gusty winds spread across South Florida, with a wind reported in Key West and a wind reported in Miami. The hurricane's northernmost showers dropped heavy rains over Key West. The strongest gusts reached at Sand Key, located southwest of Key West. Damaged ships crippled by the hurricane in the eastern Gulf of Mexico were brought to Key West. The storm's fringes also impacted the northern U.S. Gulf Coast. Winds reached in Mobile, Alabama. A Mallory ocean liner was grounded on a sand bar offshore due to the winds. A thunderstorm in Waveland, Mississippi, killed one person and washed out of road along the beach.
Winds topped out at along the coast of Louisiana. A squall associated with the hurricane capsized a yacht with eight others on board in Lake Pontchartrain, drowning one person. Grand Isle was flooded under of water. All wharves and boathouses in Grand Lake were destroyed by the storm surge. The storm's waves also left 200 people stranded on Marsh Island. The southern half of Cameron Parish was inundated in saltwater, killing 70–90 percent of cattle and damaging many homes. Heavy rainfall in the state's western parishes flooded some of the area's smaller streams. Compromised telephone wires due to strong winds in the Shreveport area put 400 telephones out of service. Damage from the hurricane in Louisiana amounted to no greater than $1 million and was largely limited to rice and livestock amid the coastal marshes.
Texas
According to the Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, the 1915 Galveston hurricane produced impacts along the northern Texas coast (from Matagorda Bay to the state border with Louisiana), with impacts along the central Texas coast (from Corpus Christi to Matagorda Bay). A total of 275 deaths were recorded in Texas, including 206 on land and 69 at sea.
Galveston Island
The 1915 hurricane was the first major hurricane in the Galveston area since the construction of the Galveston Seawall following the 1900 Galveston hurricane, providing the first substantial test of the artificial barrier. Initial reports in The Houston Post drew comparisons between the strengths and paths of the 1915 hurricane and the 1900 hurricane. The Associated Press reported that storm refugees initially believed "Galveston's property loss [would] be greater than it was in 1900". Galveston mayor Lewis Fisher also tentatively estimated that the total property damage from the 1915 hurricane would be costlier. Although the 1915 hurricane lasted longer than the 1900 hurricane and was of comparable intensity, the seawall and timely warnings prevented a disaster of a similar scale. In their last received report before landfall, the Galveston News asserted that "the sea wall built to protect the city has stood the test". Located at the core of the hurricane's impacts, Galveston incurred roughly $6 million in damage and reported 11 fatalities.
Swells from the hurricane began reaching Galveston on the morning of August 15, rising steadily before rising and roughening significantly after the evening of August 17. Rail service in southeastern Texas was disrupted as the storm made landfall; a train from the Southern Pacific Transportation Company bound for Galveston was stopped in Seabrook and overnight sleeping cars destined for Houston from Galveston did not complete their treks. The last interurban railcar evacuating people in Galveston was stranded in Virginia Point after a power line was cut by the storm. During the hurricane's passage, many Galveston residents took refuge in public buildings, including an estimated 5,000 people at the Union Depot. Streetcar, electric, and gas service were all suspended as the storm made landfall. Three fires during the storm exacerbated the damage, partially burning three buildings and causing more than $100,000 in losses. Galveston officials heavily censored initial reporting from local media in order to curtail the spread of false rumors, rejecting most telegraph queries for information. Telecommunications from the Galveston News were cut after 8:20 p.m. CST on August 16 (01:20 UTC August 17), with the last surviving communications wires downed in the city by 9:00 p.m. CST on August 16 (02:00 UTC August 17). The first reports from Galveston after the storm emerged on August 19.
No official record of the storm surge height at Galveston was preserved as the tide gauges operated by the United States Geological Survey and United States Army Corps of Engineers were destroyed by the hurricane. However, measurements of high water marks by the Army Corps of Engineers at the intersection of 20th and Strand Streets indicated the maximum water level reached above the mean low tide height, suggesting water levels above those during the 1900 hurricane. Streets in the city's retail district were first submerged after 6 p.m. CST on August 16 (23:00 UTC), with roads eventually submerged under of water at the height of the storm; the inundation peaked at at the city's Union Depot. Floodwaters remained on the city streets before receding on the morning of August 18. Offshore, a buoy with a anchor and chain was blown west by the hurricane. The wide beach extending outwards from the Galveston Seawall was completely eroded by the storm surge, deposited in an offshore sandbar; the beach has only partially recovered since then. Two lighthouses, the Redfish Bar and Galveston Jetty lights, were damaged. A total of 24 vessels capsized offshore Galveston. Most ships in Galveston's wharves weathered the hurricane without much damage. The wharves themselves generally sustained minor damage and all were repairable. However, piers 10 and 21 were severely affected and among several destroyed piers. The USAT McClellan was torn adrift from pier 12 and grounded upon Pelican Island. Sheds in the area were also destroyed.
Houses closest to the Gulf coast, many of weak structural integrity, saw the severest impacts from the storm. All homes near the Seawall Boulevard east of 20th Street were destroyed. The rough seas eroded the underlying sand beneath buildings, causing their collapse. Other structures along the coast were also destroyed, including bath houses, fishing piers, and pavilions. Along Tremont Street, beach resort structures and a casino were destroyed, primarily by stones torn loose from the seawall's riprap. A 20-block length of Seawall Boulevard was destroyed by this erosion. Pavement along the road was destroyed between 6th and 18th Streets. However, the seawall itself largely held intact, with structural damage limited to two chips near 39th Street where a four-masted schooner, the Crockett, dragged two anchors into the wall. The ship lodged onto the wall during the storm, resulting in the Crockett disintegration with debris spread across Galveston's West End. The force of the waves dislodged granite blocks and carried them into the city streets. A six-block-long stretch of street railway was destroyed. Although the seawall was designed with a interior sand buffer sloping upwards to the city, only small patches were augmented by a surface layer of soil or sod. This allowed additional erosion behind the seawall, damaging 200 homes, of which most were declared uninhabitable and some destroyed. Southeastern parts of Galveston were covered by of sand.
The highest winds in Galveston were recorded at around 2:30 a.m. CST on August 17 (07:30 UTC), including maximum sustained winds of and a peak gust of . Strong winds shattered windows and blew down fences, outbuildings, and trees. In the city's business district, awnings and signs were damaged. Some tin roofs were torn by the winds, but overall wind damage in the district was minor. However, many business storehouses had their stocks damaged by flooding, particularly those containing dry goods. The city's water supply was cut after sections of the water main sourcing water from springs in Alta Loma were destroyed. The ends of the Galveston Causeway were reduced to their concrete foundations, necessitating $500,000 in repairs. The causeway's drawbridge was also destroyed, along with of the main bridge structure. Two interurban cars laid at rest at the destroyed drawbridge, partially submerged underwater. The city lost most of its telecommunication capacity when its Marconi wireless station was destroyed, limiting telegraph service to radio via the USAT Buford. Military installations at Fort Crockett were heavily damaged, with much of the grounds eroded and forts destroyed; damage there totaled over $500,000. Four soldiers stationed at the fort were killed. At least 90 percent of the 250 homes on Galveston Island outside the seawall's protection were destroyed. Throughout the island, there were 42 fatalities outside of Galveston. Port Bolivar was largely destroyed, and its port was mostly not rebuilt. Sixty people sought refuge at the Point Bolivar Light during the storm.
Southeastern Texas
Rough seas were reported throughout the Texas coast ahead of the storm on August 16, with waves cresting high. Coastal inundation of city streets was reported in all towns between Corpus Christi and Orange. Ten houses were destroyed in Victoria. Telephone service in the city was disrupted, rendering 165 telephones out of commission. The agitated waters of Matagorda Bay flooded the Matagorda Peninsula a day before landfall, and nearby Freeport observed their highest tide in many years. Many oil derricks in the area were destroyed. The life-saving station in Freeport near the mouth of the Brazos River was destroyed, killing 19 people. Upstream the Brazos River in Brazoria, strong winds damaged crops, fences, and trees. Most crops in Matagorda County withstood the storm, though 25–35 percent of the rice crop was lost, including Blue Rose, Honduras, and Japan varieties. Aside from cotton losses, Port Lavaca along Matagorda Bay suffered light damage to property. Bathhouses in Port Aransas were destroyed.
Several towns between Houston and Galveston, especially those along Galveston Bay, sustained heavy damage. Storm surge along the bay's coast swept away 85 homes at Seabrook, killing two; the Houston Chronicle described Seabrook as being "entirely annihilated". At Virginia Point, high storm surge destroyed the local hotel, killing 21 people. Lynchburg was reported in The Houston Post to have been "wiped off [the] map". Buildings were significantly damaged or destroyed in Dickinson, La Marque, League City, and Webster, though no fatalities occurred at these locales. A hundred bales of cotton, skiffs, small craft, and a buoy littered the Hitchcock area, accompanied by floodwaters that submerged railway tracks, preventing access to the Galveston Causeway. The flooding remained deep and inside homes the morning after landfall. The bodies of seven people were recovered in the city. At the height of the storm, winds there were estimated in excess of . Many freight cars were knocked onto their sides, with one blown off of its tracks. Another seven people were killed in the Morgan's Point area due to storm surge; one measurement of the tides there indicated that seas were higher than mean low tide. Hundreds of dead cattle and other animals washed ashore along the Morgan's Point bayfront. Six people were killed in La Porte and three in nearby Sylvan Beach.
Texas City was hard-hit by the hurricane, sustaining $400,000 in damage and the loss of 18 lives. Eight were killed following the collapse of the top two stories of a recently completed building. An estimated 250 people took shelter in the building, though a majority left when the building was first unroofed. An estimated 150 buildings, primarily small frame residences and structures, collapsed; eight businesses were destroyed. Some businesses and residences were unroofed, and while most remained standing, many frame buildings were torn from their foundations and lay afloat in the floodwaters. In total, damage to homes and businesses was estimated as between $35,000–$100,000. Damage to refineries amounted to $75,000 and losses to warehouses and piers amounted to $50,000. Total losses to the Texas City Transportation Company's shipping facilities was estimated at $200,000, including the loss of three large oil tanks and coastal installations. Several dredges were damaged and grounded at Texas City. Floodwaters deep swept the city streets. The U.S. Army camp in Texas City was destroyed, with the loss of most tents and wooden structures; ten soldiers were killed there. The dredge Sam Houston capsized in a channel off of Texas City, drowning 56–60 people; there were only three survivors. Two oil tank steamers were grounded between Texas City and Virginia Point while numerous small craft sank.
Sabine Lake overflowed its banks and inundated Port Arthur, flooding all one-story buildings; one street was submerged under of water. Residents sought refuge in the upper floors of the city's main buildings. An oil refinery in the western part of the city was flooded with of water, leaving its 150 workers stranded atop the site's buildings. At the height of the storm on the morning of August 17, winds reached in Port Arthur, lasting nearly two hours before subsiding. Strong winds blew away an entire telephone station. Beaumont lost all telecommunication capabilities, including service to over 1,500 telephones. The Southwestern Telegraph and Telephone Company estimated at least $50,000 in damage was dealt to its assets in the city. A Catholic church, frame buildings, and a grandstand were destroyed, while hundreds of windows were blown out by the hurricane. The city also lost all power during the night of landfall. With the exception of one, all oil derricks at the Sour Lake oilfield were destroyed. The surge pushed a 50,000-barrel oil tank inland into Nederland. Winds reached in Sabine Pass, where six people were killed; another three were killed in Beaumont. Widespread damage amounting to $25,000 occurred in Orange. Six smokestacks at a paper mill collapsed, damaging roofing below. Other factory smokestacks around the city also collapsed, damaging adjacent structures. Several ships held at port were damaged and some sank. Elsewhere in the southeastern Texas counties of Jefferson and Liberty, strong winds blew down corn, cotton, and rice crops, accounting for most of the damage in those counties.
Houston
A peak wind of was estimated in Houston at 8 a.m. CST on August 17 (13:00 UTC). The hurricane set a record for the most rainfall recorded in a 24-hour period in Houston with of rain. Most buildings in the city sustained some form of damage, amounting to a $1 million damage toll. Plateglass windows and business signage in Downtown Houston were destroyed. Vegetation in the city's residential districts was damaged. The downed trees and live power lines lay strewn across the city streets. Streetlights were turned off during the storm to reduce the risk of electrocutions. One person was killed after stepping upon a downed power line. The Southwestern Telegraph and Telephone Company conservatively estimated the damage to its communication lines in Houston at $100,000, making it the most disruptive incident in the company's history. Roughly half of the 20,000 phone lines in the city were inoperative, with an average of 200 lines knocked out of commission per hour.
The severest effects in Houston were realized in the shopping district, where store fronts were destroyed and the associated glass and wood debris scattered over several blocks. Numerous windows were blown out of many buildings while other buildings partially collapsed. The now penetrable façades allowed rainfall to cause additional interior water damage. Some of the wind-blown debris produced additional damage to buildings that otherwise withstood the winds themselves; pieces of slate from a Baptist church shattered nearly every window on the ground and mezzanine floors of a nearby furniture store, with windows broken up to the building's seventh story; total damage to the store was enumerated at $7,000. In the eastern parts of Houston around Harrisburg Road, homes were unroofed and large trees uprooted. Along Washington Avenue, chimneys were torn from houses and fences were either blown down or destroyed by fallen trees. West End Park suffered extensive damage with the roof and upper deck of the baseball field destroyed. Debris was widespread in South Houston, especially in areas with flat terrain and lacking in vegetation. Thousands of dollars of damage was wrought to homes and other buildings. Damage to schools across the Houston area amounted to $15,000. Virtually all roads in Harris County were damaged, resulting in a $100,000 toll.
Inland Texas
Winds of reached as far west as San Antonio. Crops across half of Texas were damaged by the storm as it pressed inland, including the loss of all open cotton and most late-season corn and rice. Many partly grown cotton bolls failed to open due to bruising from the storm, and roughly a quarter of all field cotton was lost. However, open ranges and forage crops benefited from rainfall. Several interior cities reported damage from the hurricane. Property damage was relatively minor in Angleton, where winds peaked at . Minor structures, including awnings, barns, and outhouses, were damaged. The hurricane wrought extensive damage to Brazos County, with strong winds destroying the chimneys and windows of numerous homes; the ruined façades resulted in widespread flooding of homes. Small houses and thousands of trees were toppled, as well as a -high oil derrick. Awnings were pulled apart from storefronts throughout the Main Street area, and the county courthouse was badly damaged. Two halls and small buildings were damaged at Texas A&M University, amounting to a damage toll of $5,000–$10,000. The Bryan Weekly Eagle reported that the storm had "no equal in the history of the county". Widespread damage also occurred in Rockdale and Caldwell. At Rockdale, the winds caused leaks in almost every house and tore down power lines, while store awnings and a church steeple were blown away in Caldwell. Telegraph and train service were out in Rosenberg, where business signage, trees, and wires were blown down by strong winds; the city incurred a $3,000 damage toll. A church and warehouse in Elgin were destroyed. Seven other towns reported major cotton losses and minor property damage. Lockhart lost 75–80 percent of their cotton and many of their shade trees. The cotton crop was entirely destroyed in Bastrop, Hallettsvile, Sealy, Shiner, and Smithville. About 15–25 percent of cotton across Central Texas was damaged, amounting to several millions of dollars in losses. In Travis County, more cotton bolls were open compared to other areas prior to the storm, making the county susceptible to greater losses. All unharvested corn was blown down in Lexington. In Williamson County, the storm was more destructive than the 1900 hurricane, damaging outhouses, windmills, and buildings on the Southwestern University campus. The county also lost 15,000–20,000 bales of cotton. Heavy rains and winds of were reported across the Dallas–Fort Worth area.
Rainfall from the hurricane spread across East Texas, with the heaviest rains occurring near the state border with Louisiana and tapering farther west. The highest precipitation total was in San Augustine; however, rainfall totals were likely undermeasured as the rain gauges could not accurately measure rain blown horizontally by the winds. Eighteen weather stations set 24-hour rainfall records for the month of August. On August 18, of rain was measured in McKinney, setting a 24-hour rainfall record for Collin County; a total of rain throughout the storm. Significant flooding occurred along the Sabine and Neches rivers, with minor flooding along the ends of the Trinity River. Supplied by rainfall amounts throughout their watersheds, the Sabine and Neches rivers remained flooded for the remainder of August, expanding to a width of in some locations. The rivers reached their highest stages on August 23, with the Neches River at Beaumont reaching a stage of ; this was the highest river stage for Beaumont since river observations began in September 1903. The elevated Neches River inundated a wide section of Orange County.
Interior United States
Ozarks
The remnants of the 1915 hurricane brought strong winds inland to the lower Ohio River Valley and severe flooding from Texas to New York. Heavy rains fell across much of Arkansas from August 17–21, flooding most rivers. Precipitation was heaviest within a narrow band extending from Mena to Hardy. Open cotton bolls and corn were beaten down by the precipitation. Many cities reported flooding after extended periods of continuous rainfall. The Ouachita River at Hot Springs reached its highest level on record, causing thousands of dollars in damage to crops. The White River experienced its worst flood overall since 1891, though upper portions of the river valley experienced unprecedented flooding. Entire towns were caught in the floodwaters, with bridges and buildings destroyed along the banks. All crops along the river upstream of DeValls Bluff were destroyed; these crops included corn and cotton at lowland farms, as well as stored hay. Corn and cotton suffered significant losses in Jamestown, McHue, Moorefield, Pfeiffer, and Sulphur Rock. In Independence County, of cropland were submerged by the White River. Newport was flooded after the local levee along the river was breached. The city's water and electricity plants went out of commission and all businesses were forced to close. The causeway across Newport Lake was washed out. Two steamers were later sent there to rescue flood-stricken residents. A family of five drowned at Oil Trough upstream. Many livestock also drowned from the rise of White River. Similar flooding occurred along the Strawberry River in Sharp County and the Black River in Lawrence County. The swollen Arkansas and Red rivers also caused damaging floods, albeit less severe than along the banks of the White River. Bridges and railroads were washed out by the Red and Saline rivers. Thirteen bridges along the Missouri and Northern Arkansas Railroad were damaged. Total losses from the storm in Arkansas amounted to $2.43 million.
Heavy rainfall from the weakening remnants also damaged crops and property between August 18–21 in eastern parts of the Ozark Plateau in Missouri. Saint Louis University in St. Louis recorded the highest precipitation total in the state at until 2022. St. Louis suffered catastrophic flooding from the remnants of the 1915 hurricane, recording the city's highest single-day rainfall total with on August 20. The rains were also accompanied by gusty winds topping out at . The River Des Peres overflowed its banks, flooding and encompassing many streets including Delmar Boulevard. Train and streetcar service throughout the city was halted. The Wabash Railroad station on Delmar Boulevard was isolated by floodwaters deep and wide. The station's platforms were swept away into the current. The city's sewage and drainage infrastructure clogged, leaving standing water in low-lying streets and preventing residents from eliminating floodwaters from their homes. Congested sewers were responsible for much of the flooding in the West End. Forest Park was flooded, submerging the golf course and endangering the St. Louis Zoo. The subway at Union Station was inundated by of water from Mill Creek. Numerous motor and horse-drawn vehicles became stranded in water. Along Manchester Avenue, homes and mills were destroyed by the fast-moving currents. Hundreds of people were forced to evacuate their homes by boat. All boats in three city parks were seized by the St. Louis Parks Department for use in rescue efforts. In the Carondelet neighborhood, 115 residents were rescued. Five thousand people were rendered homeless; the St. Louis Coliseum was opened as a temporary housing arrangement for displaced residents. Twenty people were killed in the floods, including a family of five at a one-room cottage near Hampton Avenue and six others in the Ellendale neighborhood. A total of 1,025 homes were damaged or destroyed. The Meramec River rose from the flooding, submerging the entire town of Valley Park southwest of St. Louis. Buildings were flooded to their second floors. Damage from the flooding in St. Louis County extending into western Illinois was estimated at $1 million.
Ohio River Valley
The hurricane's remnants contributed to the coolest and rainiest August in Illinois history. The storm tracked across the southern part of the state on August 20, bringing high winds and heavy rain. Rail service was delayed throughout central Illinois. The winds damaged corn throughout the southern half of the state, with the crop damage worsened by rivers overflowing their banks. Widespread precipitation totals of were recorded, with a localized area of totals within of St. Louis, Missouri. Flooding occurred in the state's southwestern counties southward to Jackson County. Many farm animals drowned and bridges and railroads were washed out. A levee breach resulted in the flooding of Benbow City, East Alton, and western Wood River. Many factories suspended operations due to floods, including cartridge and gunpowder producers who incurred $250,000 in damage. Two companies' factories were overtaken by flooding with their 400 employees narrowly escaping. The rains in East St. Louis overloaded the city's sewage system and drainage canal, flooding adjacent homes. Fifty houses were inundated in Belleville. Richland Creek, which runs through Belleville, had expanded from its normal width to a width of as a result of the rainfall.
Corn and tobacco crops were damaged in Christian and Trigg counties in Kentucky by the storm's winds. In Louisville, five-minute sustained winds peaked at . Crops were also damaged at Lone Oak in McCracken County, including apple and peach trees. Telecommunications were disrupted in Paducah after telephone and telegraph wires were damaged by the storm's winds. Street lights in the city were also knocked out amid power interruptions. Winds of were measured in Nashville, Tennessee. One person was injured in Nashville by a plateglass window blown out by the wind, while another person in the city was injured after a wind-loosened sign fell upon them. The winds downed a few telecommunication lines across Tennessee.
Aftermath
Following the hurricane's passage, the director of Jamaica's railways, Sydney Couper, established headquarters at Annotto Bay to oversee extensive railway repairs. The island's banana, coconut, and coffee exports for 1915 were reduced relative to 1914 as a result of the storm, contributing to a trade deficit of $480,782 for the year and a decrease of $3.3 million in total exports relative to 1914.
A meeting to discuss aftermath management was assembled on August 17 at Galveston's Cotton Exchange Building, with Mayor Fisher presiding and representatives of the city's interests present. Drinking water was made available on request via the pumping station on 33rd Street, which would be able to supply potable water for two weeks. The mayor also ordered the establishment of a milk depot. Fisher ordered all Galveston saloons closed and persons suspected of liquor possession searched. He asserted at the meeting that federal assistance was likely unnecessary, instead convening a relief committee composed of 50 members of the city's commercial association, maritime association, retail merchants' association, cotton exchange, and labor council, with the head of each group appointing 10 people to the committee. Members of the U.S. Fifth Brigade assisted with local residents in recovery efforts. Cleanup work quickly began on the Galveston Causeway and construction began on a temporary trestle bridge connecting Galveston and Virginia Point. Longer-term plans to restore the causeway were deliberated upon by engineers at a conference in Houston on August 31. By September, rail service with Galveston was reestablished. Fireboats pumped sewage and debris from the city out into Galveston Harbor. Seven salvage firms presented bids to refloat steamships grounded by the hurricane. The cities of San Antonio and Dallas each delivered approximately 10,000 loaves of bread to Houston for distribution in affected areas. Several infrastructure plans were forwarded to mitigate impacts from storms like the 1915 hurricane, including elevating the city further and extending the seawall; these proposals would necessitate millions of dollars.
Texas Governor James E. Ferguson directed the state to "render all assistance possible to Galveston, should the seriousness of the situation warrant such action"; he and members of his executive staff later traveled to the city to assess the situation. Ferguson later called for relief supplies and funds to be sent to Austin, primarily for communities outside Houston and Galveston. The Texas Adjutant General, John A. McCalmont, prepared blankets, cots, and tents for shipment to Houston and Galveston for storm refugees. Militia companies from Austin were sent to oversee the distribution of relief supplies. Houston Mayor Benjamin Campbell compelled several hundred city residents at a meeting on August 17 to determine the necessary aid needed for Galveston; at the time, there was a lack of information on the storm's impacts arising from Galveston. A steamer was later dispatched at Campbell's behest to investigate the hurricane's effects there. Campbell also barred people from traveling to Galveston without permits describing their intent and requesting admittance into the city; travelers were stopped in Texas City to verify permits. Due to the damage wrought to West End Park in Houston, the Houston Ball Club transferred their remaining games in the 1915 season in San Antonio. The Corpus Christi Caller organized a storm relief fund, and a similar fund was organized by Waco residents.
Fifty men with motor boats and skiffs were dispatched on a special Kansas City Southern Railway train to assist in rescue operations in Port Arthur. Following the storm, Texas City was placed under martial law, accompanied by 4,400 soldiers either stationed or taking refuge in the city. Major General J. Franklin Bell issued rations for soldiers and civilians. Bell also requested clothing for soldiers of the Second Division of the U.S. Army stationed there after their camp was destroyed; ultimately, U.S. Secretary of War Lindley Miller Garrison decided not to rebuild the camp, resulting in the division's relocation. In order to prevent the spread of disease, over a hundred animal carcasses were burned in Texas City.
See also
List of Texas hurricanes (1900–1949)
1932 Freeport hurricane
1909 Velasco hurricane
Notes
References
Sources
Citations
External links
University of Houston Digital Library , view more pictures of the 1915 Galveston Hurricane
1910s Atlantic hurricane seasons
1915 Galveston
Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes
Hurricanes in Texas
1915 meteorology
Hurricane
Galveston Hurricane
1915 in Cuba
1915 natural disasters in the United States
August 1915 events
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genseishin%20Justirisers
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Genseishin Justirisers
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, translated into English as Phantom Star God Justirisers, is a tokusatsu superhero TV series produced by Toho and airing on TV Tokyo. This series is the second in Toho's Seishin (Star God) series. The show aired 51 episodes between October 2, 2004 and September 24, 2005.
Justirisers
The Justirisers
The Justirisers are three chosen humans who are given the mysterious Justipower, the "Earth's will" that was discovered by the Riserseijin Noulan who utilized it to seal away Kaiser Hades long ago. Each of those powers are based on the Four Symbols of Chinese Origin. Each one is equipped with an In-Loader. By combining Justipower and characteristic element in their body, the In-Loader makes them generate a high-powered suit of armor which transforms them into a Justiriser. The transformation call is "Souchaku!" ("Equip!"). The In-Loader also acts as a communications device between the three Justirisers.
Shouta Date / Riser Glen Shouta Date is a 2nd-year high-school student at Seitai High School. He is known to slack off from both schoolwork and kendo practice. He does not take most things as seriously as he should, and it does not really change throughout the series. Shouta, as is the first Justiriser to awaken on-screen upon facing the attack from the CyberKnights, and the first to summon GenSeiJuu Riseross. After becoming a Justiriser, he takes up the job of protecting humanity instantly, and begins to take his kendo practice more seriously… although not his schoolwork. He also happens to be a fan of boxing Champion Naoto Matsuzaka (Sazer Tawlon from the Gransazers) who helped him regain his own Justi Power and In Loader. Using Glen's In Loader, Shouta transforms into Riser Glen, the Justiriser that is formed by combination with 'Courage' in his body and uses the power of it. His red-colored suit's design is based on the Samurai from Japan's Warring States Period with his helmet having the Phoenix Motif. Glen's Justi Power specializes in close-range combat and harnesses Flame Energy in his attacks, including his punching move "Blazing Knuckle" and his aerial-kicking move "Cross-Fire Kick". Riser Glen's main weapon is the Katana Blade "Glen Sword", which can be unsheathed for better offensive capability and can be re-sheathed to charge up his Justi Power of Fire for his signature finisher, "Raging Flame", which releases a destructive wave of blazing slashes from his sword. He later picks up a more powerful finisher, "Flash Blazer" which is a backhand slash that releases a single wave of extremely powerful blazing slash to counter more powerful enemies. Later in the series, Shouta also becomes the vessel for the power of Shirogane with the use of Mio's Justi Spark. As Riser Shirogane, Shouta seems to be in control but does not act up like he does, even as Riser Glen. He has feelings for Yuka. He worries a lot for her safety, sacrificing his Justi Power to save Yuka's life when Zora fatally wounded her. But it took Naoto's guidance and the Justi Crystal gathering energy that resonated with Shouta's courage (the Justipower that powers Glen) to completely restore Shouta's Justiriser powers. Shouta also happens to work as a part-time Dispatch Rider like Tenma Kuudo (Sazer Tarious in Gransazers) does.
Yuka Sanada / Riser Kageri Yuka Sanada is also a 2nd-year Seitai High School Student like Shouta, and is the captain of the school’s Lacrosse team. Unlike Shouta, who is set in his path of protecting humanity, Yuka is much more conflicted. She would rather go back to being a regular schoolgirl, as her duties interfere more and more with her social life. But when confronted with danger, she does not hesitate to fight. Shouta was worried for her protection, which Yuka in the end shows that she can handle the dangers of being in harms way. She also has feelings for Shouta. Her awakening as a Justiriser came after a monster attack in which she tries to save a young girl from collapsing rubble in which the Justi Power of Wind created a barrier to protect both of them, and she was given her Kageri's In Loader in the process which she only used it after she saw Shouta becoming Riser Glen and decides to save him while he was attacked the second time. Using the In Loader, Yuka transforms into Riser Kageri, the Justiriser that is formed by combination with 'Virtue' in her body and uses the power of it. Her marine-colored suit's design is based on the Japanese Kuno-ichi (Female Ninja) with her helmet bearing the Tiger Motif. Kageri's Justi Power utilizes powers of Wind in her Shinobi-style moves with High-Speed attacks being her specialty, allowing her to perform moves such as "Tornado Splash" that allows her to evade enemy attacks. Riser Kageri's main weapon is the cross-bow style weapon "Kageri Striker", which can be used either as a storage for her Kageri Daggers to throw against enemies, or activate its close-combat form "Claw Attacker" for close-quarters combat. Kageri's finisher "Phantom Crush", harnesses the charging of the Justi Power of Wind into the Kageri Striker to fire off a powerful energy arrow at the enemy.
Shinya Hiraga / Riser Gant Shinya Hiraga is a 2nd-year College student in Kyonan University majoring in robotic engineering. Shinya is much more serious than either Shouta or Yuka, and although he uses his powers as to fight, the fighting troubles him. He does not believe in just fighting to protect humanity, and questions why they were given the power, and what for. It takes much for anyone to become friends with him, and earning his trust is hard. Sometimes his strong heroic sense of chivalry leads to protecting Mio since he has deep feelings for the guardian, lest he wants to protect her from any harm. Several females high school students called him "Shin-sama". A running gag in the series where Yuka's Lacrosse teammates; Rio Matsubara and Asami Segawa looking him. He decided running away from them, making his college friends teasing about it. His awakening traces back from the same incident as Yuka which he helped in the evacuation of those running away from the attack, but caught himself nearly crushed by the rubble caused in which the Justi Power of Thunder indwelled him and created a similar barrier that protected him. And he was given Gant's In Loader as a result. Using the In Loader, Shinya transforms into Riser Gant, the Justiriser that is formed by combination with 'Wisdom' in his body and uses the power of it. The design of his black-colored suit's is based on the Japanese Yamabushi (Hermit Monks of the Shugendo Doctrine), with the helmet design having the Tortoise Motif. Gant's Justi Power harnesses Thunder energy and specializes in ranged combat. Riser Gant's main weapon is the twin-barreled shotgun "Gant Slugger" that works effectively in medium-to-long range shooting. The weapon can also be changed into another form called the "Gant Rifle" for longer-range precision shooting. As a shooting weapon, the Gant Slugger/Rifle expedites energy for its shooting moves and requires a re-holstering of the weapon to replenish the energy within the weapon for prolonged combat. The "Gant Slugger" can be powered-up to become the "Gant Buster" which activates two additional barrels at the centre of the weapon as well as the Target Anchor that locks onto the enemy, allowing Gant to perform this form's finisher "Varsus Cannon" that shoots out powerful lightning bolts from all its barrels to pulverize his enemy, while another of Gant's finisher "Thrust Shoot" can be performed with the "Gant Rifle" mode.
Riser Shirogane The "Legendary Hero of the Azure Planet", Riser Shirogane is the physical manifestation of JustiPower sealed away within the Justi Crystal that Nolun gave to the Tendo Clan centuries ago. However, by combining the hearts of the three Justirisers, and the prayers of the Justi Crystal bearer, Glen becomes the vessel through which Shirogane comes into being. Becoming Shirogane grants Glen immense power that can easily defeat even the strongest enemy. It also changes Shouta's personality to a calmer and non-violent kind, contrasting the original to such an extent that he has on many occasions even spared an enemy or gave them a chance to retreat, only to be forced to kill them when they refuse. Becoming Shirogane caused shock to Shouta's body the first few times, but afterward he was able to transform without difficulty. However becoming Shirogane takes an even larger toll on Mio, and she is usually unconscious for some time after a battle in which he is summoned. Shirogane can summon forth the multi-mode weapon "Justi Arms" in combat. This powerful weapon has three modes that is reflective of the three Justirisers' Specialties: "JustiBlade" resembling Riser Glen's close-combat specialty; "JustiBlaster" resembling Riser Gant's ranged combat specialty; and "JustiLancer" resembling Riser Kageri's speed combat specialty. Its core power has the combined powers of all 3 Justirisers magnified by the JustiCrystal that Mio holds and lasts as long as she can maintain the unity within it. Its powerful finisher "JustiCrash" is also a resemblance of Riser Glen's "Raging Flame" finisher but with the combined powers of the three Justirisers' energy that is capable of taking out the most powerful of enemies. In the final battle, the fusion of Mio's Justi Crystal and Rigel's Riser Power gave birth to a new "Mirage Power" that allowed the three Justirisers as well as their GenSeiShin to fuse into one single entity in the form of a "Giant Riser Shirogane" to take on the Giant Kurogane Beast. This form and finisher is exactly the same one as the human-sized version, but scaled-up in magnitude and power as well as gaining the power to deflect attacks similar to that of Shirogane's GenSeiShin "Ryuuto".
Genseishin
The Justirisers' mecha are stored within the Storage Satellite Shade Star, a spaceship Noulan created to support Earth. Though normally in Earth's orbit, the Shade Star enters Earth when Ryuto is invoked, during Daruga's attack on Riseross and the Seishinjuu, and finally fighting Kurogane before it is destroyed.
'Seishinjuu' translates to 'Star Beast', 'Genseishin' translates to 'Mystic Star God'
Genseijuu Riseross
Height 53.0 meters
Width 18.9 meters
Weight 6,500 tons
Maximum Running Speed 220 kilometers per hour
Maximum Flying Speed Mach 3.0
Maximum Horsepower 20m BHP
Built by Noulan, Riseross is a giant dragon/Yellow Dragon dinosaur/Megalosaurus type robot that can be summoned by any of the three Justirisers, though it requires all three Justirisers to be in its cockpit to harness its full power. While the main Justiriser controls Riseross, the other two can summon and control their own Seishinjuu (Enoh, Kouki, Ranga) remotely from the cockpit of Riseross to support the main mecha.
It has many powerful weapons of its own, including: Zeross Cannon, destructive super-heated plasma missiles fired from its shoulder cannons; Zeross Flare, which involves firing an energy beam from its mouth; and Zeross Crusher, a pair of serrated wheels on its chest that can spin and slice into the enemy.
It is the base to which each of the specific Seishinjuu combine with, to form a more powerful robot called a Genseishin. The Riseross that was used by the Justirisers was the prototype unit that was destroyed near the end of the series, and Demon Knight went straight into the Shade Star to assist Nolan in rebuilding and activating the other 2 slightly weaker mass-production units in storage, allowing each of the Justirisers to pilot their own Genseishin modes by combining with the mass-produced Riserosses to repel the final enemies.
SeiShinJuu Enoh
Length 38.5 meters
Width 52.0 meters
Height 6.5 meters
Weight 3,200 tons
Maximum Flying Speed Mach 5.5
Seishinjuu Enoh is the personal Seishinjuu of Riser Glen which he can summon through his In Loader, its main weapons include the Phoenix Vulcan that fires Mini Lasers from guns on its wings and Brave Crescent that fires blazing beams from its head. Its finisher is the Shining Slicer where it rams straight into the enemy with its wings basked in Plasma Energy.
Enoh's name means "Flame Phoenix" and is represented by Suzaku, and combines with Riseross to form Genseishin Ken Riser.
Genseishin Ken Riser
Height 51.0 meters
Width 28.0 meters
Weight 9,700 tons
Maximum Running Speed 270 kilometers per hour
Maximum Horsepower 40m BHP
Debuted in Episode 6 where Mio Tendo tells Riser Glen to summon his own Seishinjuu, Ken Riser is the combined form of Enoh and Riseross where Enoh forms the head and arms of the Ken Riser while Riseross forms the body and legs. In this form, Riser Glen becomes the main pilot within the cockpit of Riseross.
Ken Riser is a close-combat specialized Genseishin with its twin Katana Swords "Yuuhouken Riser Saber". He can perform close-ranged moves such as Arm Blazer, a chopping move that is ignited with heat-infused plasma, and Riser Burn in which it can activate its shoulder emblems to create a flame tornado that burns giant enemies.
The Riser Sabers are used to perform two of its finishers: Its main finisher is the Mega Heat Slash, an extremely powerful attack which fuses both its Katanas into the single Brave Phoenix Sword that cleaves the enemies into two with Flame Energy, and Cross Fire-Burst which the Riser Sabers turn into long fiery whips and perform a highly destructive Flaming Cross-Slash on the enemy.
Ken Riser has destroyed and annihilated more Kaijus than any other Genseishin, almost always with Mega Heat Slash.
Seishinjuu Kouki
Length 32.0 meters
Width 40.5 meters
Height 19.5 meters
Weight 5,400 tons
Maximum Flying Speed Mach 2.8
Seishinjuu Kouki is the personal Seishinjuu of Riser Gant which he can summon through his In Loader, this is a defensive type of Seishinjuu that possess powerful shell armor that can be used to deflect enemy beam fire. Main attacks include Battle Shooter where its cannons fire Thunderbolt shots against enemies, 3-round missiles called Turtle Missiles from its front legs and Turtle Thunder which lightning bolts are fired from its shell.
Kouki's name means "Spark Turtle" and is represented by Genbu, and combines with Riseross to form Genseishin Juu Riser.
Genseishin Juu Riser
Height 43.0 meters
Width 35.0 meters
Weight 11,900 tons
Maximum Running Speed 150 kilometers per hour
Maximum Horsepower 55m BHP
Debuted in Episode 8 where Ken Riser have problems dealing with a monster that excels in ranged combat, Riser Gant remembered the paper that he read from Mio about the Seishinjuus and realized that he can summon his own Seishinjuu to match up with the firepower of the enemy. Juu Riser is the combined form of Kouki and Riseross where the body of Kouki splits into two to become the legs and upper torso with Riseross flips over to form the central body and its legs becoming the arms of the combined mecha, finishing it with the tail of Riseross becoming the horn cannon of Juu Riser. In this form, Riser Gant becomes the main pilot within the cockpit of Riseross.
Juu Riser is designed to be less mobile in movement, but is advantageous when defense and firepower is needed to take out giant enemies, in which this Genseishin has plenty of. As a mobile fortress type of Genseishin, it possesses a pair of Riser Cannons for artillery firing, the main weapon "Chigenhou Riser Buster" derived from Riseross' tail cannon for heavier blasts, and a powerful pair of claws derived from the legs of Riseross called Magna Grasper which can be used to deliver powerful slashes or perform a spinning slash.
Its artillery finisher Thunder Burst delivers savage blows of destruction to enemies through firing of all its ranged weapons simultaneously.
Seishinjuu Ranga
Length 51.5 meters
Width 23.5 meters
Height 22.0 meters
Weight 4,200 tons
Maximum Flight Speed Mach 2.0
A giant blue tiger, is the personal Seishinjuu of Riser Kageri which she can summon through her In Loader, this is an attacking type of Seishinjuu that possess powerful claws that can be used to attack its enemies. The main attacks include Slash Claw where its claws can be used to attack the enemies and Howling Burst which is a wave burst released from its mouth to weaken the enemies.
Ranga is represented by Byakko. It can be combined with Riseross to form Genseishin Nin Riser.
Genseishin Nin Riser
Height 51.0 meters
Width 28.0 meters
Weight 10,700 tons
Maximum Running Speed 300 kilometers per hour
Maximum Horsepower 40m BHP
Debuted in Episode 16 where the Justirisers have problems dealing with Doctor Zora in her giant form that excels them using her teleportation power although they have switched the mecha from Ken Riser to Juu Riser. While they try to find the way to overcome the problems that cause Juu Riser to be overpowered by giant Doctor Zora, the blue-colored Ranga finally appears to save Juu Riser from being continuously attacked by the enemy. At that time, Riser Kageri realized that Ranga is the only one Seishinjuu that belongs to her after Riser Glen and Riser Gant had already summoned their Seishinjuus before. Without hesitation, she immediately tells Riser Gant that she will take over the mecha by combining Riseross with Ranga to form the third Genseishin. is the combined form of Ranga and Riseross, which the body of Ranga splits into two to form the head, upper torso and arms, while Riseross uses its back as the front body of Nin Riser. In this form, Riser Kageri becomes the main pilot within the cockpit of Riseross.
Nin Riser is built for high-speed battles and can fight both long and short range, the Riser Striker, a pair of blades, being its main melee weapons and the Howling Burst being its primary ranged attack. Its final strike Typhoon Slicer, involves firing a massive cyclone from each shoulder, engulfing the enemy in a powerful typhoon before destroying it by slashing it with the Riser Striker.
Seishinjuu Ryuto
A winged, two-headed dragon that can be summoned by either Justiriser Shirogane or Demon Knight, is manifested from the Shade Star. It can combine with Riseross to form , the ultimate Genseishin that is primarily piloted by Justiriser Shirogane and able to fire the Justi Nova. Its primary attack is Double Shock Buster, whereby each of Ryuto's dragon heads fire powerful bolts of golden lightning from their mouths. Ryuto is represented by Seiryuu.
Ultimate Genseishin Justi Kaiser
Ultimate Genseishin Justi Kaiser is the most powerful of the four Genseishin, and can fight very well in both short-range and long-range combat. Like Juu Riser, Justi Kaiser is the combined form of Ryuto and Riseross where the body of Ryuto splits into two to form the head, upper torso and legs with Riseross flips over to form the central body and its legs becoming the arms of the combined mecha, finishing it with the head of Justi Kaiser appears. It mainly relies on close combat, where its high-infinite strength along with its powerful clawed hands allow it to deflect seemingly unstoppable enemy attacks (such as when it easily deflected all of the drill projectiles of Megarion with just its claws) or gain the upper hand in battle (such as against a giant Kaiser Hades, where it easily shattered his massive sword). It uses its chest for its ultimate finishing attack, Justi Nova, which releases an immensely powerful burst of multicolored energy that is capable of destroying even the strongest giant space beast in one hit, including Kaiser Hades in his giant form.
Allies
Allies in Justirisers are their support and struggle to defend the earth from enemy invasion and mission to defeated all enemy in the story episodes.
A young heiress to the Tendo estate, she inherited the Justi Crystal. Reika, her assistant and personal bodyguard, accompanies her, Mio leaves Hoshiyama Island to find the Justirisers and stays close to them at all times. When Shouta becomes Riser Shirogane, not only does the crystal drain him, but it also drains her life force to the point of exhaustion. Initially. she is depicted as the damsel in distress. However, she later act as groups' mentor, much to the crush of Kenta in one particular episode and her inexperience to domestic chores like cooking or baking cookies. In battle, she can hold her own, as she is an excellent archer. She falls in love with Shinya (Riser Gant).
She is Mio's "bodyguard" specializing in hand-to-hand combat. She can hold her own against Hades' monsters while the Risers fighting elsewhere. Much to some comical situations where she and Mio are under the Date household and assists in the appliance shop. She also arms herself with various kinds of batons, clubs, and truncheons. She values Mio as much as she can in protecting her and the duty that she is going to partake. She fell in love with Jinno after a period of time, eventually becoming a medium for the Riser Power.
(18-51) Originally the 450-old Riserian "Legendary Knight" Rigel, Noulan's younger brother. He possessed the Riser Stone. Being the last of his people after being forced to watch his planet's princess die, Demon Knight was taken under Hades' wing after his memory was wiped out, mentored by the Death Commander Danhauser. Donning the alias of , he attempts to trick the Justirisers into thinking that he might be an ally, luring Mio into a trap in order to learn of the JustiPower and report his findings to Bacchus. But once exposed, Jinno battles the Justirisers in both human form and as Demon Knight. As the Justirisers grow as warriors, Demon Knight starts to harbor a rivalry against Glen after being defeated by him when the Justiriser achieved his full potential and causing him to lose his ability to change. After being saved by Danhauser, he manages to regain his ability to become Demon Knight at the cost of Danhauser being fatally wounded when he took an attack meant for Demon Knight. But before he died, Danhauser managed to give Jinno the truth behind his full potential yet to be revealed but unable to tell him of his true nature. It was only after Shouta saved him from Hades and then the appearance of Mira that Demon Knight's true nature is revealed, eventually joining the Justirisers as an ally against the Daruga Army. He takes his mission very seriously, so much so that he neglects his own well-being for the sake of accomplishing it. Eventually, he develops feelings for Reika, who later becomes associated with Riser Power. Jinno later loses the full capability of Riser Power to Daruga. Afterward, Jinno learns that Drake was the one who killed Riser Planet's princess, and kills him. During the final battle with Kurogane, Jinno adds his Riser Power to Mio's Justi power to give the Justirisers the energy to transform into Giant Shirogane to finish off Giant Kurogane. He bids farewell to Shouta, Yuka, Shinya, Mio and Reika as he pilots Ryuuto to go back to his home world. Demon Knight's weapon is the Knight Schwert, which is a sword which is heavily influenced by German design (Schwert=sword), bearing the Iron Cross near its hilt. His finishing move is the Knight Cleaver, which shoots a large energy ball. He later also has another finishing move, the Final Knight Cleaver, which shoots out energy swords all around Demon Knight.
Shouta's strict but kind and loving father. He owns an appliance center. Upon learning of his son as one of the Justirisers, he offers his aid to the team.
He is Shouta's best friend since they were children. In episode 40, Tohru has a nephew named Kazuya, who is emotionless since his older sister as well as Kazuya's mother were hospitalized. At the end of episode 40, Tohru surprised Kazuya smiling again.
She is one of two of Yuka's Lacrosse teammates.
She is one of two Yuka's Lacrosse teammates.
Commander Kujo He is a JSDF official who blindly followed orders to attack the Justirisers until realizing something's not right after seeing protect the JSDF base first hand. He later investigates, and tests Shirakawa, his superior, by asking about his daughter, while implying that she was a boy by a form of address. Adorocs, not knowing that Shirakawa had a child, fell for the trick and failed to correct Kujo. Confirming that he and the others were used by Adorocs possessing their superior, Kujo helps the Justirisers by giving them back their In-Loaders. He again tricks Adorocs later by shooting an unloaded pistol at Shirakawa's body, forcing Adorocs to escape to no avail.
Enemies
Enemies in Justirisers divided into two parts, they are: Kaiser Hades and Daruga Imperial Army who want to defeat Justirisers and (capture, invade and destroy) Earth, but all of them are eliminated in the story episodes.
Hades Army
The are the primary antagonists of the first series. Having devastated Planet Riser, the Hades Army turned its attention to Earth. It would only turn out that the Hades Army is actually a branch of the Daruga Imperial Army.
(1-33) He is the series principal villain, a demonic figure armed with sword and shield whose goal is to become the ruler of the universe by destroying the only two planets whose power opposed him, Earth and Riser. 450 years ago, after wiping out the Riserians' Planet, Kaiser Hades and his fleet battle Noulan's Fleet in a battle for Earth that ends with him crash landing to the Earth during the time of the Feudal Era and sealed by Nolun herself within Kamishiro Mountain using the 7 Stellar Plates as key points to maintain the seal through constellation of Orion with the key-plate placed on Hades himself. By present day, Doctor Zora who eventually begins to destroy the Stellar Plates to undo the seal found in Hades. Though revived, the injury he received from Rise Glen forces Hades to leave in his battleship into subspace, summoning Bachuss and his Death Commandos to kill the Justirisers while sending Demon Knight to Earth. But once his plan to destroy Earth with the Magnesheldar and Sonic Crusher, Hades decides to kill the Justirisers personally to obtain their JustiPower and Demon Knight's RiserPower to become unstoppable. But when his plan is foiled during his fight against Shirogane, Hades enlarges into his true form. But Shadestar's appearance leads to Hades' demise by JustiKaiser. However, prior to his death, Hades sends his power to Daruga.
(1-16, 42-43) She is a female fox-armored scientist who is devoted to freeing her master Kaiser Hades from his prison. Arriving at Earth and finding the resting place of Kaizer Hades in Kamishiro Mountain, she uses her Cyber Knights to attack Earth. But after the three Justirisers appeared, Zora personally attempts to kill the Justirisers, but was shattered by the team. However, Zora regenerates into a new stronger fighting form and begins going after the Stellar Plates to break the seal keeping Hades trapped. She personally battles the Justirisers when they search for the Seventh key Plate at Kamishiroyama, using her teleportation power to divide and conquer them. She almost kills them when Mio invoked her JustiPower in her crystal to drive Zora back. When the Justirisers flee the hidden base after encountering Hades, Zora attacks the Justirisers as she destroys the Stellar Plate. Though the Justirisers attempt to intervene, Zora shatters the key plate and frees Hades as she is wounded by then as they manage to turn the tables on her. However, as Hades' ship emerges from Kamishiro Mountain, Zora enlarges into a giant monster to keep Riseross from intercepting it. Though she over-powers Ken Riser and JuuRiser, Ranga's arrival turns the tables and NinRiser is formed as it kills Zora. Revived by Adorocs, Zora nearly killed Riser Kageri before going after Mio's Justi Crystal. However, she acts on her own to sake her own desire for revenge against her and the other Justi Risers. Weakened by a revived Riser Glen, Zora is killed for good by Kageri.
(17-30, 42-43) He is summoned by Kaiser Hades to fight the Justirisers with his Death-Commandos, armed with a sword he uses in his Vertical Divide attack. Being a warrior himself, he easily overpowered the Justirisers himself in his initial introduction, attempting to offer Gant the chance to join his army. After Twins Knight's defeat by Shirogane, Bachuss goes after the Justirisers to force them to bring out Shirogane. But they fail to invoke him, Bachuss decides to mercilessly attack the Justirisers in hope that Shirogane manifests using Gentarou as a hostage before Mio arrives and the JustiPower knocks him back to Hades. He later appears on Hoshikami Island to eliminate Mio and Yuka to ensure Shirogane would never be summoned. However, when Demon Knight forces him to aid him, Bachuss attempts to kill Demon Knight along with the Justirisers. Bachuss explains to Hades that he can handle the Justisers on his own, staking his life on it. After defeating Kageri, he is confronted by Demon Knight who fights him to pay back for the earlier attempt on his life. But Shouta's interference allows him to escape with Shouta thinking that Demon Knight wounding Yuka. He later uses Glen to take out Demon Knight before taking out the Justiriser. Kageri and Gant battle Bachuss until Shouta becomes Shirogane and kill Bachuss. Revived by Adorocs, he goes after Demon Knight's Riser Stone. However, he is forced to fall back by Glen and Kageri. However, he acts on his own to sake her own desire to kill Demon Knight. But Demon Knight kills him off when Demon Knight and Gant combine their signature attacks.
Cyber Knights
The are monsters used by Doctor Zora to attack the humans.
(1-2) A wolf-armored knight sent by Doctor Zora to begin the attack on Earth until he is confronted by Riser Glen. He is later sent after Shouta, he was killed by Riser Glen when the villain made the fight personal with his attempt on Sanada's life.
(3) He is sent by Doctor Zora to assassinate Shouta, able to shoot chains from his forearm that work with his super human-strength and teleportation. But the debut of Riser Kageri leads him wounded and forced to retreat. But after being upgraded by Zora so he can discharge electricity into his chains, Morgulis is sent after Yuka until Shouta forces him away from Asami and Rio. But though Morgulis overpowered the two Justirisers, Riser Gant arrives and blasts the Cyber Knight.
(6) Based around the data Doctor Zora obtained on the Justirisers, Gildoross is sent after the Justirisers and able to counter their attacks. But though defeated by their combo, Gildoross enlarges into a giant monster that battles Riseross before emerging again. How Enoh's arrival allow the Justirisers to form Ken Riser.
(7-8) Sent to destroy the Stellar Plates in order to undo the seal, destroying the first one as a result in his giant robot form. While going after the second plate at Shimura Mountain, Armor Gunner engages Gant in a battle of marksmen as Glen attempts to protect the plate. But once the Justirisers gather, Armor Gunner retreats after he destroys the plate. After destroying the third plate in Mikazuki and losing to the Justirisers, Armor Gunner assumes his giant form while defeating Ken Riser with his firepower. However, Armor Gunner is destroyed by Ju Riser.
(9-10) Sent after the third Plate, Rhino Slave uses brute strength and can generate heat from his horn. He overpowers Riser Glen until Riser Gant and Riser Kageri arrive to support him, retreating before Riser Glen lands the deathblow. Rhinoslave later returns during the crisis at the coast of Ishihara, attacking Riser Glen. After destroying the plate while giving Nimeaya in the process, a furious Glen kills him.
(11) Sent after the fourth plate, he attacked Hiroyuki his power over wind and superspeed to get the plate. But before Zekard can destroy it, he is halted by Kageri who steals the plate. But after a long chase, Zekard nearly kills Yuka while Riser Glen comes to her aid. After Kageri and Gant defeat him.
(12, 28) Created to finish Zekard's mission, Guardius is actually the puppet of Deadler, used to find the fourth plate before withdrawing once he learns the plate is not on the Justirisers. Once destroying the fifth plate, Guardius battles the Justirisers until Buglian arrives to bring Riseross as Deadler reveals itself. Though it overpowered Ken Riser, Guardius is destroyed by Juu Riser.
(13-14) Sent after the Stellar Plate the Justirisers possess, Rajimeus is hydrokinetic in his power to assume a liquid form. Glen and Kageri fight him when he attacks Gentaro who ended by the plate by mistake, creating water clones of himself as decoys before he escapes. Later using Gillmone as a cover to go after the sixth plate, Rajimeus battles Riser Glen when he intervenes. But Rajimeus manages to destroy the plate and withdraws, later returning to take the plate the Justirisers have. Once realizing the secret of Rajimeus' water clones, Riser Glen manages to kill him.
(14) A sniper sent after the Stellar Plate the Justirisers possess, he battles Gant to get it. However, when at a disadvantage, the other Justirisers arrive too late as the bag the plate was thought to be contained in is destroyed as Gant destroys Gundelon.
Death Commandos
Hades' elite bodyguards, the five serve under General Bachuss and assigned the task of killing the Justirisers for their master.
(17-18) The first of the Death Commandos to be sent to Earth and armed with the Double Saber with his trademark attack Death Cross Break, the arrogant Gillmond is assigned the task of snuffing out the Justirisers. Gillmond battles Riser Glen, leaving the fight after analyzing the Justiriser's attacks with the crystal on his forehead. By the time Gillmond returns, he uses Tooru to force Shouta to throw away his In-Loader to get some fun out of him. But Tooru manages to give Shouta his In-Loader as Riser Glen fights before the other Justiricers arrive to aid their teammate. But when Gillmond counter's Glen's Burning Flame, Gant fires at Gillmond, cracking his crystal and taking out his left eye. Now getting nervous, Gillmond battles Kageri and Gant at Hachimon Temple. Glen arrives in time and uses his nearly mastered Flash Blazer to kill Gillmond.
(19-20) A member of the elite guard, Destalan is sent after the Justirisers with his ability to fire his numbness-inducing Death Needles from his right forearm for his trademark Needles Scorn attack. Using the first fight to analyze their abilities, Destalan later attacks Glen while Leo Gigas is on the attack. But he attacked from behind by Riser Glen, forced to retreat to have his wounds treated. Once healed and made an attempt on Riser Gant's life, Destalan is given one last chance to kill the Justirisers by all means. As a result, Destalan attacks Shinya while he was seeing his parents. Making it personally as a result, Riser Gant battles Dantalan with Riser Glen and Riser Kageri supporting him. However, Bachuss arrives and cocoons Gant so Bachuss can take him out. But Gant uses his Versus Cannon to break out of the cocoon and kill Dantalan in the process.
(23) A playful cat-like Death Commando armed with tonfa, Basky was sent to kill Riser Kageri due to being able move faster than her. After her attempt to kill Mio was stopped by Demon Knight, she was ordered to keep an eye on him by Bachuss to uncover the truth. When she attempted to kill Mio, Riser Gant intervened and battle he until Kageri arrives to settle the score. Managing to use Basky's speed against her, Kageri managed to land some hits on Basky before eventually awakening her full Justi Power to drive the Death Commando away. However, she is disintegrated by Hades for her failure.
(1-25) A tag team pair of shape-shifting brothers sent to kill the Justirisers after Demon Knight had not contacted Hades for a long time. The older Golden Brother uses the Brother Axe on his right arm and the younger Silver Brother uses the Brother Hammer on his left. Though the twins overpowered the Justirisers in the initial fight, an argument over which brother should have the final blow left them open to an attack. After Bachuss saves them, the Twins Knight brothers were ordered to discard their brotherly bonds to resume their attack on Gant as Riser Glen and Riser Kageri arrive to offer back up as the Twins Knight brothers Cross Change into their combined true form, able to execute their Double Spin Break. But Mio's interference allow Glen to awaken as Justiriser Shirogane, who offers Twins Knight a chance to walk away after displaying his power. However, the Death Commander faked admitting defeat and was easily killed when he attempted to kill Shirogane with his back turned.
(27) An old comrade of Bachuss and Demon Knight's mentor, he is the last of the Death Commandos and is sent after the Justirisers before they can fully realize Shirogane's power. Appearing as Glen battled Jinno, Danhauser overpowers him as Shinya arrives. Taking Jinno with him, he attempts to reveal him his origin before Bachuss appears and tell his apprentice to uncover the part on himself to gain new power. Resuming his mission by starting with Glen and Kageri, Danhauser battles the two as Riser Gant arrives. But when Riser Glen finally becomes Justiriser Shirogane, Danhauser took the fatal blow meant for Demon Knight. In his dying breath, reveals to Demon Knight's power is sealed, but died before revealing Demon Knight's true identity.
Daruga Imperial Army
The are the antagonists of the last quarter of the series, the true force behind Riser's downfall.
(33-51) He is Kaiser Hades' older brother. Learning of Hades' death, he spearheads the Earth destruction back up plan while having his Rejandar forces hold the Justirises off until he arrives to Earth. When on Earth, Daruga overpowers Shirogane in their first battle before taking his leave. Using Megarion, Daruga battles Shirogane before sucking out the Riser Power from Demon Knight's body to become , the counterpart of Shirogane. But managing to escape and seeing conquering the planet impossible, Kurogane summons the Diglos to Earth to wipe it out from the universe. Surviving the Diglos being destroyed, Kurogane destroys the Shadestar as he intends to turn Earth into the foundation of a new empire. Losing to the Justirisers, Kurogane enlarges into a new form as he proceeds to level the city before being destroyed by giant Shirogane.
(34-45) The leader of the Rejandar forces, the vain Adorocs He is the vanguard who takes Hades' place in preparing Earth for his master's arrival, attempting to obtain the Justi Crystal and Riser Stone. Having the ability to recreate anyone if he has a genetic sample of them, Adorocs revives Bachuss and Doctor Zora after testing the limits of the Justirisers and Demon Knight. Given a final chance to get the Justi Crystal before Daruga comes to Earth, Adorocs possesses the body of JSDF Special Forces Director Shirakawa to use the JSDF to capture the Justirisers, Mio, and Reika while taking the Justi Crystal. But when Kujo learns the truth, Adoroc decides to have the military kill off the Jusirisers and company as they escape their cell. Tricked into leaving Shirakawa's body, Adorocs overwhelms the Justirisers and Demon Knight before Shirogane. But after Daruga severs his escape route, a fearful Adrorocs is forced to fight for his life until Shirogane destroys him.
They are soldiers armed with Kanabou rods used by the Daruga Imperial Army and the Hadess Army. They were first used by Doctor Zora to support the Cyber Knights, then Bachuss and finally Adorocs. The henchmen of the two armies, they grow stronger and more disciplined as the series progresses, signified by their change in armor color. They are often involved in comedic situations when the Justirisers fight them.
Rejandars
The are the Daruga Army's elite super soldiers.
(34-35) A Legendar who uses a scythe that doubles as a rifle. He is sent after Mira before the Justirisers intervene before Adorocs spirits Valgan away. He later attempts to kill Mira when Demon Knight intervenes. Eventually, while trying to kill Demon Knight, Valgan ends up fighting Glen and Gant before the former becomes Shirogane and destroys Valgan.
(36-37) A sorcerer who was "Master of the Absolute Thunder attack ". He was sent to capture Demon Knight and take his Riser Stone. Though Risers Glen and Kageri manage to drive him off, Gargoid succeeds in capturing Demon Knight before summoning Bahadorg to finish the Justirisers off. But when Bahadorg is the destroyed, Gargoid swears revenge as he is then sent after the Justi Crystal. However, the Justirisers manage to free Jinno with Mio's help. Gargoid attempts to leave in frustration, only to be easily killed by Glen.
(38-39) An excitable Legendar who can turn invisible and assume the appearance of others. Summoned by Adorocs, Gameleon is sent after Mio to take the Justi Crystal from her once Leogaias II sends the Justirisers to the other end of the universe. However, Demon Knight interferes as Gameleon is forced to retreat as the Justirisers return to Earth. Gameleon later returns in Jinno's form in a new scheme to trick the Justiriers and Demon Knight into killing each other. Once exposed, Gameleon dies from taking the combined final attacks of the Justirisers and Demon Knight.
(40, 41) A boar-armored Legendar with a sumo-fighting style who can turn into mist. Sent after the Justi Crystal, he takes it from Mio before it ends up in the possession of a boy named Kazuya. Armyul later finds him with Mio at the Asuru district, only to be stopped by the Justirisers before retreating after Glen manages to damage his armor. After getting his armor fixed an arm-scissors blade upgrade, Armyul is sent after Demon Knight when he came close to finding Adorocs' base of operations. Though he overpowers Gant and Demon Knight before Glen and Kageri arrive to even the odds, Armyul is weakened by Shirogane before he is destroyed by Demon Knight and Gant.
(46-48) The strongest Legendar, able to materialize blades who killed Planet Riser's princess Maia in the past. He is sent by Daruga to force Demon Knight to use the full force of Riser Power with Megarion's support. After fulfilling his mission, Drake is sent to kill Mio to ensure Shirogane can no longer be evoked. However, fighting Demon Knight, he ends up being destroyed by him and the Justirisers.
Space Beasts
The are giant monsters used by both villain groups to fight the Justirisers.
(1-2) The first of Doctor Zora's monsters, it was sent to attack the city around the time the Justirisers are born. Though it overpowers the special defense forces, Defrog is no match for Riseross as it arrives on Earth as it is forced to retreat. But Defrog later returns to finisher off Glen after he defeats Zaurus, being destroyed by Riseross with Glen piloting it.
(10) This monster was sent to attack along the coast to bring the Justirisers out into the open while fighting the JSDF until Juu Riser is formed. But though it overpowered Juu Riser, the monster is killed by Ken Riser.
(11-12) A giant monster Zekard summons to aid him when he deals with the assembled Justiriser team. The Glen-piloted Riceross battles Buglian until the others enter and form Juu Riser. Once finding the weak point to be in the shoulders, Ken Riser is formed to finish it off. However, the monster is called back before the deathblow is executed. Buglian is later summoned to attack the Justirisers to get them to summon Riseross so it and Guadius. But Buglian is killed by Ken Riser.
(13, 28) A giant monster sent by Rajimeus as a distraction to keep the Justirisers at bay while they arrive to fight it with Riceross. Forming Juu Riser, Gillmon overpowers the Genseishin until it separated to kill the monster with a pincer attack from both sides.
(19, 38) This monster was sent by Destalan to attack a building Shinya and Mio were in, it battled Nin Riser. Leogaias can use its "Gravilight Ray" to telekinetically torture his opponent. Before it could finish Ninriser off with its Megalinum Shot, Gant managed to stop the monster. Enoh and Kouki arrive to support Nin Riser as it destroys Leo Gaias with its Typhoon Slicer attack. Leo Gaias is rebuilt by Adoroc as Leo Gaias II, given a Warp Cannon to teleport the Justirisers and Riseross off Earth so Gamleon can take the Justi Crystal without interference. The plan is foiled when the Shadestar retrieves Riseross as it returns to Earth with the three Gensei Beasts which disarm Legaias. Then Juu Riser is formed to finish Leo Gaias off.
(22) A giant blue-bird monster, King Zero's trademark Death Storm attack produces strong winds can all it to counter the attacks of Ken Riser and Nin Riser, with the only Genseishin able to fight it being Juu Riser. Crashing near Tokyo Tower, King Zero begins its attack as Demon Knight holds Gant at bay so the monster can battle the other Justirisers in Ken Riser. After managing to drive Demon Knight away, Gant joins the battle and Juu Riser manages to overcome King Zero's barrier and destroys it with Thunder Burst while it attempted to escape.
(24, 50, Seishin Crossover) A giant robotic ape built by Space Pirates, it was sent to Earth as part of Bachuss' plan to destroy Riseross by using its power to cause the Geishinjuu to malfunction and unable to summon the Seishinjuu. But once Glen destroys the source of the disruption, the Justirisers summon all three Seishinjuu to back up Riceross as it delivers the deathblow. During the final, an army of Bulgaros are sent to Earth before all being destroyed by the Genseishin
(28) This monster is able to resurrect monsters and make them immune to any fatal attack, Devouras was sent to Earth to battle the Justirisers. While battling Riseross, Devoras revives Deadler and Gillmone as all three overpower Riseross and the Seishinjuu. But once Enoh blinds Devoras, Ken Riser destroys it to sends the revived monsters back into death.
(29) A beetle-like monster sent to take out Mio and Yuka by causing a collapse with its impact on Hoshikami Island, it later emerges from underground to kill the Justirisers and Demon Knight under Bachuss' order. Paralysing Glen with its powered scales, Scaraberus overpowers Ken Riser. With Yuka's help, Shouta manages pilot Ken Riser and finish the monster off.
(31) A rock-skinned monster that arrives on Earth in the form of a meteor to protect the Magnesheldar before everything is ready for Earth's destruction, Glaster overpowers the Justirisers, turning Riseross into stones and sacrifices itself to petrify Riseross.
(36) This is the pet monster of Gargoid, summoned to finish the Justirisers. However, Bahadorg is destroyed by Justi Kaizer.
(41) A giant monster created by Adorocs from fusing a multitude of crayfish into a single giant monster with an acid spray as its weapon. Zarigan overpowered the military before breaking down into its components due to a turtle caught in the mix. Once the fusion is perfected, Zarigan is deployed to attack Shirogane before Justi Kaizer is formed to break back up into its components.
(44) A crystal-like monster, able to create clones of its mature form to fight for it, sent to Earth as part of Adorocs' final plan to destroy the Justirisers. Aided by the JSDF, Egerzion sneaks into the JSDF's Science and Technology center. Found out by Demon Knight, Egerzion emerges in its true form. With Enoh supporting it, Nin Riser manages to destroy Egerzion.
(47, 49) A mole-like monster with drill ams, it is deployed by Daruga to destroy the city in a plan to depose of Riseross and its support mecha. Later deployed as Kurogane summons the Diglos, Megarion proceeds to destroy the city as Gant and Kageri try to stop it on their own before it attempts to kill Mio. However, Ryuto intervenes and Demon Knight arrives in the rebuilt Riseross. Once formed, Justi Kaiser destroys Megarion.
Battleships
The (1-50) are space battleships used by enemy fleets.
Diglos
(49, 50) is Kurogane's Warship that fires Gigatron Cannon that tries to destroy an Earth. Diglos is the last of the enemy space warships. Diglos firing beams, Diglos overpowers Ryuto. However, Ken Riser stopped the Gigatron Cannon and destroyed Diglos in the final.
Episode guide
SPECIAL EPISODE-
Songs
Opening theme
Lyrics Kenji Kojima (Dual Dream)
Composition Kenji Kojima (Dual Dream)
Arrangement Takehito Shimizu
Artist Mitsuo Nakajima
Ending themes
"Sky"
Lyrics rom△ntic high
Composition monk
Arrangement monk
Chorus Arrangement Yas Kitajima
Artist SweetS
Lyrics HAV
Composition HAV
Arrangement HAV
Performance HAV
Lyrics MIZUE
Composition Water
Arrangement Takaomi Kondo
Artist Water
Insert songs
Lyrics Koji Kojima
Composition Koji Kojima
Performance Koji Kojima
Arrangement Takehito Shimizu
Lyrics Mitsuo Nakajima
Composition Mitsuo Nakajima
Performance Mitsuo Nakajima
Cast
Shouta Date / Riser Glen / Riser Shirogane Isaka Tatsuya
Yuka Sanada / Riser Kageri Kanzaki Shiori
Shinya Hiraga / Riser Gant Isaka Junya
Mio Tendo Hiromi Eguchi
Reika Motomiya / Impactor Lucia Eri Ozawa
Shiro Jinno / Demon Knight Kazuki Namioka
Genjuro Date Yuuji Nakamura
Tohru Ichikawa Akira Uchida
Rio Matsubara Mariko Masahiko
Asami Segawa Ayano Torii
Commander Kujo Masanori Tomita
Voice Actors
Majin Daruga / Majin Kurogane Dai Matsumoto
Kaiser Hades Takashi Taniguchi
Doctor Zora Rei Igarashi
General Bachuss Atsushi Ono
Commander Adorocs Kōichi Tōchika
Legendar Drake Ryuta Izumi
Guest stars
Akira Dentsuin / Sazer-Remls Hideaki Serizawa (Episode 30)
Mika Shidou / Sazer-Mithras Asuka Shimizu (Episode 35)
Tappei Mikami / Sazer-Gans Takuma Sugawara (Episode 27)
Naoto Matsuzaka / Sazer-Tawlon Tomohide Takahara (Episodes 42-43)
External links
TV Tokyo's Geinseishin Justirisers site
2004 Japanese television series debuts
2005 Japanese television series endings
TV Tokyo original programming
Chouseishin Series
Fictional trios
Toho tokusatsu
Tokusatsu television series
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation%20of%20Schizophrenia
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Interpretation of Schizophrenia
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Interpretation of Schizophrenia (first edition, 1955) is a book by Italy-born American psychiatrist Silvano Arieti in which the author sets forth demonstrative evidence of a psychological etiology for schizophrenia.
Arieti expanded the book vastly in 1974 () and that edition won the U.S. National Book Award in the Science category.
Interpretation of schizophrenia is a 756-page book divided in 45 chapters. Arieti begins his book stating that it is difficult to define schizophrenia. He asks if schizophrenia is an illness and answers in the negative, since the disorder is not understood in classic Virchowian criterion of cellular pathology. Though those searching for a biological basis of schizophrenia far outnumber those undertaking psychological approaches, Arieti supports the minority view. He believes schizophrenia is an unrealistic way to represent both the self and the world and praises psychiatrist Adolf Meyer for stressing the importance of psychological factors in the etiology of schizophrenia.
The basis of schizophrenia
Arieti examines the family history of people with schizophrenia, and references twin studies to support the notion that the potentiality for schizophrenia has a genetic basis, but maintains that this genetic potentiality is not enough to predispose someone to schizophrenia unless early life events also set up the vulnerability to breakdown later in life. A person who has the genetic predisposition, but was not subject to the life experiences necessary to develop this vulnerability will not become schizophrenic in later life.
He observed that in twin pairs, where one twin developed schizophrenia, the schizophrenic twin was less able to adapt to adverse life events compared to the healthier twin, and that following the schizophrenic breakdown of the other twin, in some cases the healthy twin was also vulnerable to developing schizophrenic symptoms, but these were quantitatively milder compared to the twin who first developed schizophrenia. Thus, even with the better adapted twin, a level of vulnerability remained towards a breakdown.
Pre-psychotic personality types
Arieti divides the pre-psychotic personality into two subgroups, which are the schizoid and the stormy types. The pre-psychotic schizoid type of personality's main adaptation involves the withdrawal typical of the schizoid personality disorder, wherein the person has limited to no social or emotional bonds, and mainly resorts to isolation and eschewing human relations to avoid potential retraumatization by others. They frequently substitute real human relations with a rich inner fantasy life. The pre-psychotic schizoid avoids conflict with the parents by passively submitting to their wishes, but he does so without any real zest or ambition, just going through the motions with minimal effort.
The stormy personality on the other hand tries strives to maintain social relations and emotional bonds, but the person in question is confused about their sense of self, as they mainly adapt to social situations by mirroring the perceived expectations of those around them and integrating it into a false self presented to the outside world. The stormy personality is always uncertain about their sense of self, compared to the pure schizoid personality, and this leaves them with a lack of ontological security. The stormy personality, owing to their adaptation, fails to develop true, deep relations with anyone due to their need to maintain a false persona that is always changed based on the perceived expectations of others. The stormy personality tries to please those around them as much as possible to win approval, especially the parents, even to the point of self-abandonment.
Family as a cause
Arieti then describes the psychogenic factors that lead to the disorder. The family environment and psychodynamics in the etiology of psychosis comes under scrutiny. He describes the building of neurotic and psychotic defense mechanisms; the emerging schizoid or stormy personality, and fully developed schizophrenia understood as an injury to the inner self following a series of adverse life events. Arieti believes that a state of extreme anxiety originating in early childhood produces vulnerability for the whole life of the individual, and that this anxiety can later be reactivated by adverse life events, where the individual's coping mechanisms fail to maintain a positive sense of self in face of these adversities.
A characteristic of Homo sapiens is a prolonged childhood with a consequently extended dependency on adults. This, according to Arieti, "is the basis of the psychodynamics of schizophrenia", a claim that also appears in later writers on child abuse such as Alice Miller and Colin Ross. Arieti reviews the paper by Frieda Fromm-Reichmann about the "schizophrenogenic" mother and reaches the tentative conclusion that only 25 percent of the mothers of people with schizophrenia in his clinical experience fit that image. However, he adds that only in a minority of schizophrenia cases "the child is able to retain the good maternal image". He clarifies that the internal maternal image is not based solely on the real mother, but is rather influenced by all relations the patient has throughout his life. The reason for this is that from infancy onward, the relationship with the mother lays the basis for all future relationships, and remains as an internal model for every relationship the patient has, and is shaped and altered by any future relations that influence the patient's view of the world, and of society at large. Arieti also mentions the work of Theodore Lidz, another trauma model author of schizophrenia. Like Lidz, Arieti emphasizes the parental dynamic of a domineering, hostile parent, and the other, weak spouse who is submissive to the dominant parent, and the role of this dynamic in the development of schizophrenia in the children of such dysfunctional parents. In Arieti's own words:
In the first edition of this book I have described one family constellation [...] when a domineering, nagging and hostile mother, who gives the child no chance to assert himself, is married to a dependent, weak man, who is too weak to help the child [...]. In these families the weak parent [...] becomes antagonistic and hostile toward the children because [...] he displaces his anger from the spouse to the children, as the spouse is too strong to be a suitable target.
The roles can be reversed when the domineering spouse is the father. If the child cannot build positive relations with the mother or the father, then he will try to find a positive maternal image in others. A brother, a sister, or other relatives, a teacher, or any other available individual the child can relate with. If the child manages to build up a relationship, where he receives healthy nurturance, reassurement and empathy, which allows them to build up a positive self-image, then the vulnerability to a schizophrenic breakdown can be averted entirely. In the cases of schizophrenia, however, the breakdown is proof that this attempt failed time and time again for the individual.
Arieti is convinced that each schizophrenia case is representative of those human situations in which something went extremely wrong. "If we ignore it, we become deaf to a profound message that the patient may try to convey". As described in the book, in case of two brothers, Peter and Gabriel, of whom Gabriel later suffered a schizophrenic break, Arieti states that, as described by the brother, "his adolescence was a crescendo of frustration, anxiety and injury to self-esteem". Of the two brothers, Peter was the favorite of the father, who was an extremely narcissistic man who depended on Peter to maintain his self-esteem by telling fabricated stories of his time in Germany during World War II, whereas Gabriel was mostly ignored and neither parent ever really paid attention to him or gave him any affection. Gabriel tried to turn to Peter for help, but he was rejected by Peter throughout his childhood. Gabriel went through his childhood without ever disagreeing with or asserting himself in front of his parents. He later developed schizophrenia in his teens, not long after returning to home from a private school. Gabriel expressed his anxiety regarding private schooling, and wished to return home so he could work on one of the family farms. However, even at his own work he was not allowed to make decisions for himself: Ignoring what Gabriel was taught in school, his mother practically told him how to plant every single vegetable on the farm, and how to tend to other needs. Gabriel, much like in his childhood, did not try to assert himself. As a result of this he tried to give up on his job, which incited further ire and hostility from the parents. Following these events, Gabriel soon developed a complete psychotic break, and was institutionalized multiple times, before committing suicide.
Pre-psychotic panic
In Part three of Interpretation of schizophrenia Arieti describes how in spite of its efforts to stay in reality, the patient's defenses finally succumb when attacks on the self-image both from outside and within cause the anxiety to become too unbearable. When the patient "cannot change the unbearable situation of himself any longer, he has to change reality". Arieti examines the inner world of the person with schizophrenia, and the genesis of the schizophrenic regression.
Arieti maintains that even with the schizophrenic potentiality laid down in early childhood and by genetic predisposition, not all of these cases will develop psychosis, as new defense mechanisms are acquired throughout the life of the individual. For schizophrenics however, all such attempts eventually fail at staving off a complete break. The negative self-image that is dissociated from the conscious mind of the individual may be reactivated by any number of life events, such as entering a into a new relationship, the birth of a child, or a tragic accident, the death of a relative, especially the death of parents, moving out of home, stress at work, the loss of a job, or a promotion at work which destabilizes the individual's sense of competency at his own job, or a combination of several of these factors.
This anxiety triggers the pre-psychotic period, which precedes the eventual psychotic break. These adverse life events bring the dissociated, negative self image from early childhood into consciousness, causing the person to view themselves as utterly defeated, unlovable, incompetent, worthless, etc. This type of anxiety cannot be tolerated by the individual for long, and as his defenses fail to defuse this anxiety, he will resort to increasingly inadequate coping mechanisms to maintain a positive self-image and reduce their anxiety.
Arieti describes the concept of paleological/teleological thinking, which is typical of small children and primitive peoples, with concrete examples of such thought in African tribal societies and in small children. At the beginning of the pre-psychotic panic, the individual's feelings of self-accusation and self-defeat are slowly transformed into feelings of vulnerability, fear and anguish. He feels cut off from the world itself because of his failure and worthlessness, and feels like he cannot join in with the rest of the world. He is overwhelmed by a vague perception of danger, a need to escape, and of confusion. He feels threatened from all sides, as if he were in a jungle. It is not a jungle where lions, tigers, snakes and spiders are to be found, but a jungle of concepts, where the threat is not to survival, but to the self image. The dangers are concept feelings, such as that of being unlovable, inadequate, unacceptable, inferior, awkward, clumsy, not belonging, peculiar, different, rejected, humiliated, guilty, unable to find his own way amongst the many different paths of life, disgraced, discriminated against, kept at a distance, suspected, and so on.
These feelings of terror and persecution are then transformed into concretized concepts and projections. The schizophrenic, in an attempt to ward off unbearable anxiety, will resort to using paleological thinking to distort reality in such a way that reduces anxiety. Projection is used to displace self-accusations and attacks on the self-esteem to the outside world in the form of persecutors and persecutory forces.
The individual in the pre-psychotic stage may still recover if he manages to adopt adequate coping mechanisms, but if this fails, the pre-psychotic period will eventually be followed by a complete schizophrenic break when he experiences a total and complete defeat of his self-worth and self-esteem.
Schizophrenic thinking
Arieti describes a distinct type of logic, separate from the aristotelian logic used by modern man in advanced societies, called "paleological thinking", or primary process thinking. In paleological thought, nature's events are attributed to the will of outside forces. "If the greeks were afflicted by an epidemic, it was because Phoebus wanted to punish Agamemnon." In the world of paleological thinking, every happening that is relevant to the schizophrenic's complexes is interpreted as being willed by the projected persecutors of the individual. Primary process thinking, which is only encountered in dreams and in early childhood by modern man, is adapted by the schizophrenic to reduce destructive anxiety. Aristotelian logic is abandoned almost entirely, and primary process thinking gains more and more footing as the disease progresses from acute to chronic schizophrenia.
In deterministic or paleological/teleologic causality, if Nature's happenings were not willed they simply would not occur. In paranoid projection the schizophrenic takes out from him/herself a disagreeable part of the self onto the world. In Interpretation of schizophrenia Arieti illustrates all of the above theoretical constructions with concrete cases of his clinical experience as a psychiatrist. Anxiety-provoking material is projected onto the environment, because for the schizophrenic it is easier to be accused by others, than to accuse oneself. So for the person who feels disappointed with his life, and with himself, who sees himself as a failure, it is easier to imagine being persecuted by a group of agents who themselves are as deplorable and worthless, as he deep down sees himself, and want to bring him down to their level. It is less anxiety-provoking than to admit to himself that he sees himself as being worthless and deplorable, and it restores a sense of control, and also helps bolster self-esteem through gross over-appraisal of oneself as an individual who is persecuted because he is exceptional for one reason or another, such as being a savior, a prophet, etc.
Thus the patient who sees himself as a faker, a liar, or a homosexual will instead transform his inner persecutory world and project it onto the world, in the form of persecutors who accuse him of being a spy, a homosexual, a liar, or a faker, etc. It is no longer he who accuses himself of being worthless, rotten, but it is "them" accusing him. It is "them" who are after him, who want to ruin him and bring him down. The self-image and self-esteem are improved at the cost of gross distortion of reality and of the self-image.
When a patient states he is Jesus he is compensating a feeling of extreme humiliation at home. The paranoid schizophrenic, Arieti explains, resorts to "teleologic causality" or animism to understand the world. He writes that whatever occurs to the patient is interpreted as willed by the split off, internal negative parental images of the patient. With paranoid schizophrenics, the paleological thinking and distortion are limited only to the complexes of the person, while in hebephrenic patients there is a total and complete disintegration of aristotelian logic, and the entire personality is reduced to primary process thinking. Arieti observed that paranoid schizophrenia is more common in children who frequently felt rejected or neglected by their parents, and in brighter schizophrenics who were able to maintain a set of inner persecutory complexes that helped avoid destructive anxiety, whereas in hebephrenics this distortion failed to alleviate anxiety, causing further regression.
In the case of catatonic patients, it is more common that the patient was subjected to overbearing parenting and had little to no chance of asserting themselves. The catatonic patient internalizes the overbearing parental image, and chooses immobility to avoid provoking the ire of the internalized persecutory parental image. He brings up the example of a catatonic patient who, after introjecting the mother's engulfing behavior, believed that by moving he could produce havoc. The patient's feelings, according to Arieti, became reminiscent of cosmic powers that may cause the destruction of the universe, so the patient chose immobility. For Arieti, the selectivity of certain motor actions is proof that catatonia is not a biological disease or illness, but rather a disorder of the will.
Self-image of the schizophrenic
According to Arieti, the pre-schizophrenic person in early childhood fails to build a healthy self-image, being unable to assert themselves in a healthy manner against their primary caregivers, as the dominant, narcissistic and hostile parent allows the child no chance to build up healthy limits and distinctions between themselves and the parent. The dominant parent sees the child less as an individual being, and more as an extension of themselves. The passive parent who projects their hostility from the dominant parent will also thwart such attempts. This is further complicated if other family members also take part in maintaining this atmosphere of hostility. Frequently the child who later becomes schizophrenic is either the dominant parent's favorite child, on whom the dominant parent depends for their self-esteem and self-gratification, or the family scapegoat who sits at the bottom of the family hierarchy, who is used as a lightning rod for discharging hostility within the family both by siblings and by the parents.
All children have an internal need to see their parents in a positive light, as the child depends on the parents for survival, even if the parental behavior is destructive to the child's self-esteem. In most cases the parental internal images can be corrected if the individual manages to build up healthy, emphatic relationships outside the family nucleus later in life, such as at school, at work, etc. However, for pre-schizophrenics, this does not occur, so the internal parental images remain unchallenged. So the child will idealize the hostile parents, but to do this, he must balance this out by maintaining a negative self-image. However, this self-image is too anxiety-provoking, so it remains dissociated deep down in the subconscious throughout the life of the individual, until adverse life events reactivate this hidden self-image, and with it, the destructive anxiety associated with it.
Psychotherapy of the schizophrenic
Arieti himself preferred intensive psychotherapy of acute schizophrenic patients, with almost daily sessions every day of the week. He believed that in order to help reduce the suffering of the schizophrenic and to help them regain contact with the real world, the therapist needed to provide a trustworthy, intimate and stable relationship to the patient, a person who themselves never experienced such a relationship before. Unlike most psychiatrists, Arieti, like Sullivan and Bertram Karon, valued the content of the delusions as essential, albeit distorted manifestations of the original complexes by which the patient's destructive anxiety is fueled. He believed that meeting the schizophrenic in their own world, but not conforming with or reassuring their delusions was essential to gaining the trust of the patient, and building a healthy connection.
He believed that by providing a stable and loving relationship, the therapist can help the patient build up a more positive self-image, as well as gain more adequate coping mechanisms for dealing with life events, and even building up more healthy relations with the family members. For Arieti, it was essential to help the patient develop a new, more healthy personality that was better adjusted to life, than to return to the pre-psychotic personality of the patient. As treatment progresses, the patient will more easily let go of their delusions and distortions of reality, allowing the original complexes that fueled their anxiety to be re-examined and processed. The goal of the therapist is to help guide the patient through the development of this new personality, by providing them with a positive, reassuring and empathic internal image. Arieti himself showcases his psychotherapeutic method with two cases, the cases of Geraldine and Mark in Interpretation of Schizophrenia.
Other treatment methods
Arieti was known for frequently sending hebephrenic patients for electroconvulsive therapy in order to restore them to a more functional level where they can be reached with psychotherapy, and he himself approved of the use of anti-psychotic medication to reduce symptomatology, however he himself preferred psychotherapy without any medication. He also explores and discusses other methods of treatment, such as insulin shock therapy and psychosurgery, the latter of which he disapproves, maintaining that it is essentially an act of giving up on the patient and resorting to turning him into a lifelong cripple.
Closing remarks
Arieti maintains that in every case of schizophrenia that he studied serious family disturbance was found. When the patient idealizes the parent the idealized image of the parent is maintained in the patient's mind at the expense of an unbearable self-image. Pre-psychotic panic is only triggered when the negative self-image is brought to the surface by adverse life events that damage the inner self of the pre-schizophrenic person, life events with which he is unable to cope with his existing defensive and coping mechanisms. The split-off negative image of the parents, and of others are transformed into a "distressing other", in the form of delusions of persecution, and voices heard by the patient. The parent or parents alters enter the mind accusing the patient of "bad child" or other equivalent accusations in voices that the adult patient hears.
Since the 1980s, and into the beginnings of 21st century, biological psychiatric models of schizophrenia almost completely took over the psychiatric profession. Current research into the disorder focuses on neurobiology. Psychological approaches to schizophrenia like Arieti's are a rarity in the profession, although this structurally created circumstance neglects the obvious connection between psychological phenomena and neurotransmitter levels, which can be changed through certain practices, like Yoga, meditation, hyperventilation, sensory deprivation, sleep deprivation, among others. Arieti's views on schizophrenia are nowadays known as part of the trauma model of mental disorders, an alternative to the current biopsychiatric model.
See also
R.D. Laing
Refrigerator mother
Ross Institute for Psychological Trauma
The Gene Illusion
Schizophrenia compared to dream
Trauma model of mental disorders
Biopsychiatry controversy
Silvano Arieti
References
External links
Schizo's Web by Harrison Mujica-Jenkins
The International Psychotherapy Institute - Free E-Book
1974 non-fiction books
National Book Award-winning works
Anti-psychiatry books
Books about schizophrenia
Science books
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RollerGames
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RollerGames
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RollerGames is a U.S. television series that presented a theatrical version of the sport of roller derby, and featured a number of skaters who had been in the Roller Games league (1961–1975), as well as younger participants. It was broadcast for one season (1989–1990). The series came from the combination of Roller Games owner William Griffiths, Sr. and the television production team of David Sams and Michael Miller. Chet Forte served as the show's director for its entire run. Chuck Underwood served as play-by-play commentator while Sams provided the color commentary. Former TV reporter Shelly Jamison was trackside reporter and Hot Seat host and conservative commentator Wally George hosted halftime segments known as RollerSports Central.
After a 30-year absence, Fox Sports 1 began to air the series again on August 1, 2020 to celebrate the series' 30th anniversary. A fan page on Facebook was also launched.
Format
The show took place in the Super Roller Dome (which was actually an airport hangar), where all matches were broadcast. Instead of a banked oval track, a figure eight track was used where one side was heavily banked. It included obstacles such as the "Wall of Death" (which was located on the heavily banked side) and the "Jet Jump." The only ones who could score during each 45-second scoring cycle were the "jetters," who wore helmets and got six points if they got above the top line for three steps on the Wall of Death without going over, and two points if they got between the two lines for three steps. The "Jet Jump" had a 12-foot marker that allowed six points if the jetter got past it, and two if the jetter landed in front of it. In either case, the jetter had to land safely. Also, there were only four skaters on the track at a time (instead of the usual five).
The rest of the cycle involved traditional roller derby elements of scoring one point for every opponent lapped. The players got as many 45-second cycles as possible within four six-minute quarters (cut down from eight 12-minute periods in traditional roller derby). The team with the most points won. The last cycle went the full 45 seconds regardless of what the period clock said.
The first jetter to legally enter the jetwave won the status of "lead jetter"; s/he could signal the referees to cut off the cycle early, by tapping his/her helmet. S/he could also enter the jetwave again for more points, but only after s/he had passed all the opposing team's skaters. (This was extremely rare, but it happened occasionally.)
As a tiebreaker, two skaters would skate around a pit full of alligators. The first skater to skate around the pit five times or to throw his or her opponent into the alligator pit was declared the winner. The debut episode was the only time live alligators were ever used, as no ties ever happened after that (although a "news report" featured another tiebreaker). The episode revealed one of the rare times that the T-Birds lost the championship, with the Violators taking it after the T-Bird skater got pushed into the alligator pit (although later footage revealed that Skull, the manager, cheated by interfering, but the Violators got to keep the Commissioner's Cup in spite of that).
Instead of a penalty box, skaters that committed misdemeanors sat in a "penalty pod," one of each was located on either side of the broadcast booth where Sams and Underwood called the action. Because the rules said there were always four skaters on the track, a jetter got one bonus point each time they passed the skater inside the pod. Referee Don Lastra (and the other referees) frequently referred to the penalty pod as "jail," and would tell skaters who got a penalty to "go sit down." (Lastra would also fine players specific amounts of money; these fines were to be paid out of pocket as a check and given to him, since he issued the fines. Fines usually were issued if the act incurring a penalty came in between a period or after the end of the game, but the players who got fined always said vindication was theirs, and thus a moral victory was earned).
Teams
The "world famous" Los Angeles T-Birds were one of the teams used for the show. Other teams were the Rockers, Hot Flash, Violators, Bad Attitude, and Maniacs...all of whom were members of the fictional World Alliance of RollerSports (which is the actual legal division name of Sams' company). Many of the athletes that skated for Griffiths in the past were used for RollerGames. (The Hot Flash team was referred as "Hollywood Hot Flash" on a couple of occasions.)
Some of the most visible skaters included twin sisters Jennifer & Kristine Van Galder, the "T-Bird Twins" (two blonde waitresses that Sams recruited while dining at a trendy LA area eatery), "The IceBox" Robert Smith, brothers "Mr. Mean" Harold Jackson & "Monster Man" Bernie Jackson, Michael Flaningam "The California Kid", "Skinney Minnie" Gwen Miller, "Electric" Randi Whitman (who got her nickname because of her hair), "Stars and Stripes" Matt Bickham, "Dar The Star" Darlene Langlois, "Latin Spitfire" Patsy Delgado, "Sweet" Stephanie Garcia, and Rocker Speed Skater Michael "Fish" Fischer (along with guitarist on the RollerGames theme song, who was forced to leave the team before the first telecast because he broke his hand in practice), and Ralphie Valladares, whose daughter Gina skated for Hot Flash.
Other past Roller Derby personalities to appear on RollerGames included "Mizz" Georgia Hase, the cantankerous heel manager of the Detroit Devils and Bad Attitude, and "Little" Richard Brown, the Maniacs' top skater who got to manage and coach several skaters on RollerJam and previously skated for several teams including the Philadelphia Warriors, Baltimore-Washington Cats, L.A. T-Birds and Eastern War-Chiefs. "Dar The Star" Darlene Langlois was a former T-Bird herself, having been wooed away from the team by another former T-Bird turned Rockers manager, D.J. Terrigno. However, Dar remained on good terms with her former team, frequently coming to the aid of the T-Bird Twins after they were temporarily separated and defending them against the derision of Sweet Stephanie.
Rosters
Episode guide
PILOT: Commissioner's Cup
SEMI-FINALS: T-Birds vs. Bad Attitude; Rockers vs. Violators
FINALS: Violators vs. T-Birds
CHAMPIONS: Violators
T-Birds vs. Bad Attitude
Hot Flash vs. Bad Attitude
T-Birds vs. Hot Flash
Maniacs vs. Violators
Rockers vs. Violators
Rockers vs. Maniacs
Bad Attitude vs. T-Birds (rematch; see #1)
Violators vs. Bad Attitude
T-Birds vs. Violators
All-Star Game (Western Alliance vs. Eastern Empire)
T-Birds vs. Maniacs
Maniacs vs. Rockers (rematch; see #6)
Storylines
Some of the storylines were off-the-wall, but tame by today's standards — the main storyline was a controversy involving the T-Bird Twins being drafted as one person (more on that below), rather than two. Hair-pulling and catfights were crowd favorites. When a fight broke out, the cameras frequently cut to a shot of an angry woman in a pink dress, glaring at the skaters.
The show became noted for its "big controversy:" according to a report from Sams, Georgia Hase claimed the T-Bird Twins were improperly drafted as one entity. Thus, Jennifer went to the Violaters, and Kristine went to the Maniacs. At the same time, the league office informed Ralphie Valladares that he was to be the first inductee into the Hall of Fame. This led Hase to object that, according to the rule book, Ralphie could not enter unless he hung up his skates for good. The league office did not intend for that to happen. Hase then decided that Ralphie would never skate again, as well as never go into the Hall of Fame.
After two rule violations by John "Guru" Drew (manager for the Maniacs) and Chuck Skull (manager of the Violators) of physically abusing each of the T-Bird twins, Sams and on-the-track commentator Shelly Jamison brought up how each twin's contract was null and void, thus returning them to the T-Birds. This led Griffiths, Sr., as commissioner, to let the public decide on how this situation was to go. The American public overwhelmingly elected that Ralphie continue to skate while being inducted into the Hall of Fame, and that the twins return to the T-Birds for good (viewers in the continental 48 states could vote by calling a 900 number, while Alaska and Hawaii residents had to write a letter to a specific address, as the 900 number was not available to them). The exact number of votes was 75,468, with 96% voting "YES" and only 4% voting "NO."
Although the show was canceled after one season, the show also featured an episode where Ralphie challenged the "unholy 3" ("Mizz" Georgia Hase, Guru Drew, Skull) to a 3-on-1 match race. Griffiths, Sr. pointed out that 3-on-1 wasn't legal according to league laws (during an interview with Wally George), but 2-on-1 was, so Skull had to drop out. While Ralphie dealt with Georgia and Drew, "Stars and Stripes" Matt Bickham reported to Shelley Jamison that he'd keep an eye on Skull. Due to the bankruptcy of Qintex, the distributor, which caused the show's untimely cancellation, that match race never took place. The show also offered the public a chance to dial the same 900 number and vote on whether or not the alligators should be banned from the sport, but due to the cancellation, the viewers never got to see the outcome.
Following the bankruptcy and demise of Qintex (who also distributed Kids Incorporated on The Disney Channel in 1988 and 1989), distribution of RollerGames was taken over in 1990 by LBS Communications (now part of Fremantle), which rebroadcast and repackaged 12 of the original 13 episodes (excluding the All-Star Game) in edited versions with new match commentary replacing the original commentary by Underwood and Sams, and with newly-recorded interviews with RollerGames skaters and personalities conducted by Sean "Hollywood" Hamilton replacing the Rollersports Central and halftime music performance segments.
Production
In 1989, television producers David Sams and Mike Miller teamed with Roller Games owner Bill Griffiths, Sr. to create a modern version of the sport marketed as Rock and RollerGames. Sams provided color commentary while Chuck Underwood provided the main play-by-play.
The show also included halftime entertainment by musical performers like Lita Ford, Warrant, Exposé, and had halftime commentary by Wally George. Former Phoenix, Arizona news reporter Shelly Jamison served as sideline reporter. RollerGames premiered in 95% of the country, and, though generally panned by critics, was well received among teenagers and college students.
Director Chet Forte (best known for directing the early days of ABC's Monday Night Football) was recruited to direct the show. Many of the graphics and camera techniques were unique for the day, like the cameras on the skaters. Additional segments were directed by producer David Sams, Joe Dea, and wrestling director Andrew Hecker.
Post Production design and graphic looks were created by lead editor Jonathan Moser and incorporated many state-of-the-art effects (at that time) and technology, as well as utilizing an Amiga computer for special graphic effects.
Reception
In many cities, RollerGames aired late at night, against Saturday Night Live, while in others it aired mid-day on Saturdays. Although the show's ratings were quite good, even beating out American Gladiators, it only lasted one season before getting canceled due to the show's distributor, Qintex, going bankrupt. However, co-producers Motown Productions and Sams/Miller Productions did not go bankrupt due to RollerGames. RollerGames delivered a 4.7 national rating vs. the American Gladiators 2.5 rating. Its debut in New York scored a 9.3 overnight rating.
Revivals
The show paved the way for a revival ten years later with the 1999 premiere of The New TNN's WSL RollerJam, where former RollerGames skaters Richard Brown, Patsy Delgado and Ray Robles skated.
In January 2008, RollerGames coproducer David Sams announced that he "intends to put banked-track Roller Sports back on Television and the Internet in 2008." He later announced that The David Sams Organization was recruiting skaters, coaches, trainers, and cheerleaders for a series that "will be taped in the Los Angeles area, as early as this summer and fall." He also said "A tour is being planned for the winter/spring of 2009." Those plans fell through after a couple of years.
Following the cancellation of RollerGames, Griffiths continued promoting an untelevised league under the name Roller Games International, which continues the sport of RollerGames to this day. The original TV series is now controlled by the producing parties, which retained the rights.
Sams talked about RollerGames and what the future would hold for a revival on an episode of the RollerShoot podcast hosted by Mike Summers and Bob Guercia on Action VR Network which would later spawn plans for the show's return to TV years later.
The Return
In the summer of 2020, David Sams announced on Facebook that RollerGames was returning to television for the first time in 30 years on Fox Sports 2 every Saturday at 10:00pm Eastern/7:00pm Pacific with replays on Fox Sports 1 every Sunday and FS2 every Monday. Fox Sports and Sams agreed to add the replays to fill the void of lack of live events caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The replays premiered on FS2 on Saturday, August 1, 2020, but do not feature the original musical performances shown on the original 1989 broadcasts because of music rights issues. They were replaced by Douglas Cooper Getschal's performance of "Rock & RollerGames" (from the later-in-the-season All-Star Game) on every episode except for two episodes featuring performances of "Hit & Run" by Tammy Hanson. (See below) Also, it was Sams' belief that the focus should be on the "athleticism of the skaters." The video from the 1989 series is remastered to air in as high quality for current-day HD displays as much as possible, with graphical elements re-done and the video panned to fill a widescreen 16:9 display. A RollerGames episode marathon was also broadcast on Christmas Day on Fox Sports 1. The newly-revived episodes now also air on YouTube.
Post-RollerGames
Many skaters retired after RollerGames following the series cancellation, but some carried on in other phases of roller derby. As mentioned, Richard Brown, Ray Robles, Patsy Delgado and referee Don Lastra made appearances on the 1999 TNN derby revival RollerJam. Lastra left after two episodes due to injury. Robles and Delgado joined the show in its second season with both starting with the Illinois Riot. Delgado would later join the Florida Sundogs while Robles lost a match race with fellow skater Mark D'Amato and was forced to wear inline skates. Stephanie Garcia would also continue skating into the 2010s before officially retiring and would go on to purchase the original T-Birds franchise not tied to the series. The T-Birds Twins, Kristine and Jennifer Van Gelder are now interior decorators.
Merchandise
Konami released two different video game versions of RollerGames in 1990 for different platforms: a coin-operated version and a console version for the Nintendo Entertainment System. The arcade version adapts the format of the original TV series, while the NES version is a side-scrolling action game.
In 1989 the World Alliance of Rollersports released a CD Soundtrack album featuring the show's theme song "Rock & RollerGames", as well as team theme songs "Made In The USA" (T-Birds, sung by Rockers skater Darlene Langlois), "Hit And Run" (Hot Flash, sung by skater Tammy Hansen), "Rock It" (Rockers, sung by Langlois, Hansen and Holly Fields), "Bad Attitude" (Bad Attitude, also sung by Hansen), "Kick Butt" (Violators) and "No Brakes" (Maniacs). The album was produced by Douglas Cooper Getschal, who sang "Rock & RollerGames" and a few other tunes. (The RollerGames music is currently being used on the internet radio program RollerShoot.)
In 1990 Galoob released seven action figures from show characters.
In 1990, Williams released a pinball game, RollerGames, designed by pinball designer Steve Ritchie, with features the main theme song recomposed by Dan Forden.
G.C. London Publishing, the original publisher of Pro Wrestling Illustrated magazine, put out its first and only issue of RollerGames Magazine. A second issue, cover-dated March 1990 and announced in the debut issue to go on sale on January 2, 1990, was never published.
References
Sports entertainment
1989 American television series debuts
1990 American television series endings
First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
Roller derby in the United States
Roller derby mass media
Roller derby competitions
Television series by Fremantle (company)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20Scientology
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Timeline of Scientology
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This is a Timeline of Scientology, particularly its foundation and development by author L. Ron Hubbard as well as general publications, articles, books and other milestones.
1938
L. Ron Hubbard authors a manuscript called "Excalibur" which contains ideas that were later incorporated into Scientology.
1949
First published work on Dianetics appeared in the Winter/Spring issue of the Explorers Club Journal entitled "Terra Incognita: The Mind". At this time, he offered his findings on the mind to both the American Medical Association and the American Psychiatric Association. Both organizations rejected them.
1950s
1950
On May 9, 1950, L. Ron Hubbard's Dianetics — The Modern Science of Mental Health was published.
In August 1950, amidst the success of Dianetics, Hubbard held a demonstration in Los Angeles' Shrine Auditorium where he presented a young woman called Sonya Bianchi to a large audience including many reporters and photographers as "the world's first Clear." However, despite Hubbard's claim that she had "full and perfect recall of every moment of her life", Bianchi proved unable to answer questions from the audience testing her memory and analytical abilities, including the question of the color of Hubbard's tie. Later, in the late 1950s, Hubbard would claim that several people had reached the state of Clear by the time he presented Bianchi as the world's first; these others, Hubbard said, he had successfully cleared in the late 1940s while working incognito in Hollywood posing as a swami. In 1966, Hubbard declared South African Scientologist John McMaster to be the first true Clear. McMaster left the Sea Org in November 1969, expressing continuing belief in Scientology techniques, but disapproval of the way Scientology was managed.
"Dianetics: Evolution of a Science" was published in Astounding Science Fiction, whose editor was John W. Campbell, an early Dianetics enthusiast.
Hubbard Dianetics Research Foundation established in Elizabeth, New Jersey.
1951
June: Science of Survival was published.
A Doctor's Report on Dianetics published by medical doctor and Dianetics enthusiast Joseph A. Winter.
1952
Early Dianetics supporter Joseph Winter M.D. breaks with Hubbard, convinced "that it is dangerous for laymen to try to audit each other".
May 1952 – Hubbard's Dianetics Center moves to Phoenix. Phoenix is considered the "birthplace of Scientology."
1952
February: After learning that the Hubbard Dianetic Foundation of Wichita, Kansas would be liable for the debts of the defunct Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation of Elizabeth, New Jersey, the board of directors, led by Don Purcell, voted to file for voluntary bankruptcy over Hubbard's objections. Hubbard forms a rival Hubbard College, also in Wichita, and disputes control of the copyrights of the Dianetics materials.
May: Hubbard publicly announces the formal establishment of the philosophy of Scientology and the formation of the Hubbard Association of Scientologists, demonstrates the E-meter, and moves to Phoenix, Arizona.
July: Scientology: A History of Man published.
1953
Church of Scientology, Church of American Science and Church of Spiritual Engineering incorporated in Elizabeth, New Jersey by L. Ron Hubbard. Co-signatories were Henrietta Hubbard, L. Ron Hubbard Jr., John Galusha, Verna Greenough and Barbara Bryan. Named as trustees of the Church of Scientology were L. Ron Hubbard, Mary Sue Hubbard (not present), and John Galusha.
1954
The Church of Scientology is incorporated in California and Arizona.
The Internal Revenue Service grants a tax exemption to the Church of Scientology of California (CSC).
1955
April: The Hubbard Association of Scientologists International holds the First Australian Scientology Congress in Prahran, Victoria, Australia.
July: The Founding Church of Scientology, now known as the Original Founding Church of Scientology was organized in Washington, D.C.
1956
The church is recognized as a tax-exempt religious organization in the United States.
1959
Hubbard moved to England and bought Saint Hill Manor in Sussex, from which he would direct international operations and expansion until 1967.
1960s
1963
January 4: The US Food and Drug Administration raided the Original Founding Church of Scientology and seized approximately 100 of the Church's E-meters as illegal medical devices. The devices are now required to carry a disclaimer saying that they are a purely religious artifact. They are used in a Scientology counseling technique known as "auditing".
1965
The Church of Scientology was banned in several Australian states, starting with Victoria. The ban was based on the Anderson Report, which found that the auditing process involved "command" hypnosis, in which the hypnotist assumes "positive authoritative control" over the patient."
Classification, Gradation and Awareness Chart released in East Grinstead, United Kingdom
1966
Narconon founded.
August 1966 - OT I released.
September 1966 - OT II released.
John McMaster announced as first true clear.
1967
The IRS strips the Church of Scientology in California, Scientology's headquarters, of its tax-exempt status, asserting that its activities are commercial and operated for the benefit of Mr. Hubbard, rather than charitable or religious reasons.
OT III is made available to Scientologists. This level of Operating Thetan contains the story of Xenu, which becomes a source of enormous controversy for Scientology from the 1990s onward.
The Sea Organization (or Sea Org) officially established.
December 27: The first Advanced Organization, offering the advanced levels of Scientology to the public, was established aboard the Royal Scotman, the flagship of the Sea Organization. (This ship was later renamed the Apollo.)
1968
Introduction to Scientology Ethics is published.
August 1968 – Freedom Magazine Founded by Church of Scientology.
OT IV, V and VI release.
1969
The U.S. court of appeals recognizes Scientology as a religion, marking the high point of the case of Scientology vs. the FDA.
Standard Dianetics released.
Citizens Commission on Human Rights (CCHR) founded in the United States.
1970s
1970
February 22: Church of Scientology Celebrity Centre in Los Angeles founded.
Criminon founded.
November: Hubbard begins delivery of Flag Executive Briefing Course (FEBC)
Personal Spiritual Freedoms Foundation – later called Dianology and then Eductivism, established by Jack Horner
Scientology: The Now Religion published by journalist George Malko
1971
The FDA is ordered to return the materials and E-meters seized during the 1963 raid.
1974
January 23, 1974 – Introspection Rundown released.
1975
Scientologists buy former Fort Harrison Hotel and old Bank of Clearwater.
Scientology is recognized as a non-profit organization in South Africa, despite the 1972 report of a formal government Commission of Inquiry that recommended otherwise.
1977
Various locations of the Church of Scientology are raided by the FBI.
1978
New Era Dianetics released.
New OT V released.
1979
As a result of FBI raids, eleven senior people in the church's Guardian's Office were convicted of obstructing justice, burglary of government offices, and theft of documents and government property. (See Operation Snow White)
March: Hubbard Mark VI E-meter released.
December: An estimated 3,000 gather at Clearwater City Hall to protest the church coming to Clearwater. Across the street, Scientologists stage a counter rally, dressed as clowns and wearing animal costumes.
December: Purification Rundown released.
1980s
1980
Acquisition of the former White Rats Club building at 227 West 46th in the Broadway Theater District in New York City. The building was built in 1912 and the church acquired it from the Seventh-day Adventist Church.
January – New OT IV released.
August – Golden Era Productions established.
September – New OT VI and OT VII released.
1981
February – The Way to Happiness is published.
November 19 – Church of Scientology International (CSI) founded.
December – Scientology Missions International founded.
1982
Clearwater's government holds hearings to explore allegations that the church is a cult.
May – Church of Spiritual Technology Incorporated.
Battlefield Earth published.
1983
The High Court of Australia overturns the Scientology ban, declaring that "The applicant has easily discharged the onus of showing that it is religious. The conclusion that it is a religious institution entitled to the tax exemption is irresistible."
The Church of Scientology of Toronto is raided. (See R. v. Church of Scientology of Toronto)
December – Office of Special Affairs International formed.
1985
The Church of Scientology acquires yacht "Bohème" and renames it to "Freewinds".
October – First of ten volumes of Mission Earth published.
1986
January 24: Hubbard dies at his ranch near San Luis Obispo, California.
David Miscavige, Chairman of the Board of the Author Services Inc., becomes head.
1990s
1991
After the completion of a 4-year long program to reissue the books and courses of Dianetics and Scientology, a general amnesty is declared for members.
September – Streamlined Bridge to Total Freedom released (grade chart).
1992
June: The Church of Scientology is found guilty on two counts of breach of the public trust in Ontario, Canada in R. v. Church of Scientology of Toronto and fined $250,000. Seven members are also convicted.
1993
December: The Internal Revenue Service of the United States grants full religious recognition and tax exemption to all Scientology Churches, missions and social betterment groups in that country.
1994
December 24: a number of Scientology's confidential Operating Thetan documents are published on the newsgroup alt.religion.scientology through an anonymous remailer. This marks the beginning of Scientology's online activities, often referred to as Scientology versus the Internet.
1995
July 20: The Supreme Court of Canada upholds the largest libel award in Canadian history against the Church of Scientology. (See Hill v. Church of Scientology of Toronto)
December 5: Lisa McPherson, a 36-year-old Scientologist dies after 17 days under the care of Church of Scientology Flag Service Organization. Police begin an investigation the following day.
1996
The Church releases the Golden Age of Tech program with the express goal of improving and speeding up the training of its practitioners.
On 21 November 1996, Don Jason, a Scientology Chief Officer with prior authority over hundreds of staff in Clearwater, Florida, escaped from the Scientology church by jumping off their 440-foot-long ship named Freewinds that was docked at the time in the Bahamas. As he had escaped the church (Scientology vernacular: "blown") earlier that year in August, he was barred from leaving Freewinds, his passport confiscated. Running from the ship, he jumped into a waiting taxicab, closing the door on a Scientology guard's hand, and screamed to the driver: "I'm being held against my will! Take me to a g-- d---airport!1997
February: McPherson's family files a wrongful-death lawsuit against the church.
The Church of Scientology, operating as the Greek Center of Applied Philosophy, is ordered closed in Greece. Decision upheld in 1998.
1998
November: After reviewing the McPherson case for 11 months, State Attorney Bernie McCabe charges the Church of Scientology with two felonies: practicing medicine without a license and abuse of a disabled adult. Also, the church begins construction of the Flag Building, launching a $160-million construction project in downtown Clearwater, Florida.
1999
The Charity Commission for England and Wales denies the Church of Scientology's application for charitable status, ruling that it is not a religion and that there is no established "public benefit arising out of the practice of Scientology". The Church does not appeal the decision.
November: The government of Sweden declares that the Church of Scientology is a charitable, non-profit organization with a religious purpose. A year later, the Church's ministers are granted the right to perform marriages, completing official recognition as a church in Sweden.
Bob Minton, a banker critical of Scientology, starts a protest organization called the Lisa McPherson Trust. The organization picketed Scientology buildings on the anniversary of McPherson's death. The group was disbanded in November 2001.
2000s
2000
March: The Italian Supreme Court upholds Scientology's religious status in Italy while reaffirming that Narconon is a non-tax-exempt for-profit business.
Scientology ministers are granted the right to perform marriages in South Africa.
In the United Kingdom, the Church of Scientology is exempted from value added tax on the basis that it is a not-for-profit body.
June: McCabe drops the criminal case against the church, noting that the medical examiner's change of opinion about the cause of McPherson's death undercuts the prosecution's effort to prove the criminal case beyond a reasonable doubt.
2002
The government of New Zealand issues an official decree fully recognizing the Church of Scientology of New Zealand as an exempt religious and charitable organization.
The Austrian tax office concludes that the work of the Church of Scientology in Vienna is for the public benefit rather than anyone's personal profit, and grants that church tax-exempt status as a charitable religious organization.
July: A Paris judge rules that a 13-year-old case against the Church of Scientology alleging fraud and illegal practice of medicine cannot go to trial, due to lack of progress in the investigation. The judge rules that the statute of limitations has expired.
2003
March: The National Ministry of the Interior for Taiwan recognizes the Church of Scientology of Taiwan as a charitable religious institution, officially adding it to the rolls of the country's recognized religions.
2004
May: The church and the estate of Lisa McPherson reach a private settlement.
2005
The U.S. Department of State's 2005 Report on International Religious Freedom announces that the Church of Scientology has been registered as a religious group by the Kyrgyzstan State Commission on Religious Affairs.
David Miscavige announces the Golden Age of Knowledge, a Church program intended to make all Scientology materials available. It starts with the release of 18 congresses.
2006
Scientology applies for status as a religious confessional community in Austria, but later withdraws its application.
2007
In the next major step of the Golden Age of Knowledge program, 18 revised books and 11 lecture series are released.
April: the European Court of Human Rights rules against Russia for repeatedly refusing to consider the Moscow Church of Scientology's application for the status of a legally valid religious association. The court finds that the reasons given to deny re-registration of the church by the justice department and endorsed by the Moscow courts have no legal basis.
A Belgian state prosecutor recommends that a case should be brought against 12 physical persons associated with Scientology and two legal entities – the Belgian Church of Scientology and Scientology's Office of Human Rights – on counts of extortion, fraud, organized crime, obstruction of medical practice, illegal medical practice, invasion of privacy, conspiracy and commercial infractions like abusive contractual clauses. The proposal is referred to an administrative court who is to decide at a later date whether charges will be brought.
October 31: Scientology is formally recognized as a religion in Spain
November: Scientology is officially recognized as a religion in Portugal.
December 3: South Africa grants the Church tax exemption and issues a certificate recognizing it as a "Public Benefit Organisation".
December 7: German federal and state interior ministers formally express the view that the Scientology organization continues to pursue anti-constitutional goals and ask Germany's domestic intelligence agencies to collect and evaluate the necessary information that would be required for a possible judicial inquiry aimed at banning the organization.Sammlung der zur Veröffentlichung freigegebenen Beschlüsse der 185. Sitzung der Ständigen Konferenz der Innenminister und -senatoren der Länder am 7. Dezember 2007 in Berlin The move is criticized by politicians from all parts of the political spectrum, with legal experts expressing concern that an attempt to ban the organization would most likely fail in the courts.Innenminister fordern Verbot von Scientology, article in Die Welt, 2007-12-8 This view is echoed by the German intelligence agencies, who warn that a ban would be doomed to fail.
March: Mike Rinder, former senior executive, escapes Scientology.
2008
January 14: A video created by the Church of Scientology was posted on YouTube featuring Tom Cruise talking about various Scientology topics including "Keeping Scientology Working" or KSW". More details are visible with "Project Chanology".
January 15: "Tom Cruise: An Unauthorized Biography" by Andrew Morton is released.
June 4: Mark Bunker, American politician, broadcast journalist, videographer and documentary filmmaker, conducts and uploads an interview with Actor Jason Beghe who defected the Church in 2007.
Internet-based group Anonymous launches Project Chanology, a worldwide protest against the Church of Scientology, which drew about 7,000 people in more than 93 cities on February 10, 2008.
November: Germany drops its attempt to ban Scientology, after finding insufficient evidence of illegal or unconstitutional activity. However, monitoring of Scientology's activities by the German intelligence services continues.
2009
June 21: The Tampa Bay Times publishes the first article of The Truth Rundown with multiple parts including alleged physical abuse, verbal abuse, imprisonment and torture by the leader David Miscavige and details on the Lisa McPherson Case.
October 26: Paul Haggis goes public with resigning from the Church of Scientology primarily over the policy of disconnection and Scientologys views on homosexuality based on their policies. In 1950 Hubbard published Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health, introducing his "science of the mind," Dianetics. He classified homosexuality as an illness or sexual perversion, citing contemporary psychiatric and psychological textbooks to support his view: "The sexual pervert (and by this term Dianetics, to be brief, includes any and all forms of deviation in Dynamic II [i.e. sexuality] such as homosexuality, lesbianism, sexual sadism, etc., and all down the catalog of Ellis and Krafft-Ebing) is actually quite ill physically...he is very far from culpable for his condition, but he is also far from normal and extremely dangerous to society..." Hubbard further defined perversion in his 1951 book Science of Survival: Prediction of Human Behavior, where he introduced the concept of the "tone scale", a means of classifying individuals and human behavior on a chart running from +40 (the most beneficial) to −40 (the least beneficial).
October 27: Scientologists convicted of fraud in France.
November 5: "Blown for good: Behind the Iron Curtain of Scientology" by Marc Headley is released.
2010s
2010
Scientology churches open in Brussels, Quebec, Las Vegas, Johannesburg, Los Angeles, Mexico City, Pasadena and Washington State.
2011
Lawrence Wright's story on the New Yorker reporting on the Church of Scientology is published.
2012
March 25: After 42 years Ronald T. Miscavige, Father of the leader David Miscavige, escapes from the Gold base.
September: Tony Ortega, Blogger, Journalist & Author, launches freelance blog entitled "The Underground Bunker" that is focused solely on Scientology, after reporting on the Church since 1995.
2013
January 17: "Going Clear: Scientology, Hollywood and the Prison of Belief" by Lawrence Wright is released.
Scientology Ideal Org in Kaohsiung, Taiwan opens.
Flag Building unveiled in Clearwater, Florida after 15 years of construction.
Scientology released its largest training program – The Golden Age of Tech Phase II.
UK recognizes Scientology as a religion and allows Scientology wedding.
Leah Remini goes public with leaving the Church of Scientology.
2014
November 13: Upload Video "Scientologists celebrity centre gala 2005" on YouTube. In the video Giovanni Ribisi states (at 2:08) that Scientology is a "pragmatic religion" and members can have any religious denomination. This statement contradicts the required criteria that Scientology confirmed to the IRS US, that Scientology was in fact its own religion and solely based on the works of L. Ron Hubbard.
2015
The Going Clear Documentary by Alex Gibney is released.
May: Tony Ortega releases his book about Scientology critic Paulette Cooper entitled The Unbreakable Miss Lovely.'' Paulette Cooper is an american author and journalist who started writing about Scientology in 1968 with an article called "The Scandal of Scientology" for "Queen" a british magazine. Despite receiving death threats, she decided to publish further details in a book after the article was published. The book also bears the name "The Scandal of Scientology". Paulette Cooper uploaded the book on her homepage as a free read.
"My Scientology Movie" Documentary by Louis Theroux is released in London.
"Troublemaker: Surviving Hollywood and Scientology" by Leah Remini is released.
2016
May 3: "Ruthless: Scientology, My Son David Miscavige, and Me" by Ronald T. Miscavige is released.
August 8: Joe Rogan Experience #835 uploads podcast episode with Louis Theroux in which his documentary on Scientology is explained.
November 29: "Leah Remini: Scientology and the Aftermath" a documentary series about the Church of Scientology explained through personal experiences of various defectors, journalist and others, is released via A&E. A statement regarding the docuseries by the Church of Scientology was published on their Website, scientologynews.org, on November 26, 2016.
2017
January 31: On an episode of the Joe Rogan Experience (episode #908) guest star Leah Remini explains her experience with OT III, a level on The Bridge to Total Freedom. The Bridge to Total Freedom is a chart or process used by the Church of Scientology to describe members advancement).
February 2: Documentary and upload by Real Stories "Scientology: Mysterious Deaths (Religious Documentary) | Real Stories".
February 4: In an interview Giovanni Ribisi describes Scientology as an "applied religious philosophy".
2018
March 12: The Scientology Network is launched and made available on Apple TV, Amazon's Fire TV, Roku and Google Chromecast.
2019
February 11: "Where is the missing wife of Scientology's ruthless leader?" documentary by 60 Minutes Australia is released
April 3: A convicted murderer named Kenneth Wayne Thompson blames upbringing as a Scientologist as reason for murders.
2020s
2020
April: The Church of Scientology announced an online prevention center in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
2021
August 17: Laura Prepon has not practiced Scientology since 2016.
2022
October 11: Danny Masterson's criminal trial for the alleged sexual assault against three women started. Before and during the trial many possible aspects of the involvement of the Church of Scientology were discussed in and out of court.
References
External links
Scientology.org: Important Dates in Scientology
L Ron Hubbard biographical Timeline, including important Scientology dates
Scientology
Scientology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth-bearer
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Truth-bearer
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A truth-bearer is an entity that is said to be either true or false and nothing else. The thesis that some things are true while others are false has led to different theories about the nature of these entities. Since there is divergence of opinion on the matter, the term truth-bearer is used to be neutral among the various theories. Truth-bearer candidates include propositions, sentences, sentence-tokens, statements, beliefs, thoughts, intuitions, utterances, and judgements but different authors exclude one or more of these, deny their existence, argue that they are true only in a derivative sense, assert or assume that the terms are synonymous,
or seek to avoid addressing their distinction or do not clarify it.
Introduction
Some distinctions and terminology as used in this article, based on Wolfram 1989
(Chapter 2 Section1) follow.
It should be understood that the terminology described is not always used in the ways set out, and it is introduced solely for the purposes of discussion in this article. Use is made of the type–token and use–mention distinctions. Reflection on occurrences of numerals might be helpful.
In grammar a sentence can be a declaration, an explanation, a question, a command. In logic a declarative sentence is considered to be a sentence that can be used to communicate truth. Some sentences which are grammatically declarative are not logically so.
A character is a typographic character (printed or written) etc.
A word-token is a pattern of characters.
A word-type
is an identical pattern of characters.
A meaningful-word-token
is a meaningful pattern of characters.
Two word-tokens which mean the same are of the same word-meaning
A sentence-token is a pattern of word-tokens.
A meaningful-sentence-token
is a meaningful sentence-token or a meaningful pattern of meaningful-word-tokens.
Two sentence-tokens are of the same sentence-type if they are identical patterns of word-tokens characters
A declarative-sentence-token is a sentence-token which that can be used to communicate truth or convey information.
A meaningful-declarative-sentence-token is a meaningful declarative-sentence-token
Two meaningful-declarative-sentence-tokens are of the same meaningful-declarative-sentence-type
if they are identical patterns of word-tokens.
A nonsense-declarative-sentence-token
is a declarative-sentence-token which is not a meaningful-declarative-sentence-token.
A meaningful-declarative-sentence-token-use
occurs when and only when a meaningful-declarative-sentence-token is used declaratively.
A referring-expression
is expression that can be used to pick out or refer to particular entity.
A referential success
is a referring-expression's success in identifying a particular entity.
A referential failure
is a referring-expression's failure to identify a particular entity.
A referentially-successful-meaningful-declarative-sentence-token-use<ref name=Referentially-successful-meaningful-declarative-sentence-token-use group="nb">
Referentially-successful-meaningful-declarative-sentence-token-use A meaningful-declarative-sentence-token-use containing no referring-expression that fails to identify a particular entity. A use of a token of the meaningful-declarative-sentence-type U: The King of France is bald’' is a referentially-successful-meaningful-declarative-sentence-token-use if (and only if) the embedded referring-expression ‘The King of France’ is referentially successful. No use of a token of the meaningful-declarative-sentence-type V: The highest prime has no factors other than itself and 1 is not a referentially-successful-meaningful-declarative-sentence-token-use since the embedded referring-expression The highest prime is always a referential failure.
</ref>
is a meaningful-declarative-sentence-token-use containing no referring-expression that fails to identify a particular entity.
Sentences in natural languages
As Aristotle pointed out, since some sentences are questions, commands, or meaningless, not all can be truth-bearers.
If in the proposal "What makes the sentence Snow is white true is the fact that snow is white" it is assumed that sentences like Snow is white are truth-bearers, then it would be more clearly stated as "What makes the meaningful-declarative-sentence Snow is white true is the fact that snow is white".
Theory 1a:
All and only meaningful-declarative-sentence-types are truth-bearers
Criticisms of theory 1a
Some meaningful-declarative-sentence-types will be both truth and false, contrary to our definition of truth-bearer, for example, (i) in liar-paradox sentences such as "This sentence is false", (see Fisher 2008) (ii) and in time, place, and person-dependent sentences such as "It is noon", "This is London", and "I'm Spartacus".Anyone may ..ascribe truth and falsity to the deterministic propositional signs we here call utterances. But if he takes this line, he must, like Leibniz, recognise that truth cannot be an affair solely of actual utterances, since it makes sense to talk of the discovery of previously un-formulated truths. (Kneale, W&M (1962))
Revision to Theory 1a, by making a distinction between type and token.
To escape the time, place and person dependent criticism the theory can be revised, making use or the type–token distinction, as follows
Theory 1b:
All and only meaningful-declarative-sentence-tokens are truth-bearers
Quine argued that the primary truth-bearers are utterances
Having now recognised in a general way that what are true are sentences, we must turn to certain refinements. What are best seen as primarily true or false are not sentences but events of utterances. If a man utters the words 'It is raining' in the rain, or the words 'I am hungry' while hungry, his verbal performance counts as true. Obviously one utterance of a sentence may be true and another utterance of the same sentence be false.
Source: Quine 1970, page 13
Criticisms of theory 1b
(i) Theory 1b prevents sentences which are meaningful-declarative-sentence-types from being truth-bearers. If all meaningful-declarative-sentence-types typographically identical to "The whole is greater than the part" are true then it surely follows that the meaningful-declarative-sentence-type "The whole is greater than the part" is true (just as all meaningful-declarative-sentence-tokens typographically identical to "The whole is greater than the part" are English entails the meaningful-declarative-sentence-types "The whole is greater than the part" is English) (ii) Some meaningful-declarative-sentences-tokens will be both truth and false, or neither, contrary to our definition of truth-bearer. E.g. A token, t, of the meaningful-declarative-sentence-type ‘P: I'm Spartacus’, written on a placard. The token t would be true when used by Spartacus, false when used by Bertrand Russell, neither true nor false when mentioned by Spartacus or when being neither used nor mentioned.
Theory 1b.1
All meaningful-declarative-sentence-token-uses are truth-bearers; some meaningful-declarative-sentence-types are truth-bearers
To allow that at least some meaningful-declarative-sentence-types can be truth-bearers, Quine allowed so-called "eternal sentences" to be truth-bearers.
In Peirces's terminology, utterances and inscriptions are tokens of the sentence or other linguistic expression concerned; and this linguistic expression is the type of those utterances and inscriptions. In Frege's terminology, truth and falsity are the two truth values. Succinctly then, an eternal sentence is a sentence whose tokens have the same truth values.... What are best regarded as true and false are not propositions but sentence tokens, or sentences if they are eternal
Quine 1970 pages 13–14
Theory 1c
All and only meaningful-declarative-sentence-token-uses are truth-bearers
Arguments for theory 1c
By respecting the use–mention distinction, Theory 1c avoids criticism (ii) of Theory 1b.
Criticisms of theory 1c
(i) Theory 1c does not avoid criticism (i) of Theory 1b. (ii) meaningful-declarative-sentence-token-uses are events (located in particular positions in time and space) and entail a user. This implies that (a) nothing (no truth-bearer) exists and hence nothing (no truth-bearer) is true (or false) anytime anywhere (b) nothing (no truth-bearer) exists and hence nothing (no truth-bearer) is true (or false) in the absence of a user. This implies that (a) nothing was true before the evolution of users capable of using meaningful-declarative-sentence-tokens and (b) nothing is true (or false) except when being used (asserted) by a user. Intuitively the truth (or falsity) of ‘The tree continues to be in the quad’ continues in the absence of an agent to asset it.
Referential Failure
A problem of some antiquity is the status of sentences such as
U: The King of France is bald
V: The highest prime has no factors
W: Pegasus did not exist
Such sentences purport to refer to entitles which do not exist (or do not always exist). They are said to suffer from referential failure. We are obliged to choose either (a) That they are not truth-bearers and consequently neither true nor false or (b) That they are truth-bearers and per se are either true or false.
Theory 1d
All and only referentially-successful-meaningful-declarative-sentence-token-uses are truth-bearers.
Theory 1d takes option (a) above by declaring that meaningful-declarative-sentence-token-uses that fail referentially are not truth-bearers.
Theory 1e
All referentially-successful-meaningful-declarative-sentence-token-uses are truth-bearers; some meaningful-declarative-sentence-types are truth-bearers
Arguments for theory 1e
Theory 1e has the same advantages as Theory 1d. Theory 1e allows for the existence of truth-bearers (i.e., meaningful-declarative-sentence-types) in the absence of users and between uses. If for any x, where x is a use of a referentially successful token of a meaningful-declarative-sentence-type y x is a truth-bearer then y is a truth-bearer otherwise y is not a truth bearer. E.g. If all uses of all referentially successful tokens of the meaningful-declarative-sentence-type ‘The whole is greater than the part’ are truth-bearers (i.e. true or false) then the meaningful-declarative-sentence-type ‘The whole is greater than the part’ is a truth-bearer. If some but not all uses of some referentially successful tokens of the meaningful-declarative-sentence-type ‘I am Spartacus’ are true then the meaningful-declarative-sentence-type ‘I am Spartacus’ is not a truth-bearer.
Criticisms of theory 1e
Theory 1e makes implicit use of the concept of an agent or user capable of using (i.e. asserting) a referentially-successful-meaningful-declarative-sentence-token. Although Theory 1e does not depend on the actual existence (now, in the past or in the future) of such users, it does depend on the possibility and cogency of their existence. Consequently, the concept of truth-bearer under Theory 1e is dependent upon giving an account of the concept of a ‘user’. In so far as referentially-successful-meaningful-declarative-sentence-tokens are particulars (locatable in time and space) the definition of truth-bearer just in terms of referentially-successful-meaningful-declarative-sentence is attractive to those who are (or would like to be) nominalists. The introduction of ‘use’ and ‘users’ threatens the introduction of intentions, attitudes, minds &c. as less-than welcome ontological baggage.
Sentences in languages of classical logic
In classical logic a sentence in a language is true or false under (and only under) an interpretation and is therefore a truth-bearer. For example, a language in the first-order predicate calculus might include one or more predicate symbols and one or more individual constants and one or more variables. The interpretation of such a language would define a domain (universe of discourse); assign an element of the domain to each individual constant; assign the denotation in the domain of some property to each unary (one-place) predicate symbol.
For example, if a language L consisted in the individual constant a, two unary predicate letters F and G and the variable x, then an interpretation I of L might define the Domain D as animals, assign Socrates to a, the denotation of the property being a man to F, and the denotation of the property being mortal to G. Under the interpretation I of L, Fa would be true if, and only if Socrates is a man, and the sentence x(Fx Gx) would be true if, and only if all men (in the domain) are mortal. In some texts an interpretation is said to give "meaning" to the symbols of the language. Since Fa has the value true under some (but not all) interpretations, it is not the sentence-type Fa which is said to be true but only some sentence-tokens of Fa under particular interpretations. A token of Fa without an interpretation is neither true nor false. Some sentences of a language like L are said to be true under all interpretations of the sentence, e.g. x(Fx Fx), such sentences are termed logical truths, but again such sentences are neither true nor false in the absence of an interpretation.
Propositions
A number of authors use the term proposition as truth-bearers. There is no single definition or usage. Sometimes it is used to mean a meaningful declarative sentence itself; sometimes it is used to mean the meaning of a meaningful declarative sentence. This provides two possible definitions for the purposes of discussion as below
Theory 2a: All and only meaningful-declarative-sentences are propositions
Theory 2b:A meaningful-declarative-sentence-token expresses a proposition; two meaningful-declarative-sentence-tokens which have the same meaning express the same proposition; two meaningful-declarative-sentence-tokens with different meanings express different propositions. (cf Wolfram 1989, p. 21)Proposition is not always used in one or other of these ways.
Criticisms of theory 2a.
If all and only meaningful-declarative-sentences are propositions, as advanced by Theory 2a, then the terms are synonymous and we can just as well speak of the meaningful-declarative-sentences themselves as the trutbearers - there is no distinct concept of proposition to consider, and the term proposition is literally redundant.
Criticisms of Theory 2b
Theory 2b entails that if all meaningful-declarative-sentence-tokens typographically identical to say, "I am Spartacus" have the same meaning then they (i) express the same proposition (ii) that proposition is both true and false, contrary to the definition of truth-bearer.
The concept of a proposition in this theory rests upon the concept of meaning as applied to meaningful-declarative-sentences, in a word synonymy among meaningful-declarative-sentence s. Quine 1970 argues that the concept of synonymy among meaningful-declarative-sentences cannot be sustained or made clear, consequently the concepts of "propositions" and "meanings of sentences" are, in effect, vacuous and superfluousSee also Willard Van Orman Quine, Proposition, The Russell-Myhill Antinomy, also known as the Principles of Mathematics Appendix B Paradox
Statements
Many authors consider statements as truth-bearers, though as with the term "proposition" there is divergence in definition and usage of that term. Sometimes 'statements' are taken to be meaningful-declarative-sentences; sometimes they are thought to be what is asserted by a meaningful-declarative-sentence. It is not always clear in which sense the word is used. This provides two possible definitions for the purposes of discussion as below.
A particular concept of a statement was introduced by Strawson in the 1950s., reprinted in
Consider the following:
I: The author of Waverley is dead
J: The author of Ivanhoe is dead
K: I am less than six feet tall
L: I am over six feet tall
M: The conductor is a bachelor
N: The conductor is married
On the assumption that the same person wrote Waverley and Ivanhoe, the two distinct patterns of characters (meaningful-declarative-sentences) I and J make the same statement but express different propositions.
The pairs of meaningful-declarative-sentences (K, L) & (M, N) have different meanings, but they are not necessarily contradictory, since K & L may have been asserted by different people, and M & N may have been asserted about different conductors.What these examples show is that we cannot identify that which is true or false (the statement) with the sentence used in making it; for the same sentence may be used to make different statements, some of them true and some of them false. (Strawson, P.F. (1952))
This suggests:
Two meaningful-declarative-sentence-tokens which say the same thing of the same object(s) make the same statement.
Theory 3a
All and only statements are meaningful-declarative-sentences.
Theory 3b
All and only meaningful-declarative-sentences can be used to make statements Statement is not always used in one or other of these ways.
Arguments for theory 3a
"All and only statements are meaningful-declarative-sentences." is either a stipulative definition or a descriptive definition. If the former, the stipulation is useful or it is not; if the latter, either the descriptive definition correctly describes English usage or it does not. In either case no arguments, as such, are applicable
Criticisms of theory 3a
If the term statement is synonymous with the term meaningful-declarative-sentence, then the applicable criticisms are the same as those outlined under sentence below
If all and only meaningful-declarative-sentences are statements, as advanced by Theory 3a, then the terms are synonymous and we can just as well speak of the meaningful-declarative-sentences themselves as the truth-bearers – there is no distinct concept of statement to consider, and the term statement is literally redundant.
Thoughts
Frege (1919) argued that an indicative sentence in which we communicate or state something, contains both a thought and an assertion, it expresses the thought, and the thought is the sense of the sentence.
See also
William Kneale
Truthmaker Realism
Barry Smith
Notes
References
External links
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
Truth; 2.1 Sentences as truth-bearers; Glanzberg, Michael
The Correspondence Theory of Truth; 2. Truthbearers and Truthmakers''; David, Marian
Concepts in logic
Concepts in the philosophy of language
Philosophical logic
Propositions
Bearer
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Rebelde%20characters
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List of Rebelde characters
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This article contains a list of characters from the telenovela Rebelde.
Rebelde features several different plotlines, many of which are put on hold for several episodes before they are resumed. Many of the minor characters often play central roles for a few episode before returning to the background.
Overview
The cast should be organized according to the series original broadcast credits, with new cast members being added to the end of the list. Please keep in mind that 'main' cast status is determined by the series producers, not by popularity or screen time.
Teens
Mía Colucci Cáceres
Played by: Anahí
Mía Colucci Caceres is Franco Colucci's only daughter with his first wife, Marina Caceres. The most popular girl and a queen bee at Elite Way School, she comes from a wealthy and privileged family who lives in Mexico City. Spoiled and self-centered, she, however, can be very loyal, attentive and tender towards those she loves. Her best friends are Celina and Victoria "Vico", but she's also very close friends with Lupita and Roberta. Mía starts RBD with her boyfriend Miguel and their friends Roberta, Diego, Giovanni, and Lupita, and acts as a songwriter for the band. She also loves fashion and acts as a stylist for her friends.
Mía falls in love with Miguel at first sight but keeps quiet since he starts dating her friend Celina. However, Mía is unaware that Miguel came to Elite Way in an attempt to grow close to her in order to exact revenge on her father, Franco, who Miguel holds responsible for his father's death. Despite her strong feelings for Miguel, Mía and Miguel argue constantly when they first meet. During this time, Mía briefly dates Joaquin and later starts a relationship with Gastón, who works at the school as a prefect and, knowing Mía and Miguel are interested in each other, tries hard to turn them against each other. Miguel is aware of Mía's relationship with Gastón and helps them protect their secret by telling Franco that he's dating Mía when Franco finds out about his daughter dating an older man who works at her school, even kissing her in front of her father, Gastón and the school's principal.
They start dating and declare their love for each other, with Miguel growing increasingly divided between going through with his plans and letting go of his past and moving on with Mía. However, Mía uncovers the truth about Miguel's real reasons to approach her and, devastated, breaks up with Miguel. It is later revealed that Miguel's father's death was caused by Mía's Uncle Carlo. Miguel apologizes to Mía and her father and puts his past behind him. In the first season's finale, Mía surprises Miguel by joining him on his flight to Monterrey, where his family is originally from.
In the second season, their relationship is more unified than ever, with only a few bumpy roads and short breakups. The couple takes a romantic trip to Cancun and grows closer when stranded on an island.
In the third season, problems hit the couple's path in the shape of Sabrina. Sabrina is the spoiled daughter of RBD's producer, whose crush on Miguel knows no boundaries. Sabrina's persistence in flirting with Miguel makes Mía jealous and puts a strain in their relationship; they eventually break up when Sabrina tells everyone she and Miguel slept together. In truth, Miguel got drunk and fell asleep; Sabrina snuck into his bed barely clothed and when he woke up told him they had sex.
After their breakup, Mía grows deeply depressed. However, she finds comfort in her newfound friendship with Roberta, who is going through a similar rough patch with Diego and her mother. The two girls, who were at odds when they first met, grow close and start caring sincerely about each other. While struggling to come to terms with the end of her relationship with Miguel, Mía finds out that, instead of dying in a car crash like Franco told Mía, her mother is actually alive. Marina left her husband and toddler Mía because she was an addict, now she has recovered from her issues, she's back and wants a relationship with her daughter. At first, Mía is hurt and resentful that her father has lied to her about her mother for most of her life but eventually understands that Franco did that out of love for her trying to protect her from hurt and pain. Mía and Marina slowly form a relationship, bonding over the fact that Marina was also a singer when she was young, having passed her talent and love for the stage to her daughter.
Near the end of the series, the truth between Miguel and Sabrina is revealed. However, since Miguel's in a coma, Mía blames herself for her harsh treatment of her boyfriend and pleads with him to wake up and come back to her. He eventually does during one of her daily visits to him, but as a consequence of his coma, he has memory problems and can only remember he has a girlfriend. When Mía asks him who is his girlfriend's name, he mistakenly says Sabrina, leaving Mía once again heartbroken and depressed. He finally remembers everything about Mía and their relationship during an RBD concert, while Mía's singing 'Sálvame', a song she wrote for him, Miguel decided to leave Mexico City and go back to his family in Monterrey. They finally talk when he's packing for his trip, with Miguel telling Mía that her song brought his memory back. Mía tearfully pleads with Miguel not to leave, saying she can't live without him; Miguel starts crying and they kiss, making up for good.
Mía's family grows at the end of the series: Franco marries Roberta's mother, Alma, and together they adopt Roberta's best friend, Jose Luján. Miguel proposes to Mía before the graduation ceremony at Elite Way, and she say yes.
Roberta Alexandra Maria Reverte Rey
Played by: Dulce María
Most likely the most rebellious student in Elite Way, Roberta is the only daughter of Alma Rey (Ninel Conde), a famous singer who gave birth to Roberta when she was very young, supposedly with her first husband, Mr. Pardo. However, Roberta eventually finds out that her biological father is Martín Reverte, a teacher at Elite Way, who joined the school in order to find his child. Roberta is a reckless, strong young girl with a short temper and a big heart. She has the tendency to find problem wherever she goes, not only for herself, but for others too, but she always finds inventive ways to work her problems out. She's the co-female lead of RBD along with Lupita and Mia, with whom she at first has a difficult and conflicted relationship (Roberta thinks Mía's too ditzy, dumb and shallow). Her best friends are her roommates, Lupita and Jose Luján.
Roberta recruits a popular and handsome classmate, Diego Bustamante, to the band she's forming with Mía, Miguel, Lupita and Giovanni, but, in order to keep Diego's father León from finding out about the band, and to give Roberta an excuse to blow her mother off, they pretend they're dating. However, her strong personality and short fuses lead to a volatile relationship, with Roberta and Diego fighting a lot and hating each other. But, eventually, they fall deeply in love, although they both fight against their feelings and refuse to admit to it. They finally start dating for real, but eventually break up.
In season one, Roberta leaves against her will for a month in Spain with her adoptive father and is angry at herself when she spends a lot of time thinking about Diego. However, when she comes back, Diego has a new girlfriend: Paola, who really is a prostitute hired by León Bustamante to keep Diego away from Roberta, who León sees as inadequate for his son. After Diego breaks up with Paola, he makes a bet with his friends that he'll get Roberta to date him, and is successful. His friend Tomás tells Roberta the truth, and she dumps him, furious and heartbroken with his lie. However, Diego has sincerely fallen in love with Roberta during their relationship and tells her so, but she doesn't believe him.
To get Diego out of her head and her heart, Roberta becomes a serial dater throughout the series: she has relationships with Joaquin, Teo, Simon, Roger, Iñaki and Javier, who is Diego's nemesis and León's girlfriend's son. Javier actually helps León keep Diego away from Roberta, although he claims he wants to date her only to break her heart since she publicly humiliated him by turning him down. However, during this time Roberta and Diego become real friends, with Roberta helping Diego sort out his issues and solve his problems. Diego is outspoken about his love for Roberta, telling her he loves her whenever he has a chance; Roberta, however, won't confess to feeling the same.
During the third season, Roberta and Alma's unstable relationship explodes when Martín Reverte is revealed as Roberta's father. Roberta finally admits she's hurt that her mother was always away, working when she was a child and didn't have time to be with her. She also admits that she was hurt that Alma acted more as a sister than as a mother when she was growing up. However, with Martín's help, she starts realizing that her mother truly loves her, and did everything there was in her power to give her the best life she could.
It's during this time that Roberta finally becomes friends with Mía, with Mía telling Roberta Alma and Franco are dating (and plan on marrying), and Roberta comforting Mía during her relationship problems with Miguel. It's Roberta who explains to Miguel why Mía was so hurt when Miguel said his girlfriend was Sabrina (after waking up from his coma). After a rocky patch in their relationship (Jose was jealous of Roberta having a growing family), best friends Roberta and Jose finally work out their problems and become family when Alma and Franco decide to adopt Jose.
Roberta also helps Diego break free of León's toxic influence and orchestrates Diego's mother Mabel's return from abroad. León forced Mabel to abandon their house and their son, and Roberta secretly works to bring Mabel back to Diego's life. When Roberta tells him what she has done, he's stunned and demands her reasons for it. Roberta finally admits that she did it because she loves him, and they make up for good. During Franco and Alma's wedding reception, Roberta and Diego discuss their nervousness about sex, with Diego anxious because Roberta's supposedly more experienced than he is (he has some experience, but she has dated more than he has). Roberta shyly admits she's a virgin, and the couple happily decides to take their time before that step.
Miguel Arango
Played by: Alfonso Herrera
Miguel Arango is a noble, down to earth, handsome, but "short-fused" young man. He is originally from Monterrey, Nuevo León (Mexico) which is where his mother and younger sister live in, but he can never afford to visit because his family is not very wealthy. Miguel is on a half scholarship causing him to be harassed by a secret society of students known as "La Logia", a sort of gang or mob organized to eliminate the "becados" (students with scholarships). He is in the Elite Way School to get revenge on Franco Colucci (since he believes Franco obligated his father to kill himself), not knowing he would fall for the man's daughter (Mia Colucci).
He later found out it was really Franco's brother Carlo who led Miguel's father to his death. When Miguel finds out he feels horrible (because he started dating Mia), and forgets his vengeful plans. Miguel has a constant on-again, off-again relationship with Mia, but they still and always have been madly in love from the first time they saw each other, even though they pretended that they hated each other. Miguel is friends with Roberta and is always helping her with anything she needs help on. Miguel has a strong sense of pride and dignity that often gets in the way of common sense. He finds himself in huge trouble with Mia after allegedly cheating on her with Sabrina Guzman (RBD's manager, event planner and the daughter of their producer) who has an extreme obsession with him and taking him away from Mia. She pretends to be his friend and after a heavy drinking session she makes him believe that they slept together and that she is pregnant (although this presumably never happened, but is furthered due to Sabrina's intention of blinding Miguel to her side and the fact that Miguel was drunk when the "cheat" occurred).
He later finds out through security camera videos that he never slept with her. He now tries desperately to win Mia back. He later falls into a coma due to an accident when he was hit by Gaston (the school's Prefect). Miguel wakes up from his coma and didn't seem to remember anybody except Diego. A few days later, he remembers his father thanks to Roberta (after a strong session of screams on her behalf) and a long discussion, after he mistakenly says that Sabrina is his girlfriend instead of Mia (even though he likes Mia without remembering their history together), which makes Mia want to get far away from Miguel. Later Miguel finds out through Diego and Roberta that the love of his life is Mia. He then tries to tell Mia that he finally knows who she is and why he has been having these feelings for her, when he saw her for the first time (after he wakes up from his coma).
He later gets all his memories back during an RBD concert, ironically while Mia is singing Salvame (their love song). Later on she takes him back, after she learns about the lies Sabrina came up with. Plus she is in love with Miguel. In the final episode, he gave Mia an engagement ring. Miguel and Mia were last seen at a bridge talking about their future.
Diego Bustamante
Played by: Christopher von Uckermann
Diego is a very handsome and talented boy who is the son of the corrupt political leader Leon Bustamante. In the beginning of the series he dates Vico but later dumps her because she cheats on him with Tomas because he didn't ask her to go to his party. He also pretends to date Roberta so he will be able to play with RBD though he does really have feelings for her. After Roberta leaves for Spain because her dad is forcing her to go, Diego falls in love with Paula, a girl that is paid by Leon to sleep with him, because Diego was still a virgin. They fall in love and decide to run away together. Leon finds him and tells him the truth about Paula. Diego finds out that Paula not only slept with him, but also with his father, so he dumps her.
On a trip to Canada, he and Mia fake a relationship to make Miguel and Roberta jealous. It seems as though making each other jealous worked, because they ended the trip with a passionate kiss. Diego often shows that when he has problems, he tends to drink a lot, almost dying. He also shows that he is highly affected by the problems that surround his parents marriage. Towards the end of the first season, Diego falls, hitting his head, and pretends not to remember Roberta so that he can go out with her and win the bet he made with Tomas. He starts to fall in love with her, but when Roberta finds out why he went out with her she dumps him. He's crushed and tries to get her back. In the second season he wins the Student Body President elections because his team cheats and then shares the presidency with Roberta. He tries to get Roberta jealous in numerous occasions, with numerous girls including Sol and Lola, although he doesn't really last that long with any of them. In the third season, RBD start recording their album and go on tour. While on their way back Diego confesses his love for Roberta, because he thinks that the plane is going to crash and he's going to die. Roberta does the same. When the plane lands and they get off, he tells her that he was just kidding. However, later on he realizes that he really is in love and asks her to be his girlfriend, but she says no. After saving her and doing sweet things like giving her serenades, she finally decides to take a chance and they date. They break up later, because Roberta thinks that he is back to his old ways.
She finds out that it was just a misunderstanding and tries to get back with him, but he refuses, saying that he is tired of their on-and-off relationship. She then goes to find Diego's mom and brings her back, and that's when Diego and Roberta finally end up together for good. For the finale, they made out in a rowboat.
Lupita Fernandez
Played by: Maite Perroni
Guadalupe "Lupita" Fernandez is the good-girl-next-door in the series. She's beautiful, shy, sweet and tries to be nice and friendly to everyone. She always chooses to do what is right. Her family is lower middle class, and she's at Elite Way thanks to a scholarship obtained to her by her aunt, who works at the school's cafeteria. Lupita gets along well with everyone, being close friends with Mía and best friends and roommates with Roberta and Jose Luján.
Lupita's character is reportedly inspired partially by a friend of the writers, named Lupita Martínez. Lupita is sweet and quiet, but she has a complicated relationship with family and puts too much pressure on herself because of her scholarship and because she doesn't want to disappoint her aunt. This often leads to Lupita angrily telling people off whenever things are too much to her which then will make her rebellious. However, she likes to be helpful. She's part of RBD alongside Mía, Miguel, Diego, Roberta, and Giovanni, and she comes up with the band's name. She's a victim of La Logia, a secret society that strives to keep the school 'pure' and 'clean' of scholarship students.
Throughout the first season, Lupita's in a relationship with Nico, a poor Jewish boy who studies at Elite Way. Although they're in love with each other, Nico's family opposes the relationship, mainly because Lupita isn't Jewish. They even bring Nico’s old girlfriend Karen, back to Mexico, hoping the girl will break him and Lupita up. At the end of the first season, because Nico's family is sending him away to Israel to study, Nico and Lupita have a symbolic marriage, witnessed by all of their friends. Nico leaves to Israel, promising to write to Lupita and to come back as soon as possible to marry her for real. Lupita is heartbroken that he's leaving, but has confidence that they'll work out in the end.
In the second season, Lupita finds out her father remarried and has a daughter with his second wife. Lupita's half-sister, Lola, is spoiled and jealous that Lupita is apparently their father's favorite. However, Lupita works hard to have a good relationship with her sister. Meanwhile, Lupita starts believing Nico has forgotten about her while in Israel, for he hasn't written to her at all since leaving. What she doesn't know is that Nico's mother has been holding his letters to Lupita back. Devastated, Lupita grows close to Santos, a classmate who has a crush on her.
However, Santos' feelings for Lupita worsens her relationship with Lola. Lola has a crush on Santos and believes Lupita's pursuing him out of spite. With time, the sisters work out their problems and grow closer. Lupita starts to accept she has fallen in love with Santos, and they start their relationship. When Nico comes back, ready to pick up where he left it off with Lupita, leaving her stunned and confused.
Nico's return puts a strain on Lupita's relationship with Santos, but, after a while, she realizes it's Santos who she loves and tells Nico that she's over him and only wants to be friends. Nico is heartbroken but accepts Lupita's decision and Lupita is with Santos in the end.
Giovanni Méndez Lopez
Played by: Christian Chávez
Giovanni Méndez (originally called Juan) is a handsome, social, egotistical yet very funny guy. He is the character who engages in the most comical situations. He knows how to make friends, but has a problem with letting himself be taken by others and not knowing how to make his own decisions. He can also be very harsh at times. His best friends (and roommates) are Diego and Tomas.
Méndez dyes his hair of many colors throughout the series (at the end of the series it was rose red). Coming from a rather poor family, Méndez actively tries to hides his low-class beginnings and parentage. For that very same reason, Méndez always shoots for a chance at easy money. Méndez's parents had humble beginnings but became rich after his father won the lottery. However, the personal administrator of the family fortune committed fraud and stole all of the family's possessions, which forced them to return to their original lives as the owners of a butcher shop. Méndez is also a hopeless womanizer, unable to remain faithful to just one woman (which mostly explains why his relationship with Vico ended in failure). He gets into a relationship with Augustina, a rich girl who gives Giovanni expensive gifts at the drop of a dime, wooing Giovanni to her feet.
Although he is good at heart, some rich classmates consider him a sellout, which splits Giovanni between his devotion to one woman and his fixation for expensive gifts. But in spite of all that he continues going to school, and he is doing good with his personal life, family, friends, girls, fun activities, and as a member of RBD. He was also a member of "La Logia" (a secret society within the school hell-bent on getting scholarship students kicked out), until he betrays them to save Teo.
Jóse Luján Landeros
Played by: Zoraida Gómez
The quintessential female athlete, raised in foster care because her wealthy mom didn't want to raise her. Her tuition is paid by an anonymous benefactor.
She dated Teo briefly at the beginning of the series. She is Roberta and Lupita's best friend and roommate. She shares with Roberta an explosive attitude and overall rudeness. She has been under the harassment of the school prefect, Gaston, for quite a while, leading her to investigate the reason why Gaston's grudge towards her. However, due to her meddling in Gaston's obscure past, she gets extremely upset and desperately wants her out of the way. Lujan not only finds out that Gaston is her co-benefactor, but also her personal guardian since she was just a little girl. Jose Lujan comes to appreciate Gaston's efforts, and even justifies Gaston's harsh methods and constant abuse. However, their time together is cut short when Gaston dies after enduring a severe car crash. She begins acting hostile towards Roberta since she is jealous that Roberta has both parents (Alma and Martin) in her life while Jose Luján doesn't have a single parental figure. She is later adopted by Franco and Alma. At the end of the series, she gets back together with Teo.
Victoria "Vico" Paz
Played by: Angelique Boyer
Victoria is Celina and Mia's best friend. She has a reputation for being "easy." At the beginning of the series, she is dating Diego and plays with his feelings because he cheated and lied to her. She played with his feelings by getting with Diego's best friend Tomas.
Vico comes from a family with a twisted background: her father left her, her mom, and her brother when Vico was very young. As a result, Vico was at the blunt end of her father's physical abuse and psychological torment in the second season when they meet again. While at school she felt helpless and unloved, at one point attempted taking pills to take her mind off things. Mia, her best friend, helped her get past it. Thanks to Rocco and professor Martin Reverte, they put Vico's father in rehab, which puts Rocco under a new light in Vico's eyes and they start dating. Rocco finds Vico's mom and brings them back together.
Celina Ferrer
Played by: Estefania Villarreal
An overweight girl who often wallows in self-pity because she has never had a boyfriend. She is often insecure, although noble at heart. She is best friends with Vico and Mia, though she eventually became friends with Sol de la Riva, despite her being Mia's sworn rival. Sol later tries to steal away Celina's love interest, Max, and to end her friendship with Mia.
All the women in her family are slim and make Celina feel bad about being overweight. Her mother is ashamed of her for being overweight and criticizes her whenever she can. She claims she wishes Celina had never been born. Celina begins throwing up her food in order to lose weight, though she later ends up in the hospital and stops. In season three, Celina meets and falls in love with Max, who in turn becomes enamored with her. They consummate their relationship and she becomes pregnant with Max's child.
Villarreal comes back as Celina Ferrer in the 2022 Netflix reboot, as Elite Way School's new principal.
Pilar Gandía
Played by: Karla Cossío
She is the daughter of the school principal and disliked by most of the students for that reason and because she is nosy and likes to gossip. She has a habit of getting even in a drastic way when men scorn her. She often speaks in English.
At the beginning of the series, she used to write an anonymous newspaper filled with gossip called Anónimos ("anonymous") about her peers. At first, she is cold and ruthless (especially towards Mia and her friends). It is later revealed that Pilar is the only female member of La Logia. Pilar is also romantically linked to Joaquín until he leaves school after having sex with her in her father's office.
In the second season, she joins the equally malicious Sol de la Riva, along with Raquel and Michelle, in a group called "Top Girls." However, in season three, due to the Gandías' divorce and her relationship with Tomas, she comes to her senses and begins to socialize a bit more, eventually becoming closer to her classmates.
On 2022 Netflix reboot, Pilar Gandia now marry to a famous producer named Camilo Cohen and is the mother and manager of the pop star sensation Jana Cohen Gandia. Jana is one of the new students in the EWS (acronym for Elite Way School)
Sol de la Riva
Played by: Fuzz/María Fernanda Malo
Beautiful and sexy, she gets a lot of attention from students of Elite Way School and makes a very attractive impression, which first makes her a threat to Mia's popularity, but her cynical and deceptive personality quickly gets people to dislike her. Sol wants things to go her way no matter what and could be considered the only student at Elite Way whose intentions are not noble, no matter what the situation is. She is willing to ruin people's lives without regard of their personal feelings and does so via a multitude of convincing lies (although most of the time her plans tend to backfire).
She hates Mia and wants her to feel inferior at all costs. She briefly dated Diego in order to gain popularity in his Class President campaign. She also tried to make Miguel (Mia's boyfriend) fall for her, it did not work.
She has an affinity for the heartagram, a trademarked symbol of Finnish rock band HIM. She thinks she can do better than every girl in the school. She is often called Polly Pocket because of her height.
Her dream is to become a supermodel but her father will not let her. Although beautiful and having a nice body, she's too short and not skinny enough for the model standards, but she thinks she's very skinny and perfect, but doesn't realize that model agencies do not think of her as model worthy. She is jealous of Mia because all the modeling agencies want Mia to be a model.
At the end of the third season, Sol appears in a magazine and her father is furious and enrolls her in a public school.
Raquel Byron-Sender
Played by: Fernanda Polin
Recurring character in the first season, but becomes principal in the second season.
In the first season she is seen to be friends with a group of recurring character e.g. Michelle and Belen. She seems to be extremely stuck up and thinks she is superior to others but in the second season we truly see how cruel she is. She becomes friends with Sol which definitely has a bad influence on her. She breaks Teo and Jose Lujan and also tried to ruin Tomas and Anita's relationships. She mistreats people below her and doesn't care about people's feelings. After a while she gets tired of Sol's bad treatment to everyone and leaves her. At the end of the third series she is asked to model.
Michelle Pineda
Played by: Michelle Renaud
Michelle is Raquel's best friend. The two of them join Sol and Pilar in a group named "Top Girls", though the group is eventually disbanded after Michelle, Raquel and Pilar get tired of Sol's attitude. Originally Michelle is mostly seen to be manipulated by Raquel. but she develops her own personality and becomes more caring towards her classmates.
Lola Fernández
Played by: Viviana Ramos
Lola's parents pressured her to be like her half sister Lupita, which has made her dislike Lupita. Lola does not lose an opportunity to insult and scorn Lupita and blames her for most of her problems. She often uses her friend, Bianca to do her dirty work.
She had a short affair with Diego and Leonardo, which ended quickly due to her immaturity. Lola considers herself to be all alone in this world and thinks that no one could ever love her. It is later revealed that Lola is adopted and therefore, not biologically related to Lupita or her parents. After having a lengthy talk with Roberta, Lola has a new perspective on her life, and a new relationship with her sister.
Bianca Delight
Played by: Allisson Lozano
Lola's shy best friend who does whatever Lola says. She eventually becomes tired of Lola mistreating her and pushing her around and she becomes more independent. She also had a crush on Rocco.
Augustina
Played By: Georgina Salgado
Although we don't know much about her, we do know that she is obsessed with Giovanni and buys him expensive gifts to get him to like her (they also dated for some time). She is good friends with Lola and Bianca, and like Bianca, she lets Lola make all decisions for her. Her father made her stop dating Giovanni. She is seen as the naive girl and soon learns about Giovanni flirting with other girls, so she begins flirting with Iñaki, much to Giovanni's dismay. She acts like they're friends until the La Gran Final when she makes out with Iñaki right in front of Giovanni and Lola and is with Inaki.
Téo Ruiz Palacios
Played by: Eddy Vilard
In the beginning of the series Teo is very quiet and shy. Later on he gets a makeover. He falls in love with Roberta in the first season. After Roberta tells him that she really doesn't love him, they break up. Teo was tortured by La Logia after they found out he was planning on revealing their identities and ending La Logia. He had to be medically treated and while in the hospital Jose Lujan visits him and kisses him. Jose denies this but Teo starts to like Jose. On a trip to Canada he tries to get closer to her. Later on they start going out. In the second season, his mother gets admitted into a mental institution after having a break down regarding her elder son's death (she blames this on Teo). Later on he dumps Jose in order to go out with Raquel Byron. They go out even though Teo gets jealous when he sees her with another guy. In the third season Teo wants to get back with Jose Lujan but she doesn't really seem to care because she is too preoccupied with her own problems. But it seems that they do get together in the end of the series.
Tomás Goycolea
Played by: Jack Duarte
Although he is good at heart, he is a party boy and does things without considering the consequences. His best friends and roommates are Diego and Giovanni. He comes from a very wealthy family whom he doesn't have much contact with; he'd rather spend his weekend at school than with his family, whom doesn't pay much attention to him. He first gets involved with Vico, while she was still dating Diego. Then he develops a crush on Lupita. He then he gets involved with Anita and Sol. His friends were against his relationship with Sol, for it interfered with their plans to pair him up with Anita (the school's cafeteria girl, who is very smart and even earned a scholarship but needs to pay for the other half of her tuition, hence her job at the school. She has a deep love interest for Tomas). After Tomas starts dating Sol, Anita refuses to do homework assignments for Diego and Giovanni, since she is no longer friends with Tomas and has no other connection to them. Giovanni then makes her believe that Tomas is in love with her, she then accepts to do their work for them but they have to pay a price... To get out of paying, Giovanni and Diego try to split Tomas and Sol. Their plan is a success but after Anita leaves, Tomas develops a deep relationship with Pilar, for the rest of the series.
Nico Huber
Played by: Rodrigo Nehme
A Jewish teen who is pressured by his family to dump his Catholic girlfriend (Lupita) in favor of his childhood sweetheart. Nico and Lupita have a symbolic marriage on the first season at the end. Introverted, he hates outdoor activities. Nico was sent on a student exchange program to Israel, and all contact with Lupita was nixed thanks to his mother's interference. He returns in an attempt to see Lupita again, but is surprised when he sees her in company of Santos. He loves Lupita, but Lupita doesn't like him anymore (she thought he severed all ties with her). Nico wants to win Lupita back, but she rejects him for Santos. Lupita gets back with Nico for a while but then breaks up with him due to his constant jealousy. In the end he returns to Israel and most likely ended up in a forced relationship with Karen.
Rocco Bezauri
Played by: Diego Boneta
A somewhat geeky and highly obnoxious student who passes his time by filming other students on his hand-held camera, which makes them mad. He is very misunderstood by his parents After tips by Santos, he tries to become less "fresa" (preppy) and imitates Santos. Rocco starts to make moves on Vico, stemming from Vico's reputation of being "easy", but later on, he falls for her for real. He tries his best to help out Vico in her troubled times, despite Vico's refusal and constant rejections. It seems his attempts pay off during a school trip to Puerto Vallarta, where Vico finally opens her heart to Rocco. Rocco also has great singing potential, as he sings a couple of songs throughout the series.
Santos Echagüe
Played by: Derrick James
He's first introduced in the beginning of the second season as an outcast. He later changes after an incident with the ex-principal. After, he starts socialising more and becomes good friends with Leornando, but there friendship is cut short when Leonardo moves away to play soccer. He becomes a hot gothic rocker who has a crush on Lupita. He knows she likes him back. Lupita's sister Lola has a crush on him, so there's a love triangle there. Santos is easy-going and relaxed for the most part. He always keeps his cool and never exasperates himself. He serves as a loyal advisory to his best friend, Miguel. He acts as a middleman between Lupita and Lola's constant arguments. He is willing to put everything on the line for his loved ones and is dating Lupita at the end of the series.
Leonardo Francisco Blanco
Played by: Eleazar Gómez
Tomas' cousin. He's from a small town, a wrestler, and from the get-go, Diego does not like him (since the beginning of season 2 because he thinks Leo threw rocks at him). He has a crush on Lupita, but Lola thinks he likes her. He leaves to go to another school after he received a letter to play in America (a soccer team).
Mauricio Garzo Alebrija
Played by: Ernesto Díaz
He tried to compete with Tomas to get Sol to like him in the beginning of the second season. He is very proud of being rich and looks down on people who aren't. But his story line fades as the second season and he tells Tomas he has to leave Elite Way because of what his father wants for him.
Javier Alanis
Played by: Miguel Angel Biaggio
Diego's (evil) future stepbrother, who has a crush on Roberta. He hates Diego because Roberta loves him. Javier will do anything to get Roberta to like him, even telling her convincing lies about Diego to turn her away from him; even though Roberta, nor Jose Lujan know that he likes them. He is supposed to go to a different school because of Diego but his mother changes her mind. He lies to Roberta about it and tries to escape with ger when Diego calls her and tells her about Javier's lies. In the end he is taken out of Elite Way because of Giovanni. Giovanni talked to Javier's father and told him that he was Javier's boyfriend. Javier's dad gets mad and tells him to go pack his stuff because he's taking him out of the school.
Joaquin Mascaró
Played by: Michel Gurfi
Both Mia and Roberta's love interest in the beginning of the series. He dated them both at the same time. At first he seemed like a threat to Diego's popularity but his manipulating ways got people to dislike him very quickly. He also manipulated Tomas into selling drugs and nearly got Tomas expelled. He later had a relationship with Pilar, until her father caught them together in his office and forbid Pilar to see him. Pasqual had difficulty expelling him from Elite Way due to business ties with Joaquin's family. During sport practice Joaquin nearly dies due to him consuming drugs and Mia, Vico and Celina show Pasqual a video of Joaquin selling drugs to Vico. He is immediately expelled and he never returns to Elite Way. Enrique (Ethics professor) goes on sees Joaquin at a rehabilitation centre and it is revealed he constantly gets involved with drugs because of his fathers neglect. Pilar has a hard time with him leaving the school and then has the doubt that she might be pregnant with his baby, but it is revealed she isn't when the pregnancy test comes out negative.
Dante
Played by: Marco Antonio Valdés
He is seen to be friends with Bianca and Lola, even though Lola finds him childish and annoying. He has a secret crush on Lola. He tries to make his move on Lola only to find himself slapped and alone. Lola then feels sorry for him and they kiss. Pascual catches them, and Roberta bails them out. Poor Dante is then left as just a friend. That is though, on the Gran Finale. After Giovanni's dumped by Augustina, he tries to hit on Lola but Dante comes to her rescue and they walk away together like boyfriend and girlfriend.
Marcelino
Played by: Dylan Obed
Marcelino is a little orphan boy that Roberta brings to the school in the 1st season. She hides him out in the back of the school. Diego finds out and says that he'll tell the school but he uses Marcelino as a way to win Roberta back. Pilar finds out about Marcelino and tells the school in her paper. Marcelino is later adopted by Pepa, who works as a personal assistant for Roberta's mom (Alma Rey). But then his brother (Oso) escapes from jail and pressures him to go away with him. Later, they find him safe and sound and he is reunited with Pepa.
Adults
Franco Colucci
Played by: Juan Ferrara
He is a high-end fashion designer and the father of Mia. Miguel works for him, which causes him to become quite affectioned with him, treating him as if he was his son. Franco is known as "Daddy" (since that is how Mia calls
Franco). Franco refuses to talk to Mia about his mother, even going out of his way telling her she died, when she was alive the entire time. In season 1, Franco dates a lawyer from his past named Valeria Oliver, the women he was set to marry before he left her for Marina, Mia's mother. Valeria leaves Franco at the altar, revealing that she never loved him and only dated him to get revenge on him. Franco ends up falling in love with Alma Rey and they get married.
Alma Rey
Played by: Ninel Conde
A famous model and singer who is very sexy and always gets the attention of the students very easily. Which makes Roberta, her daughter, somewhat jealous, because her mother gets more attention than her. She is a single mother, even though she used the last name of her ex-husband to give her daughter Roberta a true family name. She overprotects Roberta. Roberta resents her mother for focusing on her career over her when she was growing up. Despite their rocky relationship, Alma loves her daughter and does what she can to support her. Alma eventually falls in love with Franco Colucci and they get married at the end of the show.
Leon Bustamante
Played by: Enrique Rocha
Diego's father and a well-known politician. Very cold and is the villain in the story. Doesn't like Roberta because he thinks she is a bad influence on Diego. He thinks she's beneath him. A strict man, who always wants to win at all costs. He kicks Mabel out of Diego's life when he finds out Mabel had another man in her life . Leon then tells Diego that she walked out on them for selfish reasons . He takes joy in torturing Diego and embarrasses him in at any given chance. He owns exactly 51% of Elite Way School. He always gets what he wants, at any cost. He even pays a prostitute [Paula] to sleep with Diego so he could lose his virginity, which causes Diego to fall in love with her. The relationship did not last much after he found out why she met him. Leon developed a relationship with a woman called Ines and was planning to marry her until she changed her mind. Diego then finds out his dad was the one who told his mother to leave and that his father was the reason why they kicked Roberta out. Close to the end, Roberta comes back and Diego develops a hatred for his dad and then, eventually, with the help of Roberta, he cuts loose and confronts him leaving, Leon cold and alone.
Pascual Gandia
Played by: Felipe Nájera
The power-hungry, yet idiotic head of the school, who often takes pleasure in the misfortune of the students. He has poor knowledge of English. Even though he tries to be an imposing authority figure, he comes out more as a dim-witted principal who is easily manipulated not only by his superiors, but also by the same students he wants to control. Sometimes, his antics and raging outbursts come out as more comical than menacing (especially his silly evil laugh). Also tends to act clumsy when in the presence of a gorgeous woman. He used to be in a relationship with Alma Rey. He's going through a divorce with his wife Galia, since she considers him to be 'weak' and 'easily manipulated' by Diego's father (the legal owner of the Elite Way School). In the last episode we see Galia winking at him. They talk privately at the pool and they somewhat get back together. In the last few scenes, Galia gives him a peck on the lips for the audience. Then Pascual pulls her down and slaps a mouthful on her, with a round of applause from the audience. Despite his clumsy attitude and often meddlesome ways, he still loves his daughter Pilar very much and only wishes for her well-being.
Gastón Diestro
Played by: Tony Dalton
The new professor, who is just as unpleasant as Esteban. He has a huge crush on Mía, and they finally began a relationship, much to the disapproval of Mía's father. Mía went out with Gastón to get Miguel (her true love) jealous. His past was just as obscure as Esteban's, as indicated by further investigations made by Jose Lujan, whom Gaston likes to downgrade and humiliate at any given chance. Jose Lujan stole his laptop, and finds information that leads her to believe that Gaston is her secret benefactor, but Gaston repeatedly denies it. After a while, Gaston gets annoyed by Jose Lujan's meddling with his affairs, and decides to get her out of the Elite Way School once and for all. In reality, Gaston's father (Ricardo Sisniega) took care of Jose Lujan when she was a dirty street orphan because she had saved his life (although how she did so is still unknown). Gaston's father had always compared Jose Lujan's strength of will to Gaston's weak spirit, which fueled Gaston's anger. When his father died in prison, Gaston was forced to look after Jose Lujan and see to her tuition as per his father's last wish. Although Gaston tried to blame Jose Lujan for his miserable existence, he really did love Lujan like a sister, as he admitted to in his final breath. He died after being involved a heavy car accident.
Enrique Madariaga
Played by: Patricio Borghetti
Bohemian foreign professor who was always trying to solve everyone's problems. He is really loved by the students even though his record claims he is a murderer. It is revealed that his wife and son died in a car accident while he was driving, which makes him feel guilty for it. After having a strained relationship during the first season with new teacher Renata, he gets a "fresh start" with her. They leave Elite Way School to help less fortunate students and get married. He fades from the storyline in the second season (going to start a school in Chiapas for poor children) but then comes back near the end of the third season. During the first episode of his return, he runs into Professor Julia, whom he was engaged with but left for Julia's best friend.
Mayra Fernández
Played by: Leticia Perdigon
Lupita's Aunt and worked in the cafeteria of the Elite Way School, until Font fired her for no apparent reason. Very involved with all the students and has a great sense of humor. Lupita's mother doesn't like this because she thinks Mayra is a bad example for Lupita, but Lupita loves her for being there when she most needed her. She has a feisty attitude and is very abrupt with what she says.
Alicia Salazar
Played by: María Fernanda García
Mr. Gandía's secretary. She is easily manipulated by students but often saves the day for Gandia. She provides comic relief for the series.
Hilda Acosta
Played by: Lourdes Canale
The history professor at Elite Way School. Hilda has devoted her entire life to teaching, but had a romance in her youth with Professor Hilario (played by Héctor Gómez). They meet each other again at Elite Way School after decades. Though Hilda was reluctant to be with Hilario at the beginning, they marry each other towards the end of the first season. However, at the beginning of the second season it is revealed that Hilario died on the day they were set to marry. Hilda continues teaching at Elite Way. She sometimes aids her students, as she does when she gives Lujan shelter at her home when she is suspended by Gastón.
Esteban Nolasco Landeros
Played by: Aitor Iturrioz
The former professor of the school. At the beginning of the season 1 was a very good person, nice, funny and good chemistry with the students almost equal to that of Madariaga, but was dismissed for failing to discipline students. After returning to school hired by Mendiola, but he was hired too by Gaston, which explains the change of clothing, hairstyle and attitude; so very strict and kept harassing Jóse Luján (target of Gaston) and Vico. Has a crush on Mía and Alma Rey. Was suspected as an ex-convict serial-killer due to an unusual relationship with the Gaston's father Ricardo Sisniega. He also had something to do with La Logia (a secret society hell-bent on getting scholarship students out of the school) which still remains a mystery. After overindulging in one of his punishments to students and even more against Lujan, Esteban is dismissed by the promise of Mendiola return his job as that case forget, although never returns is mentioned several times by Gaston.
Director Casildo Font
Played by: Alejandro Peraza
A extremely strict principal who ran the school while Pascual was getting his master's degree in New York. Eventually, he was framed by Santos (Derrick James) and fired on the charge of child pornography (he had inappropriate pictures of Sol). He's never heard from again.
Marina Cáceres
Played by: Nailea Norvind
The biological mother of Mia who was often portrayed as faceless character who lived in New York as fashion designer having her face always covered by a sculpture, in the 1st half of the show. When we first see her at the airport, Franco and her look each other in the eyes, and then he tells Mia that is one of his friends. She is hugs Mia, trying her best not break out in tears. After they leave she is seen touching her shoulders saddened. She has a few scenes after that but mostly very minor. That is until we see her at the RBD concert event. She cries when Mia sings "Salvame". At the end of the scene, she kisses a complimentary poster of the group. She then wants to find Mia and tell her the truth. Mia has another meeting with Marina when she is with Lupita and Santos. When she is asked if was the same person from the airport she lies and plays it off like they had never met. Marina is soon more confident to tell Mia the truth. But Alma is furious because she won't leave Franco alone. Marina tells her about wanting to meet Mia. Franco tells Mia the truth and all hell breaks loose. Mia wants to meet her mother no matter what Franco says. Mia and Marina meet at a sushi bar with only two words said before the end of the episode. Mia: Mama?. Marina: Hija. They hug and Marina and Mia become closer. Mia soon forgives Franco. Marina and Mia become close. When Mia has to leave for a concert with RBD. Marina was going to be a no show then Alma suggests that she should go. Marina shows up at the last minute to wave goodbye. On La Gran Final Marina is seen kissing Franco and Alma on the cheek thus showing they have all become friends one way or another
Lists of soap opera characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Sri%20Lankan%20Tamils
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List of Sri Lankan Tamils
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This is a list of notable Tamils of Sri Lanka by their country of domicile or origin. All communities that speak (or spoke) Tamil and originally came from Sri Lanka are included. Tamils of Sri Lanka today are a trans-national minority and are found across the globe.
Sri Lanka
Academics
Srikanthalakshmi Arulanandam - Principle Librarian at the University of Jaffna
A. Thurairajah - Professor, Vice Chancellor of University of Peradeniya, Civil Engineer (Akbar Bridge in University of Peradeniya was constructed by him), Founder of Thurai Law ( About Soil)
T. Nadaraja - Chancellor of the University of Jaffna; Professor and Dean of the Faculty of Law, University of Ceylon
S. Raveendranath - Vice-Chancellor of the Eastern University of Sri Lanka
K. Sivathamby - emeritus professor of University of Jaffna; prominent Tamil scholar, sociologist and author of books
X. Thaninayagam - scholar, author and historian
Valentine Joseph - was a Sri Lankan Tamil mathematician, noted for his contributions to education
Rajini Thiranagama - murdered human rights activist and author of books; head of the Department of Anatomy, University of Jaffna; member of University Teachers for Human Rights assassinated by Tamil Tigers.
T. Varagunam - Chancellor of the Eastern University of Sri Lanka
Activists
Fr. Mary Bastian - Roman Catholic parish priest and human rights activist
Fr. Thiruchelvam Nihal Jim Brown - Roman Catholic parish priest and activist; missing since August 20, 2006; presumed dead
Radhika Coommaraswamy - human rights activist; Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations and Special Representative for Children and Armed Conflict
Richard de Zoysa - journalist, author, human rights activist and actor; was abducted and brutally killed by Sri Lankan government paramilitary forces during the JVP insurrection; of Tamil and Singhala mixed origin; son of Manorani Sarawanamuttu
Rev. Chandra Fernando - Roman Catholic parish priest, human rights activist; Batticaloa Citizens Committee member; murdered
Rajan Hoole - professor of Department of Mathematics, University of Jaffna; human rights activist; author of books; member of University Teachers for Human Rights
Kethesh Loganathan - Deputy Secretary General of the Peace Secretariat of the Government of Sri Lanka; assassinated
Rajini Thiranagama - murdered human rights activist and author of books; head of the Department of Anatomy, University of Jaffna; member of University Teachers for Human Rights
Chelvy Thiyagarajah - feminist and International PEN award winner
Actors and directors
Sabby Jey- New Zealand, Sri Lankan Tamil actress and model.
Rukmani Devi - popular film actress
Suresh Joachim film actor and producer
Chandran Rutnam - film producer / director
Sri Lankan international and first class cricketers, umpires, and administrators
Ignatius Anandappa - late Sri Lankan international cricket umpire
Russel Arnold - former Sri Lankan Test cricketer and international commentator
Roy Dias - former Sri Lankan Test cricketer/vice captain
Kandiah Thirugnansampandapillai Francis - international Test/ODI umpire
S. Illangaratnam - late Sri Lankan cricketer, stalwart of Moratuwa and Bloomfield cricket clubs prior to the Test match era and the coach of Bloomfield C&AC
Pradeep Jayaprakashdaran - Sri Lankan One Day International (ODI) cricket player
Sridharan Jeganathan - late NCC and Sri Lankan Test cricketer/off spin bowler
Vinothen John - former NCC and Sri Lankan Test cricketer/opening fast medium bowler
Angelo Mathews - Sri Lankan all rounder and former captain of the Sri Lankan cricket team
Selliah Ponnadurai - late international cricket umpire
Ravindra Pushpakumara - Karupiah Raveendra Pushpakumara, born to a Tamil father and Sinhala mother
Ravi Ratnayeke (Joseph Raveendran Ratnayeke) - former Sri Lankan vice captain; Tamil-Sinhala mixed
Mahadevan Sathasivam - cricket batsman
Mario Villavarayan - former NCC and first class cricketer
Suthershini Sivanantham - Sri Lankan women's cricketer
Other athletes and sports people
Nagalingam Ethirveerasingam - high jumper; v Olympic Games and Asian Games; winner of Ceylon's first gold medal in international track and field competition (high jump, 1958 Asian Games)
Sujan Perera, footballer
Sunil Roshan Appuhamy
Authors, writers, poets and artists
Alagu Subramaniam - Writer, a prominent figure in London's Bloomsbury literary circle, a Barrister-at-Law of The Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn, and an Advocate of the Supreme Court of Ceylon
V. Akilesapillai - author, scholar, poet and Hindu activist
Ananda Coomaraswamy - Orientalist, author, philosopher and metaphysician
Dominic Jeeva - author and social activist
S. Kanapathipillai - scholar
Muttukumara Kavirajar - poet and Hindu activist
Kumaraswamy Pulavar - scholar, poet and Hindu activist
D. Raja Segar - painter and sculptor
C. W. Thamotharampillai - editor and publisher of classical Tamil poetry and grammar; the oldest extant written work in Tamil, Tolkapiyam - Porulathikaram, was discovered and published by him with a commentary
Business people
Ken Balendra - Sri Lankan corporate leader and executive; holds and has held many corporate positions in Sri Lanka and the region
Chandran Rutnam - filmmaker and owner of Lionair
Suresh Joachim- is well known as the co-founder of WBBAS, No Poverty No Disease No War, World Peace Marathon and Suresh Joachim International Group Of Companies.
Diplomats
Yogendra Duraiswamy - first batch of Ceylon Overseas Service, 1949
Tamara Kunanayakam - Sri Lankan Ambassador to Cuba (2008-2009); Permanent Representative of Sri Lanka to the United Nations Office at Geneva
Historical figures
Arumaipperumal - Batticaloa chieftain who led a rebellion against the British colonial occupiers in 1803
Cankili I (Sankili Segarajasekaran) - a prominent king of the Jaffna Kingdom
Cankili II - last king of the Jaffna kingdom
Migapulle Arachchi - Feudal lord of Jaffna Kingdom who rebelled against the Portuguese colonial occupiers in 1620.
Pandara Vannian (Kulasegaram Vairamuthu Pandaravanniyan) - Vanni chieftain who challenged British rule
Tamil historical figures who ruled the Sinhalese kingdom
Sena and Guttika - Tamil horse merchants who ascended the throne in Anuradhapura, 237-215 BC
Ellalan - ruled Anuradhapura from 205 BC to 161 BC; considered a most impartial and just monarch
Pulahatta - Tamil king, ruled from Anuradhapura 103 -100 BC
Bahiya - Tamil king, ruled from Anuradhapura 100-98 BC
Panya Mara - Tamil king, ruled from Anuradhapura 98-91 BC
Pilaya Mara - Tamil King, ruled from Anuradapura 91-90 BC
Dathiya - Tamil King of Anuradhapura 447-450 AD
Pandu - Tamil king from 436 to 441 BC
Parindu - son of Pandu, ruled for one year, 441 BC
Khudda Parinda - brother of Pandu, ruled 441-447 BC
Tiritara - 447 BC
Dathiya - 447-450 BC
Pithiya - 450-452
Chempaha Perumal - a Jaffna Tamil who ascended the Sinhala throne as King Bhuvanekabahu VI of Kotte
Journalists and broadcasters
S. P. Mylvaganam - first Tamil announcer of the Commercial Service of Radio Ceylon
A. Nadesan - murdered Virakesari newspaper journalist
M. Nimalrajan - murdered journalist, BBC reporter
K. S. Raja - Radio Ceylon announcer
Claude Selveratnam - Radio Ceylon announcer
Kailayar Sellanainar Sivakumaran - broadcaster and Journalist in English and Tamil
Taraki Sivaram - journalist, military analyst editor of TamilNet news website, author of books
J. S. Tissainayagam - journalist and first winner of the Peter Mackler Award for Courageous and Ethical Journalism
Lawyers and judges
V. Casipillai - Crown Proctor, President of the Jaffna Hindu Board, co-founder of Jaffna Hindu College, founder of Parvathy Maha Vidyalayam and other educational institutions
Hon. Justice V. Manicavasagar - Justice of the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka, Chancellor of the University of Jaffna and Chairman of the Commercial Bank of Ceylon
K. Kanag-Isvaran - Lawyer and President's Counsel
S. Selliah - Justice of the Court of Appeal, Judge of the High Court, Magistrate
S. Sharvananda - Chief Justice of Sri Lanka, Justice of the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka and Governor of the Western Province
K. Sripavan - 44th Chief justice, Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka
H. D. Thambiah - Justice of the Court of Appeal, Justice of the Supreme Court, and Chief Justice of Sri Lanka
H. W. Thambiah - Justice of the Supreme Court
Militants and rebels
Velupillai Prabhakaran (Karikalan) - Leader of the LTTE and of the de facto state of Tamil Eelam till 2009.
Charles Lucas Anthony (Seelan) - senior Tamil Tiger commander
V. Baheerathakumar (Theepan) - senior Tamil Tiger commander, de facto military leader
V. Balakumaran - former leader of Eelam Revolutionary Organisation of Students, later joined the Tamil Tigers
Anton Balasingham - chief political strategist and chief negotiator for the Tamil Tigers
S. Chandrakanthan (Pillayan) - Tamil Tiger member, defected to the Sri Lankan Government; Chief Minister of the Eastern Province
Douglas Devananda - Tiger deserter; former militant turned politician; founder and leader of the Eelam People's Democratic Party political party and a pro-government paramilitary organization; Government Minister and Member of Parliament
B. Kandiah (Balraj) - senior Tamil Tiger commander
S. Krishnakumar (Kittu) - senior Tamil Tiger commander
G. Mahendraraja (Mahattaya) - Deputy Leader of the Tamil Tigers and head of the People's Front of Liberation Tigers
V. Muralitharan (Karuna Amman) - senior Tamil Tiger commander, defected to the Sri Lankan Government; Government Minister and appointed Member of Parliament
B. Nadesan - Tamil Tiger political leader
A. Neminathan (CRaju) - senior Tamil Tiger commander
R. Parthipan (Thileepan) - Tamil Tiger political wing member who died during a hunger strike
S. Pathmanathan (KP) - senior Tamil Tiger member; now collaborating with the Sri Lankan government
Arul Pragasam - founder and leader of Eelam Revolutionary Organisation of Students
Thenmozhi Rajaratnam - assassin who killed Rajiv Gandhi
E. Ratnasabapathy - founder member of Eelam Revolutionary Organisation of Students
S. Ravishankar (Charles) - Tamil Tiger military intelligence wing leader
Sri Sabaratnam - leader of Tamil Eelam Liberation Organization
T. Sivanesan ( Soosai) - Tamil Tiger Sea Wing leader
P. Sivaparan (Nediyawan) - senior Tamil Tiger member
S. Sivashankar (Pottu Amman) - Tamil Tigers Intelligence Wing leader, was number 2 in the organisation
V. Sornalingam (Shankar) - founder of Sea Tigers and Air Tigers wing of the Tamil Tigers
S. P. Thamilselvan - Tamil Tiger political leader
N. Thangathurai - co-founder and leader of Tamil Eelam Liberation Organization
K. Ulaganathan (Ramanan) - senior Tamil Tiger commander
V. Vasanthan (Miller) - first Black Tiger
S. Yogachandran (Kuttimani) - co-founder and leader of Tamil Eelam Liberation Organization
Military
Air Vice Marshal P.B. Premachandra - former Chief of Staff, Sri Lanka Air Force
Air Vice Marshal Ravi Arunthavanathan - former Deputy Chief of Staff, Sri Lanka Air Force and current Additional Secretary, Ministry of Defence
Major General Y. Balaretnarajah, Vishista Seva Vibhushanaya, Uttama Seva Padakkama, National Defence College, India, Sri Lanka Armoured Corps - Chief of Staff, Sri Lanka Army (1992-1992)
Rear Admiral Rajan Kadiragamar, Royal Victorian Order, Royal Ceylon Navy - former Commander of the Sri Lankan Navy
Air Vice Marshal A. Kumaresan, Rana Sura Padakkama, Uttama Seva Padakkama, Psc (British Army), Sri Lanka Air Force - current Director of Planning, Sri Lanka Air Force
Major General Anton Muttukumaru, OBE, Efficiency Decoration; Aide-de-camp, Ceylon Light Infantry; first Ceylonese Commander of the Sri Lanka Army
Vice Admiral Travis Sinniah, Weera Wickrama Vibhushanaya, Rana Wickrama Padakkama, Rana Sura Padakkama, Uttama Seva Padakkama, ndu - 21st Commander of the Sri Lanka Navy, veteran of attack flotilla
Major General E. G. Thevanayagam, Vishista Seva Vibhushanaya - Commandant of the Sri Lanka Army Volunteer Force (1984–1986)
Major General Chelliah Thurairaja, Uttama Seva Padakkama, Sri Lanka Army Medical Corps - former Director Army Medical Services and Colonel Commandant Sri Lanka Army Medical Corps
Colonel David Rockwood, KStJ, ED, JP - Deputy Commandant of the Volunteer Force
Politicians
Selvam Adaikalanathan - President of the Tamil Eelam Liberation Organization and Member of Parliament
A. Amirthalingam - leader of the Tamil United Liberation Front, Leader of the Opposition and Member of Parliament
V. Anandasangaree - leader of the Tamil United Liberation Front and Member of Parliament
Sir Ponnambalam Arunachalam CCS - pre-independence politician and civil servant; Registrar General; member of Executive Council of Ceylon; member of Legislative Council of Ceylon
A. Canagaratnam - member of the Legislative Council of Ceylon, Chairman of the first Urban Council of Jaffna; founder of Canagaratnam Maha Vidyalayam (formerly Stanley College) in Jaffna
S. J. V. Chelvanayakam - political leader of the Sri Lankan Tamil people; founder and leader of the Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (Federal Party); leader of the Tamil United Liberation Front; Member of Parliament
A. Coomaraswamy - member of the Legislative Council of Ceylon
Sir Muthu Coomaraswamy - member of the Legislative Council of Ceylon; first Asian to be knighted; father of author Ananda Coomaraswamy
Douglas Devananda - Militant turned politician; founder and leader of the Eelam People's Democratic Party paramilitary group; Government Minister and Member of Parliament
K. W. Devanayagam - former minister, Member of Parliament, lawyer who represented Kalkudah seat
Waithilingam Duraiswamy - pre-independence Sri Lankan lawyer, politician and speaker of the State Council of Ceylon
Alfred Duraiappah - Member of Parliament from 1960 to 1964; Mayor of Jaffna
Jeyaraj Fernandopulle - slain SLFP politician, a Negombo chetty
Mano Ganesan - leader of the Democratic People's Front political party; Member of Parliament; member of Western Provincial Council
Praba Ganeshan - MP
Lakshman Kadirgamar - Minister of Foreign Affairs; nominated Member of Parliament
N. Kumaraguruparan - General Secretary of Democratic People's Front political party; General Secretary and Senior Vice President of All Ceylon Tamil Congress; member of the Colombo Municipal Council; member of Western Provincial Council
Sir Arunachalam Mahadeva - Minister of Home Affairs; member of the State Council of Ceylon; member of the Legislative Council of Ceylon
S. Nadesan - member of the State Council of Ceylon, Member of Parliament, Senator
Joseph Pararajasingham - Member of Parliament
C. Ponnambalam - first Mayor of Jaffna
G. G. Ponnambalam - political leader of the Sri Lankan Tamil people; founder and leader of the All Ceylon Tamil Congress; government minister and Member of Parliament
Kumar Ponnambalam - Nationalist politician and human rights activist; leader of All Ceylon Tamil Congress; presidential candidate
Suresh Premachandran - leader of the Eelam People's Revolutionary Liberation Front and Member of Parliament
Sir Ponnambalam Ramanathan - pre-independence politician and political leader of the Sri Lankan Tamil people; Solicitor General of Ceylon; member of Legislative Council of Ceylon
N. Raviraj - Member of Parliament
James T. Rutnam - historian, educationalist, author and politician
A. Sabapathy - member of Legislative Council of Ceylon; one of the founders of Jaffna Hindu College; editor of Hindu Organ; President of Jaffna Association
T. M. Sabaratnam - member of Legislative Council of Ceylon; President of the Vattrapalai Kannagi Amman Kovil Trust
R. Sampanthan - Leader of Tamil National Alliance political party; Member of Parliament
S. Sellamuttu, OBE - Colombo mayor, 1951
N. Shanmugathasan - General Secretary of the Ceylon Communist Party (Maoist)
C. Sittampalam - Minister of Posts and Telecommunications in the first Cabinet of independent Ceylon; Member of Parliament
S. Sivamaharajah - Member of Parliament; managing director of Namathu Eelanadu
M. Sivasithamparam - Deputy Speaker of the Parliament
C. Suntharalingam - Government Minister and Member of Parliament
Bala Tampoe - veteran trade unionist; General Secretary of the Ceylon Mercantile, Industrial and General Workers Union
Arumugam Thondaman - leader of the CWC
S. Thondaman - leader of the Ceylon Workers' Congress, Government Minister, Member of Parliament
Murugeysen Tiruchelvam - Government Minister and Senator
Neelan Tiruchelvam - Member of Parliament
Sir Kanthiah Vaithianathan KBE CCS - Minister for Housing, Industry and Social Service; first Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of External Affairs and Defence (1947–1952); Senator
A. Vinayagamoorthy - President of All Ceylon Tamil Congress and Member of Parliament
Sarojini Yogeswaran - Mayor of Jaffna
V. Yogeswaran - co-leader of the Tamil United Liberation Front and Member of Parliament
Religious figures
Arumuka Navalar - Hindu reformer and author of books from Jaffna
Swami Vipulananda - Hindu reformer and author of books
Yogaswami - Hindu ascetic from Jaffna
Australia
Activists
Christie Jayaratnam Eliezer - Professor of Mathematics in University of Ceylon, University of Malaya and La Trobe University in Australia; recipient of Order of Australia
Business people
Maha Sinnathamby - property developer; the man behind Australia's largest real estate project; frequently listed in BRW's annual list of the 200 richest Australians
Singers
Kamahl (Kandiah Kamalesvaran) - singer
Dhee (Dheekshitha Venkadeshan) - singer
Canada
Academics
Alfred Jeyaratnam Wilson - peacemaker, politician and author of books on Sri Lanka
Actors and directors
Rohan Fernando - filmmaker born in Jaffna
Lenin M. Sivam - film director; directed the critically acclaimed film 1999
Maitreyi Ramakrishnan- actress; Never Have I Ever
Rajiv Surendra - actor, artist and author
Athletes and sports people
Trevin Bastiampillai - Canadian cricketer
Manoj David - Canadian cricketer
Arvind Kandappah - Canadian cricketer
Sanjayan Thuraisingam - Canadian cricketer
Suresh Joachim - Multiple Guinness World Record Holder
Authors, writers, poets and musicians
Shyam Selvadurai - author of Funny Boy and Cinnamon Gardens
SJ Sindu - author of Marriage of a Thousand Lies, professor at University of Toronto Scarborough
Business people
Roy Ratnavel - Business executive and the author of the book Prisoner #1056.
Politicians
Gary Anandasangaree - MP for Scarborough-Rouge Park
Vijay Thanigasalam - MPP for Scarborough-Rouge Park
Logan Kanapathi - MPP for Markham-Thornhill, former Markham City Councillor, first Tamil Canadian elected to political office (2006)
Neethan Shan - former Toronto City Councillor
Rathika Sitsabaiesan - former Canadian politician from Toronto; the New Democratic Party (NDP) Member of Parliament for Scarborough-Rouge River; the first Tamil elected to the Canadian Parliament
India
Actors and directors
Poongkothai Chandrahasan - actress and Harvard-trained filmmaker
Suresh Joachim - actor, producer, and singer
Balu Mahendra - prominent Kollywood film director
Authors, writers, poets and artists
V. Kanakasabhai - lawyer, historian and Dravidologist of Sri Lankan Tamil descent
Politicians
E. M. V. Naganathan - one of the founders of the Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (Federal Party); Member of Parliament
Athletes
Anand Amritraj
Malaysia
Academics
Shan Ratnam - professor and researcher
Athletes and sports people
Punch Gunalan - former national badminton player and IBF Executive Deputy President
Mahadevan Sathasivam - former captain of the Malaysian cricket team
K. Gurusamy - Malaysian Footballer
Authors, writers, poets and artists
Rani Manicka - writer
Manicasothy Saravanamuttu - editor of The Straits Echo in Malaya (1931–1941); credited with 'saving' Penang during Japanese invasion in 1941; author of The Sara Saga
Business people
Vijay Eswaran - Group MD; CEO of the QI Group of companies
Tan Sri G. Gnanalingam - executive chairman of Westport; ranked 29th in the 2007 Forbes Asia List of the 40 Richest Malaysians
Ananda Krishnan - Malaysia's richest man and 62nd Richest Man in the world according to the 2009 Forbes Billionaire List
Bastianpillai Paul Nicholas - the first non-British businessman who endeavoured to become one of the top bankers in the then Malaya
Civil servants
Tan Sri Dr Ramon Navaratnam - Malaysian economist
Politicians
Tan Sri Devaki Krishnan - former politician
Sivarasa Rasiah - human rights lawyer and vice-president of the opposition Parti Keadilan Rakyat (People's Justice Party)
D. R. Seenivasagam - founder of People's Progressive Party in Malaysia
Datuk Dr S Vijayaratnam - former Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia Vice-president
Singapore
Academics
Philip Jeyaretnam - professor of law; member of Public Service Commission
Shan Ratnam - former Head of Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology at the National University of Singapore
Authors, writers, poets and artists
Edwin Thumboo - poet
Civil servants
K. S. Rajah - former Supreme Court Judge
Politicians
Joshua Benjamin Jeyaretnam - former Solicitor General and perennial opposition politician of the Workers' Party of Singapore
Sinnathamby Rajaratnam - politician, deputy prime minister, one of the founding fathers of Singapore
Tharman Shanmugaratnam - politician and deputy prime minister
United Kingdom
Academics
Ganesh Sittampalam - Guinness World Record holder as the youngest person in the UK to pass an A-Level in 1988, aged only nine years and four months old at the time
Sabaratnam Arulkumaran - is a Sri Lankan Tamil physician, former president of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists and the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, and president-elect of the British Medical Association.
Maheshi N. Ramasamy - is a British-Sri Lankan physician and lecturer. She is currently working as one of the chief investigators at the Oxford Vaccine Group.
Activists
S. J. Emmanuel - priest, academic, and activist; President of the Global Tamil Forum; Vicar General of the Jaffna Diocese
Actors/actresses
Amara Karan, British actress, whose parents moved to the UK from Zambia for work.
Athletes and sports people
Dimitri Mascarenhas - international cricketer, plays for England; born to Sri Lankan Bharatakula Tamil parents in the UK, brought up in Australia and the UK
Murugan Thiruchelvam - British child prodigy chess player
Comedians
Romesh Ranganathan - British comedian and actor from Crawley
Musicians and singers
Arjun - recording artist, born to a Tamil father
M.I.A. (Mathangi "Maya" Arulpragasam) - British rapper, singer, songwriter, record producer, and fashion designer
Siva Kaneswaran - member of the English-Irish boy band The Wanted, born to a Tamil father
Ashan Pillai- British violist and professor
Journalists and broadcasters
George Alagiah - BBC reporter and journalist
James Coomarasamy - BBC reporter and journalist
Dharshini David - BBC reporter and journalist
Tim Kash - MTV and BBC reporter and journalist
Politicians
Thangam Debbonaire - Labour Party MP, born to a mixed Indian-Sri Lankan Tamil father
Dileeni Daniel-Selvaratnam, Governor of Anguilla
United States
Academics
Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah - retired Harvard University professor of anthropology and author of several books
Business people
Kavichandran Alexander (Kavi Alexander) - owner of US record label Water Lily Acoustics; engineer; won 1993 Grammy Award for Ry Cooder's album A Meeting by the River
Sanjay Kumar - former Chief Executive of Computer Associates
Kumar Mahadeva - former Chief Executive of Cognizant Technology Solutions
Raj Rajaratnam - hedge fund manager and the founder and Managing General Partner of The Galleon Group; on Forbes Richest Americans List
Musicians and singers
Clarence Jey - songwriter and composer for US Late Night host Jimmy Fallon's 2013 Grammy-winning record Blow Your Pants Off; songwriter and producer for Emmy-winning US TV animation series Growing Up Creepie; producer and songwriter for Rebecca Black's viral hit song "Friday"
Politicians
V. Rudrakumaran - Prime Minister of the Transnational Government of Tamil Eelam
See also
Tamil diaspora
References
List
Tamils, Sri Lankan
Tamils, Sri Lankan
Sri Lankan Tamils
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brett%20Favre
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Brett Favre
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Brett Lorenzo Favre ( ; born October 10, 1969) is an American former football quarterback who played in the National Football League (NFL) for 20 seasons, primarily with the Green Bay Packers. Favre had 321 consecutive starts from 1992 to 2010, including 297 regular season games, the most in league history. He was also the first NFL quarterback to obtain 70,000 yards, 10,000 passes, 6,000 completions, 500 touchdowns, and victories over all 32 teams.
Favre played college football at the University of Southern Mississippi and was selected in the second round of the 1991 NFL Draft by the Atlanta Falcons, where he spent one season as a backup. Traded to the Packers, he became their starter early in the 1992 season and revitalized a franchise that had been in a period of decline since the late 1960s. During his 16 seasons with Green Bay, he led the team to 11 playoff appearances, seven division titles, four NFC Championship Games, two consecutive Super Bowl appearances, and one championship title in Super Bowl XXXI, the team's first in nearly three decades. Favre was traded in 2008 to the New York Jets, where he played one year, and spent his final two seasons with the Minnesota Vikings. His 2009 campaign for the Vikings saw him guide them to a division title and NFC Championship Game appearance, while having one of his strongest statistical seasons.
At the time of his retirement, Favre was the NFL leader in passing yards, passing touchdowns, and quarterback wins, and holds the record for interceptions. From 1995 to 1997, he was named Most Valuable Player three times, the most the award was consecutively received. Favre also received 11 Pro Bowl and three first-team All-Pro selections. He was inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2016.
In 2022, Favre began to face controversy for the Mississippi welfare funds scandal after investigations determined $8 million intended for welfare programs went to Favre or causes he championed. Favre has denied the allegations and filed a defamation lawsuit against the State Auditor of Mississippi and two media personalities over their coverage of him.
Early life
Brett Favre was born in Gulfport, Mississippi, the son of Bonita Ann (née French) and Irvin Ernest Favre, and raised in the small town of Kiln. Both of his parents were schoolteachers in the Hancock County School District. He is of part French ancestry. One of his ancestors is Simon Favre, a Creole and an influential figure in Spanish West Florida in the late 18th and early 19th centuries; Brett descends from Simon's Choctaw Native American mistress, Pistikiokonay, and thus his grandfather was affiliated with the Choctaw.
Brett was the second of four children and attended Hancock North Central High School, where he played baseball and football. Favre started for the Hancock North Central baseball team as an eighth-grader and earned five varsity letters. He played quarterback, lineman, strong safety, placekicker, and punter in a primarily option, run-oriented offense coached by his father, Irvin Favre, who was the head coach of the Hawks football team.
Irvin Favre said he knew his son had a great arm but also knew that the school had good running backs. As a result, in the three years Brett was on the team, his father ran the wishbone, a run-oriented offense. Favre rarely threw more than five passes in a game. Southern Mississippi assistant coach Mark McHale, who was scouting new football recruits for the school, watched Favre play during a Hancock North Central football game after receiving recommendation from many nearby coaches. McHale, observing Favre mostly hand the ball off in running plays in the two games he watched, was set on leaving when he suddenly saw Favre throw the ball in such a captivating way that he later described it by saying the ball "had smoke and flames coming off it".
College career
After high school, Southern Mississippi offered Favre a football scholarship at the urging of assistant coach McHale, which was the only one he received. Southern Miss wanted him to play defensive back, but Favre wanted to play quarterback instead. Favre began his freshman year as the seventh-string quarterback and took over the starting position in the second half of the third game of the year against Tulane on September 19, 1987. Favre, despite suffering a hangover from the night before and vomiting during warm-ups, led the Golden Eagles to a come-from-behind victory with two touchdown passes. Favre started ten games during his freshman year and won six of them.
In his junior season, Favre led the Golden Eagles to an upset of #6 Florida State on September 2, 1989. Favre capped a six-and-a-half-minute drive with the game-winning touchdown pass with 23 seconds remaining.
On July 14, 1990, before the start of Favre's senior year at Southern Miss, he was involved in a nearly fatal car accident. When going around a bend a few tenths of a mile from his parents' house, Favre lost control of his car, which flipped three times and came to rest against a tree. It was only after one of his brothers smashed a car window with a golf club that Favre could be evacuated and rushed to the hospital. In the ambulance, his mother was sitting with him. "All I kept asking [her] was 'Will I be able to play football again?'" Favre recalled later. Doctors would later remove 30 inches (76 cm) of Favre's small intestine. Eight weeks after this incident, on September 8, Favre led Southern Miss to a comeback victory over Alabama. Alabama coach Gene Stallings said, "You can call it a miracle or a legend or whatever you want to. I just know that on that day, Brett Favre was larger than life."
Favre formerly held several Southern Miss football records until most were surpassed by Austin Davis by the end of the 2011 season. Favre had 15 games over his career where he compiled more than 200 passing yards, making him fourth in school history on the all–time list in that category. Of those 15 games, five were 300-yard games, the most compiled by any of the school's quarterbacks. Additionally, he was the seasonal leader in total passing and total offense in all four of his seasons at Southern Miss.
Favre earned a teaching degree with an emphasis in special education from the University of Southern Mississippi.
College statistics
Professional career
Atlanta Falcons (1991)
Favre was drafted by the Atlanta Falcons in the second round with the 33rd overall pick in the 1991 NFL Draft. On July 19, 1991, Favre agreed to a three-year, US$1.4 million contract with a reported signing bonus of $350,000. Atlanta head coach Jerry Glanville did not approve of the drafting of Favre, saying it would take a plane crash for him to put Favre into the game. Favre's first pass in an NFL regular season game resulted in an interception returned for a touchdown in a Week 11 game against the Washington Redskins. He only attempted four passes in his one season at Atlanta, was intercepted twice, and completed none of them. Favre took one other snap, which resulted in a sack for an eleven-yard loss.
Green Bay Packers (1992–2007)
On February 11, 1992, Green Bay Packers general manager Ron Wolf traded the first-round pick his team had received from the Philadelphia Eagles (17th overall) in a trade the previous year to the Atlanta Falcons in exchange for Favre. Wolf, while an assistant to the general manager of the New York Jets, had intended to take Favre in the 1991 NFL Draft, but Favre was taken by the Falcons on the previous pick.
According to the Milwaukee Journal-Sentinel and other sources, during the physical after the trade, Favre was diagnosed with avascular necrosis of the hip, the same degenerative condition that ended running back Bo Jackson's football career, and doctors recommended his physical be failed, which would nullify the trade. Wolf overruled them.
Favre played 16 seasons in Green Bay. During his time with the Packers, Favre was the first and only NFL player to win three consecutive AP MVP awards. He helped the Packers appear in two Super Bowls, winning Super Bowl XXXI and losing Super Bowl XXXII. Favre started every Packers game from September 20, 1992, to January 20, 2008, a streak of 253 games. The record would continue after he left the Packers, reaching 297 games in the regular season. This remains the all-time record for consecutive starts in the NFL.
Beginnings (1992–94)
In the second game of the 1992 season, the Packers played the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. The Buccaneers were leading 17–0 at halftime, when head coach Mike Holmgren benched starting quarterback Don Majkowski and Favre played the second half. On his first regular season play as a Packer, Favre threw a pass that was deflected by Buccaneers player Ray Seals and caught by Favre. Favre was tackled and the completion went for −7 yards. The Packers lost the game 31–3, chalking up only 106 yards passing. The following week, Majkowski injured a ligament in his ankle against the Cincinnati Bengals, an injury severe enough that he would be out for four weeks. Favre replaced Majkowski for the remainder of the game. Favre fumbled four times during the course of the game, a performance poor enough that the crowd chanted for Favre to be removed in favor of another Packers backup quarterback at the time, Ty Detmer. However, down 23–17 with 1:07 left in the game, the Packers started an offensive series on their own 8-yard line. Favre then completed a 42-yard pass to wide receiver Sterling Sharpe. Three plays later, Favre threw the game–winning touchdown pass to wide receiver Kitrick Taylor with 13 seconds remaining. Favre would go on to keep the starting job for the rest of his tenure in Green Bay. The next week's game against the Pittsburgh Steelers started the longest consecutive starts streak for a quarterback in NFL history. The game ended in a 17–3 victory and Favre finished with a passer rating of 144.6 by going 14-of-19 for 210 yards and two touchdowns. During the season, Favre helped put together a six-game winning streak for the Packers, the longest winning streak for the club since 1965. In the winning streak was a 38–10 victory over the Detroit Lions in Week 14, where Favre was 15-of-19 for 214 yards and three touchdowns to give him a 153.2 passer rating. They ended 9–7 that season, missing the playoffs on their last game, a 27–7 loss to the Minnesota Vikings. Favre finished his first season as a Packer with 3,227 yards and a quarterback rating of 85.3, helping him to his first Pro Bowl.
The following season, Favre helped the Packers to their first playoff berth since 1982 and was named to his second Pro Bowl. Favre had his first career 400-yard passing game in Week 14 against the Chicago Bears in a 30–17 loss. He led the NFC in pass attempts, pass completions, and pass interceptions. Favre also had four game winning drives giving him seven for his career up to that point. In the Wild Card Round against the Detroit Lions, he had 204 passing yards, three touchdowns, and one interception in his playoff debut, a 28–24 win. In the following game in the Divisional Round, Favre had 331 yards, two touchdowns, and two interceptions in the 27–17 loss to the Dallas Cowboys. After the season, Favre became a free agent. General manager Ron Wolf negotiated Favre into a five-year, $19 million contract.
The Packers finished the 1994 season with a 9–7 record, advancing to the playoffs in back to back years, a feat they had not accomplished since the Vince Lombardi era. After a victory over the Detroit Lions in the Wild Card Round, Favre and Packers fell to the Dallas Cowboys in the Divisional Round.
MVP (×3) and Super Bowl seasons (1995–97)
In 1995, Favre won the first of his three AP MVP awards. Favre led the Packers to an 11–5 record, Green Bay's best record in nearly thirty years. Favre passed for a career-high of 4,413 yards, 38 touchdowns, and recorded a quarterback rating of 99.5, which was the highest of his career until he recorded a rating of 107.2 during the 2009 season. Favre also tied an NFL record by passing for at least two touchdowns in twelve consecutive games, a feat he accomplished over the 1994–1995 seasons. The Packers advanced to the NFC Championship Game after upsetting the San Francisco 49ers in the Divisional Round. The Packers lost the NFC Championship to the Dallas Cowboys, marking the third year in a row the Packers season was ended by the Cowboys in the playoffs. Favre helped the Packers advance farther in the playoffs than any other Packer team since 1967, which was the season the Packers last won the championship in Super Bowl II.
While being treated for various injuries, Favre developed an addiction to Vicodin, which became publicly known when he had a seizure following routine ankle surgery in late February. Amid an NFL investigation, he went public to avoid any rumors about his condition. In May 1996, he went into treatment and remained in rehabilitation for 46 days. Had he chosen not to go, the NFL would have imposed a $900,000 fine.
Favre led the Packers to their best season in 30 years in the 1996 season, winning his second consecutive MVP award in the process. The Packers led the NFL in points scored (456) as well as fewest points allowed (210), joining only the 1972 Dolphins as the only two teams to ever accomplish this. The defense also set a then NFL record for the fewest touchdowns allowed in a 16-game season with 19. Favre threw for 3,899 yards, a career-high 39 touchdown passes (third highest ever at the time), only 13 interceptions, and passer rating of 95.8 (the third highest of his career). Green Bay tied the Denver Broncos for the NFL's best regular-season record, 13–3, defeated the San Francisco 49ers (35–14) and Carolina Panthers (30–13) at Lambeau Field in the playoffs. The Packers advanced to Super Bowl XXXI at the Louisiana Superdome, a short drive from Favre's hometown.
In Super Bowl XXXI, Favre completed 14-of-27 passes for 246 yards and two touchdown passes. On the second play of the game, Favre called an audible and threw a 54-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Andre Rison. In addition, Favre completed an 81-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Antonio Freeman in the second quarter (then a Super Bowl record for longest touchdown catch). Favre rushed for 12 yards and another touchdown, as the Packers won Super Bowl XXXI over the New England Patriots, 35–21. In their 19 games of the season, the Packers had a turnover differential of plus 24, and outscored their opponents 100–48 in the playoffs.
Favre and the Packers continued their dominance of the NFC during the next season. Favre was named AP co-MVP of the league along with Detroit Lions' running back Barry Sanders, his third straight award. He finished the season with 3,867 passing yards, 35 touchdown passes, 16 interceptions, and a passer rating of 92.6. The Packers finished with a 13–3 record and became the only team to ever defeat six teams that would go on to make the playoffs. Also, Green Bay advanced through the playoffs to the Super Bowl for the second year in a row. After being heavily favored by 11 points, the Packers lost to the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXXII by the score of 31–24 at Qualcomm Stadium in San Diego, ending the NFC's 13-year Super Bowl-winning streak. Denver defeating Green Bay was one of the biggest upsets in NFL history. Favre completed 25-of-42 passes for 256 yards and three touchdowns, with one interception and one fumble in the losing effort. Super Bowl XXXII was Favre's last appearance in a Super Bowl in his career, despite playing for another decade.
Mid-career (1998–2002)
The Packers lost to the San Francisco 49ers in the Wild Card Round in 1998. Favre had rallied the team with a touchdown pass to wide receiver Antonio Freeman with 1:56 remaining in the game to put the Packers up 27–23. However, Steve Young responded with a touchdown of his own to wide receiver Terrell Owens with three seconds remaining to end the Packers season. Favre and the Packers failed for the first time since 1994 to at least reach the NFC Championship.
Favre led the Packers to an NFL record 29 consecutive home wins (25 regular season, 4 post season) until they were defeated by the Minnesota Vikings on Monday Night Football on October 5, 1998. Favre's record for consecutive regular season home wins stood until 2010 when Tom Brady led the New England Patriots to a home victory over the New York Jets on December 6, 2010. Despite Brady and the Patriots surpassing the regular season mark for consecutive home victories, the combined regular season plus post season mark remains an NFL record for Favre since the Patriots had their combined regular and post season streak interrupted by a home playoff loss to the Baltimore Ravens on January 10, 2010.
During the final game of the 1999 NFL season, Favre and the Packers were involved in what has been described as a bizarre tie-breaking scenario which resulted in four teams that finished with 8–8 records where two of the teams would qualify for the playoffs and the other two would be eliminated. Going into their season finale against the Arizona Cardinals, the Packers needed to win their game, have the Dallas Cowboys lose their game later that afternoon, and also needed the Packers to win the net points scored tie-breaker versus the Carolina Panthers (who were facing the New Orleans Saints). The Packers and Panthers were playing during the noon-time slot and the Packers held a net eighteen-point advantage. As the game progressed, the Panthers were winning their game by a sizable margin to the point that they had overtaken the Packers in net points for a brief time. Since both teams were neck and neck for the tie-break advantage, both teams were frantically trying to score as many points as possible despite leading on the scoreboard by a sizable margin. The Cardinals and Saints also tried to score frantically as the game progressed to stop their opponents from gaining the net points advantage. Ultimately, the Packers prevailed in net points by +11. In the end however, the Cowboys won their afternoon contest against the New York Giants to claim the final playoff spot and thus eliminate the Packers from playoff contention. Over a 26-minute period (from 2:51 pm to 3:17 pm) Favre led the Packers on a 99-yard touchdown drive utilizing a hurry-up offense despite leading their game 35–17 culminating on a 32-yard touchdown pass to Bill Schroeder, and then shortly thereafter threw a 43-yard pass down to the one-yard line to set up another score. The Packers won their game 49–24 and the Panthers won their game 45–13.
On March 1, 2001, Favre signed a 10-year contract extension worth around $100 million.
In the regular-season finale of 2001, Favre was the target of minor controversy when, in a game against the New York Giants at Giants Stadium, he was sacked by the Giants defensive end Michael Strahan. It was Strahan's lone sack of the game and gave him the NFL's single–season sack record of 22.5, which topped Mark Gastineau's record of 22 set in 1984. The controversy (Favre fell over unusually easily) has followed Strahan continuously since he set the record. Jim Fassel, Strahan's coach in 2001, said that when a respected athlete like Strahan gets close to an all-time record, sometimes opponents want him to break it.
By the end of his tenth year in the league as a starter, Favre had thrown 287 touchdown passes, which was more than 100 touchdown passes than the second-ranked quarterback over the same time period (Steve Young, 181 touchdown passes), an NFL record for touchdown pass differential.
Favre and the Packers continued posting positive results through the next few seasons. Through the 2004 season, the Packers had the longest streak of non-losing seasons (13) in the NFL, despite an 8–8 record under head coach Ray Rhodes, a 9–7 season under head coach Mike Sherman, and no playoff berths in either 1999 or 2000. The streak ended in 2005, with the Packers finishing with a 4–12 record.
Later career and personal tragedies (2003–2006)
One day after his father died of a heart attack or stroke, Favre decided to play in a December 22, 2003, Monday Night Football game against the Oakland Raiders. The Packers traveled to Oakland where Favre passed for four touchdowns in the first half and 399 total yards in a 41–7 victory over the Raiders on international television (even receiving applause from "Raider Nation"). He completed 73.3% of his passes and finished the game with a passer rating of 154.9, having recorded a perfect 158.3 rating with four touchdowns and over 250 yards passing by halftime. Afterwards, Favre said, "I knew that my dad would have wanted me to play. I love him so much and I love this game. It's meant a great deal to me, to my dad, to my family, and I didn't expect this kind of performance. But I know he was watching tonight." After the game, he went to his father's funeral in Pass Christian, Mississippi. Favre won an ESPY Award for his Monday Night Football performance.
A notable game in the 2004 season in which Favre and the Packers finished 10–6 was against the New York Giants. During the game, Favre suffered a concussion. He did not receive medical clearance to re-enter the game. Despite the concussion, Favre threw a 28-yard touchdown to Javon Walker on a fourth-down play. Afterwards it was reported that Favre did not remember throwing the touchdown pass. Favre also had two significant touchdown streaks of note during the season. He had completed at least one touchdown pass in 36 consecutive games over the 2002–2004 seasons which at the time was the second-longest streak in NFL history. Also, during the 2004 post-season, he broke Dan Marino's record for consecutive games with at least one touchdown pass in the post season. The Packers' postseason run ended in the Wild Card Round with a loss to the Minnesota Vikings.
After the death of his father, a series of events related to Favre's family were reported in the media. In October 2004, ten months after the death of Favre's father, his brother-in-law, Casey Tynes, was killed in an all-terrain vehicle accident on Favre's Mississippi property.
Soon after in 2004, Favre's wife, Deanna Favre, was diagnosed with breast cancer. Following aggressive treatment through 2004, she recovered. She created The Deanna Favre Hope Foundation which supports breast cancer education and women's breast imaging and diagnosis services for all women, including those who are medically underserved.
In late August 2005, Favre's family suffered another setback: Hurricane Katrina blew through Mississippi, destroying his family's home there; however, none of his family members were injured. Brett and Deanna's property in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, was also extensively damaged by the storm. Favre elected to continue to play in the 2005 season.
For the 2005 season, despite throwing for over 3,000 yards for a record 14th consecutive time, Favre had a below-average season with only 20 touchdown passes and a league-leading 29 interceptions. The loss of guards Marco Rivera and Mike Wahle to free agency along with key injuries to Javon Walker, Ahman Green, Bubba Franks, among others, hampered Favre and the team. His passer rating was 70.9, 31st in the NFL and the worst single-season rating of his career. After the disappointing season, many speculated that Favre would retire. However, on April 26, 2006, Favre announced that he would remain with the team for the 2006 season. Despite earlier comments that the 2006 season would be his last, Favre announced in a press conference on May 6, 2006, that he had not ruled out the possibility of returning beyond the 2006 season.
In the 2006 season, Favre suffered his first career shutout against the Chicago Bears in a 26–0 loss in Week 1. Later in the season, the New England Patriots shut out the Packers in a game where he was injured before halftime and could not complete the game. On September 24, he became just the second quarterback in NFL history to record 400 touchdown passes (Dan Marino being the first). He connected with rookie wide receiver Greg Jennings on a 5-yard pass that Jennings turned into a 75-yard touchdown play during a win against the Detroit Lions. He became the first player ever to complete 5,000 passes in his career. On December 31, 2006, the Packers played their last game of the season, winning 26–7 in the second game against the Chicago Bears. It was his 22nd career win versus the Bears, moving him to an all-time record of 22–8. Overall, Favre finished the 2006 season with 3,885 passing yards, 18 touchdowns, and 18 interceptions as the Packers finished with an 8–8 record.
Milestone season (2007)
On February 26, 2007, Favre underwent minor arthroscopic ankle surgery in Green Bay, Wisconsin, to remove a buildup of bone spurs in his left ankle.
Favre began the 2007 season trailing in a number of career NFL passing records. On September 16, 2007, Favre and the Packers defeated the New York Giants to give Favre his record setting 149th win, passing John Elway. On September 30, Favre threw a 16-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Greg Jennings in a game against the Vikings. This was his 421st NFL touchdown pass, and set a new all-time record, surpassing Dan Marino's 420.
On November 4, 2007, after the Packers defeated the Kansas City Chiefs 33–22, Favre became only the third quarterback to have defeated all 31 other current NFL teams. He joined Peyton Manning and Tom Brady as the only quarterbacks in NFL history to do this, just the week after the two of them achieved the accomplishment. On Thanksgiving 2007, Favre led the Packers to a 37–26 win over the Lions, and brought the Packers to a 10–1 record. He won the Galloping Gobbler award, given by the broadcasters at Fox to the game's MVP. Favre threw three touchdown passes for his 63rd career game with at least three touchdowns, surpassing Marino's former record of 62.
Favre led the Packers to a 13–3 regular season record, the NFC North championship, and the second seed in the NFC playoffs. Prior to the Packers' Divisional Round game against the Seattle Seahawks, Favre stated his desire to continue playing football for another season. In the Divisional Playoffs, Favre threw three touchdowns as the Packers cruised to a 42–20 victory over the Seahawks at a snowy Lambeau Field. The Packers' season ended the following week when they suffered a 23–20 overtime loss in the NFC Championship Game to the New York Giants (who in turn upset the heavily favored and previously undefeated New England Patriots in Super Bowl XLII). Negotiating sub-zero temperatures, Favre amassed 236 passing yards and two touchdowns, but also threw an interception in overtime that set up the Giants' game-winning field goal. Favre's 90-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Donald Driver in the second quarter was the longest pass in Packers playoff history, and it extended Favre's NFL record for consecutive postseason games with a touchdown pass to 18. Favre stated after the game that he would make a decision more quickly than he has in the past regarding whether he would return for another season.
Favre's milestone 2007 season culminated with his selection to the 2008 Pro Bowl as the starting quarterback for the NFC, but an ankle injury forced him to withdraw from the game.
Retirements and returns (2008)
Beginning near the end of the 2006 season, word began to surface that Favre was considering retirement. In fact, playing in Soldier Field against the arch-rival Bears in the season finale, Favre was given a standing ovation in the closing seconds of the Packer victory as a show of respect from Chicago fans to their longtime nemesis. Moments later at the postgame interview, he gave a tearful interview with an NBC Sports correspondent, where he admitted his future was still questionable. However, after much debate, he returned for the 2007 season, during which his future was once again in doubt and an oft-discussed topic, with many in the media speculating that if the Packers made the Super Bowl, Favre would indeed retire and hand the reins to the unproven but talented Aaron Rodgers, who was drafted two years earlier as Favre's heir-apparent. Ultimately, the Packers fell in the NFC Championship to the New York Giants.
According to Bob McGinn in the Journal Sentinel, after the conclusion of the 2007 season, "Just about everyone who counted in the football department reached the conclusion that Favre could never win another championship. His dismal playoff record in the past decade couldn't be overlooked. And the Packers concluded that it would be the mother of all mistakes if Aaron Rodgers got away without being properly evaluated as a starter. Favre had one chance, and one chance only, to salvage his career in Green Bay. He had to commit wholeheartedly for another season by early March. One could argue that the Packers erred by asking Favre for an answer that early. But having been hung out to dry by Favre too often in the past, they were in no mood for drama." There was also miscommunication between the Packers and Favre, as admitted by General Manager Ted Thompson, "when Favre decided in March that he was leaning toward playing, the organization wasn't quick toward embracing him".
On March 4, 2008, Favre formally announced his retirement. Although Favre stated that he had been willing to play another year, he felt that another season would only be successful if he led his team to another Super Bowl victory. He added the chances for a Super Bowl win were small, and that he was not up for the challenge. At his press conference, Favre openly wept about leaving the NFL. He stated that his decision, regardless of what was being said in the media, had nothing to do with what the Packers did or didn't do. Seeming to contradict statements made by his agent, Bus Cook, Favre said that his decision to retire was based on the fact that he did not want to play anymore. He said during the conference, "I know I can play, but I don't think I want to. And that's really what it comes down to."
On July 2, 2008, it was reported that Favre was in contact with the Packers about a possible return to the team. On July 11, 2008, Favre sent a letter to the Packers asking for his unconditional release to allow him to play for another NFL team. Packers general manager Ted Thompson announced he would not grant Favre an unconditional release and reaffirmed the organization's commitment to Aaron Rodgers as its new quarterback. Complicating matters was Favre's unique contract giving him the leverage to void any potential trade by not reporting to the camp of the team he might be traded to if the Packers elect to go that route.
Favre spoke publicly for the first time about his potential comeback in a July 14, 2008, interview with Greta Van Susteren on the Fox News Channel's On the Record with Greta Van Susteren. In the interview, Favre said he was "guilty of retiring early", that he was "never fully committed" to retirement, and that he was pressured by the Packers to make a decision before the NFL Draft and the start of the free agent signing period. Favre disputed the notion that he does not want to play for Green Bay and said that while he understands the organization has decided to move on, they should now allow him to do the same. He made clear that he would not return to the Packers as a backup and reiterated his desire to be released rather than traded, which would allow him the freedom to play for a competitive team. Favre also accused the Packers of being dishonest, wishing the team would have been straightforward with him and the public.
In the second part of the interview, which aired on July 15, Favre expressed his frustration with Packer management, spoke of his sympathy for successor Aaron Rodgers's predicament, and affirmed he is 100 percent committed to playing football in 2008.
FOXSports.com's Jay Glazer reported on July 16, 2008, that the Packers filed tampering charges against the Minnesota Vikings with the league office, alleging improper communication between Vikings offensive coordinator Darrell Bevell and Favre, although one source suggested that Favre may have been in contact with Vikings head coach Brad Childress. After an investigation, NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell ruled there had been no violation of tampering rules.
Packers team president Mark Murphy met with Favre on July 30 in Hattiesburg, Miss. with the offer of a $20 million marketing agreement, which was "viewed nationally as a bribe to get Favre to stay retired".
Favre formally filed for reinstatement with the NFL on July 29, 2008, and his petition was granted by Commissioner Goodell, effective August 4, 2008. Favre then flew to Green Bay to report to Packers training camp. After a lengthy meeting with head coach Mike McCarthy and general manager Ted Thompson, however, both sides agreed it was time for Favre and the organization to part ways. McCarthy sensed Favre was not in "the right mind-set" to resume playing for the Packers, while Favre felt that his relationship with Packer management had deteriorated to the point that a return to the team would be untenable.
The Packers had announced plans to retire Favre's #4 jersey in the 2008 season opener. Those plans were dropped when he announced plans to return to the NFL. In March 2009, the Packers indicated that the team still intends to retire Favre's number, but due to the circumstances surrounding his departure from the team, no timeline had been set. Favre's #4 jersey was finally retired in 2015.
New York Jets (2008)
After negotiations with both the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and New York Jets, the Packers traded Favre to the Jets on August 7, 2008, in exchange for a conditional fourth-round pick in the 2009 NFL Draft with performance escalation.
In his Jets debut, Favre passed for 194 yards and two touchdowns in a 20–14 victory over the Miami Dolphins. In Week 4, he threw six touchdowns against the Arizona Cardinals, a personal best and one shy of the NFL record for a single game. This performance led to him being selected as the FedEx Air Player of the Week. By Week 12, the Jets had compiled an 8–3 record, including a 34–13 win over the previously undefeated Tennessee Titans. However, the Jets lost four of the last five games of the season, including the final game against the Miami Dolphins, who had acquired quarterback Chad Pennington after he was released from the Jets to make room for Favre. In those five games, Favre threw eight interceptions and only two touchdown passes, bringing his season total to 22 of each. Favre had complained of shoulder pain and had an MRI performed on December 29, 2008, which revealed a torn biceps tendon in his right shoulder. After the 2008 season had ended, in mid January 2009, Favre told Jets General Manager Mike Tannenbaum, "it may be time to look in a different direction" regarding the quarterback position. On February 11, 2009, Favre informed the Jets that he was retiring after 18 seasons. He remained part of the Jets organization until April 28, 2009, when the Jets released Favre from his contract, thus allowing him to sign anywhere he wanted. By May 2009, he was officially cut from the Jets Reserve/Retired list. In September 2009, it was revealed that the NFL learned that the Jets were aware that Favre injured his arm in the 11th game of the 2008 season, and fined the Jets $125,000 for not reporting the injury in any of the Jets' five final games.
Minnesota Vikings (2009–2010)
NFC Championship run (2009)
After an offseason of speculation, Favre officially signed with the Minnesota Vikings on August 18, 2009. He made his Vikings debut in the season opener against the Cleveland Browns. In the 34–20 victory, he passed for 110 yards and one passing touchdown. In Week 4, Favre had his first game against his former team. In the home game against the Green Bay Packers, he had 271 passing yards and three passing touchdowns in the 30–23 victory. With the victory over the Packers, he became the first quarterback in NFL history to defeat every one of the league's 32 franchises since the NFL first expanded to 32 franchises in 2002. Favre helped lead the Vikings to a 6–0 start going into Week 7. The Vikings suffered their first setback against the Pittsburgh Steelers in a 27–17 loss. Week 8 was a significant one for Favre as he faced off against the Packers at Lambeau Field for his first game returning to Green Bay. He passed for 244 yards and four passing touchdowns in the 38–26 victory. In a Week 12 victory over the Chicago Bears, he passed for a season-high 392 yards and three touchdowns in the 36–10 victory. In the regular season finale, he passed for 316 yards and four touchdowns in the 44–7 victory over the New York Giants. Favre finished the 2009 season with 4,202 passing yards, 33 touchdowns, and seven interceptions.
Overall, Favre had a landmark season in which he surpassed former Vikings defensive end Jim Marshall for consecutive starts at one position, with 291, and surpassed Dan Marino's previous record for four-touchdown games, and was named to his 11th Pro Bowl. The Vikings finished with a 12–4 record and earned a first-round bye. In the Divisional Round against the Dallas Cowboys, he recorded 234 passing yards and four passing touchdowns in the 34–3 victory. They advanced to the NFC Championship, ultimately losing in overtime to the eventual Super Bowl XLIV champion New Orleans Saints. He passed for 316 yards, one touchdown, and two interceptions in the 31–28 loss. Despite the loss, Favre set playoff records for pass completions and passing yards previously held by Joe Montana.
Final season (2010)
On August 3, 2010, NBC Sports reported the confirmation of Favre returning to the Vikings but saying that the 2010 season would be his final season. An announcement was given on August 17, 2010, confirming his return to the team. That season, Favre achieved two milestones. He threw for his 500th touchdown and 70,000th yard against the New York Jets. On November 7, 2010, in a game against the Arizona Cardinals, Favre threw for a career-high 446 yards while rallying the Vikings from a 14-point fourth quarter deficit to win in overtime. On December 5, 2010, in a game against the Buffalo Bills, Favre was hit by Bills linebacker Arthur Moats while making a throw, causing him to sustain a sprain of the AC joint in his right shoulder. Favre missed the rest of the game and was replaced by Tarvaris Jackson, who helped lead the Vikings to victory despite throwing three interceptions.
On December 13, 2010, due to his sprained shoulder, Favre was marked inactive for the game against the New York Giants ending his consecutive regular-season start streak at 297. Favre started a total of 321 games including post-season appearances. On December 20, 2010, while playing the Chicago Bears outside at TCF Bank Stadium due to the collapse of the roof of the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, Favre sustained a concussion after being sacked by Bears defensive end Corey Wootton. As a rattled Favre was helped to his feet by Vikings' athletic trainer Eric Sugarman, he asked, "Suge, what are the Bears doing here?". This would be his final appearance in an NFL game.
On January 2, 2011, Favre was unable to play against the Detroit Lions in the final game of the regular NFL season due to his inability to pass NFL-mandated post-concussion tests. In a press conference immediately following the game, Favre announced his intention to retire from professional football. On January 17, 2011, Favre officially filed his retirement papers with the NFL.
Post-NFL health issues
In 2013, Favre was asked to consider returning to the NFL to play for the injury-plagued St. Louis Rams. He turned down the offer, telling WSPZ radio in Washington, D.C., that he has had memory loss and that he feared it was related to the multiple concussions he suffered throughout his career. He was previously asked in a 2009 interview with NBC how many times he had played with a concussion that with the new standards would have resulted in him sitting out. 'A lot', he replied.
In 2021, Favre was featured in a public service announcement (PSA) urging parents not to allow their children to play tackle football under age 14. In an interview with Today, Favre stated that while he is in good health, he often questions how healthy he really is due to fears about the long-term effects of his playing career and that he is unsure whether the cognitive lapses he sometimes experiences are a natural effect of his advancing age or a sign that he may have CTE.
Post-NFL career analyst work
Favre was the analyst for his alma mater, Southern Miss, when they played the Rice Owls on October 1, 2011. He later joined the NFL Network for pregame coverage of Super Bowl XLVII. It has also been reported that Favre has turned down repeated offers from the NFL Network to become an on-air analyst.
Career achievements
Honors and awards
Favre has received several awards including:
3× Associated Press Most Valuable Player (MVP) (1995, 1996, and 1997; the last shared with Barry Sanders)
NFL Offensive Player of the Year (1995)
11× Pro Bowl selection (1992, 1993, 1995–1997, 2001–2003, 2007–2009)
3× First-team All-Pro selection (1995–1997)
3× Second-team All-Pro selection (2001, 2002, 2007)
NFL 1990s All-Decade Team
NFL 100th Anniversary All-Time Team
Pro Football Hall of Fame class of 2016
Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame class of 2015
Records and milestones
Favre owns several NFL records including, but not limited to:
Most consecutive games started "Iron Man" streak (September 27, 1992 – December 5, 2010): 297 (321 including playoffs)
Most pass interceptions: 336
Favre owns a number of team records with the Packers, Vikings, and Jets, including having printed his name into almost every passing category in the annals of Green Bay Packers history.
Favre is the holder of several firsts in NFL history, including the only quarterback to win three consecutive NFL most valuable player awards, first quarterback to defeat all of the league's 32 franchises, and the first quarterback to win a playoff game over age 40.
In addition, Favre set a number of college records with Southern Mississippi.
Cold weather success
Favre has been known as the most successful cold-weather quarterback of all time, having compiled a record of 44–17 in games when the game-time temperature was below 40 degrees fahrenheit. He had gained the reputation for success in cold weather when the Packers won with Favre as the starter in his first 35 games at home when the game-time temperature was 34 degrees fahrenheit or less.
NFL rivalry records
Brett Favre had significant stretches of success against his division rivals having won an NFL record 11 consecutive road games against the Chicago Bears, and a perfect 19–0 won-lost record against the Detroit Lions at home, also an NFL record.
Consecutive starts streak
Since first being named the starter of the Green Bay Packers before playing the Pittsburgh Steelers on September 27, 1992, Favre had never missed a game spanning over consecutive seasons. He holds the record for the most consecutive starts by any player in the NFL with 297 (321 including playoffs), which is one of four quarterback streaks of at least 200 consecutive games in NFL history. Favre has stated that of all the records he set, he is most proud of the consecutive starts accomplishment.
Favre failed to finish a game due to injury on only eight occasions since taking control of the Packers as quarterback. Significant injuries suffered by Favre during the streak includes a first-degree shoulder separation, deep thigh bruise, severely bruised left hip, severely sprained left ankle, wind knocked out coupled with coughing up blood, sprained right thumb, right elbow tendinitis, left mid-foot sprain, sprained lateral collateral ligament of the left knee, broken left thumb, softball-sized bruise of the left hamstring, mild concussion, sprained right hand, injured ulnar nerve of the right elbow, bone spurs on the left ankle, torn right biceps, pulled groin, stress fracture of the left ankle coupled with an avulsion fracture of calcaneus, and a sprained sternoclavicular joint of the right shoulder.
During Favre's consecutive starts streak, 238 other quarterbacks have started in the NFL, 17 of them being back-ups to Favre at one point.
The Pro Football Hall of Fame has as an exhibit displaying the jersey Favre wore during his record-breaking 117th consecutive start as a quarterback, and a section of their website devoted to what the Hall of Fame calls an "Iron man".
In 2009, Favre surpassed defensive end Jim Marshall for starts at any position with his record-breaking 271st start as a quarterback as the Vikings played the Lions. His streak ended at 297, with the last start in the streak coming on December 5, 2010, against the Buffalo Bills. Favre was unable to start the Vikings' December 13 game against the New York Giants due to a shoulder injury, despite the game being delayed for a day because of the collapse of the Metrodome roof.
NFL career statistics
Regular season
Postseason
Retirement speculation
Favre has speculated on retiring, or returning to the NFL many times during his career and following the end of his career in 2011:
2002: In September, sportswriter Peter King conducted an interview with Favre during spring training. Favre told him that he missed home and was thinking more and more about retirement. When then–head coach Mike Sherman told the players they could have off on Saturday and Sunday, Favre replied "I wish I could be on my lawn mower back home."
2003: Favre was constantly asked about retirement throughout the early part of the year. Favre jokingly responded by saying "I can't even remember how the whole retirement thing started, but whoever started it needs to be shot."
2005: After the Packers got off to a slow start, rumors that Favre might retire started to escalate. Favre responded by saying "At 0–3, I think most people would say 'Oh, he's gone after this year, or they won't even want him back.'...I don't even think about when that time might come."
2006: In an interview with ESPN in January, after the Packers had finished with a 4–12 record, Favre admitted that if he had to make a decision right away he would not come back. He went on to say "There's other days, I go, 'What if it's crunch time, two minutes left, do you want the ball?' I don't know if I do." In March, Favre hears Phil Simms say on Sirius Radio that as long as Favre can physically play the game, he should. Shortly thereafter, Favre confirms he would return to play. After the Packers defeated the Chicago Bears the last game of the season 26–7, Favre choked up during an interview with Andrea Kremer by saying "If today's my last game, I want to remember it. It's tough. It's tough. I'll miss these guys. I'll miss this game. I just want every one to know that...I didn't plan on doing this. Way to put me on the spot." Asked if he was indeed going to retire, Favre responded "We'll see. We'll see. I don't want to say anything right now." After the game, a Packers teammate said that Favre was just as emotional in a speech after the Seattle Seahawks game in 2005 at Lambeau Field when he was all but certain he was going to retire.
2007: In February, Favre told the Biloxi Sun Herald that he plans to come back for another season with the Packers.
2008: In early March, Favre announced that he is retiring from the Green Bay Packers. At a news conference he said "I know I can play, but I don't think I want to. It's been a great career for me, but it's over. As they say, all good things must come to an end. I look forward to whatever the future may hold for me." Later in the month Favre has second thoughts and wants to return. According to the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, Favre backed out of a meeting with Packers management two days before re-entry talks were to begin. In April, Sam Farmer from the Los Angeles Times reported that Favre's agent Bus Cook was making inquiries to other teams about Favre. Favre responded by saying "I have no idea where that came from, but it certainly didn't come from me. I'm happy about my decision and I haven't once said 'I wonder if I made the wrong decision.' I know it's the right one. It's kind of funny. Even when I'm retired, they won't let me stay retired." Also in April, the Packers placed Favre on the Reserve-Retired list and planned to have Favre's number retired during the season opener against the Minnesota Vikings. In June, Favre said he told head coach Mike McCarthy he wanted to come back to the team. He said "When he picked up the phone again after he dropped it, he said, 'Oh, God, Brett. You're putting us in a tight spot. He said, 'Brett, playing here is not an option.' Those were his exact, exact words." In July, Favre sent a letter requesting his release from the Packers. A couple months earlier Favre contacted Mike McCarthy about coming out of retirement and was "rebuffed" according to a Milwaukee Journal Sentinel report. Then a report came in from ESPN that said that Favre had wanted to come out of retirement but the Packers were reluctant to take him back. The Packers refused to give Favre an unconditional release. A few days later, Favre had an interview with Greta Van Susteren of Fox News where he accused general manager Ted Thompson of forcing him to make a decision on his return to the team too quickly. Two days after the interview, the Packers filed tampering charges with the NFL front office charging that the Minnesota Vikings had inappropriate contact with Favre. The Packers then offered Favre a retirement package of $25 million marketing agreement to remain retired. This offer was rejected and Favre was subsequently traded to the New York Jets.
2009: In February, Favre said he retired although his agent Bus Cook asked for his release from the New York Jets. After the Jets released him in April, Bus Cook e-mailed Jarrett Bell of USA Today that "He's retired, working on his farm in Mississippi." In May, Minnesota Vikings head coach Brad Childress set up a meeting with Favre to discuss him possibly playing with the team. In July, Childress said Favre would not be coming out of retirement. However, in August Favre announced he would come back and play for the Vikings.
2010: On February 7, Favre appeared in a second quarter Super Bowl XLIV ad for Hyundai parodying his retirement indecisiveness. In the ad, set after the 2020 NFL season, a grayed 50-year-old Favre accepts the season MVP award and ponders retirement, but cannot commit one way or the other. In April, Favre indicated that if it were not for his Vikings teammates and fans, it would be easy to retire. In early August, Favre's ankle (which was injured during the 2009 playoffs) had not responded after surgery and rehabilitation. As a result, he informed the team that he would not be coming back for another season. However, two weeks later he told teammates Jared Allen, Steve Hutchinson and Ryan Longwell he was coming back for another season.
2011: In January, Favre filed retirement papers with the NFL. In December, a report from ESPN-Chicago indicated that Favre would be open to coming back from retirement if the Chicago Bears were interested. However, head coach Lovie Smith and Favre denied the report. Favre said "In spite of reports about playing with various teams, I'm enjoying retirement with my family and have no plans to play football."
2013: Favre's agent Bus Cook indicated early in the season that Favre could still play in the NFL. When asked about what his agent said, Favre responded "I am (in shape), but I am no way considering playing... The stress level was much, much more (when I played)... The demands are, don't get me wrong, I want to win, but it's not a job." A few weeks later, in late October, the St. Louis Rams called Favre after their starting quarterback Sam Bradford was lost for the season, but Favre declined their offer to bring him out of retirement.
2017: Following Aaron Rodgers breaking his collarbone Week 6 against the Vikings, former ESPN reporter Ed Werder asked Favre if he would come back for the rest of the 2017 season. "Absolutely not," Favre said.
Personal life
Family
Favre married Deanna Tynes on July 14, 1996. Together, they have two daughters, Brittany (born 1989) and Breleigh (born 1999). While Favre was still playing, Brittany gave birth to his first grandchild. The NFL stated that at the time it did not know of any other active players with grandchildren.
Favre's mother, Bonita, helps manage his holdings in agriculture and real estate, handle his endorsements and appearances, and oversee his charity work. Brett and Bonita Favre released a book in 2004 titled Favre () which discusses their family as well as the Green Bay Packers, including the Monday Night Football game that followed the death of Brett's father Irvin Favre.
Favre's nephew, Dylan, played quarterback for the Cedar Rapids Titans of the Indoor Football League in 2016 after playing in college at Mississippi State, Pearl River Community College, and the University of Tennessee-Martin.
High school coaching
In 2012, Favre became the offensive coordinator for Oak Grove High School. Favre won his first game as part of the Oak Grove coaching staff by a score of 64–6. In December 2013, with Favre still serving as the offensive coordinator, Oak Grove High School won the Class 6A Mississippi high school state championship. In May 2014, it was announced that Favre would continue to help out at Oak Grove, but would no longer be offensive coordinator.
Charitable work
Favre established the Brett Favre Fourward Foundation in 1996. In conjunction with his annual golf tournament, celebrity softball game and fundraising dinners, the foundation has donated more than $2 million to charities in his home state of Mississippi as well as to those in his adopted state of Wisconsin.
Favre is involved with youth who are ill. Favre was awarded the Chris Greicius Celebrity Award from the Make a Wish Foundation. He is also known to respond to requests made to his foundation regarding youth with serious illnesses such as cancer.
Business
In 1999, Favre worked with NASCAR driver Dale Jarrett to operate Jarrett/Favre Motorsports in the Busch Series, which lasted two seasons.
The Favre family once owned and operated the Brett Favre's Steakhouse and later changed names to the "Hall of Fame Chophouse", located in Green Bay, Wisconsin, and as of 2018 is closed.
In 2013, Favre joined the Board of Directors of Sqor, a sport social media platform. Favre's role includes product ambassador, sports insights, and advising Sqor on business interests with teams, leagues and sports conferences.
Entertainment
Favre made a cameo appearance in the 1998 romantic comedy film There's Something About Mary as Cameron Diaz's character's former love interest.
Endorsements
In the past, Favre has been a spokesperson for multiple companies, including Nike, Snapper, Remington, Sears, Prilosec, Sensodyne, MasterCard, Wrangler, Bergstrom Automotive, and Hyundai. He currently appears in TV ads for Copper Fit.
Politics
Prior to the Mississippi runoff election on June 24, 2014, Favre endorsed the incumbent Republican U.S. Senator Thad Cochran in his race against State Senator Chris McDaniel, a "tea party" favorite. He has stated he does not identify with a specific political party.
For the 2020 United States presidential election, Favre endorsed President Donald Trump for re-election. In a 2023 interview with Jason Whitlock, he also said Trump 'had the country in a better place' while questioning President Joe Biden and his leadership.
Religion
Favre is a Roman Catholic and credits his faith for facing adversity throughout his life.
Controversies
Violations of NFL's personal conduct policies
In 1996, Favre was temporarily banned by the NFL from drinking alcohol, after he admitted he was addicted to Vicodin, and spent 46 days at a drug rehab clinic before the start of the season. His condition was serious enough that he had a potentially deadly seizure.
Sexting allegations and investigation
In 2010, the NFL investigated Favre for allegedly sexting and leaving inappropriate voice messages for Jets "Gameday host" Jenn Sterger during the 2008 season. According to the NFL, forensic analysis failed to prove Favre sent the objectionable photographs to Sterger. Favre was found not to be in violation of the NFL's personal conduct policy, but was fined $50,000 for failing to cooperate with the investigation.
Mississippi welfare funds scandal
In 2020, Favre's involvement with the development and promotion of a concussion treatment drug, Prevasol, by the Prevacus corporation, came under scrutiny. The nonprofit Mississippi Community Education Center (MCEC) received $2.5 million in federal grant funds diverted from Mississippi's Temporary Assistance for Needy Families welfare funds (TANF), as well as tens of millions in public funds as an element of the scheme. The Mississippi state auditor has termed the scheme "the largest public embezzlement case in state history". A grand jury in Hinds County indicted MCEC founder, Nancy New, and her son Zach in the scheme. Favre had introduced MCEC's founders to top state welfare officials. Former Governor Phil Bryant is also involved in the scandal.
No-show speaking fees
On May 4, 2020, an audit in Favre's home state of Mississippi alleged that state's Department of Human Services misspent $94 million intended for at-need residents, including $1.1 million paid out to Favre's company for two speaking appearances he did not make. The Mississippi auditor later announced that Favre intended to repay that money. On October 12, 2021, the Mississippi State Auditor notified Favre that he could face a civil lawsuit if he did not pay the state $828,000. Favre paid $600,000 on October 26, 2021. The Mississippi State Auditor said Favre still owed $228,000 in interest and referred the matter to the state attorney general's office. Favre was questioned by the FBI over the misappropriated funds. His lawyer has stated that Favre did not know the money was misappropriated from funds used to assist poor families and has not been charged with a crime in these matter.
Diversion of funds for volleyball facility and biotech venture
A lawsuit filed by the state of Mississippi alleges Favre orchestrated the diversion of federal welfare funds to non-welfare related causes.
On September 13, 2022, Mississippi Today published text messages between Favre and former Mississippi governor Phil Bryant showing Favre's involvement in a plan to divert $5 million of the money toward a cause championed by Favre, a new volleyball facility at the University of Southern Mississippi, his alma mater and where his daughter played volleyball. The text messages had been entered as evidence as part of a civil lawsuit. In one of the texts, Favre asks, "If you were to pay me is there anyway the media can find out where it came from and how much?"
Favre helped arrange for $2 million of the funds to be invested in a biotech startup in which he had already invested.
References
Notes
External links
Minnesota Vikings biography
1969 births
Living people
American Conference Pro Bowl players
American football quarterbacks
American people of Choctaw descent
American people of French descent
American people of Swiss descent
American philanthropists
American Roman Catholics
Atlanta Falcons players
Catholics from Mississippi
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High school football coaches in Mississippi
Louisiana Creole people
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Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peninsula%20Commute
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Peninsula Commute
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The Peninsula Commute, also known as the Southern Pacific Peninsula or just Peninsula, was the common name for commuter rail service between San Jose, California and San Francisco, California on the San Francisco Peninsula. This service ran as a private, for-profit enterprise beginning in 1863. Due to operating losses, the Southern Pacific Railroad (SP) petitioned to discontinue the service in 1977. Subsidies were provided through the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) in 1980 to continue service, and it was renamed Caltrain.
History
Since 1863 the San Francisco Peninsula, the series of towns (and later, cities) between San Francisco and San Jose, has been served by a railroad. The San Francisco and San Jose Railroad first provided freight and passenger service, followed by its successor, the Southern Pacific, and then briefly by the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) and finally by a regional Joint Powers Board which runs today's passenger trains.
San Francisco–San Jose Railroad
Although a line had been proposed in the past, construction on the railroad between San Francisco and San Jose was started in 1860 "by a group of local capitalists of more than ordinary energy and resources" under the auspices of the San Francisco and San Jose Rail Road (SF&SJ), and completed in 1863. The Central Pacific Railroad transferred its rights for the construction of the right-of-way between San Jose and Sacramento to the Western Pacific Railroad (WPRR, which was founded by the same members that had founded the SF&SJ) in late 1862.
In December 1865, the Southern Pacific Railroad Company (SP) was incorporated to build a rail line between San Francisco and San Diego. By the end of 1868, it was revealed the Big Four of the Central Pacific consisting of Stanford, Huntington, Hopkins, and Crocker had a controlling interest in the SF&SJ and SP, and the SF&SJ, SP, the Santa Clara and Pajaro Valley Railroad, and the California Southern were folded into a consolidated Southern Pacific Railroad on October 12, 1870.
Under Southern Pacific
Under Southern Pacific the line was double tracked in 1904, and multiple cutoffs were built over a period ending in 1910. The first of these, the Bayshore Cutoff, opened in 1907 and rerouted the line through a series of five tunnels built along the shoreline of San Francisco Bay. This saved approximately three miles and seventeen minutes compared to the prior route, which veered to the west around San Bruno Mountain. The Bayshore Cutoff also eliminated the use of helper engines to bring trains over the mountain. The second, the Mayfield Cutoff, opened in 1908 to provide service to western Santa Clara Valley cities such as Los Altos and Los Gatos. The third, the Dumbarton Cutoff, opened in 1910 and included the first bridge across San Francisco Bay, between Newark and Menlo Park, saving many miles to Oakland and Sacramento compared to the prior route through San Jose and Santa Clara.
The Peninsula Electric Railroad was incorporated around the same time the Dumbarton Cutoff project was launched, and it was suspected that it was controlled by Southern Pacific in preparation for a quad-track expansion, as it was laying a route parallel with the Southern Pacific. As envisioned in 1909 from plans for the Peninsula Electric, SP announced that it would investigate the electrification of its Peninsula Commute line in September 1921, promising better and more frequent service. Just a few days later, SP cited excessive post-war inflation, taxation, and competition from publicly funded highways as factors making electrification neither "practicable or desirable". Similarly, plans to eliminate all at-grade crossings were announced in 1909, but not carried to completion. As Southern Pacific's franchise to operate on 4th Street in San Jose was ending, it elected to build a diversion track to the west. This line forced a move for the city's passenger traffic to a new station at Cahill, placing it one mile from downtown (whereas it had previously been a four-block distance).
SP's Peninsula Commute experienced record ridership during World War II. During the war, 26 trains ran between San Jose and San Francisco per day, with headways as low as 5 minutes (traveling north) in the mornings and 3 minutes (traveling south) in the evenings. After the war, a May 1946 railroad strike displaced approximately 10,000 train passengers onto highways, causing "historic" traffic jams along the Bayshore Highway, with commute times for some automobile drivers to balloon from 30 minutes to 75 minutes going from Burlingame to San Francisco, a distance of approximately . In 1954, surveys comparing traffic on Bayshore Highway with train traffic concluded that just over half of all commuters to San Francisco passing through Brisbane were taking the train, and that eight more lanes would need to be added to the freeway to accommodate traffic if rail service were to stop suddenly.
However, in the period after the war, Peninsula roads were improved; the four-lane undivided Bayshore Highway (completed in 1925) was rebuilt into a six-lane divided freeway between 1949 and 1962, and Interstate 280 was completed in the 1970s. Train ridership declined with the rise of automobile use, falling from a peak of 9.2 million annual boardings in 1954 (approximately 16,000 weekday riders) to 4.4 million in 1977 (approximately 7,000 weekday riders).
During peak hours, Peninsula Commute trains operated with headways as low as three or four minutes; however, with skip-stop and express train service patterns, the minimum wait for riders at a given station would be ten minutes. During off-peak hours, service frequencies dropped to longer than two hours between trains.
On several occasions during the 1960s and 1970s, SP attempted to discontinue the commute service due to increasing deficits and stagnant ridership. Ridership was 11,500 daily passengers on 22 trains in 1970, compared to 12,000 daily passengers in 1967 and 10,000 daily passengers in 1946. In 1971, when Amtrak took over long distance passenger operations, Southern Pacific's extended commute train to Monterey, California, the "Del Monte", was discontinued. Some SP passenger locomotives were sold to Amtrak and the remainder were transferred to Peninsula Commute service, which continued to operate. In 1975, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) published the Feasibility of Upgrading Peninsula Passenger Rail Service (PERSUS) report. PERSUS concluded the Peninsula Commute was underutilized and proposed a minor upgrade to improve service (and ridership), or major upgrades to extend service to downtown San Francisco, either by connecting with BART in , or by extending the SP terminus to the Transbay Terminal; the ultimate goal was to remodel the service to be closer to transit than commuter rail, which entailed a reduction in headways so that passengers would have to wait less than fifteen minutes between trains during weekday daylight hours.
However, by that time the Peninsula Commute was no longer profitable: operating deficits were rising, from in 1964 to over by 1968, by 1975, and just one year later in 1976 according to an independent review, which prompted SP to petition the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) for a fare increase of 111 percent in August 1974, as fares had increased minimally and ridership, approximately 12,000 passengers per day in 1967 remained flat, despite the fuel crisis. The CPUC authorized a 25% increase in fares in a 3–2 vote on July 12, 1977, effective August 1977. Because the CPUC decision process was so slow, SP President Benjamin Biaggini offered to purchase 1,000 eight-passenger vans and donate them for vanpools in exchange for permanently discontinuing the Peninsula Commute service.
On May 6, 1977, SP formally filed a petition with the CPUC (Application No. 57289) to discontinue the commuter operation due to ongoing losses. At that time, SP was running 44 trains a day. The petition was opposed by regional transit agencies, including the MTC, who passed Resolution No. 479 to request the CPUC deny the SP petition. On October 17, 1977, the administrative law judge issued an order asking "Who will pay the cost of this regional insurance against the uncertainties of tomorrow? In the interim period, CALTRANS, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission, and the three counties involved are directed to meet, consult, and plan toward whether they will be willing to obtain funds under the provisions of the Urban Mass Transportation Act and their own resources to meet the operating deficit of Southern Pacific's commute and transit operations."
Since the CPUC had not taken action on the petition 120 days after the filing, SP filed another petition to discontinue service with the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) on November 17, 1977. Although the CPUC denied the SP application on April 19, 1978, jurisdiction had already passed to ICC.
State administration and Caltrain
In response to the CPUC petition, Assemblymember Lou Papan wrote Assembly Bill 1853, which allowed local transit districts served by the Peninsula Commute to purchase tickets from SP at face value and sell them to riders at a discount, subsidizing passengers. AB 1853 also allowed the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) to negotiate with SP for operation of the commuter rail service and the purchase of the right-of-way between Daly City and San Bruno, which had only seen occasional freight traffic since the completion of the Bayshore Cutoff in 1907. Preservation of rail service was seen as critical to ensuring traffic would continue to flow, as both the Bayshore Freeway and I-280 were nearing capacity; and to preserve air quality in the region. The right-of-way between Daly City and San Bruno was seen as key to a planned extension of BART to San Francisco International Airport, an extension that eventually opened in 2003.
The recommendations of the 1977 Peninsula Transit Alternatives Project (PENTAP) Report (mandated by the Legislature in 1975 by SB 283) were used to draft AB 1853. PENTAP recommended that train and bus service be improved, fixed rail transit facilities be better utilized in the near future, and facilities and options should be preserved for long-range expansion and modernization. MTC passed Resolution No. 411 in 1977, proposing a three-phased approach:
Maintain existing service levels, by subsidizing passenger fares and improving the SP interface with MUNI
Improve service levels and standards, by entering into a "purchase of service" contract with a rail operator (SP) and defining service based on regional transit requirements, not operator needs or profits
Expand rail service
In a December 1977 public hearing before the Assembly Committee on Transportation held in San Jose, SP executive Alan DeMoss testified that "rail commute service should no longer be cross-subsidized by other railroad activities" and offered $8 million to help purchase buses to replace the service. However, both samTrans and the Santa Clara County Transit District stated they would not be able to operate that bus service; it was estimated that a fleet of 122 buses would be required, arriving and departing from San Francisco every 35 to 50 seconds. Testifying later at that same hearing, samTrans chair John Mauro pointed out that since the inception of the San Mateo County bus service in 1975, service to San Francisco was deliberately crippled in speed to avoid competing with the rail service. Mauro had previously tried to negotiate with SP to enter a "purchase of service" contract in March 1976, but SP refused to accept a direct subsidy, which led to the passenger fare subsidy instead. During that hearing, the committee chair, Walter Ingalls, stated bluntly the state was not "going to authorize either Sam Trans or Santa Clara County or San Francisco County or any of the three to buy and operate a railroad. [...] No one's going to offer to buy your railroad." SP had previously offered to sell MTC a single track along the right-of-way between San Bruno and San Jose in December 1975, which could have been used to extend BART, but the offer was not taken.
Ridership increased during 1979 and 1980, aided by the gasoline crisis and fare subsidies; the Peninsula Commute was so sensitive to gasoline prices that ridership jumped by 40% in May and June 1979. SP's ICC petition received a preliminary affirmative ruling from the administrative law judge in July 1979. To preserve the commuter service, Caltrans took over financial responsibility on , and contracted with SP to operate the service. In the first fiscal year, covering 1980–81, operating costs were $19.33 million and fare revenue was $7.81 million, resulting in a farebox recovery ratio of 43%. The deficit was covered by a mix of Urban Mass Transportation Act funds ($2 million), contributions from SP ($400,000), and the state and three counties served ($4.56 million each). During state administration, Caltrans purchased new locomotives and cars that replaced the SP equipment in 1985 and provided push-pull service (removing the need to turn locomotives around at terminals), upgraded stations, introduced shuttle buses to nearby employers, and renamed the operation Caltrain. Southern Pacific continued to operate the service under contract to Caltrans. However, ridership continued to decline and the farebox recovery ratio fell to 34.3% in the 1983–84 fiscal year, which violated the minimum of 40% set by AB 1010 in 1982.
By 1988, the service was the only operating commuter rail in California. The state felt that regional control of the Peninsula Commute was more appropriate, as it was primarily a benefit to the region, not the state. Thusly the Peninsula Corridor right-of-way was purchased for from SP in 1991 by the newly formed Peninsula Corridor Joint Powers Board (PCJPB), who subsequently assumed responsibility for the operation of Caltrain in 1992. The PCJB then contracted operations to Amtrak, ending 122 years of operation by Southern Pacific. TransitAmerica Services took over operations in 2012.
Rolling stock
SP took over the Peninsula Corridor route from the SF&SJ in 1870 and assumed control of the existing set of locomotives and passenger cars, which were mainly 4-4-0 steam engines and 36-passenger wooden railcars. As SP began introducing diesel locomotives on its long-distance (main-line) routes, steam engines were moved into Peninsula Commute service, culminating in the use of the large "General Service" 4-8-4 locomotives which served the Peninsula Corridor through 1957. Diesel-electric Fairbanks-Morse Train Masters had been running in Peninsula Commute service since 1954. Fairbanks-Morse and, later, EMD diesels served the Peninsula Commute past 1980, when the state-run CalTrain began assuming financial responsibility for the service, and were not retired until 1985, when the state purchased new EMD F40PH locomotives. One of the factors driving the purchase of new locomotives was the dramatic increase in annual lease costs in 1985.
Locomotives
Steam
With population (and ridership) growth on the Peninsula, the initial mix of 4-4-0, 2-6-0, and 4-4-2 locomotives were replaced by 4-6-0s. Older locomotives were redesignated to Commute service after they were displaced by newer locomotives assuming main-line (long-distance, inter-city) passenger service. Pacific-type 4-6-2s were used on peak-hour commutes by the 1930s and 1940s, displacing 4-6-0s, and more 4-6-2s were made available for the Commute by the introduction of 4-8-2s in main-line service; by 1945, the 4-8-2s were displacing 4-6-2s on peak-hour trains, 4-6-2s were moved to off-peak service, and 4-6-0s were used on weekend trains. By the early 1950s, peak-hour trains were pulling up to seventeen cars in a single consist, requiring the use of the "General Service" class 4-8-4s.
After gaining experience with diesel engines in main-line service, SP began testing various diesel locomotives for the Peninsula Commute, finally selecting the Fairbanks-Morse H-24-66 "Train Master" because the relatively short distance between stations meant acceleration (and power) was the paramount priority. The final steam-led Peninsula Commute train departed San Francisco for San Jose on January 22, 1957, led by 4-8-4 No. 4430. However, 4-6-2 No. 2472 was moved from San Francisco to San Jose at the head of Caltrain #74 on December 16, 1994; #2472 was to lead a special charity excursion train back to San Francisco the next day. While coupled to Caltrain #74, though, #2472 was used to help accelerate the train out of each station, so it was not just a cosmetic appearance. #2472 has since been used occasionally along the Peninsula Corridor for special service, but not while providing revenue passenger service.
Diesel
The first diesel on the Peninsula Commute ran on September 28, 1953, using SP Locomotive No. 5325, an EMD SD7 equipped with a steam boiler; it left the shortly thereafter, as the SD7 was unable to match the performance of the 4-6-2 steam locomotives then being used for off-peak and weekend service.
SP began testing Fairbanks-Morse (F-M) "Train Master" H-24-66 locomotives in late 1953, and purchased two of the four demonstrator models for use on the Peninsula Commute service. Because the existing "Suburban" and "Harriman" passenger cars then prevalent in the fleet took steam heat from the locomotive boiler, SP passenger diesel engines were equipped with steam generators. The diesel era of the Peninsula Commute began on August 25, 1954, when two Train Masters went into test service. The Train Masters, which used the unique opposed-piston two-stroke 38 8-1/8 prime mover developed by F-M for American diesel-electric submarines in World War II, were the most powerful diesel-electric locomotives available at a nominal , and had performance comparable to the 4-8-4s for peak service: while the starting tractive effort of the "General Service" class 4-8-4 ranged from , the Train Master was rated at .
The Train Masters were complemented by a fleet of EMD GP9s fitted with steam generators; while peak-hour trains required one Train Master or two GP9s, off-peak and weekend trains could more economically use a single GP9. Switching duties were handled by an ALCO RS-32, or an ALCO S-4. When Amtrak took over inter-city (main-line) service in 1971, the SP EMD SDP45s then in main-line use were reassigned to Commute service, and three unique passenger-equipped EMD GP40P-2 engines were delivered in 1974, allowing SP to retire all of the Train Masters by 1975. The fleet of EMD GP9s, SDP45s, and GP40P-2s were used by SP to run the Peninsula Commute.
In 1978, SP pulled the SDP45s from Peninsula Commute service to comply with an ICC order to return freight cars. Amtrak leased fifteen GE P30CH locomotives to SP to keep the commuter rail service running, but none of the GE engines were equipped with steam generators. After 1980, the SP fleet continued in leased service to the nascent state-run CalTrain service until the state of California ordered new EMD F40PH locomotives, which were delivered in 1985. Shortly after the introduction of the F40PHs in 1985, a brake issue was discovered, forcing the F40PHs to briefly run in tandem with an SP locomotive.
Passenger cars
The earlier wooden and steel-framed coaches were replaced with the all-steel 72-seat "Harriman" coaches starting in approximately 1900. SP introduced slightly longer all-steel 96-seat "Suburban" coaches in 1924, and continued to run them until the introduction of new state-owned equipment in 1985. The 1980 lease agreement between SP and the State of California showed a total of 83 passenger cars in revenue service: 27 operable "Suburbans", 10 "Suburbans" suitable for parts (nearly all "Suburbans" dating back to 1924), and 46 "Gallery" cars. , several "Harriman" and "Suburban" coaches survive (including all 27 operable "Suburbans"); thirteen "Suburbans" are still in revenue service for the Grand Canyon Railway, while others are in use on the Niles Canyon Railway, Sacramento Southern Railroad, Western Railway Museum, among others.
SP rolled out Pullman-built "Gallery" cars with two passenger decks in 1955; passengers on the upper deck sat on two balconies along the sides of the car, and the center aisle was open to allow conductors to check tickets on both levels without having to ascend stairs.
A Streamline coach from the Daylight service was converted for Commute use in 1965 by adding five-abreast seating (one seat for two, and another seat for three across the aisle) for a total of 122 seats. It was not popular and was sold to the Stockton Terminal & Eastern in 1971. Instead, to increase passenger capacity, SP purchased a third flight of "Gallery" cars, delivered in 1968, which may be distinguished from the 1955/57 Gallery cars by a different window configuration.
"Gallery" and "Subs" could be mixed to make up multi-car consists. In 1978, a Commute train had from one to nine cars, and were always led by a locomotive, meaning the locomotive needed to be turned at each terminal. With the introduction of new state-owned locomotives and rolling stock in 1985 capable of push-pull service, locomotives no longer needed to be turned.
Fares
Peninsula residents clamored for lower fares as early as 1908; SP officials replied by pointing out rates were already cheaper than similar services in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, and Baltimore. A discount 10-ride ticket was introduced in 1909 to partially defray rates for frequent commuters. In 1910, SP added that rates across the Bay were comparable, and maintenance of the line between San Francisco and San Jose, partially paid by fares, was expensive. Although SP purchased the electric railway connecting Palo Alto and San Jose, bringing hope that it would be extended further north, it turned out the purchase was merely a strategy to eliminate competition.
When fares began to be regulated in 1912, associations in Peninsula cities and Santa Clara County filed complaints against SP, citing rates that were significantly higher than fares to Alameda County destinations of similar distance. The higher rates to Peninsula destinations was believed to cause slow growth of properties on the Peninsula. The suit was heard on August 26, 1912, and after it became clear that many cities felt the rates were excessive and that a rate cut would happen, SP asked for a continuance to put together a compromise.
Also in 1912, SP proposed that private club cars be provided on several morning trains to allow commuters to "enjoy a shave or shampoo and indulge in convival highball while making their daily trips to San Francisco."
See also
Bay Area Rapid Transit
References
Bibliography
External links
Public transportation in San Francisco
1863 establishments in California
Southern Pacific Railroad
1863 in rail transport
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4920702
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Hook%20Park
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Red Hook Park
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Red Hook Recreation Area, also known as Red Hook Park, is a public park in the Red Hook neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York City, composed of several segments centered around Bay Street. The park's recreational facilities include handball courts, softball fields, a soccer and football field, and a running track. The Sol Goldman Play Center, within the block bounded by Bay, Henry, Lorraine and Clinton Streets, consists of a brick bathhouse and two pools. The park is operated by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation, also known as NYC Parks.
The land for the park was acquired starting in 1913 and was transferred to NYC Parks in 1934. Joseph L. Hautman designed the pool, which was constructed from 1935 to 1936 as part of a Works Progress Administration project. The rest of the park opened in 1940. The pool was extensively refurbished from 1983 to 1986; it was renamed for Sol Goldman in 1991 after he donated funds to keep the pool open. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the Sol Goldman Play Center as a city landmark in 2007. As a result of extensive lead contamination, the fields were closed and renovated in phases starting in 2019.
Description
Recreation fields
Red Hook Park is in several non-contiguous plots of unequal size, totaling . The largest plot is bounded by Columbia Street to the west, Clinton Street to the east, and Bay Street to the north. It contains four soccer fields, labeled 2–5, and five baseball fields, labeled 1–4 and 9.
Red Hook Park also occupies part or all of five other city blocks to the east and north of the park's main section. Directly across from Clinton Street, extending east to Court Street and south to Halleck Street, is a recreational area containing soccer field 1 and walking paths. The block to the northwest, bounded by Creamer, Court, Bay, and Clinton Streets, contains soccer field 6 and a running track. The track, which is long, encircled a roller rink when it opened in 1940. The park also occupies two whole city blocks between Bay Street to the south and Lorraine Street to the north. The block between Hicks Street on the west and Henry Street on the east contains ball fields 5–8 and soccer field 7, while the block between Henry Street on the west and Clinton Street on the east contains the Sol Goldman Pool.
The Bush-Clinton Playground, containing several basketball courts and a play area, is north of the pool adjacent to Red Hook Houses. The northern boundary of the Bush-Clinton Playground is on the axis of Bush Street, named for a prominent family in the area, while the eastern boundary is on Clinton Street, named for New York governor DeWitt Clinton. This playground used to contain a wading pool on the site of the basketball courts.
Red Hook Play Center
The Red Hook Play Center consists of the Sol Goldman Pool and Bathhouse, which are on the city block bounded clockwise from south by Bay, Henry, Lorraine and Clinton Streets. The bathhouse is on the southern end of the block, facing Bay Street. The pool occupies the remainder of the block. The complex was built from 1934 to 1936 in the Art Moderne style, during the Fiorello LaGuardia administration. The supervising architect was Aymar Embury II, and the landscape architect was Gilmore D. Clarke, among others.
Bathhouse
The bathhouse contains a facade of brick in Flemish bond and is shaped in a "C" with a -story central pavilion, flanked by west and east wings that are separated from the street by a grass strip. The main entrance to the bath house is approached by two short flights of granite steps from Bay Street, though there is also a handicap-accessible ramp east of the steps. The bottom of the stairs is flanked by low piers and has a planting bed to the west. It leads directly to the rotunda. A back entrance, from the north, leads directly to the swimming pool. The top of the building facade is wrapped with a simple cast-stone band, while the bottom sits on a water table of granite blocks.
The central pavilion, built in the 1986 renovation, is similar in design to the original bathhouses on the west and east. The southern facade contains three arches separated by sloped brick buttresses, with hopper windows in the top sections of the arches. Metal letters with the words are mounted above the central arch. The main entrance consists of a set of metal doors in the lowest section of the central arch. The northern facade of the central pavilion contains three hopper windows, each of which is topped by a relief panel. The windows and relief panels are flanked by a pair of doors.
The west wing is for men and the east wing is for women, but otherwise are similarly designed. Both wings are divided into three sections from west to east. The innermost sections, next to the central pavilion, are each one story tall and have a small cube-shaped pavilion extending south to the Bay Street sidewalk. The central portions of each wing are one and a half stories tall, containing three archways on the southern facade. The outermost sections of each wing have four hopper windows on the southern facade. The western facade of the west wing, and the eastern facade of the east wing, each have three hopper windows. The extreme ends of each wing extend northward to form arcades, each composed of three arches. The west wing's arcade was designed to provide direct access from Henry Street while the east wing's arcade was designed to provide direct access from Clinton Street. The northern facades of both wings each have six buttresses, with hopper windows between each buttress, as well as carved stone lintels above the northern doorways from each wing.
Pools
The pool complex consists of two pools, surrounded by a concrete deck. The main pool, in the center of the block, is rectangular and oriented from east to west. It measures , the same dimensions it had when it was completed, with a depth of . The pool can fit 1,716 swimmers and, until its 1986 renovation, contained water circulation fountains in its center. The northern part of the deck contains concrete bleachers with seven rows, separating the main and wading pools.
The wading pool, formerly the diving pool, is in the northern third of the block. When completed, the diving pool measured . In 1986, it was largely infilled with brick, and pole sprinklers were installed for children.
A curving fence with brick piers, as well as a planted glass strip, runs around the western and eastern sides of the pool complex. A one-story comfort station is on the northwestern corner of the block; it is slightly above street level and formerly had men's and women's restrooms. A one-story brick storage closet is on the northeastern corner, at street level. The structures, both connected by a solid brick wall on the northern side of the pool complex, are largely similar in design: each has a segmental arch on the north side and a stone coping below their respective roofs.
History
Site
In the mid-19th century, the Red Hook neighborhood was a major shipping hub. Several shipping basins were constructed along the waterfront during this time. According to the 1886 Sanborn Fire Insurance Map, there were two basins on the park site: the Henry Street Basin, continuing as far inland as Bay Street, and Hicks Street Basin, only going as far as Halleck Street. A 1904 version of this map showed that the bulkhead lines of these basins had been finalized.
The specific site of the Red Hook Recreation Area was originally intended as a terminal for the Marginal Elevated Railway, a shortline railroad connecting the industries along the Brooklyn waterfront. The railroad would have used an elevated viaduct, similar to the High Line in Manhattan, between Bush Terminal and the piers at Fulton Ferry Landing (now Brooklyn Bridge Park) in Brooklyn Heights. Land for a freight rail terminal in Red Hook, near the Erie Basin, was acquired in October 1913. Although discussions for the marginal railroad continued through the 1910s and 1920s, it was never built. The city retained ownership of some at the site of the unbuilt terminal, and was looking to sell and subdivide the land by 1930, to some opposition.
North of the abandoned terminal, the block bounded by Bay, Lorraine, Henry, and Clinton Streets was used as a baseball field from 1915 to about 1929. During the 1920s and 1930s, the block to the west had housed the Columbia Smelting & Refining Works, although the refinery was destroyed by 1940. The site of soccer field 6, east of the swimming pool, was occupied by a junk yard and several old building foundations.
Works Progress Administration
In 1934, mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia nominated Robert Moses to become commissioner of a unified New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. At the time, the United States was experiencing the Great Depression; immediately after La Guardia won the 1933 election, Moses began to write "a plan for putting 80,000 men to work on 1,700 relief projects". By the time he was in office, several hundred such projects were underway across the city.
Moses was especially interested in creating new pools and other bathing facilities, such as those in Jacob Riis Park, Jones Beach, and Orchard Beach. He devised a list of 23 pools around the city, including one at the Red Hook terminal site. The pools would be built using funds from the Works Progress Administration (WPA), a federal agency created as part of the New Deal to combat the Depression's negative effects. Eleven of these pools were to be designed concurrently and open in 1936. Moses, along with architects Aymar Embury II and Gilmore David Clarke, created a common design for each of the 11 proposed aquatic centers. Each location was to have distinct pools for diving, swimming, and wading; bleachers and viewing areas; and bathhouses with locker rooms that could be used as gymnasiums. The pools were to have several common features, such as a minimum length, underwater lighting, heating, filtration, and low-cost construction materials. To fit the requirement for cheap materials, each building would be built using elements of the Streamline Moderne and Classical architectural styles. The buildings would also be near "comfort stations", additional playgrounds, and spruced-up landscapes.
Unlike most projects of the era, the Red Hook Pool and Recreation Area would be constructed as a completely new facility, with the park to be developed later. Moses originally planned to use the terminal site as a play area, but of the site were turned over to the New York City Housing Authority in March 1934 for a housing development. This land transfer was made upon the request of housing commissioner Langdon W. Post, who claimed the site was needed for the housing development, which had just received federal funding. Post promised that some parkland would be provided on the site. On June 2 of that year, Post granted back to NYC Parks. Moses rejected this land transfer on June 22 to protest the fact that, under the terms of the grant, the plot could be taken back on thirty days' notice. Less than a week later, on June 28, the site was granted to NYC Parks without that stipulation.
Construction for some of the 11 pools began in October 1934. The Red Hook Pool's bathhouse was designed by Joseph L. Hautman, despite being often attributed to Embury. The landscape was designed by Gilmore David Clarke, who also designed the landscape around the Red Hook Houses. The architects submitted plans for the Red Hook Play Center to the New York City Department of Buildings in early 1936. These plans called for swimming, wading, and diving pools, as well as a pair of bathhouses with room for 4,462 guests. By mid-1936, ten of the eleven WPA-funded pools were completed and were being opened at a rate of one per week. The Red Hook Pool was the last of these pools to open. The official ceremony, occurring on August 18, 1936, was attended by over 50,000 people. At the time of the main pool's opening, the bathhouses were not completed. Plans for the original wading pool, north of the main pool, were not even submitted until March 1937. By that June, the wading pool's completion was delayed because staff had been diverted to the construction of facilities at Jacob Riis Park. According to a NYC Parks press release, the permanent facilities at the Red Hook Recreation Center were completed in time for the 1937 summer season.
The Red Hook Recreation Area was also constructed by the WPA on land near the pool. When the Red Hook Houses project started in 1938, Moses was developing the 40-acre site south of the Red Hook Houses as part of the recreation area. That year, $723,250 was allocated to a reconstruction of the playground along Gowanus Bay at the end of Henry Street. A field and running track between Creamer, Court, Bay, and Clinton Streets opened in July 1940. By the end of that year, some of parkland had been developed with under construction. The park had 18 tennis courts and a roller rink that could be converted to an ice rink during winter. During the off-season, the main pool could be drained and turned into various sporting courts. Further plots for the recreation area would be acquired by NYC Parks through 1947.
20th century
During the mid-20th century, the Red Hook neighborhood went into decline. In the 1940s, Moses designed and built the Gowanus Parkway, isolating the neighborhood from the remainder of Brooklyn. The shipping industry relocated to other sites in Brooklyn or to New Jersey starting in the 1950s. The neighborhood, which had 18,000 residents in 1960, had lost nearly half of its population by 1980. One factor in this decline was the lack of cultural institutions, such as theaters, in the neighborhood. By the 1970s, Red Hook Park and other city parks were in poor condition following the 1975 New York City fiscal crisis. NYC Parks commenced a project to restore the pools in several parks in 1977. These projects were not carried out due to a lack of money. By March 1981, NYC Parks had only 2,900 employees in its total staff, less than 10 percent of the 30,000 present when Moses was parks commissioner. In 1982, the NYC Parks budget increased greatly, enabling the agency to carry out $76 million worth of restoration projects by year's end; among these projects was a restoration of Red Hook Park.
Plans for the pool center's renovations were filed with the Department of Buildings in 1983. As part of the renovation, the building was restored, and an annex was built to connect the standalone men's and women's bathhouses. In addition, the diving pool became a wading pool by around 1985. The $9.5 million renovation of the pool center was completed in 1986, while the pool opened in time for the 1987 summer season. The park officially became known as Red Hook Recreation Center upon the completion of the pool center's renovation. At the time, NYC Parks was planning a $7.6 million renovation of the track and field facilities.
NYC Parks continued to face financial shortfalls in the coming years, and the pools retained a reputation for high crime. For the summer of 1991, mayor David Dinkins had planned to close all 32 outdoor pools in the city, a decision that was only reversed after a $2 million donation from a trust created upon the death of real estate developer Sol Goldman and $1.8 million from other sources. The Red Hook Pool was renamed after Goldman that year in honor of his donation. In conjunction with the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the government of Norway donated a soccer field to Red Hook Park. The all-weather artificial turf field, set up within the unused wading pool, was dedicated in June 1994 and was destroyed by arson ten days after its dedication. The field had cost $80,000 () and, according to witnesses, was destroyed by one or more local youths in broad daylight, though it was never investigated by police. Additionally, in the 1990s, a practice called "whirlpooling" became common in New York City pools such as Red Hook Park, wherein women would be inappropriately fondled by teenage boys. By the turn of the century, crimes such as sexual assaults had decreased in parks citywide due to increased security.
21st century
In the early 21st century, Gowanus Industrial Park, a neighboring property owner who owned some of the land under the adjacent Henry Street Basin, erected a , metal fence along the section of the park facing the basin. The city government filed a lawsuit in 2005 to force the removal of the fence, and in 2008, the New York Supreme Court ruled that the fence had to be removed because it had been erected illegally. Also in 2008, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the Red Hook Play Center as a landmark. The commission had previously considered the pool for landmark status in 1990, along with the other ten WPA pools in the city.
The city's health and parks departments tested soil samples on the block between Bay, Hicks, Lorraine, and Henry Streets in early 2012. They found that lead concentrations in the ballfields on that block, labeled as fields 5 through 8, were several times above acceptable levels. Despite the discovery of such high lead levels, only minor cleanup was performed on field 5. The park and pool center was damaged during Hurricane Sandy later in 2012, and solar panels were installed on the roof of the pool building the following year. Further lead testing was performed in late 2014 and early 2015. High lead levels were also found on the block between Clinton and Court Streets, but were deemed to be a less urgent danger because the lead concentrations were found below ground level.
In May 2015, ball fields 5–8 were closed indefinitely, pending soil remediation. The cleanup of the four fields, the first phase of a four-phase cleanup, was initially estimated to cost $105 million and be completed in 2018. However, in mid-2017, that deadline was pushed back to late 2019, and the cost of remediation increased. In mid-2018, the cleanup of fields 5–8 was further delayed to 2020. The first phase, consisting of the removal of contaminated soil from fields 5–8, began in early 2019. The project also involved rebuilding the fields above the floodplain. By January 2020, some of contaminated soil had been removed from the site. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City in 2020, some dates in the timeline were changed. , the first phase had been pushed back to mid-2021, followed by the second phase in late 2021, the third phase in 2022, and the fourth phase in 2023. By August 2021, all but two fields had been closed for remediation, and a fence had been erected around the Red Hook Recreation Area. Fields 5–8 finally reopened in April 2022, nearly seven years after they had closed.
Meanwhile, New York congresspeople allocated $8 million for repairs to the Red Hook Recreation Center in 2019. NYC Parks began looking for architects to redesign the recreation center in 2021; at the time, some of the damage from Hurricane Sandy had still not been fixed. The recreation center's boiler room was damaged in late 2021 during Hurricane Ida, forcing an indefinite closure of the facility. After an anonymous benefactor gave $115,000, the recreation center's gym was renovated, reopening in March 2023.
See also
List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Brooklyn
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
1936 establishments in New York City
1940 establishments in New York City
Buildings and structures completed in 1936
New York City Designated Landmarks in Brooklyn
Parks in Brooklyn
Protected areas established in 1940
Red Hook, Brooklyn
Robert Moses projects
Urban public parks
Works Progress Administration in New York City
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WXEL-TV
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WXEL-TV
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WXEL-TV (channel 42) is a PBS member television station licensed to Boynton Beach, Florida, United States, serving the West Palm Beach area. Owned by South Florida PBS, it is a sister station to Miami-based flagship and fellow PBS member WPBT (channel 2) and Class A station WURH-CD (channel 13). The three stations share transmitter facilities on Northwest 199th Street in Andover; WXEL's studios are located on South Congress Avenue in Boynton Beach. WXEL, WPBT, and WURH-CD are also broadcast by a translator in Fort Pierce.
The launch of a public television station to serve the West Palm Beach area gained steam in the late 1970s, after the Palm Beach County School Board abandoned its permit for channel 42. A group eventually known as South Florida Public Telecommunications won the construction permit in 1979 after a settlement with WPBT, which long claimed the Palm Beaches as part of its service area and had also sought channel 42. However, the construction process for what eventually launched as WHRS-TV was protracted, primarily by environmental issues with the tower site. WHRS-TV launched on July 8, 1982, and changed its call sign to WXEL-TV at the start of 1985; for its first 25 years, it was co-owned with WHRS (90.7 FM). Originally broadcast from the school board's former instructional television studios, WXEL moved to its present studios in 1990. It was still dwarfed by WPBT, which continued to have more members in Palm Beach County alone than WXEL had total.
In the early 1990s, an employee revolt that resulted in the resignation of the station president was followed by high turnover, a lightning strike on the transmitter, and financial issues. Barry University, a private Catholic institution in Miami Shores, successfully fought proposals forcing it to cede part or all of the WXEL stations to Florida Atlantic University and became the sole owner in 1997. Barry University brought much-needed financial stability and led the digitalization and professionalization of WXEL. However, after a change in president, Barry started what would be an eight-year-long station sale process that ended with the station's president leading a group to buy WXEL-TV.
In 2015, WXEL merged with WPBT, its longtime competitor for viewers and members. The station's spectrum was sold at auction in 2016; as a result, WXEL-TV is broadcast from WPBT's transmitter facility, south of the West Palm Beach market.
History
Permit fight and construction
Proposals for educational television in Palm Beach County first were floated by the Palm Beach County School Board in 1971, when a study was authorized to investigate the viability of such a station to operate on West Palm Beach's reserved channel 42. A construction permit application was filed that December with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), but the school board never moved to provide the funding necessary for matching grants that would have financed construction. In 1972, a new superintendent came into office and argued that the board had no money to start a station and no business running one.
In 1975, a group known as Friends of Public Broadcasting formed to provide support for WHRS (91.7 FM), which the school board had previously founded. The group commissioned a study that found that 68 percent of Palm Beach County households could not receive Miami's channel 2 and there was enthusiasm in the county for a possible separate public station. In 1976, the school board agreed to relinquish its channel 42 permit to make way for an application from the private group. Incorporating as the Public Broadcasting Foundation of Palm Beach, the group offered to take control of the county's neglected instructional television setup in exchange for the right to broadcast programs into the county schools. The proposed station, along with the possibility of one for Fort Pierce, were seen as completing a statewide public broadcasting setup.
The owner of WPBT, the Community Television Foundation, filed an application for channel 42 on June 22, 1978, having previously investigated setting up a low-power translator on channel 42 before the Public Broadcasting Foundation filed its application. WPBT expressed its desire to continue serving its station members in Palm Beach County. One columnist for The Palm Beach Post, Alan Jenkins, wondered if the creation of a separate station merited the expense, particularly given the existing presence of WPBT among cable households. The competing applications led to a delay as the FCC adjudged the proposals; the Public Broadcasting Foundation also lost a federal grant because of the delay and incurred $67,000 in legal fees.
The dispute was settled in July 1979. The Public Broadcasting Foundation became the sole applicant for channel 42, while the Community Television Foundation received the Public Broadcasting Foundation's backing for a possible public station in Fort Pierce. In September, the FCC granted the construction permit, and the station received state and federal grants for construction costs. The station would broadcast from a tower in Greenacres City. This tower was being built by Malrite Communications, which would use it to broadcast a new commercial station, WFLX.
On July 1, 1980, the Public Broadcasting Foundation took control of the county's instructional television studios on Congress Avenue in Boynton Beach. Fundraising activities moved slowly at first but eventually perked up, even though the station struggled to convince viewers that the station, which was assigned the call sign WWPF, would provide a different service from WPBT.
WWPF, which was already sometimes known as WHRS-TV in the local media even though the call sign did not formally change until May 24, 1982, intended to begin broadcasting on July 1, 1981, even though its hope to do so was threatened by cuts to public broadcasting made by the new Reagan administration. However, by May, the tower still had not been constructed because environmental approval was still pending on an access road to the tower site. One of the first board members and major fundraisers for the station, Victor Farris, resigned before going public with his concerns that WHRS-TV would never be built and calling the board members "dreamers". By that time, the projected start date had already slipped to the summer of 1982; Malrite was still negotiating with the Florida Audubon Society, a situation that persisted into early 1982. Founding board director Sam Marantz would later regret not using the Audubon Society to coordinate the five environmental agencies whose permits were needed and thereby reduce what turned out to be 14 months of startup delays.
The lengthy delays in station construction took a toll on the Public Broadcasting Foundation's finances, which were propped up by the operation of WHRS radio. Marantz, who had been a key figure in the incipient stages of the project but left in 1980, was reelected as board president in April 1982. He immediately cut 20 percent of the full-time staff and announced he would seek emergency loans to make payroll; however, this proved to not be necessary. He criticized the board as "self-serving" and noted a rift between the board and the full-time staff. However, the station was nearly complete.
Early years
The WHRS-TV transmitter was activated for the first time on June 23, 1982, with test signals. The station aired its first program, Sesame Street, on July 8. The first locally produced program, Financial Freedom with Jim Barry, debuted on August 12; it was based on the asset manager's book of the same title.
In January 1983, Lewis M. "Dusty" Sang became the new chairman of the station licensee, which had become known as South Florida Public Telecommunications. Sang devoted most of his energies to righting the ship at the young WHRS-TV by increasing fundraising efforts and community programming. On January 1, 1985, WHRS radio and television became WXEL and WXEL-TV; the new call sign signified "excellence" as a goal of public broadcasting. Sang also cited shedding the association of HRS with the state Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services and increasing identification with the stations. Sang had gotten the idea for using WXEL from the station's program manager, who had once worked at a Cleveland television station known as WXEL in the 1950s. In 1985, the station began morning broadcasting for the first time, having originally been an evening-only operation that later added afternoon telecasts.
Despite not being owned by the school board, WXEL radio and television continued to share the school board's office space in Boynton Beach. In 1985, the stations received a $3.2 million grant from the state of Florida to build a studio and offices somewhere in central Palm Beach County. The city of Boynton Beach deeded South Florida Public Telecommunications land elsewhere along Congress Avenue in 1986; Protests from nearby homeowners over a microwave tower at the site led to delays; ground was broken in May 1988, but during the process, the original general contractor and the insurance company associated with the work both defaulted, the latter resulting in a month-long halt to construction. The stations finally moved to the building in February 1990.
The relationship between WXEL and WPBT continued to be frosty, as the two outlets continued to see each other as competition. WPBT dwarfed WXEL in public contributions ($3.79 million to $374,000), income ($8.5 million to $1 million), and employees paid more than $30,000 a year (73 to 6). WPBT refused to sell WXEL its Nightly Business Report; the general manager of WPBT told The Palm Beach Post, "Does Burger King sell their hamburgers to McDonald's?" WXEL considered that the agreement that led to its construction permit—and a promise not to pursue channel 21 in Fort Pierce—was voided when WPBT lobbied for cuts to state funding. An affiliate of Palm Beach Atlantic College eventually obtained the channel 21 permit, for which WXEL at one point entered into negotiations to acquire. When negotiations with WXEL fell apart, the college began talking to WPBT, which led to criticism not only from WXEL but from others in West Palm Beach television. The general manager of WPTV wrote the president of Palm Beach Atlantic College in disapproval, stating, "It appears the Miami outlet's sole purpose is to maintain its fundraising trolling in the more affluent communities in the West Palm Beach/Fort Pierce market." Had WPBT been successful, WXEL would have been sandwiched between two signals from its competitor, one to the north and the other to the south. However, the WPBT effort also fell through; unbeknownst to the Community Television Foundation, most of the equipment used in operating WTCE-TV had been sold to the Trinity Broadcasting Network for capital, and in order to settle the debt with TBN, the college was forced to sell the station to the religious broadcaster. By 1993, WXEL held a permit to build low-power station W44AY in Fort Pierce to rebroadcast its programming. It broadcast from the former WTVX tower near the Indian River—St. Lucie county line.
1992 employee revolt
WXEL had a rocky 1990s, with one of the largest events in the decade being a revolt by employees. On January 15, 1992, employees called for the resignation of chairman Sang over what they felt was misuse of funds and the hiring of a fundraising chief, John Dover—without a national search—in such a way that it could have jeopardized the public station's status and broadcast license by violating equal employment opportunity laws. Of the 64 employees of South Florida Public Telecommunications, 50 signed on to a letter demanding his resignation. The board of members, which backed Sang, then fired and suspended employees. As employees hired a Boca Raton law firm to investigate the hiring process, a local sponsor withheld its support and joined calls for Sang's resignation. The president of America's Public Television Stations, which represents public stations nationwide, called the revolt an unprecedented event in public television. An investigation by The Palm Beach Post, scrutinizing records of South Florida Public Telecommunications, found excessive spending on conference tables (more than $10,000 as compared to $877 for a similar purchase by WMFE-TV in Orlando the year before), lavish parties for donors, and on a fundraiser paid $25,000 more than a more experienced person in the same position at WPBT.
On January 25, Sang stepped down temporarily while a panel appointed by the board led an inquiry into the stations' finances. The crisis dented a previously scheduled radio fund drive which only drew a third of the expected pledges, while at least one donor threatened to switch her support of public television to WPBT. At an eight-hour hearing held in WXEL's Studio A, Sang downplayed the grievances at play but referred to "anarchy, mutiny, and insubordination" in his testimony, while staff offered complaints ranging from gala events that failed to bring in significant money to funds spent on research studies and a request by Sang that the greeters for such events be "only white, preferably attractive women" on the station staff.
On February 20, the panel delivered its findings and requested Sang's resignation; one of the suspended employees was reinstated to her position. The same day, Dover, the fundraising chief hired by Sang, resigned. The latter took place after he was surrounded by volunteers in the hallway of the station, to the astonishment of others. With Sang out of the picture, fundraising drives were urgently held in order to pay for immediate expenses, including PBS programming; WXEL had lost more than 1,300 members, seven percent of its total base, in six weeks, and the first full fund drive fell short of its goal.
In the years following the revolt, turnover among WXEL's staff was high. From February 1993 to January 1997, more than 100 employees had left an organization with an average payroll about half that number. WPBT briefly discussed a merger with WXEL at the start of 1993, before Mary Souder was named as WXEL's new leader. The transmitter was struck by lightning in July 1994, and WXEL-TV broadcast at reduced power for years.
Barry University ownership
In January 1997, negotiations were revealed to bring the WXEL stations under the aegis of Barry University, a Catholic university located in Miami Shores. The WXEL stations had suffered financially in the preceding years, with the lightning strike and cuts to federal and corporate grants resulting in a net loss of $400,000 in assets. A November 1996 financial report warned that either a merger or new revenue sources would be necessary to avoid cutbacks; at one point in 1994, the station's bank account held less than $2,000. For Barry, an attractive part of the merger was that it would provide publicity for the university in the West Palm Beach area. Three months prior, in October 1996, WXEL had mortgaged itself to Barry in exchange for a short-term $275,000 loan.
News of the Barry merger talks brought other potential bidders out of the woodwork. One of those was WPBT, whose advisory board for Palm Beach and Martin counties recommended proposing a buyout to WXEL, though it was unclear what would happen to WXEL-FM, which was sharing programming with Miami's WLRN-FM. WPBT touted the fact that it had more members in Palm Beach County than WXEL had total (20,500 to 13,000). A consortium of public universities under the Florida Board of Regents also made a bid on the stations. However, the WXEL board, in a hastily called meeting announced to the board by overnight mail, turned down both offers and voted to approve a merger with Barry University on January 24. The speed at which the merger was approved led to a rebuke by the editorial board of The Palm Beach Post, while the state government sent a request for information after the chancellor of the state university system wrote a letter to the Attorney General of Florida and the Florida Department of Education. Information sent in response to the request revealed that merger talks with Barry had begun in June 1996. In the meantime, Barry continued infusing cash into WXEL in order to prop up the public broadcaster: president Jeanne O'Laughlin expressed her belief that, without Barry's support, it "would not be in existence".
On February 18, the attorney general ruled that the Florida Cabinet, in its capacity as the state board of education, would have to approve WXEL's merger with Barry because it involved a state lease. The opinion from the attorney general found that a subsidiary created by Barry to facilitate the merger did not qualify as a state-authorized "educational or non-commercial broadcasting entity" to which the lease could be transferred. Three days later, Florida Atlantic University (FAU) and three community colleges formed a consortium seeking to run the WXEL stations for themselves. Governor Lawton Chiles suggested that Barry and the public college consortium share ownership of the stations; WXEL eyed public ownership warily, concerned that in a financial crush it would be among the first divisions to see cuts. The consortium led by FAU, in turn, had brought on WPBT to manage the stations in the event they got the licenses. Negotiations also began between FAU and Barry on a possible compromise. The Florida Cabinet voted unanimously to support such an ownership merger, though the plan continued to languish amid disputes over the shape of a partnership. In early June, Barry asked the Cabinet to approve outright ownership of WXEL by the Catholic university but came up one vote short on its first attempt, with the Cabinet asking it to return in August with a new plan.
Ultimately, the state schools failed to find enough money to become equal partners with Barry University, which in August 1997 became the full owner of the WXEL stations. Station president Souder was removed by the new management, while a $2.5 million donation by Dwayne Andreas, CEO of Archer Daniels Midland, erased all of WXEL's debt. Andreas and his wife were the largest single contributors to Barry University.
Barry tapped Jerry Carr, a longtime commercial television executive, to serve as the first permanent manager of the WXEL stations under its management. Carr's career in management had included being general manager of WBFS-TV in Miami, serving as the head of television operations for parent Grant Broadcasting System, and later managing WTVX while Paxson Communications Corporation managed it. Carr led an aggressive turnaround plan. The transmitter was repaired, restoring television coverage outside of Palm Beach County; Carr used must-carry laws to force WXEL onto every cable system in Broward County, within its coverage area, and even into Miami-Dade County, Florida; a public relations and marketing staff was hired; and several new local programs were started. These moves and others led to a doubling of prime time ratings and a 30-percent increase in memberships. However, the Barry merger voided the original lease WXEL had with Malrite for the WFLX tower, resulting in a fourfold increase in rent. The station was more competitive with WPBT in its battle for viewers and members, though WPBT still had more members in Palm Beach County and the Treasure Coast than WXEL had total, and the overlap continued to deny WXEL access to WPBT-produced programs and several national vendors. From 1997 to 2001, WXEL steadily climbed out of its debt, though a decline in corporate giving after the September 11 attacks led to financial losses in 2002 for the first time since the Barry merger.
Another task facing Barry as owner of WXEL-TV was replacing the station's aged equipment and raising funds for the transition to digital television. The National Telecommunications and Information Administration classed WXEL-TV in 1998 as having an "urgent" priority for an equipment overhaul, with many components being obsolete and replacement parts becoming harder to find. The station's digitalization capital campaign was kicked off in 2000 by a $1 million donation. Digital also brought a one-time bonus to WXEL. In 2003, it received $6.4 million, payable over 15 years, as part of a three-way settlement with Paxson Communications Corporation and NBC, as owner of WTVJ (channel 6), involving digital channel assignments in the Miami and West Palm Beach areas. WXEL began digital broadcasting on channel 27 on July 4, 2004.
WNET sale attempt
At the age of 75, Jeanne O'Laughlin retired as president of Barry University in 2004; during this time, the full-time staff more than doubled, while the stations' list of large underwriters had grown from several dozen to more than 200. The change in university leadership, however, also prompted Barry University to investigate possibly spinning out or selling the WXEL stations. Yet again, suitors appeared for the stations: a group of community leaders; FAU; Nova Southeastern University; Educational Broadcasting Corporation (EBC), parent of WNET, the public television station serving New York City; and WPBT.
In April 2005, Barry selected a $5 million bid from the Educational Broadcasting Corporation, believed to be the first case of a PBS member station in one state purchasing a station in another; the Community Broadcasting Foundation of the Treasure Coast would in turn join the EBC bid. However, the next month, language inserted into the Florida state budget clouded the attempt by directing the state Board of Education, which would once more have to approve the deal, to prioritize "in-state public postsecondary institutions"—in other words, institutions such as FAU. The pending sale led to a decline in donations to WXEL itself. Even though the president of FAU would not block Barry's sale, the deal continued to languish for months, awaiting state approval. The Board of Education sought $1 million as a partial compensation for its investment in the stations over the years. The state ultimately approved after EBC agreed to allow FAU the use of an HD Radio subchannel on WXEL FM for student programming.
With the state of Florida approving of the sale, it fell to the FCC to grant the transfer of the licenses. However, by October 2007, this had still not taken place, though one West Palm Beach viewer had filed an informal objection with the FCC. Meanwhile, the station continued to suffer in donations and other logistical matters, such as repairs for damage from Hurricane Wilma.
In May 2008, Barry University and EBC terminated the sale agreement, more than three years after EBC had been selected to buy the WXEL stations. The FCC had privately expressed reservations about the ability of EBC to provide local control for the WXEL stations. Barry then reopened the sale process and called again for interested bidders. Despite looming budget cuts at the height of the Great Recession, the Palm Beach County school board voted in December 2008 to authorize negotiations to purchase the station. The school board sought partners to assist in its operation, but WPBT and the Community Broadcasting Foundation bristled at the level of control the school board wanted over the stations. Ultimately, however, the school board needed the money it would have used to buy WXEL to pay salaries and dropped its proposal.
During this time, on June 12, 2009, WXEL-TV shut off its analog signal. It continued to broadcast in digital on channel 27, using virtual channel 42.
WXEL Public Broadcasting Corporation ownership
Barry began exploring the possibility of selling WXEL radio and television separately in 2009 and reached an agreement with Classical South Florida, a division of the American Public Media Group, to sell WXEL-FM. Also in 2010, Jerry Carr retired from the station, with Bernie Henneberg being named president.
In 2011, Henneberg and other station managers organized as the WXEL Public Broadcasting Corporation and made a proposal to Barry University to buy the station for $700,000. Negotiations with the group stretched into February 2012, when a final deal was reached. The $1.44 million transaction was approved by the Barry University board in March 2012; state approval swiftly followed, followed by the FCC in July, resulting in the sale being consummated late that month.
At its first operational meeting in January 2013, the new community board immediately sought to renegotiate its 2003 settlement with NBC so as to receive what it was owed sooner and use that to pay down debt used to purchase the station.
Merger with WPBT
WPBT and WXEL, long competitors for viewers in Broward and Palm Beach counties, announced in July 2014 that they were once again exploring a merger, this time into an entity that would be known as South Florida PBS. In a joint news release, the stations cited precedent for public television mergers in New York City (WNET and WLIW) and Cincinnati and Dayton, Ohio (ThinkTV and CET); a merger would remove duplication between the two stations' programs, though there was concern about the sale of WXEL's spectrum.
On July 15, 2015, Community Television Foundation of South Florida and WXEL Public Broadcasting Corporation announced they had reached a merger agreement. The merger, which was formally filed with the FCC on July 16, would enable the two stations to pool resources and fundraising efforts to offer more program content. The merger was finalized in October 2015; WXEL president Henneberg became chief financial officer of the merged South Florida PBS.
In the 2016 United States wireless spectrum auction, South Florida PBS sold the spectrum of WXEL-TV for $4,696,299 and announced that WXEL-TV would move to the WPBT multiplex. The auction earnings would go toward paying down debt and educational projects. A third license was added to the channel share after South Florida PBS was donated WIMP-CD (now WURH-CD). The change to sharing with WPBT took place on August 22, 2018; since the transmitter was now much further south, many viewers in the West Palm Beach area experienced new difficulty receiving WXEL-TV. WXEL-TV's community of license was changed from West Palm Beach to Boynton Beach to continue to meet coverage requirements after the transmitter change. The WPBT multiplex itself was repacked from channel 18 to channel 29 in April 2019.
Subchannels
Notes
References
External links
WXEL website
XEL-TV
PBS member stations
Television channels and stations established in 1982
Boynton Beach, Florida
Barry University
1982 establishments in Florida
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4920830
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caprica
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Caprica
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Caprica is an American science fiction drama television series. A spin-off prequel of the re-imagined Battlestar Galactica (2004), Caprica is set 58 years before the main series. Caprica shows how humanity first created the Cylon androids who would later turn against their human masters. Among Caprica'''s main characters are the father and uncle of William Adama, the man who becomes the senior surviving military leader of the fleet which represents the remnants of the Twelve Colonies in Battlestar Galactica.
An extended version of the pilot premiered exclusively on DVD and digital download on April 21, 2009. The first season debuted on January 22, 2010, on Syfy in the U.S., Space in Canada, and Sky1 in the UK, running nine episodes, including the two-hour pilot, before going on a mid-season hiatus. The second half of the first season (Season 1.5) began airing on October 5, 2010, on Syfy and Space.
On October 27, 2010, Syfy canceled the show, citing low ratings, and pulled the remaining five episodes of the series from its broadcast schedule. The series continued to air as scheduled on Space, finishing with the series finale on November 30, 2010. The remaining episodes were released on DVD in the U.S. on December 21, 2010 and aired on Syfy in a burn off marathon on January 4, 2011.
Plot
Caprica is set before cataclysmic destruction of the Twelve Colonies of Kobol, focusing on the planet Caprica, the main planet of the Twelve Colonies. Caprica is the governmental seat of the Twelve Colonies, having also become the de facto seat of culture, art, science, and learning; the language of Caprica has become the standard language of the Twelve Colonies.
The Twelve Colonies are at peace, 58 years before the events of the 2004 television series, when an act of religious fanaticism brings together Joseph Adama, a lawyer with ties to the criminal underworld, and wealthy technologist Daniel Graystone, both of whom lost family members. Grief-stricken by the loss of his daughter and fueled by obsession, Daniel sets out to bring her back, using his considerable wealth and sprawling technology corporation. Offered the chance of his own daughter being restored, Joseph wrestles with the notion until he comes face to face with its reality.
Production
ConceptCaprica differs significantly from its parent series. Ronald D. Moore had strong feelings on the matter, explaining his position that "...you don't try to repeat the formula," and going on to say, "...everything about Caprica was designed specifically to not repeat what we had done in Galactica." Although a critical success, Galactica had a predominantly male audience, and both Moore and the network felt the "war in space" backdrop was a major deterrent to female viewers. With these considerations, and Caprica's storyline already focused on events taking place prior to the two Cylon Wars, the series has a different tone, content, and style. While Caprica contains references to elements of the Battlestar universe, the series was intended to be accessible to new fans.
Outline
Whereas the dark, post-apocalyptic reimagined Battlestar Galactica series revolved around a final struggle for survival, Caprica is concerned with a world intoxicated by success. Ronald D. Moore states: "It's about a society that's running out of control with a wild-eyed glint in its eye." The Twelve Colonies are at their peak: self-involved, oblivious, and mesmerized by the seemingly unlimited promise of technology. Framed by the conflict between the Adamas and the Graystones over the resurrection of loved ones lost in an act of terrorism, the series was meant to explore ethical implications of advances in artificial intelligence and robotics.Caprica is grounded in urban locales rather than in space, and focuses on corporate, political, familial, and personal intrigue, similar in approach to a Greek tragedy. With wealth, corporate intrigue, and the troubled relationship between two families at its center, Moore himself has likened Caprica to the 1980s prime time soap opera Dallas, Like Battlestar Galactica, Caprica had a story arc format.
Development
During the second season of Battlestar Galactica, series developer Ronald D. Moore and production partner David Eick started speculating about the Battlestar Galactica universe prior to the Cylons. Unable to dedicate serious time to the notion, it remained in the concept stage of development until in early 2006, screenwriter Remi Aubuchon, unaware of the ideas about a Battlestar Galactica prequel, proposed a film about artificial intelligence to Universal Pictures. Though Universal Pictures turned down the project as a movie, Universal Television executives felt Moore and Eick might be interested in Aubuchon's take on the subject and arranged a meeting. Merging the existing thoughts for a Battlestar Galactica prequel with those Aubuchon brought to the table, a general outline for a series emerged.
While the Sci-Fi Channel management was enthusiastic about the idea, they had been engaged in a struggle with Moore about Battlestar Galacticas long storylines, which the network felt kept new viewers from joining. Although Moore's subsequent retooling garnered negative criticism from fans and press alike, and the Sci-Fi Channel eventually admitted that standalone episodes did not work for the show, the network balked at the prospect of another series with a story-arc-heavy format and Caprica got stuck in "development hell".
With Eick and Moore's announcement that Battlestar Galactica was going to end with its fourth season, and after a drawn out pre-development cycle, on March 18, 2008, the Sci-Fi Channel announced that Caprica had been picked up as a two-hour backdoor pilot event, indicating a possible commitment to a series, contingent on ratings. On July 20 of the same year, Sci-Fi announced it was considering picking up Caprica directly as a weekly series, and would make the pilot an extended season premiere. Finally, on December 2, Sci-Fi gave the go-ahead to expand the project into a full series. Production was resumed in July 2009 for an anticipated series premiere in early 2010. The series premiered on January 22, 2010.
Company and crew
Universal Media Studios developed the show, in conjunction with Remi Aubuchon and the executive producers of Battlestar Galactica, Ronald D. Moore and David Eick. Aubuchon co-created the show and worked on the pilot, then left to become executive producer of Persons Unknown. The pilot was directed by Friday Night Lights veteran Jeffrey Reiner. Battlestar Galactica's Jane Espenson, Michael Taylor, and Ryan Mottesheard, Pushing Daisies' Kath Lingenfelter, and Friday Night Lights Patrick Massett and John Zinman joined the writing staff. Moore ran the writers room initially, but handed off to Espenson, who was promoted to executive producer and was Caprica'''s showrunner until November 15, 2009, when it was announced that Kevin Murphy, who had joined as executive producer in October, would assume the role.
Cast and characters
Eric Stoltz received the script while filming a movie, and he left it in his hotel room for several days without reading it. When it was stolen by a maid who had been paid off by a Battlestar fan, he realized how passionate the fandom was, and knew he had to read it. Paula Malcomson originally tested for the role of Sister Clarice Willow; however, Jeffrey Reiner felt she would make a great Amanda Graystone. On April 28, 2009, Sasha Roiz's role was expanded to full series regular. Brian Markinson was also upgraded from guest star to series regular after the pilot episode.
Eric Stoltz as Daniel Graystone – Husband of Amanda and father of Zoe
Esai Morales as Joseph Adama – Father of William and Tamara
Paula Malcomson as Amanda Graystone – Wife of Daniel and mother of Zoe
Alessandra Torresani as Zoe Graystone – Daughter of Daniel and Amanda
Magda Apanowicz as Lacy Rand – Zoe's best friend
Sasha Roiz as Sam Adama – Brother of Joseph
Brian Markinson as Jordan Duram – An agent for the Global Defense Department
Polly Walker as Sister Clarice Willow – Headmistress at Athena Academy
Location
The show was shot in and around Vancouver, British Columbia. In the pilot, exterior shots feature many regional landmarks, often augmented using CG imagery. Many of the external scenes were filmed in the Yaletown area of the city, including one distinctive shot of the old railway turntable next to the Roundhouse at Davie and Pacific. The city's library is also featured in one shot (when Daniel and Joseph meet for the first time), just as it was in scenes set in Caprica City in various episodes of Battlestar Galactica.
Vancouver's SkyTrain and one of its stations (Granville) feature in the sequence prior to the terrorist explosion. The production chose to keep the same font and sign style used by the real SkyTrain, but with rebadged signs featuring the name "Caprica City". Several structures found in the financial district of Dubai, United Arab Emirates, have been digitally added to the images of Caprica City to enhance its futuristic look, including one of the Emirates Towers, the Khalifa Tower, and the Dubai Metro.
The exterior shots of the school attended by Zoe Graystone, Lacy Rand and several other characters were filmed outside the Vancouver School of Theology, on the campus of the University of British Columbia.
When Daniel takes Joseph and William to the Pyramid sports match, the colors of Caprica's team (the Buccaneers) are identical to those of Vancouver's real life hockey team, the Canucks. Navy and green stripes adorn the walls outside the team dressing room, suggesting that the scenes were filmed at Rogers Arena.
One of the encounters between Daniel Graystone and Tomas Vergis was filmed in the University of British Columbia's Museum of Anthropology. The sculpture "The Raven and the First Men" was in the background.
There was also significant filming at Central City Shopping Centre in Surrey, B.C., and much of the Simon Fraser University Surrey Campus was transformed to represent various locations in Caprica. For instance, the mezzanine and registrar's office at SFU were used to represent the Caprica Inter-colonial Space Port.
The interior shots of Graystone Industries were almost exclusively filmed at BCIT's Aerospace Technology Campus in Richmond, B.C.
The filming of "Little Tauron" was done in and around Vancouver's Chinatown district with a small number of stores in the area having Greek language signs (ancient and modern Greek was used as the language of the Taurons in Caprica) while the rest of the shops retained their Chinese language signs for the duration of the filming.
Music
Bear McCreary served as the composer for Caprica. His soundtrack for the show was almost entirely orchestral. As on Battlestar Galactica, character themes are used extensively; however, world ethnic influences play a much smaller role. The full ethnic percussion ensemble, including taiko, frame drums, dumbeks, chang changs, tsuzumis and other instruments, was brought in, although used much more sparingly than on Battlestar. The "Tauron Theme" draws inspiration from Russian folk music.
Todd Fancey, best known as a long-time member of the popular indie band New Pornographers, composed "V-Club", a rhythm-intensive track that serves as the theme music for club scenes in the series. This theme was featured prominently in the first preview clip for the new series.
The soundtrack for the Caprica pilot was released on June 16, 2009, by La-La Land Records, and contains 18 tracks. On July 30, 2013, La-La Land Records released a follow-up compilation of music from across the first (and only) season of the show.
Episodes
ReceptionCaprica received generally positive reviews.Home Media Magazine's John Latchem wrote that Caprica has "all the same dark overtones and richness of character that fans have come to expect from Galactica." He also wrote that the show "[evokes] a feeling similar to Gattaca in its depiction of a potential near future, while infusing elements of the Matrix and Terminator movies to set up a bridge to the events viewers know will unfold."The Futon Critic's Brian Ford Sullivan found the first fifteen minutes "A weird mix of teen angst, hedonism and virtual reality ... once established, the world of Caprica has the potential to be just as compelling, interesting and multi faceted as its "sequel" – minus of course the cool stuff blowing up in space. In just 92 minutes, Caprica manages to dish out a surprisingly dense, but not too overwhelming, array of plot threads."
Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette gave the pilot four out of four stars, stating, "Caprica gives a more forceful, potential-filled first impression than the Battlestar Galactica pilot/miniseries." The Star-Ledger's Alan Sepinwall found the story intriguing, and Stoltz's and Morales's performances excellent, while director Jeffrey Reiner "creates an absolutely gorgeous looking pilot episode."
Joanna Weiss of The Boston Globe wrote that "if this episode is any indication, Caprica will be sinister [and] compelling" and "while the technology is inventive, human emotion still drives the plot." Mark A. Perigard of Boston Herald gave it a B+, stating that the pilot felt more like an intellectual puzzle and lacked the life-or-death intensity of Battlestar Galactica. Lewis Wallace of Wired News rated the pilot an 8/10, saying that Caprica has inherited from Battlestar "the lean writing, the strong acting, the exceptional soundtrack by Bear McCreary", and that "the characters are richly drawn and ripe for further exploration."
Maureen Ryan of Chicago Tribune gave it 3.5 out of 4 stars, with particular praise for the casting of Stoltz, Morales, Malcomson, and Walker. The A.V. Club's Noel Murray said of the show, "Some BSG stalwarts may have some difficulty with the muted science fiction/action elements, but it's a lovely piece of work on its own merits, imbued with real visual poetry by director Jeffrey Reiner."
Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly called Caprica "One of the 10 Best Shows on Now", in March 2010.The New York Times Mike Hale described Caprica as "the child of Galactica" that "hasn't yet developed enough humor or authentic domestic drama" to reach beyond Battlestar Galacticas fan base. Hale concluded that, compared to its predecessor, "Caprica is, almost by default, a more ordinary show."
Metacritic listed the show as having a score of 72 from critics, indicating "Generally favorable reviews."
The series earned generally modest ratings, peaking with 1.6 million viewers for the mid-season finale. Season 1.5 debuted with lower ratings, drawing fewer than 900,000 viewers for each episode. Citing these low ratings, Syfy canceled the program on October 27, 2010, and removed the remaining five episodes of the series from its broadcast schedule. The remaining five episodes aired as previously scheduled on Space in Canada, but were not broadcast in the United States until January 4, 2011.
Awards
Distribution
The rights to broadcast the series were picked up by Sky1 in the United Kingdom and Ireland, and Space in Canada. Caprica commenced airing in Australia on free-to-air digital channel 7mate on September 30, 2010.
Home media
On April 21, 2009, an uncut and unrated extended version of the pilot was released as a download from online digital media stores and as a complete DVD with commentary, deleted scenes, and video blogs.
The first half of the first season ("Season 1.0") was released on DVD in region 1 on October 5, 2010, and the second half of the season ("Season 1.5") was released on December 21, 2010.
The complete series was released on Blu-ray in France on October 25, 2011. The Region B Blu-ray set is presented in 1080p (the referenced page is incorrect, see their own back cover image) and contains all 18 episodes aired and a selection of bonus features. The set features an English DTS HD Master Audio 5.1 track as well as an English and French Audio 3D one, and comes with English and French subtitles. The series was also released on Blu-ray in Germany and Scandinavia in 2015, and in the UK as part of the Battlestar Galactica – Ultimate Collection boxed set.
References
External links
Caprica at Battlestar Wiki
2010s American science fiction television series
2010s American drama television series
2010 American television series debuts
2010 American television series endings
American prequel television series
American television spin-offs
Battlestar Galactica
English-language television shows
Gay-related television shows
Serial drama television series
Syfy original programming
Television films as pilots
Television series by Universal Content Productions
Television shows filmed in Vancouver
Television shows about virtual reality
Fiction about artificial intelligence
Fiction about consciousness transfer
Retrofuturism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20of%20ancient%20Rome
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Military of ancient Rome
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The military of ancient Rome was one of largest pre-modern professional standing armies that ever existed. At its height, protecting over 7,000 kilometers of border and consisting of over 400,000 legionaries and auxiliaries, the army was the most important institution in the Roman world. According to Titus Livius, one of the more illustrious historians of Rome over the centuries, the military was a key element in the rise of Rome over "above seven hundred years" from a small settlement in Latium to the capital of an empire governing a wide region around the shores of the Mediterranean, or, as the Romans themselves said, mare nostrum, "our sea". Livy asserts: yes
... if any people ought to be allowed to consecrate their origins and refer them to a divine source, so great is the military glory of the Roman People that when they profess that their Father and the Father of their Founder was none other than Mars, the nations of the earth may well submit to this also with as good a grace as they submit to Rome's dominion.
Titus Flavius Josephus, a contemporary historian, sometime high-ranking officer in the Roman army, and commander of the rebels in the Jewish revolt describes the Roman people as if they were "born readily armed". At the time of the two historians, Roman society had already evolved an effective military and had used it to defend itself against the Etruscans, the Italics, the Greeks, the Gauls, the maritime empire of Carthage, and the Macedonian kingdoms. In each war, it acquired more territory until, when the civil war ended the Roman Republic, nothing was left for the first emperor, Augustus, to do except declare it an empire and defend it.
The role and structure of the military were then altered during the empire. It became less Roman, the duties of border protection and territorial administration being more and more taken by foreign mercenaries officered by Romans. When they divided at last into warring factions the empire fell, unable to keep out invading armies.
During the Roman Republic, the function of the military was defined as service to the "" – an agency designated by SPQR on public inscriptions. Its main body was the senate, which met in a building still extant in the forum of Rome. Its decrees were handed off to the two chief officers of the state, the consuls. They could levy from the citizens whatever military force they judged was necessary to execute such decree. This conscription was executed through a draft of male citizens assembled by age class. The officers of the legion were tasked with selecting men for the ranks. The will of the SPQR was binding on the consuls and the men, with the death penalty often assigned for disobedience or failure. The men were under a rigorous code, known now for its punitive crucifixion.
The consular duties were of any type whatever: military defense, police work, public hygiene, assistance in a civil disaster, health work, agriculture, and especially the construction of public roads, bridges, aqueducts, buildings, and the maintenance of such. The soldiers were kept busy doing whatever service needed to be done: soldiering, manning vessels, carpentry, blacksmithing, clerking, etc. They were trained as required, but also previous skills, such as a trade, were exploited. They were brought to the task and were protected by the authority of the state.
The military's campaign history stretched over 1300 years and saw Roman armies campaigning as far east as Parthia (modern-day Iran), as far south as Africa (modern-day Tunisia) and Aegyptus (modern-day Egypt) and as far north as Britannia (modern-day England, southern Scotland, and Wales). The makeup of the Roman military changed substantially over its history, from its early days as an unsalaried citizen militia to a later professional force, the Imperial Roman army. The equipment used by the military altered greatly in type over time, though there were very few technological improvements in weapons manufacture, in common with the rest of the classical world. For much of its history, the vast majority of Rome's forces were maintained at or beyond the limits of its territory, to either expand Rome's domain or protect its existing borders. Expansions were infrequent, as the emperors, adopting a strategy of fixed lines of defense, had determined to maintain existing borders. For that purpose, they constructed extensive walls and created permanent stations that became cities.
Personnel
Population base of the early empire
At its territorial height, the Roman Empire may have contained between 45 million and 120 million people. Historian Edward Gibbon estimated that the size of the Roman army "most probably formed a standing force of three hundred and seventy-five thousand men" at the empire's territorial peak in the time of the Roman emperor Hadrian (117–138). This estimate probably included only legionary and auxiliary troops of the Roman army. However, Gibbon states that it is "not... easy to define the size of the Roman military with any tolerable accuracy". In the late imperial period, when vast numbers of foederati were employed by the Romans, Antonio Santosuosso (2001) estimated the combined number of men in arms of the two Roman empires numbered closer to 700,000 in total (not all members of a standing army), drawing on data from the Notitia Dignitatum. However, he notes that these figures were probably subject to inflation due to the practice of leaving dead soldiers "on the books" to continue to draw their wages and ration. Furthermore, it is irrespective of whether the troops were raised by the Romans or simply hired by them to fight on their behalf.
Recruitment
Initially, Rome's military consisted of an annual citizen levy performing military service as part of their duty to the state. During this period, the Roman army prosecuted seasonal campaigns against largely local adversaries. As the extent of the territories falling under Roman suzerainty expanded, and the size of the city's forces increased, the soldiery of ancient Rome became increasingly professional and salaried. As a consequence, military service at the lower (non-staff) levels became progressively longer-term. Roman military units of the period were largely homogeneous and highly regulated. The army consisted of units of citizen infantry known as legions (Latin: legio) as well as non-legionary allied troops known as auxiliary. The latter were most commonly called upon to provide light infantry or cavalry support.
Military service in the later empire continued to be salaried yearly and professionally for Rome's regular troops. However, the trend of employing allied or mercenary troops was expanded such that these troops came to represent a substantial proportion of Rome's forces. At the same time, the uniformity of structure found in Rome's earlier military forces disappeared. The soldiery of the era ranged from lightly armed mounted archers to heavy infantry, in regiments of varying size and quality. This was accompanied by a trend in the late empire of an increasing predominance of cavalry rather than infantry troops, as well as an emphasis on more mobile operations.
Military subculture
The British historian Peter Heather describes Roman military culture as being "just like the Marines, but much nastier". The army did not provide much social mobility, and it also took quite some time to complete one's service. The pay was not the best for the time but could be remedied by advance in rank, loot from wars, and additional pay from emperors. Also, the army did provide a guaranteed supply of food (many times soldiers had to pay for food and supplies), doctors, and stability. In the legions of the Republic, discipline was fierce and training harsh, all intended to instill a group cohesion or esprit de corps that could bind the men together into effective fighting units. Unlike opponents such as the Gauls, who were fierce individual warriors, Roman military training concentrated on instilling teamwork and maintaining a level head over individual bravery − troops were to maintain exact formations in battle and "despise wild swinging blows" in favor of sheltering behind one's shield and delivering efficient stabs when an opponent made himself vulnerable.
Loyalty was to the Roman state but pride was based in the soldier's unit, to which was attached a military standard − in the case of the legions a legionary eagle. Successful units were awarded accolades that became part of their official name, such as the 20th Legion, which became the XX Valeria Victrix (the "Valiant and Victorious 20th").
Of the martial culture of less valued units such as sailors, and light infantry, less is known, but it is doubtful that its training was as intense or its esprit de corps as strong as in the legions.
Literacy was highly valued in the Roman military, and literacy rates in the military far exceeded that of the Roman society as a whole.
Funding and expenditures
Private funding
Although early in its history, troops were expected to provide much of their equipment, eventually, the Roman military became almost entirely funded by the state. Since soldiers of the early republican armies were also unpaid citizens, the financial burden of the army on the state was minimal. However, since the Roman state did not provide services such as housing, health, education, social security, and public transport that are part and parcel of modern states, the military always represented by far the greatest expenditure of the state.
Plunder economy
During the time of expansion in the Republic and early Empire, Roman armies had acted as a source of revenue for the Roman state, plundering conquered territories, displaying the massive wealth in triumphs upon their return and fuelling the economy to the extent that historians such as Toynbee and Burke believe that the Roman economy was essentially a plunder economy. Nathan Rosenstein has questioned this assumption, indicating that Rome ran the majority of its campaigns in the 2nd century BC at a loss and relied on rare windfalls such as Aemilius Paullus' campaign in the east in 168 BC to make up the cost of war. Regardless, after the empire had stopped expanding in the 2nd century AD, this source of revenue dried up; by the end of the 3rd century AD, Rome had "ceased to vanquish". As tax revenue was plagued by corruption and hyperinflation during the Crisis of the Third Century, military expenditures began to become a "crushing burden" on the finances of the Roman state. It now highlighted weaknesses that earlier expansion had disguised. By 440 AD, an imperial law frankly states that the Roman state has insufficient tax revenue to fund an army of a size required by the demands placed upon it.
Several additional factors bloated the military expenditure of the Roman Empire. First, substantial rewards were paid to "barbarian" chieftains for their good conduct in the form of negotiated subsidies and the provision of allied troops. Secondly, the military boosted its numbers, possibly by one third in a single century. Third, the military increasingly relied on a higher ratio of cavalry units in the late empire, which were many times more expensive to maintain than infantry units.
Taxation
As military size and costs increased, new taxes were introduced or existing tax laws reformed in the late empire to finance it, even though more inhabitants were available within the borders of the late empire, reducing the per capita costs for an increased standing army was impractical. A large number of the population could not be taxed because they were slaves or held Roman citizenship, both of which exempted them from taxation. Of the remaining, a large number were already impoverished by centuries of warfare and weakened by chronic malnutrition. Still, they had to handle an increasing tax rate and so they often abandoned their lands to survive in a city.
Of the western empire's taxable population, a larger number than in the east could not be taxed because they were "primitive subsistence peasant[s]" and did not produce a great deal of goods beyond agricultural products. Plunder was still made from suppressing insurgencies within the empire and on limited incursions into enemy land. Legally, much of it should have returned to the imperial purse, but these goods were simply kept by the common soldiers, who demanded it of their commanders as a right. Given the low wages and high inflation in the later Empire, the soldiers felt that they had a right to acquire plunder.
Capabilities
Readiness and disposition
The military capability of Rome – its preparedness or readiness – was always primarily based upon the maintenance of an active fighting force acting either at or beyond its military frontiers, something that historian Luttwak refers to as a "thin linear perimeter. This is best illustrated by showing the dispositions of the Roman legions, the backbone of the Roman army. Because of these deployments, the Roman military kept a central strategic reserve after the Social War. Such reserves were only re-established during the late empire when the army was split into a border defense force and mobile response field units.
Power projection
The Roman military was keen on the doctrine of power projection – it frequently removed foreign rulers by force or intimidation and replaced them with puppets. This was facilitated by the maintenance, for at least part of its history, of a series of client states and other subjugate and buffer entities beyond its official borders, although over which Rome extended massive political and military control. On the other hand, this also could mean the payment of immense subsidies to foreign powers and opened the possibility of extortion in case military means were insufficient.
Sustainability
The empire's system of building an extensive and well-maintained road network, as well as its absolute command of the Mediterranean for much of its history, enabled a primitive form of rapid reaction, also stressed in modern military doctrine, although because there was no real strategic reserve, this often entailed raising fresh troops or withdrawing troops from other parts of the border. However, border troops were usually very capable of handling enemies before they could penetrate far into the Roman hinterland.
The Roman military had an extensive logistical supply chain. There was no specialised branch of the military devoted to logistics and transportation, although this was to a great extent carried out by the Roman navy due to the ease and low costs of transporting goods via sea and river compared to overland. There is archaeological evidence that Roman armies campaigning in Germania were supplied by a logistical supply chain beginning in Italy and Gaul, then transported by sea to the northern coast of Germania, and finally penetrating Germania via barges on inland waterways. Forces were routinely supplied via fixed supply chains, and although Roman armies in enemy territory would often supplement or replace this by foraging for food or purchasing food locally, this was often insufficient for their needs: Heather states that a single legion would have required 13.5 tonnes of food per month, and that it would have proved impossible to source this locally.
Policing
For the most part, Roman cities had a civil guard used for maintaining peace. Due to fear of rebellions and other uprisings, they were forbidden to be armed at militia levels. Policing was split between the city guard for low-level affairs and the Roman legions and auxiliary for suppressing higher-level rioting and rebellion. This civil guard created a limited strategic reserve, one that fared poorly in actual warfare.
Engineering
The military engineering of Ancient Rome's armed forces was of a scale and frequency far beyond that of any of its contemporaries. Indeed, military engineering was in many ways institutionally endemic in Roman military culture, as demonstrated by the fact that each Roman legionary had as part of his equipment a shovel, alongside his gladius (sword) and pila (spears). Heather writes that "Learning to build, and build quickly, was a standard element of training".
This engineering prowess was, however, only evident during the peak of Roman military prowess from the mid-republic to the mid-empire. Before the mid-republic period, there is little evidence of protracted or exceptional military engineering, and in the late empire likewise, there is little sign of the kind of engineering feats that were regularly carried out in the earlier empire.
Roman military engineering took both routine and extraordinary forms, the former a proactive part of standard military procedure, and the latter of an extraordinary or reactionary nature. Proactive military engineering took the form of the regular construction of fortified camps, in road-building, and the construction of siege engines. The knowledge and experience learned through such routine engineering lent itself readily to any extraordinary engineering projects required by the army, such as the circumvallations constructed at Alesia and the earthen ramp constructed at Masada.
This engineering expertise practiced in daily routines also served in the construction of siege equipment such as ballistae, onagers and siege towers, as well as allowing the troops to construct roads, bridges, and fortified camps. All of these led to strategic capabilities, allowing Roman troops to, respectively, assault besieged settlements, move more rapidly to wherever they were needed, cross rivers to reduce march times and surprise enemies, and to camp in relative security even in enemy territory.
International stance
Rome was established as a nation by making aggressive use of its high military potential. From very early on in its history, it would raise two armies annually to campaign abroad. The Roman military was far from being solely a defense force. For much of its history, it was a tool of aggressive expansion. The Roman army had derived from a militia of main farmers and the gain of new farmlands for the growing population or later retiring soldiers was often one of the campaign's chief objectives. Only in the late empire did the preservation of control over Rome's territories become the Roman military's primary role. The remaining major powers confronting Rome were the Kingdom of Aksum, Parthia and the Hunnic Empire. Knowledge of China, the Han dynasty at the times of Mani, existed and it is believed that Rome and China swapped embassies in about 170 AD.
Grand strategy
In its purest form, the concept of strategy deals solely with military issues. However, Rome is offered by Edward Luttwak and others as an early example of a state that possessed a grand strategy which encompassed the management of the resources of an entire nation in the conduct of warfare. Up to half of the funds raised by the Roman state were spent on its military, and the Romans displayed a strategy that was more complicated than simple knee-jerk strategic or tactical responses to individual threats. Rome's strategy changed over time, implementing different systems to meet different challenges that reflected changing internal priorities. Elements of Rome's strategy included the use of client states, the deterrent of armed response in parallel with manipulative diplomacy, and a fixed system of troop deployments and road networks. Luttwak states that there are "instructive similarities" between Roman and modern military strategy.
Rome would rely on brute force and sheer numbers when in doubt. The soldiers were trained to memorize every step in battle, so discipline and order could not break down into chaos. They were largely successful because of this.
Campaigns
Equipment
Although Roman iron-working was enhanced by a process known as carburizing, the Romans are not thought to have developed true steel production. From the earliest history of the Roman state to its downfall, Roman arms were therefore uniformly produced from either bronze or, later, iron. As a result, the 1300 years of Roman military technology saw little radical change at the technological level. Within the bounds of classical military technology, however, Roman arms and armor were developed, discarded, and adopted from other peoples based on changing methods of engagement. It included at various times stabbing daggers and swords, stabbing or thrusting swords, long thrusting spears or pikes, lances, light throwing javelins and darts, slings, and bow and arrows.
Roman military personal equipment was produced in large numbers to established patterns and used in an established way. It, therefore, varied little in design and quality within each historical period. According to Hugh Elton, Roman equipment gave them "a distinct advantage over their barbarian enemies." Elton, Hugh, 1996, "Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350–425", who were often, as Germanic tribesmen, completely unarmoured. However, Luttwak points out that whilst the uniform possession of armour gave Rome an advantage, the actual standard of each item of Roman equipment was of no better quality than that used by the majority of its adversaries. In Luttwack, E., "The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire", JHUP, 1979, Luttwack states that "Roman weapons, far from being universally more advanced, were frequently inferior to those used by enemies. The relatively low quality of Roman weaponry was primarily a function of its large-scale production, and later factors such as governmental price-fixing for certain items, which gave no allowance for quality and incentivized cheap, poor-quality goods.
The Roman military readily adopted types of arms and armor that were effectively used against them by their enemies. Initially, Roman troops were armed after Greek and Etruscan models, using large oval shields and long pikes. On encountering the Celts they adopted much Celtic equipment and again later adopted items such as the gladius from Iberian peoples. Later in Rome's history, it adopted practices such as arming its cavalry with bows in the Parthian style and even experimented briefly with niche weaponry such as elephants and camel-troops.
Besides personal weaponry, the Roman military adopted team weaponry such as the ballista and developed a naval weapon known as the corvus, a spiked plank used for affixing and boarding enemy ships.
Medicine
Need for specialized care
The expansion of the Roman Empire was achieved through military force in nearly every case. Roman culture as a whole revolved around its military for both expansion and protection. Geographic areas on the outskirts of the empire were prone to attack and required heavy military presence. The constant barrage of attacks and the increase of expansion caused casualties. Due to attack there was a need for specialized medical care for these armies in order to keep them in operational status. The specialized form of care however, was not created until the time of Augustus (). Prior to this there is little information about the care of soldiers. It is assumed soldiers were self-reliant, treating their own wounds and caring for other ailments encountered. They would also turn to civilians for help throughout the villages they would come across. This was considered a custom of the time, and was quite common for households to take in wounded soldiers and tend to them. As time progressed, there was an increase in care for the wounded as hospitals appeared. The idea was held by the Romans that a healed soldier was better than a dead one and a healed veteran was better than a new recruit.
Roman hospitals
With the need for soldier health a growing concern, places for the sick to go in the army were starting to show up. Dates ranged from AD 9 to AD 50, but this is when the first evidence of hospitals was seen in archeological remains. These hospitals were specific places for only military members to go to if they were injured or fell ill. Similar hospitals were set up for slaves in areas where slaves were used in large numbers. Military hospitals were permanent structures set up in forts. These buildings had clear patient rooms and were designed to accommodate large numbers of soldiers. The size of these hospitals varied based on their location. Some of the large facilities, such as the hospital in Hod Hill England, was large enough to accommodate roughly 12% of the force within the hospital. In more stable areas such as Inchtuthil in Scotland, there was room for as little as 2% of the force within the hospital. In areas with more conflict, there were larger medical facilities as they saw more casualties. These hospitals were solely designed for the use of the military. If a civilian fell ill or needed surgery they would likely go to the physician's home and stay, not a hospital. Prior to these permanent structures there were tents set up as mobile field hospitals. Soldiers suffering from severe wounds were brought to these for treatment. These were quickly assembled and disassembled as the army moved. The tents served as a precursor for the permanent structured hospitals. These permanent hospitals and mobile treatment centers were a relatively new concept in this time period.
Physicians
Doctors serving in the army were considered to be a member of the military. Just like everyone else they would take the military oath and be bound by the military law. They would also start among the lower fighting ranks. Even though they took the military oath and were among the lower ranks it did not mean they would be fighting among the masses. These doctors were not always professionals or career physicians. Oftentimes they were slaves who were forced into that career.
The capsarii were a group that also treated wounded soldiers on the battlefield. These men were not trained physicians even though they played the role of one. Typically they were soldiers who demonstrated they had knowledge in wound treatment and even simple surgical techniques. These men were used before the actual trained doctors were largely implemented. Physicians got their knowledge from experience and information being passed down from person to person. Likely they never used medical texts, as it was not commonplace even in the civilian field. Generals and emperors were exceptions, as they would typically have their physicians with them. This was a common occurrence as emperors such as Marcus Aurelius employed famous physicians such as Galen. There were also physicians among the ranks of the Roman soldiers.
Distinctions in practice
With any large number of people being in close quarters, there was a constant threat of disease. When one individual in a large group gets sick with a communicable disease, it spreads to others very quickly. This premise remains true even today in the modern military. The Romans recognized the difference between disease and wounds, each requiring separate treatment. Drainage of excess water and waste were common practices in camps as well as the permanent medical structures, which come at a later date. As the medical corps grew in size there was also specialization evolving. Physicians surfaced that specialized in disease, surgery, wound dressing and even veterinary medicine.
Veterinary physicians were there to tend to livestock for agricultural purposes as well as combat purposes. The Roman cavalry was known for their use of horses in combat and scouting purposes. Because of the type of injuries that would have been commonly seen, surgery was a somewhat common occurrence. Tools such as scissors, knives and arrow extractors have been found in remains. In fact, Roman surgery was quite intuitive, in contrast to common thought of ancient surgery. The Roman military surgeons used a cocktail of plants, which created a sedative similar to modern anesthesia. Written documentation also showed surgeons used oxidation from a metal such as copper and scrape it into wounds, which provided an antibacterial effect; however, this method was most likely more toxic than providing an actual benefit. Doctors had the knowledge to clean their surgical instruments with hot water after each use. Wounds were dressed, and dead tissue was removed when bandages were changed. Honey and cobwebs were items used to cover wounds, and have even been shown today to increase healing. Because of the wide array of cases, it was not uncommon for surgeons to begin their careers in the army to learn their trade. Physicians such as Galen and Dioscorides served in the military. Most major advancements in knowledge and technique came from the military rather than civil practice.
Diet
Diet was an issue that is often discussed through this time, as an aspect of medical care. Since our idea of modern technology did not exist, the diet was a simple way for Romans to attain a healthy life. This remains true in the Roman military as the soldiers required appropriate nutrition in order to function at high activity levels. Because of the number of the people requiring food, there were unique circumstances in the acquisition of food. During a campaign, the soldiers would often forage food from their enemy's land. In fact, as part of the standard kit, Roman soldiers would carry a sickle, which would be used to forage food. They would carry a three-day ration of food in case they were in a situation where foraging was not available. This would largely consist of items such as wheat and barley.
During a time of peace, the Roman army would have had a typical diet consisting of bacon, cheese, vegetables, and beer to drink. Corn is mentioned in their works as well, however; this was a common term that was applied to their use of grain. The Roman use of the term corn is not to be confused with maize, which did not come to Europe until the discovery of the New World. Items such as poultry and fish were also likely part of the standard diet. The soldier was given a ration, which was taken from his pay. This shows that the soldiers were well-fed in times of peace. If the soldiers were well fed, they were healthier and able to maintain a high level of physical activity, as well as to stave off disease. The disease is easier to prevent rather than treat. This idea holds in the event a fort was under siege; certain food items were rationed such as poultry. The reasoning behind this was that poultry was very inexpensive to maintain and in the event of a siege. It was also noted that poultry had benefits for those who were sick. This demonstrates the idea was present that the army needed to maintain the health of its members regardless of circumstances. These discoveries were made while looking at the remains of Roman military sites. By excavating these sites and looking at fecal matter found, scientists were able to determine what was eaten. It is a simple fact that poor diet negatively affects a military's combat readiness. The variety of food found shows the Romans were not focused on just caloric intake, as they knew a variety of food was important to health.
Scale
By the time of Trajan (), the medical corps was well on the way to being an organized machine. At this time, physicians were attached to nearly every army and navy unit in all the Roman military. By this time the army was massive, consisting of twenty-five to thirty legions, each of which contained nearly 6,000 men. Each one included both soldiers and physicians. Despite these large numbers there was still no formal requirements for being a physician. At this point all physicians were either self-taught or learned their trade through an apprenticeship. Despite this, there was an attempt at organization, as the army did have a medical manual that was passed out to its physicians. The medici were used on both the front line as emergency care providers and in the rear as the main physicians. The capsarii'''' were mainly used as the front line care providers and bandages, but also assisted the medici behind the lines.
Source of knowledge
Romans received their medical knowledge largely from the ancient Greeks. As Rome started to expand, it slowly embraced the Greek culture, causing an influx of medicinal information in Roman society. Because of this influx, it allowed this knowledge to become the foundation of all Western medical tradition. The Greek theories were kept alive and their practices continued well into the future. This knowledge was also the foundation used in military medicine since it contained the overarching ideas of their medical knowledge. As time progressed these medical texts would be translated into Arabic and then back into Latin as the flow of information changed. Based on this, one can presume that some of the information in these texts has been lost in translation. Despite this, scholars are still able to establish a clear picture of what military medicine was like during the reign of the Roman Empire.
See also
Military history of ancient Rome
Political history of the Roman military
Veteran (Roman history)
Auxilia Legionary
References
Citations
Bibliography
Primary sources
Livy, From the Founding of the City on Wikisource (print: Book 1 as The Rise of Rome, Oxford University Press, 1998, ).
Polybius: The Rise of the Roman Empire at LacusCurtius (print: Harvard University Press, 1927. (Translation by W. R. Paton).
Tacitus: The Annals.
Secondary sources
Edward Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (print: Penguin Books, 1985 [1776–1788], ).
Peter Connolly, Greece and Rome at War, Greenhill Books, 1998, .
Adrian Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003, .
Michael Grant, The History of Rome, Faber and Faber, 1993, .
Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History, Macmillan Publishers, 2005, .
Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, The Later Roman Empire, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1964, .
Robin Lane Fox, The Classical World, Penguin Books, 2005,
Edward Luttwak (2009), The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, Johns Hopkins University Press, .
Philip Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome'', Thames and Hudson, 2004, .
External links
Roman soldier reenactment
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiplash%20%28Marvel%20Comics%29
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Whiplash (Marvel Comics)
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Whiplash is the name of multiple supervillains appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. They are commonly depicted as members of Iron Man's rogues gallery. The original Whiplash (Mark Scarlotti) also went by the name Blacklash. Mickey Rourke portrayed Whiplash (Ivan Vanko) in the Marvel Cinematic Universe film Iron Man 2 (2010).
Publication history
Mark Scarlotti first appeared as Whiplash in Tales of Suspense #97 (Jan. 1968). He was killed in battle in Iron Man vol. 4 #28 (May 2000).
Leeann Foreman debuted as Whiplash in Marvel Comics Presents #49 (May 1990).
During the Civil War storyline, two new villains called Whiplash and Blacklash appear in Thunderbolts #104 (Sept. 2006) and #107 (Dec. 2006).
Another female Whiplash appeared in Big Hero 6 #1 (Nov. 2008).
Anton Vanko first appeared in Iron Man vs. Whiplash #1–4 (Jan.–April 2010). He later appeared as a member of the Masters of Evil.
Fictional character biography
Mark Scarlotti
Mark Scarlotti is originally a gifted electrical technician at Stark International's Cincinnati branch, but desires a life of luxury and becomes a professional criminal. With a costume and a sophisticated metal whip of his own design, the character becomes Whiplash, a weapons designer, special agent, and assassin for the criminal organization the Maggia. On behalf of the Maggia, Whiplash fights the hero Iron Man – secretly inventor Tony Stark and Scarlotti's former employer – and A.I.M. agents attacking a Maggia gambling ship.
Scarlotti is assigned to work undercover for the Maggia at Stark International's Cincinnati plant, and becomes Head of Research. As Whiplash, Scarlotti then has another inconclusive battle with Iron Man and flees the scene, quitting the Maggia. Whiplash, together with fellow supervillains the Melter and Man-Bull, are recruited by other-dimensional villain the Black Lama to form the team the Death Squad and fight Iron Man. They enter a "War of the Super-Villains" to win the Black Lama's Golden Globe of Power, but are all defeated.
Whiplash rejoins the Maggia and battles the heroes Spider-Man and Iron Man in New Jersey, eventually being defeated by the vigilante the Wraith. Criminal mastermind Justin Hammer hires Whiplash, and with the Melter and the original Blizzard attempt the robbery of an Atlantic City casino, but are stopped by Iron Man. Whiplash is released from prison by Hammer and battles Iron Man again as one of Hammer's costumed operatives, and despite overwhelming odds the hero defeats the villains.
Scarlotti is re-employed by an unnamed consortium, financed by Hammer, to kill Stark employee Vic Martinelli, and is provided with an upgraded costume and weaponry and the new alias Blacklash. Despite the upgrades, however, Scarlotti is defeated by Iron Man and humiliated by being dragged before his employers. Scarlotti makes a brief appearance as Whiplash as a paid employee of the master villain the Mad Thinker in a failed attempt to kill the hero the Thing who is recuperating at a New York hospital.
Scarlotti is eventually diagnosed as manic-depressive by prison psychiatrists. He attempts to reform, but rejected by his parents and residents of his home town, Scarlotti becomes Blacklash again. While attempting an assassination for the Maggia, Blacklash is confronted by Spider-Man whom he weakens with his whip, but is defeated by the second Iron Man. Blacklash is beaten by Spider-Man once again and is also apprehended by Captain America while committing several robberies. Blacklash is rehired by Justin Hammer and sent with the Beetle and the second Blizzard to assassinate Hammer's former agent Force. Iron Man, Jim Rhodes and Force, however, defeat the trio.
At Hammer's request Blacklash, Boomerang, and the second Blizzard stop industrial sabotage by the vigilante the Ghost. Blacklash is sent to work with Iron Man and Jim Rhodes against the saboteur, but betrays them. Together with Spider-Man villain the Rhino, Blacklash hunts down fellow rogue agent the Scorpion, who fails to return stolen weaponry to Hammer.
Scarlotti decides to renounce his criminal identity and marries and has a child. A lack of money forces Scarlotti to assume his identity again, and he becomes the target of an assassin, who kills his wife when she returns to their apartment. As Blacklash, Scarlotti then finds and kills the assassin, and vows to abandon the identity of Blacklash forever. Scarlotti, however, is hired by a rival of Stark and returns as Whiplash, with an upgraded costume and new weaponry. Whiplash manages to battle Iron Man to a standstill in their first encounter, but is killed several weeks later by Iron Man's new sentient armor, which crushes Scarlotti's throat against Tony Stark's wishes.
Leeann Foreman
The second Whiplash is Leeann Foreman, a professional criminal born in Wilmington, Delaware. She was a mutant with unrevealed abilities and used adamantium wires connected to her gloves as whips. She was part of Critical Mass's mutant Band of Baddies. The Baddies kidnapped a mutant girl and her father to coerce them to join their band. They forced the daughter to knock out Spider-Man and Wolverine, but they quickly recovered. The daughter then unleashed her powers, blew up the warehouse they were in, and defeated all of the Baddies. Whiplash disappeared after the daughter's telekinetic explosion enabled her to get free.
She later joined the Femme Fatales, and was hired by the Chameleon to lure Spider-Man into a trap by threatening a United Nations ambassador. Spider-Man defeated the Femme Fatales and saved the ambassador. The Fatales then joined forces with the Scorpion and the Tarantula, but all of them were defeated by Spider-Man and the Black Cat. The Femme Fatales later received an invitation to join Superia and her organization of female criminals, the Femizons. They accepted, and were among the superhuman females aboard Superia's cruise ship, where they battled Captain America and the Paladin. Whiplash also traveled to Superia's private island to be one of her new Femizons.
After the group disbanded, Whiplash teamed up with Orka, Shockwave and Killer Shrike in a plot to take over a retired aircraft carrier, the USS Intrepid. She and her allies were defeated by Heroes for Hire. She was later seen in "Bar With No Name" and in a black market auction for the Venom Symbiote.
During the "Hunt for Wolverine" storyline, Whiplash took the name of Snake Whip and is with the Femme Fatales when they assist Viper in attacking Kitty Pryde's group at the King's Impresario Restaurant in Madripoor. She engaged Jubilee in battle before Kitty Pryde gets her and Domino away from the restaurant. Following that victory, Snake Whip stayed by Viper's side as she ordered Knockout and Mindblast to have a defeated Rogue and Storm be delivered to their clients and when Viper speaks to a representative from Soteira. As Snake Whip asks if they are going to ignore Sapphire Styx's vampiric appetite, Viper says that they have to obey the representative's orders and "let the @#$%& feed." After another call from Soteira's representative, Viper and Snake Whip check up on Sapphire and find her acting strange claiming that Wolverine's Patch alias is here. Snake Whip works to restrain her only to get knocked out. Upon recovering, Snake Whip starts to see Patch attacking Sapphire even though Viper doesn't see it. After Sapphire Styx exploded enabling Psylocke to use her soul power to recreate a new body, Psylocke used her powers to defeat Bloodlust and use an illusion to trick Snake Whip into hitting the ground. Domino persuaded Snake Whip to surrender when her teammates are defeated. When the Femme Fatales were arrested, Kitty Pryde got the info about Soteira being after Wolverine from Snake Whip who gave the information to her in exchange for a light sentence.
Whiplash and Blacklash duo
Two villains, a woman who is the third Whiplash and a man who is the second Blacklash, appear during the outset of the Superhuman Civil War. Both are past associates of the Swordsman (Andreas von Strucker) and frequenters of BDSM events before becoming supervillains. The duo are forcibly recruited into the Thunderbolts.
Construct
This version of Whiplash is not a person, but a personality construct created by the aptly named Badgal. The construct is feminine and thus tends to possess females. Initially, Badgal used this construct to possess a random citizen, but later used it to possess Honey Lemon and later GoGo Tomago. When the Big Hero 6 defeated Badgal, this construct ceased to exist.
Anton Vanko
Anton Vanko () is a young scientist from a small Russian village by the name of Volstok who has no relation to the original Crimson Dynamo. One day, the village is attacked by someone wearing a stolen suit of Iron Man armor, who murders a number of townspeople, including his father Igor Vanko () in an attempt to frame Tony Stark.
Using a specialized rifle, Vanko is able to shoot the impostor just before he flees, causing the chest plate on the armor to come off. Vanko becomes obsessed with exacting vengeance on Stark, still believing him to be the man who attacked his village, and decides to use the chest plate to fashion a suitable weapon to do so. Over the next six months, he reverse engineers a suit of body armor equipped with energy whips, and vows to kill Stark to avenge his father.
After breaking into the prison where Stark is being held for his alleged crimes, Vanko kills several guards and attempts to track down and murder Stark and his confidant Pepper Potts. Stark fights off Vanko using a crude suit of Iron Man armor fashioned from parts of various machines around the prison, and forces him to flee. After Stark tracks down the criminal syndicate who framed him, Vanko arrives at their headquarters, intent on finishing off Iron Man once and for all. It is there that Vanko learns that Stark was indeed framed and that the syndicate was hired to destroy Volstok by secret international consortium funded by several governments including USA and Russia, notably Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin, to wipe out an activist who was creating anti-Putin sentiments. Despite learning of Iron Man's innocence, Vanko makes one final attempt to kill him, claiming that even though he did not destroy the village, his technology did. After the building catches fire, both men are ultimately forced to run to safety, and Vanko then makes his escape. Following this, Stark is cleared of his alleged crimes, and helps rebuild Volstok. As this is happening, Vanko is seen in Moscow approaching Saint Basil's Cathedral in the Red Square preparing to properly exact vengeance this time around.
Whiplash is later recruited by Max Fury as a member of the Shadow Council's incarnation of the Masters of Evil.
During the Infinity storyline, Whiplash is among the villains recruited by Spymaster to help him in a plot to attack the almost-defenseless Stark Tower.
He later attacks Squirrel Girl and her sidekick Tippy-Toe when he mistakes her for Iron Man, since she was wearing one of his armors, but is later defeated.
Whiplash later appears as a member of Baron Helmut Zemo's third incarnation of the Masters of Evil.
During the "Devil's Reign" storyline, Taskmaster appears as a member of Mayor Wilson Fisk's latest incarnation of the Thunderbolts at the time when Mayor Fisk passed a law that forbids superhero activity. He and Whiplash hold the staff of the Daily Bugle hostage to draw out Spider-Man. During Spider-Man's fight with Taskmaster, Whiplash is goaded into attacking him. Despite being weakened by Whiplash, Spider-Man tries to ask Taskmaster if they can take it outside as Taskmaster places a power dampener collar on him and throws him out the window. Spider-Man uses his webbing to slow his descent to the ground as the NYPD operatives move in on him.
Female Blacklash
As part of the "All-New, All-Different Marvel," a female supervillain takes the name of Blacklash. The female Blacklash was hired by Power Broker through the Hench App to protect his unveiling of Hench App 2.0. She ended up fighting Ant-Man and Giant-Man (Raz Malhotra) when they show up to confront Power Broker. The battle ends with Blacklash escaping due to Giant-Man's crimefighting inexperience.
Powers and abilities
Mark Scarlotti, courtesy of Justin Hammer, wears a bulletproof costume and wields a pair of cybernetically controlled titanium whips that can extend to be swung fast enough to deflect bullets, or become rigid and be used as nunchaku or vaulting-poles. He also carries a variety of devices in a weapons pouch, including anti-gravity bolas and a necro-lash which releases electrical energy generated by his gauntlets. Scarlotti is a research engineer and weapons design specialist, with a college degree in engineering.
Leeann Foreman wears two gauntlets containing three spring-loaded retractable omnium steel whip-like cables on each of her arms. Each cable can extend a maximum length of about 25 feet and contains needle-sharp adamantium barbs on the tips. She wears a padded costume of synthetic stretch fabric laced with kevlar, leather shoulder padding, and steel breastplates and mask, which provides her some protection from physical damage.
The unnamed Whiplash and Blacklash have no apparent superhuman abilities, relying on advanced energized whips.
Anton Vanko possesses a suit of armor equipped with two energy whips built into the wrists. The whips are shown to be powerful enough to slash through a metal staircase, as well as deflect a barrage of gunfire. He is also a skilled athlete and possesses a deep understanding of robotics, enough that he was able to fashion his suit from a destroyed piece of Stark technology.
Other versions
Ultimate Marvel
Orson Scott Card's Ultimate Iron Man features an alternate universe version named Marc Scott, a Texan businessman competing with Tony Stark for military contracts via his company Whiplash.
The Ultimate Marvel version of Whiplash appears in the 150th issue of Ultimate Spider-Man. He is among a crowd as at Tony Stark's donation party outside the New York Hall of Science, when he attacks him only to be stopped by Spider-Man. He is seen wielding two electrical whips powered by some kind of battery. When asked by Stark why he is attacking him, Whiplash believes he is on a "mission from God to kill Tony Stark". It is revealed that he indeed is a Russian terrorist named Anton Vanko.
A new, female version of Whiplash later appears as part of a team of mercenaries known as the Femme Fatales.
In other media
Television
Mark Scarlotti / Blacklash appears in Iron Man (1994), voiced initially by James Avery and later by Dorian Harewood. This version is a servant of the Mandarin who competes with Dreadknight for Hypnotia's attention.
Whiplash appears in Iron Man: Armored Adventures, voiced by Peter Kelamis. This version is a cybernetic assassin who works for inventor/arms dealer Mr. Fix in the first season and Justin Hammer in the second season until the latter uses his Titanium Man armor to destroy him off-screen under the belief that Whiplash was blackmailing him.
The unnamed female incarnation of Whiplash makes a cameo appearance in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes episode "Breakout, Part 1" as an inmate of the Vault before it loses power, allowing her and the other inmates to escape.
The Anton Vanko incarnation of Whiplash appears in Phineas and Ferb: Mission Marvel, voiced by Peter Stormare.
The Anton Vanko incarnation of Whiplash appears in the Avengers Assemble episode "The Conqueror", voiced by Troy Baker. This version is an associate of A.I.M. who uses whips that incorporate Kang the Conqueror's futuristic technology.
Marvel Cinematic Universe
Several individuals based on the various comics incarnations of Whiplash appear in media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU).
Ivan Antonovich Vanko, an original character based on the Anton Vanko incarnation of Whiplash and the Crimson Dynamo, appears in the film Iron Man 2, portrayed by Mickey Rourke. A ruthless and physically strong technological genius bent on ruining Tony Stark as revenge for the latter's father Howard Stark discrediting his own father, Anton, Ivan builds an Arc Reactor to power a pair of electrified metal whips and manipulates Justin Hammer into providing him with additional weaponry in exchange for manufacturing Hammer Drones. Ivan has two confrontations with Stark, the first time while wearing a harness for his whips and the second with full body armor supplied by Hammer. Ivan is defeated by Iron Man and War Machine during the second encounter and tries unsuccessfully to use the drones and his armor's self-destruct function to take them with him.
Anton Vanko (portrayed by Evgeniy Lazarev) also appears in Iron Man 2 as a scientist who worked with Howard to invent the Arc Reactor in the 1960s, only to be deported back to the Soviet Union and sent to the Gulag after being caught selling stolen patents on the black market. His death in the present sparks Ivan's quest for vengeance. Additionally, a younger version of Anton appears in the television series Agent Carter, portrayed by Costa Ronin.
Mark Scarlotti, renamed Marcus Scarlotti, appears in the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. television series episode "A Fractured House", portrayed by Falk Hentschel. This version is a Hydra-aligned mercenary who wields a whip-like weapon in battle.
Video games
The Mark Scarlotti incarnation of Whiplash appears as a boss in Iron Man (2008), voiced by Zach McGowan. This version possesses rigid energy-charged whips and can generate a shield.
The Anton Vanko incarnation of Whiplash appears as a boss in Marvel: Avengers Alliance.
The Anton Vanko incarnation of Whiplash appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes, voiced by John DiMaggio.
The MCU incarnation of Ivan Vanko / Whiplash appears as a playable character in Marvel: Future Fight.
Toys
The MCU incarnation of Ivan Vanko / Whiplash and the Anton Vanko incarnation of Whiplash received figures in Hasbro's Iron Man 2 tie-in line.
The MCU incarnation of Ivan Vanko / Whiplash received a figure in Marvel Super Hero Squad line's "Final Battle" three-pack alongside figures of Iron Man and a Hammer Drone.
The MCU incarnation of Ivan Vanko / Whiplash received a figure in the Marvel Minimates line. Additionally, a battle damaged version was released as a Borders-exclusive.
The MCU incarnation of Ivan Vanko / Whiplash received a figure from Hot Toys.
An unidentified Whiplash received a figure in a Mega Bloks blind pack.
References
External links
Fictional mercenaries in comics
Fictional murderers
Marvel Comics male supervillains
Characters created by Gene Colan
Characters created by Stan Lee
Comics characters introduced in 1968
Fictional characters from Cincinnati
Fictional engineers
Fictional gangsters
Fictional Italian American people
Fictional whip users
Characters created by Erik Larsen
Comics characters introduced in 1990
Fictional characters from Delaware
Marvel Comics female supervillains
Marvel Comics mutants
Action film villains
Characters created by Marc Guggenheim
Comics characters introduced in 2010
Fictional Russian people
Iron Man characters
Male characters in film
Marvel Comics scientists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20Hill
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Walter Hill
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Walter Hill (born January 10, 1942) is an American film director, screenwriter, and producer known for his action films and revival of the Western genre. He has directed such films as The Driver, The Warriors, Southern Comfort, 48 Hrs. and its sequel Another 48 Hrs., Streets of Fire and Red Heat, and wrote the screenplay for the crime drama The Getaway. He has also directed several episodes of television series such as Tales from the Crypt and Deadwood and produced the Alien films.
Hill said in an interview that "every film I've done has been a Western", and elaborated in another that "the Western is ultimately a stripped down moral universe that is, whatever the dramatic problems are, beyond the normal avenues of social control and social alleviation of the problem, and I like to do that even within contemporary stories".
Early life
Hill was born in Long Beach, California, the younger of two sons. His paternal grandfather was a wildcat oil driller; his father worked at Douglas Aircraft as a supervisor on the assembly line. Hill has said that his father and grandfather were "smart, physical men who worked with their heads and their hands" and had "great mechanical ability". Hill's family had originally come from Tennessee and Mississippi, "one of those fallen Southern families, shirtsleeves to shirtsleeves in three generations". "I got along with both my parents very well," Hill said. "I admired them enormously."
Growing up in Southern California, Hill was asthmatic as a child and, as a result, missed several years of school.Despite the discomfort, it made you comfortable being alone with yourself. You weren't as surrounded by your peers as everybody else your age was... In my case it meant tremendous amount of reading at an early age... I read, listened to radio... I became utterly besotted with daytime serials... it enabled me to live in an imaginary world where one is comfortable with abstract ideas, dominated by stories, narrative, and characters.
Hill became a film fan at an early age, and the first film he remembers seeing was Song of the South (1946). He later described his taste as "juvenile", stating: "I liked adventure, westerns, but I liked everything. Musicals. But the general, I remember not liking kid movies... still don't, I think that's hung on." His asthma receded when he was 15 and he began to think about becoming a writer. He worked in the oil fields as a roustabout on Signal Hill, California, during high school and several more years while in college. During one summer, he ran an asbestos pipe-cutting machine and worked as a spray painter.
As a teenager, Hill contemplated being a comic book illustrator and studied art at the Universidad de las Américas, Mexico City. "Mexico was as far away as I could get without any money," he says.
He then transferred and majored in history at Michigan State University. He said that, during this period, he was a particular fan of Ernest Hemingway's writing and came to believe that "the hardest thing to do is write clearly and simply, and make your point in an elegant way". Upon graduation, Hill was called up for the United States Army in 1964, but childhood asthma saw him ruled ineligible. This forced him to think about what he wanted to do for a career. "When you are that age, you think you are going to be in the army two years, it's a huge amount of time. You don't bother worrying about what you are doing. Suddenly, this whole thing was upon me."
Through a friend Hill got a job in Los Angeles researching historical documentaries made by a company that was associated with Encyclopædia Britannica. He began seeing more and more scripts, writing scripts and developed the urge to direct. Hill:Seeing so many of the European films, Japanese films, I was part of this isolated community in east Hollywood. I remembered thinking just a little further west they are making the films I want to see. I'm going to do this. Sink or swim... I wanted to be a writer on my way to being a director. Directors were already my heroes. Kurosawa, number of Italian directors... Movies from England, France, Sweden, Italy. Poland... One wanted a chance to tell stories in an open, loose, not constricted Hollywood kind of way. At the same time you wanted to work in Hollywood... I was tremendously interested in genre films. Wanted to work within genre films.
Early career
Assistant director
After this contract to make historical documentaries finished, Hill worked for a time in the mail room at Universal ("Somebody told me that was a good way to meet people"). He then got into the training program of the Directors Guild of America, which enabled him to work in television as an apprentice. He observed and worked for over a year on such shows as Gunsmoke, The Wild Wild West, Bonanza and Warning Shot. "I did a lot of shows for a couple of weeks, they would rotate you through," he says.
Hill wound up as second assistant director on The Thomas Crown Affair in 1968. He then went on to work as the uncredited second assistant director on Bullitt—"It was my job to set background and also to set it up with the police. We had to organise every shot so people wouldn't wander out into the middle of the street and be hit... Every time we did a shot I was scared to death."
In 1969, he was the second assistant director on a Woody Allen film, Take the Money and Run, but said he remembers doing very little except passing out the call sheets and filling out time cards. He also worked as a first assistant director on some television advertisement. "I didn't have a shred of desire in those areas," says Hill of assistant directing. "I wanted to work and be around films. I certainly took my duties fairly seriously and all that. I didn't see it as a long term kind of commitment."
Screenwriter
During this time Hill was writing screenplays on nights and on the weekends.
"I began to read screenplays that were being made, and I hesitate to say this, but I guess I read them and said: 'Christ, I could do that.'" It took him "four to five years to write my first screenplay writing at night, while I still had another day job."
He says one of his earlier works "was intensely personal about a love affair I had. It was terrible, I knew it. It was not until he started writing in a more "structured narrative environment" that he "began to find my voice... I had a hard time finishing scripts. My problem was finding certain character narrative concerns. Once I finished scripts, I almost instantly made a living. Not only made a living, but got them made. From the time I finished them to the time they were getting made, making progress on the trail, that all happened pretty quickly.
Hill later said, "I was very sympathetic and identified with the New Hollywood." But his films "are, or were, rather retro. That is to say, I didn't tackle subjects. I wanted to do genre films."
Hill's first completed screenplay, a Western called Lloyd Williams and His Brother, was optioned by Joe Wizan. It was never made but the script was admired at Warner Bros who asked Hill to pitch some projects. He came up with a detective story, Hickey & Boggs and the studio agreed to finance a draft. "Detective films were very old hat, not the kind of thing a young screenwriter was going to pitch," recalls Hill. "I think they were intrigued, maybe fresh air could be blown into a venerable genre."
Warners liked the Hickey & Boggs script and hired Hill to rewrite the script for The Thief Who Came to Dinner, for which he ended up getting sole credit. Hickey & Boggs was later sold to United Artists and rewritten by director Robert Culp. Hill said he felt the film "had some nice moments, but it was cast much differently than it was written. I wasn't too excited about it."
Meanwhile, Peter Bogdanovich's ex-wife Polly Platt, a film editor, had read Hill's script for Hickey & Boggs and recommended him to co-write The Getaway, which Bogdanovich was going to make with Steve McQueen. Bogdanovich and Hill worked on the script together in San Francisco while Bogdanovich was directing What's Up, Doc? Hill says that Bogdanovich was interested in making the film a more Hitchcock-type film. They had completed 25 pages when they went back to L.A., whereupon McQueen fired Bogdanovich without reading any of their work. Sam Peckinpah came on to direct; Hill started from scratch and wrote his own script in six weeks. The resulting film was a big hit which Hill later described "of the films I wrote, I thought it was far and away the best one, and most interesting." He said the success of the film "was really how I got to be a director; the fact it had done so well put me in line to get a shot."
Hill and Peckinpah got along well and for a time it seemed Peckinpah might direct Lloyd Williams but he decided to make Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid instead. The Thief Who Came to Dinner eventually came out. Walter Hill later said "Warren Oates was very good in the movie—better than the movie was. They cut a lot of things out of the movie they shouldn't have."
Hill went on to write a pair of Paul Newman films, The Mackintosh Man and The Drowning Pool. By Hill's own admission, his work on The Mackintosh Man "wasn't much" and he did it to settle a lawsuit with Warner Bros, with whom he was angry for selling Hickey & Boggs—Warners offered to settle the suit if Hill wrote them a screenplay, giving him the chance to adapt his choice of several novels that the studio owned the film rights to. He picked The Freedom Trap, by Desmond Bagley.
"I wrote a quick script which I was not particularly enamored with myself," Hill said. However it attracted the interest of Paul Newman and John Huston. "One would like to think you are mistaken about the wonders of your work, but I didn't believe it," he said. "That part turned out to be true. I went over to work on the script with Huston. He wasn't very well, I ended up with sole screen credit, but one of the problems is the screen credit is misleading very often. I wrote 90% of the first half, various people wrote the rest. I didn't think it was a very good film. Hill says he never saw the final product, but was told it was "a real bomb".
Producers Larry Turman and David Foster asked Hill to adapt Ross Macdonald's novel The Drowning Pool for Robert Mulligan to direct as a sequel to a previous Newman film, Harper (1965). The producers did not like the direction Hill took with his script—he later estimated only two scenes in the final film were his—so he left the project to write Hard Times for Larry Gordon at Columbia Pictures.
In the early years of his career, Hill set up his own production company, Brandywine Productions, to develop and produce films. A script came to him, Alien, which he optioned and rewrote with his partner, David Giler. Hill and Giler were not credited for their writing work. Hill decided not to direct the film, which became a massive hit.
John Hughes later recalled, "I had been writing scripts for quite a while, but I never really knew what screenwriting was about until I read the script Walter wrote for Alien."
Film director
1970s
By the early 1970s, Hill wanted to direct.
I think in casual conversation I would have told anybody I wanted to direct. At the same time I knew Hollywood was a closed off place... It was much harder to get in. To be an older director was a very positive thing. It meant you had survived, knew your way, could make things and make them meet your economic responsibilities. It was always paramount in studio minds, especially in those days... If I was going to direct I was going to write my way in. No TV, no play, I was simply somebody who said I have a sensibility, I think I can do this, based on nothing other than my scripts basically.
Hill met producer Lawrence Gordon in 1973. He agreed to let Hill direct a film if he wrote a screenplay for him. Hill made a deal to write and direct for scale and in turn got a shot at directing. The result was Hill's 1975 breakthrough film, Hard Times, made on location in New Orleans for just $2.7 million in 38 days. James Coburn played a fast-talking promoter of illegal street fights in 1930s New Orleans and Charles Bronson played the boxer protagonist.
The film was also a turning point for Hill as a screenwriter. He read Alexander Jacobs' screenplay for the John Boorman film Point Blank and considered it a "revelation" in terms of style and format. He decided to tailor his own scripts in that manner, as he described it, "extremely spare, almost Haiku style. Both stage directions and dialogue." He was also influenced by Sam Peckinpah. Hill wrote Hard Times, The Driver, The Warriors, and the uncredited rewrite of Alien in this style.
Following the movie Hill was approached to direct The Shootist with John Wayne but turned it down as he disliked the script.
He created the TV series Dog and Cat which premiered in 1977 starring a young Kim Basinger as a police officer. It was not a ratings success and was soon cancelled. However Hill's pilot script later influenced Shane Black's original script for Lethal Weapon.
Hill's second film as a director was The Driver starring Ryan O'Neal as a laconic getaway driver for hire and Bruce Dern as a driven cop pursuing him. No character in the film has a name; they are merely The Driver, The Detective, and so forth. Hill originally had wanted to cast Steve McQueen, but he turned down the role because he did not want to do another car film. "This Walter Hill is a force to be reckoned with," said O'Neal, "a first rate writer and an even better director. And he's fast. Most young directors today think they are David Lean."
The Driver was financed by EMI Films who announced they would make a second film with Hill, a Western he wrote with Roger Spottiswoode, The Last Gun. However The Driver was a commercial failure in the United States. "To say it did not do well would be kind," said Hill. "Had I not been shooting The Warriors at the time, I don't think my career would have survived. They loved it overseas, but in those days, that didn't matter that much. It made exactly zero dollars in the United States. I remember the studio had this huge sheaf of Xeroxed reviews they'd handed me — you could stop a fucking .45 slug with this stack, it was so thick. And of all the reviews in this six-inch thick pile, there was only one good one." (In 2016 Hill would say that "whenever they show retrospectives of my stuff, it's usually the first thing they show. Sometimes you just have to wait it out.")
Hill was going to make The Last Gun with Larry Gordon but when the financing on the project failed to materialize, Gordon showed Hill a copy of the novel The Warriors by Sol Yurick. They took it to Paramount Pictures because they were interested in youth films at the time and succeeded in getting the project financed. Hill remembers "it came together very quickly. Larry had a special relationship with Paramount and we promised to make the movie very cheaply, which we did. So it came together within a matter of weeks."
When The Warriors was released there were a series of shootings and killings at screenings involving filmgoers on their way to or from showings. This prompted Paramount to remove advertisements from radio and television completely and display ads in the press were reduced to the film's title. However the film was very popular and received excellent reviews.
"Hollywood forgives a lot when you have a hit," said Hill. "I don't know what to say about it, other than the fact that it was just a gift in terms of getting it. The studio hated it, and didn't even want to release it. There was a lot of friction with management at the time. Some of it might have been my fault."
1980s
James Keach had developed a script about the Jesse James Gang, The Long Riders, which United Artists were willing to finance if a suitable director were to be found. Hill was approached and eagerly agreed to film his first Western. The film is remembered for casting real-life acting brothers (the Keaches, Carradines, Quaids and Guests) as historical outlaw siblings (the James, Younger, Miller and Ford brothers). Hill later said his "code" for the film was to keep "the jokes funny and the bullets real. It is about moral choices. I think people who object to violence shouldn't go to the movies.... The use of all the brothers can be perceived as a gimmick but I wanted a family feeling to the movie."
Hill's next film was going to be adaptations of The Last Good Kiss (by James Crumley) and then Red Harvest (by Dashiell Hammett). However neither were made, though the story of Last Man Standing (which he made in 1996) was very close to Red Harvest. Instead Hill did Southern Comfort, originally written in 1976. It was an intense Deliverance-style thriller about a group of U.S. Army National Guardsmen (including Keith Carradine, Powers Boothe and Fred Ward) on weekend maneuvers in the Louisiana bayou who find themselves fighting for survival in the swamps after offending some local Cajuns. The film was seen by many as an allegory for America's involvement in the Vietnam War, although Hill denies this is the case.
He and David Giler rewrote the script prepared by another writer. According to Hill, "No studio wanted to make it, but an independent guy showed up who had a relationship with Fox. Liked it, said he would finance it."
The film was critically acclaimed but, in Hill's words, it "didn't make a... nickel anywhere. Foreign, domestic, anything... I was proud of the film... But I was disappointed in the lack of response. It was a universal audience failure... Usually you can say they loved it in Japan or something. I don't think anybody loved it anywhere."
Hill tried to make Lone Star, from the play by James McLure to star Powers Boothe and Sigourney Weaver (1981). Like Red Harvest and The Last Good Kiss it was not made.
Larry Gross later recalled meeting Hill in the early 1980s:
He'd had some success, but then he had a series of setbacks. And there was also the scandal around The Warriors; any success had been eclipsed by the killings in the theaters. So there was that, as well as the noncommercial success of Southern Comfort and Long Riders and the fact that there was a writer's strike. All of that meant that Walter hadn't worked in a while. Meaning a year or so. And what happened was the strike ended and the studios didn't have a lot of ready scripts. So this clever colleague, Larry Gordon, dusted off a script that had been shuttling around development and got it greenlit at Paramount with his friend Michael Eisner. And that script was 48 Hrs.
48 Hrs. was originally meant to star Clint Eastwood and Richard Pryor but both dropped out. Nick Nolte became attached as star and Hill's then-girlfriend, a talent agent at ICM, recommended the role of the convict be played by an exciting new comic on Saturday Night Live, Eddie Murphy. The resulting film was a problematic shoot, with many clashes between Paramount and Hill, but it resulted in a massive box office success.
Hill's box office success with 48 Hrs. enabled him to raise the money for a stylish "rock 'n' roll fable", Streets of Fire. He almost set this up at Paramount but they changed their mind; Universal decided to finance instead. While initially a box office failure, it gained a greater following in subsequent years (as many of Hill's films have).
Hill was meant to follow it up with a big screen adaptation of Dick Tracy, replacing John Landis. Hill worked on Dick Tracy for several drafts of the script and screenwriter Jack Epps Jr. says he "played a big role in reducing and focusing the screenplay". Hill intended to make the film directly after Streets of Fire but eventually left the project after a dispute over budget with Universal and with star Warren Beatty; the project would be made several years later with Beatty directing.
Hill's success directing Eddie Murphy in 48 Hrs. saw him receive an offer to work with Richard Pryor in a new version of Brewster's Millions (1985). This was Hill's first—and, as of 2016, only—full-fledged comedy. He says he purposefully made the film "to improve his bank account and success quotient", and admitted it was "an aberration in the career line". He added that "whatever [the film's] deficiencies, I think the wistful quality was there. I was happy about that. The picture did well and made money."
After making Brewster's Millions Hill said he had another comedy in development at Universal. He also wanted to do a new version of The Magnificent Seven (1960) which he had written with Lukas Heller, "quite a bit different from the original—it's more Hawksian in flavour." The plot had a female doctor hire seven mercenaries to defend an intellectually disabled boy from a lynching.
Hill followed Brewster's Millions with Crossroads (1986), a music-themed drama from an original script by John Fusco inspired by the life and music of Robert Johnson. The score was done by Ry Cooder, who had been Hill's most regular composer since The Long Riders. The film performed poorly at the box office, despite the presence of Ralph Macchio in the lead.
He also co-wrote (with Lukas Heller) and executive produced Blue City (1986) from a 1947 novel by Ross Macdonald. Hill developed this project intended to star a leading man in his mid-30s but by the mid-1980s a number of popular young male actors had emerged, so the script was rewritten to accommodate one of them (Judd Nelson). Hill handed over directing duties to Michelle Manning, who made her debut as director. The film was a critical and commercial disaster.
However, that year also saw the release of Aliens (1986), a sequel to Alien. Hill says he and Giler decided "the next one should be a straight action thriller -the military takes over- a patrol movie." They hired James Cameron to make the film and worked on his original treatment "a bit". Hill had a story and executive producer credit on the film which was a massive hit.
In 1987, he returned to hard-edged action with Extreme Prejudice, a contemporary Western for Carolco Pictures about the War on Drugs based on a story by John Milius and Fred Rexer, which had been originally written in the mid-1970s. It reunited Hill with Nick Nolte. The film was a financial failure. Hill said he "tipped my hat to Sam [Peckinpah] a couple of times" in the film and "I don't think it was understood how much genre parodying was involved in that picture. It rather mystified a lot of American critics but it has its defenders."
Hill returned to the buddy-cop genre with Red Heat (1988), a sort of Glasnost-era reworking of 48 Hrs. with Arnold Schwarzenegger as a stoic Soviet cop who travels to Chicago to catch a Russian drug-dealer (Ed O'Ross). Schwarzenegger is partnered with a wisecracking American cop (Jim Belushi), who is as laid-back and mouthy as his Soviet counterpart is taciturn and humorless. Hill directed and rewrote Troy Kennedy Martin's script. The film, whilst profitable, was considered to be a box office disappointment compared to other Schwarzenegger films of the era.
Around this time, Hill was mentioned as wanting to make an adaptation of Jim Thompson's Pop. 1280 but it was never made. A project that was filmed was the horror anthology television series Tales from the Crypt (1989–96), on which Hill worked as an executive producer, as well as directing a number of episodes.
Hill ended the 1980s with Johnny Handsome (1989) starring Mickey Rourke. It was based on a 1972 novel by Morton Freedgood, about a criminal who has plastic surgery and seeks revenge on his colleagues who betrayed him. The project had been developed for a number of years—Hill says he turned down the job four times before deciding to do it when Harold Becker dropped out as director. The film was a flop at the box office.
Hill had a number of projects in the late 1980s that were never made. These included American Iron (1989/1990), a film set in the world of bikers written by Hill, Mark Brunet, Daniel Pyne, and John Mankiewicz. He also did a draft (with David Giler) of an adaptation of the Jim Harrison novella, Revenge—this was not used when turned into a film in 1990.
Later films
1990s
Hill began the 1990s with the only sequel he has directed to date, Another 48 Hrs., with Murphy this time top-billed over Nolte. The sequel to his biggest commercial success was thought by many critics to be merely a retread of the original, but became the highest-grossing film that Hill has directed. The film grossed more at the US box office than its predecessor and made $72.7 million from foreign markets for a total of $153.5 million.
In 1991 he came close to directing a big screen version of the television series The Fugitive (1963-1967) with Alec Baldwin, but Baldwin was not considered a big enough star. The film The Fugitive (1993) was released two years later, starring Harrison Ford and without Hill's involvement. The director's credit went instead to Andrew Davis. Hill was also considered to replace John McTiernan as the director of Patriot Games (1992), another film in which Baldwin was recast with Ford.
In 1992, Hill directed a film originally called Looters about two firemen who cross paths with criminals while searching for stolen loot in an abandoned East St. Louis, Illinois, tenement building. However, the 1992 Los Angeles riots broke out shortly before the film's release and the studio delayed its opening, eventually changing the title to Trespass.
Trespass was based out of an old script, co-written by Bob Gale and Robert Zemeckis, years before they would write Back to the Future.
Following this, he and David Giler wrote a remake of The Killer and plans were announced to make it with Richard Gere and Denzel Washington. However the film did not proceed. He and Giler also wrote the final script for Alien 3, as well as co-producing it.
In 1993, Hill changed his agent.
Hill planned to direct Alec Baldwin in a new version of The Getaway based on Hill's original script. Then there was a dispute over the budget and Hill left the project in order to make Geronimo: An American Legend. The film received mixed reviews from critics and fared poorly at the box office. This also happened to The Getaway (1994), which ended up being directed by Roger Donaldson from Hill's script.
In 1994, Hill and his wife, agent Hildy Gottlieb, signed a two-year non-exclusive deal with Paramount. They developed a film, Sudden Country, an action adventure in the vein of Treasure Island set in late-19th century Texas to star Elijah Wood, based on a novel by Loren Estleman. The film was not made. Instead Hill wrote and directed a second biopic, Wild Bill (1995). This too had little critical or commercial success. Hill reflected on his career in 1995:I think every director thinks that he hasn't been allowed to make the films he wanted to make. I certainly haven't been able to make as many Westerns as I've wanted. (But) sometimes staying alive in a career sense is very important, and you think, 'Maybe I'll do this, which will do well and allow me to do that.' It's very easy to miscalculate. It's a dangerous game. But I think in the end, none of us have anybody to blame except ourselves. It can be very hard. The kinds of things that directors most want to do are usually not things the studio perceives to be commercially viable. It really is that simple. Is that true of me? Sure. Absolutely. But it's no more true of me than 50 other people I know.
Hill admitted his style of films were becoming less fashionable:
I admire a lot of what's going on out there, but the oversize kind of cartoon action movies is not something I'm terribly comfortable with. I think what I do is much more in the tradition that the bullets are real and they'll knock you down. I used to really get criticized for my lack of realism, but now I think my films are perceived to be vastly more realistic than most of the action movies that are happening out there... I think one of the things about being a director is, you should always try to re-create within yourself the kind of emotions you had watching film when you were very young. The kind of action movies that I always liked, the kind of comic books I always liked, were the serious ones. The characters were very realistic within the framework of the drama, and that kind of action movie interests me a lot more than the super-heroes. And so in that sense, maybe I'm slightly out of step, I suppose, but so be it.
Hill continued as one of the three original producers on Alien Resurrection, although he has stated in several interviews since, that he has had nothing to do with the franchise since Alien 3.
His 1996 effort Last Man Standing with Bruce Willis, a Prohibition-era Western update of Yojimbo (and thus reminiscent of that film's inspiration, Dashiell Hammett's Red Harvest, and its western incarnation, A Fistful of Dollars) saw him return to his earlier style to some extent: a gruff antihero and a heavy focus on stylized action.
Hill and the team who made Tales from the Crypt—Joel Silver, Richard Donner, Robert Zemeckis, and David Giler—tried to repeat their success with another anthology, Perversions of Science (1997). Hill worked as producer and directed an episode. However it was not as popular.
2000s
Hill then directed the 2000 film Supernova for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. When the studio did not agree with his vision, they brought in Francis Ford Coppola to re-cut the film. This caused Hill to withdraw from the project and credit himself with the pseudonym "Thomas Lee" (a variation of Alan Smithee), and chose not to be associated with the finished product. Hill called his original version a much darker take than the final product.
"One, it was embarrassing and, two, it made me think about quitting," said Hill. "While Coppola's intentions were honorable, I think he made a bad situation worse. I didn't do anything for a year. I was fortunate enough that I could buy my children a hot lunch. Then, I decided I wanted to work again."
In 2002, Hill directed the prison boxing film Undisputed starring Wesley Snipes, Ving Rhames and Peter Falk.
In 2002 he said he wanted to make Vengeance is Mine, an original contemporary thriller set in Las Vegas, which he had written with Giler. It was not made. "We almost had it together a couple of times and financing always slipped away at the last second," said Hill.
In 2003, Quentin Tarantino said Hill was still worthy of admiration. "I think in the last 10 years he's had a big resurgence in creativity. I think he lost his way for a while in the '80s. Johnny Handsome I thought was a return to form . . . But I thought with Geronimo he went to a really fantastic place. Everybody talked about how boring it was. But I didn't. I thought he made a really great classic Western and America just wasn't worthy of the privilege."
Hill served as a director and consulting producer for the pilot episode of the HBO Western drama television series Deadwood in 2004. The series was created by David Milch and focused on a growing town in the Western United States. Hill's work on Deadwood has seen him return to favour in critical circles to some extent, earning him a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series in 2004 and a Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series in 2004. However Hill had a falling out with Milch during the editing of the pilot and did not work on any other episodes of the show.
Hill continued his work with westerns by directing the mini series Broken Trail, which became the highest-rated film made by a cable network when it premiered on AMC. It also earned him the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Limited Series. Hill also won the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Miniseries or TV Film for his efforts on Broken Trail.
In 2006 he reflected on his career saying "Those who have been doing for this for 40 years would like to think that it's a kind of Darwinian survival of the talented. But I think that's half the picture. It has as much as to do with the survival of temperament. There are few people still working now that started when I did. Not many people have the temperament to deal with that."
2010s
In the 2010s Hill described his status as "semi-retired" and said he had a number of projects fall through.
It was Sylvester Stallone who offered Hill the job of directing Bullet to the Head (2012). The film was not a success at the box office.
Hill was going to write and direct a proposed remake of What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? but it fell through.
He wrote the original story for a graphic novel, Bailes Perdues, which was adapted by Matz with art by Jef, which was published in France, and later translated as Triggerman by Edward Gauvin and published by the Titan Comics imprint Hard Case Crime.
In 2016 Hill's movie The Assignment, based on a script Hill had written with Denis Hamill, premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival before a limited release and streaming video release in 2017.
In 2016 he said in an interview "You are very privileged to be a director. There is a great quote I'll get wrong of Samuel Johnson, the English poet and essayist, that: 'We come to the arena uncalled, to seek our fortune and hazard disgrace. That's the game, those are the rules.' So I say to you as an audience, if you wanna feel sorry, feel sorry for the people in Syria, but don't feel sorry for film directors."
In 2019 Hill made his recording debut at age 77 with The Cowboy Iliad: A Legend Told In The Spoken Word. Written and performed by Hill, the spoken word record tells the story of a deadly shootout that occurred in Newton, Kansas in 1871 and its legendary aftermath of violence and controversy. The record was produced by Bobby Woods and featured music by Les Deux Love Orchestra.
2020s
In August 2021 Hill began shooting the upcoming western Dead for a Dollar starring Christoph Waltz, Willem Dafoe, and Rachel Brosnahan. The film premiered at 2022 Venice Film Festival where Hill received the Glory to the Filmmaker award. It was released in the United States in September of 2022.
Personal life
Hill married Hildy Gottlieb, a talent agent at International Creative Management, in New York City at Tavern on the Green on September 7, 1986. They have two daughters, Joanna and Miranda.
Filmography
Film
Producer only
Television
References
Interviews
External links
Walter Hill at IGN
European box office figures for Walter Hill films at Box Office Story
Walter Hill: The Cowboy Iliad - A Legend Told In The Spoken Word
1942 births
21st-century American novelists
Film producers from California
American male screenwriters
Film directors from California
Hugo Award-winning writers
Living people
Michigan State University alumni
Writers from Long Beach, California
Western (genre) film directors
Action film directors
Primetime Emmy Award winners
Directors Guild of America Award winners
American graphic novelists
Screenwriters from California
21st-century American screenwriters
21st-century American male writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corner%20detection
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Corner detection
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Corner detection is an approach used within computer vision systems to extract certain kinds of features and infer the contents of an image. Corner detection is frequently used in motion detection, image registration, video tracking, image mosaicing, panorama stitching, 3D reconstruction and object recognition. Corner detection overlaps with the topic of interest point detection.
Formalization
A corner can be defined as the intersection of two edges. A corner can also be defined as a point for which there are two dominant and different edge directions in a local neighbourhood of the point.
An interest point is a point in an image which has a well-defined position and can be robustly detected. This means that an interest point can be a corner but it can also be, for example, an isolated point of local intensity maximum or minimum, line endings, or a point on a curve where the curvature is locally maximal.
In practice, most so-called corner detection methods detect interest points in general, and in fact, the term "corner" and "interest point" are used more or less interchangeably through the literature. As a consequence, if only corners are to be detected it is necessary to do a local analysis of detected interest points to determine which of these are real corners. Examples of edge detection that can be used with post-processing to detect corners are the Kirsch operator and the Frei-Chen masking set.
"Corner", "interest point" and "feature" are used interchangeably in literature, confusing the issue. Specifically, there are several blob detectors that can be referred to as "interest point operators", but which are sometimes erroneously referred to as "corner detectors". Moreover, there exists a notion of ridge detection to capture the presence of elongated objects.
Corner detectors are not usually very robust and often require large redundancies introduced to prevent the effect of individual errors from dominating the recognition task.
One determination of the quality of a corner detector is its ability to detect the same corner in multiple similar images, under conditions of different lighting, translation, rotation and other transforms.
A simple approach to corner detection in images is using correlation, but this gets very computationally expensive and suboptimal. An alternative approach used frequently is based on a method proposed by Harris and Stephens (below), which in turn is an improvement of a method by Moravec.
Moravec corner detection algorithm
This is one of the earliest corner detection algorithms and defines a corner to be a point with low self-similarity. The algorithm tests each pixel in the image to see if a corner is present, by considering how similar a patch centered on the pixel is to nearby, largely overlapping patches. The similarity is measured by taking the sum of squared differences (SSD) between the corresponding pixels of two patches. A lower number indicates more similarity.
If the pixel is in a region of uniform intensity, then the nearby patches will look similar. If the pixel is on an edge, then nearby patches in a direction perpendicular to the edge will look quite different, but nearby patches in a direction parallel to the edge will result in only a small change. If the pixel is on a feature with variation in all directions, then none of the nearby patches will look similar.
The corner strength is defined as the smallest SSD between the patch and its neighbours (horizontal, vertical and on the two diagonals). The reason is that if this number is high, then the variation along all shifts is either equal to it or larger than it, so capturing that all nearby patches look different.
If the corner strength number is computed for all locations, that it is locally maximal for one location indicates that a feature of interest is present in it.
As pointed out by Moravec, one of the main problems with this operator is that it is not isotropic: if an edge is present that is not in the direction of the neighbours (horizontal, vertical, or diagonal), then the smallest SSD will be large and the edge will be incorrectly chosen as an interest point.
The Harris & Stephens / Shi–Tomasi corner detection algorithms
Harris and Stephens improved upon Moravec's corner detector by considering the differential of the corner score with respect to direction directly, instead of using shifted patches. (This corner score is often referred to as autocorrelation, since the term is used in the paper in which this detector is described. However, the mathematics in the paper clearly indicate that the sum of squared differences is used.)
Without loss of generality, we will assume a grayscale 2-dimensional image is used. Let this image be given by . Consider taking an image patch over the area and shifting it by . The weighted sum of squared differences (SSD) between these two patches, denoted , is given by:
can be approximated by a Taylor expansion. Let and be the partial derivatives of , such that
This produces the approximation
which can be written in matrix form:
where A is the structure tensor,
In words, we find the covariance of the partial derivative of the image intensity with respect to the and axes.
Angle brackets denote averaging (i.e. summation over ). denotes the type of window that slides over the image. If a Box filter is used the response will be anisotropic, but if a Gaussian is used, then the response will be isotropic.
A corner (or in general an interest point) is characterized by a large variation of in all directions of the vector . By analyzing the eigenvalues of , this characterization can be expressed in the following way: should have two "large" eigenvalues for an interest point.
Based on the magnitudes of the eigenvalues, the following inferences can be made based on this argument:
If and then this pixel has no features of interest.
If and has some large positive value, then an edge is found.
If and have large positive values, then a corner is found.
Harris and Stephens note that exact computation of the eigenvalues is computationally expensive, since it requires the computation of a square root, and instead suggest the
following function , where is a tunable sensitivity parameter:
Therefore, the algorithm does not have to actually compute the eigenvalue decomposition of the matrix and
instead it is sufficient to evaluate the determinant and trace of to find
corners, or rather interest points in general.
The Shi–Tomasi corner detector directly computes because under certain assumptions, the corners are more stable for tracking. Note that this method is also sometimes referred to as the Kanade–Tomasi corner detector.
The value of has to be determined empirically, and in the literature values in the range 0.04–0.15 have been reported as feasible.
One can avoid setting the parameter by using Noble's corner measure which amounts to the harmonic mean of the eigenvalues:
being a small positive constant.
If can be interpreted as the precision matrix for the corner position, the covariance matrix for the corner position is , i.e.
The sum of the eigenvalues of , which in that case can be interpreted as a generalized variance (or a "total uncertainty") of the corner position, is related to Noble's corner measure by the following equation:
The Förstner corner detector
In some cases, one may wish to compute the location of a corner with subpixel accuracy. To achieve an approximate solution, the Förstner algorithm solves for the point closest to all the tangent lines of the corner in a given window and is a least-square solution. The algorithm relies on the fact that for an ideal corner, tangent lines cross at a single point.
The equation of a tangent line at pixel is given by:
where is the gradient vector of the image at .
The point closest to all the tangent lines in the window is:
The distance from to the tangent lines is weighted by the gradient magnitude, thus giving more importance to tangents passing through pixels with strong gradients.
Solving for :
are defined as:
Minimizing this equation can be done by differentiating with respect to and setting it equal to 0:
Note that is the structure tensor. For the equation to have a solution, must be invertible, which implies that must be full rank (rank 2). Thus, the solution
only exists where an actual corner exists in the window .
A methodology for performing automatic scale selection for this corner localization method has been presented by Lindeberg by minimizing the normalized residual
over scales. Thereby, the method has the ability to automatically adapt the scale levels for computing the image gradients to the noise level in the image data, by choosing coarser scale levels for noisy image data and finer scale levels for near ideal corner-like structures.
Notes:
can be viewed as a residual in the least-square solution computation: if , then there was no error.
this algorithm can be modified to compute centers of circular features by changing tangent lines to normal lines.
The multi-scale Harris operator
The computation of the second moment matrix (sometimes also referred to as the structure tensor) in the Harris operator, requires the computation of image derivatives in the image domain as well as the summation of non-linear combinations of these derivatives over local neighbourhoods. Since the computation of derivatives usually involves a stage of scale-space smoothing, an operational definition of the Harris operator requires two scale parameters: (i) a local scale for smoothing prior to the computation of image derivatives, and (ii) an integration scale for accumulating the non-linear operations on derivative operators into an integrated image descriptor.
With denoting the original image intensity, let denote the scale space representation of obtained by convolution with a Gaussian kernel
with local scale parameter :
and let and denote the partial derivatives of .
Moreover, introduce a Gaussian window function with integration scale parameter . Then, the multi-scale second-moment matrix can be defined as
Then, we can compute eigenvalues of in a similar way as the eigenvalues of and define the multi-scale Harris corner measure as
Concerning the choice of the local scale parameter and the integration scale parameter , these scale parameters are usually coupled by a relative integration scale parameter such that , where is usually chosen in the interval . Thus, we can compute the multi-scale Harris corner measure at any scale in scale-space to obtain a multi-scale corner detector, which responds to corner structures of varying sizes in the image domain.
In practice, this multi-scale corner detector is often complemented by a scale selection step, where the scale-normalized Laplacian operator
is computed at every scale in scale-space and scale adapted corner points with automatic scale selection (the "Harris-Laplace operator") are computed from the points that are simultaneously:
spatial maxima of the multi-scale corner measure
local maxima or minima over scales of the scale-normalized Laplacian operator :
The level curve curvature approach
An earlier approach to corner detection is to detect points where the curvature of level curves and the gradient magnitude are simultaneously high.
A differential way to detect such points is by computing the rescaled level curve curvature (the product of the level curve curvature and the gradient magnitude raised to the power of three)
and to detect positive maxima and negative minima of this differential expression at some scale in the scale space representation of the original image.
A main problem when computing the rescaled level curve curvature entity at a single scale however, is that it may be sensitive to noise and to the choice of the scale level. A better method is to compute the -normalized rescaled level curve curvature
with and to detect signed scale-space extrema of this expression, that are points and scales that are positive maxima and negative minima with respect to both space and scale
in combination with a complementary localization step to handle the increase in localization error at coarser scales. In this way, larger scale values will be associated with rounded corners of large spatial extent while smaller scale values will be associated with sharp corners with small spatial extent. This approach is the first corner detector with automatic scale selection (prior to the "Harris-Laplace operator" above) and has been used for tracking corners under large scale variations in the image domain and for matching corner responses to edges to compute structural image features for geon-based object recognition.
Laplacian of Gaussian, differences of Gaussians and determinant of the Hessian scale-space interest points
LoG is an acronym standing for Laplacian of Gaussian, DoG is an acronym standing for difference of Gaussians (DoG is an approximation of LoG), and DoH is an acronym standing for determinant of the Hessian. These scale-invariant interest points are all extracted by detecting scale-space extrema of scale-normalized differential expressions, i.e., points in scale-space where the corresponding scale-normalized differential expressions assume local extrema with respect to both space and scale
where denotes the appropriate scale-normalized differential entity (defined below).
These detectors are more completely described in blob detection. The scale-normalized Laplacian of the Gaussian and difference-of-Gaussian features (Lindeberg 1994, 1998; Lowe 2004)
do not necessarily make highly selective features, since these operators may also lead to responses near edges. To improve the corner detection ability of the differences of Gaussians detector, the feature detector used in the SIFT system therefore uses an additional post-processing stage, where the eigenvalues of the Hessian of the image at the detection scale are examined in a similar way as in the Harris operator. If the ratio of the eigenvalues is too high, then the local image is regarded as too edge-like, so the feature is rejected. Also Lindeberg's Laplacian of the Gaussian feature detector can be defined to comprise complementary thresholding on a complementary differential invariant to suppress responses near edges.
The scale-normalized determinant of the Hessian operator (Lindeberg 1994, 1998)
is on the other hand highly selective to well localized image features and does only respond when there are significant grey-level variations in two image directions and is in this and other respects a better interest point detector than the Laplacian of the Gaussian. The determinant of the Hessian is an affine covariant differential expression and has better scale selection properties under affine image transformations than the Laplacian operator
(Lindeberg 2013, 2015). Experimentally this implies that determinant of the Hessian interest points have better repeatability properties under local image deformation than Laplacian interest points, which in turns leads to better performance of image-based matching in terms higher efficiency scores and lower 1−precision scores.
The scale selection properties, affine transformation properties and experimental properties of these and other scale-space interest point detectors are analyzed in detail in (Lindeberg 2013, 2015).
Scale-space interest points based on the Lindeberg Hessian feature strength measures
Inspired by the structurally similar properties of the Hessian matrix of a function and the second-moment matrix (structure tensor) , as can e.g. be manifested in terms of their similar transformation properties under affine image deformations
,
,
Lindeberg (2013, 2015) proposed to define four feature strength measures from the Hessian matrix in related ways as the Harris and Shi-and-Tomasi operators are defined from the structure tensor (second-moment matrix).
Specifically, he defined the following unsigned and signed Hessian feature strength measures:
the unsigned Hessian feature strength measure I:
the signed Hessian feature strength measure I:
the unsigned Hessian feature strength measure II:
the signed Hessian feature strength measure II:
where and
denote the trace and the determinant of the Hessian matrix of the scale-space representation at any scale ,
whereas
denote the eigenvalues of the Hessian matrix.
The unsigned Hessian feature strength measure responds to local extrema by positive values and is not sensitive to saddle points, whereas the signed Hessian feature strength measure does additionally respond to saddle points by negative values. The unsigned Hessian feature strength measure is insensitive to the local polarity of the signal, whereas the signed Hessian feature strength measure responds to the local polarity of the signal by the sign of its output.
In Lindeberg (2015) these four differential entities were combined with local scale selection based on either scale-space extrema detection
or scale linking. Furthermore, the signed and unsigned Hessian feature strength measures and were combined with complementary thresholding on .
By experiments on image matching under scaling transformations on a poster dataset with 12 posters with multi-view matching over scaling transformations up to a scaling factor of 6 and viewing direction variations up to a slant angle of 45 degrees with local image descriptors defined from reformulations of the pure image descriptors in the SIFT and SURF operators to image measurements in terms of Gaussian derivative operators (Gauss-SIFT and Gauss-SURF) instead of original SIFT as defined from an image pyramid or original SURF as defined from Haar wavelets, it was shown that scale-space interest point detection based on the unsigned Hessian feature strength measure allowed for the best performance and better performance than scale-space interest points obtained from the determinant of the Hessian . Both the unsigned Hessian feature strength measure , the signed Hessian feature strength measure and the determinant of the Hessian allowed for better performance than the Laplacian of the Gaussian . When combined with scale linking and complementary thresholding on , the signed Hessian feature strength measure did additionally allow for better performance than the Laplacian of the Gaussian .
Furthermore, it was shown that all these differential scale-space interest point detectors defined from the Hessian matrix allow for the detection of a larger number of interest points and better matching performance compared to the Harris and Shi-and-Tomasi operators defined from the structure tensor (second-moment matrix).
A theoretical analysis of the scale selection properties of these four Hessian feature strength measures and other differential entities for detecting scale-space interest points, including the Laplacian of the Gaussian and the determinant of the Hessian, is given in Lindeberg (2013) and an analysis of their affine transformation properties as well as experimental properties in Lindeberg (2015).
Affine-adapted interest point operators
The interest points obtained from the multi-scale Harris operator with automatic scale selection are invariant to translations, rotations and uniform rescalings in the spatial domain. The images that constitute the input to a computer vision system are, however, also subject to perspective distortions. To obtain an interest point operator that is more robust to perspective transformations, a natural approach is to devise a feature detector that is invariant to affine transformations. In practice, affine invariant interest points can be obtained by applying affine shape adaptation where the shape of the smoothing kernel is iteratively warped to match the local image structure around the interest point or equivalently a local image patch is iteratively warped while the shape of the smoothing kernel remains rotationally symmetric (Lindeberg 1993, 2008; Lindeberg and Garding 1997; Mikolajzcyk and Schmid 2004). Hence, besides the commonly used multi-scale Harris operator, affine shape adaptation can be applied to other corner detectors as listed in this article as well as to differential blob detectors such as the Laplacian/difference of Gaussian operator, the determinant of the Hessian and the Hessian–Laplace operator.
The Wang and Brady corner detection algorithm
The Wang and Brady detector considers the image to be a surface, and looks for places where there is large curvature along an image edge. In other words, the algorithm looks for places where the edge changes direction rapidly. The corner score, , is given by:
where is the unit vector perpendicular to the gradient, and determines how edge-phobic the detector is. The authors also note that smoothing (Gaussian is suggested) is required to reduce noise.
Smoothing also causes displacement of corners, so the authors derive an expression for the displacement of a 90 degree corner, and apply this as a correction factor to the detected corners.
The SUSAN corner detector
SUSAN is an acronym standing for smallest univalue segment assimilating nucleus. This method is the subject of a 1994 UK patent which is no longer in force.
For feature detection, SUSAN places a circular mask over the pixel to be tested (the nucleus). The region of the mask is , and a pixel in this mask is represented by . The nucleus is at . Every pixel is compared to the nucleus using the comparison function:
where is the brightness difference threshold, is the brightness of the pixel and the power of the exponent has been determined empirically. This function has the appearance of a smoothed top-hat or rectangular function. The area of the SUSAN is given by:
If is the rectangular function, then is the number of pixels in the mask which are within of the nucleus. The response of the SUSAN operator is given by:
where is named the 'geometric threshold'. In other words, the SUSAN operator only has a positive score if the area is small enough. The smallest SUSAN locally can be found using non-maximal suppression, and this is the complete SUSAN operator.
The value determines how similar points have to be to the nucleus before they are considered to be part of the univalue segment. The value of determines the minimum size of the univalue segment. If is large enough, then this becomes an edge detector.
For corner detection, two further steps are used. Firstly, the centroid of the SUSAN is found. A proper corner will have the centroid far from the nucleus. The second step insists that all points on the line from the nucleus through the centroid out to the edge of the mask are in the SUSAN.
The Trajkovic and Hedley corner detector
In a manner similar to SUSAN, this detector directly tests whether a patch under a pixel is self-similar by examining nearby pixels. is the pixel to be considered, and is point on a circle centered around . The point is the point opposite to along the diameter.
The response function is defined as:
This will be large when there is no direction in which the centre pixel is similar to two nearby pixels along a diameter. is a discretised circle (a Bresenham circle), so interpolation is used for intermediate diameters to give a more isotropic response. Since any computation gives an upper bound on the , the horizontal and vertical directions are checked first to see if it is worth proceeding with the complete computation of .
AST-based feature detectors
AST is an acronym standing for accelerated segment test. This test is a relaxed version of the SUSAN corner criterion. Instead of evaluating the circular disc, only the pixels in a Bresenham circle of radius around the candidate point are considered. If contiguous pixels are all brighter than the nucleus by at least or all darker than the nucleus by , then the pixel under the nucleus is considered to be a feature. This test is reported to produce very stable features. The choice of the order in which the pixels are tested is a so-called Twenty Questions problem. Building short decision trees for this problem results in the most computationally efficient feature detectors available.
The first corner detection algorithm based on the AST is FAST (features from accelerated segment test). Although can in principle take any value, FAST uses only a value of 3 (corresponding to a circle of 16 pixels circumference), and tests show that the best results are achieved with being 9. This value of is the lowest one at which edges are not detected. The order in which pixels are tested is determined by the ID3 algorithm from a training set of images. Confusingly, the name of the detector is somewhat similar to the name of the paper describing Trajkovic and Hedley's detector.
Automatic synthesis of detectors
Trujillo and Olague introduced a method by which genetic programming is used to automatically synthesize image operators that can detect interest points. The terminal and function sets contain primitive operations that are common in many previously proposed man-made designs. Fitness measures the stability of each operator through the repeatability rate, and promotes a uniform dispersion of detected points across the image plane. The performance of the evolved operators has been confirmed experimentally using training and testing sequences of progressively transformed images. Hence, the proposed GP algorithm is considered to be human-competitive for the problem of interest point detection.
Spatio-temporal interest point detectors
The Harris operator has been extended to space-time by Laptev and Lindeberg.
Let denote the spatio-temporal second-moment matrix defined by
Then, for a suitable choice of ,
spatio-temporal interest points are detected from spatio-temporal extrema of the following spatio-temporal Harris measure:
The determinant of the Hessian operator has been extended to joint space-time by Willems et al and Lindeberg, leading to the following scale-normalized differential expression:
In the work by Willems et al, a simpler expression corresponding to and was used. In Lindeberg, it was shown that and implies better scale selection properties in the sense that the selected scale levels obtained from a spatio-temporal Gaussian blob with spatial extent and temporal extent will perfectly match the spatial extent and the temporal duration of the blob, with scale selection performed by detecting spatio-temporal scale-space extrema of the differential expression.
The Laplacian operator has been extended to spatio-temporal video data by Lindeberg, leading to the following two spatio-temporal operators, which also constitute models of receptive fields of non-lagged vs. lagged neurons in the LGN:
For the first operator, scale selection properties call for using and , if we want this operator to assume its maximum value over spatio-temporal scales at a spatio-temporal scale level reflecting the spatial extent and the temporal duration of an onset Gaussian blob. For the second operator, scale selection properties call for using and , if we want this operator to assume its maximum value over spatio-temporal scales at a spatio-temporal scale level reflecting the spatial extent and the temporal duration of a blinking Gaussian blob.
Colour extensions of spatio-temporal interest point detectors have been investigated by Everts et al.
Bibliography
Reference implementations
This section provides external links to reference implementations of some of the detectors described above. These reference implementations are provided by the authors of the paper in which the detector is first described. These may contain details not present or explicit in the papers describing the features.
DoG detection (as part of the SIFT system), Windows and x86 Linux executables
Harris-Laplace, static Linux executables. Also contains DoG and LoG detectors and affine adaptation for all detectors included.
FAST detector, C, C++, MATLAB source code and executables for various operating systems and architectures.
lip-vireo, [LoG, DoG, Harris-Laplacian, Hessian and Hessian-Laplacian], [SIFT, flip invariant SIFT, PCA-SIFT, PSIFT, Steerable Filters, SPIN][Linux, Windows and SunOS] executables.
SUSAN Low Level Image Processing, C source code.
Online Implementation of the Harris Corner Detector - IPOL
See also
blob detection
affine shape adaptation
scale space
ridge detection
interest point detection
feature detection (computer vision)
Image derivative
External links
Brostow, "Corner Detection -- UCL Computer Science"
Feature detection (computer vision)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd%20Battalion%2C%2023rd%20Marines
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3rd Battalion, 23rd Marines
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3rd Battalion, 23rd Marine Regiment (3/23) is a reserve infantry battalion in the United States Marine Corps located throughout the Southern United States consisting of approximately 800 Marines and Sailors. The battalion was first formed in 1943 for service in the Central Pacific Area during World War II, taking part in a number of significant battles including those at Saipan and Iwo Jima before being deactivated at the end of the war. In the early 1960s, the unit was reactivated as a reserve battalion. The battalion is headquartered in Saint Louis, Missouri, with outlying units throughout the Southern United States. 3/23 falls under the command of the 23rd Marine Regiment and the 4th Marine Division. Recent operations have included tours in Iraq and Afghanistan.
Current units
Mission
The unit's mission is to provide a well-trained and credible force, capable of rapidly mobilizing to augment or reinforce active duty Marine Corps forces participating in missions ranging from humanitarian/peacekeeping operations to major conflicts, in time of war, national emergency or contingency operations and during peacetime to provide operation tempo relief for active forces throughout the spectrum of operations including Joint and Combined Operations. Infantry battalions are the heart and soul of the ground combat element. The mission of locating, closing with, and destroying the enemy with fire and maneuver and repelling the enemy's assault with fire and close combat lies with the "grunts". Marine infantry battalions often have limited organic equipment outside of small arms (maneuvering by foot as light infantry, and must be supplemented with additional trucks to become motorized infantry or Amphibious Assault Vehicles to become mechanized infantry).
Organization
A Marine infantry battalion is organized into three rifle companies, a weapons company, and a headquarters company. The rifle company has three or four rifle platoons and a weapons platoon with medium machineguns and mortars. The weapons company includes a heavy machinegun platoon, a mortar platoon, and an assault platoon. Sometimes, the commander will mix these into Combined Anti-Armor Teams. The headquarters company includes all command, administration, intelligence, operations, logistics, and communication Marines and equipment, as well as the battalion's Surveillance and Target Acquisition teams (which include scout snipers).
History
World War II
3rd Battalion, 23rd Marines was activated on 22 July 1942, at what is now Marine Corps Air Station New River, North Carolina. In July 1943, the battalion relocated to Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, California. In August 1943, they were assigned to 4th Marine Division. This division was formed by the organization and redesignation of several other units. The 23rd Marine Regiment began as infantry detached from the 3rd Marine Division, and an artillery battalion of the 12th Marines became the genesis of the 14th Marines and engineer elements of the 19th Marines formed the nucleus of the 20th Marines. In March the 24th Marine Regiment was organized, and then in May it was split in two to supply the men for the 25th Marines.
This war-time shuffling provided the major building blocks for 4th Marine Division. The units were originally separated, however, with the 24th Marines and a variety of reinforcing units (engineer, artillery, medical, motor transport, special weapons, tanks, etc.) at Camp Pendleton in California. The rest of the units were at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. This East Coast echelon moved to Pendleton by train and transit of the Panama Canal in July and August 1943. When all the units were finally together, the 4th Marine Division was formally activated on 14 August 1943, with Major General Harry Schmidt in command.
After intensive training, 23rd Marines shipped out on 13 January 1944, and in 13 months made four major amphibious assaults, in the battles of Kwajalein (Roi-Namur), Saipan, Tinian, and Iwo Jima, with the division suffering more than 17,000 casualties.
Roi-Namur
An account of 23rd Marines attack during the battle of Roi-Namur: "As dawn broke on D plus 1 (February 1, 1944), the LVT's waddled out of the jaws of the LST's and took up their circling, while the air strikes and naval bombardment mounted in fury. Originally, 1000 had been designated as H-hour, but, due to unforeseen difficulties (such as the lack of usable LVT's), it was changed to 1100. As It was, the first waves did not land till nearly 1200. RCT 23 attacked Roi with its strategic airfield. After the earth-shaking barrage of naval shells and aerial bombs, climaxed by a deluge of rockets fired from LCI's, opposition on Roi was comparatively light, and the 0-1 line was reached at 1217. After pulling back some over-extended units and reorganizing, RCT 23 continued the attack about 1530. The twisted steel skeletons of the hangars and the shattered remnants of the Jap planes were overrun, and the northern edge of the island was reached by 1800. All that remained was mopping up the enemy snipers who were still hiding in the drainage ditches. This was completed by the next morning, February 2, and at 0800 Roi was declared secure. The third battalions Shore Party was the Seabees of 3/20."
Saipan
For Saipan the 23rd landed on beaches blue 1 & 2. Shore party for 3/23 was the third battalion 20th Marines( 121st Seabees).
Iwo Jima
For Iwo 3/23 was commanded by Col. Shelton Scales and was the reserve Assault Battalion for Yellow Beach. They landed from the USS Lowndes (APA 154). Their assigned Shore Party was C Co. 133rd Seabees.
23rd Marine Regiment was awarded two Presidential Unit Citations and a Navy Unit Commendation, and then deactivated on 10 November 1945.
Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm
3rd Battalion, 23rd Marines was activated in Nov 1990 and deployed to Saudi Arabia for Desert Shield. 3/23 was commanded by LtCol Ray Dawson, of Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and attached to the 8th Marine Regiment of the 2nd Marine Division and deployed along the Kuwait/Saudi Arabian border conducting patrolling and security operations. 2 days before G-Day, 3/23 attacked into Kuwait at Umm Gudair to secure forward artillery positions for the support of the attack into Kuwait. With this action, 3/23 became the first unit of the 2nd Marine Division to enter combat since World War II. 3/23 continued to advance as part of 8th Marines, fighting actions into Kuwait City when the ceasefire was called.
Detailed synopsis of 3/23 Desert Storm Assault
3d Battalion, 23d Marines was assigned the G-Day missions of (1) providing security in the division zone forward of the Saudi defensive berm, which was located on the Saudi-Kuwait border, prior to G-Day; (2) passing through the breach lanes, and: (3) clearing its zone of action to support the attack north, and (4) screening to the northeast in order to allow 3d Battalion, 10th Marines (3/10) to establish artillery firing positions to provide preparation fires for offensive operations. Phase One was the conduct of the route reconnaissance by TOWs, heavy machine guns (HMG), combat engineers, snipers, and artillery reconnaissance assets. Phase Two was the introduction of one motorized infantry company, the battalion command element, and the 81 mm mortar platoon in the forward sector. The motorized company would be placed in a blocking position oriented northwest, facing possible Iraqi units being flushed out by 2nd LAR screening to the northwest. The teams were tasked to position themselves between the Iraqi defenses and friendly artillery to screen the Iraqi forward defensive belt, and orient to the northeast. Phase Three would be the movement of the artillery units to their firing positions on 23 February 1991, G-1, under the cover of darkness.
On 22 February 1991 (G-Day minus two), 3/23 commenced combat operations as bulldozers cut three gaps in the Saudi berm to allow 3/23 and 3/10 to execute their missions. Approximately halfway through Phase One, the 8th Marines further tasked 3/23 to provide a Forward Air Controller close to the Iraqi defenses to control an air strike on a pumping station in the Umm Gudair oil field, which had been determined to be a high priority target. This required the 81 mm mortar element to move forward of their assigned position in order to range the target for back-up marking capability. A number of Iraqi infantry and trucks were observed in and around the Iraqi trench line. In the waning daylight of 22 February 1991, the Iraqis were engaged by the forward 3/23 81 mm mortars. Simultaneously, the 3/23 Forward Air Controller (FAC) attempted to direct close air support (CAS) onto the assigned target. However, smoke and haze from the burning oil field obscured the target from the FAC, making laser designation impossible. Company I 3/23 quickly and effectively searched and cleared a large compound located forward of the Iraqi defenses discovering that, although unoccupied, it had been recently used by Iraqi forces as a major supply cache and observation point. The compound was prepared for demolition by combat engineers, and subsequently completely destroyed. Artillery fire was requested on the Iraqi defenses and Battery F, 2/14 responded as well as organic 3/23 81 mm mortar fire. The direct fire capability of 3/23 combined with the indirect fire destroyed five BTR-60s, three BDRMS, eight tanks (T-55/T-62) and inflicted approximately 52 Iraqi KIAs. 10-20 Iraqis emerged from their trenches and made their way through their minefields to members of the 81 mm mortar platoon, 3/23 quickly mobilized enemy prisoners of war (POW) processing teams which sped the POWs to the rear. The POWs were determined to be from the Iraqi 1st Battalion, 83d Brigade, 29th Infantry Division. Ultimately, the battalion captured 238 POWs, to include an Iraqi Battalion Commander, and sustained no friendly casualties.
At 0615 on 25 February 1991, G+1, 3/23 passed through the breach with 8th Marines, with the bulk of the battalion mounted on M923 5-ton trucks. During the execution of this part of the operation, Company H capture 20 POWs, sustaining no friendly casualties. 3/23 was directed to continue the movement to contact north with 8th Marines as the motorized battalion reserve. The 8th Marine Regimental Commander's intent was to utilize 3/23 for an envelopment, blocking force, MOUT operations, MSE security, flank screen/security, or POW security. As the tactical situation developed during the movement to contact on G+1, it became evident that 2d Marine Division was outdistancing 1st Marine Division, creating a gap between the two divisions. 3/23 was assigned the mission of providing flank security for the eastern flank of 2d Marine Division and 1/5 on the western flank of 1st Marine Division. As the battalion continued north to re-establish contact with 1/8 after being slowed down by NBC alerts, the main body of the battalion received fire from a farm complex to its right front. Upon receiving incoming small arms rounds, Company H deployed to clear its zone of sniper and harassing fire. The Iraqis broke contact and the battalion prepared to continue its movement north. Upon observing armored vehicles through the TOW thermal sights, the thermal signatures of at least nine Iraqis were identified. 3/23 was cleared to engage and destroy. Direct fire weapons were used to destroy a number of enemy vehicles. The exact number of kills could not be determined due to the darkness, smoke, and numerous secondary explosions; however, it was readily apparent that these vehicles had been well stocked with munitions.
At 2330 on 26 February 1991, 3/23 was subsequently directed to continue clearing the farm complex from which fire had been received the previous day. The number of Iraqi troops in the area was still undetermined due to the large number of bunkers and buildings in the complex. 8th Marine Regimental headquarters dispatched tanks from Company C, 4th Tank Battalion, and directed that the tanks lead the infantry sweep order to minimize possible friendly casualties. At 1400, the tank platoon engaged at least eight enemy tanks. The secondary explosion of an enemy vehicle caused one WIA and one KIA from 4th Tank Battalion. The operation was ceased and the battalion was directed to be prepared to execute the clearing mission in Al Shadadiyah, Kuwait the following day. The total Battle Damage Assessment (BDA) at the farm complex to that point was the destruction of 12 BMPs, two BRDMs, 9 T-62 tanks, two T-72 tanks, and one ammunition bunker. 3/23 moved further northeast to an assembly area in preparation for execution of the Al Shadadiyah MOUT operation. On their way, the lead element of the main body, Company I, came under sniper and RPG fire. Company I immediately returned fire. Company H, in the rear of the column, was immediately directed to conduct an infantry sweep of the area from which fire had been received. At 0800 on 28 February 1991, G+4, offensive hostilities were officially suspended. 3rd Battalion 23rd Marines were directed by 8th Marines to return to the farm complex with an infantry force, sweep the area, and then move combat engineers in to destroy the balance of remaining enemy equipment.
After September 11
Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom 2003-2008
3/23 was mobilized on 5 March 2003, and deployed to Iraq with the 2nd Marine Division's Task Force Tarawa located in Al Kut. Commanded by LtCol David Couvillon of Brusly, Louisiana, 3/23 conducted a relief-in-place with Task Force Tarawa, becoming responsible for the entire Wasit Province of Iraq. Subsequently attached to the 1st Marine Division, 3/23 conducted Stability and Security Operations (SASO) through August, 2003. LtCol Couvillon, acting also as Military Provincial Governor, and the Marines of 3/23 (supported by Marine and Army Civil Affairs Groups, as well as an Army Military Police Company) set about reestablishing government services, security actions, humanitarian actions, border security (Iraq/Iran), and general governance until relieved by a Ukrainian Infantry Brigade in September, 2003.
3/23 was mobilized for Operation Iraqi Freedom on 17 May 2007. They were then stationed in Camp Lejeune, NC to begin training for upcoming Combat Operations in Al Anbar, Iraq. 3/23 and all supporting units deployed to Haditha, Iraq, in late September, 2007, conducting Counter-IED Operations, patrols, convoys, raids, and basic Support and Stability Operations throughout Haditha and surrounding Al Anbar areas until April, 2008, when they returned to the United States and demobilized.
Africa in 2009
3/23 deployed to Morocco and the Republic of Benin, West Africa, during May and June 2009 for annual training. They participated in Exercise African Lion and Shared Accord 2009. The mission of the Marine Corps, under command of Marine Forces Africa (United States Africa Command), was to provide security for humanitarian operations and train side-by-side with their Moroccan counterparts, the Royal Moroccan Armed Forces, and the Republic of Benin Armed Forces. Exercise African Lion is an annually scheduled, joint, combined U.S.-Moroccan exercise. It brings together nearly 2,000 U.S. service members from locations throughout Europe and North America with more than 900 members of the Royal Moroccan Armed Forces. It is the largest exercise within the U.S. Africa Command area of responsibility, and is designed to promote interoperability and mutual understanding of each nation's military tactics, techniques and procedures.
Hurricane Katrina
The headquarters for 3rd Battalion, 23rd Marine Regiment, was caught in the middle of Hurricane Katrina in late 2005. The majority of the battalions members were authorized to provide security for their families and leave the immediate area. A contingent of Marines from 3/23 volunteered to stay behind and assist the local community, as well as act as a liaison for the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit, who was deployed to the region to assist with disaster relief.
Notable former members
Private First Class Clinton M. Adcock, Navy Cross
Private First Class Josiah Scott Bell, Navy Cross
Private First Class Douglas T. Jacobson, Medal of Honor
Howard Johnson, killed in action during the Battle of Iwo Jima
Jamey Johnson
Frank Gambino, Navy Cross
Gunnery Sergeant Addies S. McGinn, Jr., Navy Cross
John H. Yancey, circa 1946-1950
Corporal Cook, Steven E., Navy Achievement Medal
Awards
Presidential Unit Citation (World War II)(I MEF Iraq 2003)
Navy Unit Commendation with three Bronze Stars (World War II, Desert Storm, II MEF Iraq 2007)
National Defense Medal with two Bronze Stars (World War II, Desert Storm, War on Terror)
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with 4 Arrowheads (World War II)
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation 1990-91
Southwest Asia Service Medal with two Bronze Stars (Desert Shield, Desert Storm)
Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal (Iraq 2003)
Global War on Terrorism Service Medal
Iraq Campaign Medal with three Bronze Stars (2003-2008)
Kuwait Liberation (Saudi Arabia)
Kuwait Liberation (Kuwait)
Combat Action Ribbon (Desert Storm)
Navy Sea Service Deployment Ribbon (Desert Storm, Afghanistan)
Afghanistan Campaign Medal with one Bronze Star (2018)
Joint Meritorious Unit Citation (Afghanistan)
See also
List of United States Marine Corps battalions
Organization of the United States Marine Corps
23rd Marine Regiment (United States)
Headquarters Company 23d Marines (HQ/23) - San Bruno, California
1st Battalion, 23rd Marines (1/23) - Ellington Field, Texas
2nd Battalion, 23rd Marines (2/23) - Pasadena, California
2nd Battalion, 24th Marines (2/24) - Chicago, Illinois
Truck Company 23rd Marines - Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada
Combat Logistics Battalion 23 formerly 4th Landing Support Battalion (aka the 4th Pioneers)
Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 133
Seabees
Notes
References
Web
3/23's official website
RazorbackMarines.com - India Company's online forum
External links
Report on 3/23 in Iraq from NOLA.com
globalsecurity.org
marineparents.com
lewrockwell.com
4th Marine Division (United States)
Infantry battalions of the United States Marine Corps
1942 establishments in North Carolina
Military units and formations of the Iraq War
Units and formations of the United States in the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Masked%20Rider%20monsters
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List of Masked Rider monsters
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In Masked Rider, Count Dregon has monsters called Insectovores which he uses in his plots. They are kept in jars which come to life when they are launched from the Spiderbase.
Monster List
Here is a list of monsters used by Count Dregon and his minions:
Destructosphere
First Appearance: "Escape from Edenoi" Pt. 1 (9/16/95)
Voice Actor: Rudy Luzion
A grotesque grasshopper humanoid with the ability to change into a ball or a spike. Destructosphere was the first monster sent after Dex, when he arrived on Earth. Prior to the attack, Destructosphere was a sphere dropped to Earth by Count Dregon, in a scrapyard where he absorbed some junk to create his body. He proved very strong, but was defeated by Dex and his Rider Kick attack.
Beetletron
First Appearance: "Escape from Edenoi" Pt. 2 (9/16/95)
Voice Actor: Richard George
A large robot with hand-mounted cannons and tank treads instead of legs and feet. He spoke in a robotic monotone. His mission was to eliminate Combat Chopper and Magno so Dex could be outnumbered by Dregon's forces. He can attack with the guns on his body called Beetle Blasters. Combat Chopper tried to attack it and failed. He had Dex in a pinch until Magno rammed him and later knocked him on his side. He was the first to be destroyed by Dex's energy sword the Electro Saber.
Larvatron
First Appearance: "License to Thrill" (9/23/95)
Voice Actor: Billy Matsuda
A robotic Insectovore that impersonated Dex's driving instructor Mr. Li (portrayed by Billy Matsuda too). He can attack with his laser cannon arm and shoot a red beam from the red part of his head. Passing off as Mr. Li, Larvatron tried to run Dex over, but Dex held onto the car until he found a safe place to let go. After Larvatron dropped his disguise, Dex became Masked Rider and severed the robot's head with the Rider Kick. However, Larvatron had a backup head: a powerful four-way cannon. He fired the cannons on Dex, who then enlisted the aid of Combat Chopper. While on Combat Chopper, Dex managed to destroy him with his Electro Saber.
Mandible
First Appearance: "Pet Nappers" (9/30/95)
Voice Actor: Gardner Baldwin
A cactus-like monster with jaw-like pincers who assisted Nefaria and Gork in Count Dregon's plan to capture Ferbus and steal the Masked Rider powers. It can emit a vine from its mouth and launch its jaw-like pincers. Once Dex rescued Ferbus, he engaged Mandible and Gork in battle. When he got caught on Mandible's vine, he called for Combat Chopper and broke free from his vine. While riding on Combat Chopper, Dex destroyed Mandible with his Electro Saber. Fits the category of Gork's monsters.
Mothitron
First Appearance: "Bugs on the Loose" (10/7/95)
Voice Actor: Glen McDougal
A three-eyed green moth monster who has the ability to use moths to turn humans into Insectovores. He can also shoot lasers from his eye and wrap anyone in his long tongue. Count Dregon had Nefaria send the Maggots to lure Hal and Albee towards Mothitron during their bug hunt. Once that plan worked, Mothitron used his moths to infect the two of them. Slowly, Hal and Albee, who were immobilized by the attack, took on the characteristics of an Insectovore (claws, green skin, bug eyes, etc.). Ferbus, though, was able to escape and warn Dex. Using a butterfly Ferbus had caught, Dex created an antidote. As Masked Rider, Dex took Magno and the antidote to Hal and Albee's location, but then he was ambushed by Mothitron. During the battle, Magno tackled Mothitron and took Masked Rider to the cave. Once inside, while looking for Hal and Albee, Dex was attacked by Mothitron again. Dex chopped off Mothitron's tongue, but Mothitron still overwhelmed Dex. Magno tunneled into the cave to save Dex. Magno tackled Mothitron before Dex destroyed him with the Electro Saber and used the antidote to restore Hal and Albee.
Crimson Creeper
First Appearance: "Arcade Ace" (10/14/95)
Voice Actor: Steve Cassling
A black-haired crab monster with a strong-clawed right arm. He also has a toxic breath attack. While Dex was helping Albee train to beat the arcade ace Henry Wall, Count Dregon sent Crimson Creeper down with Double Face to capture Dex in order to steal the Masked Rider powers. Dex fought both of them in the first battle and called upon Combat Chopper for help. During a challenge against Henry Wall, Combat Chopper alerted Dex that Magno detected the Crimson Creeper attacking an amusement park. Dex chopped off Crimson Creeper's arm before he used his toxic breath on him. Dex counter-attacked with the Rider Kick before destroying Crimson Creeper with the Electro Saber.
Robo Rider
First Appearance: "Super Gold" Pt. 1 (10/28/95)
Actor: Winston Story
Dex's friend Donais was sent to Earth to give him the Super Gold upgrade. However, Donais was captured by the Maggots and taken to the Spiderbase, where he was then brainwashed into becoming Dregon's loyal servant. Dregon had been working on an artificial Masked Rider power, but it was too dangerous to test on himself, so he used it on Donais to turn him into Robo Rider. Robo Rider was silver and black with green eyes. He also held two swords in battle. Robo Rider attacked the school causing Dex to transform and fight him. Robo Rider retreated and confronted Count Dregon on why he sent Edentada down to Earth. After attacking Gork, Count Dregon instructed Robo Rider to keep the Edentada in its cave...which Robo Rider does. After Masked Rider escapes the cave that Edentada was in, Robo Rider attacked as Masked Rider warns him that Edentada is starting to make the area destabilized. In order to defeat Robo Rider, Masked Rider used the Rider Kick on him. Dex was then able to defeat Robo Rider by slashing him with the Electro Saber thus breaking the spell over Donais and returning him back to normal.
Edentada
First Appearance: "Super Gold" Pt. 2 (11/4/95)
Voice Actor: Bob Papenbrook
A savage anteater-like creature with crab-like claws. Edentada is a creature that feasted on Edenoites and acquired their powers. The Edentada was a fierce digger. Count Dregon had absolutely no control over the creature. Under Gork's suggestion, he launched it during Masked Rider's fight with Robo Rider. Robo Rider was instructed to keep Edentada in its cave. During the confrontation, Robo Rider forced it back in the cave. It starts to cause earthquakes when it starts to get hungry for Masked Rider causing Count Dregon to send Nefaria to stop its hunger strike. Masked Rider finds the cave that Edentada is in and fights it before Nefaria arrives with Cyclopter, Double Face, and Gork to bring Edentada back. However, Edentada attacked them which caused some magma to be released. As Masked Rider headed to the surface, Edentada started digging fast causing the entire area to become destabilized. After defeating Robo Rider and obtaining the Super Gold powers, Dex transformed into Masked Rider and then transforms into his Super Gold form to fight Edentada. Dex discovers that Edentada has planted a bomb. After disarming the bomb, Dex had Combat Chopper tackle Edentada. Dex then used his Ecto-Ray blaster to destroy Edentada.
Termasect
First Appearance: "The Grandma Factor" (11/11/95)
Voice Actor: John C. Hyke
A blue robotic monster who can shoot lasers from his eyes and fingers. After the Maggots mistakenly capture the Stewarts' grandmother instead of Molly and Albee, Grandma Stewart mistook the case that Termasect was in for trash and discarded it down the launch tube (which she thought was a garbage disposal) sending it down to Earth. Cycloptor said that it would be out of control, but Count Dregon says that he'll see how Termasect does with Masked Rider. Dex as the Masked Rider found Termasect and confronted him. After an attack from Termasect, Dex changed into his Super Gold form and summoned Combat Chopper (who was then transformed into Super Chopper). Dex sliced off Termasect's right hand while on Super Chopper (who blasted bullets from its exhausts) and then destroyed him with his Ecto-Ray.
Slimeasect
First Appearance: "The Grandma Factor" (11/11/95)
Voice Actor: Ross Bolen
A slithering grayish-white blob-like monster with tentacles for arms and a giant mouth in his midsection. Outside of his ability to turn into fast-moving slime and shoot steam from his mouth, he was known to eat anything. In order to kidnap Molly and Albee, Count Dregon launched the Slimeasect to help the Maggots. Unfortunately, the Maggots mistakenly kidnapped the Stewarts' grandmother. Following Termasect's destruction, Count Dregon had Nefaria place Grandma Stewart (who accidentally got petrified) near Slimeasect as bait. Dex arrived at the scene as Masked Rider and battled Slimeasect. When Slimeasect started to eat him, Dex called Magno whom Slimeasect moved out of the way of. After Dex destroyed Slimeasect with the Electro Saber, he restored his family's grandmother.
Recyclotron
First Appearance: "Something's Trashy" (11/18/95)
Voice Actor: Sparky Thornton
During a clean-up campaign in Leawood, Cyclopter's Reanimator Ray revived a fallen robot called Cyclotron. When upgraded to Recyclotron, his head was modified with a cooling helmet that kept the monster from overheating (which was the one flaw that led to his destruction in an earlier fight with Masked Rider). In addition to interchangeable arms, leg cannons, and metallic wrappings emitted from a compartment in his torso, he also had the power to control any electrical appliance. Using two cars, he seemingly killed Masked Rider with a missile launched from his right leg cannon. Recyclotron then attacked Leawood with reanimated appliances. Hal took it upon himself to go after Recyclotron with a Catho-Destabilizer weapon he invented. Unfortunately for Hal, Recyclotron took control of the Catho-Destabilizer until Masked Rider arrived. After a fierce fight, Dex managed to kick off his cooling helmet and knock him down with the Rider Kick. Dex then destroyed Recyclotron with the Electro Saber.
Fire Bug
First Appearance: "Water Water Everywhere" (11/25/95)
Voice Actor: Paul Schrier
A robotic monster that can manipulate fire. Double Face and Fact had created a chemical that when mixed with water will form a toxic mist that takes over the minds of whoever breathes it. In the event that Dex traces the toxic mist to the factory, Double Face prepared Fire Bug to fight him. When the Stewarts were at the community pool for the day, everyone but Dex got affected. Dex transformed into Masked Rider and used Magno to trace the mist back to the source. Dex engaged Fire Bug at the factory. Fire Bug dragged Dex into a room where it started a fire. Dex transformed into his Super Gold form making him immune to the heat. After breaking out of the room, Dex destroyed Fire Bug with his Ecto-Ray and stopped the gas flow.
Hydrasect/Arachnida
First Appearance: "Stranger from the North" (1/27/96)
Actor: Balinda English (Hydrasect, U.S. Footage)
Voice Actor: Andrea Harmon
Hydrasect is a colorful female bee-like monster with wings on her head. Hydrasect had the ability to fly with her wings and shoot needles from her hands. When Nefaria told Count Dregon that they need an Insectivore that is cunning, Count Dregon considered using a shapeshifter called Hydrasect. When launched from the Spiderbase, Nefaria, the Maggots and later some Commandoids accompanied Hydrasect to monitor the progress. The Commandoids mistook a Scandislavian exchange student named Bjorgy as Dex (due to him wearing one of Dex's Jackets) and took him to the quarry where Hydrasect was waiting. Upon learning this, Dex transformed and went after them. When Bjorgy encountered Hydrasect, she thought he was Dex until he arrived. While Bjorgy hid, Dex engaged Hydrasect and managed to knock out her out of the sky for a short time. Upon throwing Dex into her chamber, Hydrasect shapeshifted into an even more powerful form known as Arachnida: a large 4-legged inhuman female drider who had a set of spider legs on her back and two spider legs for a left arm. Arachnida could shoot strong webbing to entangle Masked Rider. The monster was unlike any Dex ever encountered. During combat with Arachnida, he learned that her spider legs were hollow. By snapping one, it instantly killed her.
Robosect
First Appearance: "Dance Crazy" (2/3/96)
Voice Actor: Scott Page-Pagter
A robotic insectoid monster. He wields a laser pistol, has powerful punches, can detach the blades on his back to use as weapons (and throw them as if they were boomerangs), and can shoot a beam from his forehead. Robosect was dispatched to capture Dex when he was preparing for a dance contest. He was modified with a Red Fusion Bomb that will activate the Spiderbase's tractor beam that will bring Robosect and Dex up to the Spiderbase. Dex encounters Robosect outside of Leawood High School and transforms into Masked Rider. During the fight, Dex ends up hitting the Red Fusion Beam and ends up in the Spiderbase's tractor beam with Robosect. Dex broke free from Robosect's grasp only to be blasted from the tractor beam by Robosect. After being located by Ferbus, Magno, and Combat Chopper, Dex is informed by Magno that Robosect is detected in the sub-basement of Leawood's Ancient History Museum. Dex ends up fighting Robosect in the museum's sub-basement and gets overwhelmed. Dex transforms into his Super Gold form and knocks Robosect down. After trying to get Robosect to surrender, Dex uses his Ecto-Ray to destroy Robosect.
The Skull Reapers
First Appearance: "The Green-Eyed Monster" (2/10/96)
Voice Actors: Mike Reynolds (Skull Reaper #1), Kirk Thornton (Skull Reaper #2 and Skull Reaper #3)
Three Grim Reaper-based monsters. The leader had two long horns coming out from its hood while the other two didn't. The leader could also blast an electric forcefield from his scythe to bind Dex in battle. In Count Dregon's latest attempt to steal the Masked Rider powers, Double Face stumbled upon an idea to use a tractor beam to bring Dex up to the Spiderbase. To help out, Count Dregon has Nefaria have the Skull Reapers "escort" Dex into the tractor beam. When Ferbus is left behind at the motocross park, Dex heads there to save him only to be ambushed by the Skull Reapers. This tactic works as Dex ends up a prisoner of Count Dregon. Upon learning of Dex's capture, Magno and Combat Chopper emit some energy to overload the Spiderbase enough for Dex to escape. Count Dregon orders his minions to send the Skull Reapers down to help recapture Dex. As the Skull Reapers show up on their motorcycles, Dex transforms and fights them on board Combat Chopper. After knocking the Skull Reapers off their motorcycles, Dex is bound by the lead Skull Reaper's attack. Magno discovers that the Skull Reapers can't stand water and tells this to Dex. Dex manages to trick them into following him into the pond which resulted in their disintegration. In "The Heat is On," two Skull Reapers helped Heliotoid fight Dex until they were knocked down by Magno.
Heliotoid
First Appearance: "The Heat is On" (2/17/96)
Voice Actor: Ed Neal
A robotic insectoid monster whose heat manipulation abilities caused an immense heat wave which caused Ferbus to fall ill. Heliotoid does this by getting its energy from the sun in which Count Dregon hopes that Heliotoid will become strong enough to destroy Masked Rider. To counteract with Count Dregon's plot, Hal started inventing the Quantum Cooler to help make things cooler. To keep it from being complete and thwarting Heliotoid, Nefaria and the Maggots were sent to make sure it isn't completed which doesn't go well for the Maggots. When Heliotoid has gathered enough energy, Count Dregon has Nefaria send Heliotoid to attack. Dex detected Heliotoid attacking the power plant and transforms. Upon fighting him and two Skull Reapers, Dex fought them alongside Magno and Combat Chopper. Upon fighting Heliotoid, Dex transformed into his Super Gold form where Heliotoid's solar attacks wouldn't work on him. Heliotoid locked his arms around Masked Rider so that the sun could weaken him. Masked Rider broke free and destroy Heliotoid with his Ecto-Ray.
Electrosect
First Appearance: "Know Your Neighbor" (2/24/96)
Voice Actor: Steve Cassling
A black and white robot with the ability to harness electricity. He had two long bowed horns on his head and a sword, all of which served as lightning rods. Count Dregon was furious to see the Stewarts on a televised game show called "Know Your Neighbor" against the Carbunkle family. For that, he had the Maggots lure Dex to Cycloptor so that he can take him on in battle. After the first fight, Count Dregon sent Electrosect down to assist Cycloptor. During the second fight, Dex fought Cycloptor and Electrosect. While Cycloptor retreated, Electrosect started to drain Dex of his powers. Dex transformed into his Super Gold form and broke off Electrosect's left horn. Dex then used the Ecto-Ray to destroy Electrosect.
Tentaclon
First Appearance: "The Dash" (2/24/96)
Voice Actor: Mike Reynolds
A squid/jellyfish-like monster with many offense-capable tentacles and a teleportation ability. When Count Dregon notices Dex using his powers to race to school, Double Face comes up with a plan which involved a Mass-Molecular Transfer Machine that they claimed from one of the planets Count Dregon conquered as well as a powerful crystal. To assist in a plot to capture the population of Leawood and enslave them on Edenoi, Count Dregon unleashed Tentaclon to hide the machine from Dex until it was ready. When Dex detected the activity, he arrived only to be ambushed by the Maggots unleashed by Tentaclon. After the Maggots were defeated, Tentaclon attacked. After a brief fight, Tentaclon disappeared alongside the Maggots, the Commandoids, and the Mass-Molecular Transfer Machine. When the crystal was charged up, Tentaclon had the Commandoids install the crystal into the Mass-Molecular Transfer Machine. When the test run is complete, it is sensed by Dex who manages to slip away. Dex ended up fighting Tentaclon again who kept teleporting in battle. When Tentaclon gets Dex in his tentacles, Combat Chopper saves Dex. When Tentaclon disappears again, Combat Chopper managed to detect him. Upon learning this, Dex dodged Tentaclon and used the Rider Kick on Tentaclon. Once Tentaclon was destroyed by the Electro Saber, the Mass-Molecular Transfer Machine was destroyed.
Blue-Fanged Louse
First Appearance: "Battle of the Bands" (4/27/96)
Voice Actor: Ross Bolen
A louse monster that can drain energy from any machinery with its mouth-like hands and occasion discharge them as an attack. When Count Dregon learned that Dex was participating in a band contest at the Cosmos Arcade, Count Dregon had Gork unleash the Blue-Fanged Louse to drain the power out of various objects. Dex detected Blue-Fanged Louse at the power plant and became Masked Rider to fight him. Dex managed to get overwhelmed by Blue-Fanged Louse even when Dex's Rider Kick energy is absorbed. When it absorbed the Masked Rider powers upon Gork's arrival, it was too much for the Blue-Fanged Louse enough to regress it to the size of a louse. This enabled Dex to get away on Magno. Upon hearing a suggestion from Gork, Dregon sent Blue-Fanged Louse and three Commandoids incognito as a band named "Battle Cry" at the Battle of the Bands contest. Battle Cry's music was causing immense tremors around the arcade. Dex discovered their true forms and cut the power enough for Blue-Fanged Louse and the Commandoids to escape. When Dex catches up to them, Blue-Fanged Louse assumes his true form and ends up attacking the city as it absorbs the energy attacks from the Spiderbase. Dex transforms and fights Blue-Fanged Louse. Upon discovering a flaw in Blue-Fanged Louse's ability, Dex then used a combination of the Rider Kick and the Electro Saber to cut off Blue-Fanged Louse's left arm before finishing him off with the Electro Saber.
Cyborsect
First Appearance: "Ferbus Maximus" (5/4/96)
Voice Actor: Lex Lang
A gray humanoid robot monster whom Dregon called his favorite monster. He could launch his fist like a powerful missile in battle. Following a battle between Dex and Cycloptor on his Cannon Wheels motorcycle, Count Dregon decides to have Cyborsect assist Cycloptor in the next battle. As a diversion, Nefaria disguises the root of the Ball Tree of Edenoi (which has some side effects on Ferbus' kind) as a cupcake to deal with Ferbus. While the Stewarts try to coral Ferbus even when he grows, Dex and Combat Chopper end up fighting Cycloptor on his upgraded Cannon Wheels. When Dex is on the defensive, Count Dregon sends Cyborsect to assist Cycloptor. The attacks of Cyborsect and Cycloptor's Cannon Wheels was enough to knock Dex off of Combat Chopper. Dex called on Magno to get him and Combat Chopper away from Cycloptor and Cyborsect. Upon finding out that Ferbus has grown large, Dex sends Magno and Combat Chopper after Ferbus while Dex confronted Cycloptor and Cyborsect. Dex then transformed into Super Gold and quickly destroyed Cyborsect with his Ecto-Ray before doing the same to Cannon Wheels.
Tripron
First Appearance: "Unmasked Rider" (6/15/96)
Voice Actor: Lemoine Stutler
A red robotic monster that originally appeared as its three components: Tripron Units 1-3. Tripron Unit 1 can shoot an energy beam from its antennae. Together, they can become a united version of Tripron who can attack with the circle on its head. When Nefaria finds out that Patsy is a distraction to Dex, she plans to use this and persuades Count Dregon to let her use Tripron: the first of the new mutant strain. Count Dregon launches Tripron down to Earth. Meanwhile, Donais comes back to Earth to give Dex the Super Blue upgrade. While Donais works on the upgrade, Dex traces Tripron's signal and ends up attacked by the Tripron Units. After Donais arrived upon completing the upgrade, Dex transforms only to be captured by Nefaria. She and Tripron trapped Dex in a room with spikes on the walls that are closing in on him. Using his Super Blue powers to get out through the dripping water on the ceiling, Dex ends up taking down the Commandoids as Nefaria unleashes Tripron who combine to attack Dex. Dex calls for Combat Chopper (who was then transformed into Ultra Chopper). After ramming Tripron, Dex defeated Tripron with his new power sword the Blue Saber attack.
Turtletron
First Appearance: "Ferbus' Day Out" (6/22/96)
Voice Actor: R. Martin Klein
A turtle monster. He can bite, launch its neck and head out to constrict, and shoot sparks out of his mouth. Turtletron went down to battle Dex on Earth alongside Double Face. Double Face wanted to test his new "Super Sword" and Dregon wanted to make sure Double Face would succeed. When Dex was at a restaurant with his family, he gets a private visit from Combat Chopper who had detected Turtletron by the river. Dex transforms and attacks Turtletron. After a Rider Kick on Turtletron, Double Face arrived to assist causing Dex to retreat. During the second fight, Dex transformed into his Super Blue form and fought Double Face and Turtletron. When Dex's leg was being bitten by Turtletron, he turned into water to escape. Dex then brought out his Blue Saber to disarm Double Face. Double Face retreated ordering Turtletron to finish off Dex. When Turtletron launches his head and neck out to attack, Masked Rider used his Blue Saber to destroy it before using it to finish off Turtletron.
Liquisect
First Appearance: "Jobless" (6/29/96)
Voice Actor: Brad Orchard
A monster that could liquefy himself and shapeshift into a shadow-like form. Upon reviewing Dex's second forms, Count Dregon wonders why he doesn't have an Insectivore that can liquify. Cycloptor reminds him that they have Liquisect and plan the right time to use him. When they learn that Dex has gotten a job at the Cosmos Arcade, Count Dregon decides to take the opportunity to use Liquisect by having him disguised as a grape soda which is planted at the Cosmos Arcade. When it spills, Dex follows Liquisect's liquified form to the boat yard. Dex transforms into Masked Rider and manages to knock him down with the Rider Kick. Liquisect shapeshifts into a shadow and ambushes Dex. After Dex broke free, Liquisect escaped after being knocked down by Magno. To lure Dex into a trap, Count Dregon sent the Maggots to capture Hal and Ferbus and place them in a warehouse where Gork has placed a bomb. When Dex locates the warehouse where Hal and Ferbus are tied up in, Liquisect ambushes Dex who then transforms. When Liquisect transforms into his shadow form, Dex uses his Ecto-Accelerator to materialize Liquisect. Dex manages to land a Rider Kick on Liquisect. When Liquisect liquifies again, Dex turns into his Super Blue mode to follow him. Upon catching up to Liquisect, Dex destroys him with the Blue Saber before freeing Hal and Ferbus with Magno's aid.
Water Bug
First Appearance: "Back To Nature" (7/6/96)
Voice Actor: Kim Strauss
A brown lobster-like monster with octopus tentacles on his hips and smaller ones for hair. He can shoot lasers from his claws. When the Stewart Family planned a camping trip, Nefaria tells Count Dregon that she'll use Water Bug in her plan. She plans to use Water Bug to carry a bomb on a boat which will explode once it is under the Leawood Bay Bridge. Nefaria sent an invitation to Dex to bring him to the boat which Water Bug will be on. Dex in his Masked Rider form caught up with Water Bug on the boat heading toward Leawood Bay Bridge. Dex detected a bomb in Water Bug's hidden pocket. During the fight, Dex turned into his Super Blue form and used his Blue Saber to cut open Water Bug's hidden pocket and dispose of the bomb. Water Bug escaped into the water with Dex not far behind. Upon following it to land, Dex is ambushed by Water Bug and ends up in a power drain beam planted there by Count Dregon. Dex used the Blue Saber to destroy the power drain beam. Dex then destroyed Water Bug with the Rider Kick.
Fleazoid
First Appearance: "Testing 1, 2, 3" (7/13/96)
Voice Actor: Dorothy Elias-Fahn
A purplish flea-like alien with a red attachable/detachable exoskeleton that it controls. Nerfaria's plan was to get Chalmers to uncover Dex's true identity. However, her plan was far from successful. Dregon then lost patience and sent Gork and the Fleazoid monster to attack the Leawood Electronics Plants. Dex escaped Chalmers' testing facility and battled Fleazoid, but was also greeted by a small army of Commandoids with bazookas. The Commandoids blasted/bound Dex with plastic making him immobile to Fleazoid's attacks. Dex managed to turn to Super Blue to escape from Fleazoid, then defeated him with the Blue Saber.
Twister Bug
First Appearance: "Showdown at Leawood High" (7/20/96)
Voice Actor: Chuck Kovacic
A red and black humanoid ant with long white hair that was loyal to Gork. Twister Bug could cause tornadoes and other disastrous winds by simply twirling himself in circles. Combat Chopper notifies Dex that Twister Bug is causing trouble at the park. During Dex's first confrontation, his Super Gold form proved useless against Twister Bug as the monster clogged all of Dex's joints with dirt. As Super Blue, Dex could easily maneuver against Twister Bug who managed to escape. During their second fight at the quarry, Twister Bug almost had Dex in his Super Blue form trapped by burying him alive in a large ant hill. Magno raced to save the day by running down Twister Bug and plowing Dex free from the ant hill. Dex escaped from the anthill and knocked down Twister Bug with his liquified attack. Upon deactivating the Super Blue mode, Dex defeated Twister Bug with the Electro Saber.
Boulder Beetle
First Appearance: "Power Out" (7/27/96)
Voice Actor: Brad Orchard
A plant-covered rock monster that wore an orange loincloth. He can manipulate soil, split into rocks, and launch the rocks on his body. Boulder Beetle's heart had the power to emit Negative Proton Rays and can even allow him to regenerate. Nefaria wanted Boulder Beetle to use his Negative Proton Rays on Dex making the mission easier for Dregon. She set a trap for Dex by causing an explosion in Leawood Canyon. When Dex finds the hole, he is pulled under by Boulder Beetle and is grabbed the hands on the walls. Dex breaks free and transforms into Masked Rider. Dex broke free from the arms on the walls by turning into Super Blue. But after escaping from underground, Dex's Super Blue powers turned off. Dex eventually escaped on Combat Chopper. Later, Dex was given a recharge from Magno, Chopper and King Lexian to make him immune to Boulder Beetle's effect. When Nefaria sends Boulder Beetle on the attack, his Negative Proton Rays had no effect on Dex. Boulder Beetle was finally destroyed when Dex's Rider Kick hit him directly in his glowing stone heart.
Reptosect
First Appearance: "Power Out" (7/27/96)
Voice Actor: Ezra Weisz
Double Face was jealous that Nefaria and Boulder Beetle was picked over his plan. He called upon Reptosect, a green lizard/mantis monster with black hair and big steel teeth to assist him in battle. He can detach the blades on its back to throw them and use them as weapons. After Boulder Beetle's destruction, Reptosect stepped in with Double Face (who was wielding a War Saber). When Dex transformed into his Super Gold form, he broke Double Face's War Saber before destroying Reptosect with the Ecto-Ray.
Ultivore
First Appearance: "Saturday Morning Invasion" (9/9/96)
Voice Actor: Alonzo Bodden
A gold, cybernetic, battle machine Insectovore turned giant. He can shoot bullets from the gatling guns on her body, shoot a laser from its right eye, emit circular-like sawblades from its left eye, lower its pincers on her machine to grab, and emit insect-like legs from the torso to attack. In order to enact Nefaria and Cycloptor's plan that involves Ultivore, Count Dregon capture a stranded midget alien with the power to shrink and enlarge anything. After Nefaria and the Maggots kidnap the alien, Count Dregon then forced the alien to enlarge Ultivore enough to destroy Dex and the entire city of Leawood. Count Dregon then had Nefaria place the alien inside Ultivore. Dex detected Ultivore with the alien within him. Dex was outmatched by Ultivore's height upon confronting Ultivore at the local power plant. The alien evened things out by making Masked Rider into a giant as well much to the dismay of Count Dregon. Dex used his Rider Punch to get the alien out. Dex is then seized by Ultivore's pincers and attacked by the insect-like legs. Upon breaking free, Dex destroyed the Ultivore with a giant-sized Rider Kick.
Solarsect
First Appearance: "Passenger Ferbus" (9/10/96)
Voice Actor: Darren Wilson
Solarsect was a sword-wielding humanoid dressed in a green and yellow helmet, silver armor, and a black cape. Besides wielding a sword in battle and move through anything reflective, Solarsect has the ability was to harness the sun's rays and use them as a weapon. The Stewart family was on their way to visit Grandma and planned to travel by plane. Since Dex was going to be on a plane, it meant that he wouldn't be able to protect the city from Solarsect without revealing his identity. Eventually, Dex was able to engage in battle with Solarsect while Ferbus flew the plane. As Solarsect gets Dex trapped in his grip, Dex called Combat Chopper who managed to save Dex. When Dex is knocked off of Combat Chopper by one of Solarsect's attacks, Dex ends up surrounded by mirrors which Solarsect attacks from. Dex then uses his Electro Saber to destroy Solarsect. Fits the theme of Nefaria's monsters.
Dregonator
First Appearance: "Mixed Doubles" (9/11/96)
Voice Actor: Ken Merckx
A powerful golden robotic clone of Count Dregon. He wields a sword in battle. In order to get an Incapacitating Device onto Dex to claim the Masked Rider powers, Count Dregon is informed by Double Face that he has created a cloning device that brings out the evil in the clone. After the success of cloning an evil Stewart family with a cloning machine, Count Dregon promptly made a clone of himself that was more evil and powerful in battle than himself. Dex then freed the Stewarts from the Spiderbase and took on Dregonator (once he removed the Incapacitation Device that had been planted on his medallion) while the Stewarts take on their evil clones. After some attacks from Dregonator, Dex then transformed into his Super Gold form whose Ecto-Ray attack wasn't enough to phase the Dregonator. Dex then transformed into his Super Blue form and used his Blue Saber to damage the Dregonator. Dex deactivated his Super Blue form and destroyed Dregonator with the Electro Saber.
Lavasect
First Appearance: "Million Dollar Ferbus" (9/16/96)
Voice Actor: Alfred Thor
A powerful and cataclysmic creature that resembled a giant head with three small faces (which shoot laser beams from its eyes) on its forehead and tentacles. Lavasect was trapped within Earth's core for 10,000,000,000 years. Nefaria learns of this and tells Count Dregon that they could use Lavasect against Dex. The Spiderbase heads into the Earth so that Count Dregon can meet Lavasect. When they encounter Lavasect, they learn that he will destroy Dex in exchange that he gets what Count Dregon has. Count Dregon retaliated and was attacked and constricted by Lavasect's tentacles. When Nefaria asks Lavasect to put Count Dregon down, Lavasect does and states that he'll come for Count Dregon once he's done destroying Dex. Not wanting Lavasect to succeed, Count Dregon hopes that Dex will stop Lavasect. Dex soon senses Lavasect and heads out to a nearby mantle where Dex falls in and confronts Lavasect. Dex transforms and fights Lavasect. After taking an attack from Lavasect's smaller faces, Dex transforms into his Super Gold form and ends up bound by the electrical beams shot from Lavasect's eyes. Dex breaks free and shoots Lavasect with the Ecto-Ray. Upon deactivating his Super Gold form, Dex attacks Lavasect with the Rider Kick before destroying Lavasect with the Electro Saber.
Manosect
First Appearance: "Ectophase Albee" (9/17/96)
Voice Actor: David Greenlee
A red robotic Asura-like monster. Besides spewing acidic foam, he wields a pitchfork, two swords, and a sickle in battle. When Nefaria finds out that Dex's Masked Rider powers have been transferred to Albee through a football accident, Count Dregon sent Manosect to capture Albee so Dregon can take the Masked Rider powers. Albee uses the Electro Saber to disarm Manosect of its pitchfork in combat before going Super Gold and destroying him with the Ecto-Ray. However, the events of Albee turning into Masked Rider and monster Manosect only occurred in a dream while Albee was unconscious.
Dread Dragon
First Appearance: "Ectophase Albee" (9/17/96)
Voice Actor: Tom Fahn
An scaley ostrich/dragon-like creature that had small dragon-like heads for hands and an extra mouth on its belly. He can breathe fire from its main head, shoot electricity from the dragon-like heads, and breathe steam from its extra mouth. After Manosect's destruction, Double Face suggested a follow-up attack and that the Dread Dragon would be powerful enough to defeat Albee. Dread Dragon attacked Albee up to the point where he trapped Albee in its jaws. Albee broke free and destroyed Dread Dragon with the Rider Kick. However, the events of Albee turning into Masked Rider and monster Dread Dragon only occurred in a dream while Albee was unconscious.
Cyborgator
First Appearance: "Ectophase Albee" (9/17/96)
Voice Actor: Bob Papenbrook
An alligator monster with poisonous fangs, poisonous claws, and a constricting tale. After Dread Dragon's destruction, Count Dregon unleashed this monster to attack Albee. Albee managed to knock it down with his punch. Cyborgator started to overwhelm Albee until he managed to punch Cyborgator in the eye. When climbing the side of a cliff during battle, Albee used his Rider Punch on Cyborgator's left eye causing him to fall off the cliffside and be destroyed in the fall. However, the events of Albee turning into Masked Rider and monster Cyborgator only occurred in a dream while Albee was unconscious.
Revenator
First Appearance: "Race Against Time" (9/26/96)
Voice Actor: Chuck Kovacic
A robotic race car monster. He can shoot bullets from the compartment in his chest, emit lasers from its horns, emit a square-shaped barrier, and throw razor wheels. When it comes to Albee wanting to win a remote-control race car race, Count Dregon decides to use Revenator. He was sent to Earth as a regular remote-control race car that was given to Albee as a present. Count Dregon called Revenator the "car that cannot lose." Dregon used him to lead Nefaria to Dex's cave to destroy Magno and Combat Chopper. After Dex fended off Nefaria, Revenator attacks. Dex transforms into Masked Rider and brings the fight outside of the cave. When Revenator has restrained him, Dex calls for Magno and uses her to escape. Revenator caught up with Dex at the boat yard and attacks Dex alongside Cycloptor and Double Face. After taking an attack from Cycloptor and Revenator, Dex transformed into his Super Blue form and used his Blue Saber to destroy Revenator.
Parasect
First Appearance: "Cat-Atomic" (10/14/96)
A black bat monster. Before Catatron was created, Dregon's minions tried their new invention on an ordinary vampire bat, turning it into a monster. Parasect had small-but-long bat wings for ears that covered its head (unless he's flying) and had an eye on each hand much like Destructosphere. He was only shown in the demonstration of the device.
Catatron
First Appearance: "Cat-Atomic" (10/14/96)
Voice Actor: Paul Pistore
A red-haired tiger monster. Count Dregon developed a device that could turn anything into a monster. After it was tested on a vampire bat, Count Dregon sets his sights on Leawood High's tiger mascot costume. While Herbie was repairing the torn costume, the Maggots stole the tiger costume and brought it to life with the device turning it into Catatron. Catatron had a tiger's fury and tossed small black boomerangs in battle. After Dex suspected the costume wasn't human during cheerleading tryouts, he went after Catatron. Catatron was a very powerful monster indeed, proving to be too much for even Super Gold. However, Dex transformed into Super Blue and was able to defeat him with the Blue Saber. Thus, the costume was reverted to normal.
Spearavore
First Appearance: "Indigestion" (10/21/96)
Voice Actor: Tony Smyles
A pink-colored baboon monster that wields a spear. He can emit energy beams from his spear. In his latest plot to take the Masked Rider powers, Count Dregon had a poisoned meal prepared for Dex. While Dex was recovering from a poison slipped in his food, Count Dregon took the opportunity to send Spearavore. With help from King Lexian, Dex recovered and went out to confront Spearavore. When Dex as Masked Rider encountered Spearavore, he turned into his Super Gold form and was immobilized by Spearavore's attack. After managing to blast Spearavore with the Ecto-Ray, Dex deactivated his Super Gold form and quickly destroyed Spearavore with a single swipe from the Electro Saber.
Space Monkey
First Appearance: "Indigestion" (10/21/96)
Voice Actor: Brian Tahash
A white ape monster. He wields an extendable staff that shoots beams from it. Space Monkey attacked Dex not long after Dex had defeated Spearavore. As Super Blue, Dex confronted Space Monkey and his Ninja Apes. After defeating the Ninja Apes, Dex fought Space Monkey. After a hit from Space Monkey's staff, Dex called in Combat Chopper and managed to evade Space Monkey's extending staff. When Dex knocks the Space Monkey off the cliff he climbed up, Dex deactivated his Super Blue form and destroyed Space Monkey with the Electro Saber.
Ninja Apes
First Appearance: "Indigestion" (10/21/96)
The Ninja Apes are a group of smaller ape-like ninjas that accompany Space Monkey in fighting Dex. They are all defeated by Dex.
Fluffy
First Appearance: "Dex At Bat" (10/31/96)
Voice Actor: Michael Sorich
A flying squirrel-resembling bat monster. Albee was pet sitting his friend's bat, but it was accidentally released from its cage. Fact picked the disturbance at the Stewart home and Dregon had Double Face use a Power Enhancement Ray to turn Fluffy into an Insectovore. In this form, Fluffy can breathe fire and shoot electricity from his eyes. Dex and Albee went to find the missing bat only to find it attacking the public. By playing loud music, Dex and Albee managed to lure it away where Dex engaged Fluffy. After dodging Fluffy's fire attacks, Dex transformed into Masked Rider. After being hit by the Rider Kick, Fluffy changed back to normal when the Rider Kick was enough to cancel the effect of the Power Enhancement Ray.
Bananatex
First Appearance: "Dex At Bat" (10/31/96)
Voice Actor: Kermit Beachwood
A green and white-furred shaman monster with bat wings for ears. He wields a staff and is armed with bananas that can be used for various purposes. Bananatex used his bananas to infiltrate the Leawood Defense Plant to steal rare explodium gold. Dex watched the news report and recognized the banana as a Borneo Banana. After some detective work, Dex learned about a weird guy who bought them en masse. The weird guy was Bananatex in disguise, meaning Count Dregon was in possession of the highly explosive metal. After a brief scuffle, Bananatex got away. Following Fluffy's defeat, Dex traced Bananatex to a nearby bridge where the explodium gold is planted. After throwing one of Bananatex's bananas back at him. Dex transformed into his Super Blue form and turned into liquid to evade Bananatex's banana attacks. Dex destroyed Bananatex with his Blue Saber.
Bruticon
First Appearance: "The Invasion of Leawood" (11/4/96)
Voice Actor: Bob Papenbrook
An eagle-themed super-monster that was one of the strongest Insectovores in Dregon's army. He can shoot an electrical beam from his right claw and turn into energy. He ruled a galaxy that Count Dregon conquered and had summoned it to Earth in a plot to defeat Masked Rider. Count Dregon had sent a televised message to Masked Rider to face Bruticon or else Count Dregon and his forces would invade Leawood. Bruticon was so powerful in fact that one Masked Rider alone wasn't enough to defeat it. King Lexian then decided to enlist the aide of the legendary Masked Rider warriors AKA the Masked Riders that came before Dex. It arrived on Earth in a ball of fire and attacked the Radio Astronemy Center on Harbor Island. When with Double Face, Bruticon prevented Dex from using his Electro Saber on him and overwhelmed him until the Masked Rider Warriors arrived. While the warriors dealt with Bruticon, Dex went one-on-one with Double Face. After Double Face retreated, Dex joined the fight against Bruticon. Bruticon proved too strong for even Super Gold, but Dex reasoned that perhaps Bruticon wasn't as tough on the inside as he was on the outside. He then used his Super Blue power to ride a torrent of water inside and destroy Bruticon from within by attacking with his Blue Saber. Once Bruticon was destroyed, it caused a power surge which affected the Spiderbase.
Ocusect
First Appearance: "The Eye of Edenoi" (11/5/96)
Voice Actor: Rebecca Forstadt
A multi-eyed hag creature from an Edenoi fairy tale. She wields a magic staff in battle and can imprison anyone within its main eye and can even shoot optic beams when in its eye form. According to Dex, any Edenoite who stared into the main eye of Ocusect would be frozen with fear forever and that anyone who is within Ocusect's main eye will be absorbed into its body forever. Dex was deathly afraid of the Ocusect when he was young. Count Dregon (who was also afraid of the Ocusect that haunted his nightmares) decided to bring Dex's worst fear to life by taking Cycloptor's idea to create an Ocusect that they can control. When the Maggots were sent down with Ocusect's eye form, they ended up accidentally imprisoning Patsy in it. Since Ocusect needs recharging after imprisoning each victim, Nefaria had the Maggots hide Ocusect's eye form. Dex caught up with the Maggots and fended them off. When Herbie caught up with Dex, Ocusect appeared. Dex was frozen in fear and Herbie tried to get Dex away only to end up imprisoned in Ocusect's main eye. With some wisdom from King Lexian, Dex decides to overcome his fear. As Masked Rider, Dex rides Combat Chopper to an abandoned cabin where Ocusect is hiding. When Ocusect manages to use its main eye to fear-freeze Dex, she then absorbs him into her main eye. Dex then turns into Super Blue and liquifies out of Ocusect. Dex then battles Ocusect. Upon turning into his Super Gold form, Dex uses his Ecto-Ray to blast Ocusect enough for her to release Patsy and Herbie. Upon deactivating Super Gold, Dex used the Rider Kick to knock down Ocusect. Ocusect then transforms into her eye form and attacks. Upon stating that he's not afraid of Ocusect anymore, Dex uses his Electro Saber to stab Ocusect's eye form which leads to Ocusect's destruction. Fits the theme of Nefaria's monsters.
Lobstatron
First Appearance: "Exit Nefaria, Enter Barbaria" (11/18/96)
Voice Actor: Mike Reynolds
A lobster-resembling monster with scythe-blades for hands and lobster legs between its upper back and shoulders. Count Dregon was viewing the fight between Dex and Lobstatron. Dex destroyed him using the Electro Saber.
Predavore
First Appearance: "Exit Nefaria, Enter Barbaria" (11/18/96)
Voice Actor: Randy Elliot
A blue monster with long horns and black and white spots. He wields a sword in battle. Following Count Dregon sending the Maggots to kidnap Barbara Stewart and transferring Nefaria's personality into her transforming Barbara into Barbaria, Count Dregon prepared Predavore for when Barbaria brings Dex to him. After Barbaria reveals herself, Dex senses the Predavore attacking a nearby chemical plant. After getting the rest of the family away from Barbaria, Dex transformed and confronted Predavore. During battle, Barbaria appeared and told Predavore to complete his job. After a brief scuffle with Barbaria, Dex confronted Predavore and Double Face at the chemical plant. The fight between Dex and the Predavore continues outside the chemical plant. Dex destroyed Predavore with the Electro Saber after disarming him.
Brain Mite
First Appearance: "Detention" (11/20/96)
Voice Actor: Ezra Weisz
Brain Mite was a bluish imp monster with a pitchfork-like weapon. He can also shoot a beam from his head. When Count Dregon tried a new approach by attacking Dex from within his head, he had Nefaria sent the Maggots to implant Brain Mite into Dex's brain. Brain Mite then took over Dex's body while Dex was serving detention at school. While Brain Mite was doing his job, Count Dregon sent Nefaria to take over the internet in order to send an energy pulse that will turn anyone on the computer into Count Dregon's soldiers. At one point, Brain Mite even controlled Dex's speech, causing Dex to mouth off at Principal Chalmers. When Dex found out that Brain Mite is in him, he managed to put everyone in detention to sleep before transforming into Masked Rider and heading to the Leawood Sewer System to track down Nefaria. Dex tried to extract Brain Mite with his Super Blue power, but Brain Mite punctured Dex's brain, causing the Masked Rider to fall unconscious. Once Brain Mite came out, he was instructed to bring his body to Nefaria in order to extract the Masked Rider Powers. Masked Rider recovered upon turning into Super Blue and fought Brain Mite and the Commandoids. The fight ended up damaging the computers there. Masked Rider used his Blue Saber to deflect Brian Mite's attack. After destroying Brain Mite's pitchfork, Masked Rider deactivated his Super Blue powers and used his Electro Saber to disarm and destroy Brain Mite.
Notes
References
External links
Masked Rider (TV series)
Kamen Rider characters
Lists of Power Rangers characters
Fictional monsters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz%20C-Class%20%28W204%29
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Mercedes-Benz C-Class (W204)
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The Mercedes-Benz C-Class (W204) is the third generation of the Mercedes-Benz C-Class. It was manufactured and marketed by Mercedes-Benz in sedan/saloon (2007–2014), station wagon/estate (2008–2014) and coupé (2011–2015) bodystyles, with styling by Karlheinz Bauer and Peter Pfeiffer.
The C-Class was available in rear- or all-wheel drive, the latter marketed as 4MATIC. The W204 platform was also used for the E-Class Coupé (C207).
Sub-models included the C 200 Kompressor, the C 230, the C 280, the C 350, the C 220 CDI, and the C 320 CDI. The C 180 Kompressor, C 230, and C 200 CDI were available in the beginning of August 2007. The W204 station wagon was not marketed in North America.
Production reached over 2.4 million worldwide, and the W204 was the brand's best selling vehicle at the time.
Development
In the summer of 2003, the development of the W204 C-Class used a "digital prototype", a 2.1 terabyte digital replica of the car, over a virtual distance of 15 million miles. An industry first, the digital testing allowed for crash testing before a physical prototype existed. The design of W204 was finalized in 2003 and a German design patent application was first filed on 9 September 2004, demonstrating a W204 fiberglass design model.
DaimlerChrysler introduced the W204 C-Class on 18 January 2007 at the 2007 Geneva Auto Show. Deliveries began in late March 2007 in almost all European countries.
Trim levels
Typically, Mercedes offered the W204 in three trim and equipment levels, marketed as Classic, Elegance and Avantgarde. The base trim, marketed as Classic, was offered with smaller four-cylinder engines and cloth seats or optional leatherette, marketed as ARTICO. Elegance trim featured standard leatherette upholstery with optional leather. The Avantgarde offered Liverpool fabric/leatherette seats or optional leather. Classic and Elegance retained a traditional Mercedes-Benz grille, with horizontal chrome bars and standing hood emblem. Avantgarde trim featured a 'sport' grille with three wide matt-finish horizontal bars and a large, central emblem as well as an optional AMG bodykit, sport seats, three-spoke sport steering wheel, lower and stiffer sports suspension, upgraded brake piston calipers, and larger alloy wheels. W204s advertising predominantly featured the sport grille and AMG bodykit, especially in Canada and the United States.
The W204 line offered a range of four-cylinder petrol and diesel engines, a 3.5-litre V6 petrol and a 3.0-litre V6 diesel engine are also available. The AMG variant, marketed as the C 63 AMG used the 6.2-litre V8 petrol engine.
In the United Kingdom, the Classic trim level was marketed as the SE, and the Avantgarde trim with the AMG Sport Package was marketed as the Sport.
In the United States, the C250, made in South Africa, in Avantgarde trim with the AMG Sport Package was available on the C-250 with a four-cylinder turbocharged 1.8L engine, 7 speed automatic gearbox and RWD and the C-300 (the only US market C-Class with a standard manual transmission (manual transmission was only available with RWD), with 4MATIC system available as an option) and the C 350 Sport (RWD only).The Elegance trim was only available on the C 300 Luxury with an option for the 4MATIC all-wheel-drive system, There were no Classic/SE trim models, no models with diesel engine, and no station wagon models available in the US market.
The Canadian market offered only the AMG Line trim level; four-cylinder models and station wagon models were not offered. The base C 230 model (renamed the C 250 from the 2010 model year) was exclusive to the Canadian market and was the only model that has amenities similar to the Elegance/Luxury trim with the traditional grille and three-point star hood ornament. The other C-Class models (C 300, C 350 and C 63 respectively) offered the AMG body kit and sport grille as standard. These amenities were available as an CAD800 option for the C 230 model as the Sport Package (which rose to CAD1200 for the 2011 model year due to the new LED fog lights).
All models except the C 63 AMG and C350 were available in both rear-wheel-drive and all-wheel-drive (4Matic).
Equipment
For the 2008–2011 model year, the dashtop features a deployable central sliding cover panel over an LCD colour screen for entertainment and information functions. The optional navigation system, marketed as COMAND APS integrates a larger, 7-inch TFT screen into the deployable panel. Post MY2012 models feature a fixed screen similar to E-Class and GLK-Class models.
2010 W204s received revised turn signals integrated into the side mirrors. From the 2011 model year on, the bumper fog lamps in the AMG bodykit were replaced by LED lights, except for the C 63 AMG which retained its unique bumper.
The C-class offered a system marketed as the agility control package, which provided revised agility and ride quality via hydro-mechanics, which analysed road conditions and driving habits, and adjusted damper and suspension settings to provide a balance between ride comfort and agility. An optional advanced agility control package offered a sport mode button to enable a stiffer suspension setting and more precise handling.
Models
Vision C 220 BlueTEC (2007)
Unveiled at the 2007 Geneva Motor Show, the Vision C 220 BlueTEC is a concept saloon demonstrating Mercedes-Benz's first 4-cylinder Bluetec Diesel engine complying with the Euro 6 emission standard. The BlueTEC includes an inline-4 variable nozzle turbocharged engine with third-generation common-rail direct injection generating a power output of and of torque, a 6-speed manual transmission, exhaust gas recirculation, particulate filter, oxidization and SCR catalytic converters. The car accelerates from 0– in 8.5 seconds, and has a top speed of .
C 300 BlueTEC Hybrid (2007)
Unveiled at the 2007 Tokyo Motor Show, the C 300 Bluetec Hybrid is a near-production study based on the C-Class Estate. The C 300 Bluetec has a 4-cylinder hybrid engine generating a combined power output of and of torque.
4MATIC models (2007–2014)
Available from mid 2007, the 4MATIC models include a 7G-Tronic seven-speed automatic transmission, permanently active all wheel drive with 45:55 torque split, a transfer case with multi-disc clutch centre differential, 4ETS traction control and Electronic Stability Program. The C 320 CDI 4MATIC and C 350 4MATIC models also include Elegance and Avantgarde trim package option, which include 17-inch light-alloy wheels, a luxury multifunction steering wheel and fine wood or aluminium trim in the interior.
C-Class Estate (2007–2014)
The C-Class Estate was unveiled at the 2007 Frankfurt International Motor Show. Later, it was displayed at the 40th Tokyo Motor Show 2007, followed by the Auto China 2010. The estate models went on sale in late 2007; early models included: C 200 CDI, C 220 CDI, C 320 CDI, C 320 CDI 4MATIC, C 180 Kompressor, C 200 Kompressor, C 230, C 280, C 350 and the C 63 AMG.
BlueEFFICIENCY models (2008–2014)
The BlueEFFICIENCY variants achieved better economy and weight reduction by using a newly developed windscreen made of laminated glass by AGC shared with the Maybach saloon, optimised noise-insulating firewall lining, lightweight forged wheels with low rolling resistance tyres from Michelin, a lightweight transmission; reducing drag coefficient to 0.25 via smooth under-body cladding, a radiator grille shutter, sealed joints between the hood and headlamps as well as between the rear fender and headlamps, streamlined exterior mirrors housing, lowered suspension (15 millimetres height reduction), aerodynamically tuned wheels; servo pump shut-off in power steering system; a new 6-speed manual transmission with newly developed final drive having further-improved anti friction bearings and forged differential gears, longer final-drive ratios (C 180 Kompressor and C 200 CDI models only); ECO Training mode cockpit; reduced engine displacement, optimised combustion chamber, mixture formation and engine friction (C 180 Kompressor); direct injection with max 200 bar piezoelectric fuel injectors (C 350 CGI BlueEFFICIENCY).
Early models were introduced in Spring 2008, including the C 180 Kompressor BlueEFFICIENCY, C 200 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY and the C 350 CGI BlueEFFICIENCY.
The C 220 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY, C 250 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY and the C 250 CGI BlueEFFICIENCY were introduced in 2009. The C 250 CGI BlueEfficiency includes direct injection. All 3 models include the choice of saloon or station wagon bodystyles.
The C 180 CGI BlueEFFICIENCY, C 200 CGI BlueEFFICIENCY, C 220 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY and the C 250 CDI 4MATIC BlueEFFICIENCY were added to the range in 2010, with the C 250 CDI 4MATIC BlueEFFICIENCY and the C 220 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY being available in autumn 2010. All of the 4 models include the choice of saloon or estate bodystyles. ECO start/stop function is included for C 180 CGI BlueEFFICIENCY, C 200 CGI BlueEFFICIENCY and the C 220 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY. Direct petrol injection were added for C 180 CGI BlueEFFICIENCY and the C 200 CGI BlueEFFICIENCY. The C 250 CDI 4MATIC BlueEFFICIENCY includes Electronic Stability Program and the 4ETS traction system.
C 350 CGI BlueEFFICIENCY (2008–2010)
The C 350 CGI BlueEFFICIENCY was unveiled at the 2008 Geneva Motor Show. Standard trim level on the C 350 CGI BlueEFFICIENCY included standard Elegance or Avantgarde packages, and 3.5L 90 degree V6 stratified charge direct injection M272E35 engine was used. The saloon model includes an AMG lip spoiler on the boot lid, a dual-flow exhaust system with polished stainless steel tailpipes, a seven-speed 7G-TRONIC automatic transmission, 16-inch light alloy wheels with 17-inch wheels available as a no cost option, a speed-sensitive steering and the "Speedtronic" cruise control with a variable speed limiter.
C 350 BlueEFFICIENCY (2011-2014)
Coinciding with the 2011 facelift, new 3.5L 60 degree V6 M276DE35 engine debuted on C350 in 2011. Although M276 was also a stratified charge direct injection engine as the predecessor M272, the moniker 'CGI' was dropped from the naming. The radiator grille shutter for saloon and stationwagon, and the foldable rear seat back as well as the boot lid spoiler on the saloon body were eliminated. 225/45R17 front and 245/40R17 rear tires became standard, with 225/40R18 front and 255/35R18 rear tires as a no cost option. Power output of the M276DE35 engine was increased from to for 2012–2014.
C 250 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY Prime Edition (2008–2014)
The C 250 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY Prime Edition was unveiled at the 2008 Paris Motor Show. It is a limited (5,000 units) version of the C 250 CDI BlueEfficiency saloon with the Avantgarde package included as standard. Standard features include 16-inch light-alloy wheels with 205/55 R16 tyres with 16-inch 7-spoke wheel with 205/55 R16 tyres and 17-inch light-alloy 5-twin-spoke wheels with 225/45 R17 front and 245/40 R17 rear tyres available as no-cost options; floor mats with "Prime Edition" lettering and aluminium interior trim with optional bird's-eye maple interior trim.
AMG models (2008–2015)
C 63 AMG (2008–2015)
The C 63 AMG is reportedly the first AMG-Mercedes designed from the ground up. Its AMG C-Class predecessors had essentially featured bolt on performance modifications, and according to Car and Driver, these earlier AMG models suffered from "relentless understeer" and "heavy steering". The C 63 AMG has a revised front suspension that is shared with the CLK 63 AMG Black Series. The ESP features a full defeat mode, interfering only under heavy braking. The C 63 AMG also has the quickest, most responsive steering of any Mercedes automobile to date.
The Mercedes-Benz M156 engine, despite being detuned compared to other AMG offerings using the same powerplant, still provides the C 63 AMG with more horsepower and torque over its direct rivals such as the Audi RS4 and BMW M3. The 7G-Tronic 7-speed automatic transmission has AMG SpeedShift with four shift modes – Comfort, Sport, Sport + and Manual – with the last one running with the converter locked allowing the driver to hold the engine at the rev limit. Car and Driver tested the car in their December 2007 issue and recorded a 0– acceleration time of 3.9 seconds and a quarter-mile time of 12.3 seconds at .
C 63 AMG Performance Package Plus (2008–2010: P30), (2011-2015: P31 +30 hp)
In 2009, Mercedes-AMG introduced the
Performance Package Plus for the C 63 AMG saloon and estate models. In 2011, this package included increasing power to at 6,800 rpm and of torque at 5,000 rpm, compound brake discs on the front axle and red or yellow painted brake callipers, composite brake discs connected aluminium bowl via cast-in arms, carbon fibre lip spoiler on the boot lid (saloon), AMG performance steering wheel in Nappa leather with a grip area trimmed in Alcantara. The package went on sale in December 2009. Optional black designo leather, covering the upper section of the dashboard, the upper door trim and the armrest on the centre console, was available in conjunction with Nappa leather appointments as an option.
AMG P31 Development Package (2011–2015)
In 2010, Mercedes-AMG introduced a new AMG P31 Development Package which included a power increase to as compared to for the standard model. Top speed was also increased to as a result. When equipped with this package, the C 63 AMG has a revised ECU and crankshaft, as well as rotating assembly components from M159 engine found in the SLS AMG.
C 63 AMG Edition 507 (2013-2015)
The Edition 507 was first shown at the Geneva Motor Show in 2013 as the swansong of the much feted 6.2l naturally aspirated V8 engine.
Available as a Coupe, Saloon and Estate, the Edition 507 came with a power increase to 507PS, hence the name, which was available at 6800 rpm with torque of 610 Nm at 5200 rpm. Engine wise, it adopts the slightly lighter V8 from the SLS AMG, which included an uprated ECU, new conrods, a lightweight crankshaft and forged pistons.
Externally, the Edition 507 carries the same vented aluminium bonnet from the Black Series, light-alloy spoke wheels, AMG side stripes and a boot lid spoiler.
For the interior, there was the alcantara covered steering wheel, a special AMG emblem on the gear shifter, optional two-tone leather and an Edition 507 plaque on the passenger side fascia.
Performance wise, the limited top speed was increased to 280 km/h (174 mph).
Concept 358 (2010)
Unveiled at the 2010 Australian International Motor Show, the Concept 58 is a version of C 63 AMG saloon with designo Pearl Orange body colour, AMG Performance Package Plus, 19-inch multi spoke alloy wheels in black, Keyless-Go entry system and extended designo leather upholstery.
C-Class DR 520 (2010)
The DR 520 is a limited edition of the C 63 AMG with the AMG Performance Package Plus made specifically for the UK market. Introduced by Mercedes Specialist Products Division, it includes increased engine power to and of torque. Only three have been sold as of 2013.
Testing
The W204 C-Class completed 24 million test kilometers, and was until 2009 the most tested Mercedes-Benz ever. However, 2009 also saw the launch of the W212 E-Class, which completed 36 million test kilometers.
Motorsports
The C 63 AMG was the official Safety Car for the second DTM race of the 2008 season in Oschersleben. In the 2009 Formula 1 season, C 63 AMG Estate became the Official F1 Medical Car.
FCP Euro modified a C 300 to compete in the 2017 American Endurance Racing Series. The car made its debut appearance at Road Atlanta February 10, 2017.
A C 63 AMG Estate with the AMG Performance Package was used as official F1 Medical Car at the 2011 Formula 1 World Championship series.
Technical specifications
Engines
The C 230 is sold as C 250 in Japan and Canada and as C 260 in China.
Since November 2009, the updated CGI engines replaced the Kompressor engines, with the same power output, more torque, and better fuel efficiency. The C 250 CGI, using the M271 engine with charged gasoline injection engine replaced the C 230 using the 2.5-litre V6 engine. The M271 engine generated the same power output but had more torque.
The C-Class (W204) models were available with a choice of rear and all-wheel drive (the AWD system is the fourth-generation of the 4Matic system which was not available in right-hand drive format), along with a variety of four and six-cylinder engines along with a 6.2-litre V8 engine exclusive to the C 63 AMG. 4Matic denotes all-wheel-drive models.
For the C 220 CDI BlueEfficiency, automatic start/stop system was added in 2010.
Transmissions
Awards
The 2007 Mercedes-Benz C Class was awarded Car of the Year in Australia by the Wheels Magazine, edging out the Ford Mondeo and the Mazda 2 for the award. It was also awarded "Executive Car of the Year" by Top Gear Magazine for the 2007 Top Gear Awards as well as being awarded 2007–08 Japan's Import Car of the Year in late 2007 and again in late 2011 for 2011–12. The 2007 Mercedes-Benz C-Class was awarded 'Yellow Angel 2008' by ADAC, and the C 63 AMG was awarded Europe Tuning Car of the Year 2008 by journalists of the UIGA, the Italian association of motoring journalists.
Marketing
During the launch of the C-Class saloon in 2007, Mercedes-Benz started the 'C-for Yourself' campaign developed by BBDO France, featuring an online campaign with a new 360-degree soft configurator and a host of interactive films; A 30-/40-second television commercial with the then new Formula 1 world champion Fernando Alonso as brand ambassador. An 'Exclusive Driving Experience' campaign in Barcelona (1–3 April 2007) allowed some 80 consumers from all over Europe to experience the C-Class in an especially attractive environment. Vacationers who stayed at selected Robinson Club Resorts and Westin Hotels & Resorts facilities in Germany, Austria, Scotland, Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greece between May and September 2007 had the opportunity to test-drive the new C-Class. Premium shopping mall attendants could also test drive the cars during April and May 2007. The new C-Class also appeared in the German Touring Car Masters series starting on 22 April 2007. Mercedes-Benz also started a Mobile Special campaign that included special mobile client software that could be called up either by text messaging (SMS) from a number assigned to each country or directly from the Mercedes-Benz website in the participating markets. The Mobile Special also contained the dates of C-Class events and invitations to callers. The C-Class Avantgarde model with the AMG package appeared in the game Second Life starting on 16 March 2007, where the player can purchase the virtual model for 1,500 Linden Dollars or virtually test-drive it on a challenging track.
As part of the C-Class station wagon campaign, Mercedes-Benz launched a print ad showing the C-Class station wagon on a stage, flanked by a curtain and background scenery. The previously launched Mobile Special campaign was expanded to include the wagon. Mercedes-Benz also held test driving events between December 2007 and April 2008 in selected Robinson Club resorts, various vacation resorts in Fuerteventura and Turkey, Serfaus, Fiss, Ladis, and Ski Amadé (Austria). Between December 2007 and January 2008, spontaneous test driving events were also held in selected upmarket shopping centres and malls in Germany.
Production
Since 2007, the W204 C-Class saloons were produced in Sindelfingen German, and East London, South Africa. The W204 C-Class Estate production began at DaimlerChrysler in Bremen. At the time of its market launch (mid-2007), 75,000 orders had been received for the W204 C-Class saloon. The total sales of the C-Class reached 261,500 in 2007. In mid-2008, the C-Class sales exceeded 300,000 units. In late 2008, the C-Class sales reached 500,000 units, with 440,000 saloons and 60,000 wagons. The 250,000th C-Class – an iridium silver metallic C 220 CDI saloon – was produced in Sindelfingen and delivered to a customer in Japan. In mid-2010, the C-Class sales reached one million units, with 840,000 saloons and over 160,000 wagons. United States occupied 25 percent of total sales, followed by Germany and China. The C-Class Coupé production began in 2011 at the Bremen plant.
W204 facelift (2011–2015)
In December 2010, Mercedes released some photos and details of W204 C-Class facelift, with the vehicle officially unveiled at the 2011 Detroit Auto Show, and later at the Auto Shanghai 2011.
New features of the facelift model includes, an engine start-stop system, 7G-TRONIC PLUS gearbox available for base models with revised gear ratios to improve fuel economy. There was also a minor revision of the exterior appearance which included LED daytime running lights, LED taillights, a new hood and bumpers. The interior was significantly reworked to bring its arrangement and quality closer to the W212 E-Class and the W221 S-Class. There is a high resolution screen on the dashboard which has visual functions similar to the S and CL Class models, and it also has the new Mercedes-Benz Comand APS system first seen on the W212 E-Class.
Ten new driving assistance systems, including Adaptive Highbeam Assist, Active Lane Keeping Assist, Active Blind Spot Assist, Attention Assist drowsiness detection, Distronic Plus proximity control, Speed Limit Assist and Parking guidance including Parktronic and the Pre-Safe brake were now available. The new-generation of telematics include internet access and a 3D navigation display with plastic city views.
The multimedia system Comand Online now provided internet access when car is stationary. Beginning in mid-2012, the C-Class models equipped with Comand Online now has the new Mercedes-Benz emergency call system called "eCall".
All of the engine variants were now classed as BlueEfficiency units. All petrol engines now had direct injection system. All of the models now came with a 5-speed automatic transmission, except of C 300 CDI 4Matic which had the 7G-TRONIC PLUS 7-speed automatic transmission. The C 350 received the new 3.5L V6 engine with a 60-degree vee-angle and direct injection. There was also a new entry-level C 250 model which had a 1.8-litre turbocharged inline-4 engine with direct injection.
Orders for the Saloon and Estate models introduction took place in early 2011, and the European market introduction took place from March 2011. Early models include C 180 BlueEfficiency, C 200 BlueEfficiency, C 250 BlueEfficiency, C 350 BlueEfficiency, C 350 4Matic BlueEfficiency, C 180 CDI BlueEfficiency, C 200 CDI BlueEfficiency, C 220 CDI BlueEfficiency, C 250 CDI BlueEfficiency, C 250 CDI 4Matic BlueEfficiency and the C 300 CDI 4Matic BlueEfficiency. Sales of the C 250 CDI 4Matic BlueEfficiency began in June 2011. Sales of the C 350 CDI BlueEfficiency Saloon and Estate began in mid-2011.
North America
United States
The North American models for the 2012 model year became available for order at the dealers starting in September 2011.
The C 300 and C 300 4Matic (having the 3.0-litre V6 engine) retained their 90-degree vee-angle V6 engines and the 7G-tronic transmission, while the 6-speed manual transmission which was previously available for the rear-wheel drive C 230/250 and the C 300 was discontinued in the North American markets due to low sales. For the 2013 model year, the C 300 received the new 60-degree vee-angle V6 engine, which shares the same displacement but is detuned from the 3.5-litre engine found in the 2012 and later C 350. The C 300's new 3.5-litre engine generates a power output of and of torque, as compared to the and of torque from the old M272 3.0-litre engine.
Canada
For the 2012 model year, the C 250 RWD sedan with its turbocharged inline-4 engine (replacing the 2010–11 C 250 model with a 2.5-litre V6 which was badged as the C 230 from 2008 to 2009) was sold alongside the C 250 4Matic (another Canada-only model with a 2.5-litre V6 which was badged as the C 230 4Matic from 2008 to 2009) since the 4Matic system was not compatible with the turbocharged inline-4 engine. For the 2013 model year, the sedan lineup was simplified considerably with the C 250 turbo inline-4 RWD, C 300 4MATIC, C 350 RWD, C 350 4MATIC, and C 63 AMG.
Japan
The facelifted C-Class went on sale in Japan in mid-2011. Early models include C 180 BlueEfficiency (with a 1.8-litre engine) (Saloon/Estate/Coupé), C 200 BlueEfficiency (Saloon/Estate), C 250 BlueEfficiency (Saloon/Estate) and the C 350 BlueEfficiency (Saloon/Estate). Delivery of C 180 BlueEFFICIENCY (with 1.8L engine) for all body styles began in 2012. Beginning in mid-2012, available models include the C 180 BlueEfficiency (with a 1.8-litre engine) (Saloon/Estate/Coupé), C 200 BlueEfficiency (Saloon/Estate), C 250 BlueEfficiency (Saloon/Estate/Coupé), C 350 BlueEfficiency (Saloon/Estate) and the C 63 AMG (Saloon/Estate/Coupé).
C-Class Coupé (2011–2015)
After the launch of the CLC-Class in January 2008, development and design work began on a replacement. On 23 October 2008, a German design patent was filed for a conventional two-door coupe of the W204. C-Class Coupé was unveiled at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show. An interesting fact to note is that since this is the first real C-Class coupe (not a shortened version like the SportCoupe and CLC-Class), it is fundamentally very similar to the C207 E-Class Coupe which itself is based on the C-Class underpinnings, just like the CLK-Class it replaced.
European models went on sale in June 2011. Initial models included the C 180 BlueEfficiency, C 250 BlueEfficiency, C 350 BlueEfficiency, C 220 CDI BlueEfficiency and the C 250 CDI BlueEfficiency. US models went on sale in September 2011, which included C 250, C 350, and C 63 AMG. In 2012, the C 200 BlueEfficiency was added to the C-Class line-up.
C-Class 125!Edition (2011)
The C-Class 125!Edition is a special version of the C-Class commemorating the 125th anniversary of the automobile invention by Karl Benz.
The C 200 CGI BlueEfficiency Avantgarde 125!Edition includes 17-inch AMG twin spoke sport aluminium wheels, drilled bench rated brake discs (on the front) with Mercedes-Benz logo on the brake calipers, leather sports seats at the front, leather upholstered 3-spoke steering wheel, stainless steel pedals and sports suspension as standard equipment.
The C 200 CGI BlueEfficiency 125!Edition includes LED daytime running headlamps with intelligent light system along with headlong washers and 8-way adjustable power seats at the front.
The C 250 CGI BlueEfficiency Avantgarde 125!Edition includes 18-inch AMG twin spoke sport aluminium wheels, drilled bench rated disc (at the front) with Mercedes-Benz logo on the brake calipers, leather sports seat at the front, leather upholstered 3-spoke steering wheel, stainless steel pedals and sports suspension as standard equipment.
Japanese versions were sold in limited quantity (650 units in total) which included the C 200 CGI BlueEfficiency Avantgarde 125!Edition (380 units produced in Saloon/Estate bodystyles), C 200 CGI BlueEfficiency 125!Edition (250 units produced in Saloon/Estate bodystyles) and the C 250 CGI BlueEfficiency Avantgarde 125!Edition (20 units produced in Saloon/Estate bodystyles).
AMG models
C 63 AMG (2011–2015)
The facelifted C 63 AMG includes the AMG SPEEDSHIFT MCT transmission shared with the SL 63 AMG, replacing the 7G-Tronic automatic transmission with AMG SpeedShift. Other new features include 5 twin-spoke AMG light-alloy wheels painted in titanium grey, 235/40 R 18 front and 255/35 R 18 rear tyres, all-colour three-dimensional TFT display in the middle of the redesigned speedometer, three-spoke AMG performance steering wheel shared with the CLS 63 AMG, aluminium shift paddles with manual gear selection and optional designo leather upholstery. The face-lift also brought a Coupé variant in the C 63 lineage.
The AMG Performance package includes increased engine power output to at 6,800 rpm and at 5,000 rpm. Performance figures include a 0– acceleration time of 4.4 seconds (4.5 seconds for the state version) and a top speed of . Other features include composite front brake discs and red painted brake calipers, carbon-fibre lip spoiler on the boot lid (Saloon) and the AMG performance steering wheel upholstered in Nappa leather with an Alcantara grip area.
The exclusive Edition 1 model includes AMG sports seats, door centre panels and armrests upholstered in black designo leather with contrasting porcelain seams on the sports seats, porcelain piano-lacquer trim, AMG sports steering wheel upholstered in two-tone Nappa leather and AMG multi-spoke light-alloy wheels painted in matt black.
Sales of the Saloon and Estate models began in July 2011. Coupé models went on sale in July 2011. Japanese versions of the Saloon, Estate, Coupé went on sale in mid-2011. The Taiwanese version of C 63 Coupé went on sale in limited quantity (10 units produced).
C 63 AMG Coupé Black Series (2011–2013)
Available only in Coupé bodystyle, the C 63 AMG Black Series includes a modified version of C 63 AMG M156 V8 engine now generating a maximum power output of at 6,800 rpm and of torque at 5,000 rpm. Performance figures include a 0– acceleration time of 4.2 seconds and a top speed of . Other notable features include 255/35 ZR 19 and 285/30 ZR 19 tyres, black diffuser insert shared with the SLS AMG GT3, twin tailpipes finished in chrome, AMG adjustable sports coilover suspension developed by KW with AMG rear axle differential lock, three-stage ESP, two AMG sports bucket seats, black DINAMICA microfibre upholstery on the centre panels of the seats and doors, omission of the rear bench seat (single rear seats available as option), AMG performance steering wheel upholstered in either Nappa leather or the Dinamica microfibre, steering wheel rim having flattened top and bottom sections along with aluminium shift paddles on the steering column for manual gear changes, red seat belts and red contrasting top stitching on the steering wheel, on the seats, door centre panels, armrests, on the doors, the centre console and on the shift lever gaiter along with three autonomous round dials has a three-dimensional TFT colour display.
The AMG Track Package includes 255/35 R 19 front and 285/30 R 19 rear sports tyres from Dunlop, active rear-axle transmission cooling with radiator in the rear apron.
The AMG Aerodynamics package includes carbon fibre flics on front apron, carbon-fibre functionally tuned front splitter and a fixed carbon-fibre rear aerofoil with an adjustable blade. China and US models went on sale in March 2012.
Sales of Japanese version began in October 2011 in limited quantities (50 units produced), with delivery began in the Spring of 2012. Mercedes initially planned to build only 650 units, but after the sales success 800 units were produced.
C 63 AMG Coupé Performance Studio Taiwan Edition (2011)
C 63 AMG Coupé Performance Studio Taiwan Edition is a limited version of C 63 AMG Coupé for the Taiwanese market. Notable features included designo magno night black body colour, AMG 19-inch alloy wheels finished in matte black, AMG carbon fibre interior trim, black leather seats with red piping, AMG steering wheel in black suede and red stitching, AMG floor mat with red trim, and a 'Taiwan Edition' laser-etched sill plate with red AMG logo.
C 63 AMG Performance Studio Edition (2012–2015)
The C 63 AMG Performance Studio Edition went on sale in May 2012, with delivery beginning in November 2012. It is a special version of the C 63 AMG saloon with the AMG Performance Package as standard built specification for the Japanese market. Notable features included designo magno night black body colour, designo classic red interior upholstery, AMG carbon-fibre interior trim, 19-inch AMG multi-spoke forged alloy wheels finished in matte black and fine opal, AMG performance studio leather package (front seats upholstered in designo classic red leather with black stitching, embossed AMG emblem on the headrests, AMG performance steering wheel in designo classic red or two-tone designo black leather, Nappa leather on the dashboard and upper panel and front seat arm rest and shift selector upholstered in designo black leather with red stitching, handcrafted AMG floor mats made from designo classic red Nappa leather and AMG door handles), AMG performance media and the Harman Kardon 7-speaker audio system.
C-Class Coupé Sport, AMG Plus Sports package (2012)
Available on the C 220, C 250 Sport and the C 250 CDI Sport, the C-Class Coupé Sport includes following notable features:
AMG Plus Sports package
Black exterior mirrors
AMG sports suspension with spring and damper setup for optimised lateral dynamics plus modified camber and bearings
Sports braking system with larger brake discs
Speed-sensitive sports steering with more direct ratio
Sports exhaust system, with sound generator in the exhaust system in the case of the C 250 CDI Sport
Engine management with more responsive accelerator mapping
A more sporty transmission configuration in S and M mode, with shorter shift times, double-declutch function and active downshift when braking
The AMG Plus Sports package includes following features:
AMG 7-twin-spoke light-alloy wheels painted in high-gloss black with high-sheen finish, 225/40 R 18 (at the front) and 255/35 R 18 (at the rear) tyres
AMG body kit including a front apron, side sill panels and rear apron
AMG lip spoiler
Sports seats upholstered black ARTICO synthetic leather or Dinamica microfibre with red contrasting topstitching
Door centre panels upholstered in black Dinamica microfibre
3-spoke multifunction sports steering wheel with flattened lower section and red contrasting topstitching
Designo leather seat belts in red (deselectable option)
Pedals finished in brushed stainless steel with rubber studs
Red contrasting topstitching on selector lever, centre console armrest and door panels
AMG floor mats with red edging band
The C-Class Coupé Sport went on sale in June 2012.
C 63 AMG Coupé Black Series Performance Studio Edition (2011–2013)
The C 63 AMG Coupé Black Series Performance Studio Edition is a limited (20 units made) version of C 63 AMG Coupé Black Series made for the Japanese market. Notable features included matte black exterior parts, designo magno cashmere white interior trim with AMG Black Series logo, AMG door lock pin with AMG logo, AMG shift knob with AMG Affalterbach emblem, handcrafted AMG floor mats with AMG logo, 'AMG Performance Studio' side decal included as a no-cost option, matte black 19-inch AMG 10-spoke forged alloy wheels, AMG aerodynamic package which included carbon-fibre flicks, carbon-fibre front splitter and a carbon-fibre rear wing, AMG sport bucket seats upholstered in either Dinamica microfibre or leather, AMG performance steering wheel upholstered in Dinamica microfibre, AMG performance media, AMG parameter steering, AMG enhanced brake system, front spoiler, side skirt, rear skirt, ABS, AMG diffuser and the AMG emblem with AMG Black Series logo.
C 63 AMG Edition 507 (2013–2015)
Available in Saloon, Coupé, Estate bodystyles, the Edition 507 is a special version of C 63 AMG with increased engine power to at 6,800 rpm and at 5,200 rpm along with an increased top speed of . Notable features include a bonnet shared with the C 63 AMG Black Series, AMG light-alloy cross-spoke wheels in titanium grey with a high-sheen finish or matt black with high-sheen rim flanges, 235/35 R 19 front and 255/30 R 19 rear tyres, AMG sports stripes in matt graphite grey above the side sill panels; a lip spoiler on the boot lid (Saloon and Coupé only), exterior mirror housings, black surrounds on the radiator grille and daytime running lights in high-gloss black; darkened headlamps, optional designo magno platinum body colour, 360 x 36 mm composite front brake discs, 6-piston aluminium fixed front callipers, 4-piston fixed rear callipers, choice of 3 interior upholstery types (porcelain designo leather or Dinamica microfibre with light-coloured contrasting topstitching, black designo leather or Dinamica microfibre with light-coloured contrasting topstitching, black designo leather), AMG Performance steering wheel upholstered in Alcantara with light-coloured contrasting stitching and a 12-o'clock marking, selector lever of the AMG SPEEDSHIFT MCT 7-speed sports transmission in upholstered in Dinamica microfibre with the AMG badge, steering wheel and selector lever gaiter with light-coloured contrasting stitching, AMG instrument cluster with red applications, trim in high-gloss black piano lacquer and the "Edition 507" badge on the trim on the front passenger side.
The AMG Performance Studio options include the following features:
AMG door sill panels, illuminated in white featuring LED technology
AMG floor mats
AMG rear axle locking differential
AMG 5-spoke light-alloy wheels, painted in titanium grey and with a high-sheen finish, with tyres in sizes 235/40 R 18 (front) and 255/35 R 18 (rear)
AMG Performance suspension
AMG Performance Media
AMG carbon-fibre/high gloss black piano lacquer-look trim
Extended appointments in designo black leather comprising: upper part of dashboard, beltlines in the doors finished in designo black leather
Collection from the AMG Customer Center in Affalterbach (for Germany)
The C 63 AMG "Edition 507" was unveiled at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show, with introduction in the market scheduled in April 2013 (June 2013 for the German market).
The US models were sold as 2014 model year cars in Saloon and Coupé bodystyles, replacing the AMG Development Package. The car also includes voucher for a driver training session at the AMG Driving Academy.
Specifications
Body style (production)
Engines
In 2012, C 180 BlueEFFICIENCY was replaced by turbo engine.
C 250 Sport is sold as C 250 Coupe in Canada.
Transmissions
Marketing
As part of the 2011 model year launch campaign, Two 45 and 30-second TV advertisements were made, which take a humorous and cinematographic approach to the C-Class Saloon and Estate models, focusing in particular on the innovative ATTENTION ASSIST system, which detects and provides early warning of the onset of driver drowsiness. The 20-second pre-roll titled 'Souvenir' takes an enjoyable approach to the C-Class Estate's 1,500-litre load capacity. Printed ad features C-Class photographed against an urban backdrop, with the 'living city look' highlights the sportiness and dynamic qualities of the vehicles.
As part of the C-Class Coupé campaign, an interactive web video titled 'Drive & Seek' was released in March 2011, featuring the theft of a work of art, a car chase starring the new C-Class Coupé and the hero agents, who rely on the help of the user, who must stay focused and make split-second decisions in order to capture the thieves and return the painting to its rightful owner. Four short films highlight the C-Class Coupé's top features in terms of agility, design, safety and comfort. The web special was accompanied by cinema-poster-style ads and posters. Print ad campaign started on 11 May, designed to show off the sporty and dynamic qualities and sleek design of the new C-Class Coupé. Three different ad images show the vehicle with a high-gloss finish in palladium silver on a disused air field in Jerez de la Frontera, Spain, where parts of the web thriller were also shot. In the bright midday sun, the Coupé comes across as a shining jewel. Messages such as "More style per hour, "Awe. Inspiring" or "Adrenaline accelerator included" accentuate the vehicle's modern image. The two 45- and 30-second cinema ads also take a humorous approach to the campaign slogan "More glances per hour", which was released on 19 May 2011 serving as sequel to the Drive & Seek, linking back to the bank robbery featured in the film.
A behind the scene video titled Making of C 63 AMG Coupe Fotoshooting was released by Mercedes AMG, featuring C 63 AMG Coupe and a Ducati 848 in matching white.
AMG "Black Series" 50' Marauder Cigarette Boat, a powerboat inspired by C 63 AMG Coupé Black Series and built by Cigarette Racing, was unveiled at the 2012 Miami Boat Show.
Safety
Euro NCAP
IIHS
NHTSA
The C-Class was rated Top Safety Pick 2009 by the Institute for Highway Safety.
The C-Class Coupé earned five stars for occupant protection. The optional PRE-SAFE and PRE-SAFE Brake safety system received the Euro NCAP Advanced prize.
References
External links
Compact executive cars
W204
W204
Cars introduced in 2007
2010s cars
Convertibles
Coupés
Sedans
Station wagons
Latin NCAP large family cars
Cars of Brazil
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4923547
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%20%26%20King
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King & King
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King & King is a children's picture book co-authored and co-illustrated by Stern Nijland and Linda De Haan. King & King tells the story of a young prince whose mother is forcing him to find his princess. However, after meeting many princesses, the prince falls in love with another prince. King & King was originally written in Dutch and has since been published in ten languages. The book's illustrations have received both positive and negative reviews, as has the storyline. The book has been analyzed for both its usefulness in the classroom and its challenges to social norms.
The book has gained some prominence due to opposition from social conservatives who believe that children should not see LGBT themes; attention as a result of this opposition greatly increased sales of the book.
Plot
"On the tallest mountain above town," the young Prince Bertie still has not married, as is the custom in his kingdom. His mother, a grouchy Queen who is tired of ruling and wishes to pass on the responsibility to her son, insists he must find a princess to marry. The prince tells his mom "Very well, Mother.... I must say, though, I've never cared much for princesses." His mother marches princess after princess through the castle, from places ranging from Greenland to Mumbai, but in spite of their various talents — Princess Aria of Austria sings opera, Princess Dolly from Texas juggles and does magic tricks — they fail to interest the prince (though the prince's page falls in love with the princess from Greenland). After a while, along comes Princess Madeleine escorted by her brother Prince Lee. At the same time, both Bertie and Lee exclaim, "What a wonderful prince!" The princes immediately fall in love, and they begin marriage preparations at once. The wedding is attended by all the rejected princesses and their families; the two princes are declared King and King, and the Queen can finally relax, sunning herself in a lounge chair near the page and the princess from Greenland. The story ends with a kiss between the two kings.
Publication
It was originally written in Dutch ("Koning & Koning") and published in the Netherlands in 2000, but has since been published in ten languages. A stage adaptation has been performed globally, from Vienna to Mexico City. In the United States, it was published by Berkeley, California-based Tricycle Press (the children's imprint of Ten Speed Press) in 2002; as of 2009, 20,000 copies have been sold in the United States. At Tricycle Press' request a sequel, King & King & Family, about the kings adopting a child, appeared in 2004.
Style and genre
King & King is a fictional children's picture book intended for ages 6 and older that combines both illustrations and text. The illustrations are created as collages with cut paper and mixed-media art, including ink and paint.
The book's illustrations have been a point of disagreement amongst reviewers, who disagree if the illustrations add or distract from the story. The book and the illustrations were critiqued by Horn book Magazine, Lambda Book Report, The School Library, Publishers Weekly, and Bulletin of the Center for Children's Books. Roger Sutton of the Horn Book Magazine called the illustrations "silly but affectionate collage illustrations." Sutton claims that this style of collage complements the "text for whimsical irreverence." Nancy Garde of the Lambda Book Report also positively reviewed the illustrations. She described the illustrations, noting the fun details and objects to be found on the pages. She also mentions the "colorful cut-paper collages," but she describes them as "big and brash." The School Library described the illustrations as "cluttered, disjointed, ill-conceived art." The review says that the artwork takes away from the overall message of the book, as it distracts the audience from the fun and positive details in the book. Publishers Weekly also condemned the illustration in the book, noting the ugly color scheme, inconsistent body and image shapes and ugly characters. The distasteful images caused Publishers Weekly to recommend a different book with a similarly diverse theme, rather than reading King & King. The Bulletin of the Center for Children's Books similarly described the fully filled pages, but rather than describing them negatively, Deborah Stevenson from Bulletin of the Center for Children's Books characterized the illustrations as "joyously informal pageantry."
Reception and analysis
King & King has been reviewed by the School Library Journal, Kirkus Reviews, the Horn Book Magazine and Publishers Weekly. It earned an Honorable Mention in the "most unusual book of the year" category for Publishers Weekly 2002 "Off the Cuff Awards." San Francisco Chronicle called the book "progressive" and "inclusive" and The Philadelphia Gay News said it was a "great book to teach young readers about same-sex couples." It was an Inside/Out Book Club selection and was a Lambda Literary Award finalist in 2002.
A program called "No Outsiders," backed by the British Department for Education, used King and King as a teaching tool for introducing students to gay issues, with one of its aims being the prevention of bullying of students who are perceived to be LGBT or who have LGBT parents. The program was inspired by Archbishop Desmond Tutu's remarks, "Everyone is an insider, there are no outsiders — whatever their beliefs, whatever their color, gender or sexuality."
Amy T.Y. Lai's "Waiving the Magic Wand: Forging greater open-mindedness by subverting the conventions of fairy tales" discusses the book in the context of a 2001 Yale Journal of Law and the Humanities article which argues that fairy tales play "an even greater role in shaping lawful behaviour than the recorded law, because it lies at the heart of the children's literary canon and has a much greater claim to universality of influence … Not only do young children lack the critical faculties necessary to challenge the "truth" offered by these stories, but the jurisprudence of fairy tales maps onto a child's developmental phase of moral reasoning." Lai asserts that King & King is part of a "growing canon of contemporary fairy tales" that challenge traditional doctrines and subvert their ideologies by sidestepping the "trap of prolonging an oppressive punitive system." Lai continues to say that the book challenges social norms "by including many unconventional elements, including single motherhood and alternative families. Most importantly, it lays out a gay-positive story with an ending that is gratifying for all parties, but without consciously constructing something like a judicial opinion that imposes a new legal or, worse still, punitive standard upon its reader."
Opposition
King & King LGBT content—it is believed to be the first image of two men romantically kissing portrayed in a children's book—has led many social conservatives to challenge it, on both a local and a national level. These challenges have included attempts to ban the book, to prevent it being used as a teaching tool, or to restrict children's exposure to it by removing it from school or public library shelves or by placing it in sections which young children cannot access.
Banned book
The American Library Association (ALA) "defines a "challenged book" as one that has received a formal, written complaint, filed with a library or school. The complaint on a challenged book includes a request that a book be removed from the shelf, or placed in a special section (usually available only to adults).
In a study of banned and challenged picture and primary books because of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer/questioning (LGBTQ) concerns covering the twenty years (1989–2009) for which data was available, King & King was fourth on the list after Daddy's Roommate by Michael Willhoite (1st), Heather Has Two Mommies by Leslea Newman (2nd) and And Tango Makes Three by Peter Parnell (3rd). In their list of all banned and challenged books for 2000–2009, King & King is 20th out of 100. In time for Banned Books Week (last week of September) in 2005, the ALA introduced Banned Books bracelets featuring covers of the popular challenged books, King & King is one of the six offered in children's sizes.
ALA banned books in all categories
2003, 9th
2004, 8th
The American Booksellers Association, books in all categories
2004, King & King & Family (2nd)
2005, King & King (4th) 2005
The Independent Bookseller Association
King & King was 2004's most frequently challenged title.
Controversy in Chicago
The University of Chicago Laboratory Schools annually vote to grant an award to a children's book. In 2003, King & King was one of the finalists for this award, which raised controversy amongst parents about King & King's plot. Some parents were angry that the school neglected to inform the parents before teaching their children about homosexual relationships because it is a controversial theme.
The Chicago Tribune attributes this controversy to more than homophobic parents but an increasing unease of the lack of control over their children. The Tribune also uses this book to discuss when parents should discuss controversial topics with their kids.
National significance
In response to King & King, Congressman Walter B. Jones (R – North Carolina) proposed a law in 2005 called the Parental Empowerment Act, which would have established national boards composed of parents to review books purchased by elementary schools, and which would have prohibited states that did not do so from receiving federal education funding. "You can't ban the book," said Jones. "This is the only way to do it." The bill died in committee.
In September 2007, Democratic primary front-runners were asked, in one of their debates, their opinion on the book and whether they were comfortable with children having access to it. John Edwards and Barack Obama strongly supported it, while Hillary Clinton described it as an issue of "parental discretion."
Conflict in Oklahoma
In 2005, in Oklahoma, 75 members of the state's legislature signed a petition for the Oklahoma Metropolitan Library System (OMLS) to force libraries to place the children's book in the adult section. At the May 2005 hearing of the Public Services Committee many of the speakers asserted that "children's books showing family situations different from traditional marriage are pornography," which the executive director of the OMLS denied stating, "none of the material in question is illegal or pornographic." Later that month the OMLS Commission voted 10–7 to move "easy, easy-reader, and tween" books containing "sensitive or controversial" themes to an area that could only be accessed by adults. The decision was based primarily on concern by social conservatives that books that advocate acceptance of homosexuality, such as King & King, were accessible by children. Staff of the Library system opposed such restrictions, and the American Library Association strongly condemned the decision. Prior, state representative Sally Kern had spearheaded an effort to keep such books away from children; in May 2005, the Oklahoma House passed a nonbinding House resolution 1039, also introduced by Kern, to "confine homosexually themed books and other age-inappropriate material to areas exclusively for adult access and distribution." The Commission's decision was implemented in February 2006 as a "Family Talk" section that contained such controversial content. Further restrictions were added in November 2008, when the Commission added the requirement that such material must be placed at least 60 inches off the ground in order to be out of the reach of many children.
Federal lawsuit
In 2006 Robb and Robin Wirthlin and David and Tonia Parker filed a federal lawsuit against the school district of Estabrook Elementary School, which their second graders attended in Lexington, Massachusetts. The Wirthlins' son's teacher had read King & King aloud to the class as part of an educational unit on weddings. Parents countered that the school's job was to teach about the world and that Massachusetts sanctioned same-sex marriage. The plaintiffs claimed that using the book in school constituted sex education without parental notification, which would be a violation of their civil rights and state law. Robin Wirthlin appeared on CNN, saying,
The judge dismissed the lawsuit, saying "Diversity is a hallmark of our nation."
The Wirthlins and the Parkers appealed the decision; a three-judge panel of the First Circuit Court of Appeals ruled unanimously in favor of the school. Judge Sandra Lynch, writing for the court, rejected the plaintiff's argument that their religious beliefs were being singled out as well as their argument that their First Amendment right to free exercise of religion was violated, writing, "There is no evidence of systemic indoctrination. There is no allegation that [the second-grader] was asked to affirm gay marriage. Requiring a student to read a particular book is generally not coercive of free exercise rights." The court also ruled that the parents' substantive due process rights were not violated, as these rights did not legally give them the degree of control they sought over the curriculum.
Other locations
In March 2004 the Associated Press reported on the Hartsells of Wilmington, North Carolina, who are the parents of a then first-grader who brought the book home which ends with "the two princes kissing with a red heart covering their lips." The Hartsells condemned the accessibility of the book by stating, "My child is not old enough to understand something like that, especially when it is not in our beliefs." They were most stunned by the picture of the two princes kissing each other romantically. In April 2004, a child asking his father about an image of two men kissing prompted him to complain, "By [my son] finding that book and asking why two men were kissing in it, I had to tell him about the two men being gay, which is something we disagree with." Shelby County, Indiana's library vote disagreed with a formal complaint that said the parent was forced to explain "why two men were kissing", but did agree to move the book to a section for children eight to twelve.
In October 2006, also in Massachusetts, the anti-gay group Family Research Council (FRC) co-ordinated Liberty Sunday broadcast throughout the U.S., "aimed to show how the gay-rights movement is undermining religious freedom." The Economist noted, "examples [of gay-rights movements undermining religious freedom] are rather hard to come by […] so King & King was frequently mentioned," with Tony Perkins of the FRC explaining, "kids were treated to pictures of two princes kissing one another."
Conservative religious groups in the United Kingdom opposed the "No Outsiders" project, introduced in 2007, which included the book. Stephen Green, the leader of Christian Voice, described it as "tantamount to child abuse." Elizabeth Atkinson, the project's director, said, "These books are presenting one aspect of the spectrum of daily life...Many, many children in this country have this as part of their everyday experience."
In September 2007, "[A]ppalled by images of two princes standing together at an altar and later kissing," the Macungie, Pennsylvania supervisors were petitioned to pull the book from its library. The supervisors declined to overrule the library and the banning effort backfired when donations brought the book into more area libraries that did not have a copy.
Sequel
King & King & Family (Tricycle Press, March 2004 ) is the sequel to King & King. It is a 32-page hardcover English-language book, at a recommended reading level for children ages 4–8. It was written and illustrated by Linda de Haan and Stern Nijland.
This second installment follows the newlywed kings on their honeymoon. The two explore a jungle, finding various animals that all have children; King Bertie expresses the wish that he and King Lee have a child of their own. When they return home, they find that a lonely orphan girl has stowed away in their suitcase. They adopt her, name her Daisy, and raise her as a princess.
See also
COLAGE
GLSEN
LGBT parenting
LGBT nobility and royalty
The Princes and the Treasure (2014)
Prince & Knight (2018)
References
External links
"Mass. parents sue over gay storybook" Gay.com article
"Parents sue US town over gay fairytale" Sunday Morning Herald article
"Lexington MA Throws Fit for a Gay "King"" Edge Boston article
"What's the Beef in Lawrence?", San Francisco Bay Times article
2000 children's books
2000s LGBT literature
Dutch children's books
Dutch picture books
Same-sex marriage in fiction
Children's books with LGBT themes
LGBT-related controversies in literature
Children's books about princes
Children's books about kings
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little%20Sur%20River
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Little Sur River
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The Little Sur River is a long river on the Central Coast of California. The river and its main tributary, the South Fork, drain a watershed of about of the Big Sur area, a thinly settled region of the Central California coast where the Santa Lucia Mountains rise abruptly from the Pacific Ocean. The South Fork and the North Fork both have their headwaters in the Ventana Wilderness, straddling Mount Pico Blanco. Portions west of the national forest and Old Coast Road lie within the El Sur Ranch. Some portions of the North Fork are on land owned by Granite Rock Company of Watsonville, California, which has owned the mineral rights to on Mount Pico Blanco since 1963. The North and South forks converge about from the coast where the river enters the Pacific Ocean.
The river's steep canyons and high chaparral-covered ridges are host to a number of rare species including the Santa Lucia Fir, Dudley's lousewort, and virgin stands of old-growth redwood.
Watershed
Protections
In 1973 the California State Legislature, recognizing the river's "extraordinary scenic, fishery, wildlife, (and) outdoor recreational values" and to protect its "free-flowing and wild status," added the river to the California Protected Waterways System. Responding to the state's request, in 1981 Monterey County added the river to its Protected Waterways Management Plan and encouraged the state in its Big Sur Coast Land Use Plan to designate the Little Sur area as a "coastal resource of national significance." The mouth of the river is protected because it is surrounded by private land, preventing public access.
Wildlife
The Little Sur River watershed provides habitat for mountain lion, bear, deer, fox, coyotes and wild boars. The upstream river canyon is characteristic of the Ventana Wilderness region: steep-sided, sharp-crested ridges separating valleys. Because the upper reaches of the Little Sur River watershed is entirely within the Ventana Wilderness, much of the river is in pristine condition. The California Department of Fish and Game says the river is the "most important spawning stream for steelhead" on the Central Coast. and that it "is one of the best steelhead streams in the county." The Little Sur River is a key habitat within the Central California steelhead distinct population segment which is listed as threatened.
A U.S. fisheries service report estimates that the number of trout in the entire south-central coast area—including the Pajaro River, Salinas River, Carmel River, Big Sur River, and Little Sur River—have dwindled from about 4,750 fish in 1965 to about 800 in 2005. The total number of steelhead in the Little Sur River was estimated at less than 100 in 1991.
Vegetation
The watershed is populated with coastal redwood, Douglas fir, western sycamore, bay laurel, bigleaf maple, and tanbark oak. Mixed in with the redwood and Douglas fir is a riparian habitat containing alder, poison oak, and thimbleberry. The upper slopes are usually a mix of chaparral, covered by coyote bush, ceanothus, chamise, manzanita, sagebrush, and bush lupine. On a few upper slopes may be found patches of open grassland dotted with black oak, canyon live oak, and tanbark oak favored by the early Esselen inhabitants.
The Little Sur River watershed contains stands of some of the most impressive uncut coastal redwood trees in the entire Big Sur area, including specimens over tall. It also contains the largest and tallest stands of Douglas fir on the Central Coast, up to in height. A stand of the rare Santa Lucia fir, described as "the rarest and most unusual fir in North America," are found on Skinner's Ridge, east of Pico Blanco Boy Scout camp.
Geology
The river canyon is deep and narrow, and even in the summer sunshine only reaches the canyon bottom for a few hours. The land is mostly steep, rocky, semi-arid except for the narrow canyons, and inaccessible. The upstream river canyon is characteristic of the Ventana Wilderness region: steep-sided, sharp-crested ridges separating valleys. Upstream from the Boy Scout camp are narrow gorges, waterfalls, and a few large pools.
Several northwest-trending faults cut across the Little Sur River drainage: the Sur, the Palo Colorado, and the Church Creek faults. The river flows mostly west for much of its length, unlike other rivers in the region which tend to flow to the northwest or southeast. Near Camp Pico Blanco, the river meets the Palo Colorado fault and follows it northwesterly for about , before turning west towards the Pacific Ocean. The lower length of the South Fork follows the Sur fault zone until it meets the North Fork. West of the Sur fault the earth is composed of Franciscan Assemblage rocks, some exposed serpentine, and overlying sandstone. Most of the Little Sur River geology is to the east of the Sur fault. This area is marked by deep canyons cut through granitic and metamorphic rocks of the Salinian Block. Upstream from the Boy Scout camp the gorges are full of mica schist and gneiss (metamorphosed sedimentary rocks), and granodiorite, quartz monzonite, and quartz diorite (granitic rocks). At the river's mouth are some of the largest sand dunes on the Big Sur coast.
The north and south forks of the Little Sur River straddle either side of Mount Pico Blanco, Spanish for "White Peak." It is topped by a distinctive white limestone cap, visible from California's Highway 1. The native Esselen people revered the peak as a sacred mountain from which all life originated. They believed that three creatures—the eagle, coyote and the hummingbird—rode out the Great Flood atop the mountain and went on to create the world.
Weather
The Little Sur River basin climate, protected for the most part from coastal fog by Pico Blanco, is characterized by hot, dry summers and rainy, mild winters. Annual temperatures average to . Annual precipitation ranges from , with a pronounced summer drought. This interior is hotter than the coastal region and receives less moisture from fog in summer. Severe spring rains have caused mud slides on steep slopes above roads near the hair-pin turns, which briefly closed the road into the Pico Blanco Boy Scout camp during the spring of 1967 and 1969.
Tributaries
The river originates in the area of the Ventana Double Cone and flows to the Pacific Ocean. The upper part of the river's watershed is in the Ventana Wilderness of the Los Padres National Forest. The rest, mostly near the coast, is privately owned. Precipitation increases with altitude at Big Sur. Higher elevations can receive over per year, about higher than lower areas.
The main river, locally known as the North Fork, is in a bowl-shaped watershed, fed by several creeks and surrounded by Launtz Ridge and Pico Blanco () to the west, Devil's Peak () to the north, Uncle Sam Mountain () to the east, and Ventana Double Cone () to the southeast. The North Fork flows mostly over granite bedrock. Upstream tributaries include Skinners Creek, Ventana Creek, Comings Creek, and Puerto Suelo Creek. A one-armed man named Vogler built a cabin east of Devil's Peak in the 1880s, later purchased by the Comings family, for whom the location and creek are named today. (They continued to use the cabin until the early 1950s.)
The South Fork of the river flows over granite bedrock, with portions of limestone and marble bedrock. The river has eroded the limestone and marble such that it travels underground in several locations. Tributaries on the South Fork include Rocky Creek, Turner Creek, Bixby Creek, Mill Creek, and Lachance Creek, many of them named for former homesteaders like Antare P. Lachance. Bixby Creek was the site of a landing built to transfer tanbark via cable to ships anchored offshore. The South Fork is unrestricted by any man-made dams, but an impassable waterfall about high upstream prevents steelhead from migrating further.
Boy Scout camp
Camp Pico Blanco is at elevation on the North Fork. Upstream tributaries include Jackson Creek, Pine Creek, Puerto Suelo Creek, and Comings Creek. A small creek enters the Little Sur River via a waterfall at the location of the seasonal reservoir in the camp proper. The immediate camp environment consists of seven distinct biotic habitats: coast redwood/mixed evergreen forest, white alder riparian woodland, herbaceous vegetation, aquatic habitat, bare alluvium, bare ground, and Sur Complex bedrock. The camp is accessed via the narrow and winding Palo Colorado Road, from the coast, which was closed due to the 2017 Soberanes fire, and remains closed. Some of the redwoods in the vicinity of the camp were planted between 1910 and 1921.
Dam
There is a seasonal high concrete flash board dam on the North Fork of the river in the Camp Pico Blanco. Built in 1953, it creates a small recreational reservoir about in size. In 2002, the California Department of Fish & Game attempted to stop the Monterey Bay Area Council from using the dam. After intervention by Rep. Sam Farr and Senator Bruce McPherson, the Fish and Game retreated from preventing the council from filling the dam, but stipulated that certain regulations must be adhered to.
The National Marine Fisheries Service discovered shortly afterward that the Council appeared to have filled the dam in violation of these regulations, "dewatering" the river below the dam and killing at least 30 threatened steelhead trout. The council could have been subject to fines of up to $360,000. The council avoided paying a fine by building a $1 million custom fish ladder designed by Swanson Hydrology + Geomorphology. Don Chapin Company, a long-time supporter of the Monterey Bay Area Council, was the honoree at the 2006 dinner at which it was recognized for donating the cost of constructing the fish ladder. California State Representative Sam Farr's father helped build the camp, and Farr attended the camp as a boy.
Habitat for endangered species
Steelhead trout
In 1895, a fishing journal reported that "there are plenty of large fish in the stream, and there are several fine streams running into the North Fork, all full of California trout." A 1903 state report similarly reported that "The Big and Little Sur Rivers... are noted for trout-fishing."
A 1965 report said the stream contained about of prime habitat for the threatened steelhead.
An advertisement from 1910 for the Idlewild Resort at the junction of the North and South forks of the river described the pool at the mouth of the river as "the famous '1000 Salmon trout pool.'"
In 2002, Fish and Game staff surveyed the Little Sur River in the vicinity of the Camp Pico Blanco and found "numerous" steelhead fry and fingerlings. They described the river as "probably the most productive steelhead river south of the San Francisco Bay at this time." The Little Sur River is considered by the California Department of Fish and Game to be the "most important spawning stream for steelhead" on the Central Coast and "one of the best steelhead streams in the county."
As of 2011, fishing is limited to the fourth Saturday each month from May through October 31 each year. Only artificial lures with barbless hooks may be used.
Amphibians
Other at risk species found in the river's riparian corridor include the California red-legged frog (Federally threatened, California Species of Concern), western pond turtle(California Species of Concern), foothill yellow-legged frog (California Species of Concern), and the Coastal Range newt (California Species of Concern).
Rare vegetation and wildlife
The area was first surveyed in 1905 when the region was set aside as part of the Monterey Forest Preserve. That survey noted that the redwoods achieved their maximum development along the Little Sur River. The Little Sur River watershed contains stands of some of the most impressive uncut coastal redwood trees in the entire Big Sur area, including specimens over tall. It also contains the largest and tallest stands of Douglas fir on the Central Coast, up to in height. A stand of the rare Santa Lucia fir, described as "the rarest and most unusual fir in North America," are found on Skinner's Ridge, east of the Camp Pico Blanco. There are also a few ponderosa pine in the lower canyon.
The North Fork of the Little Sur River supports the largest known population found on public lands of the rare Dudley's lousewort. Endemic to redwood forests, fewer than 10 known locations are known to support the plant.
Fire impact
Fire is an integral part of the Little Sur River landscape. Upper elevations are typically covered by chaparral. In one of the first recorded fires in 1894, most of what is now the Monterey Ranger District, including the Little Sur River watershed, was burned by a fire that was unchecked for weeks. In October, 1905 another fire raged for more than a month, consuming all of the Palo Colorado and Pico Blanco area. The Molera Fire in 1972 burned a considerable portion of the watershed, and in August, 1977, the Marble-Cone Fire burned the entire area. This was repeated in 2008 when the Basin Complex fire involved the entire watershed. In 2016, the Soberanes Fire once again burned through almost the entire Little Sur River watershed with the exception of areas west of the Old Coast Road.
History
The Little Sur River area has always been sparsely occupied. The land is mostly steep, rocky, semi-arid except for the narrow canyons, and inaccessible, making long-term habitation a challenge.
Esselen tribe
The area was first occupied by the Esselen American Indians who followed local food sources seasonally, living near the coast in winter, where they harvested rich stocks of mussels, abalone and other sea life. In the summer and fall they move inland to harvest acorns gathered from the black oak, canyon live oak and tanbark oak, primarily on upper slopes in areas outside the current camp's location. A large boulder with a dozen or more deep mortar bowls worn into it, known as a bedrock mortar, is located in Apple Tree Camp on the southwest slope of Devil's Peak, north of Camp Pico Blanco. The holes were hollowed out by Indians who used it to grind the acorns into flour. Other mortar rocks have also been found within the Boy Scout camp at campsites 3 and 7, and slightly upstream from campsite 12, while a fourth is found on a large rock in the river, originally above the river, between campsites 3 and 4.
Pico Blanco, which splits the north and south forks of the river, was sacred in the native traditions of the Rumsien and the Esselen, who revered the mountain as a sacred place from which all life originated. The Spanish mission system led to the virtual destruction of the Indian population. Estimates for the pre-contact populations of most native groups in California have varied substantially. Alfred L. Kroebersuggests a 1770 population for the Esselen of 500. Sherburne F. Cook raises this estimate to 750. A more recent calculation based on mission baptism records and population density is that they numbered 1,185–1,285.
European contact
On June 14, 1771, Father Junípero Serra founded Mission San Antonio de Padua near the current town of Jolon. By about 1822, much of the native Indian population had been forced into the Spanish mission system, and most of the interior villages within the current Los Padres National Forest were uninhabited. Virtually all of the Esselen were baptized and relocated to Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo in present-day Carmel, California, where many died from disease, demoralization, poor food, and overwork. The last baptism of an Esselen native was recorded in 1808, and there is evidence that some members may have avoided control of the Spanish mission by escaping into the relatively inaccessible upper reaches of the Carmel and Arroyo Seco Rivers' watershed.
European settlement
Along with the rest of California, Big Sur became part of Mexico when it gained independence from Spain in 1821. On July 30, 1834, Mexican governor José Figueroa conveyed the Rancho El Sur land grant to Juan Bautista Alvarado. Alvarado later traded his Rancho El Sur to his uncle by marriage, Captain John B.R. Cooper, in exchange for Rancho Bolsa del Potrero y Moro Cojo.
After California revolted against Mexican rule and became a U.S. state, a few hardy pioneer homesteaders settled in the Big Sur region, drawn by the promise of free 160 acre (0.6 km2) parcels. They filed United States government patents as early as 1891. These settlers included William F. Notley, who homesteaded at the mouth of Palo Colorado Canyon in 1891.
He began harvesting tanoak bark from the canyon, a lucrative source of income at the time. The bark was used to manufacture tannic acid, necessary to the growing leather tanning industry located in Santa Cruz, about to the north. Notley constructed a landing at the mouth of the Palo Colorado River like that at Bixby Landing to the south. The tanbark was harvested from the isolated trees inland, corded, and brought out by mules or on wooden sleds nicknamed "go-devils". A point on the Palo Colorado Road is still nicknamed "The Hoist" because of the very steep road which required wagon-loads of tanbark and lumber to be hoisted by block and tackle hitched to oxen. One of the original pulleys is mounted under a long plank supporting mailboxes along the road.
Notleys Landing
At the coast, the tanbark was loaded by cable onto waiting vessels anchored offshore at a dog-hole port named Notley's Landing. Notley's Landing was used to ship the tan bark north, and a small hamlet existed at that spot from 1898 to 1907. In 1889, as much as 50,000 cords of tanbark were hauled out from the Little Sur River and Big Sur River watersheds. Redwood harvesting was limited by the rugged terrain and difficulty in transporting the lumber to market. Near the start of the 20th century, the tan oak trees were becoming seriously depleted, which slowly led to the demise of the industries they had created.
A one-armed man named Vogler built a cabin east of Devil's Peak in the 1880s, later purchased by the Comings family, for whom the location and creek are named today. (They continued to use the cabin until the early 1950s.) Other early homesteaders in the Palo Colorado Canyon region included Thomas W. Allen, 1891, Isaac N. Swetnam, 1894, Harry E. Morton, 1896, Samuel L. Trotter, 1901, Abijah C. Robbins, 1901, and Antare P. Lachance, 1904. Swetnam bought the Notley home at the mouth of Palo Colorado Canyon and also constructed a small cabin on the Little Sur River at the site of the future Pico Blanco camp.
Alfred K. Clark built a home on the south fork of the Little Sur River around the turn of the century. He filed a land patent for on June 30, 1906. Clark searched for silver unsuccessfully on his property for many years. Before he died, he told his neighbor and friend Al Geer that he had found a cavern decorated with "elephants with long shaggy hair and curly teeth" and "cats with long sharp teeth."
Idlewild Resort
A travel brochure published in 1890 describes the "embryo Saratoga Springs ... owned by Mr. Keleher, who discovered them, and Dr. S. M. Archer" of Monterey County Hospital. It states that the springs "are situated nearly fifty feet above the river channel" and reported that, "The ocean, with a beautiful sandy beach, is but two miles distant." In 1893, the Monterey Cypress reported on a visitor who caught a trout in front of Keleher's home on the river.
Charles Howland drove the mail stage between Monterey and Big Sur in about 1900. He built the Idlewild Hotel about east of the Old Coast Road where it crosses the Little Sur River. He and his wife offered large tents furnished with stove, cooking utensils, dishes, cots, and mattresses for $3.00 per week. A stage ran from the Everett House and later the Pacific Ocean House in Monterey to the hotel on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays every morning beginning on August 3, 1901. Hotel rooms were $1.50 per day. The Idlewild and the Pfeiffer Ranch Resort were only two hotels in the Big Sur region hosting guests in 1905.
William T. Mitchell bought the resort in about 1909. He guaranteed guests their full limit of trout from the Little Sur River, bragging that children could catch fish with bent pin hooks. Reports included mention of guests taking advantage of a hot springs upstream from the hotel. W. T. Mitchell sold the hotel back to its original owners, Charles Howland and his wife, in June 1911.
The hotel was near John Bautista Henry Cooper's Rancho El Sur. When he died in 1899, his wife Martha Brawley Cooper received of his estate. Their children John B.R. Cooper, Alfred, Alice, and Abelardo each inherited a share of the land. On April 9, 1913, she acquired the land formerly owned by Charles and Hattie Howland along the Little Sur River in a Sheriff's sale for $6,590.60 (or about $ today). When Alfred died in an auto accident on September 2, 1913, his two siblings Abelardo and Alice assigned their interest in his estate including the Rancho to their mother, Martha. The additional land apparently included the location of the Idlewild Hotel on the south bank of the north fork.
During the next season, the Howlands moved the Idlewild Hotel to the north side of the North fork of the Little Sur River. In a series of competing ads beginning on May 2, 1914, Martha Cooper placed a notice in the Monterey Daily Express that the "summer resort on the Little Sur River known as 'Idlewild' is permanently closed to the public." Immediately below that notice, Charles Howland "former owner of Idlewild", ran a larger ad for Idlewild's "new camp... Same county, same streams, near same old spot."
Cooper continued to run an ad notifying the public that the Idlewild resort was closed through the end of 1918. Howland similarly ran his ad alongside hers for much of the same period of time. Cooper offered a reward for information leading to the arrest and conviction of anyone trespassing on the Cooper land. In a report in The Californian on July 1, 1919, Charles Howland is once again named as the owner of the Idlewild. On July 25, 1919, Mignnnette Myers Gruit described the "Hitchcock camp" at Camp Idlewild, entertainment, and a large number of visitors. The of land became the subject of a legal dispute between the Howlands and their partners, John and Anna Brown. A judge finally ruled that they should split the land.
Early trails and roads
José Castro documented the first trail from Monterey to Palo Colorado Canyon in 1853, when he filed a map of the rancho. A trail was in use from Palo Colorado Canyon to Mill Creek (present-day Bixby Canyon) by about 1855. The area was very isolated and only the sturdiest and most self-sufficient settlers stayed. In 1870, Charles Henry Bixby and his father hired men to improve the track and constructed the first wagon road including 23 bridges from the Carmel Mission to Bixby Creek.
Bixby later partnered with William B. Post to extend the road inland, around Bixby Canyon and up Cerro Hill to the junction of the north and south forks of the Little Sur River, and thence south to the Post Ranch. The trip was over a rough and dangerous track. The single-lane road was closed in winter when it became impassable. Coast residents could receive supplies via a hazardous landing by boat from Monterey or San Francisco. The road was gradually improved, including grading of the road up Cerro Hill from the coast to the Little Sur River. By 1920, the trip from Carmel in a light spring wagon pulled by two horses could be completed in about 11 hours. A lumber wagon pulled by four horses could make the trip in 13 hours. A side road into Palo Colorado Canyon was in place by 1900.
Prior to the completion of the two-lane Carmel-San Simeon Highway in 1937, the California coast south of Carmel and north of San Simeon was one of the most remote regions in the state, rivaling nearly any other region in the United States for its difficult access.
The United States Army Corps of Engineers began building a road from the end of Palo Colorado Road in 1950 from a location known as "The Hoist" to Bottcher's Gap (), the site of former homesteader John Bottcher's cabin in 1885–86. The road leaving Bottcher's Gap traverses extremely steep terrain, necessitating four narrow switchbacks. The road reached the Little Sur River in the vicinity of the camp in the summer of 1951. The council turned over the road from The Hoist to Bottcher's Gap to Monterey County in 1958. In 1963, the Council Executive estimated that buying the land at that time would cost the council over $1 million, or nearly $ in today's dollars.
National forest creation
In October, 1905 the land that now makes up the Los Padres National Forest, including the South Fork and portions of the upper reaches of the North Fork of the Little Sur River watershed, were withdrawn from public settlement by the United States Land Office, although current landholders were allowed to retain their property. In January 1908, 39 sections of land, totaling , were added to the Monterey National Forest by President Theodore Roosevelt in a presidential proclamation. Several tanning companies and some homesteaders retained ownership of land within the area which were not purchased by the government.
By 1916 the Kron Tanning Company of Santa Cruz and the Eberhard Tanning Company of Santa Clara had acquired most of the acreage along the Little Sur River from the original owners. Interest in preserving the abundant growth of redwoods in the area prompted newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst to purchase the entire acreage. On November 18, 1921, the Hearst Sunical Land and Packing Company paid approximately $50,000 to buy the land from the tanning companies.
References
Further reading
The Trust for Public Land: Little Sur River
Ventana Wilderness Alliance: Little Sur River
Rivers of Monterey County, California
Santa Lucia Range
Monterey Ranger District, Los Padres National Forest
Rivers of Northern California
Big Sur
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body%20hair
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Body hair
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Body hair, or androgenic hair, is terminal hair that develops on the human body during and after puberty. It is different from head hair and also from less visible vellus hair, which is much finer and lighter in colour. Growth of androgenic hair is related to the level of androgens (male hormones) and the density of androgen receptors in the dermal papillae. Both must reach a threshold for the proliferation of hair follicle cells.
From childhood onward, regardless of sex, vellus hair covers almost the entire area of the human body. Exceptions include the lips, the backs of the ears, palms of hands, soles of the feet, certain external genital areas, the navel, and scar tissue. Density of hair – i.e. the number of hair follicles per unit area of skin – varies from person to person. In many cases, areas on the human body that contain vellus hair will begin to produce darker and thicker body hair during puberty, such as the first growth of beard hair on a male and female adolescent's previously smooth chin; although it may appear thinner on the female.
Androgenic hair follows the same growth pattern as the hair that grows on the scalp, but with a shorter anagen phase and longer telogen phase. While the anagen phase for the hair on one's head lasts for years, the androgenic hair growth phase for body hair lasts a few months. The telogen phase for body hair lasts close to a year. This shortened growing period and extended dormant period explains why the hair on the head tends to be much longer than other hair found on the body. Differences in length seen in comparing the hair on the back of the hand and pubic hair, for example, can be explained by varied growth cycles in those regions. The same goes for differences in body hair length seen in different people, especially when comparing men and women.
Distribution
Like much of the hair on the human body, leg, arm, chest, and back hair begin as vellus hair. As people age, the hair in these regions begins to grow darker and more abundantly. This growth occurs during or after puberty. Men will often have more abundant, coarser hair on the arms and back, while women tend to have a less drastic change in the hair growth in these areas but do experience a significant change in thickness of hairs. However, some women will grow darker, longer hair in one or more of these regions.
Chest and abdomen
Vellus hair grows on the chest and abdomen of both sexes at all stages of development. During the final stages of puberty and extending into adulthood, men grow increasing amounts of terminal hair over the chest and abdomen areas. Adult women can also grow terminal hairs around the areola, though in many cultures these hairs are removed.
Arms
Arm hair grows on a human's forearms, sometimes even on the elbow area, and rarely on a human's bicep, triceps, and/or shoulders. Terminal arm hair is concentrated on the wrist end of the forearm, extending over the hand. Terminal hair growth in adolescent males is often much more intense than that in females, particularly for individuals with dark hair. In some cultures, it is common for women to remove arm hair, though this practice is less frequent than that of leg hair removal.
Terminal hair growth on arms is a secondary sexual characteristic in boys and appears in the last stages of puberty. Vellus arm hair is usually concentrated on the elbow end of the forearm and often ends on the lower part of the upper arm. This type of intense arm vellus hair growth sometimes occurs in girls and children of both sexes until puberty. Even though this causes the arms to appear hairy, it is not caused solely by testosterone. The hair is softer and different from terminal arm hair, in texture.
Feet
Visible hair appearing on the top surfaces of the feet and toes generally begins with the onset of puberty. Terminal hair growth on the feet is typically more intense in adult and adolescent males than in females.
Legs
Leg hair sometimes appears at the onset of adulthood, with the legs of men more often hairier than those of women. For a variety of reasons, people may shave their leg hair, including cultural practice or individual needs. Around the world, women generally shave their leg hair more regularly than men, to conform with the social norms of many cultures, many of which perceive smooth skin as a sign of youth, beauty, and in some cultures, hygiene. However, athletes of both sexes – swimmers, runners, cyclists and bodybuilders in particular – may shave their androgenic hair to reduce friction, highlight muscular development or to make it easier to get into and out of skin-tight clothing.
Pubic
Pubic hair is a collection of coarse hair found in the pubic region. It will often also grow on the thighs and abdomen. Zoologist Desmond Morris disputes theories that it developed to signal sexual maturity or protect the skin from chafing during copulation, and prefers the explanation that pubic hair acts as a scent trap. Also, both sexes having thick pubic hairs act as a partial cushion during intercourse.
The genital area of males and females are first inhabited by shorter, lighter vellus hairs that are next to invisible and only begin to develop into darker, thicker pubic hair at puberty. At this time, the pituitary gland secretes gonadotropin hormones which trigger the production of testosterone in the testicles and ovaries, promoting pubic hair growth. The average ages pubic hair begins to grow in males and females are 12 and 11, respectively. However, in some females, pubic hair has been known to start growing as early as age 8.
Just as individual people differ in scalp hair color, they can also differ in pubic hair color. Differences in thickness, growth rate, and length are also evident.
Axillary
Underarm hair normally starts to appear at the beginning of puberty, with growth usually completed by the end of the teenage years.
Today in much of the world, it is common for women to regularly shave their underarm hair. The prevalence of this practice varies widely, though. The practice became popular for cosmetic reasons around 1915 in the United States and United Kingdom, when one or more magazines showed a woman in a dress with shaved underarms. Regular shaving became feasible with the introduction of the safety razor at the beginning of the 20th century. While underarm shaving was quickly adopted in some English speaking countries, especially in the US and Canada, it did not become widespread in Europe until well after World War II. Since then the practice has spread worldwide; some men also choose to shave their armpits.
Facial
Facial hair grows primarily on or around one's face. Both men and women experience facial hair growth. Like pubic hair, non-vellus facial hair will begin to grow in around puberty. Moustaches in young men usually begin to grow in at around the age of puberty, although some men may not grow a moustache until they reach late teens or at all. In some cases facial hair development may take longer to mature than the late teens, and some men experience no facial hair development even at an older age.
It is common for many women to develop a few facial hairs under or around the chin, along the sides of the face (in the area of sideburns), or on the upper lip. These may appear at any age after puberty but are often seen in women after menopause due to decreased levels of estrogen. A darkening of the vellus hair of the upper lip in women is not considered true facial hair, though it is often referred to as a "moustache"; the appearance of these dark vellus hairs may be lessened by bleaching. A relatively small number of women are able to grow enough facial hair to have a distinct beard. In some cases, female beard growth is the result of a hormonal imbalance (usually androgen excess), or a rare genetic disorder known as hypertrichosis. Sometimes it is caused by use of anabolic steroids. Cultural pressure leads most women to remove facial hair, as it may be viewed as a social stigma.
Development
Hair follicles are to varying degrees sensitive to androgens, primarily testosterone and its derivatives, particularly dihydrotestosterone, with different areas on the body having different sensitivity. As androgen levels increase, the rate of hair growth and the weight of the hairs increase. Genetic factors determine both individual levels of androgen and the hair follicle's sensitivity to androgen, as well as other characteristics such as hair colour, type of hair and hair retention.
Rising levels of androgens during puberty cause vellus hair to transform into terminal hair over many areas of the body. The sequence of appearance of terminal hair reflects the level of androgen sensitivity, with pubic hair being the first to appear due to the area's special sensitivity to androgen. The appearance of pubic hair in both sexes is usually seen as an indication of the start of a person's puberty. There is a sexual differentiation in the amount and distribution of androgenic hair, with men tending to have more terminal hair in more areas. This includes facial hair, chest hair, abdominal hair, leg hair, arm hair, and foot hair. (See Table 1 for development of male body hair during puberty.) Women retain more of the less visible vellus hair, although leg, arm, and foot hair can be noticeable on women. It is not unusual for women to have a few terminal hairs around their nipples as well. In the later decades of life, especially after the fifth decade, there begins a noticeable reduction in body hair especially in the legs. The reason for this is not known but it could be due to poorer circulation, lower free circulating hormone amounts or other reasons.
Function
Androgenic hair provides tactile sensory input by transferring hair movement and vibration via the shaft to sensory nerves within the skin. Follicular nerves detect displacement of hair shafts and other nerve endings in the surrounding skin detect vibration and distortions of the skin around the follicles. Androgenic hair extends the sense of touch beyond the surface of the skin into the air and space surrounding it, detecting air movements as well as hair displacement from contact by insects or objects.
Evolution
Determining the evolutionary function of androgenic hair must take into account both human evolution and the thermal properties of hair itself.
The thermodynamic properties of hair are based on the properties of the keratin strands and amino acids that combine into a 'coiled' structure. This structure lends to many of the properties of hair, such as its ability to stretch and return to its original length. This coiled structure does not predispose curly or frizzy hair, both of which are defined by oval or triangular hair follicle cross-sections.
Evolution of less body hair
Hair is a very good thermal conductor and aids heat transfer both into and out of the body. When goose bumps are observed, small muscles (arrector pili muscle) contract to raise the hairs either to provide insulation, by reducing cooling of the skin by air convection, or in response to central nervous stimulus, similar to the feeling of "hairs standing up on the back of your neck". This phenomenon also occurs when static charge is built up and stored in the hair. Keratin however can easily be damaged by excessive heat and dryness, suggesting that extreme sun exposure, perhaps due to a lack of clothing, would result in perpetual hair destruction, eventually resulting in the genes being bred out in favor of high skin pigmentation. It is also true that parasites can live on and in hair thus peoples who preserved their body hair would have required greater general hygiene to prevent diseases.
Markus J. Rantala of the Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Finland, said humans evolved by "natural selection" to be hairless when the trade off of "having fewer parasites" became more important than having a "warming, furry coat".
P. E. Wheeler of the Department of Biology at Liverpool Polytechnic said quadrupedal savanna mammals of similar volume to humans have body hair to keep warm while only larger quadrupedal savanna mammals lack body hair, because their body volume itself is enough to keep them warm. Therefore Wheeler said that humans, who should have body hair based on predictions of body volume alone for savanna mammals, evolved no body hair after evolving bipedalism, which he said reduced the amount of body area exposed to the sun by 40%, reducing the solar warming effect on the human body.
Loss of fur occurred at least two million years ago, but possibly as early as 3.3 million years ago judging from the divergence of head and pubic lice, and aided persistence hunting (the ability to catch prey in very long distance chases) in the warm savannas where hominins first evolved. The two main advantages are felt to be bipedal locomotion and greater thermal load dissipation capacity due to better sweating and less hair.
Sexual selection
Markus J. Rantala of the Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Finland, said the existence of androgen dependent hair on men could be explained by sexual attraction whereby hair on the genitals would trap pheromones and hair on the chin would make the chin appear more massive.
Across populations
In 1876, Oscar Peschel wrote that North Asiatic Mongols, Native Americans, Malays, Hottentots and Bushmen have little to no body hair, while Semitic peoples, Indo-Europeans, and Southern Europeans (especially the Portuguese and Spanish) have extensive body hair.
Anthropologist Joseph Deniker said in 1901 that the very hirsute peoples are the Ainus, Uyghurs, Iranians, Australian aborigines (Arnhem Land being less hairy), Toda, Dravidians and Melanesians, while the most glabrous peoples are the American Indians, San, and East Asians, who include Chinese, Koreans, Mongols, and Malays. Deniker said that hirsute peoples tend to have thicker beards, eyelashes, and eyebrows but fewer hairs on their scalp.
C.H. Danforth and Mildred Trotter of the Department of Anatomy at Washington University in St. Louis conducted a study using army soldiers of European origin in 1922 where they concluded that dark-haired white men are generally more hairy than fair-haired white men.
H. Harris, publishing in the British Journal of Dermatology in 1947, wrote American Indians have the least body hair, Chinese and black people have little body hair, white people have more body hair than black people and Ainu have the most body hair.
Anthropologist Arnold Henry Savage Landor, in 1970, described the Ainu as having hairy bodies.
Stewart W. Hindley and Albert Damon of the Department of Anthropology at Stanford University studied, in 1973, the frequency of hair on the middle finger joint (mid-phalangeal hair) of Solomon Islanders, as a part of a series of anthropometric studies of these populations. They summarize other studies on prevalence of this trait as reporting, in general, that Caucasoids are more likely to have hair on the middle finger joint than Negroids, Australoids and Mongoloids, and collect the following frequencies from previously published literature: Andamanese 0%, Eskimo 1%, African American 16% or 28%, Ethiopians 25.6%, Mexicans of the Yucatan 20.9%, Penobscot and Shinnecock 22.7%, Gurkha 33.6%, Japanese 44.6%, various Hindus 40–50%, Egyptians 52.3%, Near Eastern peoples 62–71%, various Europeans 60–80%. However, they never completed an Androgenic hair map.
According to anthropologist and professor Ashley Montagu in 1989, East Asian people and black people such as the San people are less hairy than white people and West Asian peoples. Montagu said that the hairless feature is a neotenous trait.
Eike-Meinrad Winkler and Kerrin Christiansen of the Institut für Humanbiologie studied, in 1993, Kavango people and !Kung people of body hair and hormone levels to investigate the reason black Africans did not have bodies as hairy as Europeans. Winkler and Christiansen concluded the difference in hairiness between black Africans and Europeans had to do with differences in androgen or estradiol production, in androgen metabolism, and in sex hormone action in the target cells.
Valerie Anne Randall of the Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Bradford, said in 1994 beard growth in Caucasian men increases until the mid-thirties due to a delay caused by growth cycles changing from vellus hair to terminal hair. Randall said white men and women are hairier than Japanese men and women even with the same total plasma androgen levels. Randall says that the reason for some people being hairy and some people not being hairy is unclear, but that it probably is related to differing sensitivity of hair follicles to 5α-reductase.
Rodney P. R. Dawber of the Oxford Hair Foundation said in 1997 that East Asian males have little or no facial or body hair and Dawber also said that Mediterranean males are covered with an exuberant pelage.
Milkica Nešić and her colleagues from the Department of Physiology at the University of Niš, Serbia, cited prior studies in a 2010 publication as indicating that the frequency of hair on the middle finger joint (mid-phalangeal hair) in whites is significantly higher than in Black populations.
Androgenic hair as biometric
It has been shown that individuals can be uniquely identified by their androgenic hair patterns. For example, even when one's particular distinguishing features such as face and tattoos are obscured, persons can still be identified by their hair on other parts of their body.
See also
Alopecia
Hair removal
Hirsutism
Human hair color
Trichotillomania
References
External links
Hair anatomy
Human development
Human hair
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut%20national%20d%27%C3%A9tudes%20d%C3%A9mographiques
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Institut national d'études démographiques
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The French Institute for Demographic Studies (French: Institut national d'études démographiques, INED) is a French research institute specializing in demography and population studies in general.
History
Before 1945
In 1941, Nobel Prize winner Alexis Carrel, an early proponent of eugenics and euthanasia, and a member of Jacques Doriot's French Popular Party (PPF), advocated for the creation of the French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems (), using connections to the Pétain cabinet. Charged with the "study, in all of its aspects, of measures aimed at safeguarding, improving and developing the French population in all of its activities", the Foundation was created by decree of the collaborationist Vichy regime in 1941, and Carrel appointed as 'regent'. The Foundation also had for some time as general secretary François Perroux.
The Foundation was behind the 16 December 1942 Act mandating the "prenuptial certificate", which required all couples seeking marriage to submit to a biological examination, to insure the "good health" of the spouses, in particular with regard to sexually transmitted diseases (STD) and "life hygiene". Carrel's institute also conceived the "scholar booklet" ("livret scolaire"), which could be used to record students' grades in French secondary schools, and thus classify and select them according to scholastic performance. Besides these eugenic activities aimed at classifying the population and improving its health, the Foundation also supported the 11 October 1946 law instituting occupational medicine, enacted by the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF) after the Liberation.
The Foundation initiated studies on demographics (Robert Gessain, Paul Vincent, Jean Bourgeois), nutrition (Jean Sutter), and housing (Jean Merlet), as well as the first polls (Jean Stoetzel). The foundation, which after the war became the INED demographics institute, employed 300 researchers from the summer of 1942 to the end of the autumn of 1944. "The foundation was chartered as a public institution under the joint supervision of the ministries of finance and public health. It was given financial autonomy and a budget of forty million francs, roughly one franc per inhabitant: a true luxury considering the burdens imposed by the German Occupation on the nation's resources. By way of comparison, the whole Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) was given a budget of fifty million francs."
Alexis Carrel had previously published in 1935 the best-selling book L'Homme, cet inconnu ("Man, This Unknown"). Since the early 1930s, Carrel had advocated the use of gas chambers to rid humanity of its "inferior stock", and endorsed scientific racism discourse. One of the founders of these pseudoscientific theories had been Arthur de Gobineau in his 1853–1855 essay titled An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races. In the 1936 preface to the German edition of his book, Carrel had added praise for the eugenics policies of the Third Reich, writing that:
(t)he German government has taken energetic measures against the propagation of the defective, the mentally diseased, and the criminal. The ideal solution would be the suppression of each of these individuals as soon as he has proven himself to be dangerous.
1945–1986
INED was founded by virtue of the ministerial order no. 45-2499 of 24 October 1945. It was created on the initiative of the eminent paediatrician Robert Debré (1882-1978), who had submitted a report on the institutionalization of demography to the Comité français de la Libération nationale d'Alger in January 1944. To head the institute, General Charles de Gaulle appointed the statistician and economist Alfred Sauvy who, as advisor to the President of the Council, Paul Reynaud, had drafted the French government's first pro-natalist measures in 1938. INED moved into the premises of the Fondation française pour l'étude des problèmes humains headed by Dr Alexis Carrel, and employed around 7% of the foundation's personnel, which counted only a handful of demographers.
The 1945 order defined the missions of INED: "The role of INED is to study demographic problems in all their aspects. To this end, the Institute will collect the relevant documentation, conduct surveys, carry out experiments and follow experiments conducted abroad, study the material and moral means which may contribute to the quantitative growth of the population and its qualitative development, and ensure the dissemination of demographic knowledge".
Founding generation
The early days were difficult for INED. With the unexpected onset of the baby boom (200,000 additional births in France in 1946), an institute to promote fertility became apparently superfluous. But before long, INED was asked to study the consequences of the baby boom and its effect on housing, school enrolment, employment, infant and maternal mortality. The first INED demographers, mostly graduates of Ecole Polytechnique, drew inspiration from Alfred J. Lotka (1880-1949) and Pierre Depoid (1909-1968) to develop original demographic analysis methods which affirmed the scientific independence of INED and established its international reputation. Eminent INED researchers include:
Jean Bourgeois-Pichat (1912-1990), who explored the notions of stable, quasi-stable and semi-stable populations, and modelled the networks of relationships between demographic variables (he worked at the United Nations Population Division from 1953 to 1962 before succeeding Alfred Sauvy as Director of INED);
Louis Henry (1911-1991), founder of historical demography, who, from 1953, began using data from the parish registers of the Ancien Régime to reconstitute families and retrace the population dynamics of France from 1740 to 1830 (survey conducted in association with the archivist Michel Fleury);
Sully Ledermann (1915-1967), who applied multivariate analysis methods to establish model life tables on the basis of one or two parameters;
Paul Vincent (1912-1979), who introduced the notion of momentum to measure the growth potential of a population contained in its age structure.
The work of these pioneers was set down in the manuals and the dictionary of demography written by Roland Pressat (who joined INED in 1953), which became essential reading for generations of students. Pressat disseminated the principles of demographic analysis internationally, notably in Quebec, Eastern Europe and Africa. It is he who devised the modern form of the "Lexis diagram", a key tool for demonstrating the relationship between periods and cohorts.
The sociologist Jean Stoetzel (1910-1987), who founded IFOP in 1938 after working as an internee for Gallup in America, was a pioneer of survey studies at INED. With the help of Alain Girard (1914-1996), he launched surveys on women's employment, ideal family size, choice of spouse, immigration, etc. He was succeeded in this area by Louis Roussel in the 1970s, and by Henri Léridon in the 1980s.
The social history of population is represented by Louis Chevalier (1911-2001), a historian of Paris, who was elected to the Collège de France in 1952; the history of disease by Dr Jean-Noël Biraben.
Population genetics were developed successively by Jean Sutter (1910-1970) and Albert Jacquard (1925- ).
A second generation of INED researchers joined the institute in 1965, some from the Ecole Polytéchnique (Daniel Courgeau, Henri Leridon, Hervé Le Bras) and others from wide-ranging backgrounds (Jacques Vallin, Georges Tapinos [1940-2000], Patrick Festy, Chantal Blayo, Jean-Claude Chesnais).
Redefinition of role
Through a 1986 decree which superseded the 1945 order, INED became a public scientific and technological establishment (établissement public à caractère scientifique et technologique, EPST), with a legal status similar to that of other French public research bodies such as CNRS, INRA, INSERM and IRD (former ORSTOM). Previously attached to the various social ministries, INED's main supervisory authority was henceforth the Ministry of Education and Research (which pays the civil servant salaries at INED). INED is also attached to the ministries in charge of population questions and health statistics (social affairs, health or employment, depending on the government in power).
With the decree of 1986, the pro-natalist objectives of 1945 disappeared. INED's new mission was to develop and disseminate demographic knowledge with the aim of fostering general economic and social progress. Under the decree of 1986, the missions of INED are defined as follows:
"INED undertakes, develops and encourages, on its own initiative or at the request of the government, all forms of research on population issues;
It evaluates, conducts or commissions all relevant research into population issues and all research contributing to the economic, social and cultural development of the country;
It collects research data, centralizes and develops all research in France or abroad relevant to its field of activity, and informs the government and public authorities of all knowledge acquired;
It contributes to training in research and through research in its different areas of expertise;
It informs the public about demographic issues;
It disseminates French demographic research internationally while promoting the use of the French language."
The late 1990s brought a third generation of senior researchers, including graduates of Ecole Polytechnique, of ENSAE, of the Institut de démographie de Paris, and of Ecole Normale, along with several doctors of medicine. A growing number of women now occupy senior positions at INED. Since 1990, researchers have been recruited by competitive examination after obtaining their PhD. New generations of researchers, born in the 1960s and 1970s are now extending the depth and scope of research at INED.
INED directors
1945-1962: Alfred Sauvy (1898–1990)
1962-1971: Jean Bourgeois-Pichat (1912–1990)
1972-1992: Gérard Calot (1934–2001)
1992-1995: Jacques Magaud (1940– )
1995-1998: Patrick Festy (1945–2022)
1999–2009: François Héran (1953– ).
2009–2015 : Chantal Cases
2016 - : Magda Tomasini
Chairman of the Board of Administration:
Since 1999: Bernard Pêcheur, member of the Conseil d'Etat
Chairman of the Scientific Council:
2001-2006: Guillaume Wunsch, professor at the Université catholique de Louvain (Louvain-la-Neuve), member of the Académie royale de Belgique
Since 2006: Catherine Rollet, professor at the Université de Versailles-Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines.
Chairman of the Evaluation Committee:
2001-2005: Alain Chenu, professor at the Institut d'études politiques de Paris
Since 2005: Francesco Billari, professor at Bocconi University (Milan).
General secretary:
2002-2006: Yves Blin
Since 2007: Bertrand Minault.
Organization
Research units and projects
In 2007, INED has a staff of 200, including 60 tenured researchers, 110 technicians and engineers, plus around 20 PhD students and associate researchers.
Like other French public research institutions, INED has two categories of researchers – research officers and research directors – each comprising two grades.
As of January 2000, INED comprises 11 research units and several departments (surveys, library and documentation, publications, IT, etc.) A statistical methods department was set up in January 2007.
While maintaining a flexible structure of specialized units (researchers may belong to two units simultaneously), INED has developed a system of organization by projects, built around some 30 key projects which are assessed by the Scientific Council and whose detailed content is presented on the INED website. These key projects include major household surveys and European projects.
Leading European research centre
There are three other European research institutes comparable to INED: NIDI (Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute) in The Hague (Netherlands), MPIDR (Max-Planck Institute for Demographic Research) in Rostock (Germany) and VID (Vienna Institute of demography) in Vienna (Austria), founded respectively in 1970, 1996 and 2002, and largely based on the model of INED. In the other countries of Europe, demographers work in universities or national statistical offices. INED maintains close relations with its various European counterparts, via both European Commission research projects and international consortia linked to the United Nations.
Since 2000, INED has hosted the world headquarters of the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population (IUSSP), of which it is a member along with other national demographic research organizations.
In March 1998, after fifteen years in the 14th arrondissement of Paris, INED moved to new premises in the 20th arrondissement, at 133 boulevard Davout.
Difference between INED and INSEE
Though government-funded research is not the same thing as government statistics, INED works closely with French statistical bodies, notably INSEE (Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques).
It is nevertheless different from INSEE in several ways. While INSEE is a department of the Economy and Finance Ministry present in all regions of France and employing more than 5,000 people, INED is an institute of just 200 people attached to the Ministry of Research and based exclusively in Paris (though some of its researchers work on long-term assignments abroad). INSEE calculates the demographic indicators of France (birth rate, death rate, fertility, life expectancy) using vital records and census data. INSEE also estimates net migration using administrative data. INED reprocesses these data, adjusts them if necessary and performs in-depth analyses. It uses complementary sources (such as first residence permits awarded by the prefectures) and organizes surveys to collect new data. The scope of the two organizations is also different: INSEE focuses primarily on France, while INED studies all countries of the world.
Research activities
Multidisciplinary research
Though demography is central to INED, the scope of its research covers all forms of "population studies". Its researchers have very diverse fields of expertise, including sociology, economics, geography, history, political science, public health and statistics.
INED's current research themes, covered by its thirty key projects, include:
the demographic situation in France and the industrialized countries
fertility, sexual behaviour, new patterns of union and family formation, adoption
contraception, abortion and assisted reproductive technology (ART)
trends in causes of death, longevity, health inequalities
demographic questions in southern countries (demographic transition, population ageing)
residential mobility, forms of sociability, housing, housing insecurity, residential segregation
gender relations (sex discrimination) in northern and southern countries
economic demography (microeconomics of the family, work-family balance, pensions)
international migration and minorities, mechanisms of integration and discrimination
construction of administrative categories in population management, national and local identities
methodology of international demographic comparisons
history of European populations
history of demographic knowledge and learned societies (17th-20th centuries)
Global scope
Half of INED's budget and research activity are devoted to the demography of France, and half to the demography of other countries. The regions most extensively covered are, in decreasing order, Western Europe, Central Europe, the Arab world, western Africa, Asia and Latin America.
To study the demographic and health transition in western Africa, INED runs three demographic surveillance sites in three groups of villages where it records demographic events and causes of death to analyse ongoing trends:
Bandafassi (Kedougou region, Senegal), since 1970
Mlomp (Casamance, Senegal), since 1985
Bwa country (Mali) since 1989.
A central activity: surveys
Half the INED research budget (excluding payroll costs) is devoted to major surveys of households and individuals. They are conducted by the INED Surveys Department, often in collaboration with INSEE. Surveys carried out since the 1980s include:
Couple formation, 1983–1984
Family situations, 1985
3Bis: family, work and migration event histories, 1988–1989
Local family circle, 1990
Geographical mobility and social integration of immigrants (MGIS), 1992 (with INSEE)
Analysis of sexual behaviour in France, 1992 (INSERM survey in association with INED)
Family educational support, 1992 (INSEE survey in association with INED)
Transition to adulthood, 1993–1994
Homelessness, 1994–1995
Family situation and employment, 1994
Outcomes of children born outside marriage, 1996–1997
Anesthesiology and intensive care practitioners, 1998
Family history survey, associated with the 1999 census (INSEE survey in association with INED)
Event histories and contact circle, 1999–2000 (Paris region)
National observatory of cystic fibrosis in France, 2000–2007
Handicap, disability and dependence in prisons (HID-prison), 2001
Fertility intentions (3 waves), 1998, 2001, 2003
Survey of adoption in 10 départements, 2003–2004
Families and employers, 2004–2005
"Generations and Gender Survey", an international survey whose French part has been entrusted to INED: Survey of family and intergenerational relationships (ERFI), 2005, 2008, 2011
Context of sexuality in France, 2006
Trajectories and origins of migrants and their descendants, 2008 (in preparation)
INED as a publisher
INED produces a range of publications:
Population & Societies, is a monthly popular science journal (11 issues per year) in French and English that can be downloaded from the INED website from the day of issue. Editor in chief: Gilles Pison.
Population, , is a quarterly scientific journal published in both French and English. Editors in chief: Michel Bozon, Eva Lelièvre, Francisco Munoz-Pérez.
Les Cahiers de l'INED, book collection. Editor in chief: Jean-Marc Rohrbasser.
Les Classiques de l'économie et de la population, critical editions of historical works. Editor in chief: Éric Brian.
INED also publishes demographic manuals, notably a major treaty of demography in eight volumes, Démographie : analyse et synthèse, with contributions from around a hundred French and foreign authors and edited by de Graziella Caselli, Jacques Vallin and Guillaume Wunsch (2001-2006). An English version was published by Academic Press in New York in 2006.
See also
Demographics in France
Notes and references
Bibliography
Alain Girard, L'Institut national d'études démographiques : histoire et développement, Paris, INED, 1986, 255 p. (inside view, by a former head of department).
Paul-André Rosental, L'Intelligence démographique : sciences et politiques des populations en France (1930-1960), Paris, Odile Jacob, 2003, 367 p. (historical study based on archives and interviews, with a detailed account of the founding of INED).
External links
Demographics of France
Organizations promoting population moderation
1945 establishments in France
Demographics organizations
Scientific agencies of the government of France
Members of the International Science Council
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terraforming%20of%20Mars
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Terraforming of Mars
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The terraforming of Mars or the terraformation of Mars is a hypothetical procedure that would consist of a planetary engineering project or concurrent projects, with the goal to transform Mars from a planet hostile to terrestrial life to one that can sustainably host humans and other lifeforms free of protection or mediation. The process would involve the modification of the planet's extant climate, atmosphere, and surface through a variety of resource-intensive initiatives, and the installation of a novel ecological system or systems.
Justifications for choosing Mars over other potential terraforming targets include the presence of water and a geological history that suggests it once harbored a dense atmosphere similar to Earth's. Hazards and difficulties include low gravity, low light levels relative to Earth's, and the lack of a magnetic field.
Disagreement exists about whether current technology could render the planet habitable. Reasons for objecting to terraforming include ethical concerns about terraforming and the considerable cost that such an undertaking would involve. Reasons for terraforming the planet include allaying concerns about resource use and depletion on Earth and arguments that the altering and subsequent or concurrent settlement of other planets decreases the odds of humanity's extinction.
Motivation and side effects
Future population growth, demand for resources, and an alternate solution to the Doomsday argument may require human colonization of bodies other than Earth, such as Mars, the Moon, and other objects. Space colonization would facilitate harvesting the Solar System's energy and material resources.
In many aspects, Mars is the most Earth-like of all the other planets in the Solar System. It is thought that Mars had a more Earth-like environment early in its geological history, with a thicker atmosphere and abundant water that was lost over the course of hundreds of millions of years through atmospheric escape. Given the foundations of similarity and proximity, Mars would make one of the most plausible terraforming targets in the Solar System.
Side effects of terraforming include the potential displacement or destruction of any indigenous life if such life exists.
Challenges and limitations
The Martian environment presents several terraforming challenges to overcome and the extent of terraforming may be limited by certain key environmental factors. Here is a list of some of the ways in which Mars differs from Earth, which terraforming seeks to address:
Reduced light levels (about 60% of Earth)
Low surface gravity (38% of Earth's)
Unbreatheable atmosphere
Atmospheric pressure (about 1% of Earth's; well below the Armstrong limit)
Ionizing solar and cosmic radiation at the surface
Average temperature compared to Earth average of )
Molecular instability - bonds between atoms break down in critical molecules such as organic compounds
Global dust storms
No natural food source
Toxic soil
No global magnetic field to shield against the solar wind
Countering the effects of space weather
Mars doesn't have an intrinsic global magnetic field, but the solar wind directly interacts with the atmosphere of Mars, leading to the formation of a magnetosphere from magnetic field tubes. This poses challenges for mitigating solar radiation and retaining an atmosphere.
The lack of a magnetic field, its relatively small mass, and its atmospheric photochemistry, all would have contributed to the evaporation and loss of its surface liquid water over time. Solar wind–induced ejection of Martian atmospheric atoms has been detected by Mars-orbiting probes, indicating that the solar wind has stripped the Martian atmosphere over time. For comparison, while Venus has a dense atmosphere, it has only traces of water vapor (20 ppm) as it lacks a large, dipole-induced, magnetic field.
Earth's ozone layer provides additional protection. Ultraviolet light is blocked before it can dissociate water into hydrogen and oxygen.
Low gravity and pressure
The surface gravity on Mars is 38% of that on Earth. It is not known if this is enough to prevent the health problems associated with weightlessness.
Mars's atmosphere has about 1% the pressure of the Earth's at sea level. It is estimated that there is sufficient ice in the regolith and the south polar cap to form a atmosphere if it is released by planetary warming. The reappearance of liquid water on the Martian surface would add to the warming effects and atmospheric density, but the lower gravity of Mars requires 2.6 times Earth's column airmass to obtain the optimum pressure at the surface. Additional volatiles to increase the atmosphere's density must be supplied from an external source, such as redirecting several massive asteroids (40-400 billion tonnes total) containing ammonia () as a source of nitrogen.
Breathing on Mars
Current conditions in the Martian atmosphere, at less than of atmospheric pressure, are significantly below the Armstrong limit of where very low pressure causes exposed bodily liquids such as saliva, tears, and the liquids wetting the alveoli within the lungs to boil away. Without a pressure suit, no amount of breathable oxygen delivered by any means will sustain oxygen-breathing life for more than a few minutes. In the NASA technical report Rapid (Explosive) Decompression Emergencies in Pressure-Suited Subjects, after exposure to pressure below the Armstrong limit, a survivor reported that his "last conscious memory was of the water on his tongue beginning to boil". In these conditions humans die within minutes unless a pressure suit provides life support.
If Mars' atmospheric pressure could rise above , then a pressure suit would not be required. Visitors would only need to wear a mask that supplied 100% oxygen under positive pressure. A further increase to of atmospheric pressure would allow a simple mask supplying pure oxygen. This might look similar to mountain climbers who venture into pressures below , also called the death zone, where an insufficient amount of bottled oxygen has often resulted in hypoxia with fatalities. However, if the increase in atmospheric pressure was achieved by increasing CO2 (or other toxic gas) the mask would have to ensure the external atmosphere did not enter the breathing apparatus. CO2 concentrations as low as 1% cause drowsiness in humans. Concentrations of 7% to 10% may cause suffocation, even in the presence of sufficient oxygen. (See Carbon dioxide toxicity.)
In 2021, the NASA Mars rover Perseverance was able to make oxygen on Mars. However, the process is complex and takes a considerable amount of time to produce a small amount of oxygen.
Advantages
According to scientists, Mars exists on the outer edge of the habitable zone, a region of the Solar System where liquid water on the surface may be supported if concentrated greenhouse gases could increase the atmospheric pressure. The lack of both a magnetic field and geologic activity on Mars may be a result of its relatively small size, which allowed the interior to cool more quickly than Earth's, although the details of such a process are still not well understood.
There are strong indications that Mars once had an atmosphere as thick as Earth's during an earlier stage in its development, and that its pressure supported abundant liquid water at the surface. Although water appears to have once been present on the Martian surface, ground ice currently exists from mid-latitudes to the poles. The soil and atmosphere of Mars contain many of the main elements crucial to life, including sulfur, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and carbon.
Any climate change induced in the near term is likely to be driven by greenhouse warming produced by an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide () and a consequent increase in atmospheric water vapor. These two gases are the only likely sources of greenhouse warming that are available in large quantities in Mars' environment. Large amounts of water ice exist below the Martian surface, as well as on the surface at the poles, where it is mixed with dry ice, frozen . Significant amounts of water are located at the south pole of Mars, which, if melted, would correspond to a planetwide ocean 5–11 meters deep. Frozen carbon dioxide () at the poles sublimes into the atmosphere during the Martian summers, and small amounts of water residue are left behind, which fast winds sweep off the poles at speeds approaching . This seasonal occurrence transports large amounts of dust and water ice into the atmosphere, forming Earth-like ice clouds.
Most of the oxygen in the Martian atmosphere is present as carbon dioxide (), the main atmospheric component. Molecular oxygen (O2) only exists in trace amounts. Large amounts of oxygen can be also found in metal oxides on the Martian surface, and in the soil, in the form of per-nitrates. An analysis of soil samples taken by the Phoenix lander indicated the presence of perchlorate, which has been used to liberate oxygen in chemical oxygen generators. Electrolysis could be employed to separate water on Mars into oxygen and hydrogen if sufficient liquid water and electricity were available. However, if vented into the atmosphere it would escape into space.
Proposed methods and strategies
Terraforming Mars would entail three major interlaced changes: building up the magnetosphere, building up the atmosphere, and raising the temperature. The atmosphere of Mars is relatively thin and has a very low surface pressure. Because its atmosphere consists mainly of , a known greenhouse gas, once Mars begins to heat, the may help to keep thermal energy near the surface. Moreover, as it heats, more should enter the atmosphere from the frozen reserves on the poles, enhancing the greenhouse effect. This means that the two processes of building the atmosphere and heating it would augment each other, favoring terraforming. However, it would be difficult to keep the atmosphere together because of the lack of a protective global magnetic field against erosion by the solar wind.
Importing ammonia
One method of augmenting the Martian atmosphere is to introduce ammonia (NH3). Large amounts of ammonia are likely to exist in frozen form on minor planets orbiting in the outer Solar System. It might be possible to redirect the orbits of these or smaller ammonia-rich objects so that they collide with Mars, thereby transferring the ammonia into the Martian atmosphere. Ammonia is not stable in the Martian atmosphere, however. It breaks down into (diatomic) nitrogen and hydrogen after a few hours. Thus, though ammonia is a powerful greenhouse gas, it is unlikely to generate much planetary warming. Presumably, the nitrogen gas would eventually be depleted by the same processes that stripped Mars of much of its original atmosphere, but these processes are thought to have required hundreds of millions of years. Being much lighter, the hydrogen would be removed much more quickly. Carbon dioxide is 2.5 times the density of ammonia, and nitrogen gas, which Mars barely holds on to, is more than 1.5 times the density, so any imported ammonia that did not break down would also be lost quickly into space.
Importing hydrocarbons
Another way to create a Martian atmosphere would be to import methane (CH4) or other hydrocarbons, which are common in Titan's atmosphere and on its surface; the methane could be vented into the atmosphere where it would act to compound the greenhouse effect. However, like ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4) is a relatively light gas. It is in fact even less dense than ammonia and so would similarly be lost into space if it was introduced, and at a faster rate than ammonia. Even if a method could be found to prevent it escaping into space, methane can exist in the Martian atmosphere for only a limited period before it is destroyed. Estimates of its lifetime range from 0.6–4 years.
Use of fluorine compounds
Especially powerful greenhouse gases, such as sulfur hexafluoride, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), or perfluorocarbons (PFCs), have been suggested both as a means of initially warming Mars and of maintaining long-term climate stability. These gases are proposed for introduction because they generate a greenhouse effect thousands of times stronger than that of . Fluorine-based compounds such as sulphur hexafluoride and perfluorocarbons are preferable to chlorine-based ones as the latter destroys ozone. It has been estimated that approximately 0.3 microbars of CFCs would need to be introduced into Mars' atmosphere in order to sublimate the south polar glaciers. This is equivalent to a mass of approximately 39 million tonnes, that is, about three times the amount of CFCs manufactured on Earth from 1972 to 1992 (when CFC production was banned by international treaty). Maintaining the temperature would require continual production of such compounds as they are destroyed due to photolysis. It has been estimated that introducing 170 kilotons of optimal greenhouse compounds (CF3CF2CF3, CF3SCF2CF3, SF6, SF5CF3, SF4(CF3)2) annually would be sufficient to maintain a 70-K greenhouse effect given a terraformed atmosphere with earth-like pressure and composition.
Typical proposals envision producing the gases on Mars using locally extracted materials, nuclear power, and a significant industrial effort. The potential for mining fluorine-containing minerals to obtain the raw material necessary for the production of CFCs and PFCs is supported by mineralogical surveys of Mars that estimate the elemental presence of fluorine in the bulk composition of Mars at 32 ppm by mass (as compared to 19.4 ppm for the Earth).
Alternatively, CFCs might be introduced by sending rockets with payloads of compressed CFCs on collision courses with Mars. When the rockets crashed into the surface they would release their payloads into the atmosphere. A steady barrage of these "CFC rockets" would need to be sustained for a little over a decade while Mars changed chemically and became warmer.
Use of orbital mirrors
Mirrors made of thin aluminized PET film could be placed in orbit around Mars to increase the total insolation it receives. This would direct the sunlight onto the surface and could increase Mars's surface temperature directly. The 125 km radius mirror could be positioned as a statite, using its effectiveness as a solar sail to orbit in a stationary position relative to Mars, near the poles, to sublimate the ice sheet and contribute to the warming greenhouse effect. However, certain problems have been found with this. The main concern is the difficulty of launching large mirrors from Earth.
Albedo reduction
Reducing the albedo of the Martian surface would also make more efficient use of incoming sunlight in terms of heat absorption. This could be done by spreading dark dust from Mars's moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are among the blackest bodies in the Solar System; or by introducing dark extremophile microbial life forms such as lichens, algae and bacteria. The ground would then absorb more sunlight, warming the atmosphere. However, Mars is already the second darkest planet in the solar system, absorbing over 70% of incoming sunlight so the scope for darkening it further is small.
If algae or other green life were established, it would also contribute a small amount of oxygen to the atmosphere, though not enough to allow humans to breathe. The conversion process to produce oxygen is highly reliant upon water, without which the is mostly converted to carbohydrates. In addition, because on Mars atmospheric oxygen is lost into space (unlike Earth where there is an Oxygen cycle), this would represent a permanent loss from the planet. For both of these reasons it would be necessary to cultivate such life inside a closed system. This would decrease the albedo of the closed system (assuming the growth had a lower albedo than the Martian soil), but would not affect the albedo of the planet as a whole.
On April 26, 2012, scientists reported that lichen survived and showed remarkable results on the adaptation capacity of photosynthetic activity within the simulation time of 34 days under Martian conditions in the Mars Simulation Laboratory (MSL) maintained by the German Aerospace Center (DLR).
One final issue with albedo reduction is the common Martian dust storms. These cover the entire planet for weeks, and not only increase the albedo, but block sunlight from reaching the surface. This has been observed to cause a surface temperature drop which the planet takes months to recover from. Once the dust settles it then covers whatever it lands on, effectively erasing the albedo reduction material from the view of the Sun.
Funded research: ecopoiesis
Since 2014, the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC) program and Techshot Inc have been working together to develop sealed biodomes that would employ colonies of oxygen-producing cyanobacteria and algae for the production of molecular oxygen (O2) on Martian soil. But first they need to test if it works on a small scale on Mars. The proposal is called Mars Ecopoiesis Test Bed. Eugene Boland is the Chief Scientist at Techshot, a company located in Greenville, Indiana. They intend to send small canisters of extremophile photosynthetic algae and cyanobacteria aboard a future rover mission. The rover would cork-screw the canisters into selected sites likely to experience transients of liquid water, drawing some Martian soil and then release oxygen-producing microorganisms to grow within the sealed soil. The hardware would use Martian subsurface ice as its phase changes into liquid water. The system would then look for oxygen given off as metabolic byproduct and report results to a Mars-orbiting relay satellite.
If this experiment works on Mars, they will propose to build several large and sealed structures called biodomes, to produce and harvest oxygen for a future human mission to Mars life support systems. Being able to create oxygen there would provide considerable cost-savings to NASA and allow for longer human visits to Mars than would be possible if astronauts have to transport their own heavy oxygen tanks. This biological process, called ecopoiesis, would be isolated, in contained areas, and is not meant as a type of global planetary engineering for terraforming of Mars's atmosphere, but NASA states that "This will be the first major leap from laboratory studies into the implementation of experimental (as opposed to analytical) planetary in situ research of greatest interest to planetary biology, ecopoiesis, and terraforming."
Research at the University of Arkansas presented in June 2015 suggested that some methanogens could survive in Mars's low pressure. Rebecca Mickol found that in her laboratory, four species of methanogens survived low-pressure conditions that were similar to a subsurface liquid aquifer on Mars. The four species that she tested were Methanothermobacter wolfeii, Methanosarcina barkeri, Methanobacterium formicicum, and Methanococcus maripaludis. Methanogens do not require oxygen or organic nutrients, are non-photosynthetic, use hydrogen as their energy source and carbon dioxide (CO2) as their carbon source, so they could exist in subsurface environments on Mars.
Protecting the atmosphere
One key aspect of terraforming Mars is to protect the atmosphere (both present and future-built) from being lost into space. Some scientists hypothesize that creating a planet-wide artificial magnetosphere would be helpful in resolving this issue. According to two NIFS Japanese scientists, it is feasible to do that with current technology by building a system of refrigerated latitudinal superconducting rings, each carrying a sufficient amount of direct current.
In the same report, it is claimed that the economic impact of the system can be minimized by using it also as a planetary energy transfer and storage system (SMES).
Magnetic shield at L1 orbit
During the Planetary Science Vision 2050 Workshop in late February 2017, NASA scientist Jim Green proposed a concept of placing a magnetic dipole field between the planet and the Sun to protect it from high-energy solar particles. It would be located at the Mars Lagrange orbit L1 at about 320 R♂, creating a partial and distant artificial magnetosphere. The field would need to be "Earth comparable" and sustain as measured at 1 Earth-radius. The paper abstract cites that this could be achieved by a magnet with a strength of . If constructed, the shield may allow the planet to partially restore its atmosphere.
Plasma torus along the orbit of Phobos
A plasma torus along the orbit of Phobos by ionizing and accelerating particles from the moon may be sufficient to create a magnetic field strong enough to protect a terraformed Mars.
Thermodynamics of terraforming
The overall energy required to sublimate the from the south polar ice cap was modeled by Zubrin and McKay in 1993. If using orbital mirrors, an estimated 120 MW-years of electrical energy would be required in order to produce mirrors large enough to vaporize the ice caps. This is considered the most effective method, though the least practical. If using powerful halocarbon greenhouse gases, an order of 1,000 MW-years of electrical energy would be required to accomplish this heating. However, if all of this were put into the atmosphere,
it would only double the current atmospheric pressure from 6 mbar to 12 mbar, amounting to about 1.2% of Earth's mean sea level pressure. The amount of warming that could be produced today by putting even 100 mbar of into the atmosphere is small, roughly of order . Additionally, once in the atmosphere, it likely would be removed quickly, either by diffusion into the subsurface and adsorption or by re-condensing onto the polar caps.
The surface or atmospheric temperature required to allow liquid water to exist has not been determined, and liquid water
conceivably could exist when atmospheric temperatures are as low as . However, a warming of is much less than thought necessary in order to produce liquid water.
See also
Areography (geography of Mars)
References
External links
Recent Arthur C Clarke interview mentions terraforming
Red Colony
Terraformers Society of Canada
Research Paper: Technological Requirements for Terraforming Mars
Peter Ahrens The Terraformation of Worlds
Climate of Mars
Exploration of Mars
Mars
Science fiction
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doping%20in%20baseball
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Doping in baseball
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Doping in baseball has been an ongoing issue for Major League Baseball (MLB). After repeated use by some of the most successful professional baseball players in MLB history, these banned substances found their way to the collegiate level. At the junior college level, due to lack of funding and NCAA drug testing, the abuse of PEDs is most common, but they are also an issue in Division I, II and III.
Several players have suggested that drug use is rampant in baseball. In 2003 David Wells stated that "25 to 40 percent of all Major Leaguers are juiced". Jose Canseco stated on 60 Minutes and in his 2005 tell-all book Juiced that as many as 80% of players used steroids, and that he credited steroid use for his entire career. Ken Caminiti revealed that he won the National League MVP award while on steroids. In February 2009, after reports emerged alleging that Alex Rodriguez tested positive for steroids in , a year in which he was American League MVP, he admitted to having used performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) between and 2003. Mark McGwire, dogged by allegations of PED use for years, admitted in January 2010 that he had used steroids and human growth hormone off and on for over a decade, including in when he set the single-season home run record.
Historical usage
Origins
Players have attempted to gain chemical advantages in baseball since the earliest days of the sport. In 1889, for example, pitcher Pud Galvin became the first baseball player to be widely known for his use of performance-enhancing substances. Galvin was a user and vocal proponent of the Brown-Séquard Elixir, a testosterone supplement derived from the testicles of live animals such as dogs and guinea pigs.
The book The Baseball Hall of Shame's Warped Record Book, written by Bruce Nash, Bob Smith, Allan Zullo, and Lola Tipton, includes an account of Babe Ruth administering to himself an injection of an extract from sheep testicles. The experimental concoction allegedly proved ineffective, making Ruth ill and leading the Yankees to attribute his absence from the lineup to "a bellyache".
During World War II, both the Allied and Axis powers systematically provided amphetamines to their troops, in order to improve soldiers' endurance and mental focus. After the end of the war, many of those returning troops attended college, and when they did, they applied their knowledge of the benefits of amphetamine use first to college sports, and then to professional sports, including professional baseball.
Early history
According to writer Zev Chafets, Mickey Mantle's fade during his 1961 home run chase with Roger Maris was the indirect result of an attempt by Mantle to gain a substance-based edge. Chafets alleges that Mantle was hampered by an abscess created by a botched injection of a chemical cocktail administered by a "quack" doctor, Max Jacobsen. According to Chafets, the injection included steroids and amphetamines, among other substances.
In his autobiography I Had a Hammer, which was co-written with Lonnie Wheeler and published in 1992, outfielder Hank Aaron wrote that he accepted an amphetamine pill from an unnamed teammate and took it before a game during the 1968 season, after becoming frustrated about his lack of offensive performance. Aaron described it as "a stupid thing to do", observing that the pill made him feel like he "was having a heart attack".
Former pitcher Tom House, drafted in 1967 and active in MLB from 1971–1978, has admitted to using "steroids they wouldn't give to horses" during his playing career. According to House, the use of performance-enhancing drugs was widespread at that time. He estimates that "six or seven" pitchers on every team were at least experimental users of steroids or human growth hormone, and says that after losses, players would frequently joke that they'd been "out-milligrammed" rather than beaten.
The "Steroid Era"
The period of time, usually placed sometime between the late 1980s and late 2000s has been dubbed the "Steroid Era" by some authors, due to allegations of increased steroid use among MLB players at this time. In Steroids and Major League Baseball, the "Pre Steroids Era" is defined as running from 1985 to 1993, while the "Steroids Era" runs from 1994 to 2004.
Third baseman Mike Schmidt, an active player from 1972–1989, admitted to Murray Chass in 2006 that he had used amphetamines "a couple [of] times". In his book Clearing the Bases, he said that amphetamines "were widely available in major-league clubhouses" during his playing career, and that "amphetamine use in baseball is both far more common and has been going on a lot longer than steroid abuse".
Relief pitcher Goose Gossage, active from 1972–1994, also admitted to using amphetamines during his playing career, in a 2013 interview with Ken Davidoff. In the same interview, Gossage voiced the opinion that amphetamines are not "a performance-enhancing drug", though he admitted that using them was illegal at the time.
During the Pittsburgh drug trials in 1985, several players testified about the use of amphetamines in baseball. Shortstop Dale Berra admitted that he had used "greenies" while playing for both the Pittsburgh Pirates and the AAA Portland Beavers, and stated that while in Pittsburgh between 1979 and 1984 he had been supplied with the drugs by teammates Bill Madlock and Willie Stargell. Outfielder John Milner testified that while he was playing for the New York Mets, he had seen in the locker of teammate Willie Mays a powerful liquid amphetamine he called the "red juice".
In 1988, sportswriter Thomas Boswell claimed that Jose Canseco was the most conspicuous user of steroids in MLB. Later that year, the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988 criminalized the use and distribution of anabolic steroids.
Steroids finally made it to baseball's banned substance list in 1991, however testing for major league players did not begin until the 2003 season. While testing for steroids began, the usage did not stop.
Jose Canseco
In 2005, Jose Canseco released a tell-all book, Juiced, about his experience with steroids in his career. In the book, Canseco named several other players, including Mark McGwire, Rafael Palmeiro, Ivan Rodriguez, Juan Gonzalez and Jason Giambi, as steroid users. The book caused great controversy, and most of these players claimed Canseco's implications to be false, though McGwire and Giambi later admitted to using PEDs, and Palmeiro has tested positive.
In 2008, Canseco released another book, Vindicated, about his frustrations in the aftermath of the publishing of Juiced. In it, he discusses his belief that Alex Rodriguez also used steroids. The claim was proven true with Rodriguez's admission in 2009, just after his name was leaked as being on the list of 103 players who tested positive for banned substances in Major League Baseball. In July 2013, Alex Rodriguez was again under investigation for using banned substances provided by Biogenesis of America. He was suspended for the entirety of the 2014 season.
In January 2010, Mark McGwire admitted to using steroids throughout his professional baseball career. He claimed to only have used steroids for health reasons and for quick recovery, never for strength or size gains. These claims were publicly disputed by McGwire's steroid supplier, who stated that he did, in fact, use steroids to gain a competitive edge. The admission of steroid use caused some to question whether or not his long list of accomplishments should be invalidated. His most famous accomplishment took place in the 1998 season when he broke the single season home run record previously held by Roger Maris.
It was after this accomplishment that McGwire and other MLB players came under scrutiny for use of steroids. A news reporter, Steve Wilstein stumbled upon an open container of androstenedione in McGwire's locker in August of the '98 season. At the time androstenedione was not on the banned substance list for Major League Baseball, but was viewed as a precursor to anabolic steroids and was banned by the International Olympic Committee, the National Football League, and the National Collegiate Athletic Association.
Congressional investigation
The nutrition center BALCO was accused of distributing steroids to many star players, most notably Barry Bonds and Jason Giambi. Baseball has attempted to toughen its drug policy, beginning a plan of random tests to players. Players such as Ryan Franklin and others were handed suspensions as short as ten days. However, a Congressional panel continued to argue that the penalties were not tough enough, and took action.
Many top players, including Canseco, Rafael Palmeiro, Mark McGwire, Sammy Sosa, and Curt Schilling were summoned on March 17, 2005, to testify in front of Congress (Schilling was summoned because of his outspoken opposition to the use of PEDs). During the session, Canseco admitted his steroid use which he claims was perfectly acceptable during the 1980s and early 1990s. Palmeiro denied all steroid use during his career, while McGwire refused to discuss the issue, contending that he would be considered guilty no matter what he said. His repeated statement "I'm not here to talk about the past," became the most highlighted moment of the proceedings.
Palmeiro, who was listed in Canseco's book as a user along with McGwire, denied Canseco's claims and told Congress that those claims were absolutely erroneous. The committee had stated that baseball had failed to confront the problems of performance-enhancing drugs. The committee was disturbed by the accepted use of steroids by athletes because it created a bad persona of players who in many cases are role models to many of the aspiring youth. During the testimonies the players called to Congress offered their condolences for youthful athletes who had committed suicide after using performance-enhancing drugs.
Five months after the Congressional hearing, information came out indicating Palmeiro had already tested positive for steroids and knew it when he spoke before Congress. He appealed but the test results and ensuing suspension were upheld. Mark McGwire, whose credentials could arguably satisfy expectations for first ballot Hall of Fame election, was denied election in his first year, with many voters citing McGwire's perceived refusal to speak at the Congressional Investigation.
BALCO scandal
During this period, Bonds' trainer Greg Anderson and BALCO head Victor Conte (also connected to Jason Giambi and Canseco) were not subpoenaed in California by the House Committee for investigation.
As a result of pressure from Congress, baseball and the Major League Baseball Players Association started applying stricter regulations and applied a zero tolerance policy in correspondence to performance-enhancing drugs. On August 1, 2005, Palmeiro tested positive for performing-enhancing substances and was suspended ten days. Once thought to be a lock for the Baseball Hall of Fame as one of only four players to have both 3,000 hits and 500 home runs, Palmeiro's legacy has since been called into question. Palmeiro's career quickly plummeted, and he did not play again following the 2005 season after his contract expired.
The Bonds controversy continues, especially now that he has surpassed the All-Time Home Run record with 762 career home runs; the media continues to pressure Bonds with questions over the issue. In 2006, the book Game of Shadows was published offering researched claims that Bonds' trainer was providing illegal performance enhancers to Bonds and other athletes. Bonds had admitted that he did use a clear substance and lotion given to him by his trainer but had no idea that they were any sort of performance enhancers. Bonds claimed that to his knowledge, the substances given to him were legal to treat his arthritis.
2006 Baseball steroids investigation
On March 29, 2006, ESPN learned that former Senator, Boston Red Sox board member, and Disney chairman George J. Mitchell would head an investigation into past steroid use by Major League Baseball players, including San Francisco Giants outfielder Barry Bonds. Mitchell was appointed by baseball commissioner Bud Selig in the wake of controversy over the book Game of Shadows, which chronicles alleged extensive use of performance-enhancing drugs, including several different types of steroids and human growth hormones Bonds allegedly had taken. Selig did not refer to Bonds by name in announcing the investigation, and many past and present players would be investigated. Mitchell took on a role similar to that of John Dowd, who investigated Pete Rose's alleged gambling in the late 1980s. However, Selig acknowledged that the book, by way of calling attention to the issue, was in part responsible for the league's decision to commission an independent investigation. A report of the investigation released on December 13, 2007, named more than 80 former and current baseball players.
On June 6, 2006, Arizona Diamondbacks relief pitcher Jason Grimsley's home was searched by federal agents. He later admitted to using human growth hormone, steroids, and amphetamines. According to court documents, Grimsley failed a baseball drug test in 2003 and allegedly named other current and former players who also used drugs. On June 7, 2006, he was released by the Diamondbacks, reportedly at his own request.
MLB steroid policy
Over most of the course of Major League Baseball history, steroid testing was not a major issue. In 1991, Commissioner Fay Vincent sent a memo to all teams stating that steroid use was against the rules, though there was no official rule change. Vincent has said that the memo was intended as a "moral statement" to the players, rather than a "legal one", that "the only way a change could be made was through collective bargaining," and "When I left baseball, there was no written policy on drug activity in baseball."
The 1991 memo did not ban the use of steroids. Steroids were first banned from use in MLB in 2005, with HGH banned from use in 2011. Fay Vincent is actually on record stating that Congress has a list of illegal substances that include steroids that one must obtain via a prescription. He is on record of saying that he in no way banned steroids from MLB, but merely passed along the information that Congress considered the substances illegal without a prescription.
After the BALCO scandal, which involved allegations that top baseball players had used illegal performance-enhancing drugs, Major League Baseball banned steroids. The policy, which was accepted by Major League Baseball players and owners, was issued at the start of the 2005 season and went as follows:
A first positive test resulted in a suspension of ten games, a second positive test resulted in a suspension of 30 games, the third positive test resulted in a suspension of 60 games, the fourth positive test resulted in a suspension of one full year, and a fifth positive test resulted in a penalty at the commissioner's discretion. Players were tested at least once per year, with the chance that several players could be tested many times.
This program replaced the previous steroid testing program under which no player was suspended in 2004. Under the old policy, which was established in 2002, a first-time offense would result in treatment for the player and the player would not be named.
In November 2005, MLB owners and players approved even tougher penalties for positive tests. Under the new rules, a first positive test would result in a 50-game suspension, a second positive test would result in a 100-game suspension, and a third positive test would result in a lifetime suspension from MLB.
On March 28, 2014, the players and owners announced that the penalties for a positive test would be increased to an 80-game suspension for the first offense, then escalate to a 162-game suspension for the second offense, and a lifetime ban from the sport for the third. Players suspended for the season will not be allowed to participate in post-season games. Suspensions do not allow the player to be paid while suspended. This steroid policy brings MLB closer to international rules.
On February 7, 2022, the Associated Press reported that Major League Baseball has stopped testing players for steroids for the first time in nearly 20 years due to the expiration of the sport's drug agreement, two people familiar with the sport's Joint Drug Program stated. The people spoke on condition of anonymity Monday because no public announcement was made. At the time, MLB and the union declined comment on the halt. The halt in testing was due to a 99 day lockout, which ended on March 10, 2022. Testing resumed at that time, but doping and antidoping experts both expressed concern that there was ample time for foul play.
Barry Bonds's trial
Steven Hoskins, on Wednesday, March 23, 2010, testified against Barry Bonds as a government witness in the perjury and obstruction of justice case against the former baseball star. Hoskins described Barry Bonds's use of anabolic steroids, and how his personal trainer, Greg Anderson, would discuss taking the steroids in an open manner. Even though Hoskins never witnessed Barry Bonds actually taking the drugs, he witnessed Anderson handling the needle, and Barry Bonds going in and out of the bedroom, and Barry Bonds complaining about the shots leaving his butt sore. Barry Bonds would use his girlfriends to get the steroids, and would pay them a few thousand dollars at a time.
Biogenesis anti-aging clinic
On January 10, 2013, MLB and the players union reached an agreement to add random, in season human growth hormone testing and a new test to reveal the use of testosterone. This testing began in the 2013 season and at least twenty MLB players (and athletes in other sports) were accused of taking HGH. Ultimately 14 were suspended, most famously Ryan Braun of the Milwaukee Brewers (suspended for final 65 games of 2013 season), Alex Rodriguez of the New York Yankees (suspended for 211 games (later reduced to 162 games which was the entirety of the 2014 season)), and Nelson Cruz of the Texas Rangers (50 games). The clinic was run by Anthony “Tony” Bosch in Florida. The notebooks he kept made it clear that he supplied human growth hormones, anabolic steroids, and performance-enhancing drug lozenges to his clients, which not only included professional athletes but teenagers as well. It was later revealed that Bosch is not a doctor and has a fake medical degree.
Doping in college baseball
Although the NCAA randomly drug-tests student athletes from Division I to Division III, the abuse of performance-enhancing drugs is not uncommon in the college level. It is up to the schools and universities whether they want to implement their own drug testing policy, which most do. The shortcut to the MLB is found in the junior college level or the National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA). The NJCAA does not drug-test their student athletes so it is up to that college whether or not the players are drug tested at all. Players in JuCo are also eligible for the MLB draft after one year in college. This allows players a way to get around drug tests while also taking a quicker route to the pros which is very appealing to many of the top prospects. Two former LSU baseball players admitted that it was much easier to cheat the drug test at their junior colleges and that they had suspicions about certain teams that they played. Even though this is where the use of PEDs is most common, they are still a problem in NCAA as well. Today 10 percent of Division I, 35 percent of Division II, and 79 percent of Division III schools have their own drug test policy. The head baseball coach for LSU, Paul Maineri, said in 2009 that after recruiting certain players from junior colleges that were not the same after showing up on campus, "In retrospect looking back, I’m a little smarter and would recognize that the players I recruited were doing something artificially help them in junior college". Many MLB scouts along with coaches worry about drafting or recruiting players that are using performance-enhancing drugs with the concern that they would not be the same player after they arrive.
Effects on Hall of Fame
McGwire remained on the Hall of Fame ballot for the full ten years of eligibility, but never polled more than 24% of the vote. 75% of the vote is required for election.
In the 2013 election, not a single player was voted into the Hall of Fame by the BBWAA. With players such as Barry Bonds, Roger Clemens, and Sammy Sosa making their first appearance on the ballot, there was great debate on the use of steroids surrounding the legitimacy of their performance toward election. With the topic of steroid use coming into the picture during these player's careers and the Mitchell report released in 2007 investigating past steroid and human growth hormone use, the perception of these accomplishments has been debated as "controversial to the game of baseball and America's view on the sport".
Fans of the sport continue to debate whether or not these players should be elected, with some thinking that if they were to be, it might send a message to the world of baseball that it is acceptable to use steroids. Despite this, others believe their accomplishments in the sport outweigh their negative associations with doping. In the 2019 election, Bonds and Clemens ballots had over 59% of the vote, compared to a little over 36% in 2013. In the 2022 election, Bonds and Clemens final year on the ballot, Bonds had 66%, and Clemens had 65%, and missed the Hall of Fame.
See also
Doping in sport
Doping in the United States
Major League Baseball drug policy
List of Major League Baseball players suspended for performance-enhancing drugs
List of banned substances in baseball
References
Further reading
Major League Baseball controversies
Drugs in sport in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terraforming%20of%20Venus
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Terraforming of Venus
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The terraforming of Venus or the terraformation of Venus is the hypothetical process of engineering the global environment of the planet Venus in order to make it suitable for human habitation. Adjustments to the existing environment of Venus to support human life would require at least three major changes to the planet's atmosphere:
Reducing Venus's surface temperature of
Eliminating most of the planet's dense carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide atmosphere via removal or conversion to some other form
The addition of breathable oxygen to the atmosphere.
These three changes are closely interrelated because Venus's extreme temperature is due to the high pressure of its dense atmosphere and the greenhouse effect.
History of the idea
Poul Anderson, a successful science fiction writer, had proposed the idea in his 1954 novelette "The Big Rain", a story belonging to his Psychotechnic League future history.
The first known suggestion to terraform Venus in a scholarly context was by the astronomer Carl Sagan in 1961.
Prior to the early 1960s, the atmosphere of Venus was believed by many astronomers to have an Earth-like temperature. When Venus was understood to have a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere with a consequence of a very large greenhouse effect, some scientists began to contemplate the idea of altering the atmosphere to make the surface more Earth-like. This hypothetical prospect, known as terraforming, was first proposed by Carl Sagan in 1961, as a final section of his classic article in the journal Science discussing the atmosphere and greenhouse effect of Venus. Sagan proposed injecting photosynthetic bacteria into the Venus atmosphere, which would convert the carbon dioxide into reduced carbon in organic form, thus reducing the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
The knowledge of Venus's atmosphere was still inexact in 1961, when Sagan made his original proposal. Thirty-three years after his original proposal, in his 1994 book Pale Blue Dot, Sagan conceded his original proposal for terraforming would not work because the atmosphere of Venus is far denser than was known in 1961:
"Here's the fatal flaw: In 1961, I thought the atmospheric pressure at the surface of Venus was a few bars ... We now know it to be 90 bars, so if the scheme worked, the result would be a surface buried in hundreds of meters of fine graphite, and an atmosphere made of 65 bars of almost pure molecular oxygen. Whether we would first implode under the atmospheric pressure or spontaneously burst into flames in all that oxygen is open to question. However, long before so much oxygen could build up, the graphite would spontaneously burn back into CO2, short-circuiting the process."
Following Sagan's paper, there was little scientific discussion of the concept until a resurgence of interest in the 1980s.
Proposed approaches to terraforming
A number of approaches to terraforming are reviewed by Martyn J. Fogg (1995) and by Geoffrey A. Landis (2011).
Eliminating the dense carbon dioxide atmosphere
The main problem with Venus today, from a terraformation standpoint, is the very thick carbon dioxide atmosphere. The ground level pressure of Venus is . This also, through the greenhouse effect, causes the temperature on the surface to be several hundred degrees too hot for any significant organisms. Therefore, all approaches to the terraforming of Venus include somehow removing almost all the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Biological approaches
The method proposed in 1961 by Carl Sagan involves the use of genetically engineered algae to fix carbon into organic compounds. Although this method is still proposed in discussions of Venus terraforming, later discoveries showed that biological means alone would not be successful.
Difficulties include the fact that the production of organic molecules from carbon dioxide requires hydrogen, which is very rare on Venus. Because Venus lacks a protective magnetosphere, the upper atmosphere is exposed to direct erosion by the solar wind and has lost most of its original hydrogen to space. And, as Sagan noted, any carbon that was bound up in organic molecules would quickly be converted to carbon dioxide again by the hot surface environment. Venus would not begin to cool down until after most of the carbon dioxide had already been removed.
Although it is generally conceded that Venus could not be terraformed by introduction of photosynthetic biota alone, use of photosynthetic organisms to produce oxygen in the atmosphere continues to be a component of other proposed methods of terraforming.
Capture in carbonates
On Earth nearly all carbon is sequestered in the form of carbonate minerals or in different stages of the carbon cycle, while very little is present in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. On Venus, the situation is the opposite. Much of the carbon is present in the atmosphere, while comparatively little is sequestered in the lithosphere. Many approaches to terraforming therefore focus on getting rid of carbon dioxide by chemical reactions trapping and stabilising it in the form of carbonate minerals.
Modelling by astrobiologists Mark Bullock and David Grinspoon of Venus's atmospheric evolution suggests that the equilibrium between the current 92-bar atmosphere and existing surface minerals, particularly calcium and magnesium oxides, is quite unstable, and that the latter could serve as a sink of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide through conversion to carbonates. If these surface minerals were fully converted and saturated, then the atmospheric pressure would decline and the planet would cool somewhat. One of the possible end states modelled by Bullock and Grinspoon was an atmosphere of and a surface temperature of . To convert the rest of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, a larger portion of the crust would have to be artificially exposed to the atmosphere to allow more extensive carbonate conversion. In 1989, Alexander G. Smith proposed that Venus could be terraformed by lithosphere overturn, allowing crust to be converted into carbonates. Landis 2011 calculated that it would require the involvement of the entire surface crust down to a depth of over 1 km to produce enough rock surface area to convert enough of the atmosphere.
Natural formation of carbonate rock from minerals and carbon dioxide is a very slow process. Recent research into sequestering carbon dioxide into carbonate minerals in the context of mitigating global warming on Earth however points out that this process can be considerably accelerated (from hundreds or thousands of years to just 75 days) through the use of catalysts such as polystyrene microspheres. It could therefore be theorised that similar technologies might also be used in the context of terraformation on Venus. It can also be noted that the chemical reaction that converts minerals and carbon dioxide into carbonates is exothermic, in essence producing more energy than is consumed by the reaction. This opens up the possibility of creating self-reinforcing conversion processes with potential for exponential growth of the conversion rate until most of the atmospheric carbon dioxide can be converted.
Bombardment of Venus with refined magnesium and calcium from off-world could also sequester carbon dioxide in the form of calcium and magnesium carbonates. About 8 kg of calcium or 5 kg of magnesium would be required to convert all the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which would entail a great deal of mining and mineral refining (perhaps on Mercury which is notably mineral rich). 8 kg is a few times the mass of the asteroid 4 Vesta (more than in diameter).
Injection into volcanic basalt rock
Research projects in Iceland and the US state of Washington have shown that potentially large amounts of carbon dioxide could be removed from the atmosphere by high-pressure injection into subsurface porous basalt formations, where carbon dioxide is rapidly transformed into solid inert minerals.
Other studies predict that one cubic meter of porous basalt has the potential to sequester 47 kilograms of injected carbon dioxide. According to these estimates a volume of about 9.86 × 109 km3 of basalt rock would be needed to sequester all the carbon dioxide in the Venusian atmosphere. This is equal to the entire crust of Venus down to a depth of about 21.4 kilometers. Another study concluded that under optimal conditions, on average, 1 cubic meter of basalt rock can sequester 260 kg of carbon dioxide. Venus's crust appears to be thick and the planet is dominated by volcanic features. The surface is about 90% basalt, and about 65% consists of a mosaic of volcanic lava plains. There should therefore be ample volumes of basalt rock strata on the planet with very promising potential for carbon dioxide sequestration.
Research has also demonstrated that under the high temperature and high pressure conditions in the mantle, silicon dioxide, the most abundant mineral in the mantle (on Earth and probably also on Venus) can form carbonates that are stable under these conditions. This opens up the possibility of carbon dioxide sequestration in the mantle.
Introduction of hydrogen
According to Birch, bombarding Venus with hydrogen and reacting it with carbon dioxide could produce elemental carbon (graphite) and water by the Bosch reaction. It would take about 4 × 1019 kg of hydrogen to convert the whole Venusian atmosphere, and such a large amount of hydrogen could be obtained from the gas giants or their moons' ice. Another possible source of hydrogen could be somehow extracting it from possible reservoirs in the interior of the planet itself. According to some researchers, the Earth's mantle and/or core might hold large quantities of hydrogen left there since the original formation of Earth from the nebular cloud. Since the original formation and inner structure of Earth and Venus are generally believed to be somewhat similar, the same might be true for Venus.
Iron aerosol in the atmosphere will also be required for the reaction to work, and iron can come from Mercury, asteroids, or the Moon. (Loss of hydrogen due to the solar wind is unlikely to be significant on the timescale of terraforming.) Due to the planet's relatively flat surface, this water would cover about 80% of the surface, compared to 70% for Earth, even though it would amount to only roughly 10% of the water found on Earth.
The remaining atmosphere, at around 3 bars (about three times that of Earth), would mainly be composed of nitrogen, some of which will dissolve into the new oceans of water, reducing atmospheric pressure in accordance with Henry's law. To further reduce the pressure even more, nitrogen could also be fixated into nitrates.
Futurist Isaac Arthur has suggested using the hypothesized processes of starlifting and stellasing to create a particle beam of ionized hydrogen from the sun, tentatively dubbed a "hydro-cannon". This device could be used both to thin the dense atmosphere of Venus, but also to introduce hydrogen to react with carbon dioxide to create water, thereby further lowering the atmospheric pressure.
Direct removal of atmosphere
The thinning of the Venusian atmosphere could be attempted by a variety of methods, possibly in combination. Directly lifting atmospheric gas from Venus into space would probably prove difficult. Venus has sufficiently high escape velocity to make blasting it away with asteroid impacts impractical. Pollack and Sagan calculated in 1994 that an impactor of 700 km diameter striking Venus at greater than 20 km/s, would eject all the atmosphere above the horizon as seen from the point of impact, but because this is less than a thousandth of the total atmosphere and there would be diminishing returns as the atmosphere's density decreases, a very great number of such giant impactors would be required. Landis calculated that to lower the pressure from 92 bar to 1 bar would require a minimum of 2,000 impacts, even if the efficiency of atmosphere removal was perfect. Smaller objects would not work, either, because more would be required. The violence of the bombardment could well result in significant outgassing that would replace removed atmosphere. Most of the ejected atmosphere would go into solar orbit near Venus, and, without further intervention, could be captured by the Venerian gravitational field and become part of the atmosphere once again.
Another variant method involving bombardment would be to perturb a massive Kuiper belt object to put its orbit onto a collision path with Venus. If the object, made of mostly ices, had enough velocity to penetrate just a few kilometers past the Venusian surface, the resulting forces from the vaporization of ice from the impactor and the impact itself could stir the lithosphere and mantle thus ejecting a proportional amount of matter (as magma and gas) from Venus. A byproduct of this method would be either a new moon for Venus or a new impactor-body of debris that would fall back to the surface at a later time.
Removal of atmospheric gas in a more controlled manner could also prove difficult. Venus's extremely slow rotation means that space elevators would be very difficult to construct because the planet's geostationary orbit lies an impractical distance above the surface, and the very thick atmosphere to be removed makes mass drivers useless for removing payloads from the planet's surface. Possible workarounds include placing mass drivers on high-altitude balloons or balloon-supported towers extending above the bulk of the atmosphere, using space fountains, or rotovators.
In addition, if the density of the atmosphere (and corresponding greenhouse effect) were dramatically reduced, the surface temperature (now effectively constant) would probably vary widely between day side and night side. Another side effect to atmospheric-density reduction could be the creation of zones of dramatic weather activity or storms at the terminator because large volumes of atmosphere would undergo rapid heating or cooling.
Cooling planet by solar shades
Venus receives about twice the sunlight that Earth does, which is thought to have contributed to its runaway greenhouse effect. One means of terraforming Venus could involve reducing the insolation at Venus's surface to prevent the planet from heating up again.
Space-based
Solar shades could be used to reduce the total insolation received by Venus, cooling the planet somewhat. A shade placed in the Sun–Venus Lagrangian point also would serve to block the solar wind, removing the radiation exposure problem on Venus.
A suitably large solar shade would be four times the diameter of Venus itself if at the point. This would necessitate construction in space. There would also be the difficulty of balancing a thin-film shade perpendicular to the Sun's rays at the Sun–Venus Lagrange point with the incoming radiation pressure, which would tend to turn the shade into a huge solar sail. If the shade were simply left at the point, the pressure would add force to the sunward side and the shade would accelerate and drift out of orbit. The shade could instead be positioned nearer to the Sun, using the solar pressure to balance the gravitational forces, in practice becoming a statite.
Other modifications to the solar shade design have also been suggested to solve the solar-sail problem. One suggested method is to use polar-orbiting, solar-synchronous mirrors that reflect light toward the back of the sunshade, from the non-sunward side of Venus. Photon pressure would push the support mirrors to an angle of 30 degrees away from the sunward side.
Paul Birch proposed a slatted system of mirrors near the point between Venus and the Sun. The shade's panels would not be perpendicular to the Sun's rays, but instead at an angle of 30 degrees, such that the reflected light would strike the next panel, negating the photon pressure. Each successive row of panels would be +/- 1 degree off the 30-degree deflection angle, causing the reflected light to be skewed 4 degrees from striking Venus.
Solar shades could also serve as solar power generators. Space-based solar shade techniques, and thin-film solar sails in general, are only in an early stage of development. The vast sizes require a quantity of material that is many orders of magnitude greater than any human-made object that has ever been brought into space or constructed in space.
Atmospheric or surface-based
Venus could also be cooled by placing reflectors in the atmosphere. Reflective balloons floating in the upper atmosphere could create shade. The number and/or size of the balloons would necessarily be great. Geoffrey A. Landis has suggested that if enough floating cities were built, they could form a solar shield around the planet, and could simultaneously be used to process the atmosphere into a more desirable form, thus combining the solar shield theory and the atmospheric processing theory with a scalable technology that would immediately provide living space in the Venusian atmosphere. If made from carbon nanotubes or graphene (a sheet-like carbon allotrope), then the major structural materials can be produced using carbon dioxide gathered in situ from the atmosphere. The recently synthesised amorphous carbonia might prove a useful structural material if it can be quenched to Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) conditions, perhaps in a mixture with regular silica glass. According to Birch's analysis, such colonies and materials would provide an immediate economic return from colonizing Venus, funding further terraforming efforts.
Increasing the planet's albedo by deploying light-colored or reflective material on the surface (or at any level below the cloud tops) would not be useful, because the Venerian surface is already completely enshrouded by clouds, and almost no sunlight reaches the surface. Thus, it would be unlikely to be able to reflect more light than Venus's already-reflective clouds, with Bond albedo of 0.77.
Combination of solar shades and atmospheric condensation
Birch proposed that solar shades could be used to not merely cool the planet but to also reduce atmospheric pressure as well, by the process of freezing of the carbon dioxide. This requires Venus's temperature to be reduced, first to the liquefaction point, requiring a temperature less than ( or ) and partial pressures of CO2 to bring the atmospheric pressure down to (carbon dioxide's critical point); and from there reducing the temperature below ( or ) (carbon dioxide's triple point). Below that temperature, freezing of atmospheric carbon dioxide into dry ice will cause it to deposit onto the surface. He then proposed that the frozen CO2 could be buried and maintained in that condition by pressure, or even shipped off-world (perhaps to provide greenhouse gas needed for terraforming of Mars or the moons of Jupiter). After this process was complete, the shades could be removed or solettas added, allowing the planet to partially warm again to temperatures comfortable for Earth life. A source of hydrogen or water would still be needed, and some of the remaining 3.5 bar of atmospheric nitrogen would need to be fixed into the soil. Birch suggests disrupting an icy moon of Saturn, for example Hyperion, and bombarding Venus with its fragments.
Cooling planet by heat pipes, atmospheric vortex engines or radiative cooling
Paul Birch suggests that, in addition to cooling the planet with a sunshade in L1, "heat pipes" could be built on the planet to accelerate the cooling. The proposed mechanism would transport heat from the surface to colder regions higher up in the atmosphere, similar to a solar updraft tower, thereby facilitating radiation of excess heat out into space. A newly proposed variation of this technology is the atmospheric vortex engine, where instead of physical chimney pipes, the atmospheric updraft is achieved through the creation of a vortex, similar to a stationary tornado. In addition to this method being less material intensive and potentially more cost effective, this process also produces a net surplus of energy, which could be utilised to power venusian colonies or other aspects of the terraforming effort, while simultaneously contributing to speeding up the cooling of the planet. Another method to cool down the planet could be with the use of radiative cooling This technology could utilise the fact that in certain wavelengths, thermal radiation from the lower atmosphere of Venus can "escape" to space through partially transparent atmospheric "windows" – spectral gaps between strong CO2 and H2O absorption bands in the near infrared range . The outgoing thermal radiation is wavelength dependent and varies from the very surface at to approximately at . Nanophotonics and construction of metamaterials opens up new possibilities to tailor the emittance spectrum of a surface via properly designing periodic nano/micro-structures.
Recently there has been proposals of a device named a "emissive energy harvester" that can transfer heat to space through radiative cooling and convert part of the heat flow into surplus energy, opening up possibilities of a self-replicating system that could exponentially cool the planet.
Introduction of water
Since Venus has only a fraction of the water of Earth (less than half the Earth's water content in the atmosphere, and none on the surface), water would have to be introduced either by the aforementioned method of introduction of hydrogen, or from some other interplanetary or extraplanetary source.
Capture the Ice Moons
Paul Birch suggests the possibility of colliding Venus with one of the ice moons from the outer solar system, thereby bringing in all the water needed for terraformation in one go. This could be achieved through gravity assisted capture of Saturn's moons Enceladus and Hyperion or the Uranian moon Miranda. Simply changing the velocity of these moons enough to move them from their current orbit and enable gravity-assisted transport to Venus would require large amounts of energy. However, through complex gravity-assisted chain reactions the propulsion requirements could be reduced by several orders of magnitude. As Birch puts it, "[t]heoretically one could flick a pebble into the asteroid belt and end up dumping Mars into the Sun."
Outgassing from the mantle
Studies have shown that substantial amounts of water (in the form of hydrogen) might be present in the mantle of terrestrial planets. It has therefore been speculated that it would be technically possible to extract this water from the mantle to the surface even if no feasible method to accomplish this exists currently.
Altering day–night cycle
Venus rotates once every 243 Earth days—by far the slowest rotation period of any known object in the Solar System. A Venusian sidereal day thus lasts more than a Venusian year (243 versus 224.7 Earth days). However, the length of a solar day on Venus is significantly shorter than the sidereal day; to an observer on the surface of Venus, the time from one sunrise to the next would be 116.75 days. Due to the extremely slow rate of rotation it is unclear how long the time from sunrise to sunset for an actual observer standing on Venus would be. There is agreement that the time period is about 117 days, but some sources say this is the period of time from sunrise to sunset while other sources say it is the time from one sunrise to the next, which would be the full length of a solar day, including night. Therefore, the slow Venerian rotation rate would result in extremely long days and nights, similar to the day-night cycles in the polar regions of earth—shorter, but global. The exact period of a solar day is very important for terraforming since 117 days of daytime would be the equivalent of a summer in the more temperate regions of Alaska whereas 58 days of daytime would result in a very short growing season found in the high arctic. It could mean the difference between permafrost and perpetual ice or green lush boreal forests. The slow rotation might also account for the lack of a significant magnetic field.
Arguments for keeping the current day-night cycle unchanged
It has until recently been assumed that the rotation rate or day-night cycle of Venus would have to be increased for successful terraformation to be achieved. More recent research has shown, however, that the current slow rotation rate of Venus is not at all detrimental to the planet's capability to support an Earth-like climate. Rather, the slow rotation rate would, given an Earth-like atmosphere, enable the formation of thick cloud layers on the side of the planet facing the sun. This in turn would raise planetary albedo and act to cool the global temperature to Earth-like levels, despite the greater proximity to the Sun. According to calculations, maximum temperatures would be just around 35 °C (95 °F), given an Earth-like atmosphere. Speeding up the rotation rate would therefore be both impractical and detrimental to the terraforming effort. A terraformed Venus with the current slow rotation would result in a global climate with "day" and "night" periods each roughly 2 months (58 days) long, resembling the seasons at higher latitudes on Earth. The "day" would resemble a short summer with a warm, humid climate, a heavy overcast sky and ample rainfall. The "night" would resemble a short, very dark winter with quite cold temperature and snowfall. There would be periods with more temperate climate and clear weather at sunrise and sunset resembling a "spring" and "autumn".
Space mirrors
The problem of very dark conditions during the roughly two-month long "night" period could be solved through the use of a space mirror in a 24-hour orbit (the same distance as a geostationary orbit on Earth) similar to the Znamya (satellite) project experiments. Extrapolating the numbers from those experiments and applying them to Venerian conditions would mean that a space mirror just under 1700 meters in diameter could illuminate the entire nightside of the planet with the luminosity of 10-20 full moons and create an artificial 24-hour light cycle. An even bigger mirror could potentially create even stronger illumination conditions. Further extrapolation suggests that to achieve illumination levels of about 400 lux (similar to normal office lighting or a sunrise on a clear day on earth) a circular mirror about 55 kilometers across would be needed.
Paul Birch suggested keeping the entire planet protected from sunlight by a permanent system of slated shades in L1, and the surface illuminated by a rotating soletta mirror in a polar orbit, which would produce a 24-hour light cycle.
Changing rotation speed
If increasing the rotation speed of the planet would be desired (despite the above-mentioned potentially positive climatic effects of the current rotational speed), it would require energy of a magnitude many orders greater than the construction of orbiting solar mirrors, or even than the removal of the Venerian atmosphere. Birch calculates that increasing the rotation of Venus to an Earth-like solar cycle would require about 1.6 × 1029 Joules (50 billion petawatt-hours).
Scientific research suggests that close flybys of asteroids or cometary bodies larger than 100 kilometres (60 mi) across could be used to move a planet in its orbit, or increase the speed of rotation. The energy required to do this is large. In his book on terraforming, one of the concepts Fogg discusses is to increase the spin of Venus using three quadrillion objects circulating between Venus and the Sun every 2 hours, each traveling at 10% of the speed of light.
G. David Nordley has suggested, in fiction, that Venus might be spun up to a day length of 30 Earth days by exporting the atmosphere of Venus into space via mass drivers. A proposal by Birch involves the use of dynamic compression members to transfer energy and momentum via high-velocity mass streams to a band around the equator of Venus. He calculated that a sufficiently high-velocity mass stream, at about 10% of the speed of light, could give Venus a day of 24 hours in 30 years.
Creating an artificial magnetosphere
Protecting the new atmosphere from the solar wind, to avoid the loss of hydrogen, would require an artificial magnetosphere. Venus presently lacks an intrinsic magnetic field, therefore creating an artificial planetary magnetic field is needed to form a magnetosphere via its interaction with the solar wind. According to two NIFS Japanese scientists, it is feasible to do that with current technology by building a system of refrigerated latitudinal superconducting rings, each carrying a sufficient amount of direct current.
In the same report, it is claimed that the economic impact of the system can be minimized by using it also as a planetary energy transfer and storage system (SMES). Another study proposes the possibility of deployment of a magnetic dipole shield at the L1 Lagrange point, thereby creating an artificial magnetosphere that would protect the whole planet from solar wind and radiation.
See also
Terraforming
Colonization of Venus
Terraforming of Mars
Space sunshade
References
External links
Visualizing the steps of solar system terraforming
A fictional account of the terraformation of Venus
Terraform Venus (discussion on the New Mars forum)
Terraforming Venus - The Latest Thinking (discussion on the New Mars forum)
Planetary engineering
Space colonization
Venus
Venus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination%20of%20Abraham%20Lincoln
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Assassination of Abraham Lincoln
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On April 14, 1865, Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States, was assassinated by well-known stage actor John Wilkes Booth while attending the play Our American Cousin at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C. Shot in the head as he watched the play, Lincoln died of his wounds the following day at 7:22 am in the Petersen House opposite the theater. He was the first U.S. president to be assassinated. His funeral and burial were marked by an extended period of national mourning.
Near the end of the American Civil War, Lincoln's assassination was part of a larger conspiracy intended by Booth to revive the Confederate cause by eliminating the three most important officials of the federal government.
Conspirators Lewis Powell and David Herold were assigned to kill Secretary of State William H. Seward, and George Atzerodt was tasked with killing Vice President Andrew Johnson.
Beyond Lincoln's death, the plot failed: Seward was only wounded, and Johnson's would-be attacker became drunk instead of killing the vice president. After a dramatic initial escape, Booth was killed at the end of a 12-day chase. Powell, Herold, Atzerodt, and Mary Surratt were later hanged for their roles in the conspiracy.
Background
Abandoned plan to kidnap Lincoln
John Wilkes Booth, born in Maryland into a family of prominent stage actors, had by the time of the assassination become a famous actor and national celebrity in his own right. He was also an outspoken Confederate sympathizer; in late 1860 he was initiated in the pro-Confederate Knights of the Golden Circle in Baltimore, Maryland.
In March 1864, Ulysses S. Grant, commander of the Union armies, suspended the exchange of prisoners of war with the Confederate Army to increase pressure on the manpower-starved South. Booth conceived a plan to kidnap Lincoln in order to blackmail the Union into resuming prisoner exchanges, and recruited Samuel Arnold, George Atzerodt, David Herold, Michael O'Laughlen, Lewis Powell (also known as "Lewis Paine"), and John Surratt to help him. Surratt's mother, Mary Surratt, left her tavern in Surrattsville, Maryland, and moved to a house in Washington, D.C., where Booth became a frequent visitor.
While Booth and Lincoln were not personally acquainted, Lincoln had seen Booth at Ford's Theatre in 1863. After the assassination, actor Frank Mordaunt wrote that Lincoln, who apparently harbored no suspicions about Booth, admired the actor and had repeatedly invited him (without success) to visit the White House. Booth attended Lincoln's second inauguration on March 4, 1865, writing in his diary afterwards: "What an excellent chance I had, if I wished, to kill the President on Inauguration day!"
On March 17, Booth and the other conspirators planned to abduct Lincoln as he returned from a play at Campbell General Hospital in northwest Washington. But Lincoln did not go to the play, instead attending a ceremony at the National Hotel. Booth was living at the National Hotel at the time and, had he not gone to the hospital for the abortive kidnap attempt, might have been able to attack Lincoln at the hotel.
Meanwhile, the Confederacy was collapsing. On April 3, Richmond, Virginia, the Confederate capital, fell to the Union Army. On April 9, General Robert E. Lee and his Army of Northern Virginia surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant and his Army of the Potomac after the Battle of Appomattox Court House. Confederate President Jefferson Davis and other Confederate officials had fled. Nevertheless, Booth continued to believe in the Confederate cause and sought a way to salvage it.
Booth decided to murder Lincoln.
Motive
There are various theories about Booth's motivations. In a letter to his mother, he wrote of his desire to avenge the South. Doris Kearns Goodwin has endorsed the idea that another factor was Booth's rivalry with his well-known older brother, actor Edwin Booth, who was a loyal Unionist. David S. Reynolds believes that, despite disagreeing with his cause, Booth greatly admired the abolitionist John Brown; Booth's sister Asia Booth Clarke quoted him as saying: "John Brown was a man inspired, the grandest character of the century!"
On April 11, Booth attended Lincoln's last speech, in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for emancipated slaves; Booth said,
"That means nigger citizenship.... That is the last speech he will ever give." Enraged, Booth urged Powell to shoot Lincoln on the spot. Whether Booth made this request because he was not armed or considered Powell a better shot than himself (Powell, unlike Booth, had served in the Confederate Army and thus had military experience) is unknown. In any event, Powell refused for fear of the crowd, and Booth was either unable or unwilling to personally attempt to kill the president. However, Booth said to David Herold, "By God, I'll put him through."
Lincoln's premonitions
According to Ward Hill Lamon, three days before his death, Lincoln related a dream in which he wandered the White House searching for the source of mournful sounds:
However, Lincoln went on to tell Lamon that "In this dream it was not me, but some other fellow, that was killed. It seems that this ghostly assassin tried his hand on someone else." Paranormal investigator Joe Nickell writes that dreams of assassination would not be unexpected in the first place, considering the Baltimore Plot and an additional assassination attempt in which a hole was shot through Lincoln's hat.
For months Lincoln had looked pale and haggard, but on the morning of the assassination he told people how happy he was. First Lady Mary Lincoln felt such talk could bring bad luck. Lincoln told his cabinet that he had dreamed of being on a "singular and indescribable vessel that was moving with great rapidity toward a dark and indefinite shore", and that he had had the same dream before "nearly every great and important event of the War" such as the Union victories at Antietam, Murfreesboro, Gettysburg and Vicksburg.
Preparations
On April 14, Booth's morning started at midnight. He wrote his mother that all was well but that he was "in haste". In his diary, he wrote that "Our cause being almost lost, something decisive and great must be done".
While visiting Ford's Theatre around noon to pick up his mail, Booth learned that Lincoln and Grant were to visit the theater that evening for a performance of Our American Cousin. This provided him with an especially good opportunity to attack Lincoln since, having performed there several times, he knew the theater's layout and was familiar to its staff. Booth went to Mary Surratt's boarding house in Washington, D.C., and asked her to deliver a package to her tavern in Surrattsville, Maryland. He also asked her to tell her tenant Louis J. Weichmann to ready the guns and ammunition that Booth had previously stored at the tavern.
The conspirators met for the final time at 8:45pm. Booth assigned Powell to kill Secretary of State William H. Seward at his home, Atzerodt to kill Vice President Andrew Johnson at the Kirkwood Hotel, and Herold to guide Powell (who was unfamiliar with Washington) to the Seward house and then to a rendezvous with Booth in Maryland.
Booth was the only well-known member of the conspiracy. Access to the theater's upper floor containing the Presidential Box was restricted, and Booth was the only plotter who could have realistically expected to be admitted there without difficulty. Furthermore, it would have been reasonable (but ultimately incorrect) for the plotters to have assumed that the entrance of the box would itself be guarded. Had it been, Booth would have been the only plotter with a plausible chance of gaining access to the President, or at least to gain entry to the box without being searched for weapons first. Booth planned to shoot Lincoln at point-blank range with his single-shot Philadelphia Deringer pistol and then stab Grant at the theater. They were all to strike simultaneously shortly after ten o'clock. Atzerodt tried to withdraw from the plot, which to this point had involved only kidnapping, not murder, but Booth pressured him to continue.
Assassination of Lincoln
Lincoln arrives at the theater
Despite what Booth had heard earlier in the day, Grant and his wife, Julia Grant, had declined to accompany the Lincolns, as Mary Lincoln and Julia Grant were not on good terms. Others in succession also declined the Lincolns' invitation, until finally Major Henry Rathbone and his fiancée Clara Harris (daughter of U.S. Senator Ira Harris of New York) accepted. At one point, Mary developed a headache and was inclined to stay home, but Lincoln told her he must attend because newspapers had announced that he would. Lincoln's footman, William H. Crook, advised him not to go, but Lincoln said he had promised his wife. Lincoln told Speaker of the House Schuyler Colfax, "I suppose it's time to go though I would rather stay" before assisting Mary into the carriage.
The presidential party arrived late and settled into their box (two adjoining boxes with a dividing partition removed). The play was interrupted, and the orchestra played "Hail to the Chief" as the full house of some 1,700 rose in applause. Lincoln sat in a rocking chair that had been selected for him from among the Ford family's personal furnishings.
The cast modified a line of the play in honor of Lincoln: when the heroine asked for a seat protected from the draft, the replyscripted as, "Well, you're not the only one that wants to escape the draft"was delivered instead as, "The draft has already been stopped by order of the President!" A member of the audience observed that Mary Lincoln often called her husband's attention to aspects of the action onstage, and "seemed to take great pleasure in witnessing his enjoyment."
At one point, Mary whispered to Lincoln, who was holding her hand, "What will Miss Harris think of my hanging on to you so?" Lincoln replied, "She won't think anything about it". In following years, these words were traditionally considered Lincoln's last, though N.W. Miner, a family friend, claimed in 1882 that Mary Lincoln told him that Lincoln's last words expressed a wish to visit Jerusalem.
Booth shoots Lincoln
With Crook off duty and Ward Hill Lamon away, policeman John Frederick Parker was assigned to guard the Presidential Box. At intermission he went to a nearby tavern along with Lincoln's valet, Charles Forbes, and Coachman Francis Burke. It was also the same tavern Booth was waiting by having several drinks to prepare his time. It is unclear whether Parker returned to the theater, but he was certainly not at his post when Booth entered the box. In any event, there is no certainty that entry would have been denied to a celebrity such as Booth. Booth had prepared a brace to bar the door after entering the box, indicating that he expected a guard. After spending time at the tavern, Booth entered Ford's Theatre one last time at about 10:10 pm, this time through the theater's front entrance. He passed through the dress circle and went to the door that led to the Presidential Box after showing Charles Forbes his calling card. Navy Surgeon George Brainerd Todd saw Booth arrive:
Once inside the hallway, Booth barricaded the door by wedging a stick between it and the wall. From here, a second door led to Lincoln's box. There is evidence that, earlier in the day, Booth had bored a peephole in this second door.
Booth knew the play Our American Cousin by heart and waited to time his shot at about 10:15 pm, with the laughter at one of the hilarious lines of the play, delivered by actor Harry Hawk: "Well, I guess I know enough to turn you inside out, old gal; you sockdologizing old man-trap!". Lincoln was laughing at this line
when Booth opened the door, stepped forward, and shot Lincoln from behind with his pistol.
The bullet entered Lincoln's skull behind his left ear, passed through his brain, and came to rest near the front of the skull after fracturing both orbital plates. Lincoln slumped over in his chair and then fell backward. Rathbone turned to see Booth standing in gunsmoke less than four feet behind Lincoln; Booth shouted a word that Rathbone thought sounded like "Freedom!"
Booth escapes
Rathbone jumped from his seat and struggled with Booth, who dropped the pistol and drew a knife with which he stabbed Rathbone in the left forearm. Rathbone again grabbed at Booth as he prepared to jump from the box to the stage, a twelve-foot drop; Booth's riding spur became entangled on the Treasury flag decorating the box, and he landed awkwardly on his left foot. As he began crossing the stage, many in the audience thought he was part of the play.
Booth held his bloody knife over his head and yelled something to the audience. While it is traditionally held that Booth shouted the Virginia state motto, Sic semper tyrannis! ("Thus always to tyrants") either from the box or the stage, witness accounts conflict. Most recalled hearing Sic semper tyrannis! but othersincluding Booth himselfsaid he yelled only Sic semper! (Some did not recall Booth saying anything in Latin.) There is similar uncertainty about what Booth shouted next, in English: either "The South is avenged!", "Revenge for the South!", or "The South shall be free!" (Two witnesses remembered Booth's words as: "I have done it!")
Immediately after Booth landed on the stage, Major Joseph B. Stewart climbed over the orchestra pit and footlights and pursued Booth across the stage. The screams of Mary Lincoln and Clara Harris, and Rathbone's cries of, "Stop that man!" prompted others to join the chase as pandemonium broke out.
Booth exited the theater through a side door, en route stabbing orchestra leader William Withers, Jr.
As he leapt into the saddle of his getaway horse Booth pushed away Joseph Burroughs, who had been holding the horse, striking Burroughs with the handle of his knife.
Death of Lincoln
Charles Leale, a young Union Army surgeon, pushed through the crowd to the door of the Presidential Box, but could not open it until Rathbone, inside, noticed and removed the wooden brace with which Booth had jammed the door shut.
Leale found Lincoln seated with his head leaning to his right as Mary held him and sobbed: "His eyes were closed and he was in a profoundly comatose condition, while his breathing was intermittent and exceedingly stertorous." Thinking Lincoln had been stabbed, Leale shifted him to the floor. Meanwhile, another physician, Charles Sabin Taft, was lifted into the box from the stage.
After Leale and bystander William Kent cut away Lincoln's collar while unbuttoning his coat and shirt and found no stab wound, Leale located the gunshot wound behind the left ear. He found the bullet too deep to be removed but dislodged a blood clot, after which Lincoln's breathing improved; he learned that regularly removing new clots maintained Lincoln's breathing. After giving Lincoln artificial respiration, Leale allowed actress Laura Keene to cradle the President's head in her lap. He pronounced the wound mortal.
Leale, Taft, and another doctor, Albert King, decided that Lincoln must be moved to the nearest house on Tenth Street because a carriage ride to the White House was too dangerous. Carefully, seven men picked up Lincoln and slowly carried him out of the theater, where it was packed with an angry mob. After considering Peter Taltavull's Star Saloon next door, they concluded that they would take Lincoln to one of the houses across the way. It was raining as soldiers carried Lincoln into the street,
where a man urged them toward the house of tailor William Petersen. In Petersen's first-floor bedroom, the exceptionally tall Lincoln was laid diagonally on a small bed.
After clearing everyone out of the room, including Mrs. Lincoln, the doctors cut away Lincoln's clothes but discovered no other wounds; finding that Lincoln was cold, they applied hot water bottles and mustard plasters while covering his cold body with blankets. Later, more physicians arrived: Surgeon General Joseph K. Barnes, Charles Henry Crane, Anderson Ruffin Abbott, and Robert K. Stone (Lincoln's personal physician). All agreed Lincoln could not survive. Barnes probed the wound, locating the bullet and some bone fragments. Throughout the night, as the hemorrhage continued, they removed blood clots to relieve pressure on the brain, and Leale held the comatose president's hand with a firm grip, "to let him know that he was in touch with humanity and had a friend."
Lincoln's older son Robert Todd Lincoln arrived at about 11 pm, but twelve-year-old Tad Lincoln, who was watching a play of Aladdin at Grover's Theater when he learned of his father's assassination, was kept away. Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles and Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton arrived. Stanton insisted that the sobbing Mrs. Lincoln leave the sick room, then for the rest of the night he essentially ran the United States government from the house, including directing the hunt for Booth and the other conspirators. Guards kept the public away, but numerous officials and physicians were admitted to pay their respects.
Initially, Lincoln's features were calm and his breathing slow and steady. Later, one of his eyes became swollen and the right side of his face discolored. Maunsell Bradhurst Field wrote in a letter to The New York Times that Lincoln then started "breathing regularly, but with effort, and did not seem to be struggling or suffering." As he neared death, Lincoln's appearance became "perfectly natural" (except for the discoloration around his eyes). Shortly before 7am Mary was allowed to return to Lincoln's side, and, as Dixon reported, "she again seated herself by the President, kissing him and calling him every endearing name."
Lincoln died at 7:22 am on April 15. Mary Lincoln was not present. In his last moments, Lincoln's face became calm and his breathing quieter. Field wrote there was "no apparent suffering, no convulsive action, no rattling of the throat ... [only] a mere cessation of breathing". According to Lincoln's secretary John Hay, at the moment of Lincoln's death, "a look of unspeakable peace came upon his worn features". The assembly knelt for a prayer, after which Stanton said either, "Now he belongs to the ages" or, "Now he belongs to the angels."
On Lincoln's death, Vice President Johnson became the 17th president of the United States. The presidential oath of office was administered to Johnson by Chief Justice Salmon Chase sometime between 10 and 11am.
Powell attacks Seward
Booth had assigned Lewis Powell to kill Secretary of State William H. Seward. On the night of the assassination, Seward was at his home on Lafayette Square, confined to bed and recovering from injuries sustained on April 5 from being thrown from his carriage. Herold guided Powell to Seward's house. Powell carried an 1858 Whitney revolver (a large, heavy, and popular gun during the Civil War) and a Bowie knife.
William Bell, Seward's maître d', answered the door when Powell knocked 10:10pm, as Booth made his way to the Presidential Box at Ford's Theater. Powell told Bell that he had medicine from Seward's physician and that his instructions were to personally show Seward how to take it. Overcoming Bell's skepticism, Powell made his way up the stairs to Seward's third-floor bedroom. At the top of the staircase he was stopped by Seward's son, Assistant Secretary of State Frederick W. Seward, to whom he repeated the medicine story; Frederick, suspicious, said his father was asleep.
Hearing voices, Seward's daughter Fanny emerged from Seward's room and said, "Fred, Father is awake now"thus revealing to Powell where Seward was. Powell turned as if to start downstairs but suddenly turned again and drew his revolver. He aimed at Frederick's forehead and pulled the trigger, but the gun misfired, so he bludgeoned Frederick unconscious with it. Bell, yelling "Murder! Murder!", ran outside for help.
Fanny opened the door again, and Powell shoved past her to Seward's bed. He stabbed at Seward's face and neck, slicing open his cheek. However, the splint (often mistakenly described as a neck brace) that doctors had fitted to Seward's broken jaw prevented the blade from penetrating his jugular vein. Seward eventually recovered, though with serious scars on his face.
Seward's son Augustus and Sergeant George F. Robinson, a soldier assigned to Seward, were alerted by Fanny's screams and received stab wounds in struggling with Powell. As Augustus went for a pistol, Powell ran downstairs toward the door, where he encountered Emerick Hansell, a State Department messenger. Powell stabbed Hansell in the back, then ran outside exclaiming, "I'm mad! I'm mad!" Screams from the house had frightened Herold, who ran off, leaving Powell to find his own way in an unfamiliar city.
Atzerodt fails to attack Johnson
Booth had assigned George Atzerodt to kill Vice President Andrew Johnson, who was staying at the Kirkwood House in Washington. Atzerodt was to go to Johnson's room at 10:15 pm and shoot him. On April 14, Atzerodt rented the room directly above Johnson's; the next day, he arrived there at the appointed time and, carrying a gun and knife, went to the bar downstairs, where he asked the bartender about Johnson's character and behavior. He eventually became drunk and wandered off through the streets, tossing his knife away at some point. He made his way to the Pennsylvania House Hotel by 2 am, where he obtained a room and went to sleep.
Earlier in the day, Booth had stopped by the Kirkwood House and left a note for Johnson: "I don't wish to disturb you. Are you at home? J. Wilkes Booth." One theory holds that Booth was trying to find out whether Johnson was expected at the Kirkwood that night; another holds that Booth, concerned that Atzerodt would fail to kill Johnson, intended the note to implicate Johnson in the conspiracy.
Reactions
Lincoln was mourned in both the North and South,
and indeed around the world. Numerous foreign governments issued proclamations and declared periods of mourning on April 15. Lincoln was praised in sermons on Easter Sunday, which fell on the day after his death.
On April 18, mourners lined up seven abreast for a mile to view Lincoln in his walnut casket in the White House's black-draped East Room. Special trains brought thousands from other cities, some of whom slept on the Capitol's lawn. Hundreds of thousands watched the funeral procession on April 19, and millions more lined the route of the train which took Lincoln's remains through New York to Springfield, Illinois, often passing trackside tributes in the form of bands, bonfires, and hymn-singing.
Poet Walt Whitman composed "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd", "O Captain! My Captain!", and two other poems, to eulogize Lincoln.
Ulysses S. Grant called Lincoln "incontestably the greatest man I ever knew." Robert E. Lee expressed sadness. Southern-born Elizabeth Blair said that "Those of Southern born sympathies know now they have lost a friend willing and more powerful to protect and serve them than they can now ever hope to find again." African-American orator Frederick Douglass called the assassination an "unspeakable calamity".
British Foreign Secretary Lord Russell called Lincoln's death a "sad calamity." China's chief secretary of state for foreign affairs, Prince Kung, described himself as "inexpressibly shocked and startled". Ecuadorian president Gabriel García Moreno said, "Never should I have thought that the noble country of Washington would be humiliated by such a black and horrible crime; nor should I ever have thought that Mr. Lincoln would come to such a horrible end, after having served his country with such wisdom and glory under so critical circumstances." The government of Liberia issued a proclamation calling Lincoln "not only the ruler of his own people, but a father to millions of a race stricken and oppressed." The government of Haiti condemned the assassination as a "horrid crime".
Flight and capture of the conspirators
Booth and Herold
Within half an hour of fleeing Ford's Theatre, Booth crossed the Navy Yard Bridge into Maryland. A Union Army sentry named Silas Cobb questioned him about his late-night travel; Booth said that he was going home to the nearby town of Charles. Although it was forbidden for civilians to cross the bridge after 9 pm, the sentry let him through. Herold made it across the same bridge less than an hour later and rendezvoused with Booth. After retrieving weapons and supplies previously stored at Surattsville, Herold and Booth rode to the home of Samuel A. Mudd, a local doctor, who splinted the leg Booth had broken in his escape and later made a pair of crutches for Booth.
After a day at Mudd's house, Booth and Herold hired a local man to guide them to Samuel Cox's house. Cox, in turn, took them to Thomas Jones, a Confederate sympathizer who hid Booth and Herold in Zekiah Swamp for five days until they could cross the Potomac River. On the afternoon of April 24, they arrived at the farm of Richard H. Garrett, a tobacco farmer, in King George County, Virginia. Booth told Garrett he was a wounded Confederate soldier.
An April 15 letter to Navy Surgeon George Brainerd Todd from his brother tells of the rumors in Washington about Booth:
The hunt for the conspirators quickly became the largest in U.S. history, involving thousands of federal troops and countless civilians. Edwin M. Stanton personally directed the operation, authorizing rewards of $50,000 () for Booth and $25,000 each for Herold and John Surratt.
Booth and Herold were sleeping at Garrett's farm on April 26 when soldiers from the 16th New York Cavalry arrived and surrounded the barn, then threatened to set fire to it. Herold surrendered, but Booth cried out, "I will not be taken alive!" The soldiers set fire to the barn and Booth scrambled for the back door with a rifle and pistol.
Sergeant Boston Corbett crept up behind the barn and shot Booth in "the back of the head about an inch below the spot where his [Booth's] shot had entered the head of Mr. Lincoln", severing his spinal cord. Booth was carried out onto the steps of the barn. A soldier poured water into his mouth, which he spat out, unable to swallow. Booth told the soldier, "Tell my mother I die for my country." Unable to move his limbs, he asked a soldier to lift his hands before his face and whispered his last words as he gazed at them: "Useless ... useless." He died on the porch of the Garrett farm two hours later. Corbett was initially arrested for disobeying orders from Stanton that Booth be taken alive if possible, but was later released and was largely considered a hero by the media and the public.
Others
Without Herold to guide him, Powell did not find his way back to the Surratt house until April 17. He told detectives waiting there that he was a ditch-digger hired by Mary Surratt, but she denied knowing him. Both were arrested. George Atzerodt hid at his cousin's farm in Germantown, Maryland, about northwest of Washington, where he was arrested April 20.
The remaining conspirators were arrested by month's endexcept for John Surratt, who fled to Quebec where Roman Catholic priests hid him. In September, he boarded a ship to Liverpool, England, staying in the Catholic Church of the Holy Cross there. From there, he moved furtively through Europe until joining the Pontifical Zouaves in the Papal States. A friend from his school days recognized him there in early 1866 and alerted the U.S. government. Surratt was arrested by the Papal authorities but managed to escape under suspicious circumstances. He was finally captured by an agent of the United States in Egypt in November 1866.
Conspirators' trial and execution
Scores of persons were arrested, including many tangential associates of the conspirators and anyone having had even the slightest contact with Booth or Herold during their flight. These included Louis J. Weichmann, a boarder in Mrs. Surratt's house; Booth's brother Junius (in Cincinnati at the time of the assassination); theater owner John T. Ford; James Pumphrey, from whom Booth hired his horse; John M. Lloyd, the innkeeper who rented Mrs. Surratt's Maryland tavern and gave Booth and Herold weapons and supplies the night of April 14; and Samuel Cox and Thomas A. Jones, who helped Booth and Herold cross the Potomac.
All were eventually released except:
The accused were tried by a military tribunal ordered by Johnson, who had succeeded to the presidency on Lincoln's death:
The prosecution was led by U.S. Army Judge Advocate General Joseph Holt, assisted by Congressman John A. Bingham and Major Henry Lawrence Burnett.
The use of a military tribunal provoked criticism from former Attorney General Edward Bates and Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, who believed that a civil court should have presided, but Attorney General James Speed pointed to the military nature of the conspiracy and the facts that the defendants acted as enemy combatants and that martial law was in force at the time in the District of Columbia. (In 1866, in Ex parte Milligan, the United States Supreme Court banned the use of military tribunals in places where civil courts were operational.) Only a simple majority of the jury was required for a guilty verdict and a two-thirds for a death sentence. There was no route for appeal other than to President Johnson.
The seven-week trial included the testimony of 366 witnesses. All of the defendants were found guilty on June 30. Mary Surratt, Lewis Powell, David Herold, and George Atzerodt were sentenced to death by hanging; Samuel Mudd, Samuel Arnold, and Michael O'Laughlen were sentenced to life in prison. Edmund Spangler was sentenced to six years. After sentencing Mary Surratt to hang, five jurors signed a letter recommending clemency, but Johnson refused to stop the execution; he later claimed he never saw the letter.
Mary Surratt, Powell, Herold, and Atzerodt were hanged in the Old Arsenal Penitentiary on July 7. Mary Surratt was the first woman executed by the United States government. O'Laughlen died in prison in 1867. Mudd, Arnold, and Spangler were pardoned in February 1869 by Johnson. Spangler, who died in 1875, always insisted his sole connection to the plot was that Booth asked him to hold his horse.
John Surratt stood trial in Washington in 1867. Four residents of Elmira, New York, claimed they had seen him there between April 13 and 15; fifteen others said they either saw him or someone who resembled him, in Washington (or traveling to or from Washington) on the day of the assassination. The jury could not reach a verdict, and John Surratt was released.
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
Hodes, Martha. Mourning Lincoln, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2015.
Holzer, Harold (compiled and introduced by). President Lincoln Assassinated!!: The Firsthand Story of the Murder, Manhunt, Trial, and Mourning. Library of America/Penguin Random House Inc. 2014.
Holzer, Harold; Symonds, Craig L.; Williams, Frank J., eds., The Lincoln Assassination: Crime and Punishment, Myth and Memory, New York: Fordham University Press, 2010. Review
King, Benjamin. A Bullet for Lincoln, Pelican Publishing, 1993.
Lattimer, John. Kennedy and Lincoln, Medical & Ballistic Comparisons of Their Assassinations. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York. 1980. [includes description and pictures of Seward's jaw splint, not a neck brace]
Steers Jr., Edward, and Holzer, Harold, eds. The Lincoln Assassination Conspirators: Their Confinement and Execution, as Recorded in the Letterbook of John Frederick Hartranft. Louisiana State University Press, 2009.
Donald E. Wilkes, Jr., Lincoln Assassinated!, Lincoln Assassinated!, Part 2.
The Lincoln Memorial: A Record of the Life, Assassination, and Obsequies of the Martyred President, New York: Bunce & Huntington, 1865. This is a collection of essays, accounts, sermons, newspaper reports, poems, and more, with no editor or authors named, except Richard Henry Stoddard, whose poem "Abraham Lincoln—An Horatian Ode" is included at pages 273–278.
External links
Abraham Lincoln's Physician's Observation and Postmortem Reports: Original Documentation Shapell Manuscript Foundation
First Responder Dr. Charles Leale Eyewitness Report of Assassination Shapell Manuscript Foundation
Lincoln Papers: Lincoln Assassination: Introduction
Ford's Theatre National Historic Site
Abraham Lincoln's Assassination
Abraham Lincoln: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
Lincoln Conspiracy Photograph Album at George Eastman museum
The Men Who Killed Lincoln – slideshow by Life magazine
Dr. Samuel A. Mudd Research Site
The official transcript of the trial (as recorded by Benn Pitman and several assistants – originally published in 1865 by the United States Army Military Commission)
Hanging the Lincoln Conspirators – detailed analysis and review of historic 1865 photograph
1865 in American politics
1865 in Washington, D.C.
1865 murders in the United States
April 1865 events
Deaths by person in Washington, D.C.
Events that led to courts-martial
Murder in Washington, D.C.
Political violence in the United States
Politics of the American Civil War
Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20the%20Protestant%20Reformation
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Women in the Protestant Reformation
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The status of Women in the Protestant Reformation was deeply influenced by Bible study, as the Reformation promoted literacy and Bible study in order to study God's will in what a society should look like. This influenced women's lives in both positive and negative ways, depending on what scripture and passages of the Bible were studied and promoted. The ideal of Bible study for commoners improved women's literacy and education, and many women became known for their interest and involvement in public debate during the Reformation. In parallel, however, their voices were often suppressed because of the edict of the Bible that women were to be silent. The abolition of the female convents resulted in the role of wife and mother becoming the only remaining ideal for a woman.
Women's role during the Reformation
Education
The Reformation promoted literacy and the study of the Bible in vernacular language in order to study how society should look like in the eyes of God. Commoners and not only clergy were now encouraged to study the Bible, which in turn encouraged literacy. Literacy and Bible study were, to a varying degree, encouraged for women as well, for them to be a biblical influence for children and their husband.
Schooling for girls and literacy for women consequently and gradually became more common. For example, the Swedish Church Ordinance of 1571 mandated the education of girls along with the boys. Bible studies had different effects on the position of women, depending on which scripture was studied, and how it was interpreted. In some cases, it benefitted women, when they found passages suggesting women were equal to men in the presence of God. In other cases, it did the opposite, when misogynic passages of the Bible were emphasised.
The women's ideal promoted during the Reformation was the women were to be silent and obedient wives and mothers, devoted to household tasks and childcare. The purpose of women's education was the development of an accepted concept of marriage and training in domestic skills. Women were taught how to look after children, care for their homes, make clothing for her family, and tend livestock.
Marriage
The Reformation abolished the celibacy for priests, monks and nuns and promoted marriage as the ideal state for both men and women. While men still had the opportunity to become clergymen, women could no longer become nuns, and marriage came to be seen as the only proper role for a woman. Consequently, marriage was idealized, and the role of women within marriage was studied within the context of Bible studies.
The Biblical role of a wife was regarded to be that of a companion to her husband, but she was always his subordinate. Obedience was demanded by husbands, and wives were restricted in their actions.
In some cases, the reformation resulted in males committing bigamy, as polygamy for men was tolerated in the Bible. Elisabeth of Hesse exposed the secret bigamy of her brother Philip. Philip I had committed bigamy by the approval of the reformer Martin Luther.
Marriage of nuns
A new phenomenon during the Reformation was the abolition of the female convents and the marriage of former nuns. When the nunneries were closed, nuns were formally allowed to return to their families or marry.
The most famous example was the former nun Katharina von Bora, who married the reformer Martin Luther. Other examples were former abbess Charlotte of Bourbon, former abbess Katharina von Zimmern of Fraumünster Abbey in Zürich, and former abbess Birgitta Botolfsdotter of Vadstena Abbey in Sweden. Charlotte of Bourbon, who was forced to become a nun by her family against her own will, ran away from the convent to the Protestant Electorate of the Palatinate, and married to the Protestant William the Silent, Prince of Orange in 1575. There were cases in which former nuns married former monks, such as when the Swedish nun Ingeborg Åkesdotter married the former monk Hans Klasson Kökkemäster, who became a Lutheran priest after the Swedish Reformation.
The marriage of nuns still remained controversial in the eyes of the public, however. While these marriages were officially encouraged by the reformers, they were nevertheless in practice seen as controversial by the public, who were raised to believe in the sanctity in the celibacy of priests, monks and nuns. Katharina von Bora was thus by some considered to be a horrible role model for women who, like herself, had married priests, as well as for former nuns who had left their convents, despite the official doctrine.
The pastor's wife
In parallel to the abolition of the nunneries, a new informal position for women within the church was created in the form of the pastor's wife. In many cases, the priests married their housekeepers, with whom they had already been living with before priests were allowed to marry. An example of this was the marriage between the Catholic priest Curatus Petrus (Per Joensson) and his housekeeper-mistress Anna Pehrsönernas moder, with whom he had two sons: he and other Swedish priests were commanded to marry their housekeeper-mistresses after the introduction of Reformation in Sweden.
The marriages of priests set the standard of a new role in society, which was that of the pastor's wife. The position of a pastor's wife was a new women's role in society, in which the pastor's wife was expected to engage in the welfare of the members of her husband's parish.
The new phenomenon caused problems because the pastor did not own his vicarage and his widow was thus left without means to support herself after his death. In Germany and the Nordic countries, this problem resulted in the phenomenon called widow conservation, in which the newly appointed pastor was expected to marry the widow of his predecessor.
Public and professional role
The Bible study and literacy promoted during the Reformation did have an effect on women's position, as secular women becoming publicly known as writers and authors, which had been uncommon before. The Calvinist Anne Locke was a translator and poet, who published the first English sonnet sequence.
Despite the ideal of the domestic housewife promoted by the Reformation, women continued to fill different roles depending on their class, and while the role of nun was abolished, noblewomen continued to manage large estates and merchant women continued to manage businesses.
Some businesswomen benefitted from the secularisation of clerical property during the Reformation, as did their male counterparts. Anna Karlsdotter (d. 1552) was a noblewoman landowner who retracted donations her ancestors had made to the church. The merchant Anna Taskomakare, who successfully traded copper and iron, also benefitted of the Reformation's secularisation of clerical property.
Women Rulers and the Reformation
There were examples of female rulers who benefitted and even introduced the reformation in their realms during their time in power.
One such example was Elisabeth of Brandenburg, Duchess of Brunswick-Calenberg-Göttingen, who introduced the Reformation in Brunswick-Calenberg-Göttingen during her tenure as regent in 1540–1545, and Barbara von Wertheim, who also supported the reformation in her domain during her regency.
Another example was queen Joan III of Navarre, who introduced the Reformation in Navarre. She also became a leader of the French Huguenots during the Huguenot wars in France, and as such played a major role in Protestantism during the Reformation.
The support Zwingli was given by Abbess Katharina von Zimmern of Fraumünster, who was the representative of the Emperor and de facto ruler of Zürich, played an important part for the successful introduction of the Reformation in Zürich and consequently the spread of Zwingli's Protestanism in Europe.
Aside from women rulers, powerful women acted as patrons of and used their influence to benefit the Reformation even when they were not themselves rulers.
Queen Anne Boleyn, wife of King Henry VIII of England, was not only an indirect cause of the English Reformation due to the king's wish to marry her despite being denied an annulment from his first wife Catherine of Aragon: she also directly acted as a patron of Protestantism in England at the time.
In France, Margaret of Valois-Angoulême was famous for her protection of protestants, as was Renée of France and Isabella of Navarre, Viscountess of Rohan.
Politics and patronage
During the Reformation, when women's role became a topic of discussion in context to the ongoing Bible studies, women's political power, as well as women's proper Biblical place in other areas, became a subject of debate. Female rule and women's role in politics was itself controversial for some Protestant reformers, most famously in The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstruous Regiment of Women by John Knox. At the time, both Scotland and England were governed by female leaders. While in Europe, Knox discussed this issue of gynarchy with John Calvin and Heinrich Bullinger. While Knox believed that gynarchy was contrary to the natural order of things, Calvin and Heinrich believed it was acceptable for women to be rulers when the situation demanded.
Ecclesiastical status
Women tried to become involved in the Reformation all throughout Europe. Because the Reformation advocated study of the Bible, this was controversial, and women's voices in the Reformation were mostly suppressed, with their writings destroyed because of the edict in the Bible for women to be silent.
Despite this, many female Protestant reformers are known, and some male reformers are known to have been less opposed to women participating in the public debate. Reformer John Calvin was known for contacting several noblewomen to ascertain their opinions on certain religious topics.
Women reformers
Women are known to have actively participated in the Reformation on a lower level as participators in iconoclastic riots, such as famously Weyn Ockers, who participated in the part in the iconoclastic riots in Amsterdam in 1566; this corresponded to women participating also on the opposite side, as defenders of Catholic chapels and icons, such as Engel Korsendochter. These examples of enthusiasm were generally praised by their contemporary sympathisers.
The situation was more complicated when it came to women's participation in the Reformation on leader positions and on higher levels, such as in theology.
When commoners were encouraged to Bible study and interpret God's word during the Reformation, women also became engaged in the public debate. However, women's preaching or publishing material stood in direct opposition to the words ascribed to St. Paul (1 Timothy 2: 11–15) which ordered women not to teach or preach, so that all women who published felt it necessary to justify their actions. The only exception was the Anabaptist religion, where women could preach in church. Because Elizabeth I of England was a woman, Parliament decided to make her the Supreme Governor of the Church of England instead of the Supreme Head of the Church of England. The Elizabethan Religious Settlement she played a role in cultivating developed into the Protestant Church of England that exists today.
The sole alternative role for women which had existed outside of marriage, to join a convent, was no longer available in Reformed Protestant areas, although some convents voluntarily participated in the Reformation. For example, following Catherine of Mecklenburg's choice to defy her Catholic husband and smuggle Lutheran books to Ursula of Munsterberg and other nuns, Ursula (in 1528) published 69 articles justifying their reasons to leave their convent. Although her writings reached Martin Luther, they were listed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum from 1596 to 1900.
Most of the evidence of works or writings that are written by women are from their letters or through the testimonials of the women who were being questioned about their faith. It is important to note that these testimonials, based on the women of the Reformation, were written by men.
The lack of written work by women may have something to do with the fact that society was a male-dominated one and women were meant to complete their household duties and nothing else.
Despite the Biblical ideal of the silent woman, women did participate in the public debate during the Reformation as writers, such as Argula von Grumbach and Marie Dentiere. Elisabeth Cruciger was a friend of Martin Luther and the first female Reformation-era hymn writer. In 1590, Christine of Hesse published the psalm-book Geistliche Psalmen und Lieder.
Olimpia Fulvia Morata was able to converse fluently in Greek and Latin, and lectured as a teen on Cicero and Calvin's works. Her writings were published posthumously and also placed on the Index.
Magdalena Heymair became the first woman ever to have her writings listed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum. She published a series of pedagogical writings for elementary-age teaching and also wrote poetry. Lutheran poet Catharina Regina von Greiffenberg was exiled from her home in Austria during the Counter-Reformation.
Convents and nuns
One of the biggest changes in women's roles during the reformation was the closure of the convents for women, which had until then provided an alternative role for women to that of a wife and mother. The biblical ideal of women as seen by the reformers was that of a wife and a mother, and the nuns were encouraged to leave the convents and marry. In areas where convents were closed, this eliminated the option of a full-time religious role for Protestant women. While men still had the option of becoming a clergyman, the ideal role for a woman was now only that of a wife.
The convents were closed and banned from accepting any new members, while the existing members were allowed to leave and marry or return to their families if they wished. In practice, there was often some difference in how the convents for men and women were treated. While monks were often evicted from their convents immediately, nuns were in practice often allowed to stay in the former convent buildings on an allowance for life, provided that they did not accept any new members. This was likely due to the consideration that it was more difficult for women to support themselves if they were evicted in the male-dominated society of the time. Another factor was that nuns often came from the nobility prior to becoming nuns and thus they were related to influential people. One example of this was the suppression of monasteries in Sweden, where female convents existed for decades after the reformation such as Vreta Abbey, where the last nuns died in 1582, and Vadstena Abbey, from which the last nuns emigrated in 1595, about half a century after the introduction of reformation.
The same pattern can be observed in almost every country during the reformating regarding the nuns. In England, Elizabeth Zouche, abbess of Shaftesbury Abbey and Cecily Bodenham, abbess of Wilton Abbey, were both given allowances along with their nuns, and in Sweden, the former nuns of Sko Abbey lived on state allowances as well as managing a school for girls. The case was similar in Scotland, were prioress Euphemia Leslie of Elcho Priory at Perth secured the economical support and pension of her nuns after the introduction of the Reformation in 1560,; in Iceland, were Abbess Solveig Rafnsdóttir of Reynistaðarklaustur and her nuns were allowed to reside in the closed convent for life; in Norway, where Bakke Abbey was officially closed in 1537 but the nuns remained until at least 1561; in Finland, where Nådendal Abbey was closed in 1527 but the nuns remained for fifty years after; and in Denmark, where Maribo Abbey was closed in 1536 but the nuns remained until 1551, after which the Abbey was transformed in to a Lutheran house of secular canonesses for the use of unmarried noblewomen.
It was thus uncommon for nuns to be aggressively evicted from their convents, but it did occur. Such events took place in Geneva, where the nun Jeanne de Jussie documented how the nuns of the Poor Clares convent in Geneva were forced to leave the city with the introduction of the Reformation; as well as in The Netherlands, when the Reformation took place during the Dutch War of Independence; abbesses Amalberga Vos and Louise Hanssens of Ter Hage Abbey were forced to evacuate the nuns and flee from the abbey, which was vandalized and destroyed by iconoclasts.
Martin Luther had not planned to get married, but former nun Katharina von Bora convinced him it would be a good idea to marry her. Due to her moderately wealthy background and a household license to brew and sell beer, she was able to support Luther financially. Martin Luther himself taught that "the wife should stay at home and look after the affairs of the household as one who has been deprived of the ability of administering those affairs that are outside and concern the state..." John Calvin agreed that "the woman's place is in the home."
Some convents (such as Ebstorf Abbey near the town of Uelzen and Bursfelde Abbey in Bursfelde) adopted the Lutheran Christian faith. Anna II, Abbess of Quedlinburg renounced her considerable rights as Princess Abbess to introduce the reformation in her territories.
These protestant convents became known as damenstift. Three exclusively female Lutheran orders for women open today are the Communität Casteller Ring, the Daughters of Mary, and the Evangelical Sisterhood of Mary. Although Communität Christusbruderschaft Selbitz is mixed, it is almost entirely female.
Martyrs
Many women were martyred or imprisoned for Protestantism during the Reformation.
Some of them include:
Wendelmoet Claesdochter († 1527), Netherlands
Aefgen Listincx († 1538), Münster, Germany
Anneke Esaiasdochter († 1539), Netherlands
Katarzyna Weiglowa († 1539)
Maria van Beckum and Ursula van Beckum († 1544)
Anne Askew (1521–1546), tortured in the Tower of London and martyred in Smithfield for Protestantism
Joan Bocher (d. 1550), English Anabaptist martyr in Smithfield
Elizabeth Pepper (d. 1556), martyred while pregnant for Protestantism, together with Agnes George
Guernsey Martyrs, three women martyred for Protestantism in 1556, one woman was pregnant and gave birth while being burned, the child was rescued but then ordered to be burned, too
Joan Waste (1534–1556), blind woman martyred for Protestantism
Alice Benden (d. 1557), martyred for Protestantism
Alice Driver (d. 1558), testified for and martyred for Protestantism
María de Bohórquez († 1559)
Weyn Ockers († 1568), Netherlands
Anneke Ogiers († 1570), Netherlands
References
Further reading
Profiles of Anabaptist Women: Sixteenth-Century Reforming Pioneers edited by C. Arnold Snyder, Linda A. Huebert Hecht, 1996, Google Books preview
Nancy Lyman Roelker (1968) Queen of Navarre, Jeanne d'Albret: 1528–1572. Cambridge Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-74150-1.
Protestant Reformation
Christianity and women
16th century in women's history
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure%20factor
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Structure factor
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In condensed matter physics and crystallography, the static structure factor (or structure factor for short) is a mathematical description of how a material scatters incident radiation. The structure factor is a critical tool in the interpretation of scattering patterns (interference patterns) obtained in X-ray, electron and neutron diffraction experiments.
Confusingly, there are two different mathematical expressions in use, both called 'structure factor'. One is usually written ; it is more generally valid, and relates the observed diffracted intensity per atom to that produced by a single scattering unit. The other is usually written or and is only valid for systems with long-range positional order — crystals. This expression relates the amplitude and phase of the beam diffracted by the planes of the crystal ( are the Miller indices of the planes) to that produced by a single scattering unit at the vertices of the primitive unit cell. is not a special case of ; gives the scattering intensity, but gives the amplitude. It is the modulus squared that gives the scattering intensity. is defined for a perfect crystal, and is used in crystallography, while is most useful for disordered systems. For partially ordered systems such as crystalline polymers there is obviously overlap, and experts will switch from one expression to the other as needed.
The static structure factor is measured without resolving the energy of scattered photons/electrons/neutrons. Energy-resolved measurements yield the dynamic structure factor.
Derivation of
Consider the scattering of a beam of wavelength by an assembly of particles or atoms stationary at positions . Assume that the scattering is weak, so that the amplitude of the incident beam is constant throughout the sample volume (Born approximation), and absorption, refraction and multiple scattering can be neglected (kinematic diffraction). The direction of any scattered wave is defined by its scattering vector . , where and ( ) are the scattered and incident beam wavevectors, and is the angle between them. For elastic scattering, and , limiting the possible range of (see Ewald sphere). The amplitude and phase of this scattered wave will be the vector sum of the scattered waves from all the atoms
For an assembly of atoms, is the atomic form factor of the -th atom. The scattered intensity is obtained by multiplying this function by its complex conjugate
The structure factor is defined as this intensity normalized by
If all the atoms are identical, then Equation () becomes and so
Another useful simplification is if the material is isotropic, like a powder or a simple liquid. In that case, the intensity depends on and . In three dimensions, Equation () then simplifies to the Debye scattering equation:
An alternative derivation gives good insight, but uses Fourier transforms and convolution. To be general, consider a scalar (real) quantity defined in a volume ; this may correspond, for instance, to a mass or charge distribution or to the refractive index of an inhomogeneous medium. If the scalar function is integrable, we can write its Fourier transform as . In the Born approximation the amplitude of the scattered wave corresponding to the scattering vector is proportional to the Fourier transform . When the system under study is composed of a number of identical constituents (atoms, molecules, colloidal particles, etc.) each of which has a distribution of mass or charge then the total distribution can be considered the convolution of this function with a set of delta functions.
with the particle positions as before. Using the property that the Fourier transform of a convolution product is simply the product of the Fourier transforms of the two factors, we have , so that:
This is clearly the same as Equation () with all particles identical, except that here is shown explicitly as a function of .
In general, the particle positions are not fixed and the measurement takes place over a finite exposure time and with a macroscopic sample (much larger than the interparticle distance). The experimentally accessible intensity is thus an averaged one ; we need not specify whether denotes a time or ensemble average. To take this into account we can rewrite Equation () as:
Perfect crystals
In a crystal, the constitutive particles are arranged periodically, with translational symmetry forming a lattice. The crystal structure can be described as a Bravais lattice with a group of atoms, called the basis, placed at every lattice point; that is, [crystal structure] = [lattice] [basis]. If the lattice is infinite and completely regular, the system is a perfect crystal. For such a system, only a set of specific values for can give scattering, and the scattering amplitude for all other values is zero. This set of values forms a lattice, called the reciprocal lattice, which is the Fourier transform of the real-space crystal lattice.
In principle the scattering factor can be used to determine the scattering from a perfect crystal; in the simple case when the basis is a single atom at the origin (and again neglecting all thermal motion, so that there is no need for averaging) all the atoms have identical environments. Equation () can be written as
and .
The structure factor is then simply the squared modulus of the Fourier transform of the lattice, and shows the directions in which scattering can have non-zero intensity. At these values of the wave from every lattice point is in phase. The value of the structure factor is the same for all these reciprocal lattice points, and the intensity varies only due to changes in with .
Units
The units of the structure-factor amplitude depend on the incident radiation. For X-ray crystallography they are multiples of the unit of scattering by a single electron (2.82 m); for neutron scattering by atomic nuclei the unit of scattering length of m is commonly used.
The above discussion uses the wave vectors and . However, crystallography often uses wave vectors and . Therefore, when comparing equations from different sources, the factor may appear and disappear, and care to maintain consistent quantities is required to get correct numerical results.
Definition of
In crystallography, the basis and lattice are treated separately. For a perfect crystal the lattice gives the reciprocal lattice, which determines the positions (angles) of diffracted beams, and the basis gives the structure factor which determines the amplitude and phase of the diffracted beams:
where the sum is over all atoms in the unit cell, are the positional coordinates of the -th atom, and is the scattering factor of the -th atom. The coordinates have the directions and dimensions of the lattice vectors . That is, (0,0,0) is at the lattice point, the origin of position in the unit cell; (1,0,0) is at the next lattice point along and (1/2, 1/2, 1/2) is at the body center of the unit cell. defines a reciprocal lattice point at which corresponds to the real-space plane defined by the Miller indices (see Bragg's law).
is the vector sum of waves from all atoms within the unit cell. An atom at any lattice point has the reference phase angle zero for all since then is always an integer. A wave scattered from an atom at (1/2, 0, 0) will be in phase if is even, out of phase if is odd.
Again an alternative view using convolution can be helpful. Since [crystal structure] = [lattice] [basis], [crystal structure] = [lattice] [basis]; that is, scattering [reciprocal lattice] [structure factor].
Examples of in 3-D
Body-centered cubic (BCC)
For the body-centered cubic Bravais lattice (cI), we use the points and which leads us to
and hence
Face-centered cubic (FCC)
The FCC lattice is a Bravais lattice, and its Fourier transform is a body-centered cubic lattice. However to obtain without this shortcut, consider an FCC crystal with one atom at each lattice point as a primitive or simple cubic with a basis of 4 atoms, at the origin and at the three adjacent face centers, , and . Equation () becomes
with the result
The most intense diffraction peak from a material that crystallizes in the FCC structure is typically the (111). Films of FCC materials like gold tend to grow in a (111) orientation with a triangular surface symmetry. A zero diffracted intensity for a group of diffracted beams (here, of mixed parity) is called a systematic absence.
Diamond crystal structure
The diamond cubic crystal structure occurs for example diamond (carbon), tin, and most semiconductors. There are 8 atoms in the cubic unit cell. We can consider the structure as a simple cubic with a basis of 8 atoms, at positions
But comparing this to the FCC above, we see that it is simpler to describe the structure as FCC with a basis of two atoms at (0, 0, 0) and (1/4, 1/4, 1/4). For this basis, Equation () becomes:
And then the structure factor for the diamond cubic structure is the product of this and the structure factor for FCC above, (only including the atomic form factor once)
with the result
If h, k, ℓ are of mixed parity (odd and even values combined) the first (FCC) term is zero, so
If h, k, ℓ are all even or all odd then the first (FCC) term is 4
if h+k+ℓ is odd then
if h+k+ℓ is even and exactly divisible by 4 () then
if h+k+ℓ is even but not exactly divisible by 4 () the second term is zero and
These points are encapsulated by the following equations:
where is an integer.
Zincblende crystal structure
The zincblende structure is similar to the diamond structure except that it is a compound of two distinct interpenetrating fcc lattices, rather than all the same element. Denoting the two elements in the compound by and , the resulting structure factor is
Cesium chloride
Cesium chloride is a simple cubic crystal lattice with a basis of Cs at (0,0,0) and Cl at (1/2, 1/2, 1/2) (or the other way around, it makes no difference). Equation () becomes
We then arrive at the following result for the structure factor for scattering from a plane :
and for scattered intensity,
Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
In an HCP crystal such as graphite, the two coordinates include the origin and the next plane up the c axis located at c/2, and hence , which gives us
From this it is convenient to define dummy variable , and from there consider the modulus squared so hence
This leads us to the following conditions for the structure factor:
Perfect crystals in one and two dimensions
The reciprocal lattice is easily constructed in one dimension: for particles on a line with a period , the reciprocal lattice is an infinite array of points with spacing . In two dimensions, there are only five Bravais lattices. The corresponding reciprocal lattices have the same symmetry as the direct lattice. 2-D lattices are excellent for demonstrating simple diffraction geometry on a flat screen, as below.
Equations (1)–(7) for structure factor apply with a scattering vector of limited dimensionality and a crystallographic structure factor can be defined in 2-D as .
However, recall that real 2-D crystals such as graphene exist in 3-D. The reciprocal lattice of a 2-D hexagonal sheet that exists in 3-D space in the plane is a hexagonal array of lines parallel to the or axis that extend to and intersect any plane of constant in a hexagonal array of points.
The Figure shows the construction of one vector of a 2-D reciprocal lattice and its relation to a scattering experiment.
A parallel beam, with wave vector is incident on a square lattice of parameter . The scattered wave is detected at a certain angle, which defines the wave vector of the outgoing beam, (under the assumption of elastic scattering, ). One can equally define the scattering vector and construct the harmonic pattern . In the depicted example, the spacing of this pattern coincides to the distance between particle rows: , so that contributions to the scattering from all particles are in phase (constructive interference). Thus, the total signal in direction is strong, and belongs to the reciprocal lattice. It is easily shown that this configuration fulfills Bragg's law.
Imperfect crystals
Technically a perfect crystal must be infinite, so a finite size is an imperfection. Real crystals always exhibit imperfections of their order besides their finite size, and these imperfections can have profound effects on the properties of the material. André Guinier proposed a widely employed distinction between imperfections that preserve the long-range order of the crystal that he called disorder of the first kind and those that destroy it called disorder of the second kind. An example of the first is thermal vibration; an example of the second is some density of dislocations.
The generally applicable structure factor can be used to include the effect of any imperfection. In crystallography, these effects are treated as separate from the structure factor , so separate factors for size or thermal effects are introduced into the expressions for scattered intensity, leaving the perfect crystal structure factor unchanged. Therefore, a detailed description of these factors in crystallographic structure modeling and structure determination by diffraction is not appropriate in this article.
Finite-size effects
For a finite crystal means that the sums in equations 1-7 are now over a finite . The effect is most easily demonstrated with a 1-D lattice of points. The sum of the phase factors is a geometric series and the structure factor becomes:
This function is shown in the Figure for different values of .
When the scattering from every particle is in phase, which is when the scattering is at a reciprocal lattice point , the sum of the amplitudes must be and so the maxima in intensity are . Taking the above expression for and estimating the limit using, for instance, L'Hôpital's rule) shows that as seen in the Figure. At the midpoint (by direct evaluation) and the peak width decreases like . In the large limit, the peaks become infinitely sharp Dirac delta functions, the reciprocal lattice of the perfect 1-D lattice.
In crystallography when is used, is large, and the formal size effect on diffraction is taken as , which is the same as the expression for above near to the reciprocal lattice points, . Using convolution, we can describe the finite real crystal structure as [lattice] [basis] rectangular function, where the rectangular function has a value 1 inside the crystal and 0 outside it. Then [crystal structure] = [lattice] [basis] [rectangular function]; that is, scattering [reciprocal lattice] [structure factor] [ sinc function]. Thus the intensity, which is a delta function of position for the perfect crystal, becomes a function around every point with a maximum , a width , area .
Disorder of the first kind
This model for disorder in a crystal starts with the structure factor of a perfect crystal. In one-dimension for simplicity and with N planes, we then start with the expression above for a perfect finite lattice, and then this disorder only changes by a multiplicative factor, to give
where the disorder is measured by the mean-square displacement of the positions from their positions in a perfect one-dimensional lattice: , i.e., , where is a small (much less than ) random displacement. For disorder of the first kind, each random displacement is independent of the others, and with respect to a perfect lattice. Thus the displacements do not destroy the translational order of the crystal. This has the consequence that for infinite crystals () the structure factor still has delta-function Bragg peaks – the peak width still goes to zero as , with this kind of disorder. However, it does reduce the amplitude of the peaks, and due to the factor of in the exponential factor, it reduces peaks at large much more than peaks at small .
The structure is simply reduced by a and disorder dependent term because all disorder of the first-kind does is smear out the scattering planes, effectively reducing the form factor.
In three dimensions the effect is the same, the structure is again reduced by a multiplicative factor, and this factor is often called the Debye–Waller factor. Note that the Debye–Waller factor is often ascribed to thermal motion, i.e., the are due to thermal motion, but any random displacements about a perfect lattice, not just thermal ones, will contribute to the Debye–Waller factor.
Disorder of the second kind
However, fluctuations that cause the correlations between pairs of atoms to decrease as their separation increases, causes the Bragg peaks in the structure factor of a crystal to broaden. To see how this works, we consider a one-dimensional toy model: a stack of plates with mean spacing . The derivation follows that in chapter 9 of Guinier's textbook. This model has been pioneered by and applied to a number of materials by Hosemann and collaborators over a number of years. Guinier and they termed this disorder of the second kind, and Hosemann in particular referred to this imperfect crystalline ordering as paracrystalline ordering. Disorder of the first kind is the source of the Debye–Waller factor.
To derive the model we start with the definition (in one dimension) of the
To start with we will consider, for simplicity an infinite crystal, i.e., . We will consider a finite crystal with disorder of the second-type below.
For our infinite crystal, we want to consider pairs of lattice sites. For large each plane of an infinite crystal, there are two neighbours planes away, so the above double sum becomes a single sum over pairs of neighbours either side of an atom, at positions and lattice spacings away, times . So, then
where is the probability density function for the separation of a pair of planes, lattice spacings apart. For the separation of neighbouring planes we assume for simplicity that the fluctuations around the mean neighbour spacing of a are Gaussian, i.e., that
and we also assume that the fluctuations between a plane and its neighbour, and between this neighbour and the next plane, are independent. Then is just the convolution of two s, etc. As the convolution of two Gaussians is just another Gaussian, we have that
The sum in is then just a sum of Fourier transforms of Gaussians, and so
for . The sum is just the real part of the sum and so the structure factor of the infinite but disordered crystal is
This has peaks at maxima , where . These peaks have heights
i.e., the height of successive peaks drop off as the order of the peak (and so ) squared. Unlike finite-size effects that broaden peaks but do not decrease their height, disorder lowers peak heights. Note that here we assuming that the disorder is relatively weak, so that we still have relatively well defined peaks. This is the limit , where . In this limit, near a peak we can approximate , with and obtain
which is a Lorentzian or Cauchy function, of FWHM , i.e., the FWHM increases as the square of the order of peak, and so as the square of the wave vector at the peak.
Finally, the product of the peak height and the FWHM is constant and equals , in the limit. For the first few peaks where is not large, this is just the limit.
Finite crystals with disorder of the second kind
For a one-dimensional crystal of size
where the factor in parentheses comes from the fact the sum is over nearest-neighbour pairs (), next nearest-neighbours (), ... and for a crystal of planes, there are pairs of nearest neighbours, pairs of next-nearest neighbours, etc.
Liquids
In contrast with crystals, liquids have no long-range order (in particular, there is no regular lattice), so the structure factor does not exhibit sharp peaks. They do however show a certain degree of short-range order, depending on their density and on the strength of the interaction between particles. Liquids are isotropic, so that, after the averaging operation in Equation (), the structure factor only depends on the absolute magnitude of the scattering vector . For further evaluation, it is convenient to separate the diagonal terms in the double sum, whose phase is identically zero, and therefore each contribute a unit constant:
One can obtain an alternative expression for in terms of the radial distribution function :
Ideal gas
In the limiting case of no interaction, the system is an ideal gas and the structure factor is completely featureless: , because there is no correlation between the positions and of different particles (they are independent random variables), so the off-diagonal terms in Equation () average to zero: .
High- limit
Even for interacting particles, at high scattering vector the structure factor goes to 1. This result follows from Equation (), since is the Fourier transform of the "regular" function and thus goes to zero for high values of the argument . This reasoning does not hold for a perfect crystal, where the distribution function exhibits infinitely sharp peaks.
Low- limit
In the low- limit, as the system is probed over large length scales, the structure factor contains thermodynamic information, being related to the isothermal compressibility of the liquid by the compressibility equation:
.
Hard-sphere liquids
In the hard sphere model, the particles are described as impenetrable spheres with radius ; thus, their center-to-center distance and they experience no interaction beyond this distance. Their interaction potential can be written as:
This model has an analytical solution in the Percus–Yevick approximation. Although highly simplified, it provides a good description for systems ranging from liquid metals to colloidal suspensions. In an illustration, the structure factor for a hard-sphere fluid is shown in the Figure, for volume fractions from 1% to 40%.
Polymers
In polymer systems, the general definition () holds; the elementary constituents are now the monomers making up the chains. However, the structure factor being a measure of the correlation between particle positions, one can reasonably expect that this correlation will be different for monomers belonging to the same chain or to different chains.
Let us assume that the volume contains identical molecules, each composed of monomers, such that ( is also known as the degree of polymerization). We can rewrite () as:
where indices label the different molecules and the different monomers along each molecule. On the right-hand side we separated intramolecular () and intermolecular () terms. Using the equivalence of the chains, () can be simplified:
where is the single-chain structure factor.
See also
R-factor (crystallography)
Patterson function
Notes
References
Als-Nielsen, N. and McMorrow, D. (2011). Elements of Modern X-ray Physics (2nd edition). John Wiley & Sons.
Guinier, A. (1963). X-ray Diffraction. In Crystals, Imperfect Crystals, and Amorphous Bodies. W. H. Freeman and Co.
Chandler, D. (1987). Introduction to Modern Statistical Mechanics. Oxford University Press.
Hansen, J. P. and McDonald, I. R. (2005). Theory of Simple Liquids (3rd edition). Academic Press.
Teraoka, I. (2002). Polymer Solutions: An Introduction to Physical Properties. John Wiley & Sons.
External links
Structure Factor Tutorial located at the University of York.
Definition of by IUCr
Learning Crystallography, from the CSIC
Crystallography
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eminence%20Symphony%20Orchestra
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Eminence Symphony Orchestra
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The Eminence Symphony Orchestra founded in Sydney, Australia is an independent symphony orchestra which delves into the classical music featured in video games and anime, as well as film scores.
History
Eminence was founded in 2003 by a small group of friends, led by the virtuoso solo violinist Hiroaki Yura. The difference in the cultural backgrounds between these friends as well as their differing experiences and qualifications contributed to what would be their first concert.
Eminence focuses particularly on the music of notable Japanese video games and anime. The orchestra's vision is to "inject something bold, dynamic and fresh into classical music". Eminence wishes to "break down the barriers between the audience and the musicians, and to revive orchestra in today's society; particularly amongst youth".
While the trademark of Eminence is the symphony orchestra, the organisation also delves into smaller-based concerts featuring three to five musicians as well as small ensembles, branded differently under Eminence Artists. More recently, the orchestra has offered their services to a wide range of entertainment media such as video games and anime, including the recording of music for many notable game publishers and developers, and for a number of film scores. These services were initially provided through a Sydney-based business entity, Eminence Group Pty Ltd, while the orchestra continued to operate under its existing name.
Awareness of the Eminence brand increased over time, and many opportunities for performances, recording and production services arose in other countries, prompting offices to be established in USA and Japan.
This facilitated further work in those countries, particularly in Japan. Australia continues to be the home base for the orchestra, with the majority of recordings being performed in Sydney.
Meanwhile, Eminence Group Pty Ltd which represented Eminence Symphony Orchestra and its services through license was placed into voluntary liquidation with an appointed liquidator on 21 December 2010. A resolution to wind up the company was made on the same day.
The Eminence Symphony Orchestra continues to operate through Eminence Artists in Australia, Creative Intelligence Arts, Inc. in Japan and Eminence Group North America in the United States of America.
Concerts and performances
A Night in Fantasia
Eminence's debut concert, A Night in Fantasia, was held on 31 October and 1 November 2003. It was born out of the idea that such an event had never been done before in Australia.
The first of a series of concerts was mainly composed of music from Final Fantasy and Studio Ghibli films, and took place at Sydney Congress Hall with tickets that sold well before the night. The overall success as well as the enthusiastic support of the first concert proved a point to the organisers that such a concept of cultural music would appeal to a wide range of people. At this point the company running the concert was 'Infinity 8LUE', and the orchestra was the 'Infinity 8LUE Symphony Orchestra'.
A Night in Fantasia 2004
In 2004, the orchestra was fully formed, and held A Night in Fantasia 2004 at Verbrugghen Hall at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music on 30 and 31 October. William Motzing became the Chief Conductor and Artistic Director, Daniel Smith became the Assistant Conductor and Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu was a guest of honour at all four performances. This concert marked the name change for the orchestra, as they became known as the Eminence Symphony Orchestra. Infinity 8LUE was the company behind the concert, and shortly after finalised the name change by becoming Eminence.
Piano Stories
Alexey Yemtsov performed the first Piano Stories concert on 15 April, at Verbrugghen Hall. Featuring work from Studio Ghibli, Yoko Kanno and Shirō Sagisu, Piano Stories marked the beginning of a series of concerts celebrating piano scores from a selection of anime and gaming soundtracks.
World of John Williams
2005 saw Eminence present the World of John Williams concert, held on 8 July at Sydney Town Hall. Phillip Chu and Daniel Smith conducted the Eminence Symphony Orchestra and the Eminence Choir through performance featuring music from one of Hollywood's most recognised composers, John Williams. His work from Harry Potter, Schindler's List, Saving Private Ryan, Star Wars, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, Home Alone and Raiders of the Lost Ark was performed. Daniel Smith conducted the Australian Premiere of "Battle of the Heroes" (from Star Wars Episode III).
Piano Stories II
In the same year Piano Stories II was held at Verbrugghen Hall with Stuart Wright performing pieces from various popular culture video games and anime including Howl's Moving Castle, Kiki's Delivery Service, Voices of a Distant Star, Macross Plus and Noir. The Eminence Quartet also appeared on the night. The concert was held on 6 August at Verbrugghen Hall.
Destiny: The Dream Time Ensemble
Later on in 2005 Eminence presented Destiny: The Dream Time Ensemble. Held at Verbrugghen Hall and the National Theatre, This marked the debut of a performance outside of Sydney, as the city of Melbourne in Australia witnessed the 9 member elite chamber music ensemble group perform music from a variety of composers. These included Joe Hisaishi, Nobuo Uematsu, Michiru Oshima, Shirō Sagisu and Toshihiko Sahashi. The concert also marked the first time Eminence utilised footage from the original films, games and television serials in alongside the music. The members of Destiny were: Hiroaki Yura (Violin), Ayako Ishikawa (Violin), Christian Boennelykke (Viola), Kenichi Mizushima (Violoncello), Hanae Seto (Clarinet), James Fortune (Flute), Joshua Hill (Percussion), Chiron Meller (Percussion) and Jem Harding (Piano).
A Night in Fantasia 2005
A Night in Fantasia 2005 saw a large change in venue, this time to be held at the Sydney Town Hall. Philip Chu became Chief Conductor and the night's music programme also saw fresh changes (due to the work of the AV Director and co-producer) with the inclusion of many popular anime and video game titles including Final Fantasy VII, Kingdom Hearts, Metal Gear Solid, Neon Genesis Evangelion, Onimusha, Halo, Fruits Basket, Super Mario, The Legend of Zelda, Tsubasa Chronicle, Gran Turismo, InuYasha, Naruto, Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War and Rurouni Kenshin. The event wrote history by hosting the World Premiere of the World of Warcraft Suite, and again saw the use of footage from the original titles alongside the music. The concert featured the Eminence Choir which assisted the wider music selection greatly.
Piano Stories III
In 2006 Eminence brought the next chapter in the concert series Piano Stories. Featuring acclaimed pianist Alexey Yemtsov who had performed previously in the first Piano Stories, the night highlighted Studio Ghibli and Final Fantasy pieces. Special guest violinists Hiroaki Yura and Ayako Ishikawa were present, and was held on 15 April in Melbourne's National Theatre and on 22 April in Sydney's Verbrugghen Hall.
Spirited Away with Youmi
This concert was designed to run alongside A Night in Fantasia 2006. Spirited Away with Youmi was held on the same day as Melbourne's concert and also took place on 6 July in Sydney. Youmi Kimura performed songs from Spirited Away, Princess Mononoke and My Neighbor Totoro among others.
A Night in Fantasia 2006
A Night in Fantasia 2006 was held on 2 July in Melbourne Town Hall and 7 July in Sydney Town Hall. The concert featured music from Final Fantasy, Shadow of the Colossus and Studio Ghibli, and also welcomed special guest Youmi Kimura, the composer of both the Spirited Away and Howl's Moving Castle's ending themes. It also featured Hiroaki Yura on violin and Phillip Chu as conductor. The concert also premiered music from the newest addition to the Final Fantasy series, Final Fantasy XII and was the world's first symphonic concert to be accompanied by footage from Studio Ghibli films.
Piano Stories IV
Eminence's newest addition to the Piano Stories series featured pianist Krzysztof Malek performing pieces from a number of video game titles including Tetris, the Final Fantasy series, Xenogears, The Legend of Zelda and Kingdom Hearts II as well as a number of anime titles including Noir, My Neighbour Totoro, The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya, Azumanga Daioh, Neon Genesis Evangelion, Fullmetal Alchemist and Gundam SEED Destiny. Eminence also announced a mystery guest artist that would appear alongside Krzysztof Malek, which would later be revealed to be Ayako Ishikawa on the violin. The Melbourne performance was part of the Manifest convention, and was held in Melba Hall within The University of Melbourne on 23 September. Sydney's concert took place in Verbrugghen Hall within the Sydney Conservatorium of Music on 14 October.
Passion
Eminence announced a new concert series that began in December featuring Ayako Ishikawa and Hiroaki Yura on violin and also featured Natalia Raspopova on piano, Joshua Hill on percussion and Zane Banks on the guitar. On their minisite for the concert, Eminence announced that they collaborated with Japanese video game composers Yasunori Mitsuda and Hitoshi Sakimoto, whose work was featured alongside other notable anime and video game titles. The concert was held in Melbourne on 9 December at the Merlyn Theatre, followed by Sydney on 16 December at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music, finally ending with Eminence's debut Singapore concert on 23 December and was held at the Victoria Concert Hall. Yasunori Mitsuda was a special guest of honour for all three performances, and also played the bouzouki. Hitoshi Sakimoto also joined him as a guest, though only at the Sydney performance. The concert featured music from games such as Chrono Trigger, Chrono Cross, Vagrant Story, Final Fantasy XII, Xenosaga, Shadow of the Colossus and Super Mario Bros. The anime pieces came from a number of sources including Haibane Renmei, Tsubasa Chronicle and .hack//Liminality.
A Night in Fantasia 2007: Symphonic Games Edition
First announced at their Passion concert, Eminence chose to split their annual concert series into two performances, the first of which solely focused on video games. The concerts took place at Sydney Town Hall on 20 and 21 April 2007, and the concert in Melbourne was performed in Hamer Hall on 27 April 2007.
Special guest composers included Hitoshi Sakimoto, Junichi Nakatsuru and Masaru Shiina, present at all of the concerts. Yoko Shimomura was also slated to appear at all concerts, but was prevented from attending the Melbourne concert for unknown reasons. In addition, Yasunori Mitsuda, Kow Otani and Shirō Hamaguchi joined the aforementioned composers as guests in both Sydney performances.
The concert featured music from Super Mario Bros., Kingdom Hearts II, the Metal Gear Solid series, the Final Fantasy series, World of Warcraft, Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess, Shadow of the Colossus, Tales of Legendia, Xenosaga Episode 1, Soulcalibur 3, Odin Sphere, Legend of Mana and Deltora Quest, with "Time's Scar" from Chrono Cross featured as encores in both Sydney and Melbourne. However, "One Winged Angel" from Final Fantasy VII was played as an encore to the Sydney performances, while the Melbourne performance received a repeat of the Metal Gear Solid theme. The concert also included the Eminence Choir, who last performed in A Night in Fantasia 2005. In addition to video game music, a piece from Romeo x Juliet and one from Final Fantasy VII Advent Children was performed.
Destiny – Reunion
Accompanying the announcement of Ayako's Violin Recital, was Destiny – Reunion, a continuation of Destiny in 2005, performed on 28 July, including a brand new line up of music from some of the world's most famous video games and anime. Featuring Eminence founder, Hiroaki Yura among the musicians playing, the concert included never-before-heard arrangements exclusive to Destiny – Reunion.
A Night in Fantasia 2007: Anime Edition
The second part of the concert series focused entirely on anime, and the programme given out at Passion indicated a 'late 2007' concert date for both Sydney and Melbourne. At the 2007 Symphonic Games Edition concert, questionnaires were handed out, one of which asked attendees to list music found in various anime that they would like to hear in the concert. In October, entertainment website IGN announced the date – two consecutive concerts would be held on 18 November in the Sir John Clancy Auditorium of the University of New South Wales. Both concerts would feature music from famous anime including: Neon Genesis Evangelion, Tsubasa Chronicle, Noir, Le Portrait de Petit Cossette, Xenosaga II, Porco Rosso, .hack//Liminality and Elfen Lied.
Famous Japanese composer and music producer Yuki Kajiura was the special guest during the concert and participated in a question and answer session with the host. Pamphlets were then handed out, which detailed the next future concert of the Eminence Symphony Orchestra, Unearthing Eden.
Unearthing Eden ~The sounds of AINARU~
A follow-up on A Night in Fantasia 2007: Anime Edition, this performance was again a smaller-sized quintet, which featured a collaboration with Japanese composer, Kow Otani and Japanese singer AIKa. The concert was held in the Sydney Conservatorium of Music in Sydney for two days, but both days saw little audience in the performances.
A Night in Fantasia 2009
After two years without having performed a concert of the magnitude of A Night in Fantasia 2007: Symphonic Games Edition, Eminence announced in February on a teaser website their next event, A Night in Fantasia 2009. Performed on 26 September 2009, the concert was held only on one night in Sydney at the Sydney Entertainment Centre. Music featured included suites from DEATH NOTE, Princess Mononoke, My Neighbor Totoro and Laputa: Castle in the Sky. Full pieces performed included James Hannigan's Soviet March from Command and Conquer: Red Alert 3, The Unsung War from Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War, Tonari Ni (Beside Me) from The Idolmaster composed by Go Shiina and performed by Chiaki Takahashi, and the world premiere of Dragon Age: Origins ending theme, I Am The One, sung by Aubrey Ashburn. The majority of the arrangements were created by AFRIKA composer Wataru Hokoyama. Other guests included Kow Otani and AIKA Tsuneoka, who performed a suite from Shadow of the Colossus, Inon Zur, Yasunori Mitsuda and Cris Velasco.
Other performances
Australian PlayStation 3 media launch
On 22 February 2007, Sony held the Australian media launch for PlayStation 3 in Sydney. Announcing Sony's sponsorship of Eminence for A Night in Fantasia 2007: Symphonic Games Edition, the orchestra performed a piece from Final Fantasy XII and a piece from Shadow of the Colossus as part of the presentation.
Hillsong Conference
In July 2007, the Eminence Symphony Orchestra performed at the opening ceremony for the Hillsong Conference, an annual mid-year Christian conference held in Sydney, Australia.
Recordings
As well as performing concerts, the Eminence Symphony Orchestra has dedicated time for the recording of various pieces for anime and games.
Romeo x Juliet
In December 2006, Eminence recorded the solo instrumental music for the GONZO anime series Romeo x Juliet, which was composed by Hitoshi Sakimoto. The soundtrack was recorded at the Trackdown Scoring Stage at Fox Studios in Sydney. In January 2007, Eminence then recorded the full orchestral, string ensemble, chamber ensemble and more solo instrumentals for the anime series.
GrimGrimoire
Also in December 2006, solo instrumentals were recorded for the Vanillaware and Nippon Ichi PS2 game GrimGrimoire (グリムグリモア), which was to be composed by Hitoshi Sakimoto.
Deltora Quest (DS)
Eminence was once again working with Hitoshi Sakimoto in February 2007 for the recording of the Nintendo DS game, Deltora Quest, and adaptation to the anime based on Emily Rodda's children fantasy books Deltora series.
Opoona
In April 2007, Eminence took part in another recording with Hitoshi Sakimoto for ArtePiazza and Koei's Wii role-playing game Opoona.
Senjo no Valkyria: Gallian Chronicles
In August 2007, Eminence's participated in the recording of Sega's Senjou no Valkyria (aka Valkyria Chronicles) for the PlayStation 3.
Odin Sphere
Also in August 2007, Eminence worked together with Hitoshi Sakimoto's company, Basiscape, to record Odin Sphere'''s original soundtrack.
The Tower of Druaga: The Aegis of Uruk
Based on the classic Namco Bandai game The Tower of Druaga, The Aegis of Uruk, a GONZO anime television series with its music composed by Hitoshi Sakimoto, had its music recorded with Eminence in February 2008.
Soulcalibur IV
In April 2008, Eminence recorded the orchestral music for the fourth Namco Bandai video game installment of the Soulcalibur series, Soulcalibur IV which was composed by Junichi Nakatsuru.
Diablo III
In June 2008, Eminence recorded the orchestral music used for the announcement and trailers for Blizzard Entertainment's Diablo III.
Echoes of War: The Music of Blizzard Entertainment
Coinciding with the recording of Diablo III, Eminence approached Blizzard Entertainment with the idea of releasing an album of orchestrated music from across Blizzard's gaming universe, including Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos, World of Warcraft, StarCraft and Diablo. Guest composers were commissioned to compose their own unique take on the original tracks of the games, including Japanese composers Kow Otani and Masaru Shiina, and also Russell Brower who is currently Head Director of Audio within Blizzard. The album also featured tracks from then-unreleased games such as StarCraft II: Wings of Liberty and Diablo III. Two packages were announced for the album: Legendary and Standard. The Legendary edition of the album featured two audio discs, a DVD with a documentary and featurette, a wide-format booklet and 9 exclusive art cards; while the Standard Edition solely consisted of the two audio discs.
Makoto Shinkai Image Album "Promise"
Recorded by Eminence in 2009 and released by CoMix Wave Films, this CD features adaptations of music composed by Tenmon for the four animated films directed to date by Makoto Shinkai. It includes three songs from 5 Centimeters Per Second (including an instrumental version of "One More Time, One More Chance" by Masayoshi Yamazaki), six songs from The Place Promised in Our Early Days, two songs from Voices of a Distant Star, and two songs from She and Her Cat.
The Disappearance of Haruhi Suzumiya
In 2009, Eminence recorded the soundtrack to the anime film The Disappearance of Haruhi Suzumiya''.
References
External links
Echoes of War official site
Animefringe – "Spending a Night in Fantasia" – Jacky Fan (Press Article & Interview)
Anime News Network – "Sound Decision" – Hiroaki Yura (Press Interview)
Anime composers
Australian orchestras
Musical groups established in 2003
Video game concert tours
Video game culture
Video game musicians
Music in Sydney
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adansonia%20digitata
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Adansonia digitata
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Adansonia digitata, the African baobab, is the most widespread tree species of the genus Adansonia, the baobabs, and is native to the African continent and the southern Arabian Peninsula (Yemen, Oman). These are long-lived pachycauls; radiocarbon dating has shown some individuals to be over 2,000 years old. They are typically found in dry, hot savannas of sub-Saharan Africa, where they dominate the landscape and reveal the presence of a watercourse from afar. They have traditionally been valued as sources of food, water, health remedies or places of shelter and are a key food source for many animals. They are steeped in legend and superstition. In recent years, many of the largest, oldest trees have died, for unknown reasons. Common names for the baobab include monkey-bread tree, upside-down tree, and cream of tartar tree.
Description
African baobabs are trees that often grow as solitary individuals, and are large and distinctive elements of savanna or scrubland vegetation. They grow from tall. The trunk is typically very broad and fluted or cylindrical, often with a buttressed, spreading base. Trunks may reach a diameter of , and may be made up of multiple stems fused around a hollow core. The hollow core found in many tree species is the result of wood removal, such as decay of the oldest, internal part of the trunk. In baobabs, however, many of the largest and oldest of the trees have a hollow core that is the result of a fused circle of three to eight stems sprouting from roots. The bark is gray and usually smooth. The main branches can be massive. All baobabs are deciduous, losing their leaves in the dry season, and remaining leafless for about eight months of the year. Flowers are large, white and hanging. Fruits are rounded with a thick shell.
The leaves are palmately compound with 5 to 7 (sometimes up to 9) leaflets in mature trees, but seedlings and regenerating shoots may have simple leaves. The transition to compound leaves comes with age and may be gradual. African baobabs produce simple leaves much longer than most other Adansonia species. Leaflets are stalkless (sessile) to short-stalked and size is variable.
Flowering occurs in both the dry and the wet season. Buds are rounded with a cone-shaped tip. Flowers are showy and sometimes paired, but usually produced singly at the end of a hanging stalk about in length. The calyx is typically made up of 5 (sometimes 3) green triangular bent-back lobes (sepals) with a cream-coloured, hairy interior. The petals are white, roughly the same width and length – up to , and are crumpled in bud. Flowers open during the late afternoon, staying open and fertile for only one night. The fresh flowers have a sweet scent, but after about 24 hours, they start to turn brown and emit a carrion smell. The androecium is white and made up of a long tube of fused stamens (a staminal tube) surrounded by unfused (free) filaments 3–5 cm long. There are a large number of stamens, 720–1,600 per flower, with reports of up to 2,000. Styles are white, growing through the staminal tube and projecting beyond it. They are usually bent at right-angles and topped with an irregular stigma. Pollen grains are spherical with spikes over the surface, typical of the Malvaceae family. Pollen grain diameter is around 50 microns.
All Adansonia develop large rounded indehiscent fruits which can be up to long with a woody outer shell. African baobab fruits are quite variable in shape, from nearly round to cylindrical. The shell is thick. Inside is a fleshy, light beige coloured pulp. As it dries, the pulp hardens into a crumbly powder. The seeds are hard and kidney-shaped with a .06-mm-thick coat. They show long-term dormancy, only germinating after fire or passing through an animal's digestive tract. It is thought that this is because the seed coat needs to be cracked or thinned to allow to water to penetrate before the seed can germinate.
Water storage
Baobab trees store water in their trunks and branches on a seasonal basis as they live in areas of sustained drought and water inaccessibility. The spongy material of the bark allows water to be absorbed deeper into the tissue, as there is rarely enough rain during the wet season to penetrate the litter layer of soil. The U-shaped branches allow for water to trickle down, allowing for maximum absorption over an extended period of time even after the rain stops. The water is absorbed into the vascular tissue of the tree, where it can be moved into the tree's parenchyma cells for long-term storage, or used. A large Baobab can store as much as 136,400 liters of water.
During the dry season, the trees will flush out all of their leaves. During this period, the circumference of the trunk will shrink about 2–3 cm and the water content of the stem will drop by about 10%. Dropping leaves during the dry season is done to prevent water loss through transpiration out of the stomata, which would cause the water potentials in the vascular tissue to drop too low and pull water out of the vacuoles in the parenchyma cells. This would lead to the parenchyma cells, which make up the majority of the trunk and branches, to plasmolyze destroying the tree.
The water in storage cells is structurally important, which limits their ability to use mass quantities of stored water in times of drought. Baobab trees have much higher water and parenchyma content than most trees, this allows them to grow very large with less energy expenditure. Parenchyma are soft plant tissue cells that are commonly used for water storage in other drought tolerant species like cactus and succulents. The water fluxes from the vascular tissue into the parenchyma cells at the center of the tree with the help of actively transported ions. The ion flux into the cell will shift the concentration gradients, causing water to rush into the cells for long-term storage.
Another reason why the water in the trunk can only be used as a buffer for long-term deficits is the distance between the vascular tissue and the parenchyma. The transportation of water from the vascular tissue into storage cells is a very slow process as it is a high-resistance path. The water in the cells at the core of the trunk and the branches would take too much energy from the tree to move back into the vascular tissue for daily use.
Longevity
The growth rate of baobab trees is determined by ground water or rainfall. The trees produce faint growth rings, but counting growth rings is not a reliable way to age baobabs because some years a tree will form multiple rings and some year none.
Radiocarbon dating has provided data on a few individual A. digitata specimens. The Panke baobab in Zimbabwe was some 2,450 years old when it died in 2011, making it the oldest angiosperm ever documented, and two other trees—Dorslandboom in Namibia and Glencoe in South Africa—were estimated to be approximately 2,000 years old. Another specimen known as Grootboom was dated after it died and found to be at least 1,275 years old. Baobabs may be so long-lived in part due to their ability to periodically sprout new stems.
Taxonomy
The scientific name Adansonia refers to the French explorer and botanist, Michel Adanson (1727–1806), who wrote the first botanical description for the full species. "Digitata" refers to the digits of the hand, as the baobab has compound leaves with normally five (but up to seven) leaflets, akin to a hand. A. digitata is the type species for the genus Adansonia and is the only species in the section Adansonia. All species of Adansonia except A. digitata are diploid; A. digitata is tetraploid. Some populations of African baobab have significant genetic differences and it has been suggested that the taxon contains more than one species. For example, the shape of the fruit varies considerably from region to region. In Angola, the fruits are elongated, rather than round.
A proposed new species (Adansonia kilima Pettigrew, et al.), was described in 2012, found in high-elevation sites in eastern and southern Africa. This is now however no longer recognized as a distinct species but considered a synonym of A. digitata. Some high-elevation trees in Tanzania show different genetics and morphology but further study is needed to determine if they should be considered a separate species.
History
The earliest written reports of African baobab are from a 14th-century travelogue by the Arab traveler Ibn Batuta. The first botanical description was by Alpino (1592) looking at fruits that he observed in Egypt from an unknown source. They were called Bahobab, possibly from the Arabic "bu hibab," meaning "many-seeded fruit". The French explorer and botanist, Michel Adanson observed a baobab tree in 1749 on the island of Sor, Senegal and wrote the first detailed botanical description of the full tree, accompanied with illustrations. Recognizing the connection to the fruit described by Alpino he called the genus Baobab. Linnaeus later renamed the genus Adansonia, to honour Adason, but use of baobab as one of the common names has persisted. Additional common names include monkey-bread tree (the soft, dry fruit is edible), upside-down tree (the sparse branches resemble roots), and cream of tartar tree (cream of tartar) because of the powdery fruit pulp.
Distribution and habitat
The African Baobab is associated with tropical savannas. It is found in drier climates, is sensitive to water logging and frost and is not found in areas where sand is deep. It is native to mainland Africa, between the latitudes 16° N and 26° S. Some references consider it as introduced to Yemen and Oman while others consider it native there. The tree has also been introduced to many other regions including Australia and Asia.
The northern limit of its distribution in Africa is associated with rainfall patterns; only on the Atlantic coast and in the Sudanian savanna does its occurrence venture naturally into the Sahel. On the Atlantic coast, this may be due to spreading after cultivation. Its occurrence is very limited in Central Africa, and it is found only in the very north of South Africa. In East Africa, the trees grow also in shrublands and on the coast. In Angola and Namibia, the baobabs grow in woodlands, and in coastal regions, in addition to savannas. The African Bayobab is native to Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Niger, Nigeria, northern Cameroon, Chad, Sudan, Congo Republic, DR Congo (formerly Zaire), Eritrea, Ethiopia, southern Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Mozambique, Angola, São Tomé, Príncipe, Annobon, South Africa (in Limpopo province, north of the Soutpansberg mountain range), Namibia, Botswana. It is an introduced species in Java, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Seychelles, Comoros, India, Guangdong, Fujian, Yunnan and has been planted in Penang, Malaysia, along certain streets. Arab traders introduced it to northwestern Madagascar where baobab trees were often planted at the center of villages.
Ecology
All baobabs are deciduous, losing their leaves in the dry season, and remaining leafless for about eight months of the year. The African baobab is largely found in savannah habitats, which tend to be fire-prone. Adaptations to survive frequent fires include a thick and fire-resistant bark and thick-shelled fruit. Trees older than about 15 years have thick enough bark to withstand the heat of most savannah fires, while younger trees can resprout after fire. The thick outer shell of the fruit may serve to protect the seeds.
Pollination in the African baobab is achieved primarily by fruit bats, in West Africa mainly the straw-coloured fruit bat, Gambian epauletted fruit bat, and the Egyptian fruit bat. The flowers are also visited by galagos, and several kinds of insect.
With their hard coat, baobab seeds can withstand drying and remain viable over long periods. The fruits are eaten by many species and the germination potential is improved when seeds have passed through the digestive tract of an animal or have been subjected to fire. Elephants and baboons are main dispersal agents and so the seeds can potentially be dispersed over long distances. The fruits float and the seeds are waterproof, so African baobabs may also be spread by water. Some aspects of the baobab's reproductive biology are not yet understood but it is thought that pollen from another tree may be required to develop fertile seed. Isolated trees without a pollen source from another tree do form fruit, only to abort them at a later stage. The existence of some very isolated trees may then be due to their ability to disperse long distances but self-incompatibility.
The fruit, bark, roots and leaves are a key food source for many animals and the trees themselves are an important source of shade and shelter.
Conservation
The baobab is a protected tree in South Africa, and yet is threatened by various mining and development activities. In the Sahel, the effects of drought, desertification and over-use of the fruit have been cited as causes for concern. As of March 2022 African baobab is not yet classified by the IUCN Red List, although there is evidence that populations may be declining. Many of the largest and oldest African baobabs have died in recent years. Greenhouse gases, climate change, and global warming appear to be factors reducing baobab longevity.
Uses
People have traditionally valued the trees as sources of food, water, health remedies or places of shelter. The baobab is a traditional food plant in Africa, but is little-known elsewhere. Adanson concluded that the baobab, of all the trees he studied, "is probably the most useful tree in all." He consumed baobab juice twice a day while in Africa, and was convinced that it maintained his health. According to a modern field guide, the juice can help cure diarrhoea.
The roots and fruits are edible. The fruit has been suggested to have the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable land care. In Sudanwhere the tree is called tebeldi تبلديpeople make tabaldi juice by soaking and dissolving the dry pulp of the fruit in water, locally known as gunguleiz. Water can also be extracted from some of the trunks.
Baobab leaves can be eaten as a relish. Young fresh leaves are cooked in a sauce and sometimes are dried and powdered. The powder is called lalo in Mali and sold in many village markets in Western Africa. The leaves are used in the preparation of a soup termed miyan kuka in Northern Nigeria and are rich in phytochemicals and minerals. The seeds can be pounded into a flour or to extract oil for cooking.
Baobab leaves are sometimes used as forage for ruminants in dry season. The oilmeal, which is a byproduct of oil extraction, can also be used as animal feed.
The fiber of the bark can be used to make cloth. In times of drought, elephants consume the juicy wood beneath the bark of the baobab.
For export
In 2008, the European Union approved the use and consumption of baobab fruit. It is commonly used as an ingredient in smoothies and cereal bars. In 2009, the United States Food and Drug Administration granted generally recognized as safe status to baobab dried fruit pulp as a food ingredient.
In culture
Along the Zambezi, the tribes believed that baobabs were upright and too proud. The gods became angry and uprooted them and threw them back into the ground upside-down. Evil spirits now cause bad luck to anyone that picks up the sweet white flowers. More specifically, a lion will kill them. In Kafue National Park, one of the largest baobabs is known as "Kondanamwali" or the "tree that eats maidens". The tree fell in love with four beautiful maidens. When they reached puberty, they made the tree jealous by finding husbands. So, one night, during a thunderstorm, the tree opened its trunk and took the maidens inside. A rest house has been built in the branches of the tree. On stormy nights, the crying of the imprisoned maidens can still be heard. Some people believe that women living in kraals where baobabs are plenty will have more children. This is scientifically plausible as those women will have better access to the tree's vitamin-rich leaves and fruits to complement a vitamin-deficient diet.
The tree also plays a role in Antoine De Saint-Exupéry's fictional children's book, The Little Prince. In the story, baobabs are described as dangerous plants which must be weeded out from the good plants, lest they overcome a small planet and even break it to pieces.
Prominent specimens
A number of individual baobab trees attract sightseers due to their age, size, history, location or isolated occurrence.
Botswana
Around Gweta, Botswana, some have been declared national monuments. Green's Baobab, 27 km south of Gweta was inscribed by the 19th-century hunters and traders Frederick Thomas Green and Hendrik Matthys van Zyl besides other ruthless characters. Fred and Charles Green passed the baobab during an expedition to Lake Ngami and left the inscription "Green's Expedition 1858–1859". An earlier inscription by an unknown traveller reads "1771".
About 11 km south of Green's Baobab is the turn-off to Chapman's Baobab, also known as Seven Sisters or Xaugam, i.e. "lion's tail" in Tsoa. It was once an enormous multi-stemmed tree, used by passing explorers, traders and travellers as a navigation beacon. It guided them as they navigated the extensive salt pan northwards, while a hollow in the trunk served as a letterbox. The explorer and hunter James Chapman left an engraving on a large root when he passed the tree with artist Thomas Baines in 1861, but Livingstone, Oswell, Moffat, and Selous also camped here. Livingstone supposedly carved a cross and his initials, and conveyed his 1853 sojourn in Missionary Travels, noting: "about two miles beyond [the immense saltpan Ntwetwe] we unyoked under a fine specimen of baobab, ... It consisted of 6 branches united into one trunk." It had a circumference of 25 m before its constituent trunks collapsed outward on 7 January 2016. Not all its trunks are confirmed dead however, one showing signs of life in 2019.
Seven trees known as the Sleeping Sisters or Baines' Baobabs grow on a tiny islet in Kudiakam Pan, Botswana. They are named for Thomas Baines who painted them in May 1862, while en route to Victoria Falls. The fallen giant of Baines' day is still sprouting leaves (as of 2004), and a younger generation of trees are in evidence. The islet is accessible in winter when the pan is dry.
Some large specimens have been transplanted to new sites, as was the one at Cresta Mowana lodge in Kasane.
Ghana
At Saakpuli (also Sakpele) in northern Ghana the site of a 19th-century slave transit camp is marked by a stand of large baobabs, to which slaves were chained. The chains were wrapped around their trunks or around the roots. Similarly, two trees at Salaga in central Ghana are reminders of the slave trade. One, located at the former slave market at the center of town, was replanted at the site of the original to which slaves were shackled. A second larger tree marks the slave cemetery, where bodies of dead slaves were dumped.
India
Inside the Golconda Fort in Hyderabad, India, is a baobab tree estimated to be 430 years old. It is the largest baobab outside of Africa.
Sri Lanka
It grows in Mannar peninsula and opposite mainland, Delft island, Wilpaththu and Puththam.
Baobab has Tamil vernacular names – Perukku-Maran and Papparappuli. English Name ‘Monkey bread. Sinhala name - Aliyagaha (Sri lanka wild life interlude vol l ) It is said that the tree in Pallimunai of Mannar island is the oldest and largest one of 800 years old. Local tradition is that this tree brought to SL by Arabs to feed their camels by its leaves.
Madagascar
The African baobab in Mahajanga, Madagascar, had a circumference of 21 metres by 2013. It became the symbol of the city and was formerly a place for executions and important meetings.
Mozambique
The Lebombo Eco Trail tree is about 18.5 m tall with a diameter of almost 22 m. It was found to be about 1400 years old and made up of five stems with ages between 900 and 1400 years, fused in a ring leaving a large central cavity.
Namibia
The Ombalantu baobab in Namibia has a hollow trunk that can accommodate some 35 people. At times it has served as a chapel, post office, house, and hiding site. The Holboom baobab (Holboom, Nyae Nyae Conservancy, Namibia) is one of the trees with a hollow core. It measures 35.10 m around and radiocarbon dating shows it to be about 1750 years old.
Republic of the Congo
The Arbre de Brazza is a baobab in the Republic of the Congo under which de Brazza and his companions Dolisie, Chavannes and Ballay made a stop in 1877, as their engraving "EB 1887" still attests. Another engraving, "Mâ Prince", was left by president Nguesso in his youth.
Senegal
The first botanical description of A. digitata was done by Adanson based on a tree on the island of Sor, Senegal. On the nearby Îles des Madeleines Adanson found a baobab that was in diameter, which bore the carvings of passing mariners on its trunk, including those of Prince Henry the Navigator in 1444 and André Thevet in 1555. When Théodore Monod searched the island in the 20th century, this tree was not to be found. The Gouye Ndiouly or Guy Njulli ("baobab of circumcision") may be the oldest baobab in Senegal and the northern hemisphere. The partially collapsed tree from which new stems have emerged is situated near the bank of the Saloum River at Kahone. It was formerly the venue for the gàmmu, an annual festival during which the kingdom's provincial rulers pledged their loyalty to the king. From 1593 to 1939, 49 kings of the Guélewars dynasty were inducted at this tree. It was beside the place where the Buur Saloum organized circumcision ceremonies, and in 1862, it became the scene of a battle.
US Virgin Islands
The Grove Place Baobab, listed as a Champion Tree, is believed to be the oldest (250–300 years) of some 100 baobabs on Saint Croix in the US Virgin Islands. It is seen as a living testament to centuries of African presence, as the seeds were likely introduced by an African slave who arrived at the former estate during the 18th century. According to the bronze memorial plaque, twelve women were rounded up during the 1878 Fireburn labor riot, and burned alive beneath the tree. It has since been a rallying place for plantation laborers and unions.
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe's Big Tree, near Victoria Falls, stands 25-meters tall and is visited by hundreds of thousands of tourists yearly. Radiocarbon dating has shown this one to be made up of several stems of various ages – with the oldest about 1150 years old.
Additional images
References
External links
Description and cultural information
Structured description
PROTAbase on Adansonia digitata
Feedipedia on Adansonia digitata
Adansonia digitata in Brunken, U., Schmidt, M., Dressler, S., Janssen, T., Thiombiano, A. & Zizka, G. 2008. West African plants - A Photo Guide. www.westafricanplants.senckenberg.de.
digitata
Flora of West Tropical Africa
Flora of Northeast Tropical Africa
Flora of South Tropical Africa
Fruits originating in Africa
Flora of Angola
Flora of Botswana
Flora of Cameroon
Flora of Ethiopia
Flora of Kenya
Flora of Madagascar
Flora of Namibia
Flora of Tanzania
Trees of Africa
Protected trees of South Africa
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy%20Harvin
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Percy Harvin
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William Percival Harvin III (born May 28, 1988) is an American former professional football player who was a wide receiver in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for the Florida Gators, who won the BCS National Championship in 2006 and 2008. He was selected by the Minnesota Vikings in the first round of the 2009 NFL Draft. Harvin also played for the Seattle Seahawks, New York Jets and Buffalo Bills. He was named the Associated Press Offensive Rookie of the Year in 2009 and won Super Bowl XLVIII with the Seahawks in 2013 over the Denver Broncos. He attended and played football for Landstown High School in Virginia Beach, where his team won the high school state championship in 2004.
Early life
Harvin was born to William Percival Harvin, Jr. and wife Linda in Chesapeake, Virginia, where after his father's departure, he lived with his mother and his older sister, Lintera. His mother, Linda, ran a daycare out of their home as Harvin helped with the children. Harvin's mother ran track at Princess Anne High School in Virginia Beach and later coached an AAU track team. His sister, Lintera, ran track, both at Salem High School in Virginia Beach and at Eastern Michigan University. As a child, Harvin was a gifted athlete whose prowess was first noted as a six-year-old flag football participant. At the age of 13, he played for coach Bruce Pearl and the Virginia Beach Mustangs Pop Warner football team, leading the team to a national championship.
High school career
At Landstown High School in Virginia Beach, Harvin was noted for his speed (4.32 seconds in the 40-yard dash as a freshman) and ability to make people miss in the open field. In 2003, during his sophomore year, the Landstown Eagles were the state Group AAA runner-up in football. A year later, Harvin led the Eagles' football team to a perfect 14–0 record and a Virginia High School League (VHSL) Group AAA Division 6 state championship. In the title game against James Robinson High School, Harvin accounted for 476 all-purpose yards in rushing, receiving, kick returns, and interception returns, as well as scoring five touchdowns in the 47–20 victory. In 2005, Landstown finished 13–1 after a 28–7 state championship game upset loss to Oakton High School of Vienna, Virginia. Following his stellar high school career, Harvin participated in the 2006 U.S. Army All-American Bowl. He also triumphed in basketball, where he helped the team to a 33–6 record and runner-up in the 2005 VHSL AAA state championship game.
After receiving National Junior Player of the Year honors in 2005, Harvin became one of the most highly acclaimed high school football players in the country. As one of the top recruits in the 2006 high school class, Harvin was ranked number one overall by Rivals.com and the number two receiver by Scout.com.
Despite his accomplishments, Harvin's high school athletic career was not without controversy. He served a one-game suspension early in his junior football season for unsportsmanlike conduct. As a senior, he was suspended for the final two regular-season games after making contact with an official and using inappropriate language during a game against First Colonial High School. In basketball, Harvin and a Green Run High School player were involved in a scuffle that prompted referees to stop the game with time remaining on the clock. As a result of this and prior incidents, Harvin was suspended from athletic competition by the VHSL.
Despite these missteps, Harvin ranks as one of the greatest high school athletes to come out of the Hampton Roads area. He scored 77 career touchdowns, accounted for more points than any player in South Hampton Roads history, and led Landstown High School to three consecutive Group AAA Division 6 state football championship games. As a junior Harvin led the Landstown basketball team to the state final, and became the first athlete since 1936 to win five gold medals at the state track meet. Despite several earlier statements that he would attend Florida State University, on December 19, 2005, Harvin committed to the University of Florida over Florida State, University of Miami (FL), University of Michigan, and University of Southern California.
Track and field
In 2000, at the age of 12, he was a member of the National Champion 4 × 100 m relay team in the Midget (11–12) Age Group. Harvin was also a standout track athlete at the Landstown High School. He became the first athlete in 69 years to capture five state titles at 2005 Virginia Class AAA state meet, winning the 100 meters, with a time of 10.69 seconds, 200 meters, with a time of 21.59 seconds, long jump, with a leap of 7.15 meters, and in triple jump, with a leap of 14.50 meters. He captured the 2005 Virginia Class AAA indoor title in triple jump, with a leap of 14.70 meters. He also won the 2004 state title in long jump as a sophomore with a leap of 7.14 meters. As a result of various incidents, Harvin was suspended from athletic competition by the Virginia High School League (VHSL). The suspension prevented Harvin from competing in the VHSL Group AAA State Indoor Track Meet at George Mason University that year. His loss, after becoming the first athlete to win five state track titles in the same meet during his junior year, was a huge blow to his high school track team.
Harvin's personal bests are 10.43 seconds in the 100 meters, 21.19 seconds in the 200 meters, and 7.40 meters in long jump.
College career
Harvin accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida, where he played on coach Urban Meyer's Florida Gators football team from 2006 to 2008. Harvin had an immediate and dramatic impact for the Gators as a freshman in 2006, and was a key offensive player during the Gators' national championship season in 2008.
2006 season
Harvin made his collegiate debut for the Florida Gators on September 2, 2006, against the Southern Mississippi Golden Eagles. Harvin was a dual threat, lining up at both running back and wide receiver. He caught three passes for 33 yards and carried the ball four times for a team-leading 58 yards. Harvin's second game was on September 9 against the Central Florida Golden Knights. He caught four passes for 99 yards, including a 58-yard touchdown pass. In the third and fourth games of the season, Harvin saw limited action against the Tennessee Volunteers, where he had one catch for 12 yards and one rush for 13 yards in the win. He was injured in the second quarter and thus played very little for the rest of the game and during practice the following week. A week later against the Kentucky Wildcats, Harvin had only one rush for two yards. Due to his injuries, Harvin did not play against the Alabama and played sparingly against LSU. He returned to the lineup for the Auburn game and continued his sporadic freshman year performance, rushing for a 42-yard touchdown against rival Florida State. However, Harvin suffered a neck sprain in the game and was taken off the field on a stretcher. Harvin returned the next week for the SEC Championship Game against Arkansas, by catching five passes for 62 yards and a touchdown. He also ran six times for a team high 105 yards, including a 67-yard touchdown run. With that performance, Harvin was named the game MVP. He finished off his freshman season with a win in the BCS National Championship Game against the Ohio State Buckeyes. In the game, Harvin lined up at quarterback numerous times, and was a factor in both the run game and the pass game with 22 yards rushing, 60 yards receiving, and a rushing touchdown. Despite his injury-plagued freshman season, Harvin was awarded SEC College Freshman of the year.
2007 season
Harvin entered the 2007 season as the starting receiver for the Gators. In the season opener, a 49–3 victory over Western Kentucky, Harvin recorded three receptions for 53 yards and a touchdown. A week later against Troy, Harvin recorded three receptions for 42 yards and a touchdown and also rushed for 56 yards on four carries. The next game, a blowout victory over Tennessee, Harvin contributed greatly with 120 yards on four receptions and 75 rushing yards with a touchdown. In the following game, Harvin grabbed 11 passes for 121 yards and a score in a 30–24 win over Ole Miss. In the Gators' first loss of the season to Auburn, Harvin recorded 119 yards on seven receptions. The game marked his third-consecutive 100-yard receiving game. The next three weeks resulted in modest numbers from Harvin, but he did go over 100 yards in either rushing or receiving. On November 3, Harvin had his best game of the season statistically, in a victory over Vanderbilt, when he recorded 110 receiving yards on nine receptions and 11 rushes for 113 yards and two rushing scores. After missing the following two victories with a sinus infection, Harvin returned with a 16 rush, 157 yard performance with a rushing touchdown against Florida State. The Gators took their 9–3 record to the Capital One Bowl in Orlando, where they lost to Michigan, 35–41. He put up monster numbers as he had nine receptions for 77 yards and a touchdown, also rushing for 165 yards and a score. He finished the season with 858 yards on 59 receptions for four touchdowns. He totaled 764 yards on 83 rushes for six touchdowns for a total of 1,622 yards from scrimmage and ten touchdowns, becoming the first receiver in University of Florida history to have over 1,000 yards rushing and receiving in his career. Harvin earned All-SEC first team honors as an all-purpose player, while earning second team honors as a receiver.
2008 season
In the spring prior to his junior season, Harvin underwent arthroscopic heel surgery on his right heel to address the underlying issue that caused injury trouble throughout his career (achilles tendonitis, knee tendonitis, hip flexor, hamstring and quadriceps issues) dating back to his high school days in Virginia Beach. The surgery was performed by Dr. Robert Anderson of OrthoCarolina of Charlotte, North Carolina. Due to the invasive nature of the procedure, the recovery time was very long and associated with significant risk. Harvin used the recovery to his advantage though. Limited to on-field practice and running, he focused his efforts on getting stronger, increasing his weight to 205 pounds and notably increasing his bench press max to 405 pounds.
In light of his increased strength and past production from the running back position, Florida head coach Urban Meyer officially announced his position had changed from wide receiver to running back, prior to the start of the season. However, Harvin continued to line up as a receiver for the Gators on a part-time basis. In fact, he was more of a full-time receiver than a running back.
Initially expected to be ready for the season opener against Hawaii, team doctors and the coaches felt he was not fully ready to play, and kept him out of the game. He made his season debut in the much anticipated game against Miami, seeing limited action he amassed 39 total yards on one reception and five carries, scoring a rushing touchdown. Later in the season, Harvin suffered another ankle injury in a game against Florida State on November 20. Harvin appeared to have suffered a high ankle sprain from a tackle and hobbled off the field, and did not return. This injury prevented him from playing in the SEC Championship on December 6 in which the Gators defeated Alabama 31–20. Going into the 2009 BCS National Championship Game against Oklahoma, Harvin had totaled 35 receptions for 595 yards and seven touchdowns, as well as 61 rushes for 538 yards and nine touchdowns. In the game, he accounted for nine carries for 122 yards with a touchdown, and five catches for 49 yards, playing on the injured ankle. Urban Meyer stated the day after the game that Harvin had suffered a hairline fracture in his lower right leg in addition to the high ankle sprain.
On January 15, 2009, Harvin announced he would forgo his remaining college eligibility and participate in the 2009 NFL Draft. Harvin finished his college career as one of the most prolific offensive threats in school history. In three seasons, he totaled 133 catches for 1,929 yards and 13 touchdowns, while rushing the ball 194 times for 1,852 yards with 19 touchdowns. His 32 career touchdowns is the most ever by a University of Florida wide receiver. He averaged an astounding 9.5 yards per carry as a running back and averaged 11.6 yards overall (running back, receiver, return man). He was the first player in University of Florida history to rush for 100 yards and have 100 yards receiving in the same game (against Vanderbilt, 2007).
Professional career
NFL Combine
In February 2009, Harvin tested positive for marijuana at the NFL Combine. Some teams reportedly removed him from their potential draft rosters.
Minnesota Vikings
On April 25, 2009, Harvin was selected by the Minnesota Vikings with the 22nd overall pick in the first round of the 2009 NFL Draft, the fourth wide receiver selected in the draft. Following extended contract negotiations, on August 3, 2009, Harvin signed a five-year contract worth up to $14.5 million, including $8.7 million in guarantees. Harvin wore jersey #12 for the Minnesota Vikings.
2009 season
On April 30, 2009, while en route to a Minnesota Vikings rookie mini-camp, Harvin fell ill and was hospitalized prior to changing planes in Atlanta. He was released from the hospital the following day. Vikings coach Brad Childress said Harvin was dehydrated and had a virus. Additionally, Harvin did not participate in the 2009 NFL Rookie Symposium due to illness and also missed the team's first three practices and first two days of training camp at Minnesota State University, Mankato.
Harvin caught his first touchdown pass September 13, 2009, in the season opener against the Cleveland Browns, thrown by quarterback Brett Favre. He ended his first career NFL game with a total of 36 yards receiving and 22 yards rushing. On September 27, Harvin had a 101-yard kickoff return for a touchdown against the San Francisco 49ers. With this touchdown, Harvin became the first Viking ever to score a touchdown in each of his first three games as well as the second youngest player to return a kickoff for a touchdown in NFL history (21 years, 122 days). On October 25, 2009, Harvin had an 88-yard kickoff return for a touchdown against the Pittsburgh Steelers. Harvin did not play in the Vikings 30–10 victory over the Cincinnati Bengals in Week 14 due to migraine headaches, which also prevented him from practicing the following week. However, he did play in the Vikings week 16 overtime loss to the Chicago Bears, He finished the regular season with 60 receptions and eight touchdowns, two on kickoff returns, and a rushing average of nine yards per carry.
On January 4, 2010, Harvin was a late addition to the 2010 Pro Bowl roster as a kick returner. Harvin filled a spot created because the Philadelphia Eagles's DeSean Jackson made the NFC team at two positions—wide receiver and kick returner. On January 6, the Associated Press announced Harvin's selection as the AP Offensive Rookie of the Year. Harvin is the sixth Vikings player to win the award, joining Adrian Peterson (2007), Randy Moss (1998), Sammy White (1976), Chuck Foreman (1973) and Paul Flatley (1963). On January 14, he was named Sporting News' 2009 NFL Rookie of the Year. Harvin later declined the offer to play in the Pro Bowl. He missed two postseason practices before the NFC Championship against the New Orleans Saints, due to migraine headaches. He ended up playing in the 31–28 overtime loss. After a stellar first year in the NFL, Harvin suffered a string of illnesses. On August 19, 2010, he passed out during practice due to a migraine attack and was taken to a local hospital in an ambulance. His heart stopped beating for a small moment but it was determined to be sleep apnea.
2010 season
In Week 6, against the Dallas Cowboys, Harvin had a 95-yard kickoff return for a touchdown to start the second half in the 24–21 loss. He won NFC Special Teams Player of the Week for his game against Dallas. In the 2010 season, Harvin had three games with at least 100 receiving yards and one game with two receiving touchdowns. In the 2010 season, Harvin finished with 71 receptions for 868 receiving yards and five receiving touchdowns to go along with a rushing touchdown and kickoff return touchdown.
2011 season
On September 11, 2011, in the season opener against the San Diego Chargers, Harvin returned a 103-yard game opening kick off for a touchdown, setting a Vikings franchise record of four career kick off return touchdowns. On November 27, 2011, in a Vikings game against the Atlanta Falcons in Atlanta, Harvin returned a kickoff for 104 yards, to the Falcons 3-yard line. This was the longest non-scoring play in NFL history, a feat made again by Ameer Abdullah in 2015. However, the Vikings failed to score on the next 4 plays. Harvin led the Vikings with 87 receptions for the 2011 season. He scored six touchdowns and was active for all 16 games for the first (and only) time in his NFL career.
2012 season
In the first six games of the 2012 season, Harvin had three games with over 100 yards receiving. He was named NFC Special Teams Player of the Month for September. On December 6, 2012, Harvin was placed on injured reserve with an ankle injury. Harvin's season ended with 62 receptions of 85 targets for 677 yards and three touchdowns. Harvin rushed for 96 yards on 22 attempts and one touchdown. He returned 16 kickoffs for 574 yards with one touchdown. He was ranked 90th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2013.
Seattle Seahawks
2013 season
The Minnesota Vikings traded Harvin to the Seattle Seahawks on March 11, 2013, in exchange for a first (Xavier Rhodes was selected with the pick) and seventh-round draft pick in the 2013 Draft, and a third-round draft pick in the 2014 Draft. Immediately after the Seahawks acquired Harvin, they signed him to a new six-year, $67 million contract with $25.5 million guaranteed. Harvin selected the number 11 to wear with the Seahawks, as the number 12 is retired for the Seahawks fanbase "The 12th Man". This trade reunited him with offensive coordinator Darrell Bevell, quarterback Tarvaris Jackson, and wide receiver Sidney Rice, all of whom he worked with during his time in Minnesota.
Harvin was diagnosed with a slight labrum tear in his hip while training during the offseason. On August 1, 2013, Harvin underwent successful hip surgery. On August 27, 2013, the Seahawks placed Harvin on the reserve/physically unable to perform list.
On November 11, 2013, the Seahawks activated Harvin from the reserve/physically unable to perform list. Harvin made his Seahawks debut during Week 11 against his old team, the Vikings, making one reception for 17 yards and a kick return for 58 yards. A week following his first game of the 2013 season, Harvin experienced inflammation in his recently surgically repaired hip which prevented him from playing. He was ruled out for Week 15 after dealing with soreness in the same hip on which he had surgery.
After not playing in the NFC Championship game due to a concussion, Harvin had 45 rushing yards and returned the opening kickoff of the second half of Super Bowl XLVIII 87 yards for a touchdown, helping the Seahawks win their first Super Bowl title.
Harvin allegedly had locker room altercations with teammates during his tenure with Seattle; also reported was that there were games where he sat himself down, refusing to go back on the field.
New York Jets
2014 season
Harvin was traded to the New York Jets on October 17, 2014, for a conditional draft pick in the 2015 NFL Draft. With the number 11 already taken and the number 12 retired for Joe Namath, Harvin wore the number 16. In his lone Jets season, Harvin recorded 29 receptions out of 52 targets for 350 yards with one touchdown and 110 rushing yards on 22 attempts. Harvin also had 20 kickoff returns for 495 yards. He was released on March 10, 2015, after the team traded for Brandon Marshall.
Buffalo Bills
2015 season
On March 18, 2015, Harvin signed a one-year, $6 million contract with the Buffalo Bills. He was placed on injured reserve on November 7. Harvin's season ended with 19 catches on 30 targets for 218 yards and a touchdown with an additional 31 rushing yards on five attempts.
2016 season
On April 15, 2016, Harvin announced his retirement from the NFL stating that he needed time to recover from injury but didn't rule out a possible return. On November 1, 2016, Harvin signed a one-year contract with the Buffalo Bills, coming out of retirement to re-join the team due to injuries to wideouts Sammy Watkins and Greg Salas.
On November 7, 2016, Harvin appeared in his first game of the season in a Monday Night Football game against his former team, the Seattle Seahawks. Harvin began to experience severe migraine headaches that kept him out two games and was placed on reserve/non-football illness list, ending his season early after coming out of retirement.
On March 14, 2017, Harvin announced his retirement from the NFL for the second time in his career.
NFL career statistics
Regular season
Postseason
NFL records
Longest non-scoring play: 104 (November 27, 2011, vs Atlanta Falcons)
Minnesota Vikings records
Most career kickoff return touchdowns (5) (Tied with Cordarrelle Patterson)
Most kickoff return touchdowns in a single season: 2 (2009) (Tied with Cordarrelle Patterson and Kene Nwangwu)
Awards and honors
Midget Age Group 4x100-meter relay national championship team (2000)
Pop Warner Football national championship (2001)
Virginia Beach District Offensive Player of the Year (2004)
Virginia Eastern Region Offensive Player of the Year (2004)
Rivals.com National High School Junior of the Year (2004)
Parade High School All-American (2005)
U.S. Army All-American Bowl participant (2006)
Southeastern Conference (SEC) Freshman of the Year by Association Press (2006)
SEC Championship Game Most Valuable Player (2006)
SEC Championship (2006)
Bowl Coalition Series (BCS) National Championship (2006)
Second-team All-SEC selection (wide receiver) by Associated Press and SEC coaches (2007)
First-team All-SEC selection (all-purpose) by Associated Press (2007)
First-team All-American (wide receiver) by The Sporting News (2007)
SEC Championship (2008)
BCS National Championship (2008)
Second-team All-SEC selection (wide receiver) by Associated Press (2008)
First-team All-SEC selection (wide receiver) by SEC coaches (2008)
First-team All-SEC selection (all-purpose) by Associated Press (2008)
First-team All-American (all-purpose) by American Football Coaches Association (AFCA) and Rivals.com (2008)
Second-team All-American (all-purpose) by Associated Press (2008)
Second-team All-American (wide receiver) by Walter Camp Football Foundation (2008)
First-team All-American (wide receiver) by The Sporting News (2008)
Pepsi NFL Rookie of the Week (Week 7, 2009)
Pepsi NFL Rookie of the Week (Week 8, 2009)
Pro Bowl kick returner (2010)
Associated Press Offensive Rookie of the Year (2009)
All-Pro selection by The Sporting News (2009)
Sporting News NFL Rookie of the Year (2009)
Pepsi NFL Rookie of the Year (2009)
See also
2006 Florida Gators football team
2007 College Football All-America Team
2008 College Football All-America Team
2008 Florida Gators football team
List of Florida Gators football All-Americans
List of Florida Gators in the NFL Draft
List of Minnesota Vikings first-round draft picks
References
Bibliography
Carlson, Norm, University of Florida Football Vault: The History of the Florida Gators, Whitman Publishing, LLC, Atlanta, Georgia (2007). .
External links
Florida Gators bio
1988 births
Living people
African-American players of American football
All-American college football players
American football return specialists
American football wide receivers
Buffalo Bills players
Florida Gators football players
Minnesota Vikings players
National Conference Pro Bowl players
National Football League Offensive Rookie of the Year Award winners
New York Jets players
Seattle Seahawks players
Players of American football from Chesapeake, Virginia
Players of American football from Virginia Beach, Virginia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20protected%20areas%20of%20China
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List of protected areas of China
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This is a list of the nationally designated protected areas of China. There are many forms of protected areas in China. Based on their relative importance, each type of protected area can be further graded into two to three levels (national, provincial and prefectural/county level). Nevertheless, the highest rank for "pocket nature preserve" (social and mass-based), "no-hunting area", "no-fishing area", "no-logging area", "wild medicinal material resources conservation area", "crop germplasm resources conservation area", "forest tree germplasm resources conservation area" or "source water protection area" is practically restricted to provincial level. The local government at county level is also responsible for the delimitation and declaration of "basic farmland protection area" and "basic grassland".
Take note that many protected areas in China have multiple official designations, and the statutory boundaries of these multi-designated PAs may be identical or may vary one from the other. For instance, the boundaries of Huangshan NSHA coincide with those of the Huangshan NGP, whereas Fujian province's Wuyi Mountains NNR, NSHA and NFP are adjacent to each other. In Heilongjiang, 27,642.14 hectares out of 115,340.27 hectares of Huzhong NFP are intersected with the experiment zone of Huzhong NNR.
National Park System and NPS Pilot Program
Ratified by: State Council
Number of Est. NPs (unit): 5 (as at September 30, 2021)
Area of NPs (10,000 km2): 23 (excl. pilot sites, as of 2021)
Total Number of NPs (unit, incl. pilot sites): 10 (as of 2021)
Sanjiangyuan National Park, coverage:
Qangtang NNR, Tibet (part, TBC)
Hoh Xil NNR, Qinghai
Sanjiangyuan NNR, Qinghai (part, approx. 51%)
Huangheyuan Water Park, Madoi, Qinghai (national-level)
Gyaring Hu Ngoring Hu Gymnocypris eckloni et Platypharodon extremus NAGRCA, Qinghai
Qumar He Endemic Fishes NAGRCA, Qinghai
Giant Panda National Park, coverage:
Wolong NNR, Sichuan
Fengtongzhai NNR, Sichuan
Tangjiahe NNR, Sichuan
Longxi - Hongkou NNR, Sichuan
Wanglang NNR, Sichuan
Baishuihe NNR, Sichuan
Xuebaoding NNR, Sichuan
Xiaozhaizigou NNR, Sichuan
Liziping NNR, Sichuan
Qianfoshan NNR, Sichuan
Foping NNR, Shaanxi
Taibaishan NNR, Shaanxi
Zhouzhi NNR, Shaanxi
Changqing NNR, Shaanxi
Tianhuashan NNR, Shaanxi
Sangyuan NNR, Shaanxi
Taibai Xushuihe Valuable and Rare Aquatic Organisms NNR, Shaanxi
Huangbaiyuan NNR, Shaanxi
Laoxiancheng NNR, Shaanxi
Guanyinshan NNR, Shaanxi
Baishuijiang NNR, Gansu
Huanglongsi SHA of Huanglongsi - Jiuzhaigou NSHA, Sichuan
Qingcheng Houshan Scenery Area of Qingchengshan - Dujiangyan NSHA, Sichuan
Xiling Xueshan NSHA, Sichuan
Bailonghu NSHA, Sichuan
Longmenshan NSHA, Sichuan
Longmenshan NGP, Sichuan
Anxian Bioherm NGP, Sichuan
Huanglong NGP, Sichuan
Dujiangyan NFP, Sichuan
Wawushan NFP, Sichuan
Xiling NFP, Sichuan
Longcanggou NFP, Sichuan
Longmenshan NFP, Sichuan
Qianfoshan NFP, Sichuan
Erlangshan NFP, Sichuan
Beichuan NFP, Sichuan
Jiguanshan NFP, Sichuan
Tianhuashan NFP, Shaanxi
Qingfengxia NFP, Shaanxi
Northeast China Tiger and Leopard National Park, coverage:
Hunchun Northeast China Tiger NNR, Jilin
Wangqing NNR, Jilin
Muling Japanese Yew NNR, Heilongjiang
Laoyeling Northeast China Tiger NNR, Heilongjiang
Lanjia Daxiagu NFP, Jilin
Liufengshan NFP, Heilongjiang
Wangqing Gayahe NWP, Jilin
Mijianghe Chum Salmon NAGRCA, Jilin
Hainan Tropical Rainforest National Park, coverage:
Bawangling NNR
Jianfengling NNR
Wuzhishan NNR
Diaoluoshan NNR
Yinggeling NNR
Jianfengling NFP
Diaoluoshan NFP
Limushan NFP
Bawangling NFP
Wuyishan National Park, coverage:
Wuyishan NNR, Fujian
Jiangxi Wuyishan NNR, Jiangxi
Wuyishan NSHA, Fujian
Wuyishan NFP, Fujian
Wuyi Tianchi NFP, Fujian
Ehushan NFP, Jiangxi
Jiuquxi Spinibarbus caldwelli NAGRCA, Fujian
Zhejiang Qianjiangyuan - Baishanzu National Park System Pilot Site, coverage:
Fengyangshan - Baishanzu NNR
Gutianshan NNR
Qianjiangyuan NFP
Qingyuan NFP
Qingyuan Chinese Giant Salamander NAGRCA
Hubei Shennongjia National Park System Pilot Site, coverage:
Shennongjia NNR
Shennongjia NGP
Shennongjia NFP
Shennongjia Dajiuhu NWP
Hunan Nanshan National Park System Pilot Site, coverage:
Jintongshan NNR
Nanshan NSHA
Liangjiang Xiagu NFP
Chengbu Baiyunhu NWP
Yunnan Bodaco National Park System Pilot Site, coverage:
Hongshan Scenery Area (part, incl. lakes of Bitahai & Xodo) of Sanjiangbingliu NSHA
Qilianshan National Park System Pilot Site, coverage:
Qilianshan NNR, Gansu
Yanchiwan NNR, Gansu
Tianzhu Sanxia NFP, Gansu
Xianmi NFP, Qinghai
Qilian Heiheyuan NWP, Qinghai
National Culture Park System Pilot Program
Great Wall National Culture Park System Pilot Site
Grand Canal National Culture Park System Pilot Site
Long March National Culture Park System Pilot Site
Yellow River National Culture Park System Pilot Site
Yangtze River National Culture Park System Pilot Site
National Nature Reserves of China
Ratified by: State Council
Number of NNRs (unit): 474 (as at May 31, 2018)
Area of NNRs (10,000 ha): 9,745 (as of 2017)
Total Number of NRs (unit): 2,750 (as of 2017)
Area of NRs (10,000 ha): 14,717 (as of 2017)
Percentage of Terrestrial NR in the Land Area (%): 14.86 (as of 2017)
See: National Nature Reserves of China
National Scenic and Historic Areas of China
Ratified by: State Council
Number of NSHAs (unit): 244 (as at March 21, 2017)
Area of NSHAs (10,000 km2): 10.36 ()
Total Number of SHAs (unit): 1,051 ()
Area of SHAs (10,000 km2): 19.56 ()
Percentage of SHAs in the Land Area (%): 2.03 ()
Beijing
Badaling - Shisanling Scenic and Historic Area
Shihuadong Scenic and Historic Area
Tianjin
Panshan Scenic and Historic Area
Hebei
Chengde Bishushanzhuang Waibamiao Scenic and Historic Area
Qinhuangdao Beidaihe Scenic and Historic Area
Yesanpo Scenic and Historic Area
Cangyanshan Scenic and Historic Area
Zhangshiyan Scenic and Historic Area
Xibaipo - Tianguishan Scenic and Historic Area
Kongshan Baiyundong Scenic and Historic Area
Taihang Daxiagu Scenic and Historic Area
Xiangtangshan Scenic and Historic Area
Wahuanggong Scenic and Historic Area
Shanxi
Wutaishan Scenic and Historic Area
Hengshan Scenic and Historic Area, Hunyuan
Huanghe Hukou Pubu Scenic and Historic Area (trans-provincial NHSA, shared with Shaanxi)
Beiwudangshan Scenic and Historic Area
Wulaofeng Scenic and Historic Area
Qikou Scenic and Historic Area
Inner Mongolia
Zalantun Scenic and Historic Area
Ergun Scenic and Historic Area
Liaoning
Anshan Qianshan Scenic and Historic Area
Yalujiang Scenic and Historic Area
Jinshitan Scenic and Historic Area
Xingcheng Haibin Scenic and Historic Area
Dalian Haibin - Lüshunkou Scenic and Historic Area
Fenghuangshan Scenic and Historic Area
Benxi Shuidong Scenic and Historic Area
Qingshangou Scenic and Historic Area
Yiwulüshan Scenic and Historic Area
Jilin
Songhuahu Scenic and Historic Area
"Badabu" - Jingyuetan Scenic and Historic Area
Xianjingtai Scenic and Historic Area
Fangchuan Scenic and Historic Area
Heilongjiang
Jingpohu Scenic and Historic Area
Wudalianchi Scenic and Historic Area
Taiyangdao Scenic and Historic Area
Dazhanhe Scenic and Historic Area
Jiangsu
Taihu Scenic and Historic Area
Nanjing Zhongshan Scenic and Historic Area
Yuntaishan Scenic and Historic Area
Shugang Shouxihu Scenic and Historic Area
Sanshan Scenic and Historic Area
Zhejiang
Hangzhou Xihu Scenic and Historic Area
Fuchunjiang - Xin'anjiang Scenic and Historic Area
Yandangshan Scenic and Historic Area
Putuoshan Scenic and Historic Area
Tiantaishan Scenic and Historic Area, Tiantai
Shengsi Liedao Scenic and Historic Area
Nanxijiang Scenic and Historic Area
Moganshan Scenic and Historic Area
Xuedoushan Scenic and Historic Area
Shuanglong Scenic and Historic Area
Xiandu Scenic and Historic Area
Jianglangshan Scenic and Historic Area
Xianju Scenic and Historic Area
Huanjiang - Wuxie Scenic and Historic Area
Fangyan Scenic and Historic Area
Baizhangji - Feiyunhu Scenic and Historic Area
Fangshan - Changyu Dongtian Scenic and Historic Area
Tianmushan Scenic and Historic Area, Xinchang
Dahongyan Scenic and Historic Area
Dapanshan Scenic and Historic Area
Taozhu Scenic and Historic Area
Xianhuashan Scenic and Historic Area
Anhui
Huangshan Scenic and Historic Area
Jiuhuashan Scenic and Historic Area
Tianzhushan Scenic and Historic Area
Langyashan Scenic and Historic Area
Qiyunshan Scenic and Historic Area
Caishi Scenic and Historic Area
Chaohu Scenic and Historic Area
Huashan Miku - Jianjiang Scenic and Historic Area
Taijidong Scenic and Historic Area
Huatinghu Scenic and Historic Area
Longchuan Scenic and Historic Area
Qishan - Pingtianhu Scenic and Historic Area
Fujian
Wuyishan Scenic and Historic Area
Qingyuanshan Scenic and Historic Area
Gulangyu - Wanshishan Scenic and Historic Area
Taimushan Scenic and Historic Area
Taoyuandong - Linyin Shilin Scenic and Historic Area
Taining Scenic and Historic Area
Yuanyangxi Scenic and Historic Area
Haitan Scenic and Historic Area
Guanzhishan Scenic and Historic Area (locally pronounced Guanzhaishan)
Gushan Scenic and Historic Area
Yuhuadong Scenic and Historic Area
Shibachongxi Scenic and Historic Area
Qingyunshan Scenic and Historic Area
Fozishan Scenic and Historic Area
Baoshan Scenic and Historic Area
Fu'an Baiyunshan Scenic and Historic Area
Lingtongshan Scenic and Historic Area
Meizhoudao Scenic and Historic Area
Jiulongji Scenic and Historic Area
Jiangxi
Lushan Scenic and Historic Area
Jinggangshan Scenic and Historic Area
Sanqingshan Scenic and Historic Area
Longhushan Scenic and Historic Area
Xiannühu Scenic and Historic Area
Sanbaishan Scenic and Historic Area
Meiling - Tengwangge Scenic and Historic Area
Guifeng Scenic and Historic Area
Gaoling - Yaoli Scenic and Historic Area
Wugongshan Scenic and Historic Area
Yunjushan - Zhelinhu Scenic and Historic Area
Lingshan Scenic and Historic Area
Shennongyuan Scenic and Historic Area
Damaoshan Scenic and Historic Area
Ruijin Scenic and Historic Area
Xiaowudang Scenic and Historic Area
Yangqishan Scenic and Historic Area
Hanxianyan Scenic and Historic Area
Shandong
Taishan Scenic and Historic Area
Qingdao Laoshan Scenic and Historic Area
Jiaodong Bandao Haibin Scenic and Historic Area
Boshan Scenic and Historic Area
Qingzhou Scenic and Historic Area
Qianfoshan Scenic and Historic Area
Henan
Jigongshan Scenic and Historic Area
Luoyang Longmen Scenic and Historic Area
Songshan Scenic and Historic Area
Wangwushan - Yuntaishan Scenic and Historic Area
Shirenshan Scenic and Historic Area
Linlüshan Scenic and Historic Area
Qingtianhe Scenic and Historic Area
Shennongshan Scenic and Historic Area
Tongbaishan - Huaiyuan Scenic and Historic Area
Zhengzhou Huanghe Scenic and Historic Area
Hubei
Wuhan Donghu Scenic and Historic Area
Wudangshan Scenic and Historic Area
Changjiang Sanxia Scenic and Historic Area (trans-provincial NHSA, shared with Chongqing)
Dahongshan Scenic and Historic Area
Longzhong Scenic and Historic Area
Jiugongshan Scenic and Historic Area
Lushui Scenic and Historic Area
Danjiangkou Shuiku Scenic and Historic Area
Hunan
Hengshan Scenic and Historic Area, Hengyang
Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Area
Yueyanglou Dongtinghu Scenic and Historic Area
Shaoshan Scenic and Historic Area
Yuelushan Scenic and Historic Area
Langshan Scenic and Historic Area
Mengdonghe Scenic and Historic Area
Taohuayuan Scenic and Historic Area
Ziquejie Titian - Meishan Longgong Scenic and Historic Area
Dehang Scenic and Historic Area
Suxianling - Wanhuayan Scenic and Historic Area
Nanshan Scenic and Historic Area
Wanfoshan - Dongzhai Scenic and Historic Area
Huxingshan - Huayao Scenic and Historic Area
Dongjianghu Scenic and Historic Area
Fenghuang Scenic and Historic Area
Weishan Scenic and Historic Area
Yandiling Scenic and Historic Area
Baishuidong Scenic and Historic Area
Jiuyishan - Shundiling Scenic and Historic Area
Liye -Wulongshan Scenic and Historic Area
Guangdong
Zhaoqing Xinghu Scenic and Historic Area
Xiqiaoshan Scenic and Historic Area
Danxiashan Scenic and Historic Area
Baiyunshan Scenic and Historic Area
Huizhou Xihu Scenic and Historic Area
Luofushan Scenic and Historic Area
Huguangyan Scenic and Historic Area
Wutongshan Scenic and Historic Area
Guangxi
Guilin Lijiang Scenic and Historic Area
Guiping Xishan Scenic and Historic Area
Huashan Scenic and Historic Area
Hainan
Sanya Redai Haibin Scenic and Historic Area
Chongqing
Changjiang Sanxia Scenic and Historic Area (trans-provincial NSHA, shared with Hubei)
Chongqing Jinyunshan Scenic and Historic Area
Jinfoshan Scenic and Historic Area
Simianshan Scenic and Historic Area
Furongjiang Scenic and Historic Area
Tiankeng Difeng Scenic and Historic Area
Tanzhangxia Scenic and Historic Area
Sichuan
Emeishan Scenic and Historic Area
Huanglongsi - Jiuzhaigou Scenic and Historic Area
Qingchengshan -Dujiangyan Scenic and Historic Area
Jianmen Shudao Scenic and Historic Area
Konggar Shan Scenic and Historic Area
Shunan Zhuhai Scenic and Historic Area
Xiling Xueshan Scenic and Historic Area
Siguniangshan Scenic and Historic Areas
Shihai Dongxiang Scenic and Historic Area
Qionghai - Luojishan Scenic and Historic Area
Bailonghu Scenic and Historic Area
Guangwushan - Nuoshuihe Scenic and Historic Area
Tiantaishan Scenic and Historic Area, Qionglai
Longmenshan Scenic and Historic Area
Micangshan Daxiagu Scenic and Historic Area
Guizhou
Huangguoshu Scenic and Historic Area
Zhijindong Scenic and Historic Area
Wuyanghe Scenic and Historic Area
Hongfenghu Scenic and Historic Area
Longgong Scenic and Historic Area
Libo Zhangjiang Scenic and Historic Area
Chishui Scenic and Historic Area
Malinghe Xiagu Scenic and Historic Area
Duyun Doupengshan - Jianjiang Scenic and Historic Area
Jiudongtian Scenic and Historic Area
Jiulongdong Scenic and Historic Area
Liping Dongxiang Scenic and Historic Area
Ziyun Getuhe Chuandong Scenic and Historic Area
Pingtang Scenic and Historic Area
Rongjiang Miaoshan Dongshui Scenic and Historic Area
Shiqian Wenquanqun Scenic and Historic Area
Yanhe Wujiang Shanxia Scenic and Historic Area
Weng'an Jiangjiehe Scenic and Historic Area
Yunnan
Lunan Shilin Scenic and Historic Area (officially designated name. “Lunan Yi Autonomous County” was renamed as “Shilin Yi Autonomous County” on October 8, 1998.)
Dali Scenic and Historic Area
Xishuangbanna Scenic and Historic Area
Sanjiangbingliu Scenic and Historic Area
Kunming Dianchi Scenic and Historic Area
Lijiang Yulong Xueshan Scenic and Historic Area
Tengchong Dire Huoshan Scenic and Historic Area
Ruilijiang - Dayingjiang Scenic and Historic Area
Jiuxiang Scenic and Historic Area
Jianshui Scenic and Historic Area
Puzhehei Scenic and Historic Area
Alu Scenic and Historic Area
Tibet
Yarlung He Scenic and Historic Area
Namco - Nyainqêntanglha Shan Scenic and Historic Area
Tanggulashan - Nujiangyuan Scenic and Historic Area
Tulin - Gugê Scenic and Historic Area
Shaanxi
Huashan Scenic and Historic Area
Lintong Lishan Scenic and Historic Area
Huanghe Hukou Pubu Scenic and Historic Area (trans-provincial NSHA, shared with Shanxi)
Baoji Tiantaishan Scenic and Historic Area
Huangdiling Scenic and Historic Area
Heyang Qiachuan Scenic and Historic Area (Qiachuan: locally pronounced Hechuan)
Gansu
Maijishan Scenic and Historic Area
Kongtongshan Scenic and Historic Area
Mingshashan - Yueyaquan Scenic and Historic Area
Guanshan Lianhuatai Scenic and Historic Area
Qinghai
Qinghaihu Scenic and Historic Area
Ningxia
Xixia Wangling Scenic and Historic Area
Xumishan Shiku Scenic and Historic Area
Xinjiang
Tianshan Tianchi Scenic and Historic Area
Kumtag Shamo Scenic and Historic Area
Bosten Hu Scenic and Historic Area
Sairam Hu Scenic and Historic Area
Lopren Cunzhai Scenic and Historic Area (alt. “Lop People's Stockade Village”)
Tomur Daxiagu Scenic and Historic Area
State Key Protected Fossils' Concentration Origins of China
Ratified by: Ministry of Land and Resources
Number of SKPFCOs (unit): 53 (as at December 28, 2016)
Hebei
Nihewan Fossils' Origin
Shanxi
Yushe Fossils' Origin
Ningwu Fossils' Origin
Zhangzi Fossils' Origin
Wutaishan Fossils' Origin
Inner Mongolia
Erenhot Fossils' Origin
Ningcheng Fossils' Origin
Ordos Fossils' Origin
Bayannur Fossils' Origin
Siziwang Fossils' Origin (Siziwang = Dorbod)
Sonid Left Banner Fossils' Origin
Liaoning
Chaoyang Fossils' Origin
Yixian Fossils' Origin
Jianchang Fossils' Origin
Beipiao Fossils' Origin
Benxi Fossils' Origin
Jilin
Qian'an Fossils' Origin
Baishan Fossils' Origin
Yanji Fossils' Origin
Heilongjiang
Jiayin Fossils' Origin
Qinggang Fossils' Origin
Zhejiang
Dongyang Fossils' Origin
Tiantai Fossils' Origin
Anhui
Qianshan Fossils' Origin
Chaohu Fossils' Origin
Xiuning Fossils' Origin
Fujian
Sanming Fossils' Origin
Shandong
Shanwang Fossils' Origin
Zhucheng Fossils' Origin
Laiyang Fossils' Origin
Henan
Ruyang Fossils' Origin
Hubei
Songzi Fossils' Origin
Nanzhang Fossils' Origin
Yuan'an Fossils' Origin
Yunxian Fossils' Origin, Yunyang District, Shiyan City
Hunan
Zhuzhou Fossils' Origin
Sangzhi Fossils' Origin
Guangdong
Nanxiong Fossils' Origin
Heyuan Fossils' Origin
Guangxi
Fusui Fossils' Origin
Chongqing
Qijiang Fossils' Origin
Sichuan
Zigong Fossils' Origin
Shehong Fossils' Origin
Guizhou
Guanling Fossils' Origin
Qiandongnan Fossils' Origin
Xingyi Fossils' Origin
Panxian Fossils' Origin
Yunnan
Lufeng Fossils' Origin
Chengjiang Fossils' Origin
Luoping Fossils' Origin
Gansu
Hezheng Fossils' Origin
Xinjiang
Shanshan Fossils' Origin
Hami Fossils' Origin
National Typical Earthquake Sites of China
Ratified by: China Earthquake Administration
Total Number of NTESs (unit): 6 (as of 2007)
Shandong
Site of Seismically Active Fault at Maipo, Tancheng
Site of Collapse-Crack Earthquake at Xiong'er Hill, Zaozhuang
Chongqing
Site of Ancient Earthquake at Xiaonanhai, Qianjiang
Yunnan
Site of Large Earthquake-formed “Heavenly Pit” at Hongshi Cliff, Yongsheng ("Heavenly Pit": a massive sinkhole. Designated name: “Yongsheng Hongshiya National Earthquake Site”.)
Ningxia
Site of Earthquake-induced Landslide and Dammed Lake at Dangjiacha, Xiji
Site of Large Earthquake and Active Fault Zone in Haiyuan †
†: The official name is yet to be verified.
National Geoparks of China
Ratified by: State Forestry and Grassland Administration
Number of NGPs (unit): 281 (incl. 226 approved sites & 55 pre-qualified sites; excl. 2 revoked pre-qualified sites, as at June 21, 2021) †
Total Number of GPs (unit): 613 (excl. GGPs, as of 2019)
Beijing
Shihuadong National Geopark
Yanqing Petrified Wood National Geopark
Shidu National Geopark
Miyun Yunmengshan National Geopark
Pinggu Huangsongyu National Geopark
Tianjin
Jixian National Geopark
Hebei
Laiyuan Baishishan National Geopark
Fuping Tianshengqiao National Geopark (Tianshengqiao: literally "Natural Bridge", a proper name for the park)
Qinhuangdao Liujiang National Geopark
Zanhuang Zhangshiyan National Geopark
Laishui Yesanpo National Geopark
Lincheng National Geopark
Wu'an National Geopark
Xinglong National Geopark
Qian'an National Geopark
Chengde Danxia Landform National Geopark
Xingtai Canyon Group National Geopark
Shanxi
Huanghe Hukou Pubu National Geopark (trans-provincial NGP, shared with Shaanxi)
Wutaishan National Geopark
Huguan Canyon National Geopark
Ningwu Ice Cave National Geopark
Lingchuan Wangmangling National Geopark
Datong Volcano Group National Geopark
Pingshun Tianjishan National Geopark
Yonghe Yellow River Meander National Geopark
Yushe Paleo-organism Fossils Geopark
Youyu Volcanic Necks Geopark
Xixian Loess Geopark
Inner Mongolia
Hexigten National Geopark
Arxan National Geopark
Alxa Desert National Geopark
Erenhot National Geopark
Ningcheng National Geopark
Bayannur National Geopark
Ordos National Geopark
Qingshuihe Laoniuwan National Geopark
Siziwang Geopark (Siziwang = Dorbod)
Oroqen Geopark
Xilin Gol Caoyuan Volcano Geopark
Qiguoshan Geopark, Bairin Left Banner
Ulanqab National Geopark
Liaoning
Chaoyang Bird Fossils National Geopark
Dalian Coast National Geopark
Benxi National Geopark
Dalian Bingyugou National Geopark
Jinzhou Paleo-organism Fossils and Granite National Geopark
Huludao Longtan Daxiagu Geopark
Jilin
Jingyu Volcano and Mineral Spring Cluster National Geopark
Changbaishan Volcano National Geopark
Qian'an Mud Forest National Geopark
Fusong National Geopark
Siping Geopark
Longwan Volcano Geopark, Huinan
Heilongjiang
Wudalianchi Volcanic Landforms National Geopark
Jiayin Dinosaur National Geopark
Yichun Granite Stone Forest National Geopark
Jingpohu National Geopark
Xingkaihu National Geopark
Yichun Xiao Hinggan Ling National Geopark
Fenghuangshan National Geopark
Shankou Geopark
Mohe National Geopark
Qinggang Mammoth Geopark
Jiguanshan Geopark
Shanghai
Chongmingdao National Geopark
Jiangsu
Suzhou Taihu Xishan National Geopark
Luhe National Geopark
Jiangning Tangshan Fangshan National Geopark
Lianyungang Huaguoshan National Geopark
Zhejiang
Changshan National Geopark
Linhai National Geopark
Yandangshan National Geopark
Xinchang Petrified Wood National Geopark
Xianju Shenxianju Geopark
Jinyun Xiandu Geopark
Cangnan Fanshan National Geopark
Anhui
Huangshan National Geopark
Qiyunshan National Geopark
Fushan National Geopark
Huainan Bagongshan National Geopark
Qimen Guniujiang National Geopark
Tianzhushan National Geopark
Dabieshan (Lu'an) National Geopark
Chizhou Jiuhuashan National Geopark
Fengyangshan National Geopark
Guangde Taijidong National Geopark
Yashan National Geopark
Lingbi Qingyunshan National Geopark
Fanchang Marenshan Geopark
Shitai Karst Caves Geopark
Fujian
Zhangzhou Littoral Volcanic Landforms National Geopark
Dajinhu National Geopark
Jinjiang Shenhuwan National Geopark
Fuding Taimushan National Geopark
Ninghua Tian'edong Caves National Geopark
Dehua Shiniushan National Geopark
Pingnan Baishuiyang National Geopark
Yong'an National Geopark
Liancheng Guanzhishan National Geopark (locally pronounced Guanzhaishan)
Baiyunshan National Geopark
Pinghe Lingtongshan National Geopark
Zhenghe Fozishan Geopark
Qingliu Hot Spring National Geopark
Sanming Jiaoye National Geopark
Pingtan Geopark
Ningde Sandu'ao Geopark
Shouning Guantaishan Guyindong National Geopark
Jiangxi
Lushan Quaternary Glaciation National Geopark
Longhushan Danxia Landform National Geopark
Sanqingshan National Geopark
Wugongshan National Geopark
Shicheng National Geopark
Shandong
Shanwang National Geopark
Zaozhuang Xiong'ershan National Geopark (aka “Zaozhuang Xiong'ershan - Baodugu NGP”)
Dongying Huanghe Sanjiaozhou National Geopark
Taishan National Geopark
Yimengshan National Geopark
Changshan Liedao National Geopark
Zhucheng Dinosaur National Geopark
Qingzhou National Geopark
Laiyang Cretaceous National Geopark
Yiyuan Lushan National Geopark
Changle Volcano National Geopark
Wulianshan - Jiuxianshan Geopark, Wulian
Yishan Geopark, Zoucheng
Henan
Songshan Stratigraphic Structure National Geopark
Jiaozuo Yuntaishan National Geopark
Neixiang Baotianman National Geopark
Wangwushan National Geopark
Xixia Funiushan National Geopark
Chayashan National Geopark
Zhengzhou Huanghe National Geopark
Guanshan National Geopark
Luoning Shenlingzhai National Geopark
Luoyang Daimeishan National Geopark
Xinyang Jingangtai National Geopark
Xiaoqinling National Geopark
Hongqiqu - Linlüshan National Geopark
Ruyang Dinosaur National Geopark
Yaoshan Geopark
Hubei
Changjiang Sanxia National Geopark (trans-provincial NGP, shared with Chongqing)
Shennongjia National Geopark
Wuhan Mulanshan National Geopark
Yunxian Dinosaur-egg Fossil Coenosis National Geopark
Wudangshan National Geopark
Huanggang Dabieshan National Geopark
Wufeng National Geopark
Xianning Jiugongshan - Wenquan Geopark
Enshi Tenglongdong Daxiagu National Geopark
Changyang Qingjiang National Geopark
Yuan'an Fossil Coenosis Geopark
Hunan
Zhangjiajie National Geopark
Chenzhou Feitianshan National Geopark
Langshan National Geopark
Fenghuang National Geopark
Guzhang Hongshilin National Geopark (Hongshilin: “Red Stone Forest”, formed by red carbonate rocks)
Jiubujiang National Geopark
Wulongshan National Geopark
Meijiang National Geopark
Pingjiang Shiniuzhai National Geopark
Liuyang Daweishan National Geopark
Tongdao Wanfoshan National Geopark
Anhua Xuefenghu Geopark
Yizhang Mangshan Geopark
Xinshao Baishuidong Geopark
Guangdong
Danxiashan National Geopark
Zhanjiang Huguangyan National Geopark
Foshan Xiqiaoshan National Geopark
Yangchun Lingxiaoyan National Geopark
Shenzhen Dapeng Bandao National Geopark
Fengkai National Geopark
Enping Geotherm National Geopark
Yangshan National Geopark
Raoping Qinglan Geopark
Guangxi
Ziyuan National Geopark
Bose Leye Dashiwei Karst Tiankeng Group National Geopark
Beihai Weizhoudao Volcano National Geopark
Fengshan Karst National Geopark
Luzhai Xiangqiao Karst National Geopark
Dahua Qibailong National Geopark
Guiping National Geopark
Yizhou “Stone Forest above the Water” Geopark (qualification cancelled on December 9, 2016)
Pubei Wuhuangshan National Geopark
Du'an Subterranean River National Geopark
Luocheng National Geopark
Donglan Geopark
Hainan
Haikou Shishan Volcano Group National Geopark
Baisha Geopark
Shilu National Geopark
Chongqing
Changjiang Sanxia National Geopark (trans-provincial NGP, shared with Hubei)
Wulong Karst National Geopark
Qianjiang Xiaonanhai National Geopark
Yunyang Longgang National Geopark (Longgang: literally mean Dragon Vat, a karst tiankeng)
Wansheng National Geopark
Qijiang National Geopark
Shizhu Qiyaoshan Geopark
Youyang Geopark
Yunyang Dinosaur Geopark
Sichuan
Zigong Dinosaur & Paleo-organism National Geopark
Longmenshan Tectonics National Geopark
Hailuogou National Geopark
Daduhe Xiagu National Geopark
Anxian Bioherm National Geopark
Jiuzhaigou National Geopark
Huanglong National Geopark
Xingwen Shihai National Geopark (Shihai: literally mean Sea of Stone, a block field)
Shehong Petrified Wood National Geopark
Siguniangshan National Geopark
Huayingshan National Geopark
Jiangyou National Geopark
Dabashan National Geopark
Guangwushan - Nuoshuihe National Geopark
Qingchuan Earthquake Relics National Geopark
Mianzhu Qingping - Hanwang Geopark
Yanbian Gesala Geopark
Dagu Bingshan Geopark
Pingshan Ring-scarped Danxia Geopark
Guizhou
Guanling Fossil Coenosis National Geopark
Xingyi National Geopark
Zhijindong National Geopark
Suiyang Shuanghedong National Geopark
Liupanshui Wumengshan National Geopark
Pingtang National Geopark
Qiandongnan Miaoling National Geopark
Sinan Wujiang Karst National Geopark
Chishui Danxia National Geopark
Ziyun Getuhe Geopark
Yunnan
Shilin Pinnacle Karst National Geopark
Chengjiang Fauna & Paleo-organism National Geopark
Tengchong Volcano National Geopark (aka “Tengchong Volcano and Geotherm NGP”)
Lufeng Dinosaur National Geopark
Yulong Liming - Laojunshan National Geopark
Dali Cangshan National Geopark
Lijiang Yulong Xueshan Glacier National Geopark
Jiuxiang Canyon and Cavern National Geopark
Luoping Biota National Geopark
Luxi Alu National Geopark
Dongchuan Debris Flow Geopark
Weishan Hongheyuan Geopark
Tibet
Yi'ong National Geopark
Zanda Earth Forest National Geopark
Yangbajain National Geopark
Shaanxi
Cuihuashan Mountain Rockslide Geohazard National Geopark
Huanghe Hukou Pubu National Geopark (trans-provincial NGP, shared with Shanxi)
Luochuan Loess National Geopark
Yanchuan Yellow River Meander National Geopark
Shangnan Jinsixia National Geopark
Langao Nangongshan National Geopark
Zhashui Karst Cave National Geopark
Yaozhou Zhaojin Danxia Geopark
Hanzhong Liping National Geopark
Huashan Geopark
Gansu
Dunhuang Yardang National Geopark
Liujiaxia Dinosaur National Geopark
Pingliang Kongtongshan National Geopark
Jingtai Huanghe Shilin National Geopark (Huanghe Shilin: "Yellow River Stone Forest")
Hezheng Paleo-organism Fossils National Geopark
Tianshui Maijishan National Geopark
Zhangye National Geopark
Bingling Danxia Geopark
Tanchang Guan'egou Geopark
Lintan Yeliguan Geopark
Pingshanhu Geopark, Ganzhou, Zhangye
Têwo Zhagana Geopark
Qinghai
Jainca Kamra National Geopark
Jigzhi Nyainboyuzê National Geopark
Golmud Kunlunshan National Geopark
Huzhu Jiading National Geopark
Guide National Geopark
Qinghaihu Geopark
Maqên A'nyêmaqên Shan National Geopark
Tongde Shizang Danxia Geopark
Ningxia
Xiji Huoshizhai National Geopark
Lingwu Geopark (qualification cancelled on December 9, 2016)
Xinjiang
Burqin Kanas Hu National Geopark
Qitai Petrified Wood-Dinosaur National Geopark
Fuyun Koktokay National Geopark
Tianshan Tianchi National Geopark
Kuqa Grand Canyon National Geopark
Turpan Huoyanshan Geopark
Wensu Salt Dome Geopark
Jeminay Caoyuanshicheng Geopark
Hami Pterosaur-Yardang Geopark
Burqin Geopark
Hong Kong
Hong Kong National Geopark
†: From May 23, 2009, onwards, the approval process for awarding the NGP qualifications and naming the NGPs are treated separately by the State Forestry and Grassland Administration. Each NGP-prequalified unit is required to complete a site development within the three-year time limit before gaining formal status as a NGP.
National Mining Parks of China (disbanded)
Number of NMPs (unit): 0 (87 before July 24, 2019)
Note: The former NMPs would either be incorporated into existing protected areas or redesignated as other categories of national-level nature parks. The work is still in progress.
National Ecoparks of China
Ratified by: State Forestry Administration
Number of NEPs (unit): 18 (as at January 24, 2017)
Area of NEPs (10,000 ha): TBV
Hebei
Weichang Hulstai National Ecopark
Inner Mongolia
Hondlon National Ecopark
Ordos National Ecopark
Zhuozi Hongshiya National Ecopark
Jiangsu
Zhangjiagang Jiyanghu National Ecopark
Yancheng Longgang National Ecopark
Zhejiang
Kaihua, National Ecopark of the East
Anhui
Feixi Guanting National Ecopark
Shandong
Gaotang Qingping National Ecopark
Zaozhuang Huancheng National Ecopark
Henan
Qingfeng Yangzi National Ecopark
Nanle Huanghe Gudao National Ecopark
Minquan Huanghe Gudao National Ecopark
Hubei
Suizhou Suichengshan National Ecopark
Baokang Yaozhihe National Ecopark
Chongqing
Nanchuan Shanwangping Karst National Ecopark
Guizhou
Daozhen Luolong National Ecopark
Qinghai
Xining Huancheng National Ecopark
National Forest Parks of China
Ratified by: State Forestry and Grassland Administration
Number of NFPs (unit): 906 (excl. 8 delisted sites, as at December 11, 2020), plus one national forest resort (as at July 6, 1994)
Area of NFPs + NFR (10,000 ha): 1441.05 ()
Total Number of FPs & NFR (unit): 3,505 ()
Area of FPs + NFR (10,000 ha): 2028.19 ()
Beijing
Xishan National Forest Park
Shangfangshan National Forest Park
Shisanling National Forest Park
Yunmengshan National Forest Park
Xiaolongmen National Forest Park
Jiufeng National Forest Park
Daxing Ancient Mulberry National Forest Park
Dayangshan National Forest Park
Xiayunling National Forest Park
Huangsongyu National Forest Park
Beigong National Forest Park
Badaling National Forest Park
Qifengshan National Forest Park
Tianmenshan National Forest Park
Labagoumen National Forest Park
Tianjin
Jiulongshan National Forest Park
Hebei
Haibin National Forest Park
Saihanba National Forest Park
Qingchuifeng National Forest Park
Xiangyundao National Forest Park
Shifo National Forest Park (revoked on December 29, 2015)
Qingdongling National Forest Park
Liaoheyuan National Forest Park
Shanhaiguan National Forest Park
Wuyuezhai National Forest Park
Baicaowa National Forest Park
Tianshengqiao National Forest Park
Huangyangshan National Forest Park
Maojingba National Forest Park
Xiangtangshan National Forest Park
Yesanpo National Forest Park
Liuliping National Forest Park
Gubeiyue National Forest Park
Baishishan National Forest Park
Wu'an National Forest Park
Yizhou National Forest Park
Qiannanyu National Forest Park
Tuoliangshan National Forest Park
Mulan Weichang National Forest Park
Xiezigou National Forest Park
Xiantaishan National Forest Park
Fengning National Forest Park
Heilongshan National Forest Park
Chengde Shihai National Forest Park (revoked on August 20, 2010)
Daqingshan National Forest Park
Huailai National Forest Park
Bashang Guyuan National Forest Park
Shanxi
Wutaishan National Forest Park
Tianlongshan National Forest Park
Guandishan National Forest Park
Guancenshan National Forest Park
Hengshan National Forest Park
Yungang National Forest Park
Longquan National Forest Park
Yuwangdong National Forest Park
Zhaogaoguan National Forest Park
Fangshan National Forest Park
Jiaochengshan National Forest Park
Taiyueshan National Forest Park
Wulaofeng National Forest Park
Laodingshan National Forest Park
Wujinshan National Forest Park
Zhongtiaoshan National Forest Park
Huangyadong National Forest Park
Taihang Xiagu National Forest Park
Qizishan National Forest Park
Taihang Honggu National Forest Park
Anze National Forest Park
Xiantangshan National Forest Park
Erlangshan National Forest Park
Xikou Gudao National Forest Park
Putishan National Forest Park
Inner Mongolia
Hongshan National Forest Park
Qarsan National Forest Park
Hadamen National Forest Park
Hailar National Forest Park
Ul Shan National Forest Park
Ust National Forest Park
Ma'anshan National Forest Park
Ulastai National Forest Park
Xinglong National Forest Park
Arxan National Forest Park
Darbin Hu National Forest Park
Huanggangliang National Forest Park
Mordaga National Forest Park
Yikesama National Forest Park
Helanshan National Forest Park
Hoson Gou National Forest Park
Ejin Diversifolius Poplar National Forest Park
Wangyedian National Forest Park
Huamugou National Forest Park
Orqohan National Forest Park
Hinggan National Forest Park
Chaoyuan National Forest Park
Alihe National Forest Park
Wudang Ju National Forest Park
Honggolj Mongolian Scots Pine National Forest Park
Lamashan National Forest Park
Luanheyuan National Forest Park
Hetao National Forest Park
Bogd Ul National Forest Park
Longsheng National Forest Park
Cilechuan National Forest Park
Qinggis Han National Forest Park
Chaor Daxiagu National Forest Park
Tubl National Forest Park
Shenshan National Forest Park
Olon National Forest Park
Liaoning
Lüshunkou National Forest Park
Haitangshan National Forest Park
Dagushan National Forest Park
Shoushan National Forest Park
Fenghuangshan National Forest Park
Huanren National Forest Park
Benxi National Forest Park
Yunshishan National Forest Park
Tianqiaogou National Forest Park (revoked on July 16, 2009)
Gaizhou National Forest Park
Yuanshuailin National Forest Park
Xianrendong National Forest Park
Dalian Daheshan National Forest Park
Changshan Qundao National Sea-island Forest Park
Pulandian National Forest Park
Daheishan National Forest Park
Shenyang National Forest Park
Jinlongsi National Forest Park
Benxi Huancheng National Forest Park
Binglashan National Forest Park
Houshi National Forest Park
Qianshan Xianrentai National Forest Park
Qingyuan Honghegu National Forest Park
Dalian Tianmenshan National Forest Park
Sankuaishi National Forest Park
Zhanggutai Sandland National Forest Park
Dalian Yinshitan National Forest Park
Dalian Xijiao National Forest Park
Yiwulüshan National Forest Park
Hemu National Forest Park
Suizhong Changcheng National Forest Park
Wafangdian National Forest Park
Tieling Qilinhu National Forest Park
Jilin
Jingyuetan National Forest Park
Wunüfeng National Forest Park
Longwan Crater Lakes National Forest Park
Baijifeng National Forest Park
Mao'ershan National Forest Park
Banlashan National Forest Park
Sanxianjia National Forest Park
Da'an National Forest Park
Changbai National Forest Park
Linjiang National Forest Park
Lafashan National Forest Park
Tumenjiang National Forest Park
Zhuqueshan National Forest Park
Tumenjiangyuan National Forest Park
Yanbian Xianfeng National Forest Park
Guanma Lianhuashan National Forest Park
Zhaodajishan National Forest Park
Hancongding National Forest Park
Mantianxing National Forest Park
Diaoshuihu National Forest Park
Lushuihe National Forest Park
Tonghua Shihu National Forest Park
Hongshi National Forest Park
Jiangyuan National Forest Park
Jiguanshan National Forest Park
Quanyangquan National Forest Park
Baishishan National Forest Park
Songjianghe National Forest Park
Sanchazi National Forest Park
Linjiang Cascades National Forest Park
Wangou National Forest Park
Lanjia Daxiagu National Forest Park
Changbaishan Beipo National Forest Park
Hongyeling National Forest Park
Longshanhu National Forest Park
Baishan City National Forest Resort
Heilongjiang
Mudanfeng National Forest Park
Huoshankou National Forest Park
Daliangzihe National Forest Park
Wulong National Forest Park
Harbin National Forest Park
Jiejinshan National Forest Park
Qiqihar National Forest Park
Beijicun National Forest Park
Changshou National Forest Park
Daqing National Forest Park
Weihushan National Forest Park
Wuying National Forest Park
Yabuli National Forest Park
Yimianpo National Forest Park
Longfeng National Forest Park
Jinquan National Forest Park
Wusulijiang National Forest Park
Taoshan National Forest Park
Yimashan National Forest Park
Sandaoguan National Forest Park
Suifenhe National Forest Park
Riyuexia National Forest Park
Xinglong National Forest Park
Wumahe National Forest Park
Fenghuangshan National Forest Park
Xuexiang National Forest Park
Baliwan National Forest Park
Wudingshan National Forest Park
Longjiang Sanxia National Forest Park
Maolangou National Forest Park
Hegang National Forest Park
Qingshan National Forest Park
Dazhanhe National Forest Park
Huilongwan National Forest Park
Danqinghe National Forest Park
Shilongshan National Forest Park
Boli Wusihunhe National Forest Park
Xishui National Forest Park
Fangzheng Longshan National Forest Park
Jingpohu National Forest Park
Jinshan National Forest Park
Jiapigou National Forest Park
Xiao Hinggan Ling Shilin National Forest Park
Liufengshan National Forest Park
Wanglongshan National Forest Park
Shengshan Yaosai National Forest Park
Wudalianchi National Forest Park
Wandashan National Forest Park
Zhenbaodao National Forest Park
Yichun Hinggan National Forest Park
Huzhong National Forest Park
Hongsonglin National Forest Park
Qixingfeng National Forest Park
Jinlongshan National Forest Park
Xianwengshan National Forest Park
Jagdaqi National Forest Park
Hulan National Forest Park
Changshoushan National Forest Park
Huachuan National Forest Park
Shuangzishan National Forest Park
Xianglushan National Forest Park
Daqingguan National Forest Park
Xiao Hinggan Ling Korean Pine National Forest Park
Huaxiadongji National Forest Park
Shendongshan National Forest Park
Qixingshan National Forest Park
Dale National Forest Park
Nianzishan National Forest Park
Zhalinkur National Forest Park
Tianshi National Forest Park
Hailun National Forest Park
Shanghai
Sheshan National Forest Park
Dongping National Forest Park
Shanghai Haiwan National Forest Park
Shanghai Gongqing National Forest Park
Jiangsu
Yushan National Forest Park
Shangfangshan National Forest Park
Xuzhou Huancheng National Forest Park
Yixing National Forest Park
Huishan National Forest Park
Dongwu National Forest Park
Yuntaishan National Forest Park
Xuyi Diyishan National Forest Park
Nanshan National Forest Park
Baohuashan National Forest Park
Xishan National Forest Park
Nanjing Zijinshan National Forest Park
Tieshansi National Forest Park
Dayangshan National Forest Park
Nanjing Qixiashan National Forest Park
Nanjing Laoshan National Forest Park
Tianmuhu National Forest Park
Nanjing Wuxiangshan National Forest Park
Huanghai Haibin National Forest Park
Santaishan National Forest Park
Nantong Langshan National Forest Park
Zhejiang
Qiandaohu National Forest Park
Daqishan National Forest Park
Lanting National Forest Park
Wuchaoshan National Forest Park
Fuchunjiang National Forest Park
Zhuxiang National Forest Park
Tiantong National Forest Park
Yandangshan National Forest Park
Xikou National Forest Park
Jiulongshan National Forest Park
Shuanglongdong National Forest Park
Huading National Forest Park
Qingshanhu National Forest Park
Yucangshan National Forest Park
Qianjiangyuan National Forest Park
Ziweishan National Forest Park
Tonglingshan National Forest Park
Huayan National Forest Park
Longwantan National Forest Park
Suichang National Forest Park
Wuxie National Forest Park
Shuangfeng National Forest Park
Shimendong National Forest Park
Simingshan National Forest Park
Xianxia National Forest Park
Daxi National Forest Park
Songyang Maoshan National Forest Park
Niutoushan National Forest Park
Sanqu National Forest Park
Jingshan (Shangougou) National Forest Park
Nanshanhu National Forest Park
Dazhuhai National Forest Park
Xianju National Forest Park
Tonglu Yaolin National Forest Park
Zhuji Grand Torreya National Forest Park
Hangzhou Banshan National Forest Park
Qingyuan National Forest Park
Youzishan National Forest Park
Hangzhou Xishan National Forest Park
Liangxi National Forest Park
Lishui Baiyun National Forest Park
Kuocangshan National Forest Park
Shaoxing Kuaijishan National Forest Park
Shexiang Caoyutang National Forest Park
Dongyang Nanshan National Forest Park
Anhui
Huangshan National Forest Park
Langyashan National Forest Park
Tianzhushan National Forest Park
Jiuhuashan National Forest Park
Huangcangyu National Forest Park
Huizhou National Forest Park
Dalongshan National Forest Park
Zipengshan National Forest Park
Huangfushan National Forest Park
Tiantangzhai National Forest Park
Jilongshan National Forest Park
Yefushan National Forest Park
Taihushan National Forest Park
Shenshan National Forest Park
Miaodaoshan National Forest Park
Tianjingshan National Forest Park
Shungengshan National Forest Park
Fushan National Forest Park
Shiliandong National Forest Park
Qiyunshan National Forest Park
Jiushan National Forest Park
Hengshan National Forest Park
Jingtingshan National Forest Park
Bagongshan National Forest Park
Wanfoshan National Forest Park
Qinglongwan National Forest Park
Shuixi National Forest Park
Shangyao National Forest Park
Marenshan National Forest Park
Hefei Dashushan National Forest Park
Hefei Binhu National Forest Park
Tachuan National Forest Park
Laojiashan National Forest Park
Majiaxi National Forest Park
Xiangshan National Forest Park
Fujian
Fuzhou National Forest Park
Tianzhushan National Forest Park
Pingtan Haidao National Forest Park
Hua'an National Forest Park
Mao'ershan National Forest Park
Longyan National Forest Park
Qishan National Forest Park
Sanyuan National Forest Park
Lingshishan National Forest Park
Dongshan National Forest Park
Jiangle Tianjieshan National Forest Park
Dehua Shiniushan National Forest Park
Xiamen Lianhua National Forest Park
Sanming Xianrengu National Forest Park
Shanghang National Forest Park
Wuyishan National Forest Park
Wushan National Forest Park
Zhangping Tiantai National Forest Park
Wangshoushan National Forest Park
Jiulonggu National Forest Park
Zhitishan National Forest Park
Tianxingshan National Forest Park
Minjiangyuan National Forest Park
Jiulong Zhuhai National Forest Park
Changle National Forest Park
Kuangshan National Forest Park
Longhushan National Forest Park (revoked on December 29, 2015)
Nanjing Tulou National Forest Park
Wuyi Tianchi National Forest Park
Wuhushan National Forest Park
Yangmeizhou Xiagu National Forest Park
Jiangxi
Sanzhualun National Forest Park
Lushan Shannan National Forest Park
Meiling National Forest Park
Sanbaishan National Forest Park
Mazushan National Forest Park
Poyanghukou National Forest Park
Lingyandong National Forest Park
Mingyueshan National Forest Park
Cuiweifeng National Forest Park
Tianzhufeng National Forest Park
Taihe National Forest Park
Ehushan National Forest Park
Guifeng National Forest Park
Shangqing National Forest Park
Meiguan National Forest Park
Yongfeng National Forest Park
Gezaoshan National Forest Park
Sandiequan National Forest Park
Wugongshan National Forest Park
Tongboshan National Forest Park
Yangmingshan National Forest Park
Tianhuajing National Forest Park
Wuzhifeng National Forest Park
Zhelinhu National Forest Park
Ganzhou Yangminghu National Forest Park
Wan'an National Forest Park
Sanwan National Forest Park
Anyuan National Forest Park
Jiulianshan National Forest Park
Yanquan National Forest Park
Yunbifeng National Forest Park
Jingdezhen National Forest Park
Yaoli National Forest Park
Fengshan National Forest Park
Qingliangshan National Forest Park
Jiulingshan National Forest Park
Censhan National Forest Park
Wufushan National Forest Park
Junfengshan National Forest Park
Bihutan National Forest Park
Huaiyushan National Forest Park
Yangtiangang National Forest Park
Shengshuitang National Forest Park
Poyang Lianhuashan National Forest Park
Pengze National Forest Park
Jinpenshan National Forest Park
Guixi National Forest Park
Huichangshan National Forest Park
Luoxiaoshan Daxiagu National Forest Park
Hongyan National Forest Park
Shandong
Laoshan National Forest Park
Baodugu National Forest Park
Huanghekou National Forest Park
Kunyushan National Forest Park
Luoshan National Forest Park
Changdao National Forest Park
Yishan National Forest Park
Nishan National Forest Park
Taishan National Forest Park
Culaishan National Forest Park
Rizhao Haibin National Forest Park
Hebanshan National Forest Park
Menglianggu National Forest Park
Liubu National Forest Park
Liugongdao National Forest Park
Chashan National Forest Park
Yaoxiang National Forest Park
Yuanshan National Forest Park
Lingshanwan National Forest Park
Shuangdao National Forest Park
Mengshan National Forest Park
Lashan National Forest Park
Yangtianshan National Forest Park
Weideshan National Forest Park
Zhushan National Forest Park
Juyushan National Forest Park
Niushan National Forest Park
Lushan National Forest Park
Wulianshan National Forest Park
Laiwu Huashan National Forest Park
Aishan National Forest Park
Longkou Nanshan National Forest Park
Xintai Lianhuashan National Forest Park
Zhaohushan National Forest Park
Yashan National Forest Park
Shouyangshan National Forest Park
Dong'e Huanghe National Forest Park
Ezhuang Ancient Village National Forest Park
Yishan National Forest Park
Tengzhou Mozi National Forest Park
Mizhou National Forest Park
Liushan Paleovolcano National Forest Park
Quanlin National Forest Park
Zhangqiu National Forest Park
Yicheng Ancient Pomegranate National Forest Park
Qishanyouxia National Forest Park
Xiajin Huanghe Gudao National Forest Park
Chiping National Forest Park
Panlongshan National Forest Park
Henan
Songshan National Forest Park
Sishan National Forest Park
Ruzhou National Forest Park
Shimantan National Forest Park
Boshan National Forest Park
Kaifeng National Forest Park
Yawushan National Forest Park
Huaguoshan National Forest Park
Yuntaishan National Forest Park
Baiyunshan National Forest Park
Longyuwan National Forest Park
Wulongdong National Forest Park
Nanwan National Forest Park
Ganshan National Forest Park
Huaiheyuan National Forest Park
Shenlingzhai National Forest Park
Tongshanhu National Forest Park
Huanghe Gudao National Forest Park
Yushan National Forest Park
Jinlanshan National Forest Park
Yuhuangshan National Forest Park
Chayashan National Forest Park
Tianchishan National Forest Park
Shizushan National Forest Park
Huangbaishan National Forest Park
Yanzishan National Forest Park
Tangxiyuan National Forest Park
Dahongzhai National Forest Park
Tianmushan National Forest Park, Xinyang
Dasushan National Forest Park
Yunmengshan National Forest Park
Jindingshan National Forest Park
Songding National Forest Park
Hubei
Jiufeng National Forest Park
Lumensi National Forest Park
Yuquansi National Forest Park
Dalaoling National Forest Park
Shennongjia National Forest Park
Longmenhe National Forest Park
Xieshan National Forest Park
Dakou National Forest Park
Qingjiang National Forest Park
Dabieshan National Forest Park
Chaibuxi National Forest Park
Qianshan National Forest Park
Balingshan National Forest Park
Weishui National Forest Park
Taizishan National Forest Park
Sanjiaoshan National Forest Park
Zhonghuashan National Forest Park
Hong'an Tiantaishan National Forest Park
Pingbaying National Forest Park
Wujiashan National Forest Park
Shuangfengshan National Forest Park
Qianfodong National Forest Park
Dahongshan National Forest Park
Huzhuashan National Forest Park
Wu'naoshan National Forest Park
Canglangshan National Forest Park
Anlu Ancient Gingko National Forest Park
Niutoushan National Forest Park
Sijingyuan National Forest Park
Jiunüfeng National Forest Park
Piantoushan National Forest Park
Danjiangkou National Forest Park
Chongyang National Forest Park
Hanjiang Waterfalls National Forest Park
Xisaiguo National Forest Park
Xianshan National Forest Park
Baizhuyuansi National Forest Park
Badong National Forest Park
Hunan
Zhangjiajie National Forest Park
Shennonggu National Forest Park
Mangshan National Forest Park
Daweishan National Forest Park
Yunshan National Forest Park
Jiuyishan National Forest Park
Yangmingshan National Forest Park
Nanhuashan National Forest Park
Huangshantou National Forest Park
Taohuayuan National Forest Park
Tianmenshan National Forest Park
Tianjiling National Forest Park
Tian'eshan National Forest Park
Shunhuangshan National Forest Park, Dong'an
Dongtaishan National Forest Park
Jiashansi National Forest Park
Bu'ermen National Forest Park
Hefu National Forest Park
Gouloufeng National Forest Park
Dayunshan National Forest Park
Huayanxi National Forest Park
Daxiongshan National Forest Park
Zhongpo National Forest Park
Yunyang National Forest Park
Jindong National Forest Park
Mufushan National Forest Park
Baili Longshan National Forest Park
Qianjiadong National Forest Park
Liangjiang Xiagu National Forest Park
Xuefengshan National Forest Park
Wujianshan National Forest Park
Taohuajiang National Forest Park
Xiangjiangyuan National Forest Park
Yueyan National Forest Park
Fengluanxi National Forest Park
Zhexi National Forest Park
Tiantangshan National Forest Park
Ningxiang Xiangshan National Forest Park
Jiulongjiang National Forest Park
Songyunshan National Forest Park
Tianquanshan National Forest Park
Xiyao Lügu National Forest Park
Qingyanghu National Forest Park (revoked on April 10, 2018)
Xiongfengshan National Forest Park
Nuoxi National Forest Park
Fuyinshan National Forest Park
Zuolongxia National Forest Park
Changsha Heimifeng National Forest Park
Youzhou National Forest Park
Aizhai National Forest Park
Jiashan National Forest Park
Yongxing Danxia National Forest Park
Qiyunfeng National Forest Park
Simingshan National Forest Park
Beiluoxiao National Forest Park
Jingzhou National Forest Park
Jiahe National Forest Park
Yuanling National Forest Park
Xupu National Forest Park
Hanshou Zhuhai National Forest Park
Xuanzhou National Forest Park
Qishan National Forest Park
Taibaifeng National Forest Park
Tengyunling National Forest Park
Guangdong
Wutongshan National Forest Park
Wanyou National Forest Park (revoked on November 9, 2010)
Xiaokeng National Forest Park
Nan'ao Haidao National Forest Park
Nanling National Forest Park
Xinfengjiang National Forest Park
Shaoguan National Forest Park
Donghaidao National Forest Park (revoked on December 29, 2015)
Liuxihe National Forest Park
Nankunshan National Forest Park
Xiqiaoshan National Forest Park
Shimen National Forest Park
Guifengshan National Forest Park
Yingde National Forest Park
Guangning Zhuhai National Forest Park
Beifengshan National Forest Park
Daiwangshan National Forest Park
Shenguangshan National Forest Park
Guanyinshan National Forest Park
Lianghua National Forest Park
Sanlingshan National Forest Park
Yanminghu National Forest Park
Tianjingshan National Forest Park
Dabeishan National Forest Park
Zhenshan National Forest Park
Nantaishan National Forest Park
Kanghe Wenquan National Forest Park
Yinnashan National Forest Park
Zhongshan National Forest Park
Yunyong National Forest Park
Guangxi
Guilin National Forest Park
Liangfengjiang National Forest Park
Sanmenjiang National Forest Park
Longtan National Forest Park
Daguishan National Forest Park
Yuanbaoshan National Forest Park
Bajiaozhai National Forest Park
Shiwandashan National Forest Park
Longsheng Wenquan National Forest Park
Guposhan National Forest Park
Dayaoshan National Forest Park
Huangjingdong Tiankeng National Forest Park
Feilonghu National Forest Park
Taiping Shishan National Forest Park
Darongshan National Forest Park
Yangshuo National Forest Park
Jiulong Cascades National Forest Park
Pingtianshan National Forest Park
Hongchagou National Forest Park
Longtan Daxiagu National Forest Park
Shizishan National Forest Park
Longxiashan National Forest Park
Fengshan Gendan National Forest Park
Hainan
Jianfengling National Forest Park
Lanyang Wenquan National Forest Park
Diaoluoshan National Forest Park
Haikou Huoshan National Forest Park
Qixianling Wenquan National Forest Park
Limushan National Forest Park
Haishang National Forest Park
Bawangling National Forest Park
Xinglong Qiaoxiang National Forest Park
Chongqing
Shuangguishan National Forest Park
Xiaosanxia National Forest Park
Jinfoshan National Forest Park
Huangshui National Forest Park
Xiannüshan National Forest Park
Maoyunshan National Forest Park
Wulingshan National Forest Park
Qinglonghu National Forest Park
Qianjiang National Forest Park
Liangping Dongshan National Forest Park
Qiaokouba National Forest Park
Tiefengshan National Forest Park
Hongchiba National Forest Park
Xuebaoshan National Forest Park
Yulongshan National Forest Park
Heishan National Forest Park
Geleshan National Forest Park
Chashan Zhuhai National Forest Park
Jiuchongshan National Forest Park
Dayuandong National Forest Park
Chongqing Nanshan National Forest Park
Guanyinxia National Forest Park
Tianchishan National Forest Park
Youyang Taohuayuan National Forest Park
Bargai National Forest Park
Yuqingshan National Forest Park
Sichuan
Dujiangyan National Forest Park
Jianmenguan National Forest Park
Wawushan National Forest Park
Gaoshan National Forest Park
Xiling National Forest Park
Ertan National Forest Park
Hailuogou National Forest Park
Qiqushan National Forest Park
Jiuzhai National Forest Park
Tiantaishan National Forest Park
Fubao National Forest Park
Heizhugou National Forest Park
Jiajinshan National Forest Park
Longcanggou National Forest Park
Meinüfeng National Forest Park
Longmenshan National Forest Park
Huayingshan National Forest Park
Wufengshan National Forest Park
Qianfoshan National Forest Park
Copu National Forest Park
Micangshan National Forest Park
Erlangshan National Forest Park
Tianzhaoshan National Forest Park
Zhenlongshan National Forest Park
Yaksha National Forest Park
Tianmashan National Forest Park
Kongshan National Forest Park
Yunhu National Forest Park
Tieshan National Forest Park
Hehuahai National Forest Park
Lingyunshan National Forest Park
Beichuan National Forest Park
Langzhong National Forest Park
Xuanhan National Forest Park
Cangxi National Forest Park
Muchuan National Forest Park
Jiguanshan National Forest Park
Xianshuihe Daxiagu National Forest Park
Shalulishan National Forest Park
Jinchuan National Forest Park
Huangjinglaolin National Forest Park
Peng'an National Forest Park
Taipengshan National Forest Park
Congrengu National Forest Park
Guizhou
Baili Dujuan National Forest Park
Zhuhai National Forest Park
Jiulongshan National Forest Park
Fenghuangshan National Forest Park
Changpoling National Forest Park
Yaorenshan National Forest Park
Yanziyan National Forest Park
Yushe National Forest Park
Leigongshan National Forest Park
Xishui National Forest Park
Liping National Forest Park
Zhujiashan National Forest Park
Zilinshan National Forest Park
Wuyanghu National Forest Park
Hezhang Yelang National Forest Park
Xianheping National Forest Park
Qingyunhu National Forest Park
Bijie National Forest Park
Dabanshui National Forest Park
Longjiashan National Forest Park
Jiudaoshui National Forest Park
Taijiang National Forest Park
Ganxi National Forest Park
Youshanhe Daxiagu National Forest Park
Huangguoshupubuyuan National Forest Park
Yang'asha National Forest Park
Fuquan National Forest Park
Jinsha Lengshuihe National Forest Park
Yunnan
Weibaoshan National Forest Park
Tianxing National Forest Park
Qinghuadong National Forest Park
Dongshan National Forest Park
Laifengshan National Forest Park
Huayudong National Forest Park
Mopanshan National Forest Park
Longquan National Forest Park
Taiyanghe National Forest Park
Jindian National Forest Park
Zhangfeng National Forest Park
Shibalianshan National Forest Park
Lubuge National Forest Park
Zhujiangyuan National Forest Park
Wufengshan National Forest Park
Zhonglingshan National Forest Park
Qipanshan National Forest Park
Lingbaoshan National Forest Park
Xiaobailong National Forest Park (revoked on March 9, 2015)
Wulaoshan National Forest Park
Tongluoba National Forest Park
Zijinshan National Forest Park
Feilaisi National Forest Park
Guishan National Forest Park
Xinshengqiao National Forest Park
Xishuangbanna National Forest Park
Baotaishan National Forest Park
Shuangjiang Ancient Tea Hill National Forest Park
Lancang National Forest Park
Yongren Jinshajiang National Forest Park
Bojijin National Forest Park
Mojiang National Forest Park
Guanyinshan National Forest Park
Yunlong National Forest Park
Tibet
Pagsum Hu National Forest Park
Sêrkyimla National Forest Park
Kangrinboqê National Forest Park
Banggong Hu National Forest Park
Ra'og Hu National Forest Park
Razhêng National Forest Park
Jêdêxoi National Forest Park
Nyêmo National Forest Park
Biri Shenshan National Forest Park
Shaanxi
Taibaishan National Forest Park
Yan'an National Forest Park
Louguantai National Forest Park
Zhongnanshan National Forest Park
Jialingjiangyuan National Forest Park
Tianhuashan National Forest Park
Zhuque National Forest Park
Nangongshan National Forest Park
Wangshunshan National Forest Park
Wulongdong National Forest Park
Lishan National Forest Park
Hanzhong Tiantai National Forest Park
Jinsi Daxiagu National Forest Park
Tongtianhe National Forest Park
Liping National Forest Park
Muwang National Forest Park
Yulin Shamo National Forest Park
Laoshan National Forest Park
Taiping National Forest Park
Guiguling National Forest Park
Yuhuagong National Forest Park
Qianjiaping National Forest Park
Mangtoushan National Forest Park
Shangbahe National Forest Park
Heihe National Forest Park
Hongqingshan National Forest Park
Niubeiliang National Forest Park
Tianzhushan National Forest Park
Zibaishan National Forest Park
Shaohuashan National Forest Park
Shimenshan National Forest Park
Huangling National Forest Park
Qingfengxia National Forest Park
Huanglongshan National Forest Park
Hanyin Fenghuangshan National Forest Park
Ziwuling National Forest Park
Wudishan National Forest Park
Gansu
Tulugou National Forest Park
Shifogou National Forest Park
Songmingyan National Forest Park
Yunyasi National Forest Park
Xujiashan National Forest Park
Guiqingshan National Forest Park
Maiji National Forest Park
Jifengshan National Forest Park
Weiheyuan National Forest Park
Tianzhu Sanxia National Forest Park
Yeliguan National Forest Park
Shatan National Forest Park
Guan'egou National Forest Park
Dayu National Forest Park
Lazikou National Forest Park
Wenxian Tianchi National Forest Park
Lianhuashan National Forest Park
Shoulushan National Forest Park
Zhouzuling National Forest Park
Xiaolongshan National Forest Park
Daxiagou National Forest Park
Ziwuling National Forest Park
Qinghai
Kamra National Forest Park
Beishan National Forest Park
Datong National Forest Park
Qunjia National Forest Park
Xianmi National Forest Park
Maixiu National Forest Park
Harhd National Forest Park
Ningxia
Helanshan National Forest Park
Liupanshan National Forest Park
Huamasi National Forest Park
Huoshizhai National Forest Park
Xinjiang
Tianshan Daxiagu National Forest Park
Tianchi National Forest Park
Narat National Forest Park
Künes National Forest Park
Jadeng Yu National Forest Park
Bai Kaba National Forest Park
Tanbula National Forest Park
Janbulag National Forest Park
Kosan Rongdong National Forest Park
Jinhuyang National Forest Park
Gongliu Qaxi National Forest Park
Hami Tianshan National Forest Park
Har Tulag National Forest Park
Usu Foshan National Forest Park
Habahe White Birch National Forest Park
Altai Shan Wenquan National Forest Park
Xat Gudao National Forest Park
Taxihe National Forest Park
Bachu Euphrates Poplar National Forest Park
Ürümqi Tianshan National Forest Park
Jushi Gudao National Forest Park
Baishifeng National Forest Park
Lujiaowan National Forest Park
Guozigou National Forest Park
National Wood (Flower) Parks of China
Ratified by: State Forestry Administration
Number of NW/FPs (unit): 17 (as at January 25, 2018)
Hebei
Xingtang National Red Date Park
Qianxi National Chinese Chestnut Park
Jingxing Canglongshan National Weeping Forsythia Park
Shanxi
Jishan National Chinese Chestnut Park
Jiangsu
Pizhou National Ginkgo Expo Park
Taixing National Ancient Ginkgo Park
Zhejiang
Changshan National Tea-Oil Camellia Park
Anhui
Wuhu Yashan National Peony Park
Huaibei Lieshan National Pomegranate Park
Shandong
Tancheng National Ginkgo Park
Henan
Luoyang National Peony Park
Yanling National Ornamental Plants Expo Park
Xinzheng National Ancient Jujube Grove Park
Sichuan
Jiangyou National Lily Park
Mianzhu National Rose Park
Guizhou
Shuicheng National Azalea Park
Yunnan
Ruili National Noble Dendrobium Park
State Key Parks of China
Ratified by: Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development
Number of SKPs (unit): 63 (as at December 17, 2010)
Total Number of Public Parks (unit): 11,604 (as of 2012)
Area of Public Parks (10,000 ha): 30.6245 (as of 2012)
Beijing
Summer Palace
Tiantan Park
Beihai Park
Beijing Zoo
Beijing Botanical Garden
Zhongshan Park
Jingshan Park
Xiangshan Park
Zizhuyuan Park
Taoranting Park
Hebei
Congtai Park, Handan
Shanxi
Jiangshou Juyuanchi Park, Xinjiang (Jiangshou Juyuanchi: Site of “Residential Water Garden attached to Jiangzhou Prefecture Office”, Sui dynasty, a provincially protected monument and site)
Beilin Park, Taiyuan (alt. Stele Grove Park)
Liaoning
Dongling Park, Shenyang
Beiling Park, Shenyang
Jilin
Changchun World Sculpture Park
Jiangsu
Humble Administrator's Garden, Suzhou
Lingering Garden, Suzhou
Master of the Nets Garden, Suzhou
Mountain Villa with Embracing Beauty, Suzhou
Lion Grove Garden, Suzhou
Garden of Cultivation, Suzhou
Garden of Couple's Retreat, Suzhou
Retreat and Reflection Garden, Suzhou
Blue Wave Pavilion, Suzhou
Ge Garden, Yangzhou
He Garden, Yangzhou
Huqiu Hill, Suzhou
Shouxihu Park, Yangzhou (Slender West Lake)
Hongmei Park, Changzhou
Xuanwuhu Park, Nanjing (Xuanwu Lake)
Meiyuan Garden, Wuxi
Xihui Park, Wuxi
Jinshan Park, Zhenjiang (Jinshan Hill)
Zhejiang
Fushan Park, Quzhou
Lianhuazhuang Park, Huzhou
Anhui
City Ring Park, Hefei
Fujian
Xiamen Botanical Garden
Xiamen Horticulture Expo Garden
Zhongshan Park, Xiamen
Luoxingta Park, Fuzhou (Luoxing Pagoda)
Donghu Park, Quanzhou (East Lake)
Bailuzhou Park, Xiamen
Jiangxi
Nanhu Park, Jiujiang (South Lake)
Shandong
Baotuquan Park, Jinan
Daming Lake, Jinan
Henan
Bishagang Park, Zhengzhou
Renmin Park, Zhengzhou (alt. People's Park)
Hubei
Zhongshan Park, Wuhan
Huanghelou Park, Wuhan
Jiefang Park, Wuhan (alt. Liberation Park)
Hunan
Hunan Martyr's Park, Changsha
Guangdong
Yuexiu Park, Guangzhou
Xianhu Botanical Garden, Shenzhen
Shenzhen International Garden and Flower Expo Park
Lianhuashan Park (Lianhua Hill)
Guangxi
Marquis Liu Park, Liuzhou
Longtan Park, Liuzhou
Chongqing
Nanshan Botanical Garden
Eling Park
Chongqing Zoo
Shaanxi
Yan Emperor Garden, Baoji
Ningxia
Zhongshan Park, Yinchuan
National Urban Wetland Parks of China
Ratified by: Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development
Number of NUWPs (unit): 58 (as at January 11, 2017)
Total Number of UWPs (unit): TBV
Beijing
Cuihu National Urban Wetland Park, Haidian
Hebei
Nanhu National Urban Wetland Park, Tangshan
Jumayuan National Urban Wetland Park, Laiyuan, Baoding
Shanxi
Changzhi National Urban Wetland Park
Shengxihu National Urban Wetland Park, Xiaoyi
Inner Mongolia
Ergun National Urban Wetland Park
Liaoning
Lianhuahu National Urban Wetland Park, Tieling
Jilin
Nanhu National Urban Wetland Park, Zhenlai
Heilongjiang
Yuting National Urban Wetland Park, Nehe
Qunli National Urban Wetland Park, Harbin
Wudalianchi Huoshan National Urban Wetland Park
Jiangsu
Changguangxi National Urban Wetland Park, Wuxi
Shanghu National Urban Wetland Park, Changshu
Shajiabang National Urban Wetland Park, Changshu
Lushuiwan National Urban Wetland Park, Nanjing
Kunshan Urban Ecopark
Guchenghu National Urban Wetland Park, Gaochun, Nanjing
Dayangwan National Urban Wetland Park, Yancheng
Zhejiang
Jinghu National Urban Wetland Park, Shaoxing
Sanjiang National Urban Wetland Park, Linhai
Jianyanghu National Urban Wetland Park, Taizhou
Shijiuyang National Urban Wetland Park, Jiaxing
Wuxing Xishanyang National Urban Wetland Park, Huzhou
Anhui
Nanhu National Urban Wetland Park, Huaibei
Shijianhu National Urban Wetland Park, Huainan
Xihu National Urban Wetland Park, Tongling
Fujian
Xinglinwan National Urban Wetland Park, Xiamen
Jiangxi
Kongmujiang National Urban Wetland Park, Xinyu
Shandong
Sanggouwan National Urban Wetland Park, Rongcheng
Mingyuehu National Urban Wetland Park, Dongying
Daotunwa National Urban Wetland Park, Dongping
Binhe National Urban Wetland Park, Linyi
Xiaohai'erkou National Urban Wetland Park, Haiyang
Dawenhe National Urban Wetland Park, Anqiu
Tuhaihe National Urban Wetland Park, Zhanhua
Shuangyuehu National Urban Wetland Park, Linyi
Bailang Lüzhou National Urban Wetland Park, Weifang
Weishui Fengqing National Urban Wetland Park, Changyi
Binhe National Urban Wetland Park, Shouguang
Henan
Tian'ehu National Urban Wetland Park, Sanmenxia
Baihe National Urban Wetland Park, Nanyang
Pingxihu National Urban Wetland Park, Pingdingshan
Bailuzhou National Urban Wetland Park, Pingdingshan
Hubei
Jinyinhu National Urban Wetland Park, Wuhan
Hunan
Xidongtinghu Qingshanhu National Urban Wetland Park, Changde
Guangdong
Lutanghe National Urban Wetland Park, Zhanjiang
Dongguan National Urban Wetland Park
Dayawan Mangrove Forest National Urban Wetland Park, Huizhou
Chongqing
Guanyintang National Urban Wetland Park, Bishan
Sichuan
Langzhong Gucheng National Urban Wetland Park
Bailuwan National Urban Wetland Park, Chengdu
Guizhou
Huaxi National Urban Wetland Park, Guiyang
Hongfenghu - Baihuahu National Urban Wetland Park, Guiyang
Huangguoshu National Urban Wetland park, Anshun
Gansu
Chengbei National Urban Wetland Park, Zhangye
Heihe National Urban Wetland Park, Gaotai, Zhangye
Ningxia
Baohu National Urban Wetland Park, Yinchuan
Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps
Qinggedahu National Urban Wetland Park, Wujiaqu, XPCC Sixth Division
National Wetland Parks of China
Ratified by: State Forestry and Grassland Administration
Number of NWPs (unit): 903 (incl. 555 formally designated sites [*], 7 upgraded sites in accordance with the revised provisions [**/ note 1] & 341 pilot sites; excl. 8 disqualified pilot sites [note 2], as at December 29, 2022)
Area of NWPs (10,000 ha): 36.0 (as of 2008)
Total Number of WPs (unit): TBV
Beijing
Yeyahu National Wetland Park *
Fangshan Changgou Quanshui National Wetland Park *
Tianjin
Wuqing Yongdinghe Gudao National Wetland Park *
Baodi Chaobaihe National Wetland Park *
Jixian Zhouhe National Wetland Park, Jizhou *
Xiaying Huanxiuhu National Wetland Park *
Hebei
Bashang Shandianhe National Wetland Park *
Beidaihe National Wetland Park *
Fengning Hailiutu National Wetland Park *
Shangyi Qagan Nur National Wetland Park *
Kangbao Kamba Nur National Wetland Park *
Yongnianwa National Wetland Park *
Chongli Qingshuiheyuan National Wetland Park (qualification cancelled on December 22, 2017)
Mulan Weichang Xiaoluanhe National Wetland Park *
Xianghe Chaobaihe Dayunhe National Wetland Park
Huailai Guanting Shuiku National Wetland Park *
Zhangbei Huanggainao National Wetland Park *
Shexian Qingzhanghe National Wetland Park *
Chengde Shuangtashan Luanhe National Wetland Park *
Neiqiu Queshanhu National Wetland Park *
Fengfeng Fuyanghe National Wetland Park *
Longhua Yixunhe National Wetland Park *
Qinglonghu National Wetland Park *
Renxian Daluze National Wetland Park
Lulong Yiqubaiku National Wetland Park *
Luanping Chaohe National Wetland Park
Yuxian Huliuhe National Wetland Park
Zhuolu Sangganhe National Wetland Park
Yangyuan Sangganhe National Wetland Park
Shanxi
Gucheng National Wetland Park *
Changyuanhe National Wetland Park *
Qianquanhu National Wetland Park *
Shuanglonghu National Wetland Park *
Wenyuhe National Wetland Park *
Jiexiu Fenhe National Wetland Park *
Shenxi National Wetland Park *
Qinheyuan National Wetland Park *
Zhangzi Jingweihu National Wetland Park *
Jishan Fenhe National Wetland Park *
Xiaoyi Xiaohe National Wetland Park *
Jingle Fenhechuan National Wetland Park *
Hongtong Fenhe National Wetland Park *
Youyu Cangtouhe National Wetland Park *
Datong Sangganhe National Wetland Park *
Huairen Kouquanhe National Wetland Park *
Zuoquan Qingzhanghe National Wetland Park *
Zezhou Danhe National Wetland Park
Yushe Zhanghe National Wetland Park *
Shanyin Sangganhe National Wetland Park **
Inner Mongolia
Bailang Tao'erhe National Wetland Park *
Alxa Huanghe National Wetland Park *
Baotou Huanghe National Wetland Park *
Narin Hu National Wetland Park *
Bameihu National Wetland Park *
Ergun National Wetland Park *
Mianduhe National Wetland Park *
Suorqi National Wetland Park *
Xilinhe National Wetland Park *
Har'us Hai National Wetland Park *
Xar Us National Wetland Park *
Duolun Luanheyuan National Wetland Park *
Wuhai Longyouwan National Wetland Park *
Linhe Huanghe National Wetland Park *
Ulan Hot Tao'erhe National Wetland Park *
Shangduhe National Wetland Park, Zhenglan Banner *
Bailang Olon Bugan National Wetland Park *
Zalantun Xiushui National Wetland Park *
Mohort National Wetland Park *
Chen Barag Tohoi National Wetland Park *
Bairin Yaluhe National Wetland Park
Manzhouli Erka National Wetland Park
Naiman Mengjiaduan National Wetland Park *
Baotou Hondlon He National Wetland Park *
Xinghe Qar Hu National Wetland Park
Dengkou Nailunhu National Wetland Park
Jining Bawanghe National Wetland Park
Ulan Nur National Wetland Park, Dalad Banner
Jalaid Chaor Tohin He National Wetland Park *
Hulstai Nur National Wetland Park, Horqin Left Rear Banner
Olji Moron He National Wetland Park, Bairin Left Banner
Manzhouli Holgin Bulag National Wetland Park
Nanmu Yakehe National Wetland Park *
Onor Changshouhu National Wetland Park *
Hulun Buir Yinlinghe National Wetland Park
Honggolj Yiminhe National Wetland Park *
Chaihe Gol National Wetland Park *
Morin Dawa Bayan National Wetland Park
Junmahu National Wetland Park, Zhengxiangbai Banner
Xilin Gol Jinghu National Wetland Park
Hunhe National Wetland Park, Qingshuihe
Shangdu Qagan Nur National Wetland Park **
Liaoning
Tieling Lianhuahu National Wetland Park *
Dahuofang National Wetland Park *
Datanghe National Wetland Park *
Huanlonghu National Wetland Park *
Faku Huanzidong National Wetland Park *
Liaozhong Puhe National Wetland Park *
Fushun Shehe National Wetland Park *
Shenbei Qixing National Wetland Park *
Huludao Longxing National Wetland Park
Beizhen Xinlihu National Wetland Park *
Fengcheng Caohe National Wetland Park
Lingyuan Qinglonghe National Wetland Park
Panshan Raoyangwan National Wetland Park
Changtu Liaohe National Wetland Park
Kangping Liaohe National Wetland Park *
Yixian Dalinghe National Wetland Park
Panjin Liaohe National Wetland Park
Wensheng Taizihe National Wetland Park
Jilin
Mopanhu National Wetland Park *
Fuyu Dajinbei National Wetland Park *
Da'an Nenjiangwan National Wetland Park *
Dashitou Yaguanghu National Wetland Park *
Yushu Laoganjiang National Wetland Park (qualification cancelled on August 16, 2016)
Niuxintaobao National Wetland Park *
Zhenlai Huancheng National Wetland Park *
Dongliao Ciluhu National Wetland Park *
Changchun Beihu National Wetland Park *
Changbai Nilihe National Wetland Park *
Helong Quanshuihe National Wetland Park *
Tonghua Laguhe National Wetland Park *
Bajiazi Gudonghe National Wetland Park *
Changbaishan Jianshuihe National Wetland Park *
Ji'an Bawangchao National Wetland Park *
Linjiang Wudaogou National Wetland Park *
Liaoyuan Fengminghu National Wetland Park
Nong'an Taipingchi National Wetland Park
Changchun Xinlihu National Wetland Park
Baishan Zhubaohe National Wetland Park *
Wangqing Gayahe National Wetland Park *
Dunhua Qiuligou National Wetland Park
Siping Jiashutaihu National Wetland Park
Taonan Sihaihu National Wetland Park
Heilongjiang
Taiyangdao National Wetland Park *
Baiyupao National Wetland Park *
Fujin National Wetland Park *
Anbanghe National Wetland Park *
Tatouhuhe National Wetland Park *
Qiqihar Mingxingdao National Wetland Park *
Taihu National Wetland Park *
Zhaoyueshan National Wetland Park *
Tongjiang Sanjiangkou National Wetland Park *
Heixiazidao National Wetland Park *
Bayan Jiangwan National Wetland Park *
Dorbod Tianhu National Wetland Park *
Mayanhe National Wetland Park *
Zhaoyuan Lianhuahu National Wetland Park *
Mulan Songhuajiang National Wetland Park *
Baihuachuan National Wetland Park *
Binxian Erlonghu National Wetland Park
Tonghe Erlongtan National Wetland Park *
Yichun Maolanhekou National Wetland Park *
Hegang Shilihe National Wetland Park *
Hulin National Wetland Park
Tahe Guqigu National Wetland Park *
Anda Gudahu National Wetland Park *
Qitaihe Taoshanhu National Wetland Park *
Harbin Songbei National Wetland Park *
Qinggang Jinghe National Wetland Park
Raohe Wusulijiang National Wetland Park *
Dongning Suifenhe National Wetland Park *
Qiqihar Jiangxindao National Wetland Park *
Hulanhekou National Wetland Park
Shangzhi Mayihe National Wetland Park
Fuyu Long'anqiao National Wetland Park *
Suibin Yueyahu National Wetland Park *
Bei'an Uyer He National Wetland Park (alt. Uyerin Gol)
Harbin Alejindao National Wetland Park *
Mudanjiang Yanjiang National Wetland Park
Hailanghe National Wetland Park, Xi'an District
Fangzhenghu National Wetland Park
Harbin Ashihe National Wetland Park *
Daqing heiyuhu National Wetland Park
Nianzishan Yaluhe National Wetland Park
Heihe Kunhe National Wetland Park
Lanxi Hulanhe National Wetland Park
Xiaomulinghe National Wetland Park, 858 Farm
Muling Leifenghe National Wetland Park
Aihui Larbinhe National Wetland Park
Shanghai
Chongming Xisha National Wetland Park *
Wusong Paotaiwan National Wetland Park *
Jiangsu
Jiangyan Qinhu National Wetland Park *
Yangzhou Baoyinghu National Wetland Park *
Suzhou Taihu Hubin National Wetland Park *
Wuxi Changguangxi National Wetland Park *
Shajiabang National Wetland Park *
Nanjing Changjiang Xinjizhou National Wetland Park *
Suzhou Taihu National Wetland Park *
Wuxi Lianghong National Wetland Park *
Yangzhou Fenghuangdao National Wetland Park *
Taihu Sanshandao National Wetland Park *
Wuxi Lihu National Wetland Park *
Liyang Tianmuhu National Wetland Park *
Jiulihu National Wetland Park *
Huai'an Guhuaihe National Wetland Park *
Jurong Chishanhu National Wetland Park *
Kunshan Tianfu National Wetland Park *
Wujiang Tongli National Wetland Park *
Xuzhou Pan'anhu National Wetland Park *
Fengxian Huanghegudao Dashahe National Wetland Park *
Liyang Changdanghu National Wetland Park *
Peixian Anguohu National Wetland Park *
Jianhu Jiulongkou National Wetland Park *
Huai'an Baimahu National Wetland Park *
Donghai Xishuanghu National Wetland Park
Xinghua Lixiahe National Wetland Park *
Jintan Changdanghu National Wetland Park *
Yancheng Dazonghu National Wetland Park **
Yangzhou Beihu National Wetland Park **
Zhejiang
Hangzhou Xixi National Wetland Park *
Lishui Jiulong National Wetland Park *
Deqing Xiazhuhu National Wetland Park *
Quzhou Wuxijiang National Wetland Park *
Zhuji Baitahu National Wetland Park *
Changxing Xianshanhu National Wetland Park *
Hangzhouwan National Wetland Park *
Yuhuan Xuanmenwan National Wetland Park *
Tiantai Shifengxi National Wetland Park *
Yunhe Terraced Field National Wetland Park *
Pujiang Puyangjiang National Wetland Park *
Shaoxing Jianhu National Wetland Park
Jiaxing Yunhewan National Wetland Park **
Anhui
Taipinghu National Wetland Park *
Digou National Wetland Park *
Sixian Shilonghu National Wetland Park *
Sanchahe National Wetland Park *
Huainan Jiaoganghu National Wetland Park *
Taihe Shayinghe National Wetland Park *
Taihu Huatinghu National Wetland Park *
Yingzhou Xihu National Wetland Park *
Qiupuheyuan National Wetland Park *
Pingtianhu National Wetland Park *
Pihe National Wetland Park *
Daoyuan National Wetland Park *
Anqing Caizihu National Wetland Park *
Tongcheng Xizihu National Wetland Park *
Jieshou Liangwan National Wetland Park *
Funan Wangjiaba National Wetland Park *
Lixin Xifeihe National Wetland Park *
Feixi Sanhe National Wetland Park *
Xiuning Hengjiang National Wetland Park *
Luyang Dongpu National Wetland Park *
Feidong Guanwan National Wetland Park *
Chaohu Bandao National Wetland Park
Qianshan Qianshuihe National Wetland Park *
Yingquan Quanshuiwan National Wetland Park *
Huaibei Zhonghu National Wetland Park
Mengcheng Beifeihe National Wetland Park
Hefei Chaohu Hubin National Wetland Park
Huaining Guanyinhu National Wetland Park *
Lai'an Chishanhu National Wetland Park *
Fujian
Changle Minjiang Hekou National Wetland Park *
Ningde Donghu National Wetland Park (qualification cancelled on August 16, 2016)
Yong'an Longtou National Wetland Park *
Changting Tingjiang National Wetland Park *
Zhangping Nanyang National Wetland Park *
Yongchun Taoxi National Wetland Park *
Wuping Zhongshanhe National Wetland Park *
Zhenghe Nianshan National Wetland Park
Jianning Minjiangyuan National Wetland Park
Jiangxi
Kongmujiang National Wetland Park *
Dongpoyanghu National Wetland Park *
Dongjiangyuan National Wetland Park *
Xiuhe National Wetland Park *
Yaohu National Wetland Park *
Nanfeng Nuohu National Wetland Park *
Lushanxihai National Wetland Park *
Xiuheyuan National Wetland Park *
Lianjiang National Wetland Park *
Ganxian Dahujiang National Wetland Park *
Ganzhou Zhangjiang National Wetland Park *
Wannian Zhuxi National Wetland Park *
Shangyou Nanhu National Wetland Park *
Huichang Xiangjiang National Wetland Park *
Nancheng Hongmenhu National Wetland Park *
Wuyuan Raoheyuan National Wetland Park *
Jingdezhen Yutianhu National Wetland Park *
Ningdu Meijiang National Wetland Park *
Yingtan Xinjiang National Wetland Park *
Suichuan Wudoujiang National Wetland Park *
Sanqingshan Xinjiangyuan National Wetland Park *
Luling Ganjiang National Wetland Park *
Luxi Shankouyan National Wetland Park *
Gao'an Jinjiang National Wetland Park
Xunwu Dongjiangyuan National Wetland Park *
Shicheng Ganjiangyuan National Wetland Park
Zixi Jiulonghu National Wetland Park
Hengfeng Cen'ganghe National Wetland Park *
Lianhua Lianjiang National Wetland Park
Chongyi Yangminghu National Wetland Park
Dayu Zhangshui National Wetland Park
Quannan Taojiang National Wetland Park
Wan'anhu National Wetland Park
Ruijin Mianjiang National Wetland Park
Jishui Jihu National Wetland Park
Xiajiang Yuxiahu National Wetland Park
Fuzhou Fengganghe National Wetland Park
Fuzhou Liaofang National Wetland Park
Guangchang Fuheyuan National Wetland Park
Nanfeng Tanhu National Wetland Park **
Shandong
Tengzhou Binhu National Wetland Park *
Tai'erzhuang Yunhe National Wetland Park *
Matahu National Wetland Park *
Jixi National Wetland Park *
Huanghe Meiguihu National Wetland Park *
Panlonghe National Wetland Park *
Xiashanhu National Wetland Park *
Yueliangwan National Wetland Park *
Anqiu Yongcuihu National Wetland Park *
Shouguang Binhai National Wetland Park *
Weishanhu National Wetland Park *
Wuhe National Wetland Park *
Shaohai National Wetland Park *
Jiulongwan National Wetland Park *
Jinan Baiyunhu National Wetland Park *
Huanghedao National Wetland Park *
Dongming Huanghe National Wetland Park *
Weifang Bailanghe National Wetland Park *
Shuhe National Wetland Park *
Junan Jilonghe National Wetland Park *
Dong'e Luoshenhu National Wetland Park *
Qufu Kongzihu National Wetland Park *
Wangwuhu National Wetland Park
Laizhouwan Jincang National Wetland Park (qualification cancelled on December 29, 2018)
Yunmenghu National Wetland Park *
Yinan Wenhe National Wetland Park *
Tanghe National Wetland Park *
Yishuhe National Wetland Park *
Yishui National Wetland Park *
Pingyi Junhe National Wetland Park *
Caoxian Huanghe Gudao National Wetland Park *
Qingzhou Mihe National Wetland Park *
Weifang Yuwang National Wetland Park *
Changyi Binhai National Wetland Park *
Boxing Madahu National Wetland Park *
Zoucheng Taiping National Wetland Park *
Rizhao Futuanhekou National Wetland Park *
Muping Qinshuihekou National Wetland Park *
Qingdao Tangdaowan National Wetland Park *
Liangshanpo National Wetland Park
Zhucheng Weihe National Wetland Park *
Sishui Siheyuan National Wetland Park *
Jinxiang Jinshuihu National Wetland Park *
Tai'an Wenhe National Wetland Park *
Feicheng Kangwanghe National Wetland Park *
Yucheng Tuhaihe National Wetland Park *
Qihe Huanghe Shuixiang National Wetland Park *
Shanxian Fulonghu National Wetland Park *
Chiping Jinniuhu National Wetland Park *
Xiajin Jiulongkou National Wetland Park *
Weihai Wuleidaowan National Wetland Park
Binzhou Qinhuanghe National Wetland Park *
Dongping Binhu National Wetland Park *
Rizhao Liangchenghekou National Wetland Park *
Laiwu Xueyehu National Wetland Park *
Gangcheng Dawenhe National Wetland Park *
Liaocheng Dongchanghu National Wetland Park *
Kenli Tianninghu National Wetland Park *
Dezhou Jianhe National Wetland Park *
Chengwu Dongyuhe National Wetland Park
Rizhao Xihu National Wetland Park
Boshan Wuyanghu National Wetland Park
Gaomi Jiaohe National Wetland Park *
Lanling Huibaohu National Wetland Park
Leling Yuemahe National Wetland Park
Juxian Shuhe National Wetland Park
Binzhou Xiaokaihe National Wetland Park *
Linqu Mihe National Wetland Park
Henan
Zhengzhou Huanghe National Wetland Park *
Huaiyang Longhu National Wetland Park *
Yanshi Yiluohe National Wetland Park (qualification cancelled on August 16, 2016)
Pingdingshan Baiguihu National Wetland Park *
Hebi Qihe National Wetland Park *
Shahe National Wetland Park, Luohe *
Tangyin Tanghe National Wetland Park *
Puyang Jindihe National Wetland Park *
Pingqiao Lianghekou National Wetland Park *
Nanyang Baihe National Wetland Park *
Tanghe National Wetland Park *
Luhunhu National Wetland Park *
Xiangcheng Fenquanhe National Wetland Park *
Taiqian Jinshui National Wetland Park *
Xixian Huaihe National Wetland Park *
Minquan Huanghe Gudao National Wetland Park *
Anyang Zhanghe Xiagu National Wetland Park *
Linzhou Qihe Xihe National Wetland Park *
Changge Shuangjihe National Wetland Park *
Xichuan Danyanghu National Wetland Park *
Dengzhou Tuanhe National Wetland Park *
Biyang Tongshanhu National Wetland Park *
Zhecheng Ronghu National Wetland Park *
Suixian Zhongyuan Shuicheng National Wetland Park *
Yucheng Zhoushangyong Yunhe National Wetland Park (alt. Zhoukou-Shangqiu-Yongcheng Canal) *
Xiangcheng Beiruhe National Wetland Park *
Guangshan Longshanhu National Wetland Park *
Xinxian Xiangshanhu National Wetland Park *
Yichuan Yihe National Wetland Park *
Luyi Huijihe National Wetland Park
Nanle Majiahe National Wetland Park
Ruzhou Ruhe National Wetland Park *
Wugang Shimantan National Wetland Park
Yanling Heminghu National Wetland Park
Yuzhou Yinghe National Wetland Park
Liangyuan Huanghe Gudao National Wetland Park
Hubei
Shennongjia Dajiuhu National Wetland Park *
Wuhan Donghu National Wetland Park *
Gucheng Hanjiang National Wetland Park *
Qichun Chilonghu National Wetland Park *
Chibi Lushuihu National Wetland Park *
Jingmen Zhanghe National Wetland Park *
Macheng Fuqiaohe National Wetland Park *
Huitinghu National Wetland Park *
Mochouhu National Wetland Park *
Daye Bao'anhu National Wetland Park *
Yidu Tianlongwan National Wetland Park *
Huanggang Yi'aihu National Wetland Park *
Jinshahu National Wetland Park *
Tiantanghu National Wetland Park *
Wushanhu National Wetland Park *
Fanwanhu National Wetland Park *
Changshoudao National Wetland Park *
Tongcheng Daxi National Wetland Park *
Chongyang Qingshan National Wetland Park *
Shayang Panjihu National Wetland Park *
Jiangxia Canglongdao National Wetland Park *
Zhushan Shengshuihu National Wetland Park *
Dangyang Qinglonghu National Wetland Park *
Zhuxi Longhu National Wetland Park *
Xishui Cehu National Wetland Park *
Xiantao Shahu National Wetland Park *
Wuhan Anshan National Wetland Park *
Xiangyang Hanjiang National Wetland Park *
Tongshan Fushuihu National Wetland Park *
Fangxian Gu'nanhe National Wetland Park *
Caidian Houguanhu National Wetland Park *
Xiaogan Zhuhu National Wetland Park *
Yuan'an Juhe National Wetland Park *
Songzi Weishui National Wetland Park *
Shiyan Huanglongtan National Wetland Park *
Xuan'en Gongshuihe National Wetland Park *
Jingmen Xianjuhe National Wetland Park *
Suixian Fengjiangkou National Wetland Park *
Yicheng Wanyangzhou National Wetland Park *
Xianning Xiangyanghu National Wetland Park *
Changyang Qingjiang National Wetland Park *
Huanggang Bailianhe National Wetland Park *
Wuhan Dugonghu National Wetland Park *
Nanzhang Qinglianghe National Wetland Park *
Zhijiang Jinhu National Wetland Park *
Hanchuan Diaochahu National Wetland Park *
Jingzhou Ancient City Ring National Wetland Park *
Gong'an Chonghu National Wetland Park *
Anlu Fuhe National Wetland Park *
Wufeng Baixihe National Wetland Park *
Xiaogan Laoguanhu National Wetland Park *
Yingshan Zhangjiazui National Wetland Park *
Yunmeng Yunshui National Wetland Park *
Yiling Quanyitang National Wetland Park *
Tianmen Zhangjiahu National Wetland Park *
Jingzhou Lingjiaohu National Wetland Park *
Shishou Sanlinghu National Wetland Park *
Guangshui Xujiahe National Wetland Park *
Shiyan Yunyanghu National Wetland Park *
Yangxin Lianhuahu National Wetland Park *
Jianli Laojianghe Gudao National Wetland Park
Jiayu Zhenhu National Wetland Park
Shiyan Sihe National Wetland Park
Laohekou Xipaizihu National Wetland Park
Suizhou Huaihe National Wetland Park
Zigui Jiuwanxi National Wetland Park
Hunan
Shuifumiao National Wetland Park *
Dongjianghu National Wetland Park *
Qianlonghu National Wetland Park *
Jiubujiang National Wetland Park *
Xuefenghu National Wetland Park *
Xiangyin Yangshahu - Donghu National Wetland Park *
Ningxiang Jinzhouhu National Wetland Park *
Jishou Donghe National Wetland Park *
Miluojiang National Wetland Park *
Maolihu National Wetland Park *
Wuqiangxi National Wetland Park *
Songyahu National Wetland Park *
Leishui National Wetland Park *
Shuyuanzhou National Wetland Park *
Xinqianghe National Wetland Park *
Nanzhou National Wetland Park *
Qionghu National Wetland Park *
Huangjiahu National Wetland Park *
Taoyuan Yuanshui National Wetland Park *
Hengdong Mishui National Wetland Park *
Chengbu Baiyunhu National Wetland Park
Jianghua Centianhe National Wetland Park *
Huitong Qushui National Wetland Park *
Longhui Weiyuanhu National Wetland Park *
Shaoyang Tianzihu National Wetland Park *
Lizhou Cenhuai National Wetland Park *
Guiyang Chongling National Wetland Park *
Xupu Simeng National Wetland Park *
Huarong Donghu National Wetland Park *
Shuangpai Riyuehu National Wetland Park *
Changning Tianhu National Wetland Park *
Suining Huayuange National Wetland Park *
Dong'an Zishui National Wetland Park *
Liling Guanzhuanghu National Wetland Park *
Taojiang Xiunühu National Wetland Park *
Pingjiang Huangjinhe National Wetland Park *
Chaling Dongyanghu National Wetland Park *
Hongjiang Qingjianghu National Wetland Park *
Jingzhou Wulongtan National Wetland Park *
Dingcheng Niao'erzhou National Wetland Park *
Luxi Wushui National Wetland Park *
Huayuan Gumiaohe National Wetland Park *
Hengshan Xuanzhou National Wetland Park *
Xinshao Xiaoxi National Wetland Park *
Xinhua Longwan National Wetland Park *
Dongkou Pingxijiang National Wetland Park *
Hengnan Lianhuwan National Wetland Park *
Shimen Xianyanghu National Wetland Park *
Datonghu National Wetland Park *
Anren Yonglejiang National Wetland Park *
Heshan Laiyihu National Wetland Park
Chenzhou Xihe National Wetland Park *
Xinning Fuyijiang National Wetland Park *
Jindong Mengjianghe National Wetland Park *
Ningyuan Jiuyihe National Wetland Park *
Tongdao Yudaihe National Wetland Park *
Liuyanghe National Wetland Park *
Lianyuan Meifenghu National Wetland Park
Yunxi Bainihu National Wetland Park *
Baojing Youshui National Wetland Park *
Mayang Jinjiang National Wetland Park *
Yongshun Mengdonghe National Wetland Park *
Lingling Xiaoshui National Wetland Park
Hanshou Xifenghu National Wetland Park
Changsha Yanghu National Wetland Park *
Zhongfang Wushui National Wetland Park
Jiahe Zhongshuihe National Wetland Park
Qiyang Wuxi National Wetland Park *
Linli Daoshuihe National Wetland Park *
Jiangyong Yongminghe National Wetland Park
Guangdong
Xinghu National Wetland Park *
Leizhou Jiulongshan Mangrove Forest National Wetland Park *
Ruyuan Nanshuihu National Wetland Park *
Wanlühu National Wetland Park *
Kongjiang National Wetland Park *
Dongjiang National Wetland Park *
Guangzhou Haizhu National Wetland Park *
Huaiji Yandu National Wetland Park *
Xinfeng Luguhe National Wetland Park *
Yunan Dahe National Wetland Park *
Hailingdao Mangrove Forest National Wetland Park *
Machong Huayanghu National Wetland Park *
Zhongshan Cuiheng National Wetland Park *
Luoding Jinyinhu National Wetland Park *
Wengyuan Wengjiangyuan National Wetland Park *
Huaduhu National Wetland Park *
Kaiping Kongquehu National Wetland Park *
Yangdong Shouchanghe National Wetland Park *
Xinhui Xiaoniaotiantang National Wetland Park (alt. Bird's Paradise) *
Sihui Suijiang National Wetland Park
Liannan Yaopai Terraced Field National Wetland Park *
Shenzhen Huaqiaocheng National Wetland Park (Huaqiaocheng: a cultural theme park officially known as Overseas Chinese Town [OCT] in English) *
Huizhou Tonghu National Wetland Park
Nanhai Jinshadao National Wetland Park
Sanshui Yundonghai National Wetland Park
Zhuhai Hengqin National Wetland Park
Taishan Zhenhaiwan Mangrove Forest National Wetland Park
Guangxi
Beihai Binhai National Wetland Park *
Guilin Huixian Karst National Wetland Park *
Hengxian Xijin National Wetland Park *
Fuchuan Guishi National Wetland Park *
Du'an Chengjiang National Wetland Park *
Jingxi Longtan National Wetland Park *
Bose Fuluhe National Wetland Park *
Lingyun Haokunhu National Wetland Park *
Pingguo Luxianhu National Wetland Park *
Daxin Heishuihe National Wetland Park *
Longzhou Zuojiang National Wetland Park *
Donglan Pohaohu National Wetland Park *
Lipu Lijiang National Wetland Park *
Longsheng Longji Terraced Field National Wetland Park *
Nandan Laxi National Wetland Park *
Wuzhou Canghai National Wetland Park *
Nanning Dawangtan National Wetland Park *
Quanzhou Tianhu National Wetland Park *
Guanyang Guanjiang National Wetland Park *
Hezhou Hemianshihu National Wetland Park
Zhaoping Guijiang National Wetland Park
Xincheng Letan National Wetland Park
Heshan Luolinghu National Wetland Park
Xingbin Sanlihu National Wetland Park
Hainan
Xinying National Wetland Park *
Nanlihu National Wetland Park *
Sanya Donghe National Wetland Park
Changjiang Haiwei National Wetland Park
Haikou Wuyuanhe National Wetland Park *
Haikou Meishehe National Wetland Park *
Lingshui Mangrove Forest National Wetland Park
Chongqing
Yunwushan National Wetland Park *
Youshuihe National Wetland Park *
Huanghuadao National Wetland Park *
Apengjiang National Wetland Park *
Yingfenghu National Wetland Park *
Laixihe National Wetland Park *
Caiyunhu National Wetland Park *
Fujiang National Wetland Park *
Kaixian Hanfenghu National Wetland Park *
Longhe National Wetland Park *
Dachanghu National Wetland Park *
Qingshanhu National Wetland Park *
Yinglonghu National Wetland Park *
Bashanhu National Wetland Park *
Nanchuan Lixianghu National Wetland Park *
Xiushan Daxi National Wetland Park *
Shizhu Tengzigou National Wetland Park *
Tongliang Anju National Wetland Park *
Liangping Shuangguihu National Wetland Park *
Wulong Furonghu National Wetland Park *
Hechuan Sanjiang National Wetland Park *
Qijiang Tonghuihe National Wetland Park *
Sichuan
Pengzhou Jianjiang National Wetland Park (qualification cancelled on December 31, 2015)
Nanhe National Wetland Park *
Dawashan National Wetland Park *
Gouxihe National Wetland Park *
Suoluohu National Wetland Park *
Bailinhu National Wetland Park *
Zoigê National Wetland Park *
Suining Guanyinhu National Wetland Park *
Xichong Qinglonghu National Wetland Park *
Nanchong Shengzhonghu National Wetland Park
Qionghai National Wetland Park *
Yingshan Qingshuihu National Wetland Park *
Renshou Heilongtan National Wetland Park *
Xinjin Baihetan National Wetland Park *
Peng'an Xiangruhu National Wetland Park *
Longchang Guyuhu National Wetland Park *
Aba Domai Lingga National Wetland Park *
Hongyuan Garqu National Wetland Park *
Songpan Minjiangyuan National Wetland Park *
Pingchang Simahe National Wetland Park *
Guang'an Baiyunhu National Wetland Park
Naxi Fenghuanghu National Wetland Park *
Leibo Mahu National Wetland Park *
Baiyu Lalungco National Wetland Park *
Mianyang Sanjianghu National Wetland Park *
Shawan Daduhe National Wetland Park *
Luhuo Xianshuihe National Wetland Park *
Batang Zimeihu National Wetland Park
Jiangyou Rangshuihe National Wetland Park
Quxian Baishuihu National Wetland Park
Guizhou
Shiqian Yuanyanghu National Wetland Park *
Weining Suohuangcang National Wetland Park
Liupanshui Minghu National Wetland Park *
Yuqing Feilonghu National Wetland Park *
Sinan Bailuhu National Wetland Park *
Nayong Dapingqing National Wetland Park *
Yanhe Wujiang National Wetland Park *
Liupanshui Niangniangshan National Wetland Park *
Dejiang Baiguotuo National Wetland Park *
Xingyi Wanfeng National Wetland Park
Jiangkou National Wetland Park *
Anlong Zhaodi National Wetland Park *
Wanshan Changshouhu National Wetland Park *
Beipanjiang Daxiagu National Wetland Park *
Bijiang National Wetland Park *
Qinglong Guangzhaohu National Wetland Park *
Anshun Xingjianghe National Wetland Park *
Guiyang Ahahu National Wetland Park *
Luodian Mengjiang National Wetland Park *
Duyun Qingshuijiang National Wetland Park
Libo Huangjianghe National Wetland Park *
Guiding Bailonghe National Wetland Park *
Zunyi Leminhe National Wetland Park
Fenggang Longtanhe National Wetland Park *
Huichuan Labahe National Wetland Park *
Meitan Meijianghu National Wetland Park *
Xishui Dongfenghu National Wetland Park *
Liping Bazhouhe National Wetland Park *
Liupanshui Zangkejiang National Wetland Park
Qianxi Shuixi Kehai National Wetland Park *
Congjiang Jiabang Terraced Field National Wetland Park *
Huishui Yulianghe National Wetland Park
Pingtang National Wetland Park *
Fuquan Chahe National Wetland Park *
Wuchuan Hongduhe National Wetland Park *
Qingzhen Hongfenghu National Wetland Park
Wangmo Beipanjiang National Wetland Park *
Ceheng Beipanjiang National Wetland Park *
Guiyang Baihuahu National Wetland Park
Dushan Jiushijiutan National Wetland Park
Taijiang Wengnihe National Wetland Park
Xiuwen Yanyinghu National Wetland Park *
Yuping Wuyanghe National Wetland Park *
Huangguoshu National Wetland Park
Yinjiang Chejiahe National Wetland Park
Yunnan
Honghe Hani Terraced Field National Wetland Park *
Eryuan Xihu National Wetland Park *
Puzhehei Karst National Wetland Park *
Pu'er Wuhu National Wetland Park *
Yingjiang National Wetland Park *
Heqing Dongcaohai National Wetland Park *
Mengzi Changqiaohai National Wetland Park
Shiping Yilonghu National Wetland Park *
Tonghai Qiluhu National Wetland Park *
Jinning Nandianchi National Wetland Park *
Zhanyi Xihe National Wetland Park *
Yuxi Fuxianhu National Wetland Park *
Baoshan Qinghuahai National Wetland Park *
Luxi Huangcaozhou National Wetland Park
Lanping Qinghuadian National Wetland Park *
Jiangchuan Xingyunhu National Wetland Park *
Kunming Laoyuhe National Wetland Park
Lianghe Nandihe National Wetland Park
Tibet
Doqênco National Wetland Park *
Ya'nyi National Wetland Park *
Kanam National Wetland Park *
Tangra Yumco National Wetland Park *
Gyanai Yuco National Wetland Park *
Bainang Nyangqu He National Wetland Park *
Lhamoi Laco National Wetland Park *
Zhugla He National Wetland Park *
Ngari Shiquanhe National Wetland Park *
Riwoq Ziqu He National Wetland Park *
Qonggyai Qunggo He National Wetland Park *
Biru Naro National Wetland Park *
Qusum Xaglho National Wetland Park *
Zhoimalangco National Wetland Park *
Konjo Lhato National Wetland Park *
Nagqu Hangco National Wetland Park *
Xigazê Gyangsa National Wetland Park *
Banbar Jungraco National Wetland Park *
Cona Nara Yumco National Wetland Park
Bangoin Qinglung Maqu National Wetland Park
Baqên Yuxongco Alpine Periglacial National Wetland Park
Dêngqên Putog Hu National Wetland Park *
Shaanxi
Xi'an Chanba National Wetland Park * (note: rivers of Chanhe and Bahe)
Pucheng Luyanghu National Wetland Park *
Qianhu National Wetland Park *
Sanyuan Qingyuhe National Wetland Park *
Chunhua Yeyuhe National Wetland Park *
Tongchuan Zhaoshihe National Wetland Park *
Danfeng Danjiang National Wetland Park *
Ningqiang Hanshuiyuan National Wetland Park *
Xunheyuan National Wetland Park *
Fengxian Jialingjiang National Wetland Park *
Taibai Shitouhe National Wetland Park *
Xunyi Malanhe National Wetland Park *
Qianweizhihui National Wetland Park *
Jushui National Wetland Park *
Shangzhou Danjiangyuan National Wetland Park *
Xixiang Mumahe National Wetland Park *
Dali Chaoyi National Wetland Park *
Qiancenghe National Wetland Park *
Fufeng Qixinghe National Wetland Park *
Heyang Xushuihe National Wetland Park *
Qishan Luoxingwan National Wetland Park *
Meixian Longyuan National Wetland Park *
Fuping Shichuanhe National Wetland Park *
Yan'an Nanniwan National Wetland Park *
Baishui Lingaohu National Wetland Park *
Luonan Luoheyuan National Wetland Park
Tongguan Huanghe National Wetland Park
Yijun Fudihu National Wetland Park
Linwei Youhe National Wetland Park *
Hanzhong Congtan National Wetland Park *
Pingli Guxianhu National Wetland Park *
Hanyin Guanyinhe National Wetland Park *
Xi'an Tianyuhe National Wetland Park *
Fengxiang Yongchenghu National Wetland Park *
Yaozhou Juhe National Wetland Park
Zhenping Shuheyuan National Wetland Park *
Liquan Ganhe National Wetland Park *
Shiquan Hanjiang Lianhua Gudu National Wetland Park
Yongshou Qishuihe National Wetland Park
Huazhou Shaohuahu National Wetland Park
Huayin Taihuahu National Wetland Park
Jingyang Jinghe National Wetland Park
Pucheng Luohe National Wetland Park *
Gansu
Zhangye National Wetland Park *
Lanzhou Qinwangchuan National Wetland Park *
Minqin Shiyanghe National Wetland Park *
Wenxian Huanglingou National Wetland Park *
Jiayuguan Caohu National Wetland Park *
Jiuquan Huachenghu National Wetland Park *
Kangxian Meiyuanhe National Wetland Park *
Jinta Beihaizi National Wetland Park
Jinchuan Jinshuihu National Wetland Park *
Yongchang Beihaizi National Wetland Park
Yongtai Baidunzi Salt Marsh National Wetland Park
Lintao Taohe National Wetland Park
Qinghai
Guide Huangheqing National Wetland Park *
Xining Huangshui National Wetland Park *
Taoheyuan National Wetland Park *
Dulan Alag Hu National Wetland Park *
Delhi Gahai National Wetland Park *
Madoi Donggi Conag Hu National Wetland Park *
Qilian Heiheyuan National Wetland Park *
Ulan Dulanhu National Wetland Park *
Yushu Baitang He National Wetland Park *
Tianjun Buh He National Wetland Park *
Huzhu Nanmenxia National Wetland Park *
Zêkog Zêqu National Wetland Park *
Baima Markog He National Wetland Park *
Qumarlêb Dêrqu Yuan National Wetland Park *
Ledu Dadiwan National Wetland Park
Gangca Shaliuhe National Wetland Park *
Guinan Mangqu National Wetland Park *
Gadê Baima Rintog National Wetland Park
Tarlag Huanghe National Wetland Park
Ningxia
Yinchuan National Wetland Park *
Shizuishan Xinghaihu National Wetland Park *
Wuzhong Huanghe National Wetland Park *
Huangsha Gudu National Wetland Park *
Qingtongxia Niaodao National Wetland Park *
Tianhu National Wetland Park *
Guyuan Qingshuihe National Wetland Park *
Hechuanhu National Wetland Park *
Taiyangshan National Wetland Park *
Jianquanhu National Wetland Park *
Zhenshuohu National Wetland Park *
Pingluo Tianhewan National Wetland Park *
Zhongwei Xiangshanhu National Wetland Park *
Yinchuan Huanghe Waitan National Wetland Park
Xinjiang
Sairam Hu National Wetland Park *
Ürümqi Chaiwopuhu National Wetland Park *
Manas National Wetland Park *
Uqilik National Wetland Park *
Altay Kran He National Wetland Park (qualification cancelled on December 22, 2017)
Aksu Dolan He National Wetland Park *
Hoboksar National Wetland Park *
Niya National Wetland Park *
Ulungur Hu National Wetland Park *
Larkol National Wetland Park *
Bosten Hu National Wetland Park *
Tacheng Wuxianhe National Wetland Park *
Shawan Qianquanhu National Wetland Park *
Ili Narat National Wetland Park *
Zepu Yarkant He National Wetland Park *
Eminhe National Wetland Park *
Yengisar National Wetland Park *
Yutian Keriya He National Wetland Park *
Wushi Toxkan He National Wetland Park *
Hamihe National Wetland Park *
Huocheng Ili Hegu National Wetland Park *
Yining Ili He National Wetland Park *
Ulungur He National Wetland Park, Qinghe *
Jeminay Alpine Periglacial Zone National Wetland Park *
Nilka Kax He National Wetland Park *
Burqin Tokkumut National Wetland Park
Makit Tangwanghu National Wetland Park *
Zhaosu Tekes He National Wetland Park *
Jimsar Beiting National Wetland Park *
Shule Xiangfeihu National Wetland Park
Shache Yarkant National Wetland Park *
Pamir Gaoyuan Aral National Wetland Park *
Fuyun Koktokay National Wetland Park
Bachu Baykol National Wetland Park
Yuli Lopnur National Wetland Park
Hoxud Taxhan National Wetland Park *
Hutubi Dahaizi National Wetland Park *
Tianshan Akyaz National Wetland Park
Wenquan Bortala He National Wetland Park
Tianshan Beipo Toutunhe National Wetland Park *
Habahe Akqi National Wetland Park
Akqi Toxkan He National Wetland Park
Fukang Tenager National Wetland Park *
Ili Yamat National Wetland Park
Tekes National Wetland Park
Yecheng Zonglang National Wetland Park
Zhaobishan National Wetland Park *
Qapqal Ili He National Wetland Park
Ayding Hu National Wetland Park
Qira Damagou National Wetland Park
Yanqi Xiangsihu National Wetland Park
Bole Bortala He National Wetland Park
China Inner Mongolia Forest Industry Group Co., Ltd.
Genheyuan National Wetland Park *
Tol He National Wetland Park *
Niu'erhe National Wetland Park *
Chaoyuan National Wetland Park *
Ih Tol He National Wetland Park *
Dayangshu Kuilehe National Wetland Park *
Ganhe National Wetland Park *
Arxan Halh He National Wetland Park (alt. Halhiyn Gol) *
Kaluben National Wetland Park *
Huder He National Wetland Park *
Chaor Yaduoluo National Wetland Park *
Mangui Bei'ercihe National Wetland Park *
Alongshan Aoluguya National Wetland Park **
Forest Industry Bureau of Heilongjiang Province
Xinqing National Wetland Park *
Dongfanghong Nanchahu National Wetland Park
Hongxing Huojihe National Wetland Park
Xinglong Baiyangmuhe National Wetland Park *
Yabuli Hongxinghe National Forest Park *
Suiyang National Wetland Park *
Dongjingcheng Jingpohuyuan National Wetland Park *
Dahailin Erlanghe National Wetland Park
Daxing'anling Forestry Group Corporation
Emur National Wetland Park *
Shuangheyuan National Wetland Park *
Mohe Jiuqushibawan National Wetland Park *
Gulihe National Wetland Park *
Kanduhe National Wetland Park *
Huzhong Humaheyuan National Wetland Park *
Mohe Dalinhe National Wetland Park *
Shibazhan Humahe National Wetland Park *
Jagdaqi Ganhe National Wetland Park *
Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps
Huyanghe National Wetland Park, XPCC Seventh Division
Qara Hu National Wetland Park, XPCC Second Division
Fengqinghu National Wetland Park, XPCC Tenth Division
Muzart National Wetland Park, XPCC Fourth Division
Humdan National Wetland Park, XPCC Fourteenth Division
Yukunlunhu National Wetland Park, XPCC Second Division
Note 1: Sites promoted to national-level on the basis of existing provincial wetland park since the implementation of revised Wetlands Conservation and Management Provisions on January 1, 2018.
Note 2: One of the disqualified pilot sites is yet to be verified due to lack of supporting documentation.
National Water Parks of China
Ratified by: Ministry of Water Resources
Number of NWPs (unit): 921 (as at February 1, 2023)
Total Number of Provincial WPs (unit): 1,000++ ()
Ministry of Water Resources
Huanghe Xiaolangdi Hydro Junction
Huanghe Wanjiazhai Hydro Junction
Jinan Baili Huanghe Park
Changjiang Water Resources Commission
Danjiangkou Songtao Water Park
Danjiangkou Daba Water Park
Lushui Shuiku Water Park
Yellow River Conservancy Commission
Huanghe Sanmenxia Daba Park
Henan Huanghe Huayuankou Park
Shanxi Yongji Huanghe Pujindu Water Park
Kaifeng Huanghe Liuyuankou Water Park
Puyang Huanghe Water Park
Fanxian Huanghe Water Park
Jinsanjiao Huanghe Water Park, Tongguan
Zibo Huanghe Water Park, Shandong
Jiangjundu Huanghe Water Park, Taiqian, Henan
Mengzhou Huanghe Water Park, Henan
Binzhou Huanghe Water Park, Shandong
Dong'e Huanghe Water Park
Dezhou Huanghe Water Park
Huanghekou Water Park, Kenli
Shandong Zouping Huanghe Water Park
Shandong Heze Huanghe Water Park
Gansu Qingyang Nanxiaohegou Water Park
Henan Luoning Xizihu Water Park
Shandong Lijin Huanghe Water Park
Luoyang Mengjin Huanghe Water Park
Changyuan Huanghe Water Park
Lankao Huanghe Water Park
Huaihe River Commission
Shimantan Shuiku Park
Yihe Liujiadaokou Shuniu Water Park
Luomahu Zhangshan Water Park
Zhongyunhe Suqian Junction Water Park
Haihe River Water Resources Commission
Zhangweinan Yunhe Water Park
Panjiakou Water Park
Songliao River Water Resources Commission
Qarsan Shuiku Park
Nirji Water Park
Taihu Basin Authority
Taihu Pujiangyuan Water Park
Beijing
Shisanling Shuiku Resort
Qinglongxia Resort Village
Miaofengshan Water Park, Mentougou
Tianjin
Beiyunhe Water Park
Donglihu Park
Hebei
Qinhuangdao Taolinkou Park
Zhongshanhu Park
Yansaihu Park
Hengshuihu Park
Wuwushui Water Park, Pingshan (locally pronounced Huhushui)
Jingnianghu Park, Wu'an
Qiannanyu Eco-Water Park, Xingtai
Fenghuanghu Water Park, Xingtai
Miaogong Shuiku Water Park, Chengde
Dongwushi Shuiku Water Park, Handan
Luanhe Ecological Flood Control Water Park, Qian'an
Shandianhe Shuiku Water Park, Guyuan
Huangtuliang Shuiku Water Park, Fengning
Weixian Lixiang Shuicheng Water Park
Linzhang Yecheng Gongyuan Water Park
Hengshui Fuyanghe Water Park
Xingtai Qilihe Water Park
Luanxian Luanhe Water Park
Xingtai Zijinshan Water Park
Baoding Yishuihu Water Park
Handan Guangfu Gucheng Water Park
Zhangjiakou Qingshuihe Water Park
Zhangjiakou Sangganhe Water Park
Qianxi Luanshuiwan Water Park
Shanxi
Fenhe Reservoir No.2 Park
Fenyuan Water Park
Taiyuan Fenhe Park
Zangshan Water Park, Yuxian
Shanliquan Water Park, Jincheng
Taihang Shuixiang Water Park, Pingshun
Sangganhe Wetland Water Park, Shuozhou
Cuifengshan Water Park, Yangquan
Changsheng Water Park, Liulin
Nuanquangou Water Park, Ningwu
Fenhe Shuiku Water Park
Beifang Shuicheng Water Park, Qinxian
Jingweihu Water Park, Zhangzi
Huyuan Water Park, Fanshi
Yuanping Hutuohe Water Park
Changzhi Zhangzehu Water Park
Huairen Emaohe Water Park
Yuncheng Boqinghe Water Park
Changzhi Houwan Shuiku Water Park
Inner Mongolia
Hongshanhu Water Park
Dahushi Water Park, Ningcheng
Shimen Water Park, Baotou
Batuwan Water Park
Huanghe Sanshenggong Water Park
Nanshan Soil and Water Conservation Eco-Demonstration Park, Chifeng
Dal Nur Water Park, Chifeng
Qixinghu Desert Water Park, Hanggin
Jinshan Water Park, Harqin
Qianyaozi Shuiku Water Park, Horinger
Hangali Shuiku Water Park, Horqin Right Middle Banner
Ordos Desert Grand Canyon Water Park
Xishanwan Water Park, Duolun
Chilechuan Har'us Hai Water Park, Hohhot
Shana Shuiku Water Park, Bairin Left Banner
Dalaha Hu Water Park, Ar Horqin
Erhuanghe Water Park, Bayannur
Fenghuanghu Water Park, Yakeshi
Baishi Water Park, Hohhot
Pishayan Water Park, Ordos
Dongjuyanhai Water Park, Ejin
Bayannur Delingshan Shuiku Water Park
Chifeng Ders Borin Shuiku Water Park
Bayannur Langshan Shuiku Water Park
Wuhaihu Water Park, Wuhai
Baotou Nanhai Shidi Water Park
Ordos Machangou Shenlongsi Water Park
Ulanhot Tao'erhe Water Park
Bayannur Ujur He Water Park
Liaoning
Dahuofang Shuiku Park
Benxi Guanmenshan Park
Biliuhe Water Park, Dalian
Dalinghe Park, Chaoyang
Tanghe Shuiku Park
Guanshanhu Water Park, Fushun
Hunhe Water Park, Shenyang
Puhe Water Park, Shenyang
Tieling Fanhe Water Park
Harqin Zuoyi Longyuanhu Water Park
Fushun Hunhe Urban Area Water Park
Xinglongtai Liaohe Dingxiang Water Park
Jilin
Xinlihu Water Park
Yalujiang International Border Resort, Ji'an
Huanghe Shuiku Park, Panshi
Shitoukoumen Shuiku Water Park, Changchun
Taoyuanhu Water Park, Tonghua
Liangjiashan Water Park, Shulan
Jingyuetan Shuiku Park, Changchun
Julongtan Eco-Resort, Dongliao
Qagan Hu Water Park
Mopanhu Water Park, Meihekou
Changbai Shiwudaogou Water Park
Burhatonghe Water Park, Yanji
Longkeng Water Park, Songyuan
Songhuajiang Qingshui Lüdai Water Park, Jilin
Nenshuiyunbai Water Park, Baicheng
Erlonghu Water Park, Siping
Shahe Shuiku Water Park
Longfenghu Water Park, Changling
Ciluhu Water Park, Dongliao
Hadashan Water Park, Songyuan
Longmenhu Water Park, Helong
Helong Tumenjiangliuyu Hongqihe Water Park
Songyuan Yanjiang Water Park
Da'an Niuxintaobao Water Park
Baicheng Nenjiangwan Water Park
Yongji Xingxingshao Water Park
Tongyu Xianghai Water Park
Linjiang Yalujiang Water Park
Jilin Xin'an Shuiku Water Park
Changchun Shuangyanghu Water Park
Siping Zhuanshanhu Water Park
Heilongjiang
Hongqipao Shuiku Honghu Resort
Longfengshan Water Park, Wuchang
Shankouhu Water Park, Wudalianchi
Yinhehu Water Park, Gannan
Laodonghu Water Park, Qiqihar
Liushudao Water Park, Jiamusi
Helihu Water Park, Hegang
Xingkaihu Flood Sluice No.2 Water Park, General Bureau of State Farms of Heilongjiang Province
Taiyangdao Water Park, Harbin
Xingkaihu Dangbi Water Park
Baiyupao Water Park, Harbin
Fabiela Water Park. Heihe
Qingnian Shuiku Water Park, Mishan
Ermenshan Shuiku Water Park, Sunwu
Hongxing Shidi Water Park, Yichun
Shangganling Water Park, Yichun
Wolonghu Water Park, Yichun
Wuyiling Water Park, Yichun
Xinqing Shidi Water Park, Yichun
Yichunhe Water Park, Yichun
Xiquanyan Water Park, Harbin
Hulan Fuqiang Water Park, Harbin
Jinhewan Water Park, Harbin
Heiyuhu Water Park, Daqing
Qingyuanhu Water Park, Hegang
Binshui Xinqu Water Park, Yichun
Hekou Water Park, Lanxi
Yichun Huilongwan Water Park
Tailai Taihu Water Park
Harbin Changshouhu Water Park
Hulanhekou Water Park
Tieli Hulanhe Water Park
Shanghai
Shanghai Songjiang Eco-Water Park
Dianshanhu Park
Bihai Jinsha Water Park
Dishuihu Water Park, Pudong
Huangpujiang Xuhui Binjiang Water Park
Jiangsu
Tianmuhu Resort, Liyang
Jiangdu Hydro-Junction Resort
Yunlonghu Park, Xuzhou
Guazhou Ancient Ferry Park
Sanhezha Water Park
Taizhou Yinjianghe Park
Suzhou Xukou Water Park
Huai'an Hydro-Junction Park
Guyunhe Water Park, Huai'an
Tongyuhe Junction Park, Yancheng
Qinhu Park, Jiangyan
Jinniuhu Water Park, Nanjing
Hengshan Shuiku Water Park, Yixing
Wuxi Meilianghu Water Park
Fenghuanghe Water Park, Taizhou
Waiqinhuaihe Water Park, Nanjing
Zhongyunhe Water Park, Suqian
Guhuanghe Water Park, Xuzhou
Jincanghu Water Park, Taicang
Zhenzhuquan Water Park, Nanjing
Tianshengqiaohe Water Park, Nanjing
Aishan Jiulong Water Park, Pizhou
Xiaotashan Shuiku Water Park, Ganyu
Yinghuayuan Water Park, Huai'an
Longyou Water Park, Rugao
Changguangxi Water Park, Wuxi
Huaguoshan Dashenghu Water Park, Lianyungang
Baoyinghu Water Park, Baoying
Dazonghu Water Park, Yancheng
Sishuihe Water Park, Siyang
Tianquanhu Water Park, Xuyi
Qingyanyuan Water Park, Huai'an
Guhuaihe Water Park, Huai'an
Wangshan Water Park, Suzhou
Huanchenghe Water Park, Zhangjiagang
Fenghuangdao Water Park, Yangzhou
Pan'anhu Water Park, Xuzhou
Hailinghu Water Park, Lianyungang
Jinlonghu Water Park, Xuzhou Economic Development Zone
Jintan Yuchiwan Water Park
Kunshan Mingjingdang Water Park
Zhenjiang Jinshanhu Water Park
Lianghong Water Park, Wuxi New District
Suqian Sucheng Guhuanghe Water Park
Liyang Nanshan Zhuhai Water Park
Jiangyin Furonghu Water Park
Xuzhou Dingwanhu Water Park
Jinhu Hehuadang Water Park
Funing Jinshahu Water Park
Suqian Liutanghe Water Park
Yangzhou Guyunhe Water Park (alt. Ancient Canal)
Nanjing Xuanwuhu Water Park
Jurong Chishanhu Water Park
Yixing Zhuhai Water Park
Changzhou Yandanghe Water Park
Taizhou Fengchenghe Water Park
Yixing Huadongbaichang Water Park
Lianshui Wudaohu Water Park
Changzhou Qinglongtan Water Park
Taizhou Qianduo Water Park
Xuzhou Dashahe Water Park
Nanjing Chuhe (Pukou Section) Water Park
Jinhu Sanhewan Water Park
Yixing Yangxianhu Water Park
Nanjing Pukou Xiangshanhu Water Park
Wujin Gehu Water Park
Zhejiang
Qianjiang Chaoyun Resort Village, Haining
Ningbo Tianhe Eco-Park
Tingxiahu Resort, Fenghua
Huzhou Taihu Resort
Tianfu Resort, Anji
Hangzhouwan Seaside Amusement Park, Cixi
Xialihu Eco-Park, Jiangshan
Wozhouhu Water Park, Xinchang
Huanchenghe Park, Shaoxing
Jiangshan Yuelianghu Water Park
Yaojiang Park, Yuyao
Tiantaishan Longchuanxia Water Park
Yunhe Garden along the Shaoxing Section of Ancient Zhedong Canal
Jiangnan Tianchi Water Park, Anji
Cao'ejiang City Defense Water Park, Shangyu
Yuhuan Water Park, Yuhuan
Nanminghu Water Park, Lishui
Laoshikan Shuiku Water Park, Anji
Cao'ejiang Dazha Water Park, Shaoxing
Qiongtai Xiangu Water Park, Tiantai
Wuxijiang Water Park, Quzhou
Fuchunjiang Water Park, Fuyang
Xin'anhu Water Park, Quzhou
Shibalicui Water Park, Suichang
Fuchunjiang Water Park, Tonglu
Songyinxi Water Park, Songyang
Shexiang Lülang Water Park, Jingning
Ningbo Dongqianhu Water Park
Yueqing Zhongyandangshan Water Park
Yongjia Huangtanxi Water Park
Huzhou Wuxing Taihu Lougang Water Park
Yunhe Titian Water Park
Jinhua Puyangjiang Water Park
Jinhua Zhezhong Daxiagu Water Park
Quzhou Majinxi Water Park
Jiaxing Haiyan Yulin Haitang Water Park (alt. Yulin Sea Embankment)
Huzhou Wuxing Xishanyang Water Park
Jinyun Haoxi Water Park
Jiande Xin'anjiang - Fuchunjiang Water Park
Lishui Oujiangyuan - Longquanxi Water Park
Jinhua Meixi Water Park
Deqing Luosheyang Water Park
Anhui
Longhekou Water Resort
Taipinghu Park
Foziling Shuiku Park
Longzihu Park
Meishan Shuiku Water Park
Xianghongdian Shuiku Water Park
Huatinghu Water Park, Taihu
Huaihe Bengbuzha Junction Water Park
Qinglongwan Water Park
Hengpaitou Water Park, Lu'an
Shuimentang Water Park, Huoqiu
Luhu Zhuhai Water Park, Guangde
Taohuatan Park, Jingxian
Bawangshan Yaoling Xiushui Water Park, Shexian
Huaishang Mingzhu Water Park, Fengtai
Huaihe Linhuaigang Engineering Project Water Park
Bailuzhou Water Park, Bozhou
Wangjiaba Water Park, Funan
Jiaoganghu Water Park, Huainan
Shifoshan Tianzihu Water Park, Langxi
Huangshan Shimen Water Park
Binjiang Water Park, Wuhu
Pihe Water Park, Lu'an
Tianxia Water Park, Yuexi
Bailudao Water Park, Lai'an
Quanjiao Xianghe Water Park
Yuexi Dabieshan Caihong Pubu Water Park
Yingshang Balihe Water Park
Feidong Daishanhu Water Park
Hefei Binhu Water Park
Lu'an Youranlanxi Water Park
Xiuning Hengjiang Water Park
Chizhou Jiuhua Tianchi Water Park
Wangjiang Guleichi Water Park
Yixian Hongcun - Qishuhu Water Park
Suzhou Xinbianhe Water Park
Wuhu Taoxin Shuiyun Water Park
Chizhou Xinghuacun Water Park
Jinzhai Yanzihe Daxiagu Water Park
Feixi Sanhe Water Park
Nanling Dapu Water Park
Qimen Guniujiang Water Park
Tongling Tianjinghu Water Park
Fujian
Dongzhang Shuiku Shizhuhu Park, Fuqing
Jiulihu Park, Xianyou
Yanpinghu Park, Nanping
Taoyuandong Water Park, Yong'an
Tianmenshan Water Park, Yongtai
Daixianhu Water Park, Dehua
Minhu Water Park, Youxi
Meihuahu Water Park, Longyan
Jiulongjiang Water Park, Hua'an
Longhu Water Park, Yongding
Jiupengxi Water Park, Zhangping
Shanmei Shuiku Water Park, Quanzhou
Nantaiwu Xin'gangcheng Water Park, Zhangzhou Development Zone
Mulanbei Water Park, Putian
Taining Water Park, Sanming
Huayangshan Water Park, Shunchang
Donghu Water Park, Wuyishan
Nanjing Tulou Shuixiang Water Park
Shaowu Yunlingshan Water Park
Ningde Donghu Water Park
Quanzhou Jinji River Sluice Water Park
Liancheng Guanzhishan Water Park (locally pronounced Guanzhaishan)
Yongchun Taoxi Water Park
Shaowu Tiancheng Qixia Water Park
Xiamen Tianzhushan Water Park
Zherong Qinglanhu Water Park
Water Park in Taiwan Farmers Entrepreneurial Park of Zhangping
Putian Jiulonggu Water Park
Wuping Liangyeshan Yuncaxi Water Park
Ningde Yangzhong Water Park
Yongchun Jinjiangyuan Water Park
Water Park in Changting Soil and Water Conservation Scientific Education Park
Ningde Shuiyunjiudu Water Park
Xiapu Yangjiaxi Water Park
Shouning Xipu Water Park
Ningde Huotong Water Park
Quanzhou Longmenhu Water Park
Yongchun Waishan Yunhegu Water Park
Nanping Kaoting Water Park
Jiangbin Water Park in Shanghang Urban Area
Dehua Yinpinghu Water Park
Jiangxi
Shangyouhu Park
Yutianhu Water Park, Jingdezhen
Baihehu Water Park, Guixi
Jinggangshanhu Water Park, Jinggangshan
Tanhu Water Park, Nanfeng
Cuipinghu Water Park, Leping
Mayuan Sangu Water Park, Nancheng
Bailuhu Water Park, Taihe
Feijiantan Water Park, Yichun
Fengzehu Park, Shangrao
Sanjiang Water Park, Ganzhou
Jiulonghu Water Park, Tonggu
Wugonghu Water Park, Anfu
Yuelianghu Water Park, Jingdezhen
Zhangling Shuiku Water Park, Duchang
Mingyuehu Water Park, Pingxiang
Hanxianhu Water Park, Huichang
Water Park in Ganfu Pingyuan Irrigation Area
Luhu Water Park, Xingzi
Yuanminghu Water Park, Yifeng
Mengshan Shuiku Water Park, Xinjian
Xixia Shuiku Water Park, Xinjian
Taohuayuan Water Park, Wuning
Lushanxihai Water Park, Jiujiang
Qunying Shuiku Water Park, Wannian
Sanqinghu Water Park, Yushan
Tongboshan Jiuxianhu Water Park, Guangfeng
Yiyang Guifenghu Water Park
Dexing Fenghuanghu Water Park
Ningdu Ganjiangyuan Water Park
Xingan Huangnibu Shuiku Water Park
Ji'an Luotan Water Park
Wuning Xihaiwan Water Park
Water Park in Jiangxi Soil and Water Conservation Ecological Science and Technology Park of De'an
Ruijin Chenshihu Water Park
Nancheng Zuixianhu Water Park
Ji'an Qingyuan Chanxi Water Park
Yiyang Longmenhu Water Park
Shicheng Qinjiang Water Park
Chongyi Kejia Titian Water Park
Dexing Damaoshan Shuangxihu Water Park
Yichun Henghui Water Park
Fuzhou Dajueshan Water Park
Ji'an Xiajiang Shuilishuniu Water Park (alt. Xiajiang Hydro Junction)
Yihuang Caoshan Water Park
Xinyu Bama Water Park
Le'an Jiupuxia Water Park
Taihe Chatanbei Water Park
Shandong
Yimeng Lake
Dongying Tian'ehu Park
Jiangbei Shuicheng Park
Weihe Water Park, Zhucheng
Tianpinghu Park, Tai'an
Xianyuehu Park, Changle
Qingfenghu Park, Dongying
Wenhe Water Park, Anqiu
Mihe Water Park, Shouguang
Zhonghai Water Park, Binzhou
Dongcunhe Water Park, Haiyang
Jiaozhou Sanlihe Water Park
Luoshenhu Water Park, Dong'e
Sunwuhu Water Park, Guangrao
Ezhuang Soil and Water Conservation Eco-Park, Zibo
Laixihu Water Park, Laixi
Baodugu Guishehu Water Park, Zaozhuang
Weishanhu Shidi Honghe Water Park, Tengzhou
Kangwanghe Park, Feicheng
Yuqiuhu Water Park, Gaotang
Weihe Water Park, Changyi
Xiashanhu Water Park, Weifang
Matahu Water Park, Huantai
Yanmahu Water Park, Zaozhuang
Bailanghe Water Park, Weifang
Tai'erzhuang Yunhe Water Park, Zaozhuang
Taigonghu Water Park, Zibo
Qinkouhe Water Park, Zhanhua
Tangshuiya Shuiku Water Park, Linqu
Qianshenghu Water Park, Gaoqing
Jiaohe Water Park, Gaomi
Qingyunhu Water Park, Xintai
Zhuohe Water Park, Weifang
Baolonghe Water Park, Wendeng
Shaohai Water Park, Jiaozhou
Xueyehu Water Park, Laiwu
Tianyihu Water Park, Tai'an
Dongpinghu Water Park, Dongping
Zhaowanghe Water Park, Heze
Sanhehu Water Park, Binzhou
Tianmadao Water Park, Junan
Water Park in Xiaokaihe Irrigation Area
Yiheyuan Water Park, Yiyuan
Wuyanghu Water Park, Zibo
Renhe Shuiku Water Park, Qingzhou
Yishan Dongzhenhu Water Park, Linqu
Wulonghe Water Park, Laiyang
Juyuhu Water Park, Rushan
Zhuquan Water Park, Yinan
Fulonghu Water Park, Shanxian
Guchenghe Water Park, Huimin
Huanghedao Water Park, Wudi
Wangwu Shuiku Water Park, Longkou
Changchunhu Water Park, Qixia
Wanziqianhong Water Park, Sishui
Darushan Water Park, Rushan
Daixihe Water Park, Zouping
Jindu Longwanghu Water Park, Zhaoyuan
Tuhaihe Siyuanhu Water Park, Zhanhua
Huanghe Gudao Water Park, Xiajin
Dayuzhang Yinhuangguanqu Water Park, Boxing
Xiuyuanhe Water Park, Zhangqiu
Changqinghu Water Park, Jinan
Weishanhu Water Park, Weishan
Chenghe Water Park, Zaozhuang
Qufu Yihe Water Park
Jining Liaohe Water Park
Qingzhou Mihe Water Park
Shanxian Donggouhe Green Ecological Gallery Water Park
Chiping Jinniuhu Water Park
Binzhou Qinhuanghe Water Park
Shouguang Judianhu Water Park
Yantai Zhifu Dagujiahe Water Park
Yucheng Da Yu Culture Water Park
Juye Zhushuihe Water Park
Yantai Muping Qinshuihe Water Park
Water Park in Handun Yellow River Irrigation Area of Binzhou
Linqu Mihe Water Park
Zouping Yinghuashan Water Park
Jinxiang Jinshuihu Water Park
Liaocheng Lianhu Water Park
Tai'an Culaishan Wenhe Water Park
Xiajin Jiulongkou Shidi Water Park
Rencheng Nanchi Water Park
Feicheng Longshanhe Water Park
Chengwu Wentinghu Water Park
Junan Jilonghe Water Park
Jinxiang Yangshanhu Water Park
Yucheng Tuhaihe Water Park
Juxian Shuhe Water Park
Qingzhou Yanghe Water Park
Yihe Water Park, Yishui
Dezhou Daqinghe Water Park
Linyi Yishuhe Water Park
Yishui Xueshan Caihonggu Water Park
Water Park in Weishan Irrigation Area of Liaocheng
Tancheng Shuhe Water Park
Henan
Nanwan Park
Boshanhu Water Resort, Zhumadian
Yuntaishan Water Park
Zhaopinghu Park
Qunyinghu Park, Jiaozuo
Bo'ai Qingtianhe Park
Zhaikou Shuiku Park, Lingbao
Hongqi Channel
Tongshanhu Water Park
Xiangshanhu Water Park
Nianyushan Shuiku Park
Shimenhu Water Park, Xixia
Longshanhu Park, Guangshan
Baisha Shuiku Water Park
Wanghuahu Water Park, Fangcheng
Zhangwu Nanhai Shuiku Water Park, Anyang
Pohe Water Park, Xinyang
Suyahu Water Park, Zhumadian
Canghe Water Park, Weihui
Luhunhu Water Park
Shalihe Water Park, Luohe
Longwanggou Water Park, Nanyang
Beihu Water Park, Xinyang
Huanghe Gudao Shidi Water Park, Shangqiu
Yahekou Shuiku Water Park, Nanyang
Huanghe Eco-Water Park, Zhengzhou
Ronghu Water Park, Zhecheng
Shangqiu Gucheng Water Park, Shangqiu
Banqiao Shuiku Water Park, Zhumadian
Yinghe Water Park, Yuzhou
Wuzhi Jiayingguan Huanghe Water Park
Yongcheng Tuohe Riyuehu Water Park
Huaiyang Longhu Water Park
Minquan Huanghe Gudao Water Park
Suixian Beihu Eco-Water Park
Xuchang Caowei Gudu Water Park
Yucheng Xianghe Water Park
Xingyang Gubaidu South-to-North Water Diversion Yellow River Under-crossing Water Park
Linzhou Taihangpinghu Water Park
Nanle Xihu Eco-Water Park
Jiyuan Qinlongxia Water Park
Xuchang Heminghu Water Park
Zhengzhou Longhu Water Park
Ruzhou Beiruhe Water Park
Hubei
Zhanghe Park
Longlingong Park
Jingshan Huitinghu Park
Sandaohe Shuijinghu Park, Xiangyang
Wenxiahu Water Park, Zhongxiang
Weishui Water Park, Jingzhou
Wuhan Xiajiasi Water Park
Jiangtan Water Park, Wuhan
Guanyinhu Water Park, Xiaochang
Tiantanghu Water Park, Luotian
Bishenghu Water Park, Yingshan
Fushuihu Water Park, Tongshan
Qingjiang Water Park, Changyang
Macheng Fuqiaohe Water Park
Yunxi Tianhe Water Park
Jingzhou Beizha Water Park
Huanggang Bailianhe Water Park
Yichang Bailihuang Water Park
Macheng Mingshan Water Park
Wuhan Jinyinhu Water Park
Qichun Datong Shuiku Water Park
Wuxue Meichuan Shuiku Water Park
Qianjiang Tianguandao Water Park
Yichang Gaolanhe Water Park
Shiyan Taihe Meihuagu Water Park
Xingshan Nanyanghe Water Park
Yuan'an Huilongwan Water Park
Qianjiang Xinglong Water Park
Xiangyang Yindanqu Water Park
Hunan
Zhangjiajie Loujiang Park
Hunan Shuifu Water Park
Jiulongtan Daxiagu Water Park
Hengdong Mishui Water Park
Changsha Xiangjiang Water Park
Jiubujiang Water Park
Yuxingshan Water Park, Yiyang
Bianjiang Water Park, Yongxing
Qianlonghu Eco-Resort Village, Changsha
Dalongdong Water Park, Xiangxi
Yangmingshan Water Park, Shuangpai
Zaoshi Water Park
Changtangang Water Park, Fenghuang
Jiuguanhu Water Park, Hengshan
Zhinühu Water Park, Hengyang
Huangcai Shuiku Water Park, Changsha
Ziquejie Water Park, Xinhua
Qingnian Shuiku Water Park, Shaoshan
Xiepiyan Shuiku Water Park, Hengyang
Huayuan Biancheng Water Park, Huayuan
Cailun Zhuhai Water Park, Leiyang
Wangjiachang Water Park, Lixian
Yanzidong Water Park, Chenxi
Liuyehu Water Park, Changde
Huangjiahu Water Park, Yiyang
Xiaoxiangyuan Water Park, Jianghua
Water Park in Shaoshan Irrigation Area of Xiangtan
Hanshou Qingshuihu Water Park
Zixing Dongjianghu Water Park
Jiangyong Qianjiadong Water Park
Yongxing Qingshanlong - Longtan Water Park
Lanshan Xiangjiangyuan Water Park
Wangcheng Bandao Water Park
Rucheng Reshuihe Water Park
Chenzhou Siqinghu Water Park
Lianyuan Yangjiatan Water Park
Hepinghu Water Park, Zhijiang
Changsha Yanghu Shidi Water Park
Qiyang Wuxi Water Park
Zhuzhou Xiangjiang Scenic Belt Water Park
Yongzhou Jindong Baishuihe Water Park
Zhuzhou Wanfenghu Water Park
Guangdong
Feilaixia Hydro Junction Resort
Yuhu Park, Maoming
Xiaoliang Soil and Water Conservation Eco-Park, Maoming
Huizhou Baipenhu Eco-Park
Huaihua Wulongxi Water Park
Dongtianhu Water Park, Meizhou
Yitang Shuiku Water Park, Wuhua
Huangchuan Sanxia Water Park, Lianzhou
Zengjiang Hualang Water Park, Zengcheng
Danxiayuan Water Park, Renhua
Zhuhai Zhuzhou Shuixian Water Park
Guangzhou Baiyunhu Water Park
Zhanjiang Hedi Yinhu Water Park
Guangzhou Huaduhu Water Park
Foshan Lecong Water Park
Guangxi
Chengbihe Water Park, Bose
Hongchaojiang Water Park, Beihai
Nanning Dawangtan Water Park
Nanning Tianbao Shuiku Water Park
Jianhe Water Park, Debao
Yuedaohu Water Park, Luzhai
Bachuanhe Dixia Daxiagu Water Park, Nandan
Rongjiang Hegu Water Park, Liucheng
Xiangjiang Water Park, Xiangzhou
Jingxi Longtan Equan Water Park
Du'an Chengjiang Water Park
Guilin Lingqu Water Park
Longlin Wanfenghu Water Park
Guigang Jiulinghu Water Park
Hainan
Songtao Shuiku Park
Nanlihu Water Park, Ding'an
Qionghai Heshui Shuiku Water Park
Baoting Maozhen Shuiku (Shenyudao) Water Park
Haikou Meishehe Water Park
Chongqing
Longshuihu Park, Dazu
Qingxigou Water Park, Jiangjin
Dagou Shuiku Water Park, Bishan
Shuanglonghu Water Park, Hechuan
Xiaonanhai Water Park, Qianjiang
Shanhuguan Shuiku Water Park, Wulong
Congkan Shuiku Water Park, Tongnan
Longhe Water Park, Shizhu
Nanbinlu Water Park
Qinjian Shuiku Water Park, Yongchuan
Hanfenghu Water Park, Kaixian
Bishan Bi'nanhe Water Park
Wulong Yangshuihe Water Park
Rongchang Rongfenghe Water Park
Fengdu Longhegu Water Park
Sichuan
Xianhai Park
Lubanhu Park
Baishuihu Park, Anxian
Shuangxihu Park, Zigong
Jianshan Water Park, Zigong
Luguhu Water Park, Liangshan
Jiangkou Shuixiang Water Park, Pingchang
Dashen Nanhai Water Park, Peng'an
Dujiangyan Water Park
Shuimo Zangzhai Water Park, Wenchuan
Fujiang Liuxia Water Park, Mianyang
Heilongtan Water Park, Meishan
Guyumiao Shuiku Water Park, Longchang
Shengzhonghu Water Park, Nanchong
Bailuhu Water Park, Cangxi
Qinglonghu Water Park, Xichong
Qiongjiangyuan Water Park, Suining
Leshan Daduhe Jinkou Daxiagu Water Park
Ebian Da- Xiao-dujuanchi Water Park
Qianwei Suoluohu Water Park
Peng'an Jialing Diyisangzi Water Park (Jialing Diyisangzi: “Number One Hometown in the [river basin of] Jialing”, in memory of Sima Xiangru, a great prose poet of the Western Han dynasty)
Langzhong Jinshahu Water Park
Qingchuan Qingzhujiang Water Park
Wusheng Taijihu Water Park
Jinkouhe Dawashan Wuchi Water Park
Dazhu Baidaohu Water Park
Kaijiang Baoshiqiao Shuiku Water Park
Ya'an Feixianhu Water Park
Neijiang Huanghehu Water Park
Bazhong Huahu Water Park
Guang'an Baiyunhu Water Park
Xichang Qionghai Water Park
Luzhou Zhangba Water Park
Zamtang Raqu He Water Park
Nanbu Hongyanzihu Water Park
Guang'an Huayingshan Tianchihu Water Park
Ya'an Longxihe Shangli Guzhen Water Park
Nanjiang Yuhu Water Park
Suining Guanyinhu Water Park
Liangshan Anninghu Water Park
Guang'an Tianyigu Water Park
Bazhong Liujinhu Water Park
Miyi Miyanghu Water Park
Huili Xianrenhu Water Park
Tongjiang Dongjun Shuixiang Water Park
Hongya Yanyuliujiang Water Park
Yilong Baiyanghu Water Park
Jiange Cuiyunhu Water Park
Guizhou
Zhenyuan Wuyanghe Water Resort
Zhijin Konglonghu Water Resort
Cengong Long'aohe Water Park
Sanchahe Water Park
Wuyanghu Water Park
Dujuanhu Park
Bijie Tianhe Water Park
Songbaishan Water Park
Longli Eco-Tech Demonstration Park
Jinmang Linhai Water Park, Guiyang
Minghu Water Park, Liupanshui
Muchenghe Water Park, Guanling
Dabanshui Water Park, Zunyi
Yonglehu Water Park, Guiyang
Wujiang Shanxia Water Park, Yanhe
Gaoyuan Qiandaohu Water Park, Luodian
Lianjiang Water Park, Huishui
Yang'ashahu Water Park, Jianhe
Jinjiang Water Park, Tongren
Wuyanghe Water Park, Shibing
Zhijinguan Water Park, Zhijin
Longli Lianhua Water Park
Jinping Sanjiang Water Park
Sinan Wujiang Water Park
Suiyang Shuangmenxia Water Park
Dafang Shexiang Jiuyi Water Park
Weining Caohai Water Park
Kaiyang Qinglonghe Water Park
Kaili Qingshuijiang Water Park
Fuquan Sajingu Water Park
Guiding Jinhaixueshan Water Park
Tongren Baiyanhe Water Park
Zunyi Maotaidu Water Park
Yongjiang Water Park, Qiannan
Yunnan
Zhujiangyuan Park
Wuzhe Hot Spring Park, Luxi
Meizihu Water Park, Pu'er
Mianyangchong Resort Village, Jianshui
Ximu Shuiku Park, Jinggu
Alahu Park, Luxi
Kongquehu Eco-Park, Mangshi
Mengsuo Longtan Water Park, Ximeng
Beimiaohu Water Park, Baoshan
Cibihu Water Park, Eryuan
Aluhu Water Park, Luxi
Bailonghu Water Park, Qiubei
Ximahe Water Park, Pu'er
Lashihai Water Park, Yulong, Lijiang
Junlonghu Water Park, Wenshan
Qinghaihu Water Park, Xiangyun
Yiliang Jiuxiang Mingyuehu Water Park
Lincang Bingdao Water Park
Shuangbai Chamuhu Water Park
Qiubei Nalonghu Water Park
Lijiang Liyuhe Water Park
Dayao Qinglinghu Water Park
Qingshanhu Water Park, Chuxiong
Tibet
Comogyiri Hu Water Park, Nyingchi
Yarlung Hegu Water Park, Nêdong
Lhasa He Water Park, Lhasa
Shaanxi
Jinyanghu Eco-Park
Hanzhong Shimen Water Park
Huanghehun Eco-Resort
Yinghu Park, Ankang
Hongsihu Park, Nanzheng
Youyihu Recreational Mountain Resort, Weinan
Park in Baliu Ecological Comprehensive Development Park
Danjiang Water Park, Shangluo
Nanshahu Water Park, Chenggu
Zhengguoqu Water Park
Longjuzhai Water Park, Danfeng
Jialingjiangyuan Water Park, Fengxian
Qianhu Water Park, Baoji
Hanchenghu Water Park, Xian
Weishuizhiyang Water Park, Baoji
Jinsi Daxiagu Water Park, Shangnan
Huangbaiyuan Water Park, Taibai
Cuihuashan Water Park, X i'an
Baqiao Shidi Water Park, X i'an
Huanghe Hukou Water Park, Yichuan
Hongjiannao Water Park, Shenmu
Huxian Qinglongxia Water Park
Taibai Qingfengxia Water Park
Heyang Qiachuan Water Park (Qiachuan: locally pronounced Hechuan)
Danfeng Taohuagu Water Park
Zhashui Qianyouheyuan Water Park
Water Park in Xi'an Expo Park
Qishan Qiwei Water Park
Hanyin Fengyan Ancient Terraced Field Water Park
Baoji Taibaishan Water Park
Fengdong Fenghe Water Park
Weinan Luyanghu Water Park
Meixian Bawei Guanzhong Culture Water Park
Langao Qiancenghe Water Park
Mizhi Gaoxigou Water Park
Yanchuan Qiankunwan Water Park
Xi'an Weihe Eco-Water Park
Zhenping Feiduxia Water Park
Ankang Renhe Water Park
Xi'an Qujiangchi - Datang Furongyuan Water Park (Datang Furongyuan: a cultural theme park officially known as Tang Paradise in English)
Xi'an Huchenghe Water Park (alt. Xi'an Moat)
Gansu
Yuanyangchi Water Park, Jinta
Liangzhou Tiantishan Water Park
Kongtong Shuiku Park, Pingliang
Chijinxia Water Park, Jiuquan
Dahuwan Park, Gaotai
Zhulinsi Shuiku Park, Zhuanglang
Tianjiagou Soil and Water Conservation Eco-Park, Jingchuan
Yuyuan Water Park
Guazhouyuan Water Park, Guazhou
Shuangquanhu Water Park, Linze
Erbahu Water Park, Zhangye
Dayekou Shuiku Water Park, Zhangye
Wanxiahu Water Park, Xihe
Pingchuan Shuiku Water Park, Linze
Liqiao Shuiku Water Park, Shandan
Jinshanhu Water Park, Aksay
Bailongjiang Lazikou Water Park, Têwo
Yeliguan Water Park, Lintan
Hongyashan Shuiku Water Park, Minqin
Danghe Fengqingxian Water Park, Dunhuang
Huanghe Shouqu Water Park, Maqu
Yangba Water Park, Kangxian
Taohe Water Park, Jonê
Liangdang Yunpinghe Water Park
Chongxin Longzehu Water Park
Sunan Longchanghe Fengqingxian Water Park
Qingyanghu Water Park, Qingyang
Jingdian Water Park (Jiangdian: Jingtaichuan Electric Pumping Irrigation [Enjineering Project])
Qingyang Xifeng Qingshuigou Water Park
Qinghai
Nanmenxia Shuiku Park, Huzhu
Changlinggou Park
Huanghe Zoulang Water Park, Huangnan
Mengda Tianchi Water Park, Xunhua
Heiquan Shuiku Water Park
Beishan Water Park, Huzhu
Nyainboyuzê Water Park, Jigzhi
Sanchuan Huanghe Water Park, Minhe
Huangheyuan Water Park, Madoi
Lancangjiang Water Park, Nangqên
Bayan He Water Park, Haixi
Jinzihai Water Park, Ulan
Yushu Tongtianhe Water Park
Ningxia
Qingtongxia Tanglaizha Park
Shapotou Water Park
Aiyihe Water Park, Yinchuan
Xinghaihu Water Park, Shizuishan
Yazidang Water Park, Lingwu
Shahu Water Park
Tengger Shidi Water Park, Zhongwei
Ruhe Water Park, Pengyang
Qingliuhe Water Park, Longde
Mingcuihu Water Park, Yinchuan
Pengyang Yangwa Liuyu Water Park
Yinchuan Huanghe Hengcheng Water Park
Xinjiang
Kizil Shuiku Park
Xihaiwan Mingzhu Park, Bayingolin
Kax He Longkou Water Park, Ili
Uluwat Water Park
Karez Water Park, Turpan
Tacheng Karangur Water Park
Shimenzi Shuiku Water Park, Changji
Qianquanhu Water Park, Shawan
Tianshan Tianchi Water Park
Kurdenin Water Park, Gongliu
Dawakol Shamo Water Park, Yopurga
Yehetaogou Water Park, Gongliu
Kashi Tuman He Water Park
Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps
Shihezi Beihu Resort, XPCC Eighth Division
Qinggedahu Water Park
Xihaiwan Water Park
Tarim Dolan Hu Park
Qianniaohu Park
Shuanghu Water Park
Bayan Mountain Resort
Shihezi Taoyuan Park
Tarim Xianglonghu Park
Burultokay Xihai Water Park, Fuhai
National Grassland Nature Parks of China
Ratified by: State Forestry and Grassland Administration
Number of NGNPs (unit): 39 (as at September 17, 2020)
Area of NGNPs (10,000 ha): 14.7
Heilongjiang
854 Nongchang National Grassland Nature Park, General Bureau of State Farms of Heilongjiang Province (alt. 854 Farm)
Inner Mongolia
Cilechuan National Grassland Nature Park
Temeji National Grassland Nature Park
Talinhua National Grassland Nature Park
Erenhot National Grassland Nature Park
Bayan Kulun National Grassland Nature Park
Modon Muchang National Grassland Nature Park (Muchang: Ranch)
Ganggin Xil National Grassland Nature Park
Dong Ujimqin National Grassland Nature Park
Helan Caoyuan National Grassland Nature Park
Salqin National Grassland Nature Park
Bor Hua National Grassland Nature Park
Burhant National Grassland Nature Park
Ulgai National Grassland Nature Park
Tubtai National Grassland Nature Park
Hebei
Huangtuwan National Grassland Nature Park
Qagan Nur National Grassland Nature Park
Shanxi
Huapo National Grassland Nature Park
Qinshui Shifan Muchang National Grassland Nature Park (Shifan Muchang: Demonstration Ranch)
Wanbaoshan National Grassland Nature Park
Hunan
Nantan National Grassland Nature Park
Yanzishan National Grassland Nature Park
Sichuan
Gemu National Grassland Nature Park
Zangba National Grassland Nature Park
Waqên National Grassland Nature Park (alt. Waqie)
Yunnan
Xiangbaichang National Grassland Nature Park
Fenglongshan National Grassland Nature Park
Tibet
Nagzê National Grassland Nature Park
Chigu National Grassland Nature Park
Kaimar National Grassland Nature Park
Gansu
Waiwaincang National Grassland Nature Park (alt. Awancang)
Meiren National Grassland Nature Park, Hezuo
Qinghai
Sujiwan National Grassland Nature Park
Monqi Amho National Grassland Nature Park, Henan Mongol Autonomous County (alt. Amuhu)
Cuorigeng National Grassland Nature Park, Zêkog
Hongjungou National Grassland Nature Park
Ningxia
Xihuashan National Grassland Nature Park
Xiangshansi National Grassland Nature Park
Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps
Tianmu Caoyuan National Grassland Nature Park
National Desert (Rocky Desert) Parks of China
Ratified by: State Forestry and Grassland Administration
Number of NDPs (incl. NRDPs, unit): 128 (as at May 26, 2022)
Hebei
Weichang Ar Bulag National Desert Park
Fengning Xiaobazi National Desert Park
Guyuan Jiuliancheng National Desert Park
Shanxi
Youyu Huangshawa National Desert Park
Datong Xiping National Desert Park
Huairen Jinshatan National Desert Park
Shuocheng Majialiang National Desert Park
Zuoyun Guanjiabu National Desert Park
Tianzhen Biancheng National Desert Park
Zuoyun Que'ershan National Desert Park
Datong Shawo National Desert Park
Tianzhen Mixinguan National Desert Park
Datong Nanjiao Shilihe National Desert Park
Xinrong Wuqi National Desert Park
Pianguan Linhu National Desert Park
Inner Mongolia
Hobq Qixinghu National Desert Park
Dengkou Xaxin Tohoi National Desert Park
Uxin Sulige National Desert Park
Wuhai Jinshawan National Desert Park
Ongniud Boronhi National Desert Park
Naiman Bugat National Desert Park
Hure Yinshawan National Desert Park
U Bulag National Desert Park, Urad Rear Banner
Gogastai National Desert Park, Zhenglan Banner
Dashatou National Desert Park, Otog Front Banner
Habuqigai National Desert Park, West Ujimqin Banner
Linhe Ulan Tug National Desert Park
Onggon Mangh National Desert Park, Uxin Banner
Jiukeshu National Desert Park, Alxa Right Banner
Shahaihu National Desert Park, Hanggin Rear Banner
Liaoning
Zhangwu Daqinggou National Desert Park
Kangping Jinshatan National Desert Park
Zhangwu Sihecheng National Desert Park
Hubei
Chongyang Yushan National Rocky Desert Park
Hunan
Anhua Yuntaishan National Rocky Desert Park
Leiyang Wugongxian National Rocky Desert Park
Xinning National Rocky Desert Park
Shimen Changti'ai National Rocky Desert Park
Linli Kemushan National Rocky Desert Park
Zhangjiajie Hongshilin National Rocky Desert Park
Yizhang Chishi National Rocky Desert Park
Xupu Leifengshan National Rocky Desert Park
Lianyuan Fukou National Rocky Desert Park
Taoyuan Laozuyan National Rocky Desert Park
Shaoyang Jigongyan National Rocky Desert Park
Guiyang Sizhoushan National Rocky Desert Park
Dong'an Duxiufeng National Rocky Desert Park
Xintian Daguanbao National Rocky Desert Park
Hecheng Huangyan National Rocky Desert Park
Guangdong
Liancheng Wanshanchaowang National Rocky Desert Park
Ruyuan Xijing Gudao National Rocky Desert Park
Guangxi
Binyang Baxianyan National Rocky Desert Park
Huanjiang National Rocky Desert Park
Sichuan
Xingwen Fengyan National Rocky Desert Park
Yunnan
Luliang Caise Shalin National Desert Park
Yanshan Weimo National Rocky Desert Park
Xichou National Rocky Desert Park
Jianshui Tianzhuta National Rocky Desert Park
Yiliang National Rocky Desert Park
Luxi Baishiyan National Rocky Desert Park
Mile Yunfengshan National Rocky Desert Park
Qiubei Shede National Rocky Desert Park
Shaanxi
Dali National Desert Park
Dingbian Maliantan National Desert Park
Gansu
Aksay National Desert Park
Dunhuang Yangguan National Desert Park
Linze Xiaoquanzi National Desert Park
Liangzhou Toudunying National Desert Park
Jinchang National Desert Park
Minqin Shajingzi National Desert Park
Gaotai Luotuoyi National Desert Park
Jinta Lanhewan National Desert Park
Yumen Qingshan National Desert Park
Minqin Huang'antan National Desert Park
Liangzhou Jiuduntan National Desert Park
Suzhou Tianluocheng National Desert Park
Qinghai
Guinan Huangshatou National Desert Park
Ulan Jinzihai National Desert Park
Dulan Tebh National Desert Park
Mangnai Qianfoya National Desert Park
Haiyan Ketu National Desert Park
Qumarlêb Tongtianhe National Desert Park
Ulan Quanshuiwan National Desert Park
Zêkog Hor National Desert Park
Golmud Tuolahai National Desert Park
Lenghu Yardang National Desert Park
Maqên Youyun National Desert Park
Guinan Lucang National Desert Park
Ningxia
Shapotou National Desert Park
Lingwu Baijitan National Desert Park
Yanchi Shabianzi National Desert Park
Pingluo Miaomiaohu National Desert Park
Xinjiang
Fukang Wutonggou National Desert Park
Jimsar National Desert Park
Qitai Petrified Wood National Desert Park
Mori Mingshashan National Desert Park
Yuli National Desert Park
Qiemo National Desert Park
Xayar National Desert Park
Shanshan National Desert Park
Yiwu Euphrates Poplar Forest National Desert Park
Lop Yurung Wan National Desert Park
Bohu Akbelkum National Desert Park
Jinghe Muttar National Desert Park
Hoboksar Janggar National Desert Park
Turpan Ayding Hu National Desert Park
Kuqa Qiuci National Desert Park
Yopurga Dawakol National Desert Park
Makit National Desert Park
Shache Karasu National Desert Park
Burqin Saruzun National Desert Park
Manas Tupaoying National Desert Park
Changji Beishawo National Desert Park
Hutubi Maqiaozi National Desert Park
Yengisar Sahan National Desert Park
Luntai Iminqek National Desert Park
Usu Ganjiahu National Desert Park
Shawan Tiemenkan National Desert Park
Yecheng Qaqkum National Desert Park
Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps
Tuolingmengpo National Desert Park
Aral Shuihuyang National Desert Park
Uluk National Desert Park
Zimuhe National Desert Park
Zuihuyang National Desert Park
Aral Kungang National Desert Park
Kokdala National Desert Park
Fengshengbu National Desert Park
Jinsitan National Desert Park, XPCC Seventh Division
Note 1: The above-mentioned "desert" generally refers to "sandy desert", unless otherwise noted.
Note 2: The above-mentioned "rocky desert" generally refers to "karst rocky desert", unless otherwise noted.
National Closed Sandified Land Protected Areas of China
Ratified by: State Forestry and Grassland Administration
Number of NCSLPAs: 102 (as at January 23, 2019)
Inner Mongolia
Qagan National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Xin Barag Left Banner
Olji Moron National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Jarud Banner
Weiliansu National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Naiman Banner
Songshushan National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Ongniud Banner
Wantaixing National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, General Afforestation Station of Ordos City
Xar Tal National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Otog Banner
Dugui Tal National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Hanggin Banner
Shuangmiao National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Hanggin Banner
Hogq National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Urad Rear Banner
Ereh Hasah National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Alxa Left Banner
Mandal National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Alxa Right Banner
Ongt Gol National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Ejin Banner
Altan Qog National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Alxa Right Banner
Yabrai National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Alxa Right Banner
Jagt National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Alxa Left Banner
Gurnai National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Ejin Banner
Ih Us National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Hanggin Banner
Xine Us National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Urad Rear Banner
Sanggin Dalai National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Zhenglan Banner
Tibet
Nianjiusang National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Gar County
Lingtangqêmo National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Dinggyê County
Gaqoi National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Zhongba County
Nankor National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Sa'gya County
Shaanxi
National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area along Great Wall, Jingbian County
Heigeda Huanghusha National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Hengshan District
Wushilisha National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Yuyang District
National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area in Windblown Sandy Lakeshore Shrublands of Northern Dingbian County
Gansu
Mingshashan National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Dunhuang City
National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area on Western Edge of Badain Jaran Desert, Jinta County
National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area in Arid Desert of Northern Linze County
Dongtan National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Minle County
Suosuojing National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Minqin County
National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area in Northern Portion of Qinghe Oasis, Yongchang County
Hongliuquan National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Yumen City
National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area on Western Edge of Tengger Desert, Jinchuan District
Jiacaotan National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Liangzhou District
Mahuangtang National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Gulang County
Cuiliugou National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Jingtai County
Tianshui Town National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Huanxian
Dong Gobi National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Dunhuang City
Nganggarbo National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Maqu County
Dongle Nantan National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Shandan County
Mazongshan Town National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Subei County
Shiliangzi National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Jinta County
Xishawo National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Gaotai County
Kumtag National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Aksay County
Shangbalangjing National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Minqin County
Qinghai
Xarag National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Dulan County
Bulanggir National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Ulan County
Mangnai Administrative Committee National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Haixi Prefecture
Mogê Tan National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Guinan County
Da Qaidam Administrative Committee National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area
Urt Moron National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Golmud City
Haiyan County National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area
Tal Tan National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Gonghe County
Lucang National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Guinan County
Lenghu Administrative Committee National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Haixi Prefecture
Changmahe National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Maqên County (alt. Qamalung)
Zaohuo National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Ulan County
Ningxia
Baijitan Sandbreak Forest Farm National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Lingwu City
Suanzaoliang National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Hongsibu District
Magaozhuang Township National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Tongxin County
Changliushui National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Shapotou District, Zhongwei City
Yanchi Mechanized Forest Farm National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area
Xinjiang
Gezkum National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Xayar County
National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area in Southern Nanhu Township of Hami City
National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area in Northwestern Kawak Township of Moyu County
Hedong National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Qiemo County
Liushe National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Manas County
Kumtag National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Shanshan County
Route S239 National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Jimsar County (S239: a provincial-level road)
Hotan Qiao National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Awat County
National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area on Northern Edge of Oasis in Yopurga County
Kumtobay National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Jeminay County
Qira Township National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Qira County
National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area at Luobuzhuang Section of National Highway 218, Ruoqiang County
Akbelkum National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Bohu County
Mingshashan National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Mori Kazak Autonomous County
National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area in Northern Hanggiya Town of Lop County
Buguram National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Yengisar County
Sarkum National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Burqin County
Xiahe Linchang National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Bachu County
Sankouquan National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Fuhai County
Cainan National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Fukang City
Koktet National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Jiashi County
Kumbulag National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Hoxud County
Beishawo National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Hutubi County
Tinsk National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Jeminay County
National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area in South of Tarim Region, Kuqa County
Caohu Township National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Luntai County
Karangur Tograk National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Makit County
Niya Township National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Minfeng County
Kokterak Township National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Pishan County
Xidi National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Qitai County
Donghu National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Shanshan County
Aqqik National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Yuli County
Aqyar Town National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Wushi County
Daryaboyi Township National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Yutian County
Karasu Township National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Shache County
Janggilieski National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Yecheng County
Qowok National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Aksu City
Qikbulung National Closed Sandified Land Protected Area, Kalpin County
National Special Marine Protected Areas (Marine Parks) of China
Ratified by: State Forestry and Grassland Administration
Number of NSMPAs (unit): 71 (incl. 48 MPs, as at December 26, 2016)
Area of NSMPAs (incl. MPs) (10,000 km2): 0.4349 (as of 2012)
Total Number of SMPAs (unit): 111 (incl. MPs, as of 2019)
Area of SMPAs (incl. MPs) (10,000 km2): 7.15
Tianjin
Binhai National Marine Park
Hebei
Beidaihe National Marine Park
Liaoning
Jinzhou Dabijiashan National Special Marine Protected Area (National Marine Park) +1
Liaohekou Honghaitan National Marine Park
Suizhong Jieshi National Marine Park
Juehuadao National Marine Park
Dalian Changshan Qundao National Marine Park
Dalian Jinshitan National Marine Park
Tuanshan National Marine Park
Dalian Xianyuwan National Marine Park
Dalian Xinghaiwan National Marine Park
Linghai Dalinghekou National Marine Park
Shanghai
Jinshan National Marine Park
Jiangsu
Lianyungang Haizhouwan Bay Ecosystem and Natural Relic National Special Marine Protected Area +2
Haimen Liyashan National Marine Park
Lianyungang Haizhouwan National Marine Park +2
Xiaoyangkou National Marine Park
Zhejiang
Yueqing Ximendao National Special Marine Protected Area
Shengsi Ma'an Liedao National Special Marine Protected Area +3
Putuo Zhongjieshan Liedao National Special Marine Protected Area +4
Yushan Liedao National Special Marine Protected Area (National Marine Park) +5
Dongtou National Marine Park
Shengsi National Marine Park +3
Yuhuan National Marine Park
Ningbo Xiangshan Hua'aodao National Marine Park
Putuo National Marine Park +4
Fujian
Xiamen National Marine Park
Fuyao Liedao National Marine Park
Changle National Marine Park
Meizhoudao National Marine Park
Chengzhoudao National Marine Park
Chongwu National Marine Park
Haitanwan National Marine Park, Pingtan Comprehensive Experimental Zone
Shandong
Changyi National Special Marine Eco-Protected Area
Dongying Huanghekou Ecosystem National Special Marine Protected Area
Dongying Lijin Demersal Fishes Ecosystem National Special Marine Protected Area
Dongying Hekou Shallow-water Shellfishes Ecosystem National Special Marine Protected Area
Dongying Laizhouwan Solenoidea Ecosystem National Special Marine Protected Area (protected targets: Cultellus attenuatus, Solen grandis, Sinonovacula constricta and their habitats)
Dongying Guangrao Sandworms Ecosystem National Special Marine Protected Area
Wendeng Ocean Ecosystem National Special Marine Protected Area
Longkou Huangshuihekou Ocean Ecosystem National Special Marine Protected Area
Weihai Liugongdao Ocean Ecosystem National Special Marine Protected Area +i
Yantai Zhifudao Island Group National Special Marine Protected Area
Rushan Tadaowan Ocean Ecosystem National Special Marine Protected Area
Yantai Muping Sandy Coast National Special Marine Protected Area
Laiyang Wulonghekou Littoral Wetland National Special Marine Protected Area
Haiyang Wanmi Haitan Ocean Resources National Special Marine Protected Area
Weihai Xiaoshidao National Special Marine Protected Area
Laizhou Qiantan Ocean Ecosystem National Special Marine Protected Area (alt. Laizhou Shoal)
Penglai Dengzhou Qiantan National Special Marine Protected Area (alt. Dengzhou Shoal)
Weihai Liugongdao National Marine Park +i
Rizhao National Marine Park
Darushan National Marine Park
Changdao National Marine Park
Qingdao Xihai'an National Marine Park
Yantaishan National Marine Park
Penglai National Marine Park
Zhaoyuan Sandy Gold Coast National Marine Park
Weihai Haixitou National Marine Park
Yantai Laishan National Marine Park
Qingdao Jiaozhouwan National Marine Park
Guangdong
Hailingdao National Marine Park
Techengdao National Mainre Park
Leizhou Wushi National Marine Park
Nan'ao Qing'aowan National Marine Park
Yangxi Yueliangwan National Marine Park
Honghaiwan Zhelang Bandao National Marine Park
Guangxi
Qinzhou Maoweihai National Marine Park
Weizhoudao Coral Reef National Marine Park
Hainan
Wanning Laoyehai National Marine Park
Changjiang Qiziwan National Marine Park
+1/+2/+3/+4/+5: one identical institution under two different names.
+i: partially overlapped.
National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Areas of China
Ratified by: Ministry of Agriculture
Number of NAGRCAs (unit): 535 (as at October 31, 2017)
Total Number of AGRCAs (unit): TBV
Hebei
Fuping Chinese Softshell Turtle National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Pelodiscus sinensis]
Hengshuihu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Baiyangdian National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Qinhuangdao Waters National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Changli Waters National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Nandaihe Waters National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Nandagang National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Luanhe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Liuhe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Baipohu Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Shazhanghe Redfin Culter and Oriental River Prawn National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Chanodichthys erythropterus]-[Macrobrachium nipponense]
Yongnianwa Asian Swamp Eel and Pond Loach National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Monopterus albus]-[Misgurnus anguillicaudatus]
Shanhaiguan Waters National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yongdinghe Chinese Softshell Turtle, Oriental River Prawn and Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Tachysurus fulvidraco]
Guyuan Shandianhe Drainage System Bashang High-back Wild Goldfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Carassius auratus var. Bashang high-back type]
Qianxi Lixianghu Reddish Dark Brown Carp and Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Cyprinus rubrofuscus]
Caofeidian Chinese Mitten Crab National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Eriocheir sinensis]
Xiangyundao Waters National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Shijiazhuang Zhongshanhu Oriental River Prawn and Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Shanxi
Shengtianhu Chinese Catfish and Huanghe Carp National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Silurus asotus]-[Cyprinus rubrofuscus var. Huanghe]
Qinhe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Yumenkou to Sanmenxia Section of Middle Yellow River (trans-provincial NAGRCA, shared with Henan and Shaanxi)
Inner Mongolia
Lanzhou Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Ordos Section of Yellow River [Silurus lanzhouensis]
Taimen National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Genhe Section of Ergun River [Hucho taimen]
Hulunhu Redfin Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Dal Nur Amur Ide National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Leuciscus waleckii]
Hureet Hu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Ganhe Taimen and Lenok National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Brachymystax lenok]
Holin He Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Taimen and Lenok National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Zalantun City Section of Chaor River
Dayanhe National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Liaoning
Shuangtaizihekou Jellyfish Haizhe and Chinese Mitten Crab National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Rhopilema esculentum]
Sanshandao Waters National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Haiyangdao National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Dalian Yuandao Waters National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Dalian Zhangzidao Waters National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Dalian Yuyanjiao Waters National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Hunheyuan Lenok National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Jilin
Mijianghe Chum Salmon National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Oncorhynchus keta]
Korean Taimen National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Ji'an Section of Yalu River [Hucho ishikawae]
Ussuri Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Da'an Section of River Nenjiang [Pelteobagrus ussuriensis]
Siniperca scherzeri et Thymallus yaluensis National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Yunfeng Section of Yalu River (Siniperca scherzeri: leopard mandarin fish)
Blackspotted Pike National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Upper Mudan River [Esox reicherti]
Hunchunhe Chum Salmon National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Songhuajiang Toudaojiang Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Songhuajiang Ningjiang Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Erlonghu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Xibeichahe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Nenjiang Zhenlai Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Xiaoshihe Coldwater Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yuelianghu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Dahuangnihe Barbel Steed National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Hemibarbus labeo]
Hanihe Korean Lamprey National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Eudontomyzon morii]
Chinese Hooksnout Carp National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Linjiang Section of Yalu River [Opsariichthys bidens]
Songyuan Songhuajiang Yellowfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Xenocypris macrolepis]
Zhu'erduohe Amur Minnow National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Rhynchocypris lagowskii]
Helong Hongqihe Masu Salmon Landlocked Type National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Oncorhynchus masou]
Tonghua Hanihe National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Nenjiang Qian Gorlos Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Huinan Huifahe Amur Ide National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Baijianghe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Northern Lampreys National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Jilin Section of Songhua River [Petromyzontid lampreys genus Lethenteron, incl. Arctic and Far Eastern brook lampreys]
Qian Gorlos Qagan Hu Mongolian Redfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Chanodichthys mongolicus]
Qian Gorlos Xinmiaopao Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Songhuahu Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Jilin Jinjiang Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Heilongjiang
Amur Whitefish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Luobei Section of Heilong River [Coregonus ussuriensis]
Panguhe Lenok and Burbot National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Lota lota]
Blackspotted Pike and Amur Ide National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Jiayin Section of Heilong River
Songhuajiang Ussuri Catfish and Smallscale Yellowfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Plagiognathops microlepis]
Heilongjiang Lijiadao Topmouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Culter alburnus]
Heilongjiang Humawan Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Hailanghe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Songhuajiang Zhaodong Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Heilongjiang Tongjiang Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Songhuajiang Mulan Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Heilongjiang Xunke Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Amur Sturgeon and Kaluga National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Fuyuan Section of Heilong River [Acipenser schrenckii]-[Huso dauricus]
Pacific Redfin and Pacific Salmons National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Dongning Section of Suifen River [Tribolodon brandtii, incl. 3 migrating groups with gold, silver and black variations in skin color]-[Salmonid fishes genus Oncorhynchus, incl. chum, masu and humpback salmons]
Mangniuhe National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Nenjiang Woduhe Amur Grayling and Taimen National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Thymallus grubii]
Spotted Steed National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Zhaoyuan Section of Songhua River [Hemibarbus maculatus]
Mandarin Fish and Yellowfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Shuangcheng Section of Songhua River [Siniperca chuatsi]
Xingkaihu Topmouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Taimen and White Amur Bream National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Sipai Section of Wusuli River [Parabramis pekinensis]
Huangnihe Fangzheng Prussian Carp National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Carassius gibelio var. Fangzheng]
Fabielahe Mandarin Fish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Kaluga National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Tongjiang Section of Heilong River
Ougenhe Blackspotted Pike National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Nenjiang Songhuajiang Sanchaheko Silver Carp and Topmouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Hypophthalmichthys molitrix]
Wusulijiang (Hulin Section) Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Shanghai
Changjiang Japanese Grenadier Anchovy National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Coilia nasus] (trans-provincial NAGRCA, shared with Jiangsu and Anhui)
Jiangsu
Haizhouwan Fleshy Prawn National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Penaeus chinensis]
Taihu Icefishes, Topmouth Culter and Siberian Prawn National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area, Lake Taihu [Salangids genera Neosalanx & Protosalanx]-[Exopalaemon modestus]
Hongzehu Oriental River Prawn and Asian Clam National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Corbicula fluminea]
Yangchenghu Chinese Mitten Crab National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Chinese Mitten Crab and Mandarin Fish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Jingjiang Section of Yangtze River
Jiangjiasha Zhugensha Korean Mud Snail and Asiatic Hard Clam National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Bullacta exarata]-[Meretrix meretrix]
Changjiang Dashengguan Chinese Longsnout Catfish and Bronze Gudgeon National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Leiocassis longirostris]-[Coreius heterodon]
Guchenghu Chinese Mitten Crab National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Gaoyouhu Clearhead Icefish and Lake Anchovy National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Protosalanx hyalocranius]-[Coilia nasus taihuensis]
"Four Major Domestic Carps" National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Yangzhou Section of Yangtze River [Cyprinids genera Mylopharyngodon, Ctenopharyngodon & Hypophthalmichthys, incl. black, grass, silver and bighead carps]
Baimahu Pond Loach and Dark Sleeper National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Odontobutis obscura]
Luomahu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Gehu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Changdanghu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Shaobohu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Changyanghu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Sheyanghu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Baoyinghu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Japanese Grenadier Anchovy National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Rugao Section of Yangtze River
Taihu Oriental River Prawn and Chinese Mitten Crab National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Rudong Grand Razor Shell and Antique Mactra National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Solen grandis]-[Mactra antiquata]
Hongzehu Icefishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Luomahu Oriental River Prawn National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Taihu Lake Anchovy and Asian Clam National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Dianshanhu Asian Clam and Tommouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Changjiang Japanese Grenadier Anchovy National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (trans-provincial NAGRCA, shared with Shanghai and Anhui)
Gehu Cultrinae Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Cyprinids genera Culter & Chanodichthys, incl. topmouth culter, Mongolian redfin and "humpback"]
Gaoyouhu Asian Clam and Siberian Prawn National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Obscure Pufferfish and Japanese Grenadier Anchovy National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Yangzhong Section of Yangtze River [Takifugu obscurus]
Yixing Tuanjiu Dongjiu Topmouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Hongzehu Palaemonid Prawns National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [subfamily Palaemoninae, incl. Siberian and Oriental river prawns]
Hongzehu Mandarin Fish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Jinshahu Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Gaoyouhu Oriental River Prawn National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Hongzehu Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Zhejiang
Yueqingwan Granular Ark National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Tegillarca granosa]
Qiandaohu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Dong- Xi-tiaoxi National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Xiangshangang Japanese Spanish Mackerel National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Scomberomorus niphonius]
Qingyuan Chinese Giant Salamander National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Andrias davidianus]
Anhui
Bohu Siberian Prawn and Oriental River Prawn National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Chinese Longsnout Catfish, Chinese Large-mouth Catfish and Mandarin Fish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Anqing Section of Yangtze River [Silurus meridionalis]
Wuchanghu Chinese Softshell Turtle and Asian Swamp Eel National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Poganghu Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Jiaoganghu Foxnut National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Euryale ferox]
Huishuihe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
"Four Major Domestic Carps" National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Anqing Section of Yangtze River
Changjiang Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Chengxihu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Qiupuhe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Chengdonghu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Xizihu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Wanfohu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Chinese Longsnout Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Huainan Section of River Huaihe
Qinglonghu Spinibarbus caldwelli National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Longwohu Smallscale Yellowfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Chihe Topmouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Changjianghe Freshwater Minnow and Chinese Hooksnout Carp National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Zacco platypus]
Huaihong Xinhe Neosalanx taihuensis National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Changjiang Japanese Grenadier Anchovy National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (trans-provincial NAGRCA, shared with Shanghai and Jiangsu)
Manshuihe Mongolian Redfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Dengyuanhe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Huangguhe Cyprinids genera Acrossocheilus and Onychostoma National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (incl. Acrossocheilus wenchowensis, Acrossocheilus hemispinus, Acrossocheilus parallens & Onychostoma elongatum)
Huaihe Jingtuxia Reddish Dark Brown Carp and Chinese Longsnout Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Huangpenhe Gobies and Oriental River Prawn National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Gobiid fishes genus Rhinogobius, incl. Rhinogobius giurinus & Rhinogobius cliffordpopei]
Huatinghu David's Yellowfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Xenocypris davidi]
Solenia oleivora National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Fuyang Section of River Huaihe
Rhynchocypris oxycephalus, Acrossocheilus fasciatus et Zacco platypus National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Shexian Section of Xin'an River (Rhynchocypris oxycephalus: Chinese minnow; Zacco platypus: freshwater minnow)
Huanghe Carp National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Dangshan Section of Abandoned Yellow River
Fujian
Guanjingyang Large Yellow Croaker National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Pseudosciaena crocea]
Xixi Chinese Softshell Turtle National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Zhanggang Antique Mactra National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Tingjiang Zig-zag Eel National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Mastacembelus armatus]
Jiuquxi Spinibarbus caldwelli National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Huyangxi Spinibarbus caldwelli National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Luokouxi David's Yellowfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Jianxi Smallscale Yellowfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Nanpuxi Acrossocheilus hemispinus National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Songxihe Acrossocheilus paradoxus National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Maxi Acrossocheilus hemispinus National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area, Shunchang
Jiangxi
Poyanghu Mandarin Fish and Topmouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Taojiang Spinibarbus caldwelli National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Lushanxihai Yellowcheek National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Elopichthys bambusa]
Taipohu Pengze Wild-type Goldfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Carassius auratus var. Pengze]
Luxihe Largefin Longbarbel Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Hemibagrus macropterus]
Fuhe Mandarin Fish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Pingshuihe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Wannianhe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Huishui Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Xinjiang Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Dingjianghe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Upper River Yuanhe
"Four Major Domestic Carps" National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Xiajiang Section of River Ganjiang
Qinjiang Smallscale Yellowfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Shangyoujiang Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Dongjiangyuan Big-headed Turtle National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Platysternon megacephalum]
Changjiang Spinibarbus caldwelli National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Ganjiangyuan Blotched Snakehead National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Channa maculata]
Xiushuiyuan Spinibarbus caldwelli National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Boyanghe Topmouth Culter and Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area, De'an
Changjiang Balijiang Section Chinese Longsnout Catfish and Chinese Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
"Four Major Domestic Carps" National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Jiangxi Section of Yangtze River
Luxi Spiny Paa Frog National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Quasipaa spinosa]
Triangle Sail Mussel National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Lower River Xiuhe [Hyriopsis cumingii]
Spiny Paa Frog National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area, Yihuang
Shandong
Kongtong Liedao Japanese Spiky Sea Cucumber National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Apostichopus japonicus]
Nansihu Northern Snakehead and Oriental River Prawn National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Channa argus]
Changdao Japanese Disc Abalone and Dalian Purple Urchin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Haliotis discus hannai]-[Mesocentrotus nudus]
Haizhouwan Grand Razor Shell National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Laizhouwan Penis Fish and Suminoe Oyster National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Urechis unicinctus]- [Crassostrea rivularis]
Jinghaiwan Roughskin Sculpin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Trachidermus fasciatus]
Taishan Red-scaled Fish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area, Mount Taishan [Onychostoma macrolepis]
Majiahe Asiatic Hard Clam National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Penglai Bastard Halibut and Marbled Flounder National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Paralichthys olivaceus]-[Pseudopleuronectes yokohamae]
Huanghekou Half-smooth Tongue Sole National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Cynoglossus semilaevis]
Lingshandao Japanese Disc Abalone and Japanese Spiky Sea Cucumber National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Jingziwan National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Rushanwan National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Qiansandao Waters National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (Note that there is a dispute between the provinces of Shandong and Jiangsu over ownership of Qiansandao Islands)
Xiaoshidao Japanese Spiky Sea Cucumber National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Sanggouwan National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Rongchengwan National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Tao'erhekou Waters National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Qianliyan Waters National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Antique Mactra National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Rizhao Waters
Dongpinghu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Gould's Razor Shell National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Guangrao Waters [Solen strictus]
Huanghekou Asiatic Hard Clam National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Changdao Korean Rockfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Sebastes schlegelii]
Wulonghe Carp National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area, Wulong River [Cyprinus rubrofuscus var. Wulonghe]
Rongcheng Chudao Algae National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Rizhao Fleshy Prawn National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Wudi Northern Mauxia Shrimp National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Acetes chinensis]
Yuehu Whiparm Octopus National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Octopus variabilis]
Sishui Peach Blossom Jellyfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Craspedacusta sowerbii]
National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area along Shandong-Henan Border Sector of Yellow River (trans-provincial NAGRCA, shared with Henan)
Tai'an David's Yellowfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Deyuehu Spotted Steed and Topmouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Majiahe Topmouth Culter and Large-scale Loach National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation [Paramisgurnus dabryanus]
Yunmenghu Clearhead Icefish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yihe Carp and Oriental River Prawn National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area, River Yihe [Cyprinus rubrofuscus var. Yihe]
Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Tai'erzhuang Section of Beijing-Hangzhou Canal
Qingshuihe Asian Clam National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Zihe Chinese Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Wenchanghu Barbel Chub National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Squaliobarbus curriculus]
Qingyanghe Black Amur Bream National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Megalobrama terminalis]
Madahu Oriental River Prawn and Chinese Mitten Crab National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Guangminghu Redfin Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Qingyunhu Neosalanx oligodontis National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yinan Wenhe Chinese Hooksnout Carp National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Henan
Huanghe Carp National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Zhengzhou Section of Yellow River
Qihe Wild-type Goldfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area, River Qihe [Carassius auratus var. Qihe]
Guangshan Oriental River Prawn National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Suyahu Cockscomb Pearl Mussel National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Cristaria plicata]
Nanwanhu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Danjiang Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Shahe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Pohe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yihe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Luohe Huanghe Carp National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Laoyahe Spotted Steed National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yahekou Shuiku Mongolian Redfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Yumenkou to Sanmenxia Section of Middle Yellow River (trans-provincial NAGRCA, shared with Shanxi and Shaanxi)
Xiaohuanghe Chinese Softshell Turtle National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Ruhe Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area, River Ruhe [Tachysurus fulvidraco var. Ruhe]
Qihe Wild-type Goldfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Hebi Section of River Qihe
National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area along Shandong-Henan Border Sector of Yellow River (trans-provincial NAGRCA, shared with Shandong)
Banqiaohu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Luohe Lihe Oriental River Prawn National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Ussuri Catfish and Amur Ide National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Luoning Section of River Luohe
Hubei
Liangzihu Wuchang Bream National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Megalobrama amblycephala]
Xilianghu Mandarin Fish and Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yunihu Wuchang Bream National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Changhu Cultrinae Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Cyprinids genera Culter & Chanodichthys, incl. Culter alburnus, Chanodichthys mongolicus, Chanodichthys dabryi, Culter oxycephaloides & Chanodichthys erythropterus]
"Four Major Domestic Carps" National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Huangshi Section of Yangtze River
Chinese Longsnout Catfish and Darkbarbel Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Shayang Section of River Hanjiang [Pseudobagrus vachellii]
Elopichthys bambusa, Ochetobius elongatus et Luciobrama macrocephalus National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Zhongxiang Section of River Hanjiang (Elopichthys bambusa: yellowcheek; Luciobrama macrocephalus: long Spiky-head Carp)
Taibaihu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
"Four Major Domestic Carps" National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Jianli Section of Yangtze River
Danjiang Cultrinae Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Cyprinids genera Culter & Chanodichthys, incl. Culter alburnus, Chanodichthys mongolicus, Culter oxycephaloides & Chanodichthys erythropterus]
Pohe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Shangjinhu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Huamahu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Honghu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Hanjiang Hanchuan Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Juzhanghe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yuquanhe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Bao'anhu Mandarin Fish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Luhu Mandarin Fish and Cultrinae Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Wuhu Asian Swamp Eel National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Chidonghu White Amur Bream National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Qingjiang Onychostoma simum National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Huiting Shuiku Chinese Softshell Turtle National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Wangmuhu Wuchang Bream and Yangtse Grenadier Anchovy National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Coilia brachygnathus]
Wuhu Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Guanyinhu Mandarin Fish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Hanbeihe Darkbarbel Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yangchaihu Dark Sleeper and Lesser Spiny Eel National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Macrognathus aculeatus]
"Four Major Domestic Carps" National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Qianjiang Section of River Hanjiang
Yunshui Topmouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Chonghu Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Miaohu Topmouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yezhuhu Cultrinae Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Cyprinids genera Culter & Chanodichthys, incl. topmouth culter, Mongolian redfin and "humpback"]
Cehu Yellow Catfish and Northern Snakehead National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Nanhaihu Yangtse Grenadier Anchovy National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Niulanghu Mandarin Fish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Zhupohu Spotted Steed National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Fuhe Smallscale Yellowfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Qianhe Chinese Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Weishui Mandarin Fish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Wangjiahe Cultrinae Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Cyprinids genera Culter & Chanodichthys, incl. Culter alburnus, Chanodichthys mongolicus & Culter oxycephaloides]
Duhe Mandarin Fish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Jinhuahu Spotted Steed National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Wangjiadahu Lamprotula fibrosa National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Hongqihu Asian Swamp Eel and Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Longtanhu Mongolian Redfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Smallscale Yellowfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Xianjuemiao on Tributary of River Piaoshui
Longsaihu Smallscale Yellowfin and Topmouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Shatanhe Northern Snakehead National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Wangtianhu Topmouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Tiantanghu Cultrinae Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Cyprinids genera Culter & Chanodichthys, incl. topmouth culter, "humpback" and Mongolian redfin]
Shengshuihu Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Pipahu Smallscale Yellowfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Fushuihu Cultrinae Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Jinshahu White Amur Bream National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yanzhihu Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Dongganghu Asian Swamp Eel National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Nanhu Yellow Catfish and Northern Snakehead National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
White Amur Bream National Aquatic Germplasm Resources at Xiangyang Section of River Hanjiang
Neosalanx pseudotaihuensis National Aquatic Germplasm Resources at Xujiahe Waters on Tributary of River Fuhe
Topmouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Yunyang Section of River Hanjiang
Spinibarbus sinensis National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Yidu Section of River Qingjiang
Yaohe Pond Loach National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Dafushuihe Leopard Mandarin Fish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Onychostoma macrolepis National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Longbeiwan Section of River Duhe
Topmouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Heiwuwan Section of Zhashui River
Hunan
Dongdongtinghu Reddish Dark Brown Carp, Wild-type Goldfish and Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [carassius auratus]
Nandongtinghu Icefishes and Triangle Sail Mussel National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Xiangjiang Wild Carp National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Xiangtan Section of River Xiangjiang [Cyprinus rubrofuscus var. Xiangjiang]
Nandongtinghu Chinese Large-mouth Catfish, Oriental River Prawn and Chinese Softshell Turtle National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Nandongtinghu Reeves’ Turtle and Chinese Softshell Turtle National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Mauremys reevesii]
Yuanshui Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Lishuiyuan Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
"Four Major Domestic Carps" National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Hengyang Section of River Xiangjiang
Liuyanghe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Dongtinghukou Bronze Gudgeon and Yangtse Grenadier Anchovy National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Xiangjiang Spinibarbus caldwelli, Acrossocheilus paradoxus et Sinibrama wui National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Cultrinae Fishes and Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Chenxi Section of River Yuanshui
Cockscomb Pearl Mussel National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Dingcheng Section of River Yuanshui
Dongdongtinghu Chinese Mystery Snail National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Cipangopaludina chinensis]
Sinipercinae and Cultrinae Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Xinhua Section of River Zishui (major protected targets: big-eye mandarin fish and topmouth culter; other protected species: mandarin fish, Mongolian redfin, etc.)
Xenocyprinae Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Zhuzhou Section of River Xiangjiang
Leishui Blotched Snakehead National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Spinibarbus sinensis National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Chaling Section of River Mishui
Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Yiyang Section of River Zishui
Topmouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Xiangxi Section of River Youshui
David's Yellowfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Shimen Section of River Lishui
Anxiang Yangjiahe Section Yangtse Grenadier Anchovy National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yongshun Sichenghe Rhinogobio typus et Siniperca knerii National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (Siniperca knerii: big-eye mandarin fish)
Yellow Catfish and David's Yellowfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Taoyuan Section of River Yuanshui
Oriental River Prawn and Chinese Softshell Turtle National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Wuling Section of River Yuanshui
Zig-zag Eel and Chinese Barb National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Zixing Section of River Zheshui [Barbodes semifasciolatus]
Longshan Xichehe Hemibagrus macropterus et Rhinogobio typus National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (Hemibagrus macropterus: largefin longbarbel catfish)
Zijiang Youxihe Culter oxycephaloides et Chanodichthys mongolicus National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (Chanodichthys mongolicus: Mongolian redfin)
Chinese Large-mouth Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Xiongjiahe Section of Lishui Floodway
White Amur Bream and Largefin Longbarbel Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Taohuayuan Section of River Yuanshui
Dark Sleeper and David's Yellowfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Xinshao Section of River Zishui
Topmouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Anxiang Section of Hudu River
Yellow Catfish and David's Yellowfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Linwu Section of Wushui River of River Beijiang
Chinese Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Estuary Section of Miluo River
Spinibarbus caldwelli et Culter oxycephaloides National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Shuangpai Section of River Xiaoshui of River Xiangjiang
Leopard Mandarin Fish and Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Pingjiang Section of Miluo River
Guangdong
Xijiang Black Amur Bream National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Shang- Xia-chuandao Chinese Spiny Lobster National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Panulirus stimpsoni]
Shikuhe Spotted Longbarbel Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Hemibagrus guttatus]
Liuxihe Spinibarbus caldwelli National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Zengjiang Spinibarbus caldwelli et Mastacembelus armatus National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (Mastacembelus armatus: zig-zag eel)
Hailingwan Suminoe Oyster National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Xijiang Barbel Chub and Hainan Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Culter recurviceps]
Xijiang Zhaoqing Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Beijiang Yingde Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Rongjiang Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Lingjiang Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Xinfengjiang National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Jianjiangkou Soletellina acuta National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Tanjiang Black Amur Bream National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Shanwei Jieshiwan Flathead Grey Mullet and Redtail Prawn National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Mugil cephalus]-[Penaeus penicillatus]
Youshuhe Blotched Snakehead National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Lijiang Zig-zag Eel and Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Guangxi
Lijiang Spinibarbus caldwelli et Sinocyclocheilus guilinensis National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (Sinocyclocheilus guilinensis: Guilin golden-line barbel)
Xijiang Wuzhou Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Liujiang Cranoglanis bouderius, Bangana decora et Hemitrygon akajei National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (Cranoglanis bouderius: helmet catfish; Hemitrygon akajei: whip stingray)
Hainan
Xisha Dongdao Waters National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Wanquanhe National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Chongqing
"Four Major Domestic Carps" National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Chongqing Section of Yangtze River
Jialingjiang Hechuan Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Sichuan
Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Upper Yellow River (trans-provincial NAGRCA, shared with Gansu and Qinghai)
Datongjianghe Rock Carp National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Procypris rabaudi]
Qijiang Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Qujiang Tachysurus fulvidraco et Onychostoma simum National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (Tachysurus fulvidraco: yellow catfish)
Jialingjiang Procypris rabaudi et Spinibarbus sinensis National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (Procypris rabaudi: rock carp)
Zijiang National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yilonghe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Mengxihe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Tonghe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Jialingjiang Nanbu Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Gouxihe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Longtanhe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Bahe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Houhe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Elongate Loach and Largefin Longbarbel Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Yuechi Section of River Qujiang [Leptobotia elongata]
Enyanghe Chinese Softshell Turtle National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Lijiahe Wild-type Goldfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Jiange Section of River Xihe
Nanhe Onychostoma simum et Pseudobagrus vachellii National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (Pseudobagrus vachellii: darkbarbel catfish)
Jiaojiahe Schizothorax davidi National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Qingjianghe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Minjiang Chinese Longsnout Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yingtouhe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Laixihe Topmouth Culter and Mongolian Redfin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Bahe Procypris rabaudi et Bangana rendahli National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (Procypris rabaudi: rock carp)
Xiaoshuihe National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Dahonghehe National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Kaijiang National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Zhenxihe Chinese Large-mouth Catfish and Topmouth Culter National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Chajiang National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Pingtonghe Cyprinid Fishes Genus Schizothorax National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (incl. Schizothorax davidi & Schizothorax sinensis)
Guizhou
Jinjianghe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Mengjiang Bawanghe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Taipinghe Minxiaohe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Wuyanghe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Matihe Chinese Catfish and Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Longchuanhe Pseudogyrinocheilus prochilus et Siniperca chuatsi National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (Siniperca chuatsi: mandarin fish)
Liuchonghe Cyprinid Fishes Genus Schizothorax National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (incl. Schizothorax grahami & Schizothorax kozlovi)
Youshanhe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Longdijiang Yellow Catfish and Chinese Large-mouth Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yinjianghe Pseudogyrinocheilus prochilus National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Wujiang Yellow Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Furongjiang Chinese Large-mouth Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Wengmihe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Jiupan Section of Beipan River
Songtaohe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Xieqiaohe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Majinghe Spinibarbus sinensis National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Qingshuijiang Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Ximihe Acrossocheilus yunnanensis National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Furongjiang Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Zuomahe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Longjianghe Spinibarbus caldwelli National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Longjianghe Prenant's Schizothoracin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Schizothorax prenanti]
Darkbarbel Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Huangping Section of Wuyang River
Yunnan
Mijuhe Dali Schizothoracin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Zacco taliensis]
Nanpenghe Neolissochilus baoshanensis National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yuanjiang Carp National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area, River Yuanjiang [Cyprinus rubrofuscus]
Binglangjiang Pseudecheneis sulcata et Pseudexostoma yunnanense National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (Pseudecheneis sulcata: sucker throat catfish)
Lancangjiang Pangasius micronemus, Clupisoma sinense et Wallago attu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (Pangasius micronemus: shortbarbel pangasius; Wallago attu: wallago)
Dianchi National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Fuxianhu Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Baishuijiang Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Middle and Upper River Nujiang
Chenghaihu Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Nanlahe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Gulahe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Puwenhe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Guanzhaihe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Nantinghe Downstream Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Tibet
Pagsumco Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Nyang He Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Xizang Brown Trout National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area, Yadong [Salmo trutta fario] (note: introduced from Europe by British in the 19th century)
Yarlung Zangbo Jiang Cyprinid Fishes Genus Schizothorax National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Mêtog Dêrgang He Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Shaanxi
Heihe Onychostoma macrolepis National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Northern Snakehead National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Qiachuan Section of Yellow River
Jialingjiangyuan Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Wangchuanhe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Kuyuhe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Hanjiang Xixiang Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Weihe National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Huanghetan Chinese Softshell Turtle National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Baohe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Yumenkou to Sanmenxia Section of Middle Yellow River (trans-provincial NAGRCA, shared with Shanxi and Henan)
Juhe Shangyou National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Danjiangyuan National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Qianhe National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Xushuihe National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Ganyuhe Qinling Lenok National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Brachymystax tsinlingensis]
Renhe Onychostoma macrolepis National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Baoji Tongguanhe Qinling Lenok National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Weihe Meixian Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Xiliuhe National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Huanghe Carp and Lanzhou Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Longmen Section of Yellow River in Hancheng of Shaanxi [Cyprinus rubrofuscus var. Huanghe]
Gansu
Huanghe Liujiaxia Lanzhou Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Upper Yellow River (trans-provincial NAGRCA, shared with Sichuan and Qinghai)
Baishuijiang Schizothorax davidi National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Taohe Wide-tooth Schizothoracin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Platypharodon extremus]
Daxiahe Yellow River Schizothoracin National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Schizopygopsis pylzovi]
Yongninghe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Bailongjiang Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Taohe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Huanghe Heishanxia Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Shulehe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Taohe Dingxi Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Jingtai Section of Yellow River
Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Liangdang Section of Jialing River
Yemuhe Yangshahe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Headwaters of River Weihe
Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Gannan Section of River Taohe
Gansu Tanchang National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Daxihe Chinese Softshell Turtle National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Zhangjiachuan Qinling Lenok National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Huanghe Gansu Pingchuan Section National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Baiyin District Section of Yellow River
Qinling Lenok National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area, Huating
Qinghai
Przewalski's Naked Carp National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area, Qinghai Lake [Gymnocypris przewalskii]
Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Upper Yellow River (trans-provincial NAGRCA, shared with Sichuan and Gansu)
Gyaring Hu Ngoring Hu Gymnocypris eckloni et Platypharodon extremus National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area (Platypharodon extremus: wide-tooth schizothoracin)
Markog He Schizothorax davidi National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Jainca Section of Yellow River
Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Guide Section of Yellow River
Gêqu He Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Togtun He Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Datonghe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Heihe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Qumar He Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Golmud He National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Sunmco National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yanzhangguaxia Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area, Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture
Ningxia
Lanzhou Catfish National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Zhongwei-Zhongning Section of Yellow River
Rhinogobio nasutus National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Qingtongxia-Shizuishan Section of Yellow River
Xiji Zhenhu Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Shahu Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Huanghe Carp National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Yuanzhou Section of Qingshui River
Xinjiang
Kanas Hu Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Yarkant He Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Ebi Hu Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Ulungur Hu Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Küirtix He Arctic Grayling National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Thymallus arcticus]
Bosten Hu National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Kaiduhe Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Kaba He National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Koksu Section of Ertix River
Künes He Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Tekes He Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Küirtix He Endemic Fishes National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
Bohai Sea
Liaodongwan Bohaiwan Laizhouwan National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area
East China Sea
Donghai Largehead Hairtail National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Trichiurus lepturus]
Lüsi Yuchang Small Yellow Croaker and Silver Pomfret National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Pseudosciaena polyactis]-[Pampus argenteus]
South China Sea
Beibuwan Crimson Sea Bream and Redtail Prawn National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area [Parargyrops edita]
National Aquatic Germplasm Resources Conservation Area at Yongle Atoll Waters of Xisha Islands
National Domestic Animal Genetic Resources Conservation Areas of China
Ratified by: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs
Number of NDAGRCAs (unit): 24 (as at August 9, 2021)
Total Number of DAGRCAs (unit): TBV
Shanxi
Guangling Donkey National Conservation Area (Guangling County)
Inner Mongolia
Inner Mongolia Cashmere Goat (Alxa Type) National Conservation Area (Alxa Left Banner)
Mongolian Horse National Conservation Area (West Ujimqin Banner)
Alxa Bactrian Camel National Conservation Area (Alxa Left Banner)
Jilin
Chinese Honeybee (Changbai Mountains Chinese Honeybee) National Conservation Area (Ji'an City/Changbai County/Fusong County/Huadian County/Huinan County/Antu County)
Heilongjiang
Northeast China Black Bee National Conservation Area (Raohe County)
Jiangsu
Erhualian Pig National Conservation Area (Wujin District, Changzhou City)
Hu Sheep National Conservation Area (Wuzhong District, Suzhou City)
Zhejiang
Hu Sheep National National Conservation Area (Wuxing District, Huzhou City)
Fujian
Jinjiang Horse National Conservation Area (Jinjiang City)
Shandong
Chinese Honeybee (Northern Type) National Conservation Area (Feixian County/Mengyin County)
National Bohai Black Cattle Conservation Area (revoked on August 9, 2021)
National Dezhou Donkey Conservation Area (revoked on August 9, 2021)
Hubei
Chinese Honeybee (Central China Chinese Honeybee) National Conservation Area (Shennongjia Forestry District)
Hunan
Ningxiang Pig National Conservation Area (Ningxiang County)
Guangdong
Chinese Honeybee (South China Chinese Honeybee) National Conservation Area (Jiaoling County)
Guangxi
National Bose Horse Conservation Area (revoked on August 9, 2021)
Chongqing
Rongchang Pig National Conservation Area (Rongchang County)
Sichuan
Tibetan Pig National Conservation Area (Xiangcheng County)
Yunnan
Tibetan Pig National Conservation Area (Shangêlila County)
Tibet
Tibetan Pig National Conservation Area (Gongbo'gyamda County)
Pagri Yak National Conservation Area (Yadong County)
Gansu
Tibetan Pig (Hezuo Pig) National Conservation Area (Hezuo City)
Tianzhu White Yak National Conservation Area (Tianzhu County)
Xinjiang
Hotan Sheep National Conservation Area (Qira County/Yutian County/Lop County)
Xinjiang Donkey National Conservation Area (Qira County)
Xinjiang Black Bee National Conservation Area (Nilka County)
See also
China Biosphere Reserve Network
National Cultural Ecosystem Conservation Areas of China
List of endangered and protected species of China
List of national parks of China
China
China
China geography-related lists
Nature conservation in China
Heritage registers in China
Protected areas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect%20wing
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Insect wing
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Insect wings are adult outgrowths of the insect exoskeleton that enable insects to fly. They are found on the second and third thoracic segments (the mesothorax and metathorax), and the two pairs are often referred to as the forewings and hindwings, respectively, though a few insects lack hindwings, even rudiments. The wings are strengthened by a number of longitudinal veins, which often have cross-connections that form closed "cells" in the membrane (extreme examples include the dragonflies and lacewings). The patterns resulting from the fusion and cross-connection of the wing veins are often diagnostic for different evolutionary lineages and can be used for identification to the family or even genus level in many orders of insects.
Physically, some insects move their flight muscles directly, others indirectly. In insects with direct flight, the wing muscles directly attach to the wing base, so that a small downward movement of the wing base lifts the wing itself upward. Those insects with indirect flight have muscles that attach to and deform the thorax, causing the wings to move as well.
The wings are present in only one sex (often the male) in some groups such as velvet ants and Strepsiptera, or are selectively lost in "workers" of social insects such as ants and termites. Rarely, the female is winged but the male not, as in fig wasps. In some cases, wings are produced only at particular times in the life cycle, such as in the dispersal phase of aphids. Wing structure and colouration often vary with morphs, such as in the aphids, migratory phases of locusts and polymorphic butterflies. At rest, the wings may be held flat, or folded a number of times along specific patterns; most typically, it is the hindwings which are folded, but in a few groups such as the vespid wasps, it is the forewings.
The evolutionary origin of the insect wing is debated. During the 19th century, the question of insect wing evolution originally rested on two main positions. One position postulated insect wings evolved from pre-existing structures, while the second proposed insect wings were entirely novel formations. The “novel” hypothesis suggested that insect wings did not form from pre-existing ancestral appendages but rather as outgrowths from the insect body wall.
Long since, research on insect wing origins has built on the “pre-existing structures” position that was originally proposed in the 19th century. Recent literature has pointed to several ancestral structures as being important to the origin of insect wings. Among these include: gills, respiratory appendages of legs, and lateral (paranotal) and posterolateral projections of the thorax to name a few.
According to more current literature, possible candidates include gill-like structures, the paranotal lobe, and the crustacean tergal plate. The latter is based on recent insect genetic research which indicates that insects are pan-crustacean arthropods with a direct crustacean ancestor and shared genetic mechanisms of limb development.
Other theories of the origin of insect wings are the paranotal lobe theory, the gill theory and the dual theory of insect wing evolution. These theories postulate that wings either developed from paranotal lobes, extensions of the thoracic terga; that they are modifications of movable abdominal gills as found on aquatic naiads of mayflies; or that insect wings arose from the fusion of pre-existing endite and exite structures each with pre-existing articulation and tracheation.
Morphology
Internal
Each of the wings consists of a thin membrane supported by a system of veins. The membrane is formed by two layers of integument closely apposed, while the veins are formed where the two layers remain separate; sometimes the lower cuticle is thicker and more heavily sclerotized under a vein. Within each of the major veins there is a nerve and a trachea, and, since the cavities of the veins are connected with the hemocoel, hemolymph can flow into the wings.
As the wing develops, the dorsal and ventral integumental layers become closely apposed over most of their area forming the wing membrane. The remaining areas form channels, the future veins, in which the nerves and tracheae may occur. The cuticle surrounding the veins becomes thickened and more heavily sclerotized to provide strength and rigidity to the wing. Two types of hair may occur on the wings: microtrichia, which are small and irregularly scattered, and macrotrichia, which are larger, socketed, and may be restricted to veins. The scales of Lepidoptera and Trichoptera are highly modified macrotrichia.
Venation
In some very small insects, the venation may be greatly reduced. In chalcidoid wasps, for instance, only the subcosta and part of the radius are present. Conversely, an increase in venation may occur by the branching of existing veins to produce accessory veins or by the development of additional, intercalary veins between the original ones, as in the wings of Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets). Large numbers of cross-veins are present in some insects, and they may form a reticulum as in the wings of Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) and at the base of the forewings of Tettigonioidea and Acridoidea (katydids and grasshoppers respectively).
The archedictyon is the name given to a hypothetical scheme of wing venation proposed for the very first winged insect. It is based on a combination of speculation and fossil data. Since all winged insects are believed to have evolved from a common ancestor, the archedictyon represents the "template" that has been modified (and streamlined) by natural selection for 200 million years. According to current dogma, the archedictyon contained 6–8 longitudinal veins. These veins (and their branches) are named according to a system devised by John Comstock and George Needham—the Comstock–Needham system:
Costa (C) – the leading edge of the wing
Subcosta (Sc) – second longitudinal vein (behind the costa), typically unbranched
Radius (R) – third longitudinal vein, one to five branches reach the wing margin
Media (M) – fourth longitudinal vein, one to four branches reach the wing margin
Cubitus (Cu) – fifth longitudinal vein, one to three branches reach the wing margin
Anal veins (A1, A2, A3) – unbranched veins behind the cubitus
The costa (C) is the leading marginal vein on most insects. Sometimes, there is a small vein above the costa called the precosta, although in almost all extant insects, the precosta is fused with the costa. The costa rarely ever branches because it is at the leading edge, which is associated at its base with the humeral plate. The trachea of the costal vein is perhaps a branch of the subcostal trachea. Located after the costa is the third vein, the subcosta, which branches into two separate veins: the anterior and posterior. The base of the subcosta is associated with the distal end of the neck of the first axillary (see section below). The fourth vein is the radius (R), which is branched into five separate veins. The radius is generally the strongest vein of the wing. Toward the middle of the wing, it forks into a first undivided branch (R1) and a second branch, called the radial sector (Ra), which subdivides dichotomously into four distal branches (R2, R3, R4, R5). Basally, the radius is flexibly united with the anterior end of the second axillary (2Ax).
The fifth vein of the wing is the media. In the archetype pattern (A), the media forks into two main branches: a media anterior (MA), which divides into two distal branches (MA1, MA2), and a median sector, or media posterior (MP), which has four terminal branches (M1, M2, M3, M4). In most modern insects the media anterior has been lost, and the usual "media" is the four-branched media posterior with the common basal stem. In the Ephemerida, according to present interpretations of the wing venation, both branches of the media are retained, while in Odonata the persisting media is the primitive anterior branch. The stem of the media is often united with the radius, but when it occurs as a distinct vein its base is associated with the distal median plate (m') or is continuously sclerotized with the latter. The cubitus, the sixth vein of the wing, is primarily two-branched. The primary forking of the takes place near the base of the wing, forming the two principal branches (Cu1, Cu2). The anterior branch may break up into a number of secondary branches, but commonly it forks into two distal branches. The second branch of the cubitus (Cu2) in Hymenoptera, Trichoptera, and Lepidoptera was mistaken by Comstock and Needham for the first anal. Proximally the main stem of the cubitus is associated with the distal median plate (m') of the wing base.
Postcubitus (Pcu) is the first anal of the Comstock–Needham system. The postcubitus, however, has the status of an independent wing vein and should be recognized as such. In nymphal wings, its trachea arises between the cubital trachea and the group of vannal tracheae. In the mature wings of more generalized insect the Postcubitus is always associated proximally with the cubitus and is never intimately connected with the flexor sclerite (3Ax) of the wing base. In Neuroptera, Mecoptera, and Trichoptera the postcubitus may be more closely associated with the vannal veins, but its base is always free from the latter. The postcubitus is usually unbranched; it is primitively two branched. The vannal veins (lV to nV) are the anal veins that are immediately associated with the third axillary, and which are directly affected by the movement of this sclerite that brings about the flexion of the wings. In number the vannal veins vary. from 1 to 12, according to the expansion of the vannal area of the wing. The vannal tracheae usually arise from a common tracheal stem in nymphal insects, and the veins are regarded as branches of a single anal vein. Distally the vannal veins are either simple or branched. Jugal Veins (J) of the jugal lobe of the wing is often occupied by a network of irregular veins, or it may be entirely membranous; but sometimes it contains one or two distinct small veins, the first jugal vein, or vena arcuata, and the second jugal vein, or vena cardinalis (2J).
C-Sc cross-veins – run between the costa and subcosta
R cross-veins – run between adjacent branches of the radius
R-M cross-veins – run between the radius and media
M-Cu cross-veins – run between the media and cubitus
All the veins of the wing are subject to secondary forking and to union by cross-veins. In some orders of insects the cross-veins are so numerous that the whole venational pattern becomes a close network of branching veins and cross-veins. Ordinarily, however, there is a definite number of cross-veins having specific locations. The more constant cross-veins are the humeral cross-vein (h) between costa and subcosta, the radial cross-vein (r) between R and the first fork of Rs, the sectorial cross-vein (s) between the two forks of R8, the median cross-vein (m–m) between M2 and M3, and the mediocubital cross-vein (m-cu) between media and cubitus.
The veins of insect wings are characterized by a convex-concave placement, such as those seen in mayflies (i.e., concave is "down" and convex is "up") which alternate regularly and by its triadic type of branching; whenever a vein forks there is always an interpolated vein of the opposite position between the two branches. A concave vein will fork into two concave veins (with the interpolated vein being convex) and the regular alteration of the veins is preserved. The veins of the wing appear to fall into an undulating pattern according to whether they have a tendency to fold up or down when the wing is relaxed. The basal shafts of the veins are convex, but each vein forks distally into an anterior convex branch and a posterior concave branch. Thus the costa and subcosta are regarded as convex and concave branches of a primary first vein, Rs is the concave branch of the radius, posterior media the concave branch of the media, Cu1 and Cu2 are respectively convex and concave, while the primitive Postcubitus and the first vannal have each an anterior convex branch and a posterior concave branch. The convex or concave nature of the veins has been used as evidence in determining the identities of the persisting distal branches of the veins of modern insects, but it has not been demonstrated to be consistent for all wings.
Fields
Wing areas are delimited and subdivided by fold-lines along which the wing can fold, and flexion-lines along which the wing can flex during flight. The fundamental distinction between the flexion-lines and the fold-lines is often blurred, as fold-lines may permit some flexibility or vice versa. Two constants that are found in nearly all insect wings are the claval (a flexion-line) and jugal folds (or fold line); forming variable and unsatisfactory boundaries. Wing foldings can be very complicated, with transverse folding occurring in the hindwings of Dermaptera and Coleoptera, and in some insects the anal area can be folded like a fan.
There are about four different fields found on the insect wings:
Remigium
Anal area (vannus)
Jugal area
Axillary area
Alula
Most veins and crossveins occur in the anterior area of the remigium, which is responsible for most of the flight, powered by the thoracic muscles. The posterior portion of the remigium is sometimes called the clavus; the two other posterior fields are the anal and jugal ares. When the vannal fold has the usual position anterior to the group of anal veins, the remigium contains the costal, subcostal, radial, medial, cubital, and postcubital veins. In the flexed wing the remigiumturns posteriorly on the flexible basal connection of the radius with the second axillary, and the base of the mediocubital field is folded medially on the axillary region along the plica basalis (bf) between the median plates (m, m') of the wing base.
The vannus is bordered by the vannal fold, which typically occurs between the postcubitus and the first vannal vein. In Orthoptera it usually has this position. In the forewing of Blattidae, however, the only fold in this part of the wing lies immediately before the postcubitus. In Plecoptera the vannal fold is posterior to the postcubitus, but proximally it crosses the base of the first vannal vein. In the cicada the vannal fold lies immediately behind the first vannal vein (lV). These small variations in the actual position of the vannal fold, however, do not affect the unity of action of the vannal veins, controlled by the flexor sclerite (3Ax), in the flexion of the wing. In the hindwings of most Orthoptera a secondary vena dividens forms a rib in the vannal fold. The vannus is usually triangular in shape, and its veins typically spread out from the third axillary like the ribs of a fan. Some of the vannal veins may be branched, and secondary veins may alternate with the primary veins. The vannal region is usually best developed in the hindwing, in which it may be enlarged to form a sustaining surface, as in Plecoptera and Orthoptera. The great fanlike expansions of the hindwings of Acrididae are clearly the vannal regions, since their veins are all supported on the third axillary sclerites on the wing bases, though Martynov (1925) ascribes most of the fan areas in Acrididae to the jugal regions of the wings. The true jugum of the acridid wing is represented only by the small membrane (Ju) mesad of the last vannal vein. The jugum is more highly developed in some other Polyneoptera, as in the Mantidae. In most of the higher insects with narrow wings the vannus becomes reduced, and the vannal fold is lost, but even in such cases the flexed wing may bend along a line between the postcubitus and the first vannal vein.
The Jugal Region, or Neala, is a region of the wing that is usually a small membranous area proximal to the base of the vannus strengthened by a few small, irregular veinlike thickenings; but when well developed it is a distinct section of the wing and may contain one or two jugal veins. When the jugal area of the forewing is developed as a free lobe, it projects beneath the humeral angle of the hindwing and thus serves to yoke the two wings together. In the Jugatae group of Lepidoptera it bears a long finger-like lobe. The jugal region was termed the neala ("new wing") because it is evidently a secondary and recently developed part of the wing.
The axillary region is region containing the axillary sclerites has in general the form of a scalene triangle. The base of the triangle (a-b) is the hinge of the wing with the body; the apex (c) is the distal end of the third axillary sclerite; the longer side is anterior to the apex. The point d on the anterior side of the triangle marks the articulation of the radial vein with the second axillary sclerite. The line between d and c is the plica basalis (bf), or fold of the wing at the base of the mediocubital field.
At the posterior angle of the wing base in some Diptera there is a pair of membranous lobes (squamae, or calypteres) known as the alula. The alula is well developed in the house fly. The outer squama (c) arises from the wing base behind the third axillary sclerite (3Ax) and evidently represents the jugal lobe of other insects (A, D); the larger inner squama (d) arises from the posterior scutellar margin of the tergum of the wing-bearing segment and forms a protective, hoodlike canopy over the haltere. In the flexed wing the outer squama of the alula is turned upside down above the inner squama, the latter not being affected by the movement of the wing. In many Diptera a deep incision of the anal area of the wing membrane behind the single vannal vein sets off a proximal alar lobe distal to the outer squama of the alula.
Joints
The various movements of the wings, especially in insects that flex the wings horizontally over the back when at rest, demand a more complicated articular structure at the wing base than a mere hinge of the wing with the body. Each wing is attached to the body by a membranous basal area, but the articular membrane contains a number of small articular sclerites, collectively known as the pteralia. The pteralia include an anterior humeral plate at the base of the costal vein, a group of axillaries (Ax) associated with the subcostal, radial, and vannal veins, and two less definite median plates (m, m') at the base of the mediocubital area. The axillaries are specifically developed only in the wing-flexing insects, where they constitute the flexor mechanism of the wing operated by the flexor muscle arising on the pleuron. Characteristic of the wing base is also a small lobe on the anterior margin of the articular area proximal to the humeral plate, which, in the forewing of some insects, is developed into a large, flat, scale-like flap, the tegula, overlapping the base of the wing. Posteriorly the articular membrane often forms an ample lobe between the wing and the body, and its margin is generally thickened and corrugated, giving the appearance of a ligament, the so-called axillary cord, continuous mesally with the posterior marginal scutellar fold of the tergal plate bearing the wing.
The articular sclerites, or pteralia, of the wing base of the wing-flexing insects and their relations to the body and the wing veins, shown diagrammatically, are as follows:
Humeral plates
First Axillary
Second Axillary
Third Axillary
Fourth Axillary
Median plates (m, m')
The humeral plate is usually a small sclerite on the anterior margin of the wing base, movable and articulated with the base of the costal vein. Odonata have their humeral plate greatly enlarged, with two muscles arising from the episternum inserted into the Humeral plates and two from the edge of the epimeron inserted into the axillary plate.
The first axillary sclerite (lAx) is the anterior hinge plate of the wing base. Its anterior part is supported on the anterior notal wing process of the tergum (ANP); its posterior part articulates with the tergal margin. The anterior end of the sclerite is generally produced as a slender arm, the apex of which (e) is always associated with the base of the subcostal vein (Sc), though it is not united with the latter. The body of the sclerite articulates laterally with the second axillary. The second axillary sclerite (2Ax) is more variable in form than the first axillary, but its mechanical relations are no less definite. It is obliquely hinged to the outer margin of the body of the first axillary, and the radial vein (R) is always flexibly attached to its anterior end (d). The second axillary presents both a dorsal and a ventral sclerotization in the wing base; its ventral surface rests upon the fulcral wing process of the pleuron. The second axillary, therefore, is the pivotal sclerite of the wing base, and it specifically manipulates the radial vein.
The third axillary sclerite (3Ax) lies in the posterior part of the articular region of the wing. Its form is highly variable and often irregular, but the third axillary is the sclerite on which is inserted the flexor muscle of the wing (D). Mesally it articulates anteriorly (f) with the posterior end of the second axillary, and posteriorly (b) with the posterior wing process of the tergum (PNP), or with a small fourth axillary when the latter is present. Distally the third axillary is prolonged in a process which is always associated with the bases of the group of veins in the anal region of the wing here termed the vannal veins (V). The third axillary, therefore, is usually the posterior hinge plate of the wing base and is the active sclerite of the flexor mechanism, which directly manipulates the vannal veins. The contraction of the flexor muscle (D) revolves the third axillary on its mesal articulations (b, f) and thereby lifts its distal arm; this movement produces the flexion of the wing. The Fourth Axillary sclerite is not a constant element of the wing base. When present it is usually a small plate intervening between the third axillary and the posterior notal wing process and is probably a detached piece of the latter.
The median plates (m, m') are also sclerites that are not so definitely differentiated as specific plates as are the three principal axillaries, but nevertheless they are important elements of the flexor apparatus. They lie in the median area of the wing base distal to the second and third axillaries and are separated from each other by an oblique line (bf) which forms a prominent convex fold during flexion of the wing. The proximal plate (m) is usually attached to the distal arm of the third axillary and perhaps should be regarded as a part of the latter. The distal plate (m') is less constantly present as a distinct sclerite and may be represented by a general sclerotization of the base of the mediocubital field of the wing. When the veins of this region are distinct at their bases, they are associated with the outer median plate.
Muscles
The muscles that control flight in insects can take up to 10% to 30% of the total body mass. The muscles that control flight vary with the two types of flight found in insects: indirect and direct. Insects that use first, indirect, have the muscles attach to the tergum instead of the wings, as the name suggests. As the muscles contract, the thoracic box becomes distorted, transferring the energy to the wing. There are two "bundles" of muscles, those that span parallel to the tergum, the dorsolongitudinals, and those that are attached to the tegum and extend to the sternum, the dorsoventrals. In direct muscle, the connection is directly from the pleuron (thoracic wall) to individual sclerites located at the base of the wing. The subalar and basilar muscles have ligament attachments to the subalar and basilar sclerites. Here resilin, a highly elastic material, forms the ligaments connecting flight muscles to the wing apparatus.
In more derived orders of insects, such as Diptera (flies) and Hymenoptera (wasp), the indirect muscles occupy the greatest volume of the pterothorax and function as the primary source of power for the wingstroke. Contraction of the dorsolongitudinal muscles causes the severe arching of the notum which depresses the wing while contraction of the dorsoventral muscles causes opposite motion of notum. The most primitive extant flying insects, Ephemeroptera (mayflies) and Odonata (dragonflies), use direct muscles that are responsible for developing the needed power for the up and down strokes.
Insect wing muscle is a strictly aerobic tissue. Per unit protein it consumes fuel and oxygen at rates taking place in a very concentrated and highly organized tissue so that the steady-state rates per unit volume represent an absolute record in biology. The fuel and oxygen rich blood is carried to the muscles through diffusion occurring in large amounts, in order to maintain the high level of energy used during flight. Many wing muscles are large and may be as large as 10 mm in length and 2 mm in width. Moreover, in some Diptera the fibres are of giant dimensions. For instance, in the very active Rutilia, the cross-section is 1800 µm long and more than 500 µm wide. The transport of fuel and oxygen from the surroundings to the sites of consumption and the reverse transport of carbon dioxide therefore represent a challenge to the biologist both in relation to transport in the liquid phase and in the intricate system of air tubes, i.e. in the tracheal system.
Sensors
Several types of sensory neurons are found on insect wings: gustatory bristles, mechanosensory bristles, campaniform sensilla, and chordotonal organs. These sensors provide the nervous system with both external and internal proprioceptive feedback necessary for effective flight and grooming.
Coupling, folding, and other features
In many insect species, the forewing and hindwing can be coupled together, which improves the aerodynamic efficiency of flight by joining the forewing and hindwing into one bigger wing. The most common coupling mechanism (e.g., Hymenoptera and Trichoptera) is a row of small hooks on the forward margin of the hindwing, or "hamuli", which lock onto the forewing, keeping them held together (hamulate coupling). In some other insect species (e.g., Mecoptera, Lepidoptera, and some Trichoptera) the jugal lobe of the forewing covers a portion of the hindwing (jugal coupling), or the margins of the forewing and hindwing overlap broadly (amplexiform coupling), or the hindwing bristles, or frenulum, hook under the retaining structure or retinaculum on the forewing.
When at rest, the wings are held over the back in most insects, which may involve longitudinal folding of the wing membrane and sometimes also transverse folding. Folding may sometimes occur along the flexion lines. Though fold lines may be transverse, as in the hindwings of beetles and earwigs, they are normally radial to the base of the wing, allowing adjacent sections of a wing to be folded over or under each other. The commonest fold line is the jugal fold, situated just behind the third anal vein, although, most Neoptera have a jugal fold just behind vein 3A on the forewings. It is sometimes also present on the hindwings. Where the anal area of the hindwing is large, as in Orthoptera and Blattodea, the whole of this part may be folded under the anterior part of the wing along a vannal fold a little posterior to the claval furrow. In addition, in Orthoptera and Blattodea, the anal area is folded like a fan along the veins, the anal veins being convex, at the crests of the folds, and the accessory veins concave. Whereas the claval furrow and jugal fold are probably homologous in different species, the vannal fold varies in position in different taxa. Folding is produced by a muscle arising on the pleuron and inserted into the third axillary sclerite in such a way that, when it contracts, the sclerite pivots about its points of articulation with the posterior notal process and the second axillary sclerite.
As a result, the distal arm of the third axillary sclerite rotates upwards and inwards, so that finally its position is completely reversed. The anal veins are articulated with this sclerite in such a way that when it moves they are carried with it and become flexed over the back of the insect. Activity of the same muscle in flight affects the power output of the wing and so it is also important in flight control. In orthopteroid insects, the elasticity of the cuticle causes the vannal area of the wing to fold along the veins. Consequently, energy is expended in unfolding this region when the wings are moved to the flight position. In general, wing extension probably results from the contraction of muscles attached to the basilar sclerite or, in some insects, to the subalar sclerite.
Flight
Flight mechanisms
Two groups of relatively large insects, the Ephemeroptera (mayflies) and the Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) have the flight muscles attached directly to their wings; the wings can beat no faster than the rate at which nerves can send impulses to command the muscles to beat. All other living winged insects fly using a different mechanism, involving indirect flight muscles which cause the thorax to vibrate; the wings can beat faster than the rate at which the muscles receive nerve impulses. This mechanism evolved once, and is the defining feature (synapomorphy) for the infraclass Neoptera.
Aerodynamics
There are two basic aerodynamic models of insect flight. Most insects use a method that creates a spiralling leading edge vortex. Some very small insects use the fling and clap or Weis-Fogh mechanism in which the wings clap together above the insect's body and then fling apart. As they fling open, the air gets sucked in and creates a vortex over each wing. This bound vortex then moves across the wing and, in the clap, acts as the starting vortex for the other wing. Circulation and lift are increased, at the price of wear and tear on the wings.
Many insects can hover by beating their wings rapidly, requiring sideways stabilization as well as lift.
A few insects use gliding flight, without the use of thrust.
Evolution
Sometime in the Carboniferous Period, some 350 million years ago, when there were only two major land masses, insects began flying. How and why insect wings developed, however, is not well understood, largely due to the scarcity of appropriate fossils from the period of their development in the Lower Carboniferous. Three main theories on the origins of insect flight are that wings developed from paranotal lobes, extensions of the thoracic terga; that they are modifications of movable abdominal gills as found on aquatic naiads of mayflies; or that they developed from thoracic protrusions used as radiators.
Fossils
Fossils from the Devonian (400 million years ago) are all wingless, but by the Carboniferous (320 million years ago), more than 10 different genera of insects had fully functional wings. There is little preservation of transitional forms between the two periods. The earliest winged insects are from this time period (Pterygota), including the Blattoptera, Caloneurodea, primitive stem-group Ephemeropterans, Orthoptera and Palaeodictyopteroidea. Very early Blattopterans (during the Carboniferous) had a very large discoid pronotum and coriaceous forewings with a distinct CuP vein (an unbranched wing vein, lying near the claval fold and reaching the wing posterior margin). Even though the oldest possible insect fossil is the Devonian Rhyniognatha hirsti, estimated at 396–407 million years old, it possessed dicondylic mandibles, a feature associated with winged insects, although it is later considered as possible myriapod.
During the Permian, the dragonflies (Odonata) were the dominant aerial predator and probably dominated terrestrial insect predation as well. True Odonata appeared in the Permian and all are amphibious. Their prototypes are the oldest winged fossils, go back to the Devonian, and are different from other wings in every way. Their prototypes may have had the beginnings of many modern attributes even by late Carboniferous and it is possible that they even captured small vertebrates, for some species had a wing span of 71 cm. The earliest beetle-like species during the Permian had pointed, leather like forewings with cells and pits. Hemiptera, or true bugs had appeared in the form of Arctiniscytina and Paraknightia having forewings with unusual venation, possibly diverging from Blattoptera.
A single large wing from a species of Diptera in the Triassic (10 mm instead of usual 2–6 mm) was found in Australia (Mt. Crosby).This family Tilliardipteridae, despite the numerous 'tipuloid' features, should be included in Psychodomorpha sensu Hennig on account of loss of the convex distal 1A reaching wing margin and formation of the anal loop.
Hypotheses
Paranotal hypothesis: This hypothesis suggests that the insect's wings developed from paranotal lobes, a preadaptation found in insect fossils that is believed to have assisted stabilization while hopping or falling. In favor of this hypothesis is the tendency of most insects, when startled while climbing on branches, to escape by dropping to the ground. Such lobes would have served as parachutes and enable the insect to land more softly. The theory suggests that these lobes gradually grew larger and in a later stage developed a joint with the thorax. Even later would appear the muscles to move these crude wings. This model implies a progressive increase in the effectiveness of the wings, starting with parachuting, then gliding and finally active flight. Still, lack of substantial fossil evidence of the development of the wing joints and muscles poses a major difficulty to the theory, as does the seemingly spontaneous development of articulation and venation.
Epicoxal hypothesis: This theory, first proposed in 1870 by Carl Gegenbaur, suggested that a possible origin for insect wings might have been the movable abdominal gills found in many aquatic insects, such as on naiads of mayflies. According to this theory these tracheal gills, which started their way as exits of the respiratory system and over time were modified into locomotive purposes, eventually developed into wings. The tracheal gills are equipped with little winglets that perpetually vibrate and have their own tiny straight muscles.
Endite-exite hypothesis: This hypothesis stems from the adaptation of endites and exites, appendages on the respective inner and outer aspects of the primitive arthropod limb. It was advanced by Trueman based on a study by Goldschmidt in 1945 on Drosophila melanogaster, in which a pod variation displayed a mutation transforming normal wings to what was interpreted as a triple-jointed leg arrangement with some additional appendages but lacking the tarsus, where the wing's costal surface normally would be. This mutation was reinterpreted as strong evidence for a dorsal exite and endite fusion, rather than a leg, with the appendages fitting in much better with this hypothesis. The innervation, articulation and musculature required for the evolution of wings are already present in podomeres.
Paranota plus leg gene recruitment hypothesis (also known as the dual origin hypothesis): The fossil larvae of Coxoplectoptera provided important new clues to the disputed question of the evolutionary origin of insect wings. Before the larvae fossil discovery the paranotal-hypothesis and the leg-exite-hypothesis have been considered as incompatible alternative explanations, which have both been supported by a set of evidences from the fossil record, comparative morphology, developmental biology and genetics. The expression of leg genes in the ontogeny of the insect wing has been universally considered as conclusive evidence in favour of the leg-exite-hypothesis, which proposes that insect wings are derived from mobile leg appendages (exites). However, the larvae of Coxoplectoptera show that the abdominal gills of mayflies and their ancestors, which are generally considered as corresponding structures to insect wings, articulated within the dorsal tergite plates. This cannot be seen in modern mayfly larvae, because their abdominal tergites and sternites are fused to rings, without any traces left even in embryonic development. If larval gills and wings are corresponding ("serial homologous") structures and thus share the same evolutionary origin, the new results from Coxoplectoptera demonstrate that also wings are of tergal origin, as proposed by the classical paranotal-hypothesis. Staniczek, Bechly & Godunko (2011) therefore suggested a new hypothesis that could reconcile the apparently conflicting evidence from paleontology and developmental genetics: wings first originated as stiff outgrowths of tergal plates (paranota), and only later in evolution became mobile, articulated appendages through secondary recruiting of leg genes. More recent fossil analysis of Paleozoic nymph wing pads provides additional support for the fusion of the paranota elements and arthopodan leg genes.
Suggestions have been made that wings may have evolved initially for sailing on the surface of water as seen in some stoneflies. An alternative idea is that it derives from directed aerial gliding descent—a preflight phenomena found in some apterygote, a wingless sister taxa to the winged insects. The earliest fliers were similar to dragonflies with two sets of wings, direct flight muscles, and no ability to fold their wings over their abdomens. Most insects today, which evolved from those first fliers, have simplified to either one pair of wings or two pairs functioning as a single pair and using a system of indirect flight muscles.
Natural selection has played an enormous role in refining the wings, control and sensory systems, and anything else that affects aerodynamics or kinematics. One noteworthy trait is wing twist. Most insect wings are twisted, as are helicopter blades, with a higher angle of attack at the base. The twist generally is between 10 and 20 degrees. In addition to this twist, the wing surfaces are not necessarily flat or featureless; most larger insects have wing membranes distorted and angled between the veins in such a way that the cross-section of the wings approximates an airfoil. Thus, the wing's basic shape already is capable of generating a small amount of lift at zero angle of attack. Most insects control their wings by adjusting tilt, stiffness, and flapping frequency of the wings with tiny muscles in the thorax (below). Some insects evolved other wing features that are not advantageous for flight, but play a role in something else, such as mating or protection.
Some insects, occupying the biological niches that they do, need to be incredibly maneuverable. They must find their food in tight spaces and be capable of escaping larger predators – or they may themselves be predators, and need to capture prey. Their maneuverability, from an aerodynamic viewpoint, is provided by high lift and thrust forces. Typical insect fliers can attain lift forces up to three times their weight and horizontal thrust forces up to five times their weight. There are two substantially different insect flight mechanisms, and each has its own advantages and disadvantages – just because odonates have a more primitive flight mechanism does not mean they are less able fliers; they are, in certain ways, more agile than anything that has evolved afterward.
Morphogenesis
While the development of wings in insects is clearly defined in those who are members of Endopterygota, which undergo complete metamorphosis; in these species, the wing develops while in the pupal stage of the insects life cycle. However, insects that undergo incomplete metamorphosis do not have a pupal stage, therefore they must have a different wing morphogenesis. Insects such as those that are hemimetabolic have wings that start out as buds, which are found underneath the exoskeleton, and do not become exposed until the last instar of the nymph.
The first indication of the wing buds is of a thickening of the hypodermis, which can be observed in insect species as early the embryo, and in the earliest stages of the life cycle. During the development of morphological features while in the embryo, or embryogenesis, a cluster of cells grow underneath the ectoderm which later in development, after the lateral ectoderm has grown dorsally to form wind imaginal disc. An example of wing bud development in the larvae, can be seen in those of White butterflies (Pieris). In the second instar the histoblast become more prominent, which now form a pocket-like structure. As of the third and fourth instars, the histoblast become more elongated. This greatly extended and evaginated, or protruding, part is what becomes the wing. By the close of the last instar, or fifth, the wing is pushed out of the wing-pocket, although continues to lie under the old larval cuticle while in its prepupal stage. It is not until the butterfly is in its pupal stage that the wing-bud becomes exposed, and shortly after eclosion, the wing begins to expand and form its definitive shape.
The development of tracheation of the wings begin before the wing histoblast form, as it is important to note that they develop near a large trachea. During the fourth instar, cells from the epithelium of this trachea become greatly enlarged extend into the cavity of the wing bud, with each cell having developed a closely coiled tracheole. Each trachcole is of unicellular origin, and is at first intracellular in position; while tracheae are of multicellular origin and the lumen of each is intercellular in position. The development of tracheoles, each coiled within a single cell of the epithelium of a trachea, and the subsequent opening of communication between the tracheoles and the lumen of the trachea, and the uncoiling and stretching out of the tracheoles, so that they reach all parts of the wing.
In the earlier stages of its development, the wing-bud is not provided with special organs of respiration such as tracheation, as it resembles in this respect the other portions of the hypodermis of which it is still a part. The histoblast is developed near a large trachea, a cross-section of which is shown in, which represents sections of these parts of the first, second, third and fourth instars respectively. At the same time the tracheoles uncoil, and extend in bundles in the forming vein-cavities of the wing-bud. At the molt that marks the beginning of the pupal stadium stage, they become functional. At the same time, the larval tracheoles degenerate; their function having been replaced by the wing tracheae.
Nomenclature
Most of the nomenclature of insect orders is based on the Ancient Greek word for wing, (), as the suffix -ptera.
Adaptations
Variation
Insect wings are fundamental in identifying and classifying species as there is no other set of structures in studying insects more significant. Each order and insect family has distinctive wing shapes and features. In many cases, even species may be distinguished from each other by differences of color and pattern. For example, just by position one can identify species, albeit to a much lesser extent. Though most insects fold their wings when at rest, dragonflies and some damselflies rest with their wings spread out horizontally, while groups such as the caddisflies, stoneflies, alderflies, and lacewings hold their wings sloped roof-like over their backs. A few moths wrap their wings around their bodies, while many flies and most butterflies close their wings together straight upward over the back.
Many times the shape of the wings correlates with the type of insect flight. The best-flying insects tend to have long, slender wings. In many species of Sphingidae (sphinx moths), the forewings are large and sharply pointed, forming with the small hindwings a triangle that is suggestive of the wings of fast, modern airplanes. Another, possibly more important correlation, is that of the size and power of the muscles to the speed and power of flight. In the powerfully flying insects, the wings are most adapted for the stresses and aerodynamics of flight. The veins are thicker, stronger, and closer together toward the front edge (or "leading edge") and thinner yet flexible toward the rear edge (or "trailing edge"). This makes the insect wing an excellently constructed airfoil, capable of exerting both propulsion and lift while minimizing drag.
Variation of the wing beat may also occur, not just amongst different species, but even among individuals at different times. In general, the frequency is dependent upon the ratio between the power of the wing muscles and the resistance of the load. Large-winged, light-bodied butterflies may have a wing beat frequency of 4–20 per second whereas small-winged, heavy-bodied flies and bees beat their wings more than 100 times a second and mosquitoes can beat up to 988–1046 times a second. The same goes for flight; though it is generally difficult to estimate the speed of insects in flight, most insects can probably fly faster in nature than they do in controlled experiments.
Coleoptera
In species of Coleoptera (beetles), the only functional wings are the hindwings. The hindwings are longer than the elytra, folded longitudinally and transversely under the elytra. The wing is rotated forwards on its base into flight position. This action spread the wing and unfolded longitudinally and transversely. There is the spring mechanism in the wing structure, sometimes with the help of abdomen movement, to keep the wing in folded position. The beetle wing venation is reduced and modified due to the folding structure, which include:
Costa (C), Subcosta posterior (ScP) – at the leading wing marginal, fused for most of the length.
Radius anterior (RA) – divided into two branches beyond the middle of the wing.
Radius posterior (RP) – basal connection is lost.
Media posterior (MP) – branches, long and strong vein.
Cubitus anterior (CuA)
Anal veins (AA, AP) – veins behind the cubitus, separated by anal fold.
In most species of beetles, the front pair of wings are modified and sclerotised (hardened) to form elytra and they protect the delicate hindwings which are folded beneath. The elytra are connected to the pterathorax; being called as such because it is where the wings are connected (pteron meaning "wing" in Greek). The elytra are not used for flight, but tend to cover the hind part of the body and protect the second pair of wings (alae). The elytra must be raised in order to move the hind flight wings. A beetle's flight wings are crossed with veins and are folded after landing, often along these veins, and are stored below the elytra. In some beetles, the ability to fly has been lost. These include some ground beetles (family Carabidae) and some "true weevils" (family Curculionidae), but also some desert and cave-dwelling species of other families. Many of these species have the two elytra fused together, forming a solid shield over the abdomen. In a few families, both the ability to fly and the elytra have been lost, with the best known example being the glow-worms of the family Phengodidae, in which the females are larviform throughout their lives.
Lepidoptera
The two pairs of wings are found on the middle and third segment, or mesothorax and metathorax respectively. In the more recent genera, the wings of the second segment are much more pronounced, however some more primitive forms have similarly sized wings of both segments. The wings are covered in scales arranged like shingles, forming the extraordinary variety seen in color. The mesothorax is evolved to have more powerful muscles to propel moth or butterfly through the air, with the wing of said segment having a stronger vein structure. The largest superfamily, Noctuidae, has the wings modified to act as tympanal or hearing organs Modifications in the wing's venation include:
Costa (C) – not found in Butterflies.
Subcosta (Sc) + Radius 1 (Sc+R1) – at the leading wing marginal, fused or very close for most of the length, in hindwing fused and well developed in the humeral area, subcosta never branches in butterfly.
Radius (R2-R5) – radius divides into branches beyond the middle of the wing up to five branches in Papilionidae. On forewing, the last R is stalked in all butterflies except Hesperiidae is separated.
Radius sector (Rs) – in hindwing.
Media (M1-M3) – the basal section has been lost.
Cubitus anterior (CuA1-CuA2) – CuP section has been lost.
Anal veins (A, 1A+2A, 3A) – either one vein A, or two veins 1A+2A, 3A.
Humeral vein – The hindwing of most butterflies has the humeral vein, except Lycaenidae There is the enlargement of the humeral area of the hindwing which is overlapped with the forewing. The humeral vein strengthened the hindwing overlapped area so that the two wings coupling better.
The wings, head parts of thorax and abdomen of Lepidoptera are covered with minute scales, from which feature the order 'Lepidoptera' derives its names, the word "lepteron" in Ancient Greek meaning 'scale'. Most scales are lamellar, or blade-like and attached with a pedicel, while other forms may be hair-like or specialized as secondary sexual characteristics. The lumen or surface of the lamella, has a complex structure. It gives color either due to the pigmentary colors contained within or due to its three-dimensional structure. Scales provide a number of functions, which include insulation, thermoregulation, aiding gliding flight, amongst others, the most important of which is the large diversity of vivid or indistinct patterns they provide which help the organism protect itself by camouflage, mimicry, and to seek mates.
Odonata
Species of Odonata (Damselflies and dragonflies) both have two pairs of wings which are about equal in size and shape and are clear in color. There are five, if the R+M is counted as 1, main vein stems on dragonfly and damselfly wings, and wing veins are fused at their bases and the wings cannot be folded over the body at rest, which also include:
Costa (C) – at the leading edge of the wing, strong and marginal, extends to the apex of the wing.
Subcosta (Sc) – second longitudinal vein, it is unbranched, joins C at nodus.
Radius and Media (R+M) – third and fourth longitudinal vein, the strongest vein on the wing, with branches, R1-R4, reach the wing margin, the media anterior (MA) are also reach the wing margin. IR2 and IR3 are intercalary veins behind R2 and R3 respectively.
Cubitus (Cu) – fifth longitudinal vein, cubitus posterior (CuP) is unbranched and reach the wing margin.
Anal veins (A1) – unbranched veins behind the cubitus.
A nodus is formed where the second main vein meets the leading edge of the wing. The black pterostigma is carried near the wing tip.
The main veins and the crossveins form the wing venation pattern. The venation patterns are different in different species. There may be very numerous crossveins or rather few. The Australian Flatwing Damselfly's wings are one of the few veins patterns. The venation pattern is useful for species identification. Almost all Anisoptera settle with the wings held out sideways or slightly downward, however most Zygoptera settle with the wings held together, dorsal surfaces apposed. The thorax of Zygoptera is so oblique that when held in this way the wings fit neatly along the top of the abdomen. They do not appear to be held straight up as in butterflies or mayflies. In a few zygopteran families the wings are held horizontally at rest, and in one anisopteran genus (e.g. Cordulephya, Corduliidae) the wings are held in the typical damselfly resting position. Adult species possess two pairs of equal or subequal wings. There appear to be only five main vein stems. A nodus is formed where the second main vein (subcosta) meets the leading edge of the wing. In most families a conspicuous pterostigma is carried near the wing tip. Identification as Odonata can be based on the venation. The only likely confusion is with some lacewings (order Neuroptera) which have many crossveins in the wings. Until the early years of the 20th century Odonata were often regarded as being related to lacewings and were given the ordinal name Paraneuroptera, but any resemblance between these two orders is entirely superficial. In Anisoptera the hindwing is broader than the forewing and in both wings a crossvein divides the discoidal cell into a Triangle and Supertriangle.
Orthoptera
Species of Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) have forewings that are tough opaque tegmina, narrow which are normally covering the hindwings and abdomen at rest. The hindwings are board membranous and folded in fan-like manner, which include the following venation:
Costa (C) – at the leading marginal of the forewing and hindwing, unbranched.
Subcosta (Sc) – second longitudinal vein, unbranched.
Radius (R) – third longitudinal vein, branched to Rs in forewing and hindwing.
Media anterior (MA) – fourth longitudinal vein, branched in basal part as Media posterior (MP).
Cubitus (Cu) – fifth longitudinal vein, on forewing and hindwing dividing near the wing base into branched CuA, and unbranched CuP.
Anal veins (A) – veins behind the cubitus, unbranched, two in forewing, many in hindwing.
Phasmatodea
Costa (C) – at the leading marginal of the hindwing, unbranched, absent in forewing.
Subcosta (Sc) – second longitudinal vein, unbranched.
Radius (R) – third longitudinal vein, branched to Rs in hindwing, unbranched in forewing.
Media anterior (MA) – fourth longitudinal vein, branched in basal part as Media posterior (MP).
Cubitus (Cu) – fifth longitudinal vein, unbranched.
Anal veins (A) – veins behind the cubitus, unbranched, two in forewing, many in hindwing 1A-7A in one group and the rest in another group.
Stick insect have forewings that are tough, opaque tegmina, short and covering only the base part of the hindwings at rest. Hindwings from costa to Cubitus are tough and opaque like the forewings. The large anal area are membranous and folded in fan-like manner. There are no or very few branching in stick insect wing veins.
Dermaptera
Other orders such as the Dermaptera (earwigs), Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets), Mantodea (praying mantis) and Blattodea (cockroaches) have rigid leathery forewings that are not flapped while flying, sometimes called tegmen (pl. tegmina), elytra, or pseudoelytron.
Hemiptera
In Hemiptera (true bugs), the forewings may be hardened, though to a lesser extent than in the beetles. For example, the anterior part of the front wings of stink bugs is hardened, while the posterior part is membranous. They are called hemelytron (pl. hemelytra). They are only found in the suborder Heteroptera; the wings of the Homoptera, such as the cicada, are typically entirely membranous. Both forewings and hindwings of Cicada are membranous. Most species are glass-like although some are opaque. Cicadas are not good fliers and most fly only a few seconds. When flying, forewing and hindwing are hooked together by a grooved coupling along the hindwing costa and forewing margin. Most species have a basic venation as shown in the following picture.
Costa (C) – at the leading wing marginal, in forewing extends to the node and lies close to Sc+R.
Subcosta + Radius (Sc+R) – in forewing Sc and R fused together to the node. Radial sector (Rs) arises near the node and unbranches.
Radius anterior (RA)
Radius posterior (RP)
Media (M) – branches to M1 to M4.
Cubitus anterior (CuA) – branches to CuA1 and CuA2.
Cubitus posterior (CuP) – unbranches.
Anal veins (A) – veins behind the cubitus, 1A and 2A fused in the forewing, CuP and 2A are folded.
Also notice there are the ambient veins and peripheral membranes on the margin of both wings.
Diptera
In the Diptera (true flies), there is only one pair of functional wings, with the posterior pair of wings are reduced to halteres, which help the fly to sense its orientation and movement, as well as to improve balance by acting similar to gyroscopes. In Calyptratae, the very hindmost portion of the wings are modified into somewhat thickened flaps called calypters which cover the halteres.
Costa (C) – not found in Diptera.
Subcosta (Sc) – became the leading wing vein, unbranched.
Radius (R) – branched to R1-R5.
Media (M) – branched to M1-M4.
Cubitus anterior(CuA)- unbranched, CuP is reduced in Diptera. Some species CuA and 1A are separated, some species meets when reaching the wing margin, some species fused.
Anal veins (A) – only two anal veins 1A and 2A are present, 2A is not distinctive in some species.
Discal Cell (dc) – well defined in most species.
Blattodea
Species of Blattodea (cockroaches) have a forewing, are also known as tegmen, that is more or less sclerotized. It is used in flight as well as a form of protection of the membranous hindwings. The veins of hindwing are about the same as front wing but with large anal lobe folded at rest between CuP and 1A. The anal lobe usually folded in a fan-like manner.
Costa (C) – at the leading edge of the wing.
Subcosta (Sc) – second longitudinal vein, it is relatively short.
Radius (R) – third longitudinal vein, with many pectinate branches.
Media (M) – fourth longitudinal vein, reach the wing margin.
Cubitus anterior (CuA) – fifth longitudinal vein, with dichotomous branches occupy large part of tegmen.
Cubitus posterior (CuP) – is unbranched, curved and reach the wing margin.
Anal veins (A) – veins behind the cubitus.
Hymenoptera
Hymenoptera adults, including sawflies, wasps, bees, and non-worker ants, all have two pairs of membranous wings.
Costa (C) – not found in Hymenoptera.
Subcosta (Sc) – unbranched.
Radius (R) – branched to R1-R5.
Media (M) – M is unbranched, in forewing M is fused with Rs for part of its length.
Cubitus (CuA) – unbranched, CuP is absent in Hymenoptera.
Anal veins (A) – only two anal veins 1A and 2A are present, 2A is not distinctive in some species.
Wing-coupling – Row of hooks on the leading edge of hindwing engage the hind margin of the forewing, strongly couple the wings in flight.
Line of wing folding – Some species, including Vespidae, the forewing are longitudinally folded along the 'line of wing folding' at rest.
Pterostigma – is present for some species.
The forward margin of the hindwing bears a number of hooked bristles, or "hamuli", which lock onto the forewing, keeping them held together. The smaller species may have only two or three hamuli on each side, but the largest wasps may have a considerable number, keeping the wings gripped together especially tightly. Hymenopteran wings have relatively few veins compared with many other insects, especially in the smaller species.
Other families
Termites are relatively poor fliers and are readily blown downwind in wind speeds of less than 2 km/h, shedding their wings soon after landing at an acceptable site, where they mate and attempt to form a nest in damp timber or earth. Wings of most termites have three heavy veins along the basal part of the front edge of the forewing and the crossveins near the wing tip are angled, making trapezoidal cells. Although subterranean termite wings have just two major veins along the front edge of the forewing and the cross veins towards the wingtip are perpendicular to these veins, making square and rectangular cells.
Species of Thysanoptera (thrips), Ptiliidae and other flying microinsects have slender front and hindwings with long fringes of hair, called fringed wings, also referred to as ptiloptery. While species of Trichoptera (caddisfly) have hairy wings with the front and hindwings clothed with setae.
Male Strepsiptera also have halteres that evolved from the forewings instead of the hindwings. This means that only their hindwings are functional at flying, as opposed to Diptera which have functional forewings and halteres for hindwings. Also the hindwings in males of Coccidae are reduced to halteres (or are absent).
See also
Appendage
Comstock-Needham system
Wing
Insect inspired robots: RoboBee, DelFly
Notes
References
External links
Brisbane University course on insect wings
North-Carolina State University course on insect wings
Insect wing drawings
Insect anatomy
Animal flight
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987%20World%20Snooker%20Championship
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1987 World Snooker Championship
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The 1987 World Snooker Championship (also referred to as the 1987 Embassy World Snooker Championship for the purpose of sponsorship) was a professional snooker tournament that took place between 18 April and 4 May 1987 at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. It was the sixth and final ranking event of the 1986–87 snooker season. The championship was the 1987 edition of the World Snooker Championship, first held in 1927, and had 32 participants. The highest ranked 16 players were awarded a place in the first round draw, whilst a pre-tournament qualification event for 104 professionals was held between 26 March and 4 April at the Preston Guild Hall for the remaining places. The tournament was sponsored by cigarette manufacturer Embassy and had a prize fund of £400,000 with the winner receiving £80,000.
Since his 1986 victory, Joe Johnson had experienced a disappointing season leading up to the 1987 Championship, and bookmakers considered it unlikely that he would retain the title. Johnson did reach the final, a rematch of the previous year's final against Steve Davis. Davis won his fourth championship by defeating Johnson 18 to 14. A total of 18 century breaks were made during the tournament, the highest of which was 127 made by Davis in first frame of the final. Stephen Hendry, aged 18, became the youngest player to win a match in the tournament's history since it moved to the Crucible in 1977, whilst it was the last time that six-times champion Ray Reardon appeared.
Overview
The World Snooker Championship is a professional tournament and the official world championship of the game of snooker. Founded in the late 19th century by British Army soldiers stationed in India, the sport was popular in the British Isles. However, in the modern era it has become increasingly popular worldwide, especially in East and Southeast Asian nations such as China, Hong Kong and Thailand.
The 1987 championship featured 32 professional players competing in one-on-one snooker matches in a single elimination format, each played over several . The 32 competitors in the main tournament were selected using a combination of the top players in the world snooker rankings and a pre-tournament qualification stage. The tournament was promoted by WPBSA Promotions, a subsidiary of professional snooker governing body the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA). Joe Davis won the first World Championship in 1927, the final match being held in Camkin's Hall, Birmingham, England. Since 1977, the event has been held in the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England.
Format
The championship was held from 18 April to 4 May 1987 at the Crucible, the 11th time that the tournament was held at the venue. It was the last ranking event of the 1986–87 snooker season on the World Snooker Tour. There were a total of 120 entrants from the tour, and the competition's main draw had 32 participants. A four-round knockout qualifying competition was held at Preston Guild Hall from 26 March to 4 April which produced the 16 qualifying players who progressed into the main draw to play the top 16 seeds.
The top 16 players in the latest world rankings automatically qualified for the main draw as seeded players. As defending champion, Joe Johnson was seeded first for the event; the remaining 15 seeds were allocated based on the players' world ranking positions. Matches in the first round of the main draw were played as best-of-19-frames, meaning 10 frames were required to win the match. The number of frames needed to win a match increased to 13 in the second round and quarter-finals, and 16 in the semi-finals; the final match was played as best-of-35-frames.
Prize fund
The event featured a prize fund of £400,000 with the winner receiving £80,000. The breakdown of prize money for the event is shown below:
Winner: £80,000
Runner-up: £48,000
Semi-finals: £24,000
Quarter-finals: £12,000
Last 16: £6,000
Last 32: £3,375
Fourth qualifying round: £2,625
Third qualifying round: £1,375
Highest : £8,000
Highest break in qualifying: £2,000
Maximum break: £80,000
Total: £400,000
Tournament summary
The defending champion, Joe Johnson, had failed to reach as far as the quarter-finals of a major tournament in the 1986–87 snooker season after winning the 1986 World Championship. This record was described by The Sydney Morning Herald Les Wheeler as "disappointing" and by Clive Everton as a "poor" season. Sydney Friskin of The Times reported that Johnson prepared for the Championship by practising diligently, and that the cyst on his back that previously troubled him had been removed. Johnson started the event as a bookmakers' outsider, priced at 66–1 against winning the tournament.
Leading up to the event, Neal Foulds had been the most successful player of the season, having gained the most ranking points during the season, ahead of Steve Davis. Twelve days before the start of the tournament, the two-times world champion Alex Higgins was fined £12,000 and given a six-month ban from tournaments by the WPBSA. The ban started on 5 May, the day after the final of the 1987 World Snooker Championship. The penalties resulted from a number of incidents, the most serious of which was headbutting Paul Hatherall, a WPBSA tournament director, at the 1986 UK Championship.
Qualifying
There were four rounds of qualifying, with higher ranked players seeded into the later rounds, and 104 entrants which took place at the Preston Guild Hall between 25 March and 4 April 1987. The 16 winners in the fourth round progressed to play the tournament's top 16 seeds at the Crucible. All qualifying matches were best-of-19 frames held over two . There were 24 matches scheduled in the first qualifying round, but Frank Jonik, Eddie McLaughlin, Sakchai Sim Ngam and Omprakesh Agrawal all withdrew, meaning that their opponents received walkovers. The 11-time pool world champion, Jim Rempe, made a of 104 in defeating Martin Smith 10–9. Veteran professional Bernard Bennett suffered the only whitewash of the first round, failing to win a frame against Billy Kelly.
In the second round, there were 32 matches. The youngest player in the competition, Stephen Hendry, made a break of 108 during his 10–7 defeat of Mike Darrington. Eight-times champion Fred Davis lost 5–10 to Ken Owers. Another former champion, John Spencer, who had won the title three times, eliminated Roger Bales 10–3. Trailing after the first session of his qualifying match 3–5, Jimmy van Rensberg was taken to hospital with a suspected heart attack. However, he was later discharged and went on to win 10–6.
The third round consisted of 16 matches between winners from the second round. Hendry led 8–1 against Rempe at the end of their first session, with Rempe winning three consecutive frames in their second session before Hendry won the match 10–4. Gino Rigitano conceded the 11th frame of his match against Steve Newbury when there were still enough balls on the table for him to win, and when 4–9 down decided not to play the next frame, thereby losing 4–10. There were two 10–0 whitewashes: by Jon Wright over Mark Wildman and by Tony Jones over van Rensberg.
The fourth round also featured 16 matches, with 16 players seeded into the round each meeting one of the third round winners. For the first time since turning professional, John Spencer failed to qualify for the event, as he was defeated 5–10 by Barry West. Bill Werbeniuk and Eddie Charlton also failed to qualify for the competition for the first time. Werbeniuk lost 8–10 to Mark Bennett and Charlton was defeated 4–10 by Warren King. The only match to go to a in round four was John Virgo's 10–9 win over Tony Jones. Dene O'Kane scored five century breaks across his three matches, a new record, including a 132. He received £2,000 for this break, the highest during qualifying.
First round
The first round of the main tournament was held from 18 to 23 April with matches played as the best-of-19 frames over two sessions. Defending champion Joe Johnson played Eugene Hughes, with the match going to a deciding frame and Johnson winning 10–9. Steve Davis was 7–1 ahead of Warren King at the end of their first session, but King then won six of the next seven frames to reduce Davis's lead to one frame at 8–7. Davis narrowly won frame 16 with a break of 63, then completed a 10–7 victory in frame 17, where he successfully gained enough points from King, despite .
Murdo MacLeod defeated Rex Williams 10–5, despite Williams making the highest break of the first round, a 112. The win made MacLeod the first Scottish player to secure a victory at the Crucible Theatre. Stephen Hendry met veteran player Willie Thorne, led 5–4 at the end of their first session, and then took the first four frames in the second, before Thorne won three in a row. Hendry took the 17th frame to achieve a 10–7 win. At age 18 years and 97 days, Hendry became the youngest-ever player to win a World Championship match at the Crucible. Steve Longworth led 5–4 after the first session of his match, and won five successive frames to defeat Kirk Stevens 10–5. Terry Griffiths also progressed from a 5–4 interval lead to a 10–4 win, against Jim Wych. Alex Higgins, due to start a six-month ban after the Championship, eliminated first-year professional Jon Wright 10–6.
Jimmy White led Dean Reynolds 5–4 at the end of their first session. Reynolds won the first two frames of the second session both on , before White went on to win 10–8. From 7–8, White made breaks of 70, 75 and 59 to win the three frames he needed to progress. O'Kane, 39th in the rankings, won nine frames in a row against second-ranked player Cliff Thorburn to win 10–5. Thorburn's split during the sixth frame and was not replaced until after the end of the first session. He was unable to win a frame after the tip was broken. Six-time champion Ray Reardon defeated debutant Barry West 10–5. Fourth seed Tony Knowles lost 6–10 to Mike Hallett, having led 6–5, and 11th seed Tony Meo lost 8–10 to John Parrott.
Silvino Francisco and John Campbell played only eight of their scheduled nine frames in the first session, due to slow play, with Francisco leading 5–3 when they started the following session. Francisco won five consecutive frames at the start of the second session to complete a 10–3 win. Doug Mountjoy led David Taylor 6–3 after their first session, and won 10–6. The 1985 champion Dennis Taylor led Bennett 8–1 before winning 10–4. Neal Foulds led John Virgo 7–2 after their first session and won 10–4.
Second round
The second round was played from 23 to 27 April with matches as the best-of-25 frames held over three sessions. Johnson led MacLeod 6–2 and 10–6 after the first two sessions, winning 13–7. Hendry and Longworth were level at 4–4 after their first session, with Hendry then opening up a 7–4 lead with breaks of 96, 54 and 89, and finishing the second session 10–6 ahead after winning the 16th frame on a re-spotted black. Later trailing by six frames, Longworth won the 19th with a 103 break, before Hendry completed a 13–7 victory. Francisco and Hallett were at 8–8 after their second session before Hallett won three frames in a row, with breaks of 84, 47, 35 and 93. He also won the 20th frame, after requiring foul shots from Francisco, to lead 12–8, and clinched victory at 13–9 to reach his first World Championship quarter-final. Foulds led Taylor 5–3 after their first session, and won the match 13–10.
O'Kane eliminated another top-16 player with a victory over Mountjoy. Mountjoy led 3–0, but O'Kane then won the next six frames, and won 13–5. White made a break of 114 in his match against Parrott, the highest in that year's championship to that point, and won 13–11. Five of the frames had been decided on the black, with White winning four of them. Higgins led Griffiths 6–3 after the first session but Griffiths won four frames in a row and the match was tied at 8–8. Griffiths went on to defeat Higgins 13–10. Six-times winner of the event Reardon led 3–1 but lost 12 of the next 13 frames as he was eliminated 4–13 by Davis. After the tournament, Reardon dropped out of the top 16 in the end-of-season world rankings, moving down from 15 to 38.
Quarter-finals
The quarter-final matches were played over three sessions, in best-of-25 frames, on 28 and 29 April. Johnson led Hendry 8–1 and 12–8, before Hendry won four frames in a row to take the match to a deciding frame at 12–12. In the final frame, after Hendry failed to pot a , Johnson made a break of 46 to take the frame and match 13–12. Hallett compiled two century breaks in the first session of his match against Foulds, who also constructed a century break, with their first session ending at 4–4. Foulds then opened up a lead, leading 10–6 and 12–7 before winning at 13–9.
Davis was 4–3 ahead of Griffiths after their first session, and 10–5 ahead by the end of the second. He wrapped up a 13–5 win and with breaks of 62, 86 and 51 in three frames in the final session. It was the fifth time that Davis had defeated Griffiths at the World Championship, and the largest winning margin of those encounters. White won all eight frames in the first session in his match against O'Kane, and after winning the first frame of the second session, led 9–0. O'Kane then won five consecutive frames, before White took four of the following five frames to win 13–6.
Semi-finals
The semi-final matches were played as the best-of-31 frames, held over four sessions, from 30 April to 2 May. Johnson met Foulds in the first semi-final. The pair were tied at 3–3, but Foulds missed a pot on the in frame seven allowing Johnson to take a one-frame lead after the first session. In frame eight, Foulds made a break of 48 to win the frame, and won frame nine, despite requiring foul shots. Johnson made breaks of 47 in each of the next two frames to lead 6–5. Foulds took the next before Johnson, with his fourth break of 47 in four frames, took the lead again. Foulds won the last frame of the session with a break of 45 to leave them all square at 7–7 after two sessions, and made a break of 114 in the 15th frame to go one ahead before Johnson won seven frames in a row to lead 14–8. After this, Foulds won frame 23, but Johnson won the next two frames to win the match 16–9 to reach his second final.
Davis and White had been level at 4–4 after their first session, with Davis winning the first four of their second session to lead 8–4 and finishing that session 9–6 ahead. In the first frame of the third session, White was on course to make a maximum break, having potted ten reds and nine blacks, but missed the tenth black. After this, Davis required White to make foul shots in order to gain the necessary penalty points from them for Davis to win the frame. Aided by a black, and by a following a foul by White, Davis eventually won the frame by one point. John Hennessey in Pot Black magazine wrote that "at that moment White lost the chance of claiming his first world title," adding that White's father later said that losing the frame affected White badly during the following three. However, White later compiled a 119 break, the new highest in the competition, overtaking his earlier 114 in the second round, and ended the third session 9–13 behind. White took the first frame of the fourth session, but lost three of the following four frame as Davis won the match 16–11, concluding with a 74 break in the 27th frame.
Final
The final was played as a best-of-35 frames match held over four sessions between Davis and Johnson on 3 and 4 May 1987. It was the first time that the same two players had met in the final at the Crucible for the second year in a row. The last time that two players had met in consecutive finals at the World Championship was when Fred Davis and John Pulman had both reached the final in 1955 and 1956, played at the Tower Circus, Blackpool. The next time it would happen was when Hendry and White met in three consecutive finals between 1992 and 1994. This was also the first time that the final had been contested by the top two seeds of the tournament. The final was refereed by Len Ganley, the second time he had taken charge of the World Championship final.
In frame one, Davis compiled a 127 break, which remained the highest break of that year's tournament. Johnson responded winning three frames in a row followed by Davis taking two to level at 3-3. Johnson was 4–3 ahead at the end of the first session. Davis added three successive frames to lead 6–4 at the start of the second session, then Johnson won the 11th frame with a break of 101 before falling three behind as Davis won the next two frames. Johnson was behind in the 14th frame but won it with a break of 73. The last two frames of the session were both won with the aid of fluked reds: the 15th frame by Davis, and the last of the day by Johnson, the day finishing with Davis leading 9–7. On the second day, Johnson won the first frame of the third session to reduce Davis's lead to one frame. Davis then took four consecutive frames to lead 13–8, but missed the last red ball when on a break of 52. Johnson then cleared up to the black, which Davis would have required to level the scores in the frame. However, Davis left the black in a position that it could be potted from, and Johnson won the frame. Davis won the next frame, to lead 14–9 at the end of the third session.
Johnson made a break of 52 in the first frame of the fourth session, but failed on an attempt to pot a red, which gave Davis an opportunity. Davis then made a break of 35, but left an easy for Johnson, who cleared to the to win. In the next frame, Johnson made a break of 62, and then Davis attempted a , but missed the . Johnson potted the yellow from distance and cleared to the blue, with Davis then conceding the frame. Johnson led 50–0 in the next frame, and with both players making a number of errors Davis left him an easy brown that allowed Johnson in to win his fourth consecutive frame to move to one behind at 13–14. Davis had breaks of 64 and 40 to lead 15–13, a break of 73 to help make it 16–13, and 17–13 winning frame 30, decided on the final . Johnson won another frame, with a break of 67, before Davis clinched victory with a break of 73 to make it 18–14, achieving his fourth World Championship title. After the match, Davis said: "Winning this is better than 1981 because I've experienced getting beat in the final and its horrible."
Aftermath
During the tournament, there were reports that Foulds and WPBSA chairman Williams were taking beta blockers. These were banned under International Olympic Committee rules, but not prohibited in snooker. Colin Moynihan, a Member of the British Parliament, called for Williams to resign and any players using beta blockers to withdraw from competing. In November 1987, the WPBSA was suspended from using the Sports Council's drug-testing facilities until the use of beta blockers was banned from the sport. Moynihan wrote to Williams supporting the ban that had been proposed by the Sports Council's Drug Advisory Group. Williams resigned as WPBSA chairman in November 1987, having received criticism over the drug testing issue as well as over his personal business connections with promoters Barry Hearn and Frank Warren. The WPBSA voted to ban the use of beta blockers, other than cardioselective types, in January 1988, with the ban to come into effect from the start of the 1988–89 snooker season.
Main draw
Shown below are the results for the tournament. The numbers in brackets denote players seedings, whilst players in bold are match winners.
Qualifying
The qualifying stages took place at the Preston Guild Hall between 25 March and 4 April 1987.
Results from the qualification event are shown below. Players shown in bold denote match winners.
Century breaks
There were 18 century breaks at the championship. The highest was a 127 made by Steve Davis in the first frame of the final. This was the lowest world championship high break since the event moved to the Crucible Theatre in 1977. The highest break in 1977 was 135 by John Spencer, which was the lowest to be the highest break at the world championship until 1986, when Davis's 134 was the highest.
127 Steve Davis
119, 114 Jimmy White
112 Rex Williams
109, 106, 105, 102 Neal Foulds
108, 102, 101 Joe Johnson
105, 103 Mike Hallett
103 Stephen Hendry
103 Steve Longworth
101 John Virgo
100 Tony Meo
100 Ray Reardon
Qualifying
There were 17 century breaks during the qualifying competition, the highest of which was 132 made by Dene O'Kane.
132, 130, 109, 101, 100 Dene O'Kane
125 Paul Medati
115 John Parrott
110 John Spencer
108, 105 Stephen Hendry
108 Mark Bennett
108 Bill Oliver
107 Joe O'Boye
105 Jim Rempe
104 John Campbell
100 Graham Cripsey
100 Gino Rigitano
Notes
References
1987
World Championship
World Snooker Championship
Sports competitions in Sheffield
World Snooker Championship
World Snooker Championship
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican%20sacraments
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Anglican sacraments
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In keeping with its prevailing self-identity as a via media or "middle path" of Western Christianity, Anglican sacramental theology expresses elements in keeping with its status as a church in the catholic tradition and a church of the Reformation. With respect to sacramental theology the Catholic tradition is perhaps most strongly asserted in the importance Anglicanism places on the sacraments as a means of grace, sanctification and forgiveness as expressed in the church's liturgy.
When the Thirty-Nine Articles were accepted by Anglicans generally as a norm for Anglican teaching, they recognised two sacraments only – Baptism and the Eucharist – as having been ordained by Christ ("sacraments of the Gospel") as Article XXV of the Thirty-Nine Articles describes them) and as necessary for salvation. The status of the Articles today varies from province to province: Canon A5 of the Church of England defines them as a source for Anglican doctrine. Peter Toon names ten provinces as having retained them. He goes on to suggest that they have become "one strategic lens of a multi-lens telescope through which to view tradition and approach Scripture".
Five other acts are regarded variously as full sacraments by Anglo-Catholics or as "sacramental rites" by Evangelicals with varied opinions among broad church and liberal Anglicans. Article XXV of the Thirty-Nine Articles states that these five "are not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel, being such as have grown partly of the corrupt following of the Apostles, partly are states of life allowed in the Scriptures; but yet have not like nature of Sacraments with Baptism, and the Lord's Supper, for that they have not any visible sign or ceremony ordained of God."
According to the Thirty-Nine Articles, the seven are divided as follows:
A wider range of opinions about the 'effectiveness of the sacraments is found among Anglicans than in the Roman Catholic Church: some hold to a more Catholic view maintaining that the sacraments function "as a result of the act performed" (ex opere operato); others emphasise strongly the need for worthy reception and faith".
Characteristics of sacraments
As defined by the 16th-century Anglican divine Richard Hooker, the sacraments are "visible signs of invisible grace". However, their "efficacy resteth obscure to our understanding, except we search somewhat more distinctly what grace in particular that is whereunto they are referred and what manner of operation they have towards it". They thus serve to convey sanctification on the individual participating in the sacramental action, but Hooker expressly warns that "all receive not the grace of God which receive the sacraments of his grace".
To be considered a valid sacrament both the appropriate form and matter must be present and duly used. Form is the specific verbal and physical liturgical action associated with the sacrament while the matter refers to the essential material objects used (e.g. water in Baptism; bread and wine in the Eucharist, etc.). This in itself is not sufficient to ensure the validity: there must also be the right intention on the part of the minister and, when the sacrament is ministered to an adult, the minimal requirement is that the recipient must not place an obstacle in the way of the grace to be received.
The question as to who is to be considered the minister of a "valid" sacrament has led to serious divergences of opinion within Anglicanism. It is clear that in emergency any layperson may administer baptism. Whether a deacon can celebrate marriage varies from province to province. The theory that to be validly ordained, Anglican clergy must be ordained or consecrated by bishops whose own consecration can be traced to one of the Apostles has always been a minority position. Bradshaw sums up the position as follows:
... Hooker and the great weight of representative Anglican theology did not unchurch continental non-episcopal churches. Anglican ecclesiology does not, classically, hold the view that the church and sacramental grace depend upon the episcopal succession from the apostles.While many Anglicans hold that only a priest properly ordained by a bishop or a bishop consecrated by other bishops can perform valid sacramental actions (the exceptions are Baptism, which can be performed by a layperson in cases of emergency, and in some Provinces of the Anglican Communion, Matrimony, which can be performed by a deacon), many would also be cautious about applying the criterion to other churches. The theory that to be validly ordained, Anglican clergy must be ordained and/or consecrated by bishops whose own consecration can be traced to one of the Apostles (see Apostolic succession). Anglicans differ as to whether the sacraments received from clergy who are not ordained in this tradition have been validly performed and received.
Baptism
Baptism is the sacrament by which a person is initiated into the Christian church. It has the effect of receiving people into the household of God, allowing them to receive the grace of the other sacraments. The matter consists of the water and the form are the words of Baptism (the Trinitarian formula). The intention of baptism is threefold: a renunciation of sin and of all that which is opposed to the will of God (articulated by vows); a statement of belief in God, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (articulated by the recitation of the Apostles' Creed or Nicene Creed); and a commitment to follow Christ as Lord and Saviour (again, signified by vows). The effect of baptism is the reception of the Holy Spirit.
Whilst infant baptism is the norm in Anglicanism, services of thanksgiving and dedication of children are sometimes celebrated, especially when baptism is being deferred. People baptised in other traditions will be confirmed without being baptised again unless there is doubt about the validity of their original baptism. Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christians who have previously been confirmed are simply received instead. In case of uncertainty about whether a person has received the sacrament of Baptism at an earlier time, he or she may receive the sacrament conditionally. In principle, no one can be baptised more than once. In a conditional baptism, the minister of the sacrament, rather than saying "I baptise you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit", says "If you are not baptised, I baptise you" etc.
Eucharist
The Eucharist (Holy Communion, Mass, or the Lord's Supper), is the means by which Christ becomes present to the Christian community gathered in his name. It is the central act of gathered worship, renewing the Body of Christ as the Church through the reception of the Body of Christ as the Blessed Sacrament, his spiritual body and blood. The matter consists of bread and wine. Traditionally in the Western Church the form was located in the words "This is my body/blood" or at least in the repetition of the Institution Narrative as a whole, that is there was a moment of consecration. However, the modern trend is to understand the thanksgiving expressed in the whole Eucharistic Prayer as effecting the consecration. In 1995, the International Anglican Liturgical Consultation involving liturgists from over half the provinces of the Anglican Communion unanimously agreed that:
The fundamental character of the eucharistic prayer is thanksgiving, and the whole eucharistic prayer should be seen as consecratory. The elements of memorial and invocation are caught up within the movement of thanksgiving.
In this sacrament, Christ is both encountered and incorporated. As such, the Eucharistic action looks backward as a memorial of Christ's sacrifice, forward as a foretaste of the heavenly banquet, and to the present as an Incarnation of Christ in the lives of the community and of individual believers.
Rites not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel
Confession and absolution
Confession and absolution, sometimes called the Sacrament of Reconciliation, is the rite or sacrament by which one is restored to God when one's relationship with God has been broken by sin. The form is the words of absolution, which may be accompanied by the sign of the cross. Confession and absolution is normally done corporately (the congregation invited to confess their sins, a moment of silent prayer while the congregation does so, a spoken general confession, and the words of absolution). Individuals, however, can and do also participate in aural confession, privately meeting with a priest to confess their sins, during which time the priest can provide both counselling, urge reconciliation with parties that have been sinned against, and suggest certain spiritual disciplines (penance). In the 1662 Book of Common Prayer and earlier Anglican prayer books, there is no approved ceremony for a private confession of sins outside of the Visitation of the Sick, the event being provided for in the Anglican tradition only in uncommon instances where an individual cannot quiet his conscience or find consolation in the General Confession that is part of the liturgy. However, the Book of Common Prayer 1979 in the Episcopal Church does provide an approved rite of confession.
Anglican clergy do not typically require acts of penance after receiving absolution; but such acts, if done, are intended to be healing and preventative. The phrase "all may, some should, none must" is often taken as the Anglican attitude towards the sacrament, though there are provinces and parishes where participation in the sacrament is expected for the forgiveness of post-baptismal sin. The priest is bound by the seal of confession. This binds the priest to never speak of what he or she has heard in the confessional to anyone.
Confirmation
Confirmation is derived from the Latin word confirmare, 'to strengthen'. In this sense, confirmation involves the reaffirmation of faith through the strengthening and renewal of one's baptismal vows accomplished through prayer and the laying on of hands by a bishop. Historically, baptism and confirmation once were a unified rite, with the bishop performing both activities. With the spread of the faith in Europe during the early Middle Ages, the rites became separated. In recent centuries, it has been seen as an opportunity for those baptised as infants to make an adult profession of faith, and to reaffirm the vows made on their behalf by witnesses.
Until very recently, it was also a precondition to participation in the eucharist throughout the Communion. Some Anglican churches now view baptism as sufficient for accessing the grace of all the sacraments, since it is the means of initiation into the faith. Many who have been baptised as adults still present themselves for confirmation as a way of completing the ancient rite of initiation, or because they have been received into the Communion from other denominations.
Matrimony
Holy Matrimony is the blessing of a union between two people, acknowledging the presence and grace of God in the life of the couple. The form is manifested as the vows (contrary to popular belief, the blessing and exchanging of rings is customary, and not necessary for the rite of matrimony to be valid). In marriage, the couple seek God's blessing, and through the mediation of the priest, the prayer is answered. Although the couple are thus generally regarded as the ministers of the sacrament through their voluntary exchange of vows, the sacrament must be celebrated under the presidency of a clergy person, who witnesses and mediates the prayers (along with a portion of the congregation to witness and accept the marriage).
In many parts of the Anglican Communion, there is provision to bless civil marriages (on the understanding that a couple cannot be married twice). Although some Anglican Churches will marry divorced people, some will not or will require the permission of the bishop of the diocese. In some dioceses, particularly in the US Episcopal Church, there is approval for the blessing of same-sex marriage. In the Continuing Anglican churches of the world, such unions are not permitted.
Holy Orders
Ordination to Holy Orders is the setting aside of individuals to specific ministries in the Church, namely that of deacon, priest, and bishop. The matter and form are the laying on of hands by a bishop and prayers. From the beginning of the Church there were two orders recognised – that of bishop and deacon. Priests are essentially delegates of the bishop to minister to congregations in which the bishop cannot be physically present. Deacons have always had the role of being "the church in the world," ministering to the pastoral needs of the community and assisting the priest in worship (usually by proclaiming the Gospel and preparing the altar and credence table). The bishop is the chief pastor of a diocese. Appointment as an archbishop does not involve transition into a new order, but rather signifies the taking on of additional episcopal responsibilities as a metropolitan or primate.
In the Anglican churches, as with Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, and unlike the Latin Church of the Catholic Church Church, there is no requirement that priests observe clerical celibacy. Unlike priests in the Eastern Churches, Anglican priests may also marry after ordination, and married Anglican priests may be ordained as bishops. Additionally, in many provinces of the Anglican Communion, women are allowed to be ordained as priests; and in about a third of the provinces also consecrated as bishops. Because this is a recent and controversial development, there are few dioceses governed by bishops who are women. Some dioceses do not recognise the orders of priests who are women, or else limit their recognition to priests only and disallow bishops who are women.
Anointing of the Sick (Holy Unction)
The Anointing of the Sick is an act of healing through prayer and sacrament, conveyed on both the sick and the dying; the latter is classically called Extreme Unction. The matter consists of laying on of hands and anointing with oil; while the form consists of prayers. In this sacrament, the priest acts as a mediator of Christ's grace and will frequently also administer the consecrated bread (and sometimes wine) as a part of the sacramental action.
The Anglican Guild of St Raphael, founded in 1915, is an organisation mostly within the Church of England, with a few branches elsewhere in the world, specifically dedicated to promoting, supporting and practicing Christ's ministry of healing as an integral part of the Church. There are many other similar organisations in other Anglican provinces, often dedicated to St Luke the physician and evangelist.
Ordained ministry
In the Anglican tradition, the celebration of the sacraments is reserved (apart from emergency baptism by laypeople) to the clergy: bishops, priests and deacons — this last may baptise and, in some Provinces, celebrate marriages. While there has been some discussion, notably in the Diocese of Sydney, Australia, about the possibility of lay presidency of the Eucharist, for most Anglicans this is inconsistent with the common understanding of sacramental theology.
Ex opere operato
Gabriel Biel, a 15th century scholastic, defined ex opere operato as follows:
...by the very act of receiving, grace is conferred, unless mortal sin stands in the way; that beyond the outward participation no inward preparation of the heart (bonus motus) is necessary.
However, Anglicans generally do not accept that the sacraments are effective without positive faith being operative in those who receive them or, in the case of infant baptism, the faith of those who bring the baby to baptism and undertake to provide Christian teaching as a preparation for confirmation. The Thirty-Nine Articles clearly require positive faith (see Arts. XXV & XXVIII) as do the exhortations to prepare to receive the Holy Communion found in the communion rite of the BCP-1662.
It might be claimed that Anglicans hold to the principle of ex opere operato with respect to the efficacy of the sacraments vis-a-vis the presider and his or her administration thereof. Article XXVI of the Thirty-Nine Articles (entitled Of the unworthiness of ministers which hinders not the effect of the Sacrament) states that the "ministration of the Word and Sacraments" is not done in the name of the one performing the sacerdotal function but in Christ's, "neither is the effect of Christ's ordinance taken away by their wickedness from such as by faith and rightly do receive the Sacraments ministered unto them" since the sacraments have their effect "because of Christ's institution and promise, although they be ministered by evil men.") The effectiveness of the sacrament is independent of the one who presides over it.
References
Further reading
Anglican Church of Canada, Book of Common Prayer. Toronto, 1962.
Dom Gregory Dix, The Shape of the Liturgy, 2nd ed. London, 1945.
Arthur Michael Ramsey, The Gospel and the Catholic Church, 2nd ed. London, 1956.
Ian Stuchbery, This is Our Faith: A Guide to Life and Belief for Anglicans. Toronto, 1990
Stephen Sykes and John Booty (eds.), The Study of Anglicanism. London, 1988.
External links
What it means to be an Anglican
Annoted Holy Eucharist instructed Eucharist from King of Peace Episcopal Church
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985%20World%20Snooker%20Championship
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1985 World Snooker Championship
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The 1985 World Snooker Championship (also known as the 1985 Embassy World Snooker Championship for the purpose of sponsorship) was a ranking professional snooker tournament that took place from 12 to 28 April 1985 at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. Organised by the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA), the event was the ninth consecutive World Snooker Championship to be held at the Crucible, the first tournament having taken place in 1977. A five-round qualifying event for the championship was held at the Preston Guild Hall from 29 March to 5 April for 87 players, 16 of whom reached the main stage, where they met the 16 invited seeded players. The tournament was broadcast in the United Kingdom by the BBC, and was sponsored by the Embassy cigarette company. The total prize fund for the event was £250,000, the highest prize pool for any snooker tournament to that date. The winner received £60,000, which was the highest amount ever received by the winner of a snooker event at that time.
The defending champion was Englishman Steve Davis, who had previously won the World Championship three times. He met Northern Irishman Dennis Taylor in the final which was a best-of-35- match. Davis took an early 9–1 lead, but Taylor battled back into the match and drew level at 17–17, forcing a deciding frame. The 35th frame was contested over the final , with the player able to the ball winning the world title. After both players missed the black twice, Taylor potted the ball to win his sole World Championship. The match, often referred to as the "black ball final", is commonly considered to be the best-known match in the history of snooker and a reason for the surge in the sport's popularity in the 1980s and 1990s.
Canadian Bill Werbeniuk scored the championship's highest , a 143, in his first-round match. There were 14 century breaks compiled during the championship, with ten more in qualifying matches. This was the first professional snooker championship to introduce a ban on performance-enhancing substances, with all players in the main stage having to undertake drug tests. The final between Davis and Taylor holds the record for the most-viewed broadcast in the United Kingdom of a programme shown after midnight, with a peak of 18.5 million viewers for the match's final frame, breaking the existing records for the most-viewed sporting event and BBC2 programme.
Overview
The World Snooker Championship is a professional tournament and the official world championship of the game of snooker. Developed in the late 19th century by British Army soldiers stationed in India, snooker was popular in the United Kingdom before being introduced to Europe and the Commonwealth. The sport is now played worldwide, especially in East and Southeast Asian nations such as China, Hong Kong and Thailand.
The World Championship is organised by the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA). It features 32 professional players competing in one-on-one single-elimination matches, played over several . The players are selected to take part using a combination of the world snooker rankings and a pre-tournament qualification round. The first World Championship, in 1927, was won by Joe Davis in a final at Camkin's Hall in Birmingham, England. Since 1977, the tournament has been held at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield. The 1984 championship was won by England's Steve Davis, who defeated fellow countryman Jimmy White 18–16 in the final; this was Davis's third world championship win, following his victories in 1981 and 1983. The winner of the 1985 championship received a prize of £60,000 from a total of £250,000, the highest first prize amount for a snooker event to that date.
The tournament was the first snooker event to feature drug tests for the participants, as mandated by the WPBSA on 9 April 1985; the tests were proposed by WPBSA board member Barry Hearn. The event was broadcast by the BBC in the United Kingdom, with over 90 hours of coverage. The estimated cost for the fortnight's broadcast was reportedly £3 million. The championship was sponsored by the Embassy cigarette company.
Format
The championship was held from 12 to 28 April 1985 at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England, the ninth consecutive World Championship to be held at the venue. It was the last ranking event of the 1984–85 snooker season. There were 103 entrants from the World Snooker Tour, with 32 participants in the competition's main draw. A five-round knockout qualifying competition with 87 players, held at Preston Guild Hall between 29 March and 5 April, produced the 16 qualifying players who progressed into the main draw to play the top 16 seeds. The draw for the tournament was made at the Savoy Hotel in London on 16 January 1985.
The top 16 players in the latest world rankings automatically qualified for the main draw as seeded players. As defending champion, Steve Davis was seeded first for the event; the remaining 15 seeds were allocated based on world rankings for the 1984–85 season. Matches in the first round of the main draw were played as best-of-19-frames. The number of frames needed to win a match increased to 13 in the second round and quarter-finals, and 16 in the semi-finals; the final match was played as best-of-35-frames.
Six former world champions participated in the main tournament at the Crucible: Ray Reardon (1970, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, and 1978), Steve Davis (1981, 1983, and 1984), John Spencer (1969, 1971, and 1977), Alex Higgins (1972 and 1982), Cliff Thorburn (1980) and Terry Griffiths (1979). Four players made their world championship debuts, all via the qualifying event: Dene O'Kane, Eugene Hughes, Tony Jones, and Wayne Jones.
Prize fund
The event had a total prize fund of £250,000, an increase of £50,000 in the total prize pool from the previous year, and the winner received £60,000, an increase of £16,000 from the previous year. The prize amount was a new record high for snooker event. The breakdown of prize money for the tournament was:
Winner: £60,000
Runner-up: £35,000
Semi-finals: £20,000
Quarter-finals: £10,000
Last 16: £5,250
Last 32: £2,500
Qualifying groups runner-up: £1,500
Qualifying groups third place: £750
Highest break: £6,000
Maximum break: £60,000
Tournament summary
Qualifying
The qualifying rounds for the event were played from 29 March to 5 April at the Preston Guildhall. The qualifying competition consisted of five knockout rounds, starting with 87 players. There were seven matches in the first round, bringing the number of remaining players to 80. The other four qualifying rounds each contained 16 matches, the winners of each round meeting the 16 higher-ranked players who had been seeded into the next round. The 16 winners from the fifth and final qualifying round met the top 16 seeds in the first round of the main competition.
All qualifying matches were played as best-of-19-frames. John Dunning was seeded into the third round of qualifying, where he played his first return match since his heart attack at the 1984 Grand Prix; he lost the match to Wayne Jones, 6–10. Danny Fowler made the highest break of the qualifying competition, scoring a 137 in his 10–0 victory over Jim Donnelly in the fourth round, before losing 2–10 to John Parrott in the fifth. Fred Davis, aged 71 and eight-time champion between 1948 and 1956, defeated Robert Chaperon 10–9 in the fourth round of qualifying but lost 6–10 to Rex Williams in the fifth.
First round
The first round of the championship, from 12 to 17 April, featured 32 players competing in 16 best-of-19-frames matches in two sessions; each seeded player competed against a qualifier. The first match to finish was between second seed Tony Knowles and qualifier Tony Jones. Knowles won four straight frames before he was pegged back to 4–4. Jones took four of the next five frames to lead 8–5 but eventually lost 8–10. As part of an initiative to remove performance-enhancing substances, drug tests were performed for the first time during the event; Knowles was the first player tested.
A series of articles in the Daily Star about drug abuse in the championship was based on statements reportedly by Silvino Francisco. Francisco trailed 1–8 after the first session of his first-round match against 11th seed Dennis Taylor, and lost the match 2–10. At a press conference held afterwards, World Snooker chairman Rex Williams said that there was no evidence of drug use in the sport, and Francisco apologised to Kirk Stevens (the player named in the Daily Star articles), claiming that the statements in the article were a "total lie".
Top seed and defending champion, Steve Davis, won his match against Neal Foulds 10–8 to reach the second round. Only two unseeded players won their first-round matches: Patsy Fagan defeated 12th seed Willie Thorne 10–6 and John Parrott defeated 13th seed John Spencer 10–3. Spencer was diagnosed with myasthenia gravis shortly after the tournament; his vision was affected and he won only two matches all season. After being defeated twice during the season by Eugene Hughes, six-time champion and fifth seed Ray Reardon won 10–9 against Hughes on a deciding frame.
In a low-scoring match between ninth seed Alex Higgins and Dean Reynolds, neither player produced a break of over 30 points in the first three frames. Reynolds won just the fifth frame of the opening session, Higgins taking an 8–1 lead and eventually winning 10–4. John Virgo led tenth seed Tony Meo 5–4 after the first session, but won just one frame in the second session to lose 6–10. In a press conference after the match, Virgo said: "I don't think Tony played well enough to beat me. It was the run of the balls that beat me. That's the way it has been for me for six years. I can't explain it. I practise hard. I play well, but sometimes that is not enough. You need a lot of luck in this game and I didn't get any at all."
Although fourth seed Kirk Stevens defeated Ray Edmonds 10–8, snooker pundit Clive Everton said that his standard of play was not that of a top-four player and Edmonds "made [Stevens] work". In a slow first session, Rex Williams and eighth seed Terry Griffiths played seven (instead of the planned nine) frames; Griffiths led 6–1 after three hours and 38 minutes, eventually winning the match 10–3. Bill Werbeniuk (seeded 14th), who had not won a match all season, defeated Joe Johnson 10–8 and scored a 143 break in the tenth frame – the third-highest break at the championship at that time.
Third seed Cliff Thorburn defeated Mike Hallett, 10–8; 15th seed Doug Mountjoy defeated Murdo MacLeod, 10–5; 16th seed David Taylor defeated Dene O'Kane, 10–4; and sixth seed Eddie Charlton defeated John Campbell, 10–3, in an all-Australian tie.
Second round
The second round, from 18 to 22 April, was played as eight best-of-25-frames matches. Steve Davis led David Taylor 3–0 and 6–3 before winning seven of the eight frames in the second session to win 13–4, scoring century breaks in the eighth (100) and eleventh (105) frames. Alex Higgins and Terry Griffiths were tied 5–5 after ten frames. Griffiths pulled ahead during the second session, leading 10–6, and won three of the first four frames of the final session to win 13–7. John Parrott led Kirk Stevens 6–2 after the first session and eventually won, 13–6.
Ray Reardon and Patsy Fagan were tied after the first session, 4–4, before Reardon pulled ahead 7–5. Reardon the final of frame 13 to lead 8–5, and pulled ahead 12–9 before his came off in frame 22 when he was well ahead on points. Reardon would have been allowed 15 minutes to replace his cue tip, but Fagan offered to let Reardon use his cue. Reardon accepted, using Fagan's borrowed cue to complete his victory. In an all-Canadian second-round match, Cliff Thorburn defeated Bill Werbeniuk 13–3 with a . Two former event finalists, Dennis Taylor and Eddie Charlton, met in the second round; Taylor defeated Charlton, 13–6. Seventh seed Jimmy White overcame Tony Meo, after being tied 10–10, to win 13–11. In the final second-round match, Tony Knowles defeated Doug Mountjoy 13–6.
Quarter-finals
The quarter-finals were played as best-of-25-frames matches in three sessions on 23 and 24 April. Terry Griffiths led Steve Davis after winning the first four frames of the match, but finished the first session at 4–4. Davis won six of the eight frames in the second session to lead 10–6. In the first frame of the third session, Griffiths committed a by touching a ball with his waistcoat, following which Davis made a break of 80 to win the frame. Davis also took the next two frames, winning 13–6 to reach his fourth World Championship semi-final. John Parrott also won the first four frames of his match against Ray Reardon, and led 5–3 after the first session. Parrott extended his lead to 9–5 in the second session, but missed two in successive frames to lead by only 9–7 after the session. Reardon won the first five frames of the third session (seven in a row) to lead 12–9, and Parrott won the next three frames to force a deciding frame. With one red left on the table, Parrott led by seven points; Reardon Parrott, and won a to win the match with a break of 31.
Due to slow play, only six of the eight frames of the opening session between Dennis Taylor and Cliff Thorburn were played. Taylor took a lead of 4–0, before ending the session at 4–2. The session was described as interesting by Clive Everton of The Guardian, however, due to the "high quality of the tactical play." The second session was also long-winded, with the match adjourned at 1:21a.m. (after nine hours and 45 minutes of play); Taylor led 10–5, with a frame still to be played. Resuming the match, Taylor won three straight frames to win 13–5 and reach his fifth semi-final. Thorburn said after the match that both players were at fault for the slow play: "I wasn't the only one playing safe. If I had played well, this would have been the longest match ever." There was only one break of over 50 in the entire match, made by Taylor in the final frame.
Second seed Tony Knowles played Jimmy White, and led 5–3 after the first session. Knowles made a break of 137 during the session, but missed the black; it would have been the tournament's highest break. He retained his lead through the second session, despite twice being a pot away from being tied; the session finished 9–7. Returning to the match, Knowles won the next two frames but White won a re-spotted black in frame 19. Knowles handled the pressure better than White, and won 13–10.
Semi-finals
The semi-finals were played on 25 and 26 April as best-of-31-frames matches over four sessions. Reigning champion Steve Davis defeated Ray Reardon, needing only three sessions to secure a 16–5 victory. Reardon, the oldest-ever World Championship semi-finalist, failed to play at the level he had played against Parrott. Although Reardon had won his previous matches with strong play, Davis's created opportunities throughout the match. Janice Hale of Snooker Scene magazine wrote that the match had "an air of inevitability", with Davis in full control. Davis compiled the 100th century break made at the Crucible, a 106 break in frame 13. In winning, he reached his third straight World Championship final.
Tony Knowles played Dennis Taylor in the second semi-final. After winning the first two frames, Knowles won only three more frames in the rest of the match; Taylor led 10–5 after the second session, and then took six frames in a row to win the match in three sessions. Knowles had expected to win, as the higher-seeded player, but he failed to exhibit the form he had shown earlier in the tournament and fell by the same scoreline as Reardon. Afterwards, he could not understand how he had lost to a lower-seeded player. Taylor said that he had seen Knowles get "angry" during the match, however, and that he had "thrown his cue" at a few shots. Knowles also lost the following year's event in the semi-finals to eventual champion Joe Johnson.
Final
The final was played between Steve Davis and Dennis Taylor on 27 and 28 April as a best-of-35-frames match over four sessions. This was Davis's fourth world final, having won the title in 1981, 1983, and 1984; and Taylor's second, having lost 16–24 to Terry Griffiths in the 1979 final. Davis and Taylor had met at the World Championship on two previous occasions, Taylor winning their first-round encounter in 1979 and Davis winning the semi-final in 1984.
Although Taylor scored a break of 50 in the first frame of the match, Davis won all seven frames of the opening session to lead 7–0. At the start of the second session, Davis took the eighth frame and was leading in frame nine but missed a on the . This error was later considered the turning point of the match, as it allowed Taylor to win his first frame, Davis however won the next fame to lead 9–1, but Taylor won six frames in a row to finish the second session 7–9 behind overnight. On the second day, Taylor tied the match at 11–11 and 15–15, but was never ahead at any point. Davis won the next two frames to lead 17–15, needing one more frame to win the championship. Taylor clinched frame 33 and then made a break of over 50 to tie the match at 17–17, forcing a deciding frame.
The final frame lasted more than an hour, finishing after midnight British Summer Time. Davis led 62–44, with just the last four balls to play, Taylor requiring all four to win the match. He difficult shots on the , , and , leaving the black ball to determine the winner of the championship. With the black , both players attempted to the ball. The first real opportunity fell to Taylor, with a long pot to the corner, but he missed the shot; according to commentator Jim Meadowcroft, "That was the biggest shot of his life". Davis was left with a thin cut on the black; he stepped up to the table and again missed the shot, leaving Taylor a mid-range shot. Ted Lowe said, "This is really unbelievable" before Taylor potted the black and won the match. Taylor was not ahead at any point during the match, until the final pot. The final between Davis and Taylor attracted 18.5 million viewers on BBC2, the programme finishing at 12:23 a.m. after Taylor had won the title. The viewership was the highest for any broadcast after midnight in the United Kingdom, and the most-viewed show on BBC2. The match became known as "the black ball final".
After potting the final ball, Taylor raised his ; he "waggled" his finger and kissed the winner's trophy. He said in a 2009 interview that the gesture was aimed at his "good mate" Trevor East, whom he had told he would win. At a press conference afterwards, he said that the match was the "best he had ever been involved in [his] life". Taylor dedicated the world championship to his late mother who had died the previous year. Unwilling to play snooker, he had withdrawn from the 1984 International Open. His family and friends had persuaded him to play again in the Grand Prix event, where he won his first professional title by defeating Cliff Thorburn in the final.
Main draw
The results for each round of the main stage of the championship are shown below. The numbers in parentheses beside some of the players are their seeding ranks (each championship has 16 seeds and 16 qualifiers).
Qualifying
Five rounds of qualifying were played for the event from 29 March to 5 April at the Preston Guildhall.
Round 1
Legacy
On his return to Northern Ireland, Taylor received a victory parade in a Land Rover across his home town of Coalisland in front of 10,000 people. He was loaned mayoral robes on the day of the parade, and was accompanied by his wife and three children. He later signed a five-year contract with promoter Barry Hearn as his manager. Media covering the tournament called Steve Davis a "bad loser" for his silence and one-word responses to questions from David Vine at a press conference after the event. The press conference was later used as the basis for a Spitting Image skit on Davis. Taylor's victory is the most-viewed sporting event in the United Kingdom to date, and remains the most-viewed BBC2 program of all time.
The tournament final was recreated and redistributed by the BBC in various forms. 4 months later in August 1985 BBC Video released a highlights video of the 1985 final which was one of the biggest selling videos of 1985. At the 2010 World Snooker Championship, to celebrate the 25th anniversary, Taylor and Davis replayed the final frame with commentary by John Virgo. The frame was played as an exhibition, with both players attempting to re-create the shots on the final black ball. The 1985 championship was examined in the BBC documentary, When Snooker Ruled the World, with particular emphasis on the final. Another one-hour BBC documentary on the final, Davis v Taylor: The '85 Black Ball Final, which featured interviews with Taylor's friends and family in Northern Ireland, was presented by Colin Murray.
During the 2015 World Snooker Championship, Davis presented Celebrity Black Ball Final on the BBC in which celebrities played the final two shots of the match; guests included Rebecca Adlington, Joey Essex, Russell Watson, Richard Osman and Josh Widdicombe. A 2017 BBC poll found the final to be the Crucible's "most memorable" moment, with the match receiving more than half the votes. Ronnie O'Sullivan's 1997 maximum break finished second. Davis also lost the following year's final, this time to Joe Johnson, but won another three world titles, in 1987, 1988 and 1989. Taylor never reached the final again, falling to the "Crucible curse" at the 1986 championship with a first-round loss to Mike Hallett.
Century breaks
There were 14 century breaks in the championship. Bill Werbeniuk's 143 against Joe Johnson in the first round was the joint third-highest break in the championship's history, tied with Willie Thorne's in 1982. Only Cliff Thorburn's maximum break in 1983 and Doug Mountjoy's 145 in 1981 were higher. Tony Knowles missed the black on a break of 137 that would have scored a 144 in his quarter-final with Jimmy White.
143 Bill Werbeniuk
137, 117 Tony Knowles
128, 117 Dennis Taylor
123 Tony Meo
114, 108 Jimmy White
114 John Parrott
106, 105, 100 Steve Davis
103 Cliff Thorburn
101 Neal Foulds
Qualifying stages
There were ten century breaks in the qualifying stages; the highest was made by Danny Fowler in his 10–0 whitewash of Jim Donnelly in the fourth round of qualifying.
137 Danny Fowler
134 Steve Newbury
132 Bernie Mikkelsen
119 John Virgo
110, 101 Bob Chaperon
109 Neal Foulds
107 Dave Chalmers
104 Tony Jones
100 Steve Longworth
Notes
References
World Snooker Championships
World Championship
Sports competitions in Sheffield
World Snooker Championship
World Snooker Championship
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandhyavandanam
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Sandhyavandanam
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Sandhyavandanam (Sanskrit: , , lit. 'salutation to (Goddess) Twilight' or 'salutation during the twilight')
is a mandatory religious ritual centring around the recitation of the Gayatri mantra, traditionally supposed to be performed three times a day by Dvija communities of Hindus, particularly those initiated through the sacred thread ceremony referred to as the Upanayanam and instructed in its execution by a Guru, in this case one qualified to teach Vedic ritual. Sandhyopasana is considered as a path to attain salvation (moksha).
Practice of Sandhyā in Ramayana and Mahabharata by Rama and Krishna can be observed. In Balakanda (23.2, 23.2) of Ramayana, Viswamitra wakes Rama and Lakshmana up at the break of the dawn for the worship of sandhyā. In Udyogaparva (82.21) of Mahabharata there is reference to Krishna performing Sandhya.
Definition of Sandhyā
Sir Monier-Williams translated as twilight (i.e. the period between night and day), as well as "the religious acts performed by Brahmans and twice-born men at the above three divisions of the day". The Sandhyāvandanam consists of ritual recitation from the Vedas. These rituals are performed three times a day - at morning (), noon () and evening ().
The Gayatri mantra
The Gayatri mantra, the central mantra of the Sandhyavandanam, has 24 syllables:
– Rigveda 3.62.10
Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel P. Brereton translated the mantra as, "Might we make our own that desirable effulgence of god Savitar, who will rouse forth our insights."
Sandhyākāla
Sandhyākāla is also defined as the time to perform Sandhyā. Traditionally, the day is divided by 5 parts, each having an interval of 2 hour and 24 minutes. They are prātaḥ-kālaḥ (early morning), pūrvahna (forenoon), madhyāhna (around noon), aparāhna (afternoon), sāyāhna (evening). As per Hindu traditional calendar, the day which starts with sunrise (i.e. from midnight of previous night until sunrise is considered part of previous day).
A Sandhyākāla is 72 minutes (i.e. 3 ghaṭīs of 24 minutes).
Prātassandhyā spans from two ghaṭīs before sunrise and until one ghaṭī after.
Madhyāhna sandhyā spans from one and half ghaṭī before noon and until one and half ghaṭī after.
Sāyam sandhyā spans from one ghaṭī before sunset and until two ghaṭīs after.
Direction of Sandhyāvandanam
The Sandhyāvandanam is traditionally done facing the east in the morning sandhyā (doing Gāyatrījapa until sunrise), the north in the noon and the west in the evening sandhyā (doing Gāyatrījapa until stars rise). In the evening, only āchamana part is performed in east or north.
Parts of Sandhyā Vandanam
As per the work Sandhyātattvasubhodini, the Sāṅgopāṅga Sandhyāvandanam (lit. Sandhyāvandanam with all the essential and subsidiary parts) consists of different components termed as aṅgas (lit. limbs). Apart from the principal aṅgi it has 5 anterior parts (pūrvāṅga) and 5 posterior parts (uttarāṅga).
Before commencement of the 5 pūrvāṅgas, there are 3 angas: Ācamanaṃ (आचमनम्), Prāṇāyāmaḥ (प्राणायामः) and Sankalpaḥ (सङ्कल्पः), which are not mentioned separately. These 5 pūrvāṅgas are:
Prathama Mārjanaṃ (प्रथममार्जनम्, First cleansing)
Mantrācamanaṃ (मन्त्राचमनम्, Water-sipping via Vedic mantras)
Punarmārjanaṃ (पुनर्मार्जनम्, Second cleansing. Also known as Dvitīyamārjanaṃ)
Pāpavimocana Mantram (पापविमोचन मन्त्रम्, Liberation from sins. Also known as Aghamarṣaṇa)
Arghyapradānam (अर्घ्यप्रदानम्, Offering of water to the Sun (Sūrya))
The principal part is the Sandhyopāsanā mantram (सन्ध्योपासना मन्त्रम्), which involves contemplation on Brahman, referred as 'Brahmabhāvanam'. This Upāsanā mantra is also referred as Dhyānam part in Sandhyāvandanam by the smritis. However, few smritis such as by Manu and Āśvalāyana consider Gāyatrījapaḥ as the principle one.
The 5 uttarāṅgas are:
Gāyatrījapaḥ (गायत्रीजपः, Deep meditation with the chanting of Gayatri mantra)
Sūrya-Upasthānaṃ (सूर्योपस्थानम्, Adoration in the presence of the Sun with Vedic mantras)
Dik Namaskāraḥ (दिङ्नमस्कारः, Salutation to the Devatas in all the cardinal directions)
Bhūmyākāśa ābhivandanam (भूम्याकाशाभिवन्दनम्, Respectful salutation to the Sky (Dyaus Pitṛ) and the Earth (pṛthivī))
Abhivādanam (अभिवादनम्, Formal salutation by reciting ones' Gotra and Pravara)
In addition to the above Vedic components of the Sandhyāvandanam, many include the following due to Tantric influences:
Gayatri tarpaṇaṃ (तर्पणम्), nyāsa (न्यासः) and Mudrāpradarśanam (मुद्राप्रदर्शनम्) are performed in Yajurveda Sandhyāvandanam due to Śiṣṭācāra.
Navagraha tarpaṇam are offerings made every day to each of the 9 planets.
Accessories for Sandhyā
Pañcapātra
A Pañcapātra is the set of holy utensils used for Hindu rituals containing plate (thāḷī, laghupātra) and ritualistic spoon (uddhariṇī/ācamanī).
Āsana
As per vyāsa and parāśara, a seat (Āsana) for japa is traditionally made of silk (kauśeya) or blanket (kambala) or skin (ajina) or wood (dāruja) or (palm) leaves (tālapatra). Hindu texts cite various spiritual and material benefits or drawbacks depending on different materials used for the seat.
Japamāla
A Japamāla is often used for counting the number of recitations in Gayatri japa. An Āsanamantra typically chanted before taking seat.
Tilakadhāraṇa
The Tilakadhāraṇa is a holy mark (Tilaka) made on the forehead as per the local tradition before commencement of Sandhyā. Kumkuma, gandha, gopichandana and bhasma are often used for marking. Saivaites and Smartas mark tripuṇḍram, while, vaishnavaites mark ūrdhvapuṇḍram. Tripuṇḍram (Sanskrit:त्रिपुण्ड्रम्) or Tripuṇḍraka refers to the "three parallel lines of ash marks over the forehead", according to the Śivapurāṇa 1.18. Ūrddhvapuṇḍram (ऊर्द्ध्वपुण्ड्रम्) is a perpendicular line on the forehead made with Sandal, &c. a Vaishnava mark. Traditional authorities strictly advised against doing Sandhyā without tilakadhāraṇa.
Upavītam
The yajñopavītam (Sanskrit: यज्ञोपवीतम्, sacred thread) worn as upavīta (i.e. in the proper manner of wearing it from over the left shoulder and under the right arm) is cited as a necessity for performing the Sandhyavandanam.
Yajurveda Sandhyāvandanam
It is usual practice to recite mantras from one's own Veda in Sandhyāvandanam. The procedure described herein are taken from the Taittirīya śākha of (Kriṣna) Yajurveda as followed by Telugu and Tamil people adhering to the smarta tradition. The mantras used in Prāṇāyāma, Mantrācamana, Gāyatrī āhvānam, Devatānamaskāraḥ and Gāyatrī Prasthānam are directly from Mahanarayana Upanishad (Andhra rescension containing 80 anuvakas).
Mānasasnānam
Sandhyāvandanam starts with mānasasnānam (lit. mind bath) that involves viṣṇusmaraṇaṃ (remembrance of Vishnu):
By uttering the above chant, water is sprinkled on head three times.
Ācamana
Achamana involves sipping of water three times without thinking of the self in any way, but meditating on the 'Supreme Atman".
Achamana is done only in two directions, the East or North. There are three types of Āchamanam, namely, Śrautācamanam (Sanskrit: ), Smṛtyācamanam (Sanskrit: ) and Purāṇācamanam (Sanskrit: ).
Since, this is the first āchamana in Sandhyāvandanam, the sipping of water should be Purāṇācamana (i.e. 24 names of Vishnu starting with Om Keśavāya swāha & Co). Then, one Smṛtyācāmana and Bhūtocchāṭana are performed.
Prāṇāyāma
Prāṇāyāma refers to the practice of controlled breathing in meditation. It consists of three processes, first is inhalation that involves breathing in slowly through the right nostril; called as pūraka (पूरकः). The second is retention that involves retaining the breath by closing both nostrils, for a period more or less prolonged; called as kumbhaka (कुम्भक). As per Yajnavalkya smriti, the Gayatri mantra with its śiras (head) and preceded by the 7 vyāhṛtīs; to each of which the syllable Om should be added. This chanting has to be done thrice during kumbhaka. Then, the third is exhalation that involves breathing out slowly through the other nostril; called as recaka (रेचकः).
Sankalpa
Sankalpa means taking the resolve.
Then, Jalābhimantraṇam is done while reciting the Gayatri mantra to purify the water just before Prathama Mārjana.
Prathama Mārjana
Marjanam is also known as Mantrasnānam (bath with mantras). Mantras commonly used here praise water as a source of nourishment, medicines and energy.
Mantrācamana
Mantrācamanaṃ or Jalaprāśanaṃ is sipping of water by reciting relevant Vedic mantras for internal purification in order to perform ritual acts. One offers water consecrated by mantras in the fire present in the mouth – contemplating that body, mind and heart have been cleansed. Sins specified include: Mental, i.e. evil thoughts, anger, Oral, i.e. lies, abuses and Physical, i.e. theft, prohibited sexual act, consuming undesirable food, crushing creatures under the feet. Seek emancipation of sins committed during the day or night.
Punarmārjana
Smṛtyācāmana is performed two times. Then the Punarmārjanaṃ, or second cleansing is done.
Aghamarṣaṇaṃ
Aghamarṣaṇaṃ is intended to liberate from sins with a few drops of water in the hand, chant the related mantra and mentally induce 'Pāpapuruṣa' to come out through the nose into the water and it is throw it away to the left side. In Yajurveda sandhya, the meaning of mantra is
Arghyapradāna
One Smṛtyācāmana and one Prāṇāyāma are performed. Then, arghyapradāna means offering of water to the Sun with two hands as laid down in the Grihyasutras. A handful of water is taken in two hands cupped together, standing in front of the Sun. Then recite the Sāvitri (i.e. Gayatri mantra) preceded by the vyāhṛtis and the pranava (i.e. om kāra). Arghya has to be offered thrice. These three arghyas destroy the mandeha rakshasas fighting the Sun every sandhya.. If there is delay in sandhya by exceeding the sandhya time, then Prāyaścitta arghya (i.e. fourth one) is given.
Sandhyopāsanā (Dhyāna)
The sun is then contemplated as the brahman (i.e.the supreme reality) through the mantra asā'vādityo brahmā (Sanskrit:असाऽवादित्यो ब्रह्मा, lit. this Āditya is indeed the Brahman). Smartas who adhere to advaita utter additional verse So'ham asmi. Aham brahmāsmi. (Sanskrit:सोऽहमस्मि। अहं ब्रह्मास्मि॥, lit. this is I. I am Brahman).
Tarpaṇaṃ
Then, two times Smṛtyācāmana and three times Prāṇāyāma are performed. Tarpana is a term in the Vedic practice which refers to an offering made to divine entities, where some water is taken in the right hand and poured over the straightened fingers. In Sandhyā, Four devatarpaṇas are offered for Sandhyā devata.
Gāyatrī āhvānam
In Gāyatrī āhvānam (lit. invitation of Gāyatrī), the Sandhyādevata is invited by relevant Vedic mantras. One Śrautācāmana and one Prāṇāyāma are performed. Then Gāyatrī japa sankalpa is told.
Nyāsa
In nyāsa mental appropriation or assignment of various parts of the body to tutelary deities is done just before and after Gāyatrī japam. There are two nyāsas, karanyāsa and aṅganyāsa that involves "ritualistic placing of the finger over the different parts of the body as prescribed" with related ancillary mantras. When done before japa, aṅganyāsa ends with the utterance digbandhaḥ (invoking protection from eight cardinals) and when done after, it ends with the utterance digvimokaḥ (releasing the protection). Then, Gāyatrīdhyāna mantra is uttered.
Mudrāpradarśanam
Mudrāpradarśana is showing different mudras before and after the japa. These mudras are to be shown just after nyāsa. The mudras in Sandhyāvandanam are 32 in number, where 24 are pūrva mudras shown before the japa and the remaining 8 are shown after it. After showing 24 mudras, the following sloka that emphasizes on showing mudras is to be uttered:
Gāyatrī mantra (Japa)
Just before the japa, the Gāyatrī mantrārtha śloka that gives the meaning of Gayatri mantra is uttered.
The Gayatri mantra is chanted either 1008, 108, 54, 28 or at least 10 times using some japamāla or even karamāla. Meditation upon the solar deity is done. He is considered the absolute reality (i.e. Parabrahman) settled in the lotus heart (hṛtpadma) of all beings. The counting should be made on the right hand which should be covered with a cloth.
There are 3 ways of doing a Japa, namely, vācika, where the mantra is pronounced clearly and aloud, upāmśu, where the lips move quietly and only the meditator hears the mantra and mānasa (or mānasika), purely mental recitation of the mantra.
Gāyatrī japāvasānam
One Śrautācāmana and one Prāṇāyāma are performed. Then Gāyatrī japāvasāna sankalpa is told. Then, nyasa is again performed; this time ending with the utterance digvimokaḥ and Gāyatrīdhyāna mantra is uttered. After that the remaining 8 uttara mudras are shown.
Then, the fruit of japa is offered to Brahman by uttering Om tat sat brahmārpaṇam astu (Sanskrit:ॐ तत्सत् ब्रह्मार्पणमस्तु, lit. That is truth; (fruit of japa) offered to Brahman).
Sūryopasthānaṃ
One Smṛtyācāmana and three times Prāṇāyāma are performed. In upasthānaṃ, some mantras related to Mitra (in the morning), Surya (in the solar noon) and Varuna (in the evening) are chanted by standing and facing towards sun. In the morning face east, in the noon face north and in the evening face west.
Digdevata vandanam
Digdevata vandanam or Dik Namaskāraḥ involves prayers to the lords of the cardinal directions, Indra, Agni, Yama, Nirutha, Varuna, Vayu, Soma, Eeashana, Brahma and Vishnu. They are witnesses to all our deeds. The ideals represented by each of them will provide a direction to us in our march ahead.
Then, Munina maskāraḥ and Devatā namaskāraḥ are performed, where salutations to the munis and devatas. Among smartas, additionally, Hariharābheda smaraṇam is done by smartas to contemplate on the oneness of Siva and Vishnu.
Gāyatrī Prasthānam
Gāyatrī Prasthānam or Udvāsana involves bidding farewell to the Sandhyādevata by relevant Vedic mantras.
Nārāyaṇābhivandanam
Lord Nārayaṇa is hailed by chanting relevant mantra.
Bhūmyākāśa ābhivandanam
The Sky (Dyaus Pitṛ) and the Earth (Pṛthivī) are offered salutations by considering them as parents by Sāṣṭāṅga Namaskāra with relevant Vedic mantras from Taittiriya Brahamana.
Iśvara Prārthanā
Lord Vāsudeva (i.e. Krishna) is hailed by chanting relevant mantras.
Abhivādanam
It is formal salutation by reciting one's Gotra and Pravara. It is also an expression of gratitude to the teachers (Rishis) for transmitting divine wisdom to the next generation. It is customary to mention the name, gotra, pravara, adhered dharmasutra (of Kalpa) and the Veda followed along with its śakha (recension).
A typical abhivādana(recitation of pravara) of a Yajuevedin is as follows
In the above abhivādana, Kshatriyas and Vyshyas replace śarmā with varmā and guptā respectively.
Samarpaṇam
One Purāṇācamana and one Smṛtyācāmana are performed. Then, Samarpaṇam is done to note that the entire process was undertaken with an intent to please Him as per His directions. The fruits of such act are also placed at His disposal. He distributes them equitably. A philosophy of total surrender to Him is embedded here. This can only mollify our pride and implant humility.
Kṣamāpaṇam
Finally, Kṣamāpaṇam (lit. begging pardon (from the God)) is done to seek pardon for acts of omission / error that might have been committed by chanting three of His names thrice.Even with best of intentions and utmost care, inadequacies can creep in. It pays to look back, correct mistakes and strive to improvise.
Daily duties of Brahmins
Doing Sandhya-vandana first creates the eligibility for a Brahmin to do all rituals following it. Rituals done without doing sandhya-vandanam are regarded as fruitless by Dharmaśāstra. Thus, sandhyavandanam forms the basis or regarded as the foundation for all other vedic rituals. After doing Sandhyavandanam ( mādhyāhnika-sandhyā ) to get rid off sins occurred due preparation of lunch like boiling rice, cutting vegetables, burning firewood etc. In Vaishvadeva homa rice cakes are offered to vishvadevas (all devatas).
As per Śāṅkhāyana-gṛhya-sūtra Adhyāya II, Khaṇḍa 9, a person should go in the forest, with a piece of wood in his hand, seated, he performs the Sandhyā (twilight/dusk?) constantly, observing silence, turning his face north-west, to the region between the chief (west) point and the intermediate (north-western) point (of the horizon), until the stars appear and by murmuring the Mahāvyāhṛtis, the Sāvitrī, and the auspicious hymns when (Sandhya-dusk?) passed. In the same way during dawn, turning his face to the east, standing, until the disk of the sun appears. And when (the sun) has risen, the study (of the Veda) goes on.
Miscellaneous
Other aspects of the ritual, though, speaking strictly, not included in Sandhyavandanam, may include meditation, chanting of other mantras (Sanskrit: japa), and devotional practices specifically for divinities that are preferred by the practitioner. Regarding the connection with meditation practices, Monier-Williams notes that if regarded as an act of meditation, the may be connected with the etymology .
Depending on the beliefs — Smartha, Sri Vaishnava, Madhva — these mantras or procedures have slight changes, while the main mantras like mārjanaṃ (sprinkling of water), prāśanaṃ (drinking water), punar-mārjanaṃ and arghya-pradānaṃ remain the same in 95% of the cases. Smārtas (Advaitins) have aikyānu-Sandhānam, where they (Yajur Vedins) recite the verse from bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanishad ( brahmair vāhaṃ asmi ). Sivaprasad Bhattacharya defines it as the "Hindu code of liturgical prayers."
See also
Aupasana
Brahmin
Yajurveda
Veda
Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism
Bibliography
References
Sources
(fourth revised & enlarged edition).
(First Edition).
(fourth revised & enlarged edition).
Second edition, four volumes, revised and enlarged, 1956 (volume IV).
(Second Revised Edition).
(Second Revised Edition).
Notes
Rituals in Hindu worship
Hindu prayer and meditation
Meditation
Evening
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher%20Education%20Act%20of%201965
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Higher Education Act of 1965
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The Higher Education Act of 1965 (HEA) () was legislation signed into United States law on November 8, 1965, as part of President Lyndon Johnson's Great Society domestic agenda. Johnson chose Texas State University (then called "Southwest Texas State College"), his alma mater, as the signing site. The law was intended "to strengthen the educational resources of our colleges and universities and to provide financial assistance for students in postsecondary and higher education". It increased federal money given to universities, created scholarships, gave low-interest loans for students, and established a National Teachers Corps. The "financial assistance for students" is covered in Title IV of the HEA.
The Higher Education Act of 1965 was reauthorized in 1968, 1972, 1976, 1980, 1986, 1992, 1998, and 2008. The current authorization for the programs in the Higher Education Act expired at the end of 2013 but has been extended through 2014 while Congress prepares changes and amendments. Before each re-authorization, Congress amends additional programs, changes the language and policies of existing programs, or makes other changes.
1965 Act
In January 1965, President Lyndon Johnson told Congress that higher education was "no longer a luxury but a necessity" and urged Congress to enact legislation to expand access to college. Representative Edith Green of Oregon introduced H. R. 3220 as a bill to "strengthen the educational resources of our colleges and universities and to provide financial assistance for students in postsecondary education." Senator Wayne Morse of Oregon introduced the Senate version of the bill, S. 600. The bills sought to create an advisory council to review teacher training programs and to create a National Teacher Corps, which would recruit teachers to serve in low-income areas and train teachers through internships. Other provisions of the bills included financial aid, scholarships, work-study, and library enhancements. Throughout 1965 numerous hearings were held by Special Subcommittee on Education, and the Education Subcommittee of the Senate Committee on Labor and Public Welfare held numerous hearings. Based on the recommendations of university administrators, educators, and student aid officers, a new bill was introduced: H. R. 9567. It was passed by the House of Representatives on August 26, and the Senate passed the bill on September 2.
In signing the Higher Education Act of 1965 into law, President Johnson said that the act, along with the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 as "keystones of the great, fabulous 89th Congress" that would spread "the roots of change and reform" throughout the nation.
Scope
The act contains eight sections or titles.
Title I, General Provisions
Title II, Teacher Quality Enhancement
Title III, Strengthening Institutions
Title IV, Student Assistance
Title V, Developing Institutions
Title VI, International Education Programs
Title VII, Graduate and Postsecondary Improvement Programs
Title VIII, Additional Programs.
Amendments to the HEA
Changes in 1986
The 1986 amendments to the HEA included the creation of a funding stream for Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs). The proposal enjoyed bipartisan support.
Changes in 1992
The 1992 reauthorization of the HEA was praised for its bipartisanship, developed in a Democratic congress and signed by a Republican president. The legislation significantly expanded the student loan program by creating an "unsubsidized" version of the loans available to any student, regardless of whether the financial aid formulas determined that they had unmet need. In the 1992 presidential campaign universal access to loans had become a policy supported by both major candidates.
The idea of having loans be made directly by the federal government, instead of guaranteeing and subsidizing bank loans, gained currency in the Bush administration as the result of budget reforms. Some George H. W. Bush advisors supported the switch as a way of saving money and simplifying the program, but the White House ultimately opposed the approach. At the insistence of some in Congress, the 1992 reauthorization included a pilot program of direct lending, planting the seed for a full-blown Direct Student Loan Program proposed in Clinton's first year as president.
A third change to the loan program was to pilot an income-contingent repayment option. Several versions of the concept had been proposed by both Democrats and Republicans in Congress. Meanwhile, in the presidential campaign, candidate Bill Clinton included it as an element of his National Service campaign, and President Bush indicated support for the concept when he endorsed universal access to loans. The 1992 reauthorization included a small pilot of income-contingent repayment as part of the direct loan program, which was expanded along with that program the following year.
The problem of consumer abuses by for-profit colleges was a major topic in hearings leading to the bipartisan 1992 reauthorization bill. In the wake of skyrocketing student loan defaults, an 18-month investigation by the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations had concluded in 1991 that the student loan program, "particularly as it relates to proprietary schools, is riddled with fraud, waste and abuse." The HEA bill adopted a number of reforms that contributed to the closure of hundreds of schools. The changes included cutting off aid at schools with high default rates, prohibiting the use of commission-based sales agents in recruiting and limiting HEA funding to no more than 85 percent of any for-profit college's revenue. The 1992 bill also included a system of triggers for state-level reviews of colleges by State Postsecondary Review Entities or SPREs. At the urging of nonprofit colleges the SPRE provisions were repealed in 1995 by the newly elected Republican Congress.
Changes in 1998
The Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs (GEAR UP) was first authorized under the Higher Education Amendments of 1998. Also in the amendments of 1998 is the Aid Elimination Provision, which prevents students with drug charges from receiving federal aid for colleges and universities. This is where question 31 on the FAFSA forms originates. The question asks whether the student has ever been convicted of a drug crime while receiving federal financial aid. This statutory provision was upheld by the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit in the face of a constitutional challenge by the ACLU in the case of Students for Sensible Drug Policy v. Spellings.
The amendments also included a provision [HEA Section 487(a)(23)] requiring universities to make a good faith effort to encourage voter registration of students on their campuses. This requirement applies only to institutions located in states that require voter registration prior to election day and do not allow registration on the day of the election. Institutions receive registration forms from the state after requesting them at least 120 days prior to the voter registration deadline and must make them "widely available" to students.
Changes in 2003
In 2003, much of the Higher Education Act was set to expire. As a result, a number of minority groups united in asking for certain changes. Calling themselves the Alliance for Equity in Higher Education, this group was made up of "the American Indian Higher Education Consortium, the Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities, and the National Association for Equal Opportunity in Higher Education, an advocacy group for historically black colleges and universities, [and they] presented their joint recommendations for the reauthorization of the Higher Education Act." The Alliance aimed to help minority students enter fields where they seemed to be underrepresented and to give incentives to minorities to enter these programs. These incentives included more lenience on loan collection and full government funding for minority education. The Alliance also called for the government to create funding for students in graduate programs of universities serving the minority population.
Even though the Alliance's request to change the Higher Education Act was heard, significant parts were denied. In 2003, the request for increasing the amount offered in a Pell Grant, to better cover a student's expenses, was denied by the Senate. Still, other issues were corrected. There was a section passed by the House that did allow more funds to go to institutions in order to keep them current, and a grace period for colleges asking for more loans was eliminated. So, if more funding were needed, minority institutions would not have to wait.
Also in 2003, the Higher Education Relief Opportunities For Students Act (sometimes referred to as the HEROES Act) was passed, enabling the Secretary of Education to grant waivers or relief to recipients of federal student loan programs under the HEA "in connection with a war or other military operation or national emergency."
2007 College Cost Reduction and Access Act
A budget reconciliation bill signed into law in September 2007 included significant changes to HEA financial aid programs. In addition to increasing the maximum Pell Grant award and reducing interest rates on subsidized student loans, a new "income-based repayment" option capped loan repayment at 15% of an individual's discretionary income, while a Public Service Loan Forgiveness promised that some borrowers could forgive student loan balances after ten years of repayment. The student aid formula's income protection allowance was increased, and the interest rate on new student loans was changed to fixed rates from the variable rate. The new law also took action to address problematic practices in the lending industry. Most CCRA provisions took effect on October 1, 2007.
2008 reauthorization
With the changes proposed in 2003, the actual Higher Education Act was not reauthorized. Instead, many of its sections were renewed with little radical change. Numerous extensions have followed, with the most recent extension lasting through August 15, 2008. The Senate passed a HEA reauthorization bill in July 2007, as did the House of Representatives in February 2008.
On August 14, 2008, the Higher Education Opportunity Act (Public Law 110-315) (HEOA) was enacted. It reauthorized the amended version of the Higher Education Act of 1965. This act made major changes in student loan discharges for disabled people. Previously, to qualify for a discharge, a disabled person could have no income. This has been changed to a no "substantial gainful activity" test, which is the same standard used by the Social Security Administration in determining eligibility for Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI). The changes took effect on July 1, 2010.
Also included in the 2008 revision of the HEOA were provisions requiring action by U.S. colleges and universities to combat illegal file-sharing. Following significant lobbying by the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) and Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), the additions to the HEOA of 2008 included requirements that all U.S. colleges and universities (1) release an annual disclosure to students regarding copyright laws and associated campus policies, (2) a written plan, submitted to the Department of Education, to combat copyright abuse using one or more technology-based deterrents, and (3) an offer to students of alternatives to illegal downloading. Significant controversy surrounded the inclusion of anti-P2P legislation into HEOA of 2008, resulting in a letter from a number of leaders in higher education.
The law, for the first time, also required post-secondary institutions to be more transparent about costs and required the nearly 7,000 post-secondary institutions that receive federal financial aid funds (Title IV) to post net price calculators on their websites as well as security and copyright policies by October 29, 2011.
As defined in HEOA, the net price calculator's purpose is "to help current and prospective students, families, and other consumers estimate the individual net price of an institution of higher education for a student. The [net price] calculator shall be developed in a manner that enables current and prospective students, families, and consumers to determine an estimate of a current or prospective student's individual net price at a particular institution."
The law defines "estimated net price" as the difference between an institution's average total Price of Attendance (the sum of tuition and fees, room and board, books and supplies, and other expenses, including personal expenses and transportation for first-time, full-time undergraduate students who receive aid) and the institution's median need- and merit-based grant aid awarded.
Elise Miller, program director for the United States Department of Education's Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), stated the idea behind the requirement: "We just want to break down the myth of sticker price and get beyond it. This is to give students some indication that they will not [necessarily] be paying that full price."
The template was developed based on the suggestions of the IPEDS' Technical Review Panel (TRP), which met on January 27–28, 2009, and included 58 individuals representing federal and state governments, post-secondary institutions from all sectors, and association representatives, and template contractors. Mary Sapp, assistant vice president for planning and institutional research at the University of Miami, served as the panel's chair. She described the mandate's goal as "to provide prospective and current undergraduate students with some insight into the difference between an institution's sticker price and the price they will end up paying."
The TRP faced the difficult challenge of creating one tool that could be used by a wide variety of institutions – from small, for-profit career schools to major research universities – while balancing simplicity for users.
To meet the requirement, post-secondary institutions may choose either a basic template developed by the U.S. Department of Education or an alternate net price calculator that offers at least the minimum elements required by law.
As part of its cost-transparency measures, the HEOA of 2008 also requires on the College Navigator Web site a report giving the average institutional net price of attendance for first-time, full-time students who receive financial aid. This also forms the basis for transparency lists; a report on the College Navigator Web site the institutional net price of attendance for Title IV aid recipients by income categories; and for the U.S. Department of Education to develop multi-year tuition and required-fees calculator for undergraduate programs for the College Navigator Web site.
The HEOA has been criticized for establishing statutory pricing of federal student loans based on political considerations rather than pricing based on risk.
The 2008 reauthorization of the Higher Education Act also maintained the requirement that universities must make an effort to register students to vote. A 2013 Dear Colleague letter from the U.S. Department of Education stated that universities "must make the voter registration forms widely available to [their] students and distribute the forms individually to [their] degree or certificate program students who are physically in attendance at [their] institution. Distribution by regular or electronic mail is permitted."
HEA Title VI International Programs
During this reform period of 2008, Title VI of the HEA was reviewed.
Title VI provides federal funds to 129 international studies and foreign language centers at universities nationwide. Title VI supplies grants for international language studies, business and international education programs as well as international policy.
Extension of HEA
After being reauthorized in 2008, the Higher Education Act was set to expire in 2013, but was re-extended to allow Congress time to work on the next reauthorization. Further extensions followed, without major amendments to the HEA. In December 2017, House Republicans announced that they had finalized an overhaul of the act, authored primarily by Representative Virginia Foxx of (R - N.C.), the chairwoman of the House Committee on Education and the Workforce. The new bill is called the Promoting Real Opportunity, Success and Prosperity through Education Reform (PROSPER) Act. The act aims to simplify the federal financial aid process and expand federal work-study programs. It would also repeal two Obama-era programs - "gainful employment" and "borrower defense" - aimed at preventing financial exploitation of undergraduates, as well as bar their readoption.
According to Committee spokesman Michael Woeste, "the reforms within the PROSPER Act are necessary to provide students with a high-quality education and fix a system that has not been serving their needs."
Some concerns have been raised by advocacy groups about how the PROSPER Act would affect LGBTQ students. According to the Human Rights Campaign, "The PROSPER Act contains several provisions that would allow for the use of religion to justify otherwise prohibited discrimination that could negatively impact LGBTQ students."
Additionally, the PROSPER Act includes a weaker version of the provision requiring universities to increase student voter registration, a requirement present in the Higher Education Act since 1998. Critics worry that this change will lead to lower youth turnout in elections, as voter turnout is already historically lowest among young voters.
Gainful employment
The original 1965 version of the HEA, because of for-profit school abuses in the GI Bill program, applied only to public or nonprofit colleges and universities, and the financial aid was restricted to academic degree programs. For vocational training, including at accredited for-profit schools, Congress in 1965 established a separate student loan program for education "designed to fit individuals for useful employment in recognized occupations." Subsequent amendments merged the vocational program into the HEA, allowing for-profit schools access to HEA financial aid funds, but only for programs that prepare students for "gainful employment in a recognized occupation." An Obama administration effort to use student loan and graduate earnings data to clarify the scope of eligibility, particularly at problematic for-profit colleges, is commonly referred to as the "gainful employment rule."
2011 rule
In the spring of 2009, the Obama administration announced that it was considering strengthening various consumer protections in higher education, including establishing guidelines about programs eligible under the gainful employment provision of the HEA. After conferring with stakeholders, the department proposed allowing schools to retain access to financial aid as long as programs met either a loan repayment metric or a measure of student loan debt compared to earnings of graduates. The agency published its rule in June 2011, estimating that five percent of for-profit programs and one percent of nonprofit and public programs would lose eligibility.
The for-profit industry filed a lawsuit to stop the implementation of the gainful employment rule. In 2012, a federal district court affirmed the department's authority to adopt the rule but struck down the rule itself because the agency had not provided a justification for the level at which it had set the loan repayment measure.
The 2011 rule was proposed at 75 Federal Register 43615 (2010) and finalized at Notice of Final Rulemaking: 76 Federal Register 34385 (2011).
2014 rule
The department adopted revised regulations in May 2014 that deleted the repayment rate measure identified by the judge and made other adjustments. The result was a rule that affected more programs and colleges since programs that failed the debt burden metrics could no longer retain eligibility by having an adequate repayment rate.
Multiple for-profit college associations filed lawsuits to stop the revised version of the rule. On the other side of the issue, a group of state attorneys general sought court action to force the implementation the rule after the Trump administration delayed its enforcement. The Trump administration later introduced a further complication by misusing gainful employment data for an unrelated purpose, leading the Social Security Administration to stop providing earnings data to the Department of Education.
The 2014 rule was proposed at 79 Federal Register 16425 (2014) and finalized at Notice of Final Rulemaking: 79 Federal Register 64889 (2014).
2019 rescission
In August 2018, Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos proposed to rescind the gainful employment regulations, a step completed in July 2019. The repeal was effective on July 1, 2020, but allowed colleges to voluntarily cease compliance immediately. The administration's 2019 repeal of the gainful employment rule has been challenged by 18 state attorneys general, led by Xavier Becerra of California and the American Federation of Teachers. Those two lawsuits allege various procedural defects in the way the regulation was repealed.
The 2019 rule was proposed at 83 Federal Register 40167 (2018) and finalized at Notice of Final Rulemaking: 84 Federal Register 31382 (2019).
2021-22 rulemaking
The department began the process of re-instituting a gainful employment rule in December 2021. Under Secretary James Kvaal said the department is "committed to restoring a strong gainful employment rule as quickly as possible." After a set of negotiating sessions with stakeholders, in June 2022 the department announced that a proposed rule would be coming in April 2023.
Use in cancelling student loan debt
The Higher Education Act has been proposed as a potential way to cancel student loan debt. According to a paper by the Legal Services Center at Harvard Law School and commissioned by senator Elizabeth Warren in September 2020, the secretary of education may be able to cancel student loan debt. Following Biden v. Nebraska (2023), president Joe Biden suggested using the act.
On July 14, 2023, President Biden announced he would use the Higher Education Act to relieve $39 billion in student loan debt, which he says is "legally sound" while warning "it's going to take longer".
See also
Public service law in the United States
References
Citations
Works cited
Resources
Federal Policy: Higher Education Opportunity Act. Center for Law and Social Policy.
Center for Postsecondary and Economic Success. Center for Law and Social Policy.
Title 20, Chapter 28, Subchapter IV, United States Code 1070, et seq.
External links
As codified in 20 USC chapter 28 of the United States Code from LII
Higher Education Act of 1965 as amended (PDF/details) in the GPO Statute Compilations collection
The Great Society Congress
1965 in American law
89th United States Congress
Education policy in the United States
Educational administration
Great Society programs
Higher education in the United States
United States federal education legislation
1965 in education
Higher education law
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spray%20forming
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Spray forming
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Spray forming, also known as spray casting, spray deposition and in-situ compaction, is a method of casting near net shape metal components with homogeneous microstructures via the deposition of semi-solid sprayed droplets onto a shaped substrate. In spray forming an alloy is melted, normally in an induction furnace, then the molten metal is slowly poured through a conical tundish into a small-bore ceramic nozzle. The molten metal exits the furnace as a thin free-falling stream and is broken up into droplets by an annular array of gas jets, and these droplets then proceed downwards, accelerated by the gas jets to impact onto a substrate. The process is arranged such that the droplets strike the substrate whilst in the semi-solid condition, this provides sufficient liquid fraction to 'stick' the solid fraction together. Deposition continues, gradually building up a spray formed billet of metal on the substrate.
The gas atomised spray forming (GASF) process typically has a molten alloy flow rate of 1–20 kg/min, although twin atomizer systems can achieve metal flow rates of up to 80 kg/min. Special steel billets of 1 tonne or more have been produced by spray forming on a commercial basis, together with Ni super-alloy ring blanks of up to 500 kg and Al alloy extrusion billets of up to 400 kg.
History
Professor Singer at the Swansea University first developed the idea of gas atomised spray forming in the 1970s in which a high pressure gas jet impinges on a stable melt stream to cause atomisation. The resulting droplets are then collected on a target, which can be manipulated within the spray and used to form a near-dense billet of near-net shape. Spray forming has found applications in specialist industries such as: stainless steel cladding of incinerator tubes; nickel superalloy discs and rings for aerospace-engines; aluminium-titanium, aluminium-neodymium and aluminium-silver sputter targets; aluminium-silicon alloys for cylinder liners; and high speed steels. The history of spray forming is an example of how the creative contributions of many researchers were necessary over a number of years to produce the innovation of a now widely used industrial process.
Advantages
Spray forming offers certain advantages over both conventional ingot metallurgy and more specialized techniques such as powder metallurgy. Firstly, it is a flexible process and can be used to manufacture a wide range of materials, some of which are difficult to produce by other methods, e.g. Al-5wt% Li alloys or Al-SiC, Al-Al2O3 metal matrix composites (MMCs). The atomisation of the melt stream into droplets of 10-500 μm diameter, some of which, depending on diameter, cool quickly to the solid and semi-solid state provide a large number of nucleants for the residual liquid fraction of the spray formed material on the billet top surface. The combination of rapid cooling in the spray and the generation of a large population of solid nucleants in the impacting spray leads to a fine equiaxed microstructure, typically in the range 10–100 μm, with low levels and short length scales of internal solute partitioning. These microstructural aspects offer advantages in material strength because of fine grain size, refined distribution of dispersoid and/or secondary precipitate phases, as well as tolerance to impurity 'tramp' elements. This fine structure in the 'as sprayed' condition means homogenising heat treatments can often be avoided. Because of the complex solidification path (i.e. the rapid transition from superheated melt to solid, liquid or semi-solid droplet to temperature equilibration at semi-solid billet top and final slow cooling to fully solid) of the spray formed material, extended solubility of alloying elements and the formation of metastable and quasi-crystalline phases has also been reported.
One of the major attractions of spray forming is the potential economic benefit to be gained from reducing the number of process steps between melt and finished product. Spray forming can be used to produce strip, tube, ring, clad bar / roll and cylindrical extrusion feed stock products, in each case with a relatively fine-scale microstructure even in large cross-sections. The benefits of GASF over powder metallurgy accrue from the reduced number of process steps where powder sieving, pressing, de-gassing and handling steps and their attendant safety and contamination issues may be removed.
Disadvantages
There are two major disadvantages to the gas atomisation spray forming process. The most significant disadvantage is the relatively low process yield with typical losses of ~30%. Losses occur because of overspray (droplets missing the emerging billet), splashing of material from the billet surface, and material 'bouncing' off the semi-solid top surface. Many operators of the spray forming process now use a particle injector system to re-inject the overspray powder, and thus recycle material that would otherwise be lost, or sell the overspray powder as a product in its own right. The second major disadvantage is one of process control. As it is essentially a free-forming process with many interdependent variables, it has proved difficult to predict the shape, porosity or deposition rate for a given alloy. Much of the control is based on operator experience and empirical relationships. It is partly the process complexity and lack of robust process control that has prevented the widespread commercialisation of this process. Some developments using feed-back control have proved successful in improving the variations in billet diameter and improving yield in specific systems but these have yet to find widespread implementation.
Porosity resulting from gas entrapment and solidification shrinkage is a significant problem in spray formed materials. A typical spray formed billet will contain 1-2% porosity with a pore size dependent on alloy freezing range and various process parameters. Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) or thermo-mechanical processing can heal these pores if they are small (less than 30 μm). Despite these disadvantages, spray forming remains an economic process for the production of difficult to manufacture, niche alloys. Large-scale porosity is more difficult to heal effectively and must be minimised by careful process control. In some cases, porosity is controlled by alloy additions which react with dissolved and entrapped gas to form a solid phase, e.g. titanium added to copper billets to form titanium nitride with dissolved and entrapped nitrogen gas. Porosity, even after consolidation, can limit the applications of spray formed material, for example rotating gas turbine components must have zero porosity because of the detrimental effect on high-cycle fatigue (HCF).
Commercialisation
In spite of the problems associated with the spray forming process there has been sustained industrial interest in spray forming over the last 35 years. Sandvik-Osprey (former Osprey Metals Ltd) of Neath, South Wales holds the patents on the process and have licensed the technology to a range of industries. There are currently approximately 25 licensees operating around the world, ranging from small research and development plants to full-scale commercial operations. Main applications are prematerial for low temperature Nb3Sn super conductors (CuSn), oil drilling equipment (high strength material CuMnNi) and for forming tools (CuAlFe with high Al-content). In all of these applications, research concerns the reconciliation of the cost disadvantages and complexity of spray forming with the demand for high performance alloys in niche applications.
Melting
The earliest spray forming work was based on a resistively heated electric holding furnace. The melt then passed through a 3 mm diameter Al2O3 nozzle. However the low flow rate made a high superheat necessary to prevent solidification in the nozzle. The next generation melting procedures in spray forming applications were bottom pour induction units, which offer many benefits. In this system, the melting crucible is directly above the atomiser head with a ceramic nozzle feeding directly from the furnace to the atomiser. A stopper rod runs through the melt to the top of the pouring nozzle, the rod is withdrawn when the melt reaches the designated temperature for spraying, typically above the alloy's liquidus. Alternatively a pre-prepared plug of alloy to block the nozzle is used, and at a specified superheat this plug melts allowing the contents of the furnace to drain through the nozzle. Another problem associated with bottom pour furnaces is the change in flow rate associated with the reducing metalo-static head in the crucible. In some cases, introducing an inert gas overpressure during pouring can compensate for this effect.
An alternative approach is the tilt-pour furnace whereby an induction furnace is tilted to pour the melt into a conical tundish that in turn delivers the molten metal to the melt delivery nozzle. The tilt pour system provides the advantage that melting is decoupled from the spraying procedure so that melting problems and remedial solutions do not affect or disturb the critical set-up of the melt delivery nozzle.
In the most complex melting arrangement, used only for production of nickel superalloy turbine forging blanks by spray forming, vacuum induction melting, electroslag re-melting and cold hearth crucibles have been combined by GE to control alloy impurity levels and the presence of refractory inclusions in the molten metal supply. Clean metal spray forming (CMSF) combines the electroslag refining process, cold walled induction guide and gas atomised spray forming. This approach has led to a reduction in the number of melt related defects (pores, inclusions, etc.), a finer average grain size, the ability to produce larger ingots and the ability to process a wider range of alloys.
Atomisation
There are many different techniques for atomisation of molten metals, many of which are derived from the powder metallurgy industry and have been extensively reviewed elsewhere. There are two major atomisation techniques used in spray forming: centrifugal atomisation for the manufacture of near net shape rings and gas atomisation for the manufacture of billets, tube and strip.
Centrifugal atomisation
Centrifugal atomisation involves pouring molten metal at relatively low flow rates (0.1– 2 kg/min) onto a spinning plate, dish or disc, whereby the rotation speed is sufficient to create high centrifugal forces at the periphery and overcome surface tension and viscous forces so the melt is fragmented into droplets. Droplet diameters produced by centrifugal atomisation are dependent primarily on the rotation speed, (up to 20,000 rpm) and are typically in the range 20–1000 μm with cooling rates of the order 104 Ks−1. Centrifugal atomisation is generally conducted under an inert atmosphere of Ar or N2 to prevent oxidation of the fine droplets or can be operated under vacuum.
Gas atomisation
The melt stream exits the melt delivery nozzle into the spray chamber. The melt stream is protected from being destabilised by the turbulent gas environment in the spray chamber by primary gas jets operating at intermediate inert gas pressure of 2 to 4 bar, the resulting gas flow is parallel to the melt stream to stabilise the melt stream. The secondary atomiser uses high velocity (250 to 350 ms−1), high-pressure (6 to 10 bar) gas jets to impinge on the melt stream to achieve atomisation. The atomiser jets are usually arranged as an annulus or as discrete jets positioned symmetrically about the melt delivery nozzle, or less commonly, arranged as a linear nozzle for the production of strip products. Typical droplet diameters follow a log-normal distribution with powder diameters up to ~600 μm with a mass median diameter of ~150 μm.
The atomising gas mass flow rate to molten metal mass flow rate ratio is a key parameter in controlling the droplet diameter and hence the cooling rate, billet temperature and resulting solid particle nucleant density. The gas-metal ratio (GMR) is typically in the range 1.5 to 5.5, with yield decreasing and cooling rates in the spray increasing with increasing GMR. Typically at low (1.5) GMR, yield is 75%, if the GMR is increased to 5.0 with all other parameters remaining constant, the process yield is reduced to 60%.
Scanning atomisers have been developed which allow the production of billets of up to 600 mm diameter, approximately twice the diameter possible with a static atomiser. The atomiser head is oscillated mechanically through 5 to 10° at a typical frequency of 25 Hz, to deflect the melt stream creating a spray path that is synchronised with the rotation speed of the collector plate in order to deposit a parallel-sided billet. By using programmable oscillating atomiser drives it was possible to improve the shape and shape reproducibility of spray formed deposits. It has been demonstrated that parallel sided, flat topped billets could be sprayed in a reproducible manner if the substrate rotation and atomiser oscillation frequency were synchronised and optimised for specific alloys and melt flow rates. Twin atomiser systems combine a static and scanning atomiser, making it possible to spray billets of up to 450 mm diameter with economic benefits.
Atomising gas used in spray forming is generally either N2 and can be either protective or reactive depending on the alloy system, or Ar which is generally entirely inert but more expensive than N2. Reactive gasses can be introduced in small quantities to the atomising gas to create dispersion strengthened alloys e.g. 0.5–10% O2 in N2 used to generate oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) Al alloys. Comparisons of N2 and Ar based spray forming showed that with all other factors remaining constant, the billet top temperature was lower with N2 than with Ar, because of the differences in thermal diffusivity of the two atomising gases: Ar has a thermal conductivity of 0.0179 W/mK which is approximately a third less than N2 with a thermal conductivity of 0.026 W/mK.
The mechanisms of melt break up and atomisation have been extensively researched, showing that atomisation typically consists of 3 steps: (1) primary break up of the melt stream; (2) molten droplets and ligaments undergo secondary disintegration; (3) particles cool and solidify. Theoretical analysis of the atomisation process to predict droplet size has yielded models providing only moderate agreement with experimental data.
Investigations show that in all cases gas atomisation of molten metal yields a broad range of droplet diameters, typically in the range 10-600 μm diameter, with a mean diameter of ~100 μm. Droplet diameter governs the dynamic behaviour of the droplet in flight which in turn determines the time available for in-flight cooling which is critical in controlling the resulting billet microstructure. At a flight distance of 300–400 mm, predictions show droplet velocities of 40-90 ms−1 for droplet diameters in the range 20-150 μm respectively, compared to measured velocities of ~100 ms−1, and at distances of up to 180 mm from the atomiser, droplets were still being accelerated by the gas. Droplets cool in-flight predominantly by convection and radiation, and can experience undercooling of up to prior to nucleation. Models and experimental measurements show that small droplets (<50 μm) very rapidly become fully solid prior to deposition, 50-200 μm droplets will be typically semi-solid and droplets of diameters >200 μm will be liquid at deposition. The range of droplet dynamic and thermal histories result in a billet top surface of 0.3 to 0.6 solid fraction. Not all material that impacts the surface is incorporated into the billet: some solid droplets will bounce or splash-off the billet top surface or be directed out of the deposition region by turbulent gas movement in the chamber. The proportion of droplets that impact the surface compared to the proportion that are incorporated into the billet has been termed the sticking efficiency: dependent on the geometric sticking which is a function of the spray angle relative to substrate and the thermal sticking efficiency dependent on spray and billet solid/liquid fraction.
Spray formed microstructure
During spraying it is essential to maintain a constant top surface temperature and hence maintain steady-state conditions if a billet with consistent microstructure is to be produced. At the billet surface, during spraying an enthalpy balance must be maintained where the rate of enthalpy lost (Hout) from the billet by conduction to the atomising gas and through the substrate, convection and radiation must be balanced with the rate of enthalpy input (Hin) from the droplets in the spray. There are a variety of factors that can be adjusted in order to maintain these conditions: spray height, atomiser gas pressure, melt flow rate, melt superheat and atomiser configuration, being those parameters most readily adjusted. Typically equipment such as closed circuit cameras and optical pyrometry can be used to monitor billet size/position and top surface temperature. If Hout is much greater Hin then a steady temperature is maintained at the billet top surface. The top surface should be in a mushy condition in order to promote sticking of incoming droplets and partial re-melting of solid particles. The necessary partial re-melting of solid droplets explains the absence of dendritic remnants from pre-solidified droplets in the final microstructure. If Hin is insufficient to cause significant re-melting, a 'splat' microstructure of layered droplets will form, typical of thermal spray processes such as vacuum plasma spraying (VPS), arc spraying and high velocity oxy-fuel. Processing maps have been produced for plasma spraying and spray forming using a steady-state heat balance in terms of the interlayer time (time between deposition events) against average deposition rate per unit area. These maps show the boundaries between banded un-fused microstructure and an equiaxed homogeneous structure.
The final phase of solidification occurs once droplets have impacted the mushy billet surface and thermal equilibration has taken place between the droplets and the billet. At this stage residual liquid is present as continuous network delineating polygonal grain boundaries, with a typical liquid fraction of 0.3 – 0.5. The cooling rates during solidification of the billet is several orders of magnitude slower than the cooling rate in the spray, at 1-20 Ks−1.
Although one of the benefits of spray forming is purportedly the ability to produce bulk material with fine scale microsegregation and little or no macrosegregation work on Al-Mg-Li-Cu alloys showed that as a consequence of the interconnected liquid in the billet there was significant macrosegregation in large spray formed wrought Al billets. The distribution of Cu, Mg and Li in, for example, Al alloy 8091 showed surprisingly pronounced macrosegregation with the variation of Cu(wt%) in a spray formed 8091 billet, ranging from approximately 1.4 at the billet centre to 1.92 at the billet periphery. These macrosegregation patterns were explained in terms of inverse segregation in which solute rich liquid from the billet centre is sucked back through the primary Al-rich network to feed solidification shrinkage at the billet periphery. This effect was suggested to be exacerbated by centrifugal effects from the billet rotation.
As sprayed the billet porosity is typically 1–2% with a region of higher porosity in the splat-quenched region adjacent to the substrate. The very top of the billet often shows increased porosity because the top is rapidly chilled by the atomising gas which continues to chill the billet for 10–60 seconds after spraying. There has also been little progress in understanding and quantifying the underlying physics that controls as-sprayed porosity.
In most cases, the higher porosity at the billet base and top are scalped and recycled. Ultrasonic inspection is sometimes used to determine the depth of the chill zone regions to prevent unnecessary wastage. Depending on the alloy system and the final application, the remaining bulk material is usually processed to close porosity and subjected to a range of thermo-mechanical treatments. Spray formed materials are rarely used in the as-sprayed condition and are often treated by HIPing to remove porosity. In some cases, the residual atomising gas in pores may react with alloying elements to form allegedly beneficial phases e.g. N2 reacting with titanium in nickel superalloy Rene 80 to form a dispersion of TiN.
References
The above text is substantially taken from 'Spray forming of Si-Al alloys for thermal management applications' By Dr Al Lambourne, D.Phil Thesis, 2007, Queens College. This document is publicly held in the Oxford University Library and is available as an online resource via Oxford Research Archives (ORA). To link to this thesis follow :.
Notes
Bibliography
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External links
Images of spray forming equipment
Process description
Spray forming overview
Casting (manufacturing)
Metalworking
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Jeremy%20Kyle%20Show
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The Jeremy Kyle Show
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The Jeremy Kyle Show is a British tabloid talk show presented by Jeremy Kyle and produced by ITV Studios. It premiered on the ITV network on 4 July 2005, and ran for seventeen series until its cancellation on 10 May 2019. It was the most popular programme in ITV's daytime schedule, broadcast on weekday mornings and reaching an audience of one million. It replaced the chat show Trisha following its move to Channel 5 in 2004.
The show was based on confrontations in which guests attempt to resolve personal problems, often related to family and romantic relationships, sex and addiction. It featured psychotherapist Graham Stanier, who assisted the guests during and after the show's broadcast, along with the use of lie detectors, despite lack of scientific evidence supporting the use of the equipment.
The Jeremy Kyle Show became controversial for placing guests in confrontational situations, with Kyle often chastising guests whom he felt had acted in morally dubious or irresponsible ways and stressing the importance of traditional family values, while guests frequently displayed strong emotions such as anger and distress. Despite ITV disputing claims that guests were mistreated on the programme and misled by researchers, a judge described the programme as "human bear-baiting" during a prosecution of guests who had a violent altercation on the programme. On 15 May 2019, the programme was cancelled following the suspected suicide of a guest, whose appearance had been filmed in the week before but not aired.
Background
In late 2004, Trisha Goddard left from ITV to move her talk show to Channel 5. Radio broadcaster Jeremy Kyle was drafted in to host a talk show, The Jeremy Kyle Show, which was first broadcast on 4 July 2005 in ITV's weekday 9:25am slot.
During the launch week of the programme and the week of Kyle's 40th birthday the show was overshadowed by news coverage of the London tube bombings. Earlier in that week, a transmission breakdown disrupted one of the first three showings. In 2007, the show was nominated for the "Most Popular Factual Programme" award at the 13th National Television Awards, although lost in that category to Top Gear.
Format
Guests
The guests were, according to the New Statesman, "poor, mainly white, always working-class families" who were concerned about the personal problems of someone they knew. In the opinion of Anoosh Chakelian in the same publication, it curated "a morbidly chaotic picture of a British underclass – for those watching at home to scoff and sneer at – with the veneer of helping them". In a 2007 article for The Independent, the journalist Paul Vallely referred to Kyle treating his guests "with a false mateyness, calling them 'babe', 'sweet' or 'Davey boy'". A former producer has alleged that the show's guests had mental health problems; the producer commented anonymously that the guests were normally "at the very least depressed" and that "if they truly screened for mental health issues, there would be no one on that show".
Episodes featured guests discussing personal problems, with Kyle mediating between involved parties. Common problems shown in episodes included uncertainty over the biological father of a baby, a family member committing petty theft, infidelity, and addiction to drugs. The producers have stated that backstage and after-show support and counselling was offered, guided by Graham Stanier, Kyle's in-show psychotherapist and director of aftercare. With other guests, polygraphs and DNA tests were frequently used to claim that an individual had been lying or telling the truth, or to reveal whether two people were biological relatives.
Frequently, when friends or relatives of the show's guests entered the stage having heard backstage what had been said, strong language and fights would break out, with the former resulting in the sound being dipped. The latter was similarly not shown; instead, the camera gave a view of the audience and Kyle until his security team had restored order. This led to the show being compared, by a former producer, with Roman gladiatorial combat in its brutality.
As the talk show's host, Kyle was known to react with hostility and anger towards those who he saw as having acted improperly. Paul Vallely related an intervention by Kyle in 2007: "'I don't mean to be judgemental,' he adjudges. 'I'm just trying to help you in the little time I've got, but you too are both as bad as each other.' Minutes later he turns to one of them. 'Do something about your anger issues,' he says, evidently not realising he too is shouting". Accused of having a patronising attitude towards many of his guests, Kyle has been accused of exploitation. He has expressed a belief he was acting in the best interests of the guests and is intent on helping to solve their personal problems. After the show had been running for nearly four years, Kyle said over 300 people had entered rehabilitation funded by the programme. Critics, however, have said that Kyle's reactions and comments are repetitive and well-worn, such as "Put something on the end of it!" in the context of birth control, or his annoyance at unemployed fathers.
The validity of the help provided to guests has been called into dispute; professional psychotherapist and TV agony uncle Phillip Hodson, who was offered the chance to work on the show, said that he believed the audience ratings were more important to the show's producers than solving the guests' problems. A former producer for the show said in October 2007 that the production team encouraged guests to react angrily to one another.
Polygraph
In the show a polygraph (referred to as a "lie detector") is applied to cases of theft and infidelity and the method is claimed to indicate whether someone is being deceptive. However, the validity of polygraph tests have been seriously questioned by researchers to the point that they are rarely cited as a source of legal evidence in countries such as the United States, and its use on the show has been criticised, in spite of the show asserting the results to be infallible. At one point to prove the legitimacy of the "lie detector" test Jeremy Kyle performed a live on stage test with the question, "Are you, or have you ever been, a llama?" to which he replied yes, which was identified as a lie. Carole Cadwalladr wrote in The Observer in 2008: "Kyle regularly claims the lie detector is 96 per cent accurate, whereas a 1997 survey of 421 psychologists estimated it to be 61 per cent. Or not much better than chance." Towards the end of the show, an on-screen disclaimer was shown before polygraph results were read out on the programme, stating, "The lie detector is designed to indicate whether someone is being deceptive. Practitioners claim its results have a high level of accuracy, although this is disputed."
Reception
Court cases
By May 2019, the programme had directly led to two court cases related to assault and leading to convictions.
On 24 September 2007, a Manchester District Judge, Alan Berg, sentenced a man who headbutted his love rival while appearing on the show. Judge Berg said that the show's producers were partially to blame for the attack, that "the purpose of this show is to effect a morbid and depressing display of dysfunctional people whose lives are in turmoil", and that it was "a plain disgrace which goes under the guise of entertainment". He described it as "human bear-baiting" and said: "It should not surprise anyone that these people, some of whom have limited intellects, become aggressive with each other. This type of incident is exactly what the producers want. These self-righteous individuals should be in the dock with you. They pretend there is some kind of virtue in putting out a show like this."
An ITV spokeswoman responded in defence that "we take the safety and well-being of studio guests extremely seriously. It is made clear to all guests prior to going into the studio that no violence is ever tolerated." In an interview with the Daily Mirror, Kyle responded by saying: "Sometimes people need to be stripped bare before they can be helped."
An appearance on Kyle's programme by a couple on the issue of alleged infidelity led to a man's assault of his female partner and criminal charges being made against him. The woman sustained a "shattered eye socket and cheekbone and bite marks". At Peterborough Crown Court in July 2009, Judge Sean Enright jailed the man for two years after he admitted causing grievous bodily harm. The judge said "there is plainly an element of cruelty and exploitation in what takes place" on Kyle's programme, and that the couple "must have both suffered considerable mortification and embarrassment". Grant Cunningham, the head of ITV's factual programming, expressed surprise at the judge's comments, as the judge had not seen the programme, and refuted his claims.
Guest reactions
There have been success stories as a result of guests being on the show, such as the case of a morbidly obese young woman who lost a lot of weight after her appearance on the show. Stanier told The Observer that he was "immensely proud" of the help provided to the show's guests, with "full shows of people coming back on the programme who have been successful in overcoming drug, alcohol or relationship problems, through the care that we have provided".
Carole Cadwalladr of The Observer attended the filming of a special for the DVD Jeremy Kyle... Live! In Your Street. Jamie, a guest for the special, told Cadwalladr that he "was totally stitched up", calling his appearance "public humiliation". Jamie says that he "just wanted the DNA test" but "didn't have the money to get it done", and claims that the researchers "didn't care about the feelings of the people". He stated that when he informed the producers of his bipolar disorder and borderline schizophrenia, "There wasn't really a reaction". His stepmother Karen commented that the show was "so, so very wrong" and "almost like ritual abuse". A spokesperson for ITV stated that a psychotherapist found "no evidence of mental illness" in Jamie, and claimed that "guests had to produce identification and were processed through security checks prior to admission"; however, Cadwalladr was present for the filming and disputes this.
Cadwalladr interviewed another person who appeared on the show, Kevin Lincoln. Although Lincoln rang up the show and wanted to take part, he signed the consent form only minutes before filming. Lincoln believes he was there "under false pretences" and says the show was "completely the opposite of what I was told it would be". He expected to discuss "his ex-girlfriend of trying to force him out of the wrestling gym where they both trained", but the segment was captioned "Ex, get out of my life!" and featured his ex-girlfriend "basically [accusing him] of being a stalker". Lincoln spent the two months between filming and broadcasting trying to prevent the episode from airing to no avail; once it aired, Lincoln reports that "I was forced out of my gym and all of my wrestling gigs were cancelled".
It has also been alleged that the producers "plied an alcoholic guest with beer before he appeared on the programme". ITV has denied these charges, claiming that "two of the guests were given alcohol to counteract withdrawal symptoms while the third had not mentioned a drink problem", that "guests are not deliberately agitated before appearing", and that the show provided to its guests "proper, professional help, funded by the programme, which has really and undeniably helped hundreds of people".
In 2015, the show received both criticism and interest following a segment where the show's audience laughed at a guest, Geoff, as he described being a male domestic abuse victim. Geoff said he had been locked in a flat three storeys up by his abusive girlfriend and had to escape by jumping from a balcony, sustaining significant injuries. Kyle criticised the audience's laughter.
It has also been alleged by a former guest on the show that due to Ofcom rules, they were forced to change out of a jumper with a branded logo into a tracksuit, before being vilified by Kyle for their clothing choice. It has been alleged, by Zoe Williams of The Guardian and others, that guests were separated prior to the show and assigned separate researchers who would "wind up" guests in order to bring about a reaction when they appeared together during the programme's recording.
Critical reception
The Jeremy Kyle Show received extreme critical disdain throughout its run. In The Observer, Carole Cadwalladr was of the opinion that "the show is built around creating a spectacle out of the damaged fragments of people's lives" and summarised it as an "explosive spectacle of anger, vitriol and confrontation". Of Kyle, Cadwalladr said that "Some of his opinions are so well-worn they're almost catchphrases" and wrote in 2008 that the show was "more like a witchcraft trial. Where the judge and jury is Jeremy Kyle". Cadwalladr further criticised the "lie detector" as "the modern equivalent of the ducking stool, or at least about as scientifically accurate".
In Vice, Joel Golby opined that instead of being about the guests, the show was "about Jeremy, purring and padding around the studio", whom Golby called a "shark in the prime of its life". Writing that the show was "built on repetition", Golby called it "exemplar of the British fighting style" and commented that "in less artful hands, the misery would become a miasma. With Kyle at the helm, it becomes something else – characterful, textured misery".
In The Times, columnist Martin Samuel described the show as "a tragic, self-serving procession of freaks, misfits, sad sacks and hopelessly damaged human beings" and its guests as "a collection of angry, tearful and broken people, whose inexperience of talking through painful, contentious, volatile issues leaves them unprepared and inadequate for a confrontation of this nature" whilst noting that they "can only appear intellectually inferior to the host, too, with his sharp suit and well-rehearsed confidence".
Reviewing for The Guardian, Charlie Brooker wrote that the show was "completely and utterly horrid". Brooker described Kyle as "unafraid to hurl abuse at his hapless idiot guests" and commented "not that I'm saying Kyle himself is an agent of Satan, you understand. I'm just saying you could easily cast him as one. Especially if you wanted to save money on special effects". In an episode of Charlie Brooker's Screenwipe, Brooker later described the show as "a non-stop bellowing festival, in which a cast of people who resemble a sort of aquatic livestock chart the outer limits of incomprehension."
Derek Draper, writing in The Guardian, said that Kyle "effectively projects himself as a strong father figure, setting boundaries and trying to teach responsibility and restraint" to those on his show. Johann Hari of The Independent called the show's morality "unconsciously but wonderfully progressive", as it attacked "Men who treat women badly. Homophobes. Misogynists. Neglectful parents." However, Hari believed that "[t]here are good reasons to be worried". Hari summarised the show by saying that "distressed people [...] have their wounds ripped open for our enjoyment", suggested that all guests should receive ongoing counselling, and commented on how the working class were treated on the show: "[t]here are also ugly prejudices encoded in the sneers".
Sponsorship
On 29 September 2007, Learndirect, the government-backed sponsors of The Jeremy Kyle Show, cancelled their £500,000 a year deal over concerns about its content following a letter of protest from Welsh Member of Parliament David Davies. Ufi, which runs the Learndirect adult learning service, said continuing the deal would not "protect and enhance" its reputation. The former sponsor of the show in Scotland, Shades Blinds, retained their association with the programme although they did raise the possibility of withdrawing their sponsorship. It was subsequently sponsored by The Sun Bingo, and has been sponsored by several bingo companies such as Wink Bingo, Foxy Bingo, Cheeky Bingo and Gala Bingo.
Cancellation
On 9 May 2019, Hampshire Police found a man dead at an address in Portsmouth. He was confirmed to be 63-year-old Steve Dymond and the police said "the death is not being treated as suspicious". Dymond had been a guest on an episode of The Jeremy Kyle Show that had been filmed a week before his death and had not yet been aired. He took part in the show's polygraph test, which determined he was being unfaithful to his partner after he had initially denied doing so. During the episode Kyle had accused Dymond of being a "serial liar" and made other disparaging comments and allegations about Dymond. The death was suspected to be a suicide.
On 13 May 2019, it was reported that ITV had suspended the recording and broadcasting of the series, including broadcasts on ITV, ITV2 and its on-demand service ITV Hub.
On 14 May 2019, ITV released a statement regarding the programme, detailing their duty of care processes on Jeremy Kyle. The statement concluded:[...] everyone at ITV and The Jeremy Kyle Show is shocked and saddened at the news of the death of a participant in the show a week after the recording of the episode they featured in and our thoughts are with their family and friends. We will not screen the episode in which they featured. Given the seriousness of this event, ITV has also decided to suspend both filming and broadcasting of The Jeremy Kyle Show with immediate effect in order to give it time to conduct a review of this episode of the show and we cannot comment further until this review is completed.
As a result of this incident, several individuals called for the show to be permanently taken off the air, including former ITV executive chairman Michael Grade, Members of Parliament Damian Collins, Charles Walker and Julie Elliott and psychiatrist Simon Wessely. A statement from 10 Downing Street referred to the incident as "deeply concerning". Media regulator Ofcom stated that they were "discussing this programme with ITV as a priority to understand what took place."
On 15 May 2019, ITV's chief executive Carolyn McCall announced that the programme was cancelled, stating:[...] Given the gravity of recent events we have decided to end production of The Jeremy Kyle Show. The Jeremy Kyle Show has had a loyal audience and has been made by a dedicated production team for 14 years, but now is the right time for the show to end. Everyone at ITV's thoughts and sympathies are with the family and friends of Steve Dymond.
ITV also stated that the review into the Dymond episode would continue.
Following the cancellation, all of the official online channels for the show had been removed along with all their content, including its YouTube, Facebook, Twitter and Instagram accounts, along with its official website, effectively eliminating any traces of the show from circulation.
On 18 June 2019, it was announced that Kyle declined to appear before MPs investigating reality television, although senior executives (including McCall and Stanier) had appeared.
A coroner's ruling published in November 2020 stated that "acts or omissions" by Kyle "may have caused or contributed to" Dymond's death.
A documentary about the cancellation, Jeremy Kyle Show: Death on Daytime aired on Channel 4 on 13 and 14 March 2022.
Parodies
The Jeremy Kyle Show has been the subject of parody by at least two BBC comedy shows. In the programme Dead Ringers, a parody of the show has appeared. Also, in October 2007, the BBC began broadcasting The Life and Times of Vivienne Vyle, a sitcom starring and co-written by Jennifer Saunders and Tanya Byron. David Walliams had a series of sketches parodying the show as if it involved middle class guests in his sketch show Walliams & Friend in 2016.
Episodes
Transmissions
DVD
A behind-the-scenes DVD, titled Jeremy Kyle: Access All Areas, was released in late 2009, following the series' structure and how each programme was prepared and produced.
U.S. version
In January 2010, ITV announced an agreement to take a pilot version of the show to the United States in 2010, in partnership with Lions Gate Entertainment subsidiary Debmar-Mercury. The pilot proved successful, and in November 2010, the U.S. version was picked up in 70% of the U.S. television markets, ahead of its 19 September 2011 debut. In December 2012, the American version of The Jeremy Kyle Show was cancelled due to lower than expected ratings.
References
External links
2005 British television series debuts
2019 British television series endings
2000s British television talk shows
2010s British television talk shows
English-language television shows
ITV talk shows
Television series by ITV Studios
Television controversies in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volver
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Volver
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Volver (, meaning "to go back") is a 2006 Spanish comedy-drama film written and directed by Pedro Almodóvar. The film features an ensemble cast that includes Penélope Cruz, Carmen Maura, Lola Dueñas, Blanca Portillo, Yohana Cobo, and Chus Lampreave. Revolving around an eccentric family of women from a wind-swept region south of Madrid, Cruz stars as Raimunda, a working-class woman forced to go to great lengths to protect her 14-year-old daughter Paula. To top off the family crisis, her mother Irene returns from the dead to tie up loose ends.
The plot originates in Almodóvar's earlier film The Flower of My Secret (1995), where it features as a novel which is rejected for publication but is stolen to form the screenplay of a film named The Freezer. Drawing inspiration from the Italian neorealism of the late 1940s to early 1950s and the work of pioneering directors such as Federico Fellini, Luchino Visconti, and Pier Paolo Pasolini, Volver addresses themes like sexual abuse, loneliness and death, mixing the genres of farce, tragedy, melodrama, and magic realism. Set in the La Mancha region, Almodóvar's place of birth, the filmmaker cited his upbringing as a major influence on many aspects of the plot and the characters.
Volver premiered at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival, where it competed for the Palme d'Or. It received critical acclaim and ultimately won two awards at the festival, for Best Actress (shared by the six main actresses) and Best Screenplay. The film's Spanish premiere was held on 10 March 2006 in Puertollano, where the filming had taken place. It was selected as the Spanish entry for the Best Foreign Language Oscar for the 79th Academy Awards, making the January shortlist. Cruz was nominated for the 2006 Academy Award for Best Actress, making her the first Spanish woman ever to be nominated in that category.
Plot
Raimunda and Sole are sisters who grew up in Alcanfor de las Infantas, a small village in La Mancha, but now both live in Madrid. Their parents had died in a fire three years before.
Raimunda and her daughter Paula live with Paula's father Paco. When he attempts to rape Paula, claiming that he is not really her father, Paula stabs him to death in self-defense. Raimunda hides the corpse in the deep-freezer of a nearby restaurant with an absent owner, Emilio. When members of a film crew happen upon the restaurant, Raimunda strikes a deal to cater for them, and finds herself back in the restaurant business.
Meanwhile, Sole returns for the funeral of her elderly and dementia-stricken Aunt Paula. Aunt Paula's neighbour Agustina confesses to Sole that she has heard Paula talking to the ghost of their mother Irene. Sole encounters her mother's ghost herself, and when she returns to Madrid, she discovers that the ghost has stowed away in the trunk of her car. Sole agrees to let Irene stay with her and assist her with clients for her illicit hair salon, which she operates out of her apartment. Irene agrees to pose as a Russian immigrant who doesn't speak any Spanish. Irene questions why Raimunda hates her and is fearful of revealing her presence to Raimunda.
Raimunda reveals to Paula that Paco was not her biological father, promising to tell her the whole story later. Agustina is diagnosed with terminal cancer and goes to Madrid for treatment. Raimunda visits her in the hospital. Agustina asks Raimunda if she has seen her mother's ghost. Agustina hopes that the ghost will be able to tell her about her own mother, who disappeared three years before. Raimunda leaves Paula with Sole, rents a van and transports the freezer to a convenient spot by the river Júcar. While staying in Sole's apartment, Paula meets her grandmother's ghost and grows close to her. The next night, Agustina comes to the restaurant, and reveals two startling secrets: her mother and Raimunda's father were having an affair, and her mother disappeared on the same day that Raimunda's parents died.
Sole reveals to Raimunda that she has seen their mother's ghost, who is in the next room with Paula. Irene admits that she did not, in fact, die in the fire, and reveals the whole truth. The reason for Raimunda and Irene's estrangement is that Raimunda's father sexually abused her, resulting in the birth of Paula; thus, Paula is Raimunda's daughter and her sister. Irene tells Raimunda that she did not know about the abuse until Aunt Paula told her about it, and never forgave herself for not noticing it.
Irene explains that she found her husband in bed with another woman and started the fire that killed them both. The ashes that had been presumed to be Irene's were, in fact, the ashes of Agustina's mother, the woman with whom Irene's husband was having an affair. After the fire, Irene wandered for several days in the countryside, until she decided that she wanted to turn herself in. But first, she wanted to say goodbye to Aunt Paula, who had lost the ability to look after herself and with whom Irene had been living prior to setting the fire. Paula welcomed Irene home as if nothing had happened, and Irene stayed, caring for her sister and expecting that the police would come soon to arrest her. Due to the superstitious and closed nature of the community, however, the police never came and the residents, accustomed to tales of the dead returning, explained the rare sightings of Irene as a ghost.
The family reunites at Aunt Paula's house. Irene reveals her presence to Agustina, who believes her to be a ghost. Irene pledges to stay in the village and care for Agustina as her cancer worsens, saying to Raimunda that it was the least that she could do after killing Agustina's mother. Raimunda visits her mother at Agustina's house, and the two embrace and promise to repair their relationship.
Cast
Penélope Cruz as Raimunda, a mother living in Madrid's suburbs
Carmen Maura as Irene Trujillo, the mother of Raimunda and Sole
Yohana Cobo as Paula
Blanca Portillo as Agustina
Lola Dueñas as Soledad ("Sole")
Chus Lampreave as Aunt Paula
Antonio de la Torre as Paco
María Isabel Díaz as Regina
Carlos Blanco as Emilio
Neus Sanz as Inés
Leandro Rivera as Auxiliar Producción
Yolanda Ramos as Presentadora TV
Production
Origins
Volver was first developed by Pedro Almodóvar, based on a story actress Marisa Paredes told him during the production of their 1995 film The Flower of My Secret, another film set in the La Mancha region. The story revolved around a heartbroken Puerto Rican man who opts to kill his mother-in-law in hopes of reuniting with his beloved wife, who left him and broke off contact, at her mother's funeral. Owning a restaurant, he leaves it in his neighbour's care, when he is about to kill his victim. Fascinated by the story and its background, Almodóvar decided on incorporating elements of it into the screenplay of The Flower of My Secret, making it the plot of a movie-within-the-movie based on the main character's novel in the film. While working on the script for Volver, he would however settle on outlining the role of the neighbour Raimunda, as the film's central character, while Emilio, the Puerto Rican, eventually became a supporting role only.
Almodóvar says of the story that "it is precisely about death...More than about death itself, the screenplay talks about the rich culture that surrounds death in the region of La Mancha, where I was born. It is about the way (not tragic at all) in which various female characters, of different generations, deal with this culture".
Casting
Penélope Cruz was the first reported to have landed one of the starring roles in Volver, having previously worked with Almodóvar on his films Live Flesh (1997) and All About My Mother (1999). In preparing for her role, the actress watched Italian neorealism films from the 1950s, many of them starring Sophia Loren and Claudia Cardinale, to study "the Italian maggiorate" that Almodóvar envisioned for her performance in the film. Cruz, who had to wear a prosthetic bottom while filming, noted the role of Raimunda as "the best gift an actress can get".
Carmen Maura, the star of Almodóvar's debut Pepi, Luci, Bom (1980) and five additional films with the director, was the first to be cast in the film alongside Cruz. Her engagement marked her first collaboration with Almodóvar after a period of 18 years and a reported fallout during the production of Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown (1989). Maura commented on the "borderline character" of Irene as a "very complicated [role to play]".
Filming
Shooting locations included Almagro.
Music
The tango "Volver" by Carlos Gardel with lyrics by Alfredo Le Pera is converted to flamenco and is sung in the movie with the voice of Estrella Morente and lip synced by Penélope Cruz. The dance tune playing at the party prior to Raimunda's lip syncing is called "Good Thing" by the British three-piece indie-dance combo Saint Etienne.
Reception
Box office
In the US alone, the film had made $12,897,993 (15.4% of the total) at the box office after 26.4 weeks of release in 689 theatres. The box office figure from the rest of the world is somewhere in the region of $71,123,059 (84.6% of the total) according to Box Office Mojo. The total worldwide gross is estimated at $84,021,052.
As of 22 January 2007 the film had grossed $12,241,181 at the Spanish box office.
Critical reception
Fotogramas, Spain's top film magazine, gave it a five-star rating. Upon its U.S. release, A. O. Scott made it an "NYT Critics' Pick" and wrote:
To relate the details of the narrative—death, cancer, betrayal, parental abandonment, more death—would create an impression of dreariness and woe. But nothing could be further from the spirit of Volver which is buoyant without being flip, and consoling without ever becoming maudlin. Mr. Almodóvar acknowledges misfortune—and takes it seriously—from a perspective that is essentially comic. Very few filmmakers have managed to smile so convincingly in the face of misery and fatality: Jean Renoir and Billy Wilder come immediately to mind, and Mr. Almodóvar, if he is not yet their equal, surely belongs in their company. Volver is often dazzling in its artifice—José Luis Alcaine's ripe cinematography, Alberto Iglesias's suave, heart-tugging score— but it is never false. It draws you in, invites you to linger and makes you eager to return.
Roger Ebert gave it his highest rating of four stars, calling it "enchanting, gentle, transgressive" and notes "Almodovar is above all a director who loves women—young, old, professional, amateur, mothers, daughters, granddaughters, dead, alive. Here his cheerful plot combines life after death with the concealment of murder, success in the restaurant business, the launching of daughters and with completely serendipitous solutions to (almost) everyone's problems".
As of 2020, the film has a "Certified Fresh" rating from critics at Rotten Tomatoes, scoring a 91% based on 158 "Certified fresh" reviews out of 173 critics, and an average rating of 7.8/10, with the general consensus being "Volver catches director Pedro Almodóvar and star Penélope Cruz at the peak of their respective powers, in service of a layered, thought-provoking film". It also has a score of 84 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 38 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".
Top ten lists
The film appeared on many critics' top ten lists of the best films of 2006.
2nd – Marjorie Baumgarten, The Austin Chronicle
3rd – Glenn Kenny, Premiere
3rd – Kevin Crust, Los Angeles Times
3rd – Richard Corliss, Time magazine
3rd – Philip Martin, Arkansas Democrat-Gazette
4th – Andrew O'Hehir, Salon
4th – Peter Travers, Rolling Stone
4th – Ray Bennett, The Hollywood Reporter
5th – Desson Thomson, The Washington Post
6th – Claudia Puig, USA Today
6th – Scott Tobias, The A.V. Club
7th – Kenneth Turan, Los Angeles Times
8th – A. O. Scott, The New York Times
8th – Keith Phipps, The A.V. Club
8th – Kirk Honeycutt, The Hollywood Reporter
8th – Stephen Holden, The New York Times
9th – Shawn Levy, The Oregonian
10th – David Ansen, Newsweek
10th – Lou Lumenick, New York Post
General top ten
Carina Chocano, Los Angeles Times
Carrie Rickey, The Philadelphia Inquirer
Joe Morgenstern, The Wall Street Journal
Liam Lacey and Rick Groen, The Globe and Mail
Sight & Sound magazine's critics poll named Volver the 2nd-best film of 2006. In 2019, The Guardian ranked the film 46th in its 100 best films of the 21st century list.
Awards and nominations
Volver received a standing ovation when it was screened as part of the official selection at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival, and won the Best Screenplay award as well as the award for Best Actress — which was shared by the six stars of the film.
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| align = "center" rowspan = "14" | 2006 || rowspan = "2" | 59th Cannes Film Festival || Best Actress || Penélope Cruz, Carmen Maura, Lola Dueñas, Blanca Portillo, Yohana Cobo and Chus Lampreave || || rowspan = "2" |
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| Best Screenplay || Pedro Almodóvar ||
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| rowspan = "6" | 19th European Film Awards || colspan = "2" | Best Film || || rowspan = "6" |
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| Best Director || Pedro Almodóvar ||
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| Best Screenwriter || Pedro Almodóvar ||
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| Best Actress || Penélope Cruz ||
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| Best Cinematographer || José Luis Alcaine ||
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| Best Composer || Alberto Iglesias ||
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| rowspan = "4" | 11th Satellite Awards || colspan = "2" | Best Foreign Language Film || || rowspan = "4" |
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| Best Actress – Drama || Penélope Cruz ||
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| Best Director || Pedro Almodóvar ||
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| Best Screenplay – Original || Pedro Almodóvar ||
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| rowspan = "2" | 19th Chicago Film Critics Association Awards || Best Actress || Penélope Cruz ||
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| colspan = "2" | Best Foreign Language Film ||
|-
| align = "center" rowspan = "34" | 2007 || 78th National Board of Review Awards || colspan = "2" | Best Foreign Language Film ||
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| 7th Vancouver Film Critics Circle Awards || colspan = "2" | Best Foreign Language Film || ||
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| rowspan = "2" | 64th Golden Globe Awards || Best Actress – Drama || Penélope Cruz || || rowspan = "2" |
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| colspan = "2" | Best Foreign Language Film ||
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| rowspan = "2" | 12th Critics' Choice Awards || Best Actress || Penélope Cruz || || rowspan = "2" |
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| colspan = "2" | Best Foreign Language Film ||
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| 5th Golden Eagle Awards || colspan = "2" | Best Foreign Language Film || ||
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| rowspan = "14" | 21st Goya Awards || colspan = "2" | Best Film || || rowspan = "14" |
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| Best Director || Pedro Almodóvar ||
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| Best Original Screenplay || Pedro Almodóvar ||
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| Best Actress || Penélope Cruz ||
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| Best Original Score || Alberto Iglesias ||
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| rowspan = "3" | Best Supporting Actress || Carmen Maura ||
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| Lola Dueñas ||
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| Blanca Portillo ||
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| Best Cinematography || José Luis Alcaine ||
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| Best Costume Design || Sabine Daigeler ||
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| Best Make-Up and Hairstyles || Massimo Gattabrusi and Ana Lozano ||
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| Best Art Direction || Salvador Parra ||
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| Best Production Supervision || Toni Novella ||
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| Best Sound || ||
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| 13th Screen Actors Guild Awards || Best Actress || Penélope Cruz || ||
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| rowspan = "2" | 60th British Academy Film Awards || Best Actress || Penélope Cruz || || rowspan = "2" |
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| colspan = "2" | Best Foreign Language Film ||
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| rowspan = "5" | 16th Actors and Actresses Union Awards || Best Film Actress in a Leading Role || Penélope Cruz || || rowspan = "5" |
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| rowspan = "3" | Best Film Actress in a Secondary Role || Blanca Portillo ||
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| Lola Dueñas ||
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| Carmen Maura ||
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| Best Film Actress in a Minor Role || Chus Lampreave ||
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| 32nd César Awards || colspan = "2" | Best Foreign Film || ||
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| 79th Academy Awards || Best Actress || Penélope Cruz ||
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| 12th Empire Awards || Best Actress || Penélope Cruz ||
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| 12th Forqué Awards || colspan = "2" | Best Film || ||
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| French Syndicate of Cinema Critics Awards || colspan = "2" | Best Foreign Film || ||
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See also
List of submissions to the 79th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
List of Spanish submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
References
External links
Audio and Transcript from a 4 August 2006 interview about Volver with Pedro Almodóvar and Penélope Cruz at the National Film Theatre
Volver Production Notes from moviegrande.com
2006 films
2006 comedy-drama films
2000s ghost films
Best Film Goya Award winners
Castilla–La Mancha in fiction
European Film Awards winners (films)
Films about dysfunctional families
Films directed by Pedro Almodóvar
Films featuring a Best Actress Goya Award-winning performance
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actress Goya Award-winning performance
Films scored by Alberto Iglesias
Films set in Madrid
Films shot in Madrid
Films about hoaxes
Incest in film
Spanish comedy-drama films
2000s Spanish-language films
Golden Eagle Award (Russia) for Best Foreign Language Film winners
El Deseo films
2000s Spanish films
Films shot in the province of Ciudad Real
Films about sisters
Spanish-language comedy-drama films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald%20Poulton
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Ronald Poulton
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Ronald 'Ronnie' William Poulton (later sometimes Poulton-Palmer) (12 September 1889 – 5 May 1915) was an English rugby union footballer, who captained . He was killed in the First World War during the Second Battle of Ypres.
Born in north Oxford, he was the son of Emily Palmer and her husband, the zoologist Sir Edward Bagnall Poulton. He was educated at the Dragon School, Rugby School, and Balliol College, Oxford.
Poulton played for Balliol College, Oxford University RFC, Harlequins and Liverpool F.C. Poulton is one of three men to score a hat-trick of tries in The Varsity Match – he scored five, still the individual record for the fixture, in 1909. He captained England during the 1913–14 unbeaten season (now what would be called a 'Grand Slam'), scoring four tries against France in 1914, in the last test match prior to the outbreak of World War I. Poulton was renowned for his elusiveness and glamorous style of play – "the very mention of swerving sends one's thoughts to the late Ronald Poulton, the swerver par excellence ... swerving and Poulton are almost synonymous terms".
Personal life
Poulton was born on 12 September 1889 at Wykeham House, Oxford to Edward Bagnall Poulton and his wife Emily Palmer Poulton. His father Edward was Hope Professor of Zoology at Oxford University, and a Fellow of Jesus College. He was born into a wealthy family, and brought up at Wykeham House, an impressive residence on Oxford's Banbury Road, with six servants. His siblings were Edward, Hilda, Margaret, all older, and his younger sister, Janet.
He was educated at Oxford Preparatory School ("OPS", now the Dragon School) from 1897 to 1903. The headmaster of OPS described Poulton as "the best all-round athlete who had ever been at the school". School records reveal that he scored 15 tries in one match against St Edward's Juniors. After OPS, he went to Rugby School from 1903 to 1908. There, he was in the rugby XV for four years, joint-captain with C. C. Watson for the last. He was also in the cricket XI in 1907 and 1908, and was the winner of the 'Athletic Cup' in his final three years.
He then went up to Oxford, where he studied at Balliol College from 1908 to 1911, and was in both the rugby XV and the hockey XI for the Varsity matches of 1909, 1910, and 1911. He joined the Oxford University Officers Training Corps in 1908 and resigned three years later, having been promoted to the rank of Cadet Colour Sergeant.
After Oxford, Poulton moved to Reading in 1912, where he joined his uncle, the Rt Hon George Palmer in the Huntley and Palmer biscuit company. There, he concerned himself with the welfare of the factory workers, and joined them in sporting pursuits, hoping to introduce the game of rugby to them. He moved again to Liverpool to train in engineering, and played for the Liverpool FC XV. After his uncle suddenly died on 8 October 1913, he inherited a fortune. He reportedly said: "What troubles me is the responsibility of how to use it for the best."
A condition of his inheritance was that he change his surname to Palmer, which he did by Royal Licence in 1914. His surname was never actually 'Poulton Palmer' (or even the hyphenated version 'Poulton-Palmer), although he was often later called this.
Rugby career
At Oxford, 1908 to 1911
Ronnie Poulton was one of the most able and most discussed rugby players in the history of the game. He followed in the steps of Adrian Stoop, who was one of the great innovators of rugby tactics, both at Oxford and Harlequins. Poulton was still at school when Stoop went up to Oxford and played in the Varsity matches of 1902, 1903, and, as captain, 1904. At Oxford, Stoop already applied an intelligent approach to improving the game with rigorous attention to detail, and new ideas about changing the direction of attack, and deliberately surprising the opponent's defence.
Stoop supposedly discovered Poulton, and introduced him into the Harlequins threequarter line for his debut first class match in 1908.
Poulton's reputation as a rugby player preceded him at Oxford, but he knew before he arrived at Balliol in October 1908 that it was going to be difficult to get into the Oxford side, whose back line was filled with exceptional players. The only vacancy was given to Colin Gilray, who was a little older and arrived from New Zealand with a strong reputation. In his first term, Poulton played several games for Oxford, at first on the wing but then at centre. The penultimate fixture before the Varsity Match of 1908, was against Blackheath on 28 November. Being so close to the game against Cambridge, it was something of a trials match, and Poulton had a bad game at right centre. So Harold Hodges, Oxford's captain, opted for the centre pairing of Vassall and Frank Tarr, which had proven itself in 1906 and 1907.
Although he had missed selection for the Varsity match, Poulton was called up to play at centre for England, alongside Frank Tarr, against France on 30 January 1909. As yet, France was not part of what was to become the Five Nations Championship, and was a relatively easy side to beat, England coming away with a 22–0 victory. Tarr scored two tries that day, but was dropped from the team, only playing once more for England in 1913. Poulton, however, was kept on to play the remaining Championship games against Ireland and Scotland.
The following season, George Cunningham, who later captained , was Oxford's skipper, and he selected Poulton in place of Vassall for the Varsity match. Cunningham had the same threequarter line as the previous year at his disposal, and it was only shortly before the match that he opted for Poulton over Vassall. Vassall, for his part, was considered one of the world's best centres, and had made his mark in the previous three Varsity games, beginning in 1906, his fresher year, and in 1908 had played both for England against Ireland, and for the Anglo-Welsh touring side against New Zealand. In earlier matches, Poulton had played at centre with Gilray on the wing, but for the Varsity Match of 1909, they reversed places. The match came to be known as "Poulton's Match": within a brilliant performance by the Oxford backline, his contribution was notable, and his tally of five tries in the Varsity Match remains unrivalled.
Poulton received only one cap for England in 1910, in the first international rugby match to be played at Twickenham, on 15 January 1910 against Wales. Ben Gronow kicked off and sent the ball directly to Adrian Stoop, England's captain and flyhalf. In a break with orthodox play, which required him to kick the ball back into touch, Stoop began an angled run from the right side towards the far left corner. He then passed the ball to Bert Solomon at centre, and from there it moved on quickly to John Birkett and then Poulton on the left wing. Poulton was out of space and put in a kick towards the posts, and after England regathered the ball, Dai Gent, at scrumhalf, sent the ball towards Fred Chapman on the right wing, who on receiving it scored in the corner. England dominated the first half to lead 11–3 at half time, and Wales were only managed to close the score with one try to 11–6.
For the Varsity Match of 1910, a 9,000-strong crowd turned up at Queen's, mostly to watch Poulton play. That year he was at left centre, with Geen on the wing. Cambridge started strong but a try by Bryn Lewis was disallowed in the opening minutes and, moments later, Poulton ran through the Cambridge defence, drew the fullback and passed to Geen to dive in at the corner for a try. With Turner's conversion, Oxford led 5–0. A similar passage of play again saw Poulton put Geen through for another try, but the latter dropped the ball after crossing the line while trying to get closer to the posts. Geen did get a second try, from another Poulton break, but Cambridge, meanwhile, scored two tries and were leading 15–13 at the break. Another Cambridge try early in the second half gave them a five-point lead, but an injury to a winger reduced them to 14 men. Poulton capitalised on it: he scored from a dummy pass to Geen; and ran in a solo try after receiving a pass from flyhalf Freddie Knott. The end score was 23–18 to Oxford.
Following this performance, Geen and Poulton, who together were considered the scoring force of the Oxford team, were both selected to play for England in the second trial match against The North in Leeds. Although Geen scored a try in the game, he was outshone by Poulton, "the only man who was adding to his reputation, and [played] a really brilliant game." For the third and final trial, England versus The Rest on 7 January 1911, Geen was dropped, while Poulton was kept on. Poulton, for his part, was only picked to play for England in one test match in 1911, against Scotland on 18 March.
Poulton captained Oxford in his last term, in the autumn of 1911. In the run up to the 1911 Varsity Match, the Poulton–Geen partnership was a constant threat to opposition teams. Ten days before the game, Oxford beat London Scottish 39–3, Poulton twice putting Geen in the clear, with the latter ending the day with four tries in total. Cambridge, nevertheless, were favourites to win on 12 December, but Poulton led Oxford to victory, in front of a crowd of 10,000. Poulton, however, after scoring the first try of the match in the opening moments, suffered a hamstring injury approaching half time, and his replacement Eric Thomas, a forward, lacked the speed and skills to combine effectively with Geen. Nevertheless, Geen came close to scoring, but, as he had done in the previous year's match, he dropped the ball over the tryline. He was to repeat the error the following year.
1912 to 1914
Moving to Liverpool, Poulton played for Liverpool Football Club (which later merged with St Helen's RUFC to form Liverpool St Helens FC) under the captaincy of Freddie Turner, a former Oxford teammate, and captain of Scotland. The team also included Dickie Lloyd, Ireland's flyhalf and captain, so that the club had in the 1913–14 season three international rugby captains of the same era. The club lost 57 members in the First World War, including both Turner and Poulton.
Poulton played three games for England in 1912, against Wales on 20 January, Ireland on 10 February, and Scotland on 16 March. His next international game was on 4 January 1913 at Twickenham against a touring side from South Africa, in which he scored the only try by any of the international teams to face the tourists of 1912–13. E.H.D. Sewell recounts how England might have scored a further try in the game. Poulton, playing at left centre, cut through the midfield and swerved to the right, leaving the South African fullback Gerhard Morkel standing, and would have scored, had it not been for E.E. McHardy's tackle. Cyril Lowe, England's right wing was criticised by the press for not following up, but Poulton placed the blame on his left wing, V.M.H. Coates. Sewell, who thought that Poulton was better suited to play on the wing than in the centre, considered that Poulton's elusiveness had made it impossible for the wings to keep up with him.
Two weeks later, on 18 January, the Welsh hosted the English at Cardiff. England had not won in Wales since 1895. Norman Wodehouse, England's captain, was confident of victory until the morning of the match when it was raining, and the first half of the match, played in wind and rain, ended without a score. In the second half, Poulton having found 'a small green patch in a sea of mud', kicked a dropgoal to open the scoring. England then scored two tries, one initiated by Poulton, to win the match 0–12.
Poulton was appointed captain of England in 1914, and led the team for all four matches of the Five Nations Championship, and a second successive 'Grand Slam', though the term had not yet been coined. The first match was against Wales, and England only just managed to win. For the next game, against Ireland, a large police contingent was posted outside the ground in anticipation of violent protests relating to the Home rule debate, but the 40,000 crowd were peaceable and kept entertained. The Irish flyhalf and captain that day was Poulton's Liverpool teammate Dickie Lloyd, who praised Poulton as 'the greatest player I ever came in contact with ... It was as much a pleasure to play against him as with him for he was always the same fascinating figure ...' The next match was against Scotland for the Calcutta Cup and the Triple Crown. England, through a hat-trick of tries from Lowe, got ahead 16–6, but Scotland fought back to within one point.
The last international rugby match to be held before the First World War was the 1914 fixture between England and France, at Colombes on 13 April 1914. Scoring four tries in England's 39–13 victory, Poulton set a record for tries scored in an international match. It remained unmatched until 2011, when Chris Ashton equalled his tally. Five players from that England team were killed in the First World War: Poulton, James, Watson, Arthur Dingle, Francis Oakley, and Arthur Harrison, who was awarded the Victoria Cross.
When it transpired that some farmers and fishermen in Devon were receiving money to play, Poulton challenged the RFU on the question of payment to players, arguing that recompensing workers for lost wages did not amount to professionalism, but would allow rugby to flourish amongst all social classes. He was ignored.
Poulton reckoned that the best game he played was England versus Scotland in March 1914, when he led England to victory in the last international game of rugby to be played in the United Kingdom before the First World War. Besides that game, he considered the next best to be those against Wales and South Africa in 1913. Against Wales, playing on the wing, he dropped a goal in England's 12–0 victory away at Cardiff, with his former Oxford partner Billy Geen at centre for the opposition.
International appearances
Military service and death
After leaving Oxford and stepping down from the Officers' Training Corps, Poulton moved to Reading in January 1912, where he was commissioned into 1st/4th Battalion Princess Charlotte of Wales's (Royal Berkshire Regiment) (Territorial Force) in June of the same year, and promoted to the rank of lieutenant in July 1913. At the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, Poulton volunteered for overseas service. He wrote to his parents saying: "Darling parents, nothing counts till this war is settled and Germany beaten. You can't realise in Australia what is happening here. Germany has to be smashed, i.e. I mean the military party and everybody realises and everybody is volunteering. Those who are best trained are most wanted so I would be a skunk to hold back."
The battalion was sent to Chelmsford and remained there in training until 30 March 1915, when it departed for the Western Front. His experience of the war was brief. On the morning of 5 May 1915, Poulton was involved in repairing a trench, in the vicinity of Ploegsteert Wood in Belgium, when he was shot by an enemy sniper. His commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Thorne, wrote that his death must have been instantaneous. Captain Jack Conybeare, Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry, a school friend from both OPS and Rugby, wrote later that day: "I was talking to one of the Berks' officers this morning. He told me that Ronald was far and away the most popular officer in the battalion, both among officers and men. Apparently he was standing on top of the parapet last night, directing a working party, when he was hit. Of course, by day, anyone who shows his head above the parapet is courting disaster; in fact if one is caught doing so one is threatened with court-martial. At night, on the other hand, we perpetually have working parties of one kind or another out, either wiring, repairing the parapet, or doing something which involves coming from under cover, and one simply takes the risk of stray bullets."
Three weeks earlier, on 14 April he had captained a South Midlands Division team to a 17–0 victory in a game of rugby against the 4th Division, with Basil Maclear, the former Irish international, as referee. It was Poulton's last. His team included two other internationals, Sidney Smart of England, and William Middleton Wallace of Scotland, while the opposition fielded Billy Hinton and Tyrell, both of Ireland, Rowland Fraser of Scotland, and Morton of England.
Ronald Poulton Palmer's grave is in Hyde Park Corner (Royal Berks) Cemetery, near Ploegsteert, Belgium. A memorial to him was erected at Balliol College, on the west wall of the Chapel passage. The cross marking Poulton's grave in Flanders was taken back to Oxford, and is mounted in a wall in Hollywell Cemetery.
In memoriam
George Cunningham, his Oxford teammate and captain, wrote on hearing of his death: "He ran, as everyone remembers, with a curiously even, yet high-stepping motion, his head thrown back, the ball held in front at full arms' length. Invariably cheerful, seldom without a beaming smile on his face, he was a welcome companion on the football field and everywhere else."
At Rugby, a service was held on 10 May. The Reverend Albert David, Head Master of Rugby School, delivered these words in his sermon: "... we have indeed given of our best. If we were asked to describe what highest kind of manhood rugby helps to make, I think we should have Ronnie in mind as we spoke of it. God had endowed him with a rare combination of graces ... what we hoped would come of it ... strong and tender and true, he lived for others and died for others."
On 30 May 1915, a memorial service was held at St Giles' Church in Oxford. Reverend William Temple addressed the congregation, saying: "Many of us believed that with his ready sympathy, his utter freedom from selfishness, and his courage to follow what he saw to be right, he would grasp the causes of our labour unrest and class friction, and by removing them from the great industry in whose control a large part was to be his, set an example which would prove a great force in our social regeneration ... What he hated most in our usual manner of life was the artificial barriers that hold people apart, and the suspiciousness of one class towards another ..."
Twenty seven England international rugby players were killed in World War I of a total international toll of one hundred and thirty. One of the most notable was Poulton-Palmer, who was considered by many contemporary observers as perhaps the greatest-ever attacking rugby union threequarter.
Awards
Poulton was inducted into the World Rugby Hall of Fame on 20 September 2015.
See also
List of England rugby union footballers killed in the World Wars
List of international rugby union players killed in action during the First World War
References
Bibliography
Starmer-Smith, Nigel (ed) Rugby – A Way of Life, An Illustrated History of Rugby (Lennard Books, 1986 )
External links
1889 births
1915 deaths
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Royal Berkshire Regiment officers
English rugby union players
England international rugby union players
People educated at The Dragon School
British military personnel killed in World War I
British Army personnel of World War I
Rugby union players from Oxford
People educated at Rugby School
Harlequin F.C. players
World Rugby Hall of Fame inductees
Deaths by firearm in Belgium
Military personnel from Oxfordshire
Burials at Hyde Park Corner (Royal Berks) Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery
Officers' Training Corps officers
Rugby union centres
Rugby union wings
Liverpool St Helens F.C. players
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascar%20%28volcano%29
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Lascar (volcano)
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Lascar is a stratovolcano in Chile within the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, a volcanic arc that spans Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. It is the most active volcano in the region, with records of eruptions going back to 1848. It is composed of two separate cones with several summit craters. The westernmost crater of the eastern cone is presently active. Volcanic activity is characterized by constant release of volcanic gas and occasional vulcanian eruptions.
Lascar has been active since at least 56,000 years ago, though some argue for activity beginning 220,000 years ago. The first known activity occurred at the eastern cone and was characterized by lava flows, before shifting to the western cone where lava domes were emplaced. An eruption event known as Piedras Grandes was followed by the large Soncor eruption. A new western edifice was constructed on top of the Soncor vent, during the Holocene activity then shifted again to the eastern edifice and continues there to this day. The magma supplied to the volcano ultimately comes from the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South America Plate. A number of other volcanoes are found in the region, such as Aguas Calientes, Cordon de Puntas Negras and the giant La Pacana caldera.
The volcano experienced at least three major eruptions throughout its history: One is the Soncor eruption about 26,450 ± 500 years ago, another in 7,250 BCE and the third in 1993. The first of these eruptions released of material and is known as the Soncor eruption. The largest eruption of Lascar known to recorded history occurred in April 1993 and caused ash fall as far away as Buenos Aires. Because Lascar is located in a remote area, it is monitored primarily by remote sensing. Explosive eruptions are the greatest hazard at Lascar.
Etymology
The name originates from the Atacameño word láskar or lassi (), thought to refer to the shape of the volcano. Other names for the volcano are Hlàscar, Hlascar, Ilascar, Kar Las, Laskar, Toconado and Toconao.
Human use
The new town of Talabre is west of Lascar. , it had a population of 50 inhabitants. Toconao and San Pedro de Atacama lie and from the volcano, respectively. , stockbreeding and farming were the principal economic activities in Talabre. Chile Route 23 passes about west of Lascar.
Lascar, like El Tatio, is a destination for volcano tourism. Unlike the neighbouring volcanoes Acamarachi, Licancabur and Quimal, there is no evidence of archeological sites on Lascar, possibly because of the volcanic activity. However, the inhabitants of the town of Camar consider Lascar a protective mountain spirit and in Susques (Argentina) it is believed that snow will fall if Lascar is steaming strongly.
Geography and geological context
Regional setting
Volcanoes in the Andes occur in four separate regions: the Northern Volcanic Zone between 2°N and 5°S, the Central Volcanic Zone between 16°S and 28°S, the Southern Volcanic Zone between 33°S and 46°S, and the Austral Volcanic Zone, south of the Southern Volcanic Zone. These volcanic zones are separated by areas where recent volcanism is absent; one common theory is that the subduction processes responsible for volcanism form a subducting plate that is too shallow to trigger the formation of magma. This shallow subduction appears to be triggered by the Nazca Ridge and the Juan Fernandez Ridge; the areas where they subduct beneath the Peru-Chile Trench coincide with the limits of the Central Volcanic Zone. It is possible that when these ridges are subducted, the buoyancy they carry disrupts the subduction process and reduces the supply of water, which is important for the formation of melts.
Of these volcanic zones, the Central Volcanic Zone of which Lascar is a member of is the largest, covering parts of Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. The Central Volcanic Zone is located between two areas where subduction is shallower and volcanic activity is absent. In the Central Volcanic Zone, volcanism has been active for 120 million years, although it has undergone eastward migration during this time. Water released from the subducting plate triggers the formation of basaltic magmas that are then injected into the crust.
About 122 volcanoes with Holocene eruptions exist in the Andean Volcanic Belt, including Ojos del Salado which with a height of is the highest volcano in the world. Many of these volcanoes are covered by snow and ice. A number of supervolcanoes exist in the Central Volcanic Zone, they are part of the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex.
Local setting
The volcanism of Lascar relates to the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South America Plate. The Central Andes contain many hundreds of volcanoes, extending over the countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Peru. In this remote territory, where eruptions are poorly recorded, many volcanoes are higher than . They are constructed on a crust that is between thick. Volcanic centres include calderas and associated large ignimbrites, lava domes and stratovolcanoes; among the better-researched volcanoes are Galan, Nevados de Payachata, Ollague, Purico Complex, San Pedro–San Pablo, La Pacana, Tata Sabaya and Tumisa. Over 44 volcanoes in the region are considered potentially active, with a number of young volcanoes featuring fumarolic or hydrothermal activity. Guallatiri, for example, features fumarolic activity that is visible in satellite images. Also fumarolically active are: Sabancaya, El Misti, Ubinas, Tacora, Isluga, Irruputuncu, Olca, Ollague, San Pedro, Putana and Lastarria. The largest historical eruption occurred at Huaynaputina in 1600. Given the low population density around many of these volcanoes, there is often little information on their activity.
Lascar is located in the Antofagasta Region of Chile, and is , , or high, according to different sources. With a surface area of , the volcano has a volume of . Geographically, the area of Lascar is located between the Altiplano and the Salar de Atacama farther west; the terrain at Lascar dips in the direction of the Salar.
Lascar is located in the main volcanic arc, on the western margin of the Altiplano. The andesitic-dacitic Aguas Calientes is located east of Lascar; it may have formed a lava flow close to the summit during the Holocene. Aguas Calientes is older than Lascar, and it might share a magma chamber. Miocene–Quaternary volcanic centres in the neighbourhood include Cerro Negro in the north, Acamarachi northeast, Tumisa southwest, and the Cordon de Puntas Negras in the south, which Lascar is sometimes considered to be part of. Tumisa, to the south of Lascar, was active between 2.5 and 0.4 million years ago, is composed of dacite and surrounded by pyroclastic flow deposits. East of Lascar lies the La Pacana caldera.
Cerro Opla, west of Lascar, is a hill formed by Permian–Triassic granite. An area of increased electrical conductivity has been identified beneath Lascar and extends to some neighbouring volcanoes, reaching a depth of over south of Lascar.
The Quebrada de Chaile, the Quebrada de Soncor and the Quebrada de Talabre canyons run towards Salar de Atacama; they are deep and wide. These valleys were probably formed by erosion during glacial periods. The valleys drain the western, northern and southwestern slopes of Lascar. The southeastern slopes drain into Laguna Lejía which is close to the volcano, and the northwestern slope drains through the Quebrada de Morro Blanco.
Lascar is located atop of a ridge formed by the Cerro Corona and Cerro de Saltar lava domes, south and north of Lascar, respectively. Cerro Corona gets its name from a crown-shaped structure at its top. These domes cover a surface area of about . These lava domes are about 5 million years old, and are composed of dacite and smaller amounts of pyroxene andesite, along with rhyolite and visible minerals including biotite and hornblende. An eruption 16,700 years ago from Corona deposited tephra containing biotite and quartz in Laguna Lejía and generated a rhyodacitic lava flow. Another debris flow from Corona spread towards Salar de Atacama.
Geology
Lascar is a steep volcano formed by two irregularly shaped truncated cones that extend east–west, on a trend that includes Aguas Calientes. Six craters are located on the volcano, but sometimes only five craters are counted, in which case the central crater is considered to be the active one. The extinct western cone (also known as Apagado) is composed of layers of lava and pyroclastics. Its large crater is filled by another cone, which forms the highest summit of the Lascar volcano. Immediately east of it lies the eastern cone, which is contiguous with the western cone. The eastern cone (also known as Activo) is capped off with three distinct craters which are delimited by arcuate fractures. Measurements made from 1961 to 1997 determined that the eastern crater is wide and deep and thus the largest, the central crater is wide and deep, and the western crater is wide and deep, increasing to depth in 2005–2006. The craters show evidence that activity has migrated westward. The westernmost of these three eastern craters is the currently active one, surrounded by rims that reach heights of . In 1985, a hot spot in this crater was observed in satellite images. In the centre of the westernmost crater lies a smaller crater, deep and wide. There are many fumaroles along the rim of the inner crater.
Layers of lava and pyroclastics are discernible in the craters. These craters are not collapsed calderas, and there is no evidence of the deposits a large explosion would produce. Remnants of a previous edifice are visible in the craters; this older edifice constitutes the bulk of the eastern cone. There are traces of a collapse of the volcano towards the northeast, with an associated horseshoe-shaped scar.
Large lava flows are noticeable on the flanks of the volcano, with a total of eight lava flows recognized. They extend from the summit craters, although none of them appear to be associated with the currently active crater. Flows from the first stage of Lascar's activity are exposed at its western foot, while lava flows are buried beneath pyroclastic material on the eastern flank. A lava flow on the northern flank reaches almost to the village of Talabre. This lava flow is known as the Tumbres–Talabre lava flow; its margins are high, and it features a central channel. The flow advanced just north of the head of Quebrada Talabre before passing over cliffs and entering it. Another lava flow on the southwest flank is known as the Capricorn Lava. This dacitic lava was erupted on Lascar at high altitude and has a blocky surface. It features well developed levees and a flow front. Its rocks have a pale gray-blue colour, and their composition resembles the Soncor flow, despite more mafic lavas and pyroclastics being erupted in the time period between the emplacement of the Soncor flow and the Capricorn Lava.
An early pyroclastic flow, the Saltar Flow, is exposed on the eastern flank. It was emplaced after the collapse of the oldest edifice, covering Aguas Calientes' western slopes. The flow deposit was later modified by glacial activity. The Soncor flow is found primarily on the western side of Lascar, with part of it also southeast of Lascar. On the western slope, it buries the even older Piedras Grandes flow, which crops out only at the margins of the Soncor flow. While the Piedras Grandes flow was formed by a glacier run that transported blocks with sizes of up to , Soncor was formed by a large eruption. The large eruption gave rise to a pyroclastic flow that extended westward and contained breccia and various magmas. It was accompanied by a Plinian fall deposit. Finally, the andesitic pumice Tumbres flow is found on the northwest–west–southwestern slopes of Lascar.
The Quebrada Talabre cuts into the upper flanks of Lascar and eventually joins the Quebrada Soncor. Lahar deposits are found in adjacent valleys, suggesting that wetter periods had occurred during Lascar's activity. The Quebrada Talabre was scoured by pyroclastic flows during the 1993 eruption, exposing bedrock and Tertiary ignimbrites. Traces of glacial action are found on the older parts of Lascar at altitudes above and include meltwater gorges, striated rock surfaces, and U-shaped valleys. Moraines are found at Tumisa down to an altitude of .
The volcano sits above a major local geological trend, the north–south Miscanti Line. Other volcanic centres are also located on this line, including the Corona and Saltar lava domes, and the Miscanti and Lejia volcanoes. The Miscanti Line dissects the Quaternary basement beneath Lascar, and it may be a hinge of a fold that is being propagated by faults. The formation of the first cone at Lascar may have been facilitated by the intersection between the Miscanti Line and another east–west lineament formed by Pliocene–Pleistocene tectonic compression of the region, and the lineament would have worked as an ascent path for magma. At least four alignments of volcanoes are recognized in the region.
Composition
Lascar rocks consist of andesite and dacite. These rocks have a composition mainly characterized as "two-pyroxene", but the old Piedras Grandes and Soncor rocks contain hornblende. Other minerals include anhydrite, augite, plagioclase which is also the dominant phenocryst phase in Lascar rocks, apatite, ilmenite, magnetite, olivine, orthopyroxene, phyrrotite, quartz, rhyolite in the groundmass, and spinel in inclusions. Dacite has more plagioclase and rhyolite. Additional component minerals found at Lascar include anorthite, augite bordering on diopside, bronzite, fassaite, forsterite, hypersthene, pigeonite and more.
The rocks of Lascar belong to the calc-alkaline series. concentrations range from 55.5 to 67.8% by weight, and the rocks have medium to large concentrations of potassium. The magmas are contaminated by the local crust, but not to the extent found in the Galan or Purico complex eruption products. The magma interacts with former salar deposits before ascending. The chemistry of Lascar's rocks is fairly similar to those of neighbouring Tumisa volcano.
Magma erupted by Lascar appears to form from the mixing of mafic and more evolved magmas; the 1993 eruption deposits contain bands of different rocks. Specifically, basaltic andesite magma is periodically injected into a magma chamber, where crystal fractionation and mixing processes take place. The process happens frequently, thus the magmas are relatively unevolved; presumably, if the supply of mafic magma is steady, the products are andesitic, otherwise dacite forms. This origin of Lascar magmas is reflected in the textures of rocks. Petrologic investigations indicate that at least three components give rise to Lascar's magmas, an upper crustal one, a mantle component and an enriched component that may come either from the lower crust or the downgoing slab. The overall magma supply rate of Lascar is .
The magma chamber of Lascar appears to lie at depths of , although the lack of deformation of the edifice during the 1993 eruption indicates that it may be deeper, over or even over deep. Magma petrology implies that there is another reservoir at depth. There appear to be two distinct chamber systems, an andesitic one that is responsible for the frequent andesite lava and pyroclastic flow activity, and a dacitic one that was involved in the Piedras Grandes and Soncor activities.
Temperatures of the magma chamber range from ; the mafic magmas that are injected in the chamber are about hotter than the extant andesite and dacite. The chamber may be surrounded by skarnic alteration. This alteration gives rise to wollastonite and pyroxene-containing skarn, depending on the distance from the magma chamber walls. Metasomatism does further affect rocks derived from magma chamber walls. The conditions at the magma chamber may be comparable to these under which epithermal mineral deposits form. The oxidation conditions in the magma chamber are favourable for the formation of sulfate, but unfavourable for the deposition of sulfide minerals.
A number of xenoliths occur in Lascar's rocks; a large amount of the phenocrysts are ultimately derived from them. Hornfels, skarn, and rocks that are part of Lascar's lava dome ridge are the source of these xenoliths. Minerals encountered in xenoliths include andradite, anhydrite, anorthite, apatite, biotite, calcite, diopside, fassaite, garnet, gypsum, ilmenite, magnetite, monazite, orthopyroxene, perovskite, plagioclase, prehnite, quartz, sphene, thorite, wilkeite, wollastonite and zircon. A number of such xenoliths formed from carbonate rocks that were influenced by magma of Lascar and of other volcanoes such as Tumisa.
Gas emissions
Lascar emits plumes of gas and white clouds of condensed water vapor, mostly over many hundreds of fumarolic vents, which are chiefly located in the active crater. In December 2002, two fumaroles had temperatures exceeding . Total flux is estimated to be , and occurs even between eruptions.
There are high-temperature fumaroles (temperatures equal to or exceeding ) and low-temperature fumaroles (temperatures of less than ), with noticeable chemical differences between the two; the latter tend to emit far more water than carbon dioxide. The fumaroles also release carbon monoxide, hydrogen, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen sulfide, and smaller amounts of helium. Hydrocarbons and other organic compounds are also found in the low-temperature fumaroles. Trace elements include arsenic, boron and titanium, with smaller amounts of barium, chromium, copper, lead, strontium and zinc. The fumarole gases react with surrounding rocks, forming precipitates and altered rocks.
Release rates of amounted to in 1989, and in 2003. Overall sulfur output ranges between . This corresponds to about 1% of global volcanic sulfur emissions, and is comparable to Kilauea and Villarica. Lascar was a substantial source of sulfur dioxide for the atmosphere around 30° south, reaching a proportion of 20–40% the sulfur over South America and still 10–20% over the South Indian Ocean. In 2005, Lascar was the third-largest source of volcanic sulfur dioxide in the world among continuously active volcanoes, behind Etna in Italy and Bagana in Papua-New Guinea. Since 2014, however, the Peruvian volcanoes Sabancaya and Ubinas have become the largest source of tropospheric sulfur dioxide from the Central Volcanic Zone. There are temporal variations in the output: after a decrease in 2009, sulfur output increased in 2012, probably as a consequence of the arrival of new magma at depth. There is no clear association between periods of degassing and eruptions. Sulfur is released from areas all over the cone, resulting in a noticeable sulfur smell.
Hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride are also released in large amounts, with estimates made in 2003–2004 indicating a mass flux of and respectively. They correspond to about 2 and 5%, respectively, of the global volcanic flux of these compounds. Finally, Lascar is vigorous producer of sulfate dust particles, which are released at a rate of about 100,000 trillion particles per second.
Gases are partly supplied from shallow magma; the volume of magma erupted is too small to contain all the exhalations. The release of gas by the magma is favoured by strong temperature contrasts between incoming magma and the magma chamber, and processes occurring during the mixing may explain the high emission of sulfur dioxide by Lascar. The presence of argon and nitrogen in low-temperature fumaroles indicates that air is involved in their formation, although a portion of each of these two gases is non-atmospheric.
Sulfur and chlorine may be derived from the crust, evaporites such as these found at Salar de Atacama, subducted lithosphere or the mantle. Carbon in the gases may come from skarn assimilation. Sulfur isotope data support the notion that evaporite deposits contribute part of Lascar's sulfur. Water appears to be in part magmatic and in part precipitation-derived. The high concentrations of halogens are typical for subduction-associated volcanoes; the halogens are supplied to the volcanoes through subduction-induced processes that act on the crust and the subducting plate.
The heat output of Lascar is about during regular activity, but has been estimated to be as high as . Electrical conductivity data suggest that a hydrothermal system exists beneath Lascar, but the existence of such a system has been questioned.
Basement
Lascar rests atop the Atana ignimbrite, a rhyodacitic sheet which was erupted by La Pacana caldera 4.5–3.7 million years ago. The Pampa Chamaca and Tuyajto ignimbrites are somewhat younger, 2.6–2.2 million and less than 1 million years respectively. These ignimbrites form a 3° steep slope in the area. Other basement rocks are the sandstone-containing marine Devonian–Carboniferous Lila formation, the red-orange Permian Cas formation containing volcanic rocks and granites, as well as the volcanic Permian–Triassic Peine formation and Cerro Negro strata, which also contain intruded rocks and lake sediments. These formations are not visible in the Lascar area, but they crop out close to the Salar de Atacama. Tertiary sediment and volcanic rocks can also be found. The presence of Mesozoic limestone is indicated by xenoliths in Lascar's lavas; the only place they crop out farther east is in Argentina. This limestone formation has been identified as the Yacoraite formation. Later deposits include the Cenozoic sedimentary Quepe strata. Landforms over this basement include ignimbrites, lava domes, and stratovolcanoes. Exposures of the basement are often delimited by faults.
Eruptive history
Lascar is one of the three most active volcanoes in the Andean Central Volcanic Zone (the other two are the Peruvian volcanoes Sabancaya and Ubinas) and a steady pattern of eruptive activity has persisted for centuries. The volcano persistently features a tall plume of water and sulfur dioxide. Most present-day activity consists of the release of fumarolic gas with additional vulcanian activity that generates eruption columns several kilometres high, typically every three or two years and half of the time during austral spring as well as active deformation of the three active craters observed in interferometric synthetic-aperture radar. The long-term magma supply rate of Lascar is about , the volcano has produced about of rock.
Early activity
The oldest volcanic activity at Lascar occurred between 220,000 and less than 50,000 years ago. Activity has alternated between the eastern and western part of the volcano during its history. The eastern edifice formed first (stage I), erupting andesite containing pyroxene, and eventually forming the Chaile and Saltar pyroclastic flows. The oldest mafic andesites are less than 43,000 years old, while the Chaile and Saltar pyroclastic flows erupted over 26,500 years ago. An alternative dating scheme considers Chaile to be 47,000 ± 16,000 years old and Saltar 167,000 ± 9,000 years old.
Lava flows less than thick issued from the stage I cone and reached lengths of . They occur beneath altitudes of , their vents buried by later activity. The lavas from stage I are mostly exposed north and west of Lascar. The Chaile flows are actually formed by two separate units and are found on the southwest flanks of the volcano, up to a distance of . They reach thicknesses of in the upper unit and in the lower one. The Saltar flow reached widths of and thicknesses of , increasing to where the flow entered valleys. At least nine units form the Saltar deposit, with the northern flows displaying flow welding. These deposits have volumes of and probably formed when an explosive eruption took place in a lava lake. After the end of stage I, a period of glacial erosion occurred prior to new activity, which created furrows in the Saltar flow. Imprecise argon–argon dating on younger andesites has yielded dates of 14,000 ± 18,000 and 17,000 ± 22,000 years.
Later volcanic activity buried this edifice beneath thin pyroclastic flows. The western edifice generated a complex of lava domes (stage II), which was probably surrounded by a horseshoe-shaped crater open to the west. Possibly, the magma chamber of stage I had almost solidified when the injection of basaltic magma at depths of over triggered a remelting. Andesite-rhyodacite intrusions occurred beneath the volcano, some of which were still hot when the Soncor eruption tore them out of the ground. An ice cap formed over Lascar at that time, feeding two glaciers that extended northeast and southeast away from the volcano.
Piedras Grandes unit
The stage II activity was accompanied by the eruption of block and ash flows consisting of andesite, and an eruption whose deposits include blocks with sizes of . This unit, formed during stage II, is known as Piedras Grandes,and is exposed on the western slopes below about altitude. The unit is about wide and consists of large blocks encased in ash. The composition of the Piedras Grandes unit is andesite containing amphibole, basaltic andesite and hornblende. The Piedras Grandes unit is over 26,500 years old, possibly between 63,000 and 100,000 years old. Temperatures have been estimated to be for the andesite and for the basaltic andesite. The magmas were formed from a remelted proto-pluton that had been heated and resupplied with volatiles by mafic magmas.
The lava domes interacted with glaciers, resulting in the formation of a glacier run whose deposits are found as far as from the volcano. Blocks with sizes of up to were transported by this flow. An alternative theory posits that the Piedras Grandes unit formed when an ice cap on Lascar interacted with a block and ash flow erupted by Aguas Calientes.
Soncor eruption
A major Plinian eruption occurred 26,450 ± 500 years ago, releasing of ejecta, both volcanic ash and pyroclastic flows. The deposits left contain both andesite and dacite, with phenocrysts consisting of apatite, augite, biotite, iron-titanium oxides, orthopyroxene and plagioclase in a rhyolite matrix. The Plinian deposit has a colour ranging from white to creamy. Like the Piedras Grandes rocks, they tend towards high potassium quantities, and resemble other volcanic rocks of Lascar and the Central Andes in composition. The deposits are formed by a Plinian fallout deposit and an ignimbrite rich in lithics. This Plinian deposit reaches thicknesses of and fell from a eruption column.
The Soncor ignimbrite extended as much as west from the volcano, north and south. It is white, heterogeneous and mostly featureless with only weak sorting, but features a noticeable compositional zonation. The ignimbrite features three facies, one rich in breccia, another rich in pumice, and a normal ignimbrite.
Ignimbrite was channeled to the Salar de Atacama by the Quebrada de Chaile, Quebrada de Soncor and Quebrada de Talabre canyons and some smaller valleys, northeastwards by the Quebrada de Morro Blanco and as far as southeastwards over the Pampa Leija area. In these valleys, the ignimbrite can be as much as thick. Pumices are encased in the ignimbrite as lenses and levees and are also found in the terrain above the canyons. Estimated temperatures decreased from at the vent to farther down the flows. At the time of emplacement, the ignimbrite was still . Magma temperatures have been estimated at . The Soncor fallout deposit contains a basal gravelly layer and several layers of andesitic and dacitic pumice which also contain lithics. The total volume of the Soncor eruption products has been estimated to be either dense rock equivalent or net volume, both minimum estimates. Lithic rocks derived both from the pre-Soncor volcano and the basement are also represented.
The magma erupted was generated in a magma chamber starting from andesite, which underwent complex petrogenetic processes. This magma chamber was located at a floor depth of (older estimate ) and probably had a complex shape, given certain chemical properties of the Soncor rocks. At the time preceding the eruption, the magma chamber had a thermal stratification; injections of mafic magmas had heated the magma chamber and induced convection.
A volatile phase containing chlorine formed inside the magma chamber and quickly removed most sulfur from the magma. This sulfur extraction was facilitated by the high oxygen content of the magma, which allowed the formation of sulfur dioxide. Water is a principal volatile involved in the processes of Plinian eruptions; the water content of the Soncor and Piedras Grandes magmas was about 4–5%. The Soncor magmas were associated with a volatile phase that underwent extensive interaction with the future eruption products.
The previous volcanic edifice was destroyed by this eruption, which may have formed a caldera. The vent was no wider than , as it is completely hidden beneath the western cone. Such a vent or caldera is substantially smaller than the volume of rocks erupted, a discrepancy that is also evident in the 1932 eruption of Quizapu. The Soncor magma chamber may have been too deep to collapse when it was emptied, explaining why no significant caldera was formed.
The Soncor deposit was subsequently affected by glaciation and the stage I edifice by a debris avalanche, which was radiocarbon dated at 22,310 +2,700/−2000 years ago in the Quebrada de Chaile. This debris avalanche is thick and long. The Capricorn Lava overlies the Soncor deposits.
Post-Soncor activity
Later, a new stratovolcano grew over the Soncor vent. This volcano was formed by andesite-dacite lava flows (stage III) and scoria. Lava flows from this stage have thicknesses of and lengths reaching . It has a volume of . The growth of this volcano was preceded by a period of erosion between 20,800–20,100 and 12,500 years ago, coincident with the Lake Minchin humid period. Glaciers in the region reached their maximum size at that time. The deposits left by this erosional period contain no clear evidence of stage III activity; indeed Lascar was probably inactive between 14,000 and 10,500 years ago. However, an eruption of the Cerro Corona lava dome occurred during this period, and activity of stage III did not commence earlier than 22,300 years ago.
The Tumbres eruption occurred around 7250 BCE, commencing with the eruption of pumice falls that reach thicknesses of less than . Afterwards, up to four different units of pyroclastic flows, each thick, formed deposits up to long. At the end of the eruption, a caldera and the two western craters formed. The deposits left by this eruption contain basaltic andesite-andesite and were subject to agglutination and welding. Originally considered part of stage III, it was more recently attributed to stage IV given the considerable (6,000 years) temporal gap between the Tumbres eruption and stage III volcanism, and the geochemistry of the rocks. The Manquez agglutinate above the Tumbres deposits was formed either by the Tumbres eruption or by a subsequent stage; a pyroclastic cone in the western crater may be associated with this agglutinate.
Activity subsequently shifted to the eastern edifice. Around 5150 ± 1250 BCE, as obtained by surface exposure dating, the Tumbres-Talabre lava flow was erupted from the eastern crater. This flow extends northwest and is thick. The Tumbres-Talabre flow was originally considered to be of late-19th-century age. It probably formed when one of the craters filled with andesitic lava to the point of overflow. This eruption was the last effusive eruption of Lascar, when later lava domes are excluded. The three eastern summit craters formed at the time when the Tumbres-Talabre flow erupted in the remains of the stage I cone. This edifice is the currently active one, with the deepest of its three summit craters being active.
Historical activity
Lascar has erupted about thirty times since the 19th century. Written reports of volcanic activity exist since the 16th century, when the Spaniards arrived in the region, though few records exist from before 1848. Volcanic activity recorded after 1848 consists chiefly of fumarolic emissions and occasional explosive activity. Recorded eruptions occurred in 1858, 1875, 1883–1885, 1898–1900(?) and 1902, ranging from a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 0 to VEI 2. The 1933 eruption was seen as far away as Chuquicamata. Another series of eruptions occurred between November 1951 and January 1952; one eruption is recorded from 1940. Eruptions were observed in March 1960, which were accompanied by earthquakes felt in Toconao, as well as in September 1964 when ash fell in Socaire. Yet another eruption sequence occurred between 1959 and 1969. Eruptions in 1972 and 1974 are uncertain. For some eruptions, including the January 1854 eruption, it is not clear whether they occurred at Lascar or Aguas Calientes, and some early reports of volcanic activity at Aguas Calientes probably refer to Lascar.
In 1984, Lascar awakened to new activity; satellite images noted the presence of hot spots on the volcano. Landsat images taken during this time indicate that a lava lake may have existed in the central crater, generating a plume of volcanic gases and, in September 1986, a vulcanian eruption happened and dropped ash in Salta, Argentina. This eruption was first noticed when ash fell on Salta, and was accompanied by anomalies in the heat emission from the volcano recorded by satellite. The eruption was also observed by geologists in Toconao, where the explosion was violent enough to wake up people who were sleeping. Observers noted the formation of a cauliflower-shaped cloud that eventually developed into a mushroom cloud with a maximum height of above the volcano. The eruption itself lasted only about five minutes and consisted of two pulses. Ash fall in Salta occurred about one hour after the eruption. This eruption was the most significant of the previous two decades, having a VEI of 3. Preceding historical eruptions did not exceed 2.
A and lava dome formed in early 1989. This dome began to shrink in October 1989, and in December 1989, white clouds rose above Lascar's crater. On 20 February 1990, an eruption column rose above the crater, resulting in ash fall over away from the volcano. In March 1990, the lava dome had a temperature of , with some parts exceeding . Lava bombs with diameters of up to were hurled as far as from the crater, presumably as a consequence of the lava dome exploding. Some of the material came from the conduit walls. The lava dome had disappeared, but in early 1992, another lava dome formed, eventually reaching a size of width and height, and was accompanied by explosions. It probably started shrinking in April 1992, although the shrinkage was directly visible only in November. Small explosions accompanied the shrinkage until, by March 1993, the dome had disappeared again.
An alternating cycle of fumarolic activity, an accumulation of fumarolic gases in the conduit and lava dome, and explosive activity followed by renewed fumarolic activity have characterized Lascar's activity since 1984. Explosive activity presumably occurs when gases can no longer escape. This occurs because as the magma loses its gas content, the number of pores in it, and thus its permeability to gas, decreases. Further, fractures permitting gas passage are obstructed when the magma contracts. Most of the time, numerous fumaroles within the crater form a plume that reaches an altitude of . During minor explosive eruptions, eruption columns reach heights of up to . The temperatures of the lava dome can reach . This cycle ended after 1993, probably because the April 1993 eruption modified the conditions in the volcanic system. Alternatively, the cycle may have continued, to reach another lava dome collapse stage in early 2003. While eruptions before 1993 had always been preceded by a reduction in heat radiated from the volcano, such a reduction in 1999–2000 did not lead to an eruption, and when an eruption took place in July 2000, it was preceded by only a brief drop in heat radiation.
1993 eruption
Vulcanian explosions started on 18 April 1993, and on 19–20 April 1993, a major eruption occurred. A phreatic eruption around 14:30 on 18 April formed the prelude to the eruption. The eruption commenced with two explosions at 6:28 and 9:20 local time, forming eruption columns high. Another explosion at 13:02 sent a column high. At least ten different pulses were observed, generating columns of various heights and forming mushroom clouds. The strongest pulse occurred on 20 April between 6:28 and 9:20 and sent flows towards the northwest. This pulse generated an eruption column high. The total mass flux of the eruption was about , comparable to the 1982 eruption of El Chichon. The lava dome in the crater was destroyed and was probably the source of the lava bombs that were thrown as far as away from the vent; some of these bombs had diameters of and left large impact craters.
The eruption columns underwent several collapses, creating pyroclastic flows at least seven to nine times. The first pyroclastic flow was observed around 10:12 on 19 April. Other flows occurred at 12:05, after 13:37, 17:25, 21:35–21:48, 23:40–23:50 and on 20 April at 9:20. After being discharged through gaps in the crater rim, pyroclastic flows on the northwestern and the eastern sides reached lengths of , and on the southern side. These flows reached a thickness of about and advanced through the Quebrada de Talabre, which had intercepted the flows on the northern flank. On the southeastern flank, the pyroclastic flows formed a fan extending several hundred metres into Pampa Leija. Pyroclastic flows reached a speed of , and themselves generated ash surges that partly rose above the flows. Hot pyroclastic flows on the southeastern flank covered a surface area of . The southern flank flows at first proceeded along a gully before spreading out. The total area covered by the flows is about on the northern slopes (Tumbres fan) and on the southern slopes (Lejia fan). The flows left lobate structures that form a stacked deposit, which shows such structures as levees and finger-like toes. The speed of these flows has been estimated at .
About 30% of these flows were formed by ash and 70% by blocks, with larger fragments accumulating on the margins of each flow deposit. The pyroclastic flow deposits contain lithics from several sources, as well as pumice. Pumice mostly accumulated on the surface of the flows, and individual stones are up to wide. Lithic blocks are up to thick. The total volume of these pyroclastic flows is about .
There is a pronounced morphology characterized by a channel upslope and snout-like toes downslope. Flow surfaces display pronounced fractures with a V profile, which developed a year after the eruption. The pyroclastic flow surfaces subsided after the eruption, with pulses of faster subsidence coinciding with the 1995 Antofagasta earthquake and the 2007 Tocopilla earthquake.
The flows were strongly erosive, extracting rocks and material from the bedrock, even far away from the vent. Noticeable erosion occurred in the areas over which pyroclastic flows had passed, forming abrasion surfaces and removing loose detritus from the ground.
These flows took a long time to cool down; in the Quebrada Tumbres, they had not cooled down completely by December 1993. Additional surfaces were covered by ash cloud surges, reaching thicknesses of no more than on the sides of the pyroclastic flows. In some parts of the edifice, ejecta formed layers thick enough to undergo landsliding. The deposits and small structures, such as levees and lobes, were conserved by the dry climate in the region.
The ash from the volcano was carried by western wind towards Argentina and the Atlantic Ocean. Ash fall in Tucuman and Santiago del Estero was intense enough that traffic ground to a halt, and air travel was impacted internationally. Tephra fall from this eruption was recorded in Argentina, including in Buenos Aires, away, and in Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Ash from this eruption was identified in ice cores from Illimani while sulfates reportedly appeared in ice taken from the Arctic and Antarctica. Over of ash fell over a surface area of over . Larger particles fell closer to the volcano, while smaller particles were carried farther. Volcanic ash deposited close to the volcano was partially remobilized by winds a few days after the eruption.
This eruption was the most significant eruption of Lascar in the last 9,000 years, with a volcanic explosivity index of 4 and a duration of 32 hours, and one of the most significant volcanic eruptions in the recent history of Chile. It caused noticeable changes in the morphology of the volcano, including the formation of a new fracture along the summit craters; however, the summit craters themselves were not heavily altered apart from the formation of a trench across the three craters that runs in west–east direction. The whole volcano did not deform during the eruption sequence. The eruption released about of sulfur dioxide, about half the quantity released by the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, and was sufficient to cause a noticeable increase in atmospheric opacity. The Quebrada Tumbre was blocked, and its water chemistry noticeably altered, by the eruption. About of gypsum was deposited in the drainages around the volcano, forming a significant supply of sulfur in the region.
The people of Talabre were evacuated during the eruption to Toconao, although some ignored evacuation orders. There were no injuries or fatalities, however the eruption did lead to water pollution in the region, including increases in cadmium, copper and lead concentrations in local rivers. An increase of mercury from the eruption was detected as far as Laguna del Plata, Argentina. The 1993 eruption was followed by a significant increase in the fluorine content of plants covered by the ash. Regulatory limits on concentrations of other elements in water were also exceeded, although only temporarily.
Post-1993 activity
The eruption record at Lascar becomes more irregular after the 1993 eruption. During April 1993, a new lava dome formed in the crater, reaching a diameter of . It started to shrink again by May. On 17 December 1993, another explosion created an eruption column high. By 28 December, the dome had subsided completely in the centre, leaving only its margins. Subsequently, a number of fumaroles were active around the crater. Explosive eruptions, accompanied by the formation of eruption columns reaching heights of several kilometres, sometimes leading to ash fall in Jujuy, Argentina, occurred on 27 February 1994; in July 1994, November 1994, and March 1995; and on 10 May, 20 July and 18 October 1996. During the July 1995 eruption, subsidence was noted on satellite images of the inside of the central crater. The collapse structures during this activity were larger than those noted in previous activity, possibly because the April 1993 eruption had emptied part of the system. Otherwise, activity between 1993 and 2000 was not accompanied by deformation of the edifice.
An eruption in July 2000 was seen from Chuquicamata, and the noise was audible as far as San Antonio de los Cobres, away. The eruption lasted for two hours and formed a eruption column. An ash plume was carried east. Three eruptions in October 2002 formed ash columns that rose , while an explosion in December 2003 created a column high. No lava domes were recorded in the crater during that period.
Further activity occurred in May 2005, with a ash cloud, and in April 2006. An eruption commenced at 11:35 local time on 18 April 2006. This explosion was strong enough to rattle windows in the school at Talabre. The 18 April eruption was seen from the El Abra copper mine away and resulted in ash fall north-northeast from the volcano. Four eruptions occurred at 15:20, 17:22, 19:00 and 21:00 UTC, forming eruption columns reaching altitudes of . The next day, additional explosions occurred at 15:04, 15:05 and 17:39 UTC, with a maximum column height of . A video taken by the Chilean Air Force on 20 April showed a pit in the floor of the main crater. During the following days, additional explosions generated columns up to high, with little ash production. The eruption ended around 15:32 on 20 April, although some explosions occurred in the following days. Other eruptions were recorded in November 2006 and July 2007.
Weak eruptions, characterized by earthquakes and the release of plumes, occurred in February–March 2012 and March–April 2013. Between April and June 2013, glow was observed at the summit, accompanied by the occasional release of gray clouds. Glowing was also reported in October and November 2013. The last eruption, on 30 October 2015, created a column of ash that prompted a raise in the local volcano alert level. This eruption may have been triggered by a precipitation event which added water to the volcan's hydrothermal system. Thermal anomalies from this eruption persisted into 2017 but with a tendency to decrease in number, accompanied by persistent degassing. In December 2022, an explosion generated a high plume.
Seismic activity
Seismic activity occurs at Lascar. Research has indicated peculiar patterns, including so called "rapid-fire" events on a background of continuous activity, as well as the occurrence of long-period earthquakes; here and in other volcanoes, this kind of seismic activity is associated with intense fumarolic activity that occurs in the absence of outright eruptions. Harmonic tremor has been recorded at Lascar, perhaps caused by a hydrothermal system. Such tremors may be produced by the movement of liquid materials in the volcano. With the exception of the 1993 eruption, seismic activity associated with eruptions has been sparse. A number of earthquakes were recorded in early February 2012. Between January 2014 and June 2016, about 2–4 volcano-tectonic earthquakes per month were recorded. Long-period earthquakes with magnitudes not exceeding 1.3 were also recorded, with a maximum of 209 events noted in May 2015.
Monitoring and threats
Because of the volcano's remote location, much information on its activity comes from remote sensing. Lascar's activity has been monitored by Thematic Mapper, which has been used to monitor volcanic activity since 1985, when hot spots were observed on Lascar. The eruptions of April 1993 and September 1986 were both preceded by a reduction of thermal radiation observed by Thematic Mapper.
A monitoring network has been built around the volcano beginning from 2010. These include gas monitoring, seismometers, a weather station and cameras. Unmanned aerial vehicles, occasional reconnaissance flights and infrequent visits to the volcano are also used. The Observatorio Volcanológico de los Andes del Sur in Temuco also employs webcams to watch Lascar.
The National Geology and Mining Service of Chile considers Lascar Chile's 14th most dangerous volcano, and in 2020 classified it as a "type I" volcano. It publishes a volcano alert level for Lascar and has created a volcano hazard map for the volcano. Explosive eruptions and ash falls are the major threat to humans from Lascar. The frequent smaller explosive events commonly occur unexpectedly and can thus endanger people on the mountain. The towns of Tumbres and Talabre may be affected by pyroclastic flows, and ash falls can occur east of the volcano. Such ash falls could potentially hit the towns of San Pedro de Atacama, Talabre and Toconao as well as the Llano de Chajnantor Observatory, the San Pedro de Atacama–Paso de Jama–Jujuy international road and the Sico Pass. Past eruptions caused ash fall in Argentina and disruption of air travel and could have major effects in the Salta Province in case of renewed activity. In 1982, the town of Talabre was moved for safety reasons stemming from flooding and volcanic activity, and ballistic blocks ejected by the volcano are a threat to mountaineers and scientists working on Lascar. Sector collapse and lahars have occurred in the past, but are unlikely to be present-day hazards.
Heavy metal exposure is a problem for the region. High quantities of arsenic have been observed in local crops. Thallium from the volcano is a pollution hazard in the Talabre area. High nickel concentrations in crops from Talabre appear to be caused by volcanic activity as well.
Climate and biota
The area around Lascar is one of the driest and highest volcanic settings in the world. Precipitation at Lascar is about and consists mostly of snow. Persistent snow cover exists on the western and southern slopes of the volcano; it contributes partly to the fumarole water. Steam explosions caused by rainfall have been reported. In 1993, yearly precipitation at several towns around Lascar ranged from . Lascar is located close to the Atacama Desert, one of the world's driest deserts.
During the glacial periods, the volcano most likely featured small glaciers. The equilibrium line at Lascar was at an altitude of during the last glacial maximum. Traces of glaciation also exist at Cerros de Saltar. The end of glaciation may have accompanied an increase in volcanic activity, a phenomenon that has been noted at other volcanoes. 8,500 years ago, the climate in the region became much drier, and the amount of erosion decreased substantially.
Temperatures in the surrounding region range between . Measurements made on the southwest rim of the main crater in 2009–2012 indicated air temperatures of . The present-day snowline in the region lies at an altitude of , higher than the summit of Lascar.
Due to the dry climate, there is little vegetation at Lascar. Bunch grass and shrubs grow on the volcano's slopes. In the deep valleys, groundwater and streams support more plants.
Volcanic activity at Lascar affects neighbouring ecosystems such as the Aguas Calientes crater lake and Laguna Lejia; flamingos disappeared from the latter after the 1993 eruption and did not return until 2007. Other reports claim that flamingos remained; other animals like donkeys and llamas were seen around the volcano one day after its eruption.
See also
List of volcanoes in Chile
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Lascar at sernageomin.cl
Atacama Photo Gallery – panoramic view into the crater of Lascar
SI Google Earth Placemarks – Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program: download placemarks with SI Holocene volcano-data.
21st-century volcanic events
Active volcanoes
Andean Volcanic Belt
Five-thousanders of the Andes
Holocene stratovolcanoes
Mountains of Chile
Quaternary South America
Stratovolcanoes of Chile
VEI-4 volcanoes
Volcanoes of Antofagasta Region
Pleistocene stratovolcanoes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahid%20Khaqan%20Abbasi
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Shahid Khaqan Abbasi
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Shahid Khaqan Abbasi (; born 27 December 1958) is a Pakistani politician and businessman who served as the 21st prime minister of Pakistan from August 2017 to May 2018. Abbasi is the senior vice President of the Pakistan Muslim League-N (PML-N), and secretary-general of Pakistan Democratic Movement (PDM), an anti-PTI coalition of political parties in Pakistan. He has been a Member of the National Assembly of Pakistan since October 2018. Previously, he served as a member of the National Assembly for 8
non—consecutive terms since 1988.
Abbasi started his political career after the death of his father in 1988, and since then he has been elected a Member of the National Assembly six times for Constituency NA-50 (Rawalpindi). After the PML-N victory in the 1997 general election, he served as Chairman of Pakistan International Airlines until the 1999 Pakistani coup d'état. After the formation of a temporary coalition government following the 2008 general election, he was briefly the Minister for Commerce in the Gillani ministry. After the 2013 general election, he became the Minister for Petroleum and Natural Resources in the third Sharif ministry, where he served from 2013 until the disqualification of Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif after the Panama Papers case decision in July 2017. In August 2017, he was elected as 21st Prime Minister of Pakistan by the National Assembly.
Early life and education
Abbasi was born on 27 December 1958 in his hometown of Murree in Murree District, Punjab. He attended Lawrence College in Murree. In 1978, he attended the University of California, Los Angeles, where he received a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering. Following this, he began a career as an electrical engineer. In 1985, he attended George Washington University, where he gained a master's degree in Electrical Engineering.
After graduating from George Washington University, Abbasi became a professional electrical engineer. He worked in the United States during the 1980s before moving to Saudi Arabia, where he worked on energy projects in the oil and gas industry.
Political career
First term: 1988–90
Abbasi's political career began after the death of his father Khaqan Abbasi in 1988. In May 1988, President Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq sacked the government of his handpicked Prime Minister, Muhammad Khan Junejo, and prematurely dissolved the National Assembly. Consequently, new parliamentary elections were called for 16 November 1988. Abbasi ran for the National Assembly seat from Constituency NA-36 (Rawalpindi-I), which had been held by his father until his death. Abassi was elected with 47,295 votes as an independent candidate. He acquired Rawalpindi's National Assembly seat for the first time at the age of 30 by defeating both Raja Zafar ul Haq, a candidate of Islami Jamhoori Ittehad (IJI), and Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) candidate Raja Muhammad Anwar by a narrow margin. After winning the election he joined the IJI, which was newly founded in September 1988 by then Director-General of Inter-Services Intelligence to counter the PPP. His tenure as a Member of the National Assembly terminated after the National Assembly was dissolved prematurely in August 1990 following the dismissal of the government of Benazir Bhutto by President Ghulam Ishaq Khan.
Second, third and fourth term: 1990–99
New parliamentary elections were called for 24 October 1990. Abbasi ran for a National Assembly seat as a candidate of IJI and was successfully re-elected from Constituency NA-36 (Rawalpindi-I). He received 80,305 votes against 54,011 votes for PPP candidate Raja Muhammad Anwar. Upon the victory of IJI in the 1990 national election, he was made Federal Parliamentary Secretary for Defence, a post he retained until the dissolution of the National Assembly in April 1993 with the dismissal of the Nawaz Sharif government by then President Ghulam Ishaq Khan.
New snap elections were called for 6 October 1993. Abbasi ran for a National Assembly seat as a candidate of the Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML-N) and was re-elected for the third time from Constituency NA-36 (Rawalpindi-I). He secured 76,596 votes against the PPP candidate, retired Colonel Habib Khan, who received 45,173 votes. As a Member of the National Assembly, he performed his duties as the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National Assembly on Defence. His tenure was terminated with the dissolution of the National Assembly in 1996 following the dismissal of the Benazir Bhutto government by President Farooq Leghari.
New parliamentary elections were called for 3 February 1997, and Abbasi successfully retained his National Assembly seat as a candidate of the PML-N from Constituency NA-36 (Rawalpindi-I) for the fourth time. He defeated Pakistan Muslim League (J) candidate Babar Awan and independent candidate Javed Iqbal Satti by securing 65,194 votes. PML-N won a clear majority in the National Assembly for the first time. That same year, he was appointed as the chairman of Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. During his two years in this office, he is credited with implementing long-term and comprehensive reforms and getting the airline out of debt. His tenure as the Chairman of PIA was terminated following the 1999 Pakistani coup d'état, during which then-Chief of Army Staff General Pervez Musharraf overthrew Sharif and his existing elected government. Abbasi's tenure as Member of the National Assembly was also terminated with the dissolution of the assembly. Abbasi, along with Sharif, was named in the infamous plane hijacking case. Charges were levelled against him for denying the landing of Musharraf's PIA plane at Karachi's Jinnah International Airport on its way back from Sri Lanka on 12 October 1999, and he was held responsible for conspiring with Sharif to kill Musharraf. He was forced to provide a testimonial statement against Sharif for the hijacking case, but he refused to release the statement. He was also pressured by the Pakistan Army to switch allegiance from Sharif, but he refused. He remained in jail for two years before his acquittal by the court in 2001. By then, Sharif had gone into exile in Saudi Arabia. In a 2008 interview, Abbasi claimed that Musharraf himself took control of the plane in 1999. As chairman of PIA, he was accused of 11 million in corruption in the purchase of 200 computers for the airline, however he was acquitted of this in 2008.
Fifth and sixth term: 2002–13
General elections were held on 10 October 2002 under Musharraf. Abbasi was the PML-N candidate for the Constituency NA-50 (Rawalpindi) seat, but lost to PPP candidate Ghulam Murtaza Satti with 63,797 votes (37.21%) to 74,259 (43.31%). Abbasi indicated that the exile of Sharif disappointed the people, due to which PML-N only won 19 out of 342 seats in the National Assembly. People from his constituency claim he contested the election unwillingly, explaining why he lost it. After his defeat, he distanced himself from politics to focus on Airblue Limited, which he founded in 2003. He served as its first chairman until 2007 and then went on to become its chief operating officer.
After Sharif's return to Pakistan from exile in 2007, Abbasi joined him and ran for a seat in the National Assembly in the 18 February 2008 general election as a candidate of the PML-N, and was successfully re-elected for the fifth time with 99,987 votes from Constituency NA-50 (Rawalpindi) by defeating PPP candidate Ghulam Murtaza Satti who secured 77,978 votes. The election resulted in a hung parliament where PPP had secured the most seats in the National Assembly and PML-N the second most. After the formation of a coalition government between PPP and PML-N with Yousaf Raza Gillani as Prime Minister, Abbasi was inducted into the federal cabinet of Gillani with the status of a federal minister in March 2008 and was appointed as the Minister for Commerce. However, he resigned as Minister for Commerce after the PML-N left the PPP-led coalition government in May 2008 to lead the movement to impeach Pervez Musharraf and to restore the judiciary after the coalition failed to restore the judiciary, as agreed between PML-N and PPP in the Bhurban Accord. Abbasi was reported to have held the cabinet portfolio of Defence Production during his short-lived tenure as Commerce Minister, a claim later proved to be untrue.
As Minister for Petroleum
After the completion of a five-year PPP government, an election was scheduled for 11 May 2013. Abbasi ran for a seat in the National Assembly as a candidate of the PML-N and successfully retained his seat from Constituency NA-50 (Rawalpindi) for the sixth time with 134,439 votes by defeating PPP candidate Ghulam Murtaza Satti. The Express Tribune noted PML-N won the seat despite unsatisfactory performance in the constituency as Nisar Ali Khan had moved development projects allotted for Abbasi's constituency to his own constituency. Upon the victory of PML-N in the 2013 national election, he was inducted into the federal cabinet as the Minister for Petroleum and Natural Resources and was given the task of ending the Pakistan's electricity crisis. As Minister for Petroleum, he proposed to ban the usage of oil and coal-powered energy generation plants terming them expensive, and instead advocated and pushed for the liquefied natural gas (LNG) powered electricity production saying that LNG was more cheaper and would save the government billion of dollars. He claimed the government could save US$1 billion annually if 1,800MW of diesel-powered energy plants in the country were run on LNG and furnace-oil based plants would save US$600 million. In February 2016, Abbasi in his capacity as Minister for Petroleum signed US$16 billion agreement with Qatargas for purchasing 3.75 million metric tons of LNG annually for a period of 15 years, to generate 2,000 MW of electricity and to meet 20% gas requirements of Pakistan where demand for natural gas was 8,000 MMFCD against a supply of 4,000 MMFCD. The deal which made to overcome the country's swelling power crisis was referred to as Pakistan's biggest commercial transaction ever. After the LNG contract received criticism from the opposition parties over price issue and for being non-transparent, Abbasi defended the agreement with Qatar saying Pakistan has negotiated cheapest price with Qatar. He said the contract which took 14 months of negotiation with the government of Qatar was made under his supervision and he is responsible for it.
In July 2015, Abbasi was accused of issuing illegal contracts worth 220 billion between the period of 2013 and 2015 for the import and distribution of LNG without a proper bidding process, after which the National Accountability Bureau registered a case and began an investigation. He denied the corruption allegations. The case was closed in December 2016 after it was found that all rules were followed during procurement and the bidding process to award the contract was transparent. The Express Tribune described the LNG project as successful and one of the cheapest regasifications in the world. Abbasi ceased to hold the ministerial office of Petroleum and Natural Resources on 28 July 2017 when the cabinet of Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif was disbanded following his disqualification by the Supreme Court of Pakistan in the Panama Papers case decision. To minimise the shortage of gas, and to overcome the persistent power crises in the country, Abbasi's proposal to bring the LNG to Pakistan as source of power generation was lauded and praised. According to BBC Urdu, Abbasi had not become a part of any major political or financial controversy throughout his time in a ministerial office which is considered a high-profile cabinet slot.
Prime Minister
Taking office
Nawaz Sharif resigned as Prime Minister on 29 July 2017 and nominated his brother Shehbaz Sharif as his successor, but as Shehbaz was not a member of the National Assembly, he could not be immediately sworn in as Prime Minister. Therefore, Abbasi was chosen by Sharif as a temporary Prime Minister for 45 days, which would allow two months time for Shehbaz to contest elections from Nawaz's vacated constituency in Lahore, be elected to the National Assembly, and become eligible to be Prime Minister. BBC News noted that Abbasi was selected as the Prime Minister for two reasons. The first for being the least controversial among the PML-N leaders, and the second for having links with the Military of Pakistan.
On 1 August 2017, Abbasi was elected as Prime Minister of Pakistan by the National Assembly, defeating his rival Naveed Qamar of the PPP by 221 votes to 47. Jamiat Ulema-e Islam (F) and the Muttahida Qaumi Movement also supported his election. Addressing the National Assembly after his election, he said, "I may be here for 45 days or 45 hours, but I'm not here to keep the seat warm. I intend to work and get some important things done." On that same day, he was sworn in as the Prime Minister in an oath-taking ceremony at the Presidency Palace. After he took charge, Nawaz Sharif decided that Shehbaz Sharif would remain in Punjab and Abbasi would continue as Prime Minister until the June 2018 general election. According to Rana Sanaullah Khan, PML-N senior leadership feared that if Shahbaz Sharif left the post of Chief Ministership of Punjab it would weaken the party's hold in the country's most populous province, which has 183 out of the 342 seats in the National Assembly and plays a crucial role in determining the successive government in Pakistan.
Cabinet formation
After assuming the office as the Prime Minister, Abbasi, in consultation with Sharif, formed a 43-member cabinet. Of the 43 ministers sworn in on 4 August 2017, 27 were federal ministers and 16 were ministers of state. Except Nisar Ali Khan, Abbasi retained the entire cabinet of his predecessor Nawaz Sharif, most of whom retained their previous portfolios. Nisar Ali Khan who was Minister for Interior in the previous cabinet refused to join the cabinet of Abbasi, citing differences with the leaders of PML-N. The cabinet was criticised by Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf for its large size, but it was praised by The Nation. Reuters said that the cabinet "appears aimed at bolstering support" ahead of the general election. The second part of his cabinet, consisting of two federal ministers and two ministers of state, was sworn in on 10 August 2017, increasing the size of the cabinet to 47. On 13 August 2017, the cabinet was further expanded after Abbasi appointed six advisers. On the following day, five special assistants to the Prime Minister were appointed, thus increasing the cabinet size to 58. Abbasi justified the large size of his cabinet by saying that "he had limited experience of running the affairs of the government, and therefore required more ministers, advisers and special assistants." Two more advisors were added to the federal cabinet on 23 August 2017.
Abbasi appointed Khawaja Muhammad Asif as a full-time Minister for Foreign Affairs, the first since PML-N came into power in the 2013 general election. The appointment of a full-time Foreign Affair's Minister was welcomed. Previously, Nawaz Sharif had held the portfolio of the Minister for Foreign Affairs himself and was criticised for not appointing a full-fledged Foreign Minister. He also inducted a Hindu parliamentarian, Darshan Punshi, into the federal cabinet, the first in more than 20 years.
In December 2017, Abbasi appointed the Faisalabad MNA and Parliamentary Finance, Revenue and Privatization Secretary Rana Afzal Khan as the State Minister of Finance and Economic Affairs, a position left vacant by Ishaq Dar.
Policies and initiatives
In his first speech as Prime Minister, Abbasi announced that security, tax reform, agriculture, education, health services, infrastructure and development projects, and the country's power crisis would be his top concerns. He vowed to continue the policies of his predecessor, Nawaz Sharif, calling him the "people's prime minister" from the floor of the National Assembly. In his maiden speech, Abbasi specifically promised to widen the tax net, saying "Those who do not pay taxes and live a luxurious life will have to pay taxes now." He also called for banning automatic firearms across the country and said the federal government would seize all automatic firearms if his cabinet was to approve.
Energy policy
To improve the governance and efficiency of the government and to accommodate newly inducted cabinet members, Abbasi created seven new ministries. Amongst which the establishment of the long-awaited Ministry of Energy was praised. The Ministry was part of PML-N's 2013 election manifesto, however its formation had been delayed. Abbasi kept the cabinet portfolio of Energy Minister for himself which was created through the merger of the power wing of the Ministry of Water and Power and the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources, an office Abbasi held before becoming Prime Minister. It was noted that formation of the Energy Ministry was the first step to solve the financial issues in the power sector.
After assuming the office of Prime Minister, Abbasi focus remained on energy sector and he took keen interest in the promotion of the LNG. Chairing the first meeting of the energy sector as Prime Minister, Abbasi directed to expedite conversion of furnace oil-powered power plants to natural gas and said that he would reduce the usage of thermal power plants and rely on the usage of domestic coal and regasified LNG for the production of energy in order to achieve a balanced energy mix. He directed the ministry to utilise the maximum usage of coal reserves from the Thar coalfield and promised to end power outages in the country by November 2017. Reuters noted that Pakistan's embrace of LNG, for which Abbasi has advocated since PML-N formed the government in June 2013, has largely been successful.
As Prime Minister, Abbasi inaugurated two LNG regasification terminals at Port Qasim made to handle the imported LNG, for which he took credit as the former Minister for Petroleum and Natural Resources taking the overall supply of LNG to 1200 million cubic feet per day. He recommitted his government to resolve the country's energy crisis saying LNG was the only inexpensive solution to overcome the Pakistan's crippling energy crisis.
In December 2017, Abbasi as part of his government's policy to promote usage of the liquefied LNG, ordered the conversion of four independent fuel-powered energy plants into LNG to reduce the cost of power generation., and imposed a ban on import of furnace oil to make maximum utilisation of LNG powered-power plants. He also ordered revamping of the transmission and distribution system and directed to find a permanent solution to Pakistan's chronic circular debt issue.
Domestic policy
Immediately after taking office, Abbasi made himself the head of major cabinet committees dealing with economic matters, including those that fall under the domain of Finance Minister, to consolidate more power and to get a grip on financial issues. This usurpation minimised the powers of the Finance Minister Ishaq Dar, who was once considered as a de facto deputy Prime Minister under Nawaz Sharif.
On 26 August, Abbasi approved the results of the 2017 Census of Pakistan with a total population of the country excluding of that of Gilgit Baltistan and Azad Kashmir at 207.77 million. On 28 August, he restructured the eight member Council of Common Interests by increasing the seats of members from Punjab from two to four, making the council Punjab-dominated.
To speed up the development of the construction projects related to China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), Abbasi also kept the cabinet portfolio of Ministry of Planning and Development after becoming the Prime Minister followed by forming a cabinet committee on 31 August to hold more power which eventually made the role of ministry irrelevant over CPEC-related work. But after China expressed reservations, Abbasi on 16 September assigned the portfolio back to incumbent interior minister Ahsan Iqbal who headed the Ministry of Planning and Development in the previous cabinet.
The first 30 days of Abbasi in the office suggested that he would prefer an "as-usual routine" contrary to the expectations of the business community and the bureaucracy which had initially hoped for policy changes that would attempt to resolve the outstanding issues the country was facing. Since the next general election was scheduled ten months into Abbasi's tenure as Prime Minister, it was noted that Abbasi would carry forward the policies and development agenda of his predecessor Nawaz Sharif and might not opt for major changes before the election when the term of the Parliament elected in 2013 was due to expire.
Abbasi visited Karachi on 12 August 2017 and pledged 25 billion and 5 billion for Karachi and Hyderabad, respectively, for infrastructure development.
On 13 September, the federal cabinet of Abbasi approved the decision to table the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) reforms bill in the National Assembly for the extension of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of Pakistan and the Islamabad High Court to the FATA as part of steps towards the merger of former with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. On 12 January 2018, the National Assembly successfully passed the bill to extend the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and the Peshawar High Court to the FATA. Upon the passage of the bill, Abbasi said "It is a historic measure for tribesmen and it can also help repeal the decades-old Frontier Crimes Regulation."
On 17 September, Abbasi approved a proposal to increase the positions of civilian director generals in Inter-Services Intelligence.
In November 2017, Abbasi took charge of the Ministry of Finance on an ad interim basis after Finance Minister Ishaq Dar went to the United Kingdom for a medical checkup in late October amid his arrest warrant in a corruption case for having wealth beyond his known sources of income, On 24 November, Ishaq Dar stepped down from the ministerial office after taking medical leave. In December 2017, it was reported that Abbasi would continue as Finance Minister until the 2018 general election, even though the ministry was suffering as Abbasi was unable to give proper attention to it. On 26 December, Abbasi appointed Federal Parliamentary Secretary for Finance Rana Afzal Khan as Minister of State for Finance and Special Assistant to the Prime Minister on Economic Affairs Miftah Ismail was elevated as Adviser to the Prime Minister on Finance, Revenue and Economic Affairs with the status of a federal minister while retaining the portfolio of Finance with himself. On 9 January 2018, Abbasi elevated his Special Assistant on Revenue Haroon Akhtar Khan as Federal Minister for Revenue and advised him to execute the tax agenda.
In November 2017, the Ministry of Interior suspended the licences for all automatic firearms across Pakistan as part of Abbasi's policy to make Pakistan free of automatic weapons. On 28 November 2017, Abbasi and Minister for Interior Ahsan Iqbal were criticised by the Chairman of the Senate of Pakistan Raza Rabbani for striking a deal with the Tehreek-e-Labaik protestors and for not taking the Senate in confidence with regards to the crackdown against them that led to resignation of Minister for Law and Justice, Zahid Hamid. On 5 December 2017, Abbasi gave his Special Assistant on Law Zafarullah Khan the responsibility to oversee the affairs of Law Ministry until the appointment of a Federal Minister for Law. On 9 January 2018, Abbasi appointed Chaudhry Mehmood Bashir as Federal Minister for Law.
On 2 January 2018, The Express Tribune commended the five month performance of Abbasi in his capacity as Prime Minister.
During his time in office, Abbasi has been repeatedly criticised by Imran Khan as a "puppet prime minister" of Nawaz Sharif.
On 9 January 2018, Abbasi visited Balochistan amidst a political crisis in the Provincial Assembly of Balochistan where both PML-N dissidents and opposition MPA's decided to present a motion of no confidence against Chief Ministers Nawab Sanaullah Khan Zehri. After Abbasi was unable to curb the PML-N dissidents, he advised Zehri to step down instead of facing a motion of no confidence, in order to stem the situation and to prevent the PML-N from disintegration in the province. Later that day, Zehri tendered his resignation which was immediately accepted.
On 23 January, Abbasi in an interview with Reuters confirmed his government plans to seize control of Lashkar-e-Taiba and Falah-e-Insaniat Foundation, both run by Hafiz Muhammad Saeed.
On 27 March, Abbasi in an unprecedented move, called on the Chief Justice of Pakistan, Mian Saqib Nisar.
In April 2018, Abbasi announced a tax reforms package which included reduction in income tax rates and a tax amnesty scheme for undeclared assets.
Foreign policy
After the announcement of a new United States policy on Afghanistan by United States President Donald Trump on 21 August 2017, during which he accused Pakistan of supporting state terrorism, Abbasi made his first foreign trip as Prime Minister, going to Saudi Arabia on 23 August 2017 to discuss the new U.S. strategy with Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman and to further strengthen the bilateral relations between Pakistan and Saudi Arabia, with Pakistan's relationship with the United States being strained. On 23 August, Abbasi chaired a meeting of the National Security Council (NSC) which rejected the allegations made by Trump and call the new US policy an attempt “to scapegoat Pakistan”. On 30 August, the Trump administration announced withholding US$255 million in military financial assistance to Pakistan until the latter do more to clamp down on terrorist groups operating inside the country.
In September 2017, Abbasi travelled to the United States to speak at the 72nd session of the United Nations General Assembly. During the visit, he met with Vice-president Mike Pence and also had a brief meeting with Trump. Abbasi's meeting with Pence was the highest-level meeting between the two states since Trump's new Afghanistan policy was announced in August 2017. Both Abbasi and Pence agreed to work together to carry forward the relationship between the US and Pakistan. Abbasi also met President of Iran Hassan Rouhani and President of Turkey Tayyip Erdogan on the sidelines of the assembly.
On 18 October 2017, US Vice-president Pence telephoned Abbasi to thank the government of Pakistan for the safe recovery of the Canadian-American couple Joshua Boyle and Caitlan Coleman. On 24 October, US Secretary of State Rex Tillerson made his maiden visit to Pakistan to normalise the bilateral ties which became strained over remarks of Trump in August. Tillerson met Abbasi and reiterated Trump's message that Pakistan must speed up its efforts to against terrorist groups operating within the country and described Pakistan as "incredibly important" player in the region.
On 1 December, Abbasi travelled to Russia to attend the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit where he met Prime Minister of Russia Dmitry Medvedev, Premier of the People's Republic of China Li Keqiang and Prime Minister of Kyrgyzstan Sapar Isakov.
After Trump acknowledged Jerusalem as Israel's capital, Abbasi attended the emergency conference of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation on Jerusalem in Turkey on 12 December, where he condemned Trump's decision to relocate the embassy to Jerusalem and urged the United States to withdraw its decision. On 29 December, US decided to block US$255 million in security aid to Pakistan.
On 1 January 2018, the relations with United States suffered a major setback when President Trump accused Pakistan of deceit in the War on Terror, claiming the United States had "foolishly given Pakistan more than 33 billion dollars in aid over the last 15 years, and they have given us nothing but lies and deceit, thinking of our leaders as fools. They give safe haven to the terrorists we hunt in Afghanistan, with little help. No more!". The next day, Abbasi chaired a meeting of the NSC which expressed disappointment over Trump remarks and observed that Pakistan cannot be held responsible for US failure in Afghanistan. On 5 January, United States announced suspension of security aid to Pakistan which was estimated to be of at least US$2 billion. Abbasi called US aid insignificant saying “I am not sure what US aid has been talked here. The aid in the last five years at least has been less than $10m a year."
On 23 January, Abbasi travelled to Davos to attend the World Economic Forum. He was accompanied by Foreign Minister Khawaja Asif, Health Minister Saira Afzal Tarar, State Minister for Information Marriyum Aurangzeb and State Minister for Information Technology and Telecommunication Anusha Rahman.
Leaving the office
On 31 May 2018, incumbent PML-N government completed its five years term becoming the country's second civilian dispensation government to complete a five-year term in office (the other being Pakistan Peoples Party). Abbasi was succeeded by caretaker Prime Minister Justice Nasirul Mulk on 1 June 2018 until the country elected the new government in the 2018 general elections which were held on 25 July 2018.
It was noted that Abbasi, as Prime Minister, lived in his own home in Islamabad instead of living in the Prime Minister House.
Post-premiership
On 24 June 2018, Abbasi was allocated PML-N ticket to contest the 2018 general election from Constituency NA-57 (Rawalpindi-I). On 27 June, Abbasi was disqualified for life by an election tribunal in Rawalpindi, under Article 62(1)(f), from contesting election following the rejection of his nomination papers after Abbasi was accused of tampering the documents. However, Abbasi challenged the verdict in Lahore High Court (LHC). On 29 June, his appeal was accepted by a two-member bench, which suspended the tribunal's order against Abbasi and allowed him to contest the election. On 14 September 2018, the appellate tribunal issued its detailed verdict on the barring of Abbasi from contesting the 2018 general election and ruled that Abbasi was not honest and sagacious and hence disqualified for life.
He ran for the seat of the National Assembly as a candidate of PML-N from Constituency NA-57 (Rawalpindi-I) in the 2018 general election, but was unsuccessful. He received 124,703 votes and lost the seat to Sadaqat Ali Abbasi. Abbasi alleged rigging was done in the constituency and filed a petition for a recount which was rejected by Returning Officer.
He was re-elected to the National Assembly as a candidate of PML-N from Constituency NA-124 (Lahore-II) in by-election held on 14 October 2018. He took oath as a member of the National Assembly on 1 November.
Abbasi was granted bail in the Liquified Natural Gas case while Iqbal was granted bail in the Narowal Sports City complex corruption case. Abbasi was on his way to attend a press conference, accompanied by PML-N leader Ahsan Iqbal and spokesperson Marriyum Aurangzeb, when he was arrested on the Thokar Niaz Baig interchange on 18 July 2019. A sedition case was registered against him along with other Pakistan Muslim League (N) leaders in October 2020.
Personal life
Family and personal life
Abbasi belongs to a wealthy political family and hails from Dewal village. He belongs to the Dhund Abbasi clan, which is predominant in northern Punjab.
Abbasi is married and has three sons. His father, Khaqan Abbasi, was an air commodore in the Pakistan Air Force. He entered politics and became a Member of the National Assembly and was inducted as the Federal Minister for Production in the cabinet of Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, until his death in 1988 at Ojhri Camp in a military accident that resulted in more than 100 casualties. His brother, Zahid Abbasi, was also injured in that incident, after which he went into coma and died in 2005, having remained bedridden for 17 years. His sister Sadia Abbasi has been a member of the Senate of Pakistan. His father-in-law, General Muhammad Riaz Abbasi, was the director-general of the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) from 1977 to 1979.
He is also an aviation enthusiast and an amateur skydiver. He is the first Prime Minister of Pakistan to participate in a Pakistan Air Force mission by flying in an F-16 Fighting Falcon and a military helicopter. In an interview, he said he has been a pilot for more than forty years. In December 2017, he became the first prime minister of Pakistan to board a submarine in the open sea where he conducted submarine diving and surfacing procedures which earned him Pakistan Navy insignia worn by qualified submariners.
He is said to be a reserved, media-shy person.
On 8 June 2020, Abbasi tested positive for COVID-19 during the coronavirus pandemic in Pakistan.
Wealth
Abbasi is a businessman and an aviation expert. He was the owner of Airblue which he founded in 2003, but in 2016 he denied being a stakeholder, saying he has not visited the airline's office for years.
He is one of the richest parliamentarians in Pakistan, with a net worth of 1.3 billion to 2.3 billion. His assets include shares in Airblue, a house in Islamabad, a hotel business, and land properties in Murree.
Notes
References
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Living people
Punjabi people
1958 births
Pakistan International Airlines people
Pakistani airline chief executives
Pakistani company founders
Pakistani electrical engineers
Pakistani expatriates in Saudi Arabia
Pakistani expatriates in the United States
Prime Ministers of Pakistan
Pakistani MNAs 1988–1990
Pakistani MNAs 1990–1993
Pakistani MNAs 1993–1996
Pakistani MNAs 1997–1999
Pakistani MNAs 2008–2013
Pakistani MNAs 2013–2018
Pakistani prisoners and detainees
Pakistan Muslim League (N) MNAs
Shahid Khaqan
Businesspeople from Punjab, Pakistan
Commerce Ministers of Pakistan
George Washington University School of Engineering and Applied Science alumni
Lawrence College Ghora Gali alumni
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
People from Murree
Petroleum and Natural Resources Ministers of Pakistan
Politicians from Karachi
Politicians from Rawalpindi
George Washington University School of Business alumni
Pakistani MNAs 2018–2023
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathysphere
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Bathysphere
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The Bathysphere () was a unique spherical deep-sea submersible which was unpowered and lowered into the ocean on a cable, and was used to conduct a series of dives off the coast of Bermuda from 1930 to 1934. The Bathysphere was designed in 1928 and 1929 by the American engineer Otis Barton, to be used by the naturalist William Beebe for studying undersea wildlife. Beebe and Barton conducted dives in the Bathysphere together, marking the first time that a marine biologist observed deep-sea animals in their native environment. Their dives set several consecutive world records for the deepest dive ever performed by a human. The record set by the deepest of these, to a depth of on August 15, 1934, lasted until it was broken by Barton in 1949 in a vessel called Benthoscope.
Origin and design
In 1928, the American naturalist William Beebe was given permission by the British government to establish a research station on Nonsuch Island, Bermuda. Using this station, Beebe planned to conduct an in-depth study of the animals inhabiting an area of ocean, from a depth of to the surface. Although his initial plan called for him to conduct this study by means of helmet diving and dredging, Beebe soon realized that these methods were inadequate for gaining a detailed understanding of deep-sea animals, and began making plans to invent a way to observe them in their native habitat.
As of the late 1920s, the deepest humans could safely descend in diving helmets was several hundred feet. Submarines of the time had descended to a maximum of , but had no windows, making them useless for Beebe's goal of observing deep-sea animals. The deepest in the ocean that any human had descended at this point was wearing an armored suit, but these suits also made movement and observation extremely difficult. What Beebe hoped to create was a deep-sea vessel which both could descend to a much greater depth than any human had descended thus far, and also would enable him to clearly observe and document the deep ocean's wildlife.
Beebe's initial design called for a cylindrical vessel, and articles describing his plans were published in The New York Times. These articles caught the attention of the engineer Otis Barton, who had his own ambition to become a deep-sea explorer. Barton was certain that a cylinder would not be strong enough to withstand the pressure of the depths to which Beebe was planning to descend, and sent Beebe several letters proposing an alternative design to him. So many unqualified opportunists were attempting to join Beebe in his efforts that Beebe tended to ignore most of his mail, and Barton's first efforts to contact him were fruitless. A mutual friend of Barton's and Beebe's eventually arranged a meeting between the two, enabling Barton to present his design to Beebe in person. Beebe approved of Barton's design, and the two of them made a deal: Barton would pay for the vessel and all of the other equipment to go with it, while Beebe would pay for other expenses such as chartering a ship to raise and lower it, and as the owner of the vessel Barton would accompany Beebe on his dives in it.
Barton's design called for a spherical vessel, as a sphere is the best possible shape for resisting high pressure. The sphere had openings for three windows made of fused quartz, the strongest transparent material then available, as well as a entrance hatch which was to be bolted down before a descent. Initially only two of the windows were mounted on the sphere, and a steel plug was mounted in place of the third window. Oxygen was supplied from high-pressure cylinders carried inside the sphere, while pans of soda lime and calcium chloride were mounted inside the sphere's walls to absorb exhaled CO2 and moisture. Air was to be circulated past these trays by the Bathysphere's occupants using palm-leaf fans. The design was originally called a "tank," "bell," or "sphere". Beebe coined the name "bathysphere" using the prefix of the genus Bathytroctes.
The casting of the steel sphere was handled by Watson Stillman Hydraulic Machinery Company in Roselle, New Jersey, and the cord to raise and lower the sphere was provided by John A. Roebling's Sons Company. General Electric provided a lamp which would be mounted just inside one of the windows to illuminate animals outside the sphere, and Bell Laboratories provided a telephone system by which divers inside the sphere could communicate with the surface. The cables for the telephone and to provide electricity for the lamp were sealed inside a rubber hose, which entered the body of the Bathysphere through a stuffing box.
After the initial version of the sphere had been cast in June 1929, it was discovered that it was too heavy to be lifted by the winch which would be used to lower it into the ocean, requiring Barton to have the sphere melted and re-cast. The final, lighter design consisted of a hollow sphere of cast steel which was in diameter. Its weight was 2.25 tons above the water, although its buoyancy reduced this by 1.4 tons when it was submerged, and the of steel cable weighed an additional 1.35 tons.
History of use
The Bathysphere's first dives were conducted from the deck of a former British Naval ship called the Ready, which was towed by a tugboat called the Gladisfen. The winch used to raise and lower the sphere had been salvaged from a third ship, the Arcturus, on which Beebe had led two previous expeditions. One of Beebe's assistants, John Tee-Van, was in charge of operations aboard the two ships, while another, Gloria Hollister, had the duty of communicating with the two divers via the telephone line and taking notes of whatever observations they communicated to her.
1930–1931
Beebe and Barton conducted their first test of the sphere on May 27, 1930, descending to the relatively shallow depth of in order to ensure that everything worked properly. For a second test, they sent the Bathysphere down unmanned to a far greater depth, and found after pulling it up that the rubber hose carrying the electrical and phone cables had become twisted forty-five times around the cable suspending the Bathysphere. After a second unmanned test dive on June 6 in which the cord did not become tangled, Beebe and Barton performed their first deep dive in the Bathysphere, reaching a depth of 803 ft (245 m).
Beebe and Barton conducted several successful dives during the summer months of 1930, documenting deep-sea animals which had never before been seen in their native habitats. During these dives, Beebe became the first person to observe how as one descends into the depths of the ocean, some frequencies of sunlight disappear before others, so that below a certain depth the only colors of light that remain are violet and blue. Beebe and Barton also used the Bathysphere to perform shallower "contour dives", mapping Bermuda's underwater geography. These were particularly dangerous due to the possibility of the Bathysphere smashing against the underwater cliffs which Beebe was mapping, and Barton installed a rudder on the Bathysphere in order to better control its motion during these dives. On June 16, in honor of Hollister's 30th birthday, Beebe allowed her and Tee-Van to perform a dive in the Bathysphere to a depth of , setting a world record for a dive by a woman. Hollister and Tee-Van pleaded to be allowed to descend deeper than this, but Beebe did not allow it out of fear for their safety. In the fall of 1930 Barton donated the Bathysphere to the New York Zoological Society, the primary organization behind Beebe's work.
Beebe attempted to continue his dives in summer of 1931, but was foiled by technical problems and by the weather. The Arcturus winch developed a crack in it, a replacement for it did not arrive until the end of July, and by that time Bermuda was being plagued by storms which made the water too rough for dives to be conducted safely. The onset of the Great Depression also made it more difficult to obtain funding, and in an effort to raise money for continued dives Beebe promised to eventually descend . He also obtained more funds for his dives by writing an article describing them for the June 1931 issue of National Geographic titled "Round Trip to Davy Jones' Locker". Illustrations for the article were painted by Else Bostelmann, a wildlife artist who frequently illustrated the animals that Beebe observed during his dives.
1932
Beebe and Barton resumed their dives in 1932, this time launching the Bathysphere from a single ship called the Freedom instead of the Ready and the Gladisfen. They had arranged a plan with NBC whereby their observations relayed up the phone line would be broadcast nationally over the radio. Barton also hoped to film deep-sea creatures from inside the Bathysphere. Beebe normally observed the depths through one of the Bathysphere's three windows since the searchlight was shone through the second, and a steel plug had been in place of the third, but this was changed when Barton had the steel plug replaced with a third window in order to film through it. When conducting an unmanned test of the Bathysphere with the third window installed, they found it almost entirely full of water. Realizing the immense pressure that the Bathysphere must be under, Beebe ordered his crew to stand clear and began loosening the hatch's bolts to remove the hatch himself. Beebe described the experience that followed this in his book Half Mile Down:
Suddenly, without the slightest warning, the bolt was torn from our hands, and the mass of heavy metal shot across the deck like the shell from a gun. The trajectory was almost straight, and the brass bolt hurtled into the steel winch away across the deck and sheared a half-inch [13 mm] notch gouged out by the harder metal. This was followed by a solid cylinder of water, which slackened after a while into a cataract, pouring out the hole in the door, some air mingled with the water, looking like hot steam, instead of compressed air shooting through ice-cold water.
After replacing the third window with the steel plug and conducting another unmanned test, the same problem happened again. Beebe later described what would have happened to him and Barton had they been inside the sphere on a dive during which it leaked. They would not have had time to drown: due to the immense pressure, "the first few drops of water would have shot through flesh and bone like steel bullets."
After packing the plug in more securely, and sending the Bathysphere down for another test dive in which the plug held, Beebe and Barton set off for their radio dive on September 22. The first part of the radio broadcast was conducted from on board the Freedom, describing Beebe and Barton preparing for their dive, while the second part would be relayed up the phone line from the sphere as Beebe and Barton descended in it. The ocean during this dive was rougher than it had been during any of their previous dives, and as the Freedom rocked on the surface, its motion was transmitted down the steel cable, causing the Bathysphere to swing from side to side like a pendulum. As the Bathysphere descended, Barton succumbed to seasickness and vomited inside it. However, the first half of the radio transmission had already been broadcast, and neither Beebe nor Barton wished to cancel its second half, so they continued their descent.
Beebe and Barton began the second half of their radio broadcast at a depth of . Beebe's observations were transmitted broadcast over the radio as he gradually descended to a depth of . Beebe encountered the Bathysphaera, according to him "wholly different from any deep-sea fish". With the broadcast finished, although they were only short of their promised goal of , the Bathysphere was still rocking wildly and Beebe and Barton were both bruised and bleeding from being knocked about inside it. Shortly after the end of the radio broadcast, Beebe gave the order for them to be pulled back up.
Beebe and Barton conducted several more dives in 1932, including both dives to document deep-sea animals and the shallower contour dives. Although the Bathysphere's third window still was not installed, Beebe periodically shared his window with Barton so that Barton could film through it.
1933–1934
In 1933, the Bathysphere was displayed in a special exhibit for the American Museum of Natural History, and at the Century of Progress World's Fair in Chicago. Beebe shared the fair's Hall of Science with Auguste Piccard, who held the world record for altitude for his ascent into the stratosphere in a hot-air balloon, and the publicity Beebe received for this exposition was even greater than what he had received in his radio dive. Meanwhile, Barton was busy filming more footage for an underwater movie which he hoped to make. Due to the combination of these factors and the Depression, Beebe and Barton did not conduct any dives in 1933.
Beebe's meeting with Piccard gave him an idea about how to obtain funding for additional dives. Piccard's flights had been funded by the National Geographic Society, in return for Piccard having written an article describing them for National Geographic. Thinking that the society might feel similarly about descents into the ocean to how they did about ascents into the sky, Beebe wrote a letter to Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor proposing a similar sponsorship for his Bathysphere dives. Grosvenor wrote back offering to provide $10,000 (equivalent to $ today) for additional dives in return for Beebe keeping his promise to descend a half mile, and writing two articles for National Geographic describing the experience. Despite his reluctance over Grosvenor's terms, Beebe accepted this offer.
Examining the Bathysphere in preparation for resumed dives, Beebe found that it was in need of considerable repair. The steel body of the Bathysphere was as strong as ever, but the quartz windows had developed minute fractures which would prevent them from withstanding the pressure of the deep sea, and one of the copper bolts for the hatch was found to be damaged due to the explosive decompression after the failed test dive in 1932. In addition to replacing these parts of the Bathysphere, Beebe also had it installed with a new system of valves which could regulate the release of oxygen much more precisely than before, and a barometer to show the increase in pressure if oxygen was flowing too quickly. The palm-leaf fans to circulate air past the chemical trays were replaced with a small electric fan, powered by the same cable that powered the searchlight, and the searchlight itself was replaced with a far more powerful one.
With the renovated Bathysphere, Beebe and Barton began preparing for their planned descent of half a mile. Their ship once again was the Ready, this time towed by a tug called the Powerful. During their first test dive, they demanded to be pulled up after descending only because the sphere had begun to leak; they soon discovered this was because Tee-Van had neglected to fasten all of the bolts that hold the hatch shut. Another problem occurred on their second test dive, during which they discovered that the lower end of the rubber hose holding the power cable and phone line had begun to deteriorate, and they spent the rest of the day reversing the hose's direction so that the end which was deteriorating would be the end above the water. For a third test dive, they sent down the Bathysphere unoccupied but with Barton's camera, which had not yet captured any footage of deep-sea animals, pointed at the center window. Most of the footage from Barton's camera was unintelligible, but it captured one image of a deep-sea fish, and more importantly it came up dry.
On August 11, 1934, Beebe and Barton made a descent of , setting a new world record. Beebe used this dive as an opportunity to test the predictions made by quantum mechanics that different colors of light would behave differently due to their varying wavelengths. Beebe carried a painted spectroscope to measure the rate at which the various colors of light vanished as he descended. This dive was also Beebe's most successful yet in terms of the variety of fish he encountered, some of which were new to science, like Bathyembryx and Bathysidus. Although he halted this descent only short of their goal of half a mile, Beebe later explained that he considered the observations he made from the Bathysphere to be more important than the depth records that he set.
On August 15, 1934, Barton and Beebe descended to , fulfilling their promise to descend half a mile. At this depth the entire cable was unwound from the winch used to raise and lower the sphere, preventing it from being lowered any deeper. Although Beebe wished to remain at that depth to observe for half an hour, the Readys captain would not allow this and pulled them up after five minutes. The record set during this dive remained unbroken until 1949, when Barton broke it with a descent in a new deep-sea vessel he created called the Benthoscope.
Beebe and Barton conducted several more shallower dives during the rest of the 1934 season. Later on the same day as the half-mile dive, Barton and Hollister descended to , setting a new world record for a woman diver that would stand for three decades. The Bathysphere's final dive was performed by Beebe and Barton on August 27, to a depth of .
Although Beebe had initially agreed to write two articles for National Geographic in exchange for the National Geographic Society's sponsorship, after he had written the first of the two he and the magazine's editor agreed that it was not interesting enough to be a stand-alone story, and that it would be better to combine the two into a single article. Beebe's account of his record-setting dive was published in the December 1934 issue of National Geographic, along with sixteen of Bostelmann's paintings, under the title "A Half Mile Down: Strange Creatures Beautiful and Grotesque as Figments of Fancy, Reveal Themselves at Windows of Bathysphere". The text of this article also became the climactic chapter of Beebe's book Half Mile Down, which appeared in bookstores in time for Christmas of that year and was an immediate best-seller.
After 1934
Beebe continued to conduct marine research for the rest of the 1930s, but after 1934 he felt that he had seen what he wanted to see using the Bathysphere, and that further dives were too expensive for whatever knowledge he gained from them to be worth the cost. With the onset of World War II, Bermuda was transformed into a military base, destroying much of the natural environment and making further research there impractical.
After Beebe stopped using the Bathysphere, it remained the property of the New York Zoological Society. It remained in storage until the 1939 New York World's Fair, where it was the centerpiece of the society's exhibit. During World War II, the sphere was loaned to the United States Navy, which used it to test the effects of underwater explosions. The Bathysphere was next put on display at the New York Aquarium in Coney Island in 1957. In 1994, the Bathysphere was removed from the Aquarium for a renovation, and languished in a storage yard under the Coney Island Cyclone until 2005, when the Zoological Society (now known as the Wildlife Conservation Society) returned it to its display at the aquarium. The Bermuda Aquarium, Museum and Zoo (to which Beebe had given some of Bostlemann's original drawings) has long displayed a copy of the bathysphere, and another reproduction is on display at the National Geographic Museum.
Legacy of dives
Although the technology of the Bathysphere was eventually rendered obsolete by more advanced diving vessels, Beebe and Barton's Bathysphere represented the first time that researchers attempted to observe deep-sea animals in their native environment, setting a precedent which many others would follow. Beebe's Bathysphere's dives also served as an inspiration for Jacques Piccard, the son of the balloonist Auguste Piccard, to perform his own record-setting descent in 1960 to a depth of using a self-powered submersible called a bathyscaphe. The Bathysphere itself served as a model for later submersibles such as the DSV Alvin.
Beebe named several new species of deep-sea animals on the basis of observations he made during his Bathysphere dives, initiating a controversy which has never been completely resolved. The naming of a new species ordinarily requires obtaining and analyzing a type specimen, something which was obviously impossible from inside the Bathysphere. Some of Beebe's critics claimed that these fish were illusions resulting from condensation on the Bathysphere's window, or even that Beebe willfully made them up, although the latter would have been strongly at odds with Beebe's reputation as an honest and rigorous scientist. Barton, who was resentful that newspaper articles about his and Beebe's Bathysphere dives often failed to mention him, added to ichthyologists' skepticism by writing letters to newspapers that contained wildly inaccurate accounts of their observations. While many of Beebe's observations from the Bathysphere have since been confirmed by advances in undersea photography, it is unclear whether others fit the description of any known sea animal. One possibility is that although the animals described by Beebe indeed exist, so much remains to be discovered about life in the deep ocean that these animals have yet to be seen by anyone other than him.
In popular culture
Titans of the Deep
Barton's undersea movie was released in 1938 under the title Titans of the Deep, and prominently featured the Bathysphere. The movie was not well received. Although William Beebe's name appeared in the movie's credits, he emphatically denied any part in its production, stating that it was entirely Barton's work.
Other appearances
In the Stephen Sondheim ballad "I'm Still Here" from Follies chronicling intra-war American pop culture, the aging movie star Carlotta sings that "Beebe's Bathysphere" gave her heebie-jeebies.
Although the term "Bathysphere" originally referred specifically to the vessel used by Beebe and Barton, more recently movies and video games have begun to use the term "bathysphere" for any spherical deep-sea vessel lowered on a cord.
In the movie Warlords of Atlantis, a vessel called a bathysphere is the means of transportation for the characters in and out of the Atlantis.
In the video game BioShock, a bathysphere is the means of transportation to and around the undersea city of Rapture.
In the video game Psychonauts, a vessel called a bathysphere is used for transport to an area at the bottom of the camp's lake.
In the episode "Twenty Years to Midnight" of the animated television series The Venture Bros., Action Johnny is found living in a bathysphere, feeding his addiction to heroin and other narcotics.
See also
References
Bibliography
Descent: The Heroic Discovery of the Abyss by Bradford Matsen. (Vintage: 2006).
External links
"Three Hundred Fathoms Beneath The Sea", October 1930, Popular Mechanics
Crewed submersibles
American inventions
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Martian (The War of the Worlds)
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The Martians, also known as the Invaders, are the race of extraterrestrials and the main antagonists from the H.G. Wells 1898 novel The War of the Worlds. They are the main antagonists of the novel, and their efforts to exterminate the populace of the Earth and claim the planet for themselves drive the plot and present challenges for the novel's human characters. They are notable for their use of extraterrestrial weaponry far in advance of that of mankind at the time of the invasion.
In the novel
Little about the Martians is definitive, the story being told by a first-person narrator.
The Martians are described as octopus-like creatures: the "body" consisting of a disembodied head nearly across, having two eyes; a V-shaped, beak-like mouth; and two branches each of eight 'almost whip-like' tentacles, grouped around the mouth, referred to as the 'hands'. They reproduce asexually, by "budding" off from a parent. Internally, the Martians consist of a brain, lungs, heart, and blood vessels; they have no organs for digestion, and therefore sustain themselves on Earth by mechanically transfusing blood via pipettes from other animals, notably humans. The ear, a single tympanic membrane located on the back of the head, is believed "useless" in Earth's denser atmosphere. The Martians' arrival on Earth is aboard large, cylindrical spacecraft launched from some kind of immense cannon on Mars. Their chief weapon of war is the 'Heat-Ray', a directed-energy weapon capable of incinerating any organism it strikes. This is mounted on an articulated arm attached to the front of the tall tripod, called a 'fighting-machine' in Wells' novel, which travels across the landscape destroying humans and their habitat. A secondary weapon, the "Black Smoke," is a toxic gas released from canisters launched at a distance from Bazooka-like tubes, referred to in the novel as a "gun," which kills humans and animals alike; it is rendered harmless by Martian high-pressure steam jets and water. Mention is also made of a Martian aircraft, but it is hardly seen, except to possibly spread the deadly Black Smoke from above over a wider area. A Red weed (or Red Creeper) is left as an indictor of their presence with floral or fungus ties to their home-world.
Evidence of a second race of Martian appear in the dominant race's cylindrical transport vessels, presumably for use as their food supply while in transit; but they are all killed before the Martians reach Earth. These secondary Martians are bipedal, nearly tall, and have "round, erect heads, and large eyes in flinty sockets"; however, their fragile physical structure, made up of weak skeletons and muscles, would have been broken by Earth's heavier gravitational pull. It is possible that these creatures are not native Martians, but similar to the Selenites described in Wells's other interplanetary work, The First Men in the Moon.
Based on their physical features, the Martians might be the descendants of a species similar to human beings, that evolution has reduced to only a large brain and head and two groupings of eight tentacles (hands). They are described as sluggish under terrestrial gravity, heavier than on Mars. It is reported that several Martians attempt to "stand" on their tentacles, implying that they are capable of locomotion in this manner while in Mars' lighter gravity, but not on Earth.
Communication between the Martians is never made evident, but the narrator, as he sees Martians working together without audible means, concludes that they use telepathy. He makes mention of a "queer hooting" sound, but attributes it to the exhalation of air prior to fatally transfusing blood from their human victims. Some evidence of audible communication is associated with the Martian Fighting-Machine, which are described emitting siren-like calls, and the repeated "Ulla, ulla" call (similar to a distress signal) that echoes throughout London after the mass death from bacterial infection of the Martians.
Despite their advancement, the Martians' technology lacks the wheel, and it is implied they are ignorant of disease and decomposition. It is theorized that their advanced technology eliminated whatever indigenous diseases were present on Mars, and so they no longer remembered their effects. Ultimately, their lack of knowledge or preparation against any bacteria indigenous to Earth, causes their destruction here (though the epilogue states they may have successfully invaded Venus) by what Wells described as "putrefactive bacteria," which digests organic materials upon death.
In other adaptations
Most adaptations of H.G. Wells' novel incorporate Martians as the invading race. A few draw upon their description from the original novel such as the infamous radio adaptation, as well as musical version, and Pendragon film adaptations.
Most versions of the Martians differ from Wells' version. Despite a lack of verbal language in the novel (with the exception of the battle cry, "Ulla"), for example, many versions give them one nevertheless.
Edison's Conquest
In one of the first sequels, 1898's unauthorized Edison's Conquest of Mars, a good deal of text is spent describing the Martians. In illustrations and descriptions, they are made to resemble bug-eyed, 15-foot-tall human figures, and have a vocal speech. Around 7500 BC they visited Earth, and constructed the Pyramids of Giza and Great Sphinx of Giza as a memorial to their leader. When a plague forced them to return to Mars, they brought with them a number of humans from the Fertile Crescent (transported to Egypt), whose descendants continued to serve as slaves to the Martians until they were wiped out in the aftermath of the Martian invasion of Earth, due to Martian fears of humans. At the same time as The War of the Worlds, the Martians were said to be involved in a war against the giant inhabitants of Ceres. The Martian leadership is described as:
Also in Edison's Conquest of Mars, a number of Martians were said to have managed to return to Mars after their compatriots died out, by building another space cylinder and launching it from Bergen County, New Jersey. The blast of the launch is said to be large enough to have destroyed the remains of New York City that the Martians had left alone.
DC Comics
In a crossover with the early Superman mythos, Lex Luthor helps the Martians, although he eventually betrays them. Scarlet Traces reverses this, with a Martian survivor helping the British prepare for a counter-invasion of Mars.
Marvel Comics
In the Marvel comic book Killraven: Warrior of the Worlds, the Martians return to Earth in the year 2001 in an alternate, post apocalypse version of the Marvel universe. Killraven, alongside other heroes such as Spider-Man fight the Martians and their human slaves.
The Martians would later have a small appearance in 2010's The Avengers volume 4. When Kang's interference of the timestream shatters it, random events of history occur in present-day New York City, including the arrival of Killraven and the Martians, piloting their Tripod walking machines. They are defeated by Thor.
The Martians later appeared in 2015 in All-New Invaders #11-15. The story was collected under the title "The Martians are Coming".
1953 film
In the 1953 film adaptation, the Martians are short, brown creatures having three-fingered hands with suction cups at the end of long arms and a cyclopean eye divided into three sections: one red, one green, and one blue. The bottom-half of the creature is never fully shown; but blueprints show three legs having each a single suction-cup toe, similar to those on their fingers; other art shows two legs. No description of the alien's internal structure is given; but they are revealed to have blood, and their anemic blood cells are viewed by scientists under a microscope. As in other versions of the story, the Martians succumb to terrestrial bacteria. The aliens appear to have no use for human beings, unlike the original book's Martians who also used them as a blood supply.
Asylum films
In the Asylum film H.G. Wells' War of the Worlds, also known as "Invasion", the Martians resemble a short, green, disc-like head with four long tentacles acting as legs. Their feet have mouths having the ability to spit a deadly, corrosive acid. Inside these mouths are three tongues that closely resemble the Martians' fingers on the 1953 film version. On the DVD's Behind the Scenes feature, actor Jake Busey describes the aliens as looking like "floating pool chairs". It would appear that these Martians also have a need for human blood, and tend to appear mostly at night (possibly because sunlight on Mars is weaker than that on Earth). The cause of their deaths is uncertain, but it is presumably a virus. The main character, George Herbert, injects an alien with a rabies vaccine, with hope that "life fighting life" can stop them when guns and bombs have failed. At the end of the film, the aliens curiously stand paralysed when infected. Survivors confirm that they were infected by an airborne virus. They are not given the name "Martian" in the film, but are only named "aliens" once in the film, and a few times as "demons" by a Pastor. Their machines have six legs and resemble a crab, similar to the 'handling-machine' of the original novel.
In the sequel War of the Worlds 2: The Next Wave, the antagonists are the "squid-walkers", a cybernetic race of tripods controlled by a single entity inside their mothership. Inside the mothership, humans are kept alive and their blood is filtered, homogenised, and fed to the aliens. They are killed by infected blood injected into the mothership's core, telepathically shutting down the Tripods.
Pendragon Pictures film
In the film H.G. Wells' The War of the Worlds, the Martians are large, bullish creatures, keeping the two large eyes and tentacles described in the book; but do not seem to possess the beak-like mouth. They meet the same fate as the originals, having caught Earthly diseases. Their fighting-machines are extremely tall, with very long silver legs and numerous appendages, and emit a similar sound to the "Ulla" Wells described. The aliens crash to Earth in cylinders, which more closely resemble a meteorite (a similar aspect was used in the 1953 film adaptation), and spread their red weed during the invasion. They feed on human blood, extracted from the human prisoners via a Handling-machine. For these reasons, a character names them "vampires."
Other
In Sherlock Holmes's War of the Worlds, in which Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes, Dr. Watson, and Professor Challenger battle the aliens, it is hinted that the Martians may have accelerated their evolution using selective breeding and eugenics, and that their original body type may have resembled the form of the tripods. It is also made clear that the aliens are not Martians, but originate from a more distant planet flooded with water, which puts the long legs of the Tripods into motion.
In Rainbow Mars they also appear as one of the many races from inhabiting Mars; killed not by bacteria but by the higher gravity of Earth, which caused organ ruptures and internal bleeding. They are mentioned as having launched two invasions of Earth, one in the early 20th century and the second in the 1950s (to correspond with the novel and 1953 movie).
In the Wold Newton family, they are mentioned as possibly related to the kaldanes and Cthulhuoids.
The Mars People from the game Metal Slug are inspired by the designs of the Martians.
The novel series known as The Tripods features a race of extraterrestrials invading Earth by means of gigantic, three-legged machines compatible with Wells' description of "a great body of machinery on a tripod stand"; but these are not used as war-machines, and the extraterrestrials commanding them do not use humans as prey.
Non-Martians
Not all of the antagonistic invaders are from Mars. Because science has revealed that the red planet is devoid of intelligent life, the concept of using Martians is sometimes dropped from some adaptations as it is no longer deemed realistic.
TV series
One of the earliest known to take a new spin on the invaders was in a pilot presentation made by George Pal for an unrealized War of the Worlds TV series. Though Pal's 1953 film is established as a basis for the look of the invaders and their technology (their war machines bearing no clear dissimilarities), there is no seeming intended continuation. These invaders, depicted only in production art, only differ in certain detail as they appear leaner and their cyclopean eye sporting apparently only a single color. The most notable difference is that these aliens are not stated to be Martians. In part of the series' set-up, humanity sends ships to pursue the defeated invaders. Instead of chasing them to Mars, they are tracked down to the distant Alpha Centauri. It is then revealed that these aliens are not even the main villains, but rather an underling race to a greater force that is not revealed in the presentation.
The actual War of the Worlds TV series that was made, a sequel to the 1953 film, goes into more detail with its invaders. When the show begins, there is no mention of Mars (with the exception of one episode in which characters are confusing them with the Martians of the radio broadcast). Though some minor details are given away to indicate that their home planet was not Mars, it is not confirmed on-screen until midway through the season that they originate from a world named Mor-Tax. With their beautiful planet becoming uninhabitable from a dying star, they invade Earth with plans to take it over to preserve the traits that it shares with their old world. Their society is highly collective with the only sense of division in the form of their ternary caste system: a high-ranking and seemingly infallible ruling class (itself divided between the supreme leadership of a Council and their Advocacy to the lower classes), a military force in the middle, and scientists relegated to the bottom. They have the ability to "possess" human bodies through a process of cell-phase matching, which allows them to carry out their guerrilla war with Humanity undetected. They are incredibly intelligent, able to communicate in seconds over light-years of space, create effective booby traps, and even adapt seemingly normal human objects for their own purposes. However, their intelligence lends itself to their one true weakness: their hubris, as it is established that they often claim victory before it is accomplished, do not admit to their mistakes, and with the exception of the Advocacy, those who fail are executed.
2005 film
Virtually nothing is known about the alien invaders in Steven Spielberg's 2005 film adaptation of War of the Worlds. On the DVD's 'Behind the Scenes' feature, Spielberg says Physiologically, these creatures have greenish/grey-colored skin, and are tripodal. Each limb ends with three fingers (resembling those from Byron Haskin's 1953 film version), and they also have two small limbs, also with three fingers, on their chest (similar to a theropod, or to the Xenomorph queen). The biological needs of this race are largely unknown. They somehow "ride lightning" in small transport pods during a storm to reach their buried Tripods. They require human blood; but only as part of their xenoforming project. Throughout the film, their tripods spill blood that is presumably connected to the invaders' needs (indeed, in the script David Koepp refers to it as "lifeblood", though it is described as rose-colored, rather than the film's orange). Their red weed (or creeper) is left behind as residue of their Tripod experiments. In the climactic scene of the film, a downed tripod opens a hatch that belches the liquid before one of the sickly creatures crawls forth. The death of these invaders is evident as they seemingly dehydrate upon their death; but this occurs only in the end, and thus may be a result of their exposure to bacteria. These aliens do have a language, uttered amongst themselves at some point, and there is logographic writing seen on their tripods.
Other
In Sherlock Holmes' War of the Worlds, Professor Challenger theorizes to Sherlock Holmes that the Martians came from another, wetter planet due to their seeming familiarity with the ocean while battling the Thunder Child; their small lungs (which would have been inadequate in Mars' atmosphere); and the fact that no construction was evident on Mars before the 1894 opposition. Their apparent struggle to move in Earth's gravity is given as a mixture of caution and embellishment in the accounts of Wells, "the known atheist and radical". Challenger further speculates that they came from another solar system in the galaxy.
In the Scarlet Traces comic, it is eventually revealed that the Martians came from a planet that exploded to form the asteroid belt; they then settled on Mars, driving the native species into extinction before launching similar wars against the races of Mercury, Venus, the Moon, and finally Earth. (A similar concept appears in Diane Duane's A Wizard of Mars.)
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume II, also has the Martians being as foreign to the existing Martian civilization as they are to Earth, and evacuate the planet to conquer Earth after losing a war against the forces of John Carter and Gullivar Jones. It is said that the material they use to build their machines is secreted by the creatures themselves. By the year 2009, the Martians are believed by a post-Big Brother society to have been fiction.
In "To Mars and Providence" (the H. P. Lovecraft-inspired entry in War of the Worlds: Global Dispatches, written by Don Webb) it is stated that the Martians are an extrasolar race with similarities to both the Elder Things and Great Race of Yith. Edward Guimont argued that the actual Lovecraft drew inspiration for his Cthulhu from Wells' Martians.
In the Killraven comics, the "Martians" are an extrasolar race who used Mars as a staging area.
The octopus-like aliens of the 1978 game Space Invaders were inspired by Wells' Martians, as game designer Tomohiro Nishikado was a fan of the novel.
Names
Wells never gave the Martians a specific name.
One of the earliest names of the race was the Mor-Taxans, from the 1980s TV show. In Larry Niven's Rainbow Mars they are called "Softfingers", and in The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume II, the native Martians of the Barsoom books refer to them as "molluscs", "mollusc invaders", or "leeches", while Hawley Griffin contemptuously refers to them as "afterbirths".
George Alec Effinger's "Mars: The Home Front" in the shared world anthology War of the Worlds: Global Dispatches, has Edgar Rice Burroughs' inhabitants of Barsoom, Burroughs' vision of Mars, refer to Wells' Martians as "sarmaks", which name has become somewhat popular and appears in the Wold Newton universe and in articles in ERBZine, the official Burroughs fanzine.
In Ian McDonald's short story "The Queen of Night's Aria", a sequel to The War of the Worlds published in the 2013 George R. R. Martin and Gardner Dozois anthology Old Mars, the Wells Martians are named the Uliri.
Bibliography
Gosling, John. Waging the War of the Worlds. Jefferson, North Carolina, McFarland, 2009 (paperback, ).
References
External links
'War Of The Worlds Invasion' Large site on the history and influence of The War Of The Worlds
The War of the Worlds
Characters in British novels of the 19th century
Characters in written science fiction
Extraterrestrial characters in films
Extraterrestrial characters in literature
Extraterrestrial supervillains
Fictional genocide perpetrators
Fictional Martians
Fictional mass murderers
Horror film villains
Literary characters introduced in 1898
Literary villains
Science fiction film characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%20%28surname%29
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Bell (surname)
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Bell is a surname common in English speaking countries with several word-origins.
The surname is derived from the Middle English bell. This surname likely originated as an occupational name for a bell ringer or bell maker; or else from a topographic name for someone who lived by an actual bell, or by a house sign or inn sign. In other cases, the surname Bell is derived from the mediaeval personal name Bel. The masculine form of this personal name is derived from the Old French beu, bel ("handsome"); the feminine form of the name represents a short form of Isobel. In some cases, the surname originates from a nickname, or descriptive name, derived from the Old French bel ("beautiful", "fair"). In some cases, the surname is derived from placenames in Norway (Bell) and Germany (Bell in Rhineland; and possibly Belle, in Westphalia). The surname Bell is also sometimes an Anglicized form of the German Böhl or Böll.
Early attested forms of the surname when of a patronymic origin include: Ailuuardus "filius Belli", in 1086; Ricardus "filius Bell", in 1279; and Osbertus "filius Belle", in 1297. Early attested forms of the surname, when originating from an occupational name include: Seaman "Belle", in 1181–1187; and Serlo "Belle", in 1190. An early attested form of the surname when originating from someone who lived near a sign of a bell is: John "atte Belle", in 1332. Early attested forms of the surname when originating from nickname include: Hugo "bel" in 1148; and Robertus "bellus", and Robert "le bel", both in 1186–1200. Today the surname Bell can be found in many parts of the world. It is the 67th most popular surname in the United States and the 36th most common surname in Scotland.
A
Aaron Bell (musician) (1922–2003), American musician
Aaron Bell (politician) (born 1980), British Conservative politician
Acton Bell, pseudonym of Anne Brontë
Adino Nye Bell (1866–1956), American politician
Adolphus Bell (1944–2013), American musician
Adrian Bell (1901–1980), English journalist and farmer; father of Martin Bell
Al Bell (born 1940), American musical artist and executive
Alden John Bell (1904–1982), Roman Catholic bishop
Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922), Scottish-Canadian-American inventor, teacher, engineer, and scientist, son of Alexander Melville Bell
Alexander Melville Bell (1819–1905), Scottish-American philologist, researcher and teacher, father of Alexander Graham Bell
Alexandra Bell (artist) (born 1983), American artist
Alexandra Bell (athlete) (born 1992), British middle-distance runner
Alison Bell (disambiguation), 7 people including
Alison Bell (actress) (born 1978), Australian actress
Alison Bell (journalist) (born 1966), English journalist and radio presenter
Allan Bell (born 1947), Manx politician, Chief Minister of the Isle of Man
Allan Bell (sociolinguist) (born 1947), New Zealand sociolinguist
Allan Gordon Bell (born 1953), Canadian contemporary classical composer
Alphonzo E. Bell Sr. (1875–1947), American oil millionaire; father of Alphonzo E. Bell Jr.
Alphonzo E. Bell Jr. (1914–2004), American politician
Amanda Bell (born 1988), American Mixed Martial Artist
Amir Bell (born 1996), American basketball player in the Israel Basketball Premier League
Andrew Bell (disambiguation), 9 people, including:
Andrew Bell (engraver) (1726–1809), Scottish co-founder of the Encyclopædia Britannica
Andrew Bell (educationalist) (1753–1832), Scottish pioneer of mutual instruction and author of the Madras System of Education
Andrew Bell (judge) (born 1966), Australian judge
Andy Bell (disambiguation), 9 people, including:
Andy Bell (freestyle motocross rider) (born 1975), freestyle motocross rider
Andy Bell (musician) (born 1970), guitarist with Ride, Hurricane #1 and bassist with Oasis
Andy Bell (singer) (born 1964), singer with synth pop band Erasure
Angellica Bell (born 1976), English television and radio presenter
Anthea Bell (1936–2018), English translator of literary works including Asterix
Anthony Bell (American football) (born 1964), Retired American gridiron football player
Anthony Bell (director) (born 1970), American animator, film director and screenwriter
Aran Bell (born 1998) American ballet dancer
Archie Bell (singer) (born 1944), American musician
Arthur Bell (disambiguation), 11 people, including:
Art Bell (1945–2018), American broadcaster and author
Arthur Hornbui Bell (1891–1973), Grand Dragon of the Ku Klux Klan in New Jersey
Arthur Bell (engineer) (1856–1943), New Zealand engineer
Arthur Bell (journalist) (1939-1984), American journalist, author and LGBT rights activist
See also
Alexandra Bell (disambiguation) (2 people)
B
Beau Bell (1907–1977), American baseball player
Beau Bell (American football), (born 1986), American gridiron football player
Ben Bell, New Zealand politician
Benny Bell (1906–1999), American singer-songwriter
Bert Bell (1895–1959), American football player, coach, and executive
Billy Bell (disambiguation), 15 people including:
Bill Bell (mayor) (born 1941), American politician
Bill Bell (American football) (1947–2022), American gridiron football player
Bill Bell (businessman) (1932–2013), English football chairman
Billy Bell (ice hockey) (1891–1952), Canadian ice hockey player
Billy Bell (politician) (1935–2020), British politician
Bob Bell (disambiguation), multiple people
Bobby Bell (born 1940), American footballer
Bradley Bell (born 1964), American television writer and producer
Brenda Bell (1891–1979), pioneer amateur radio operator from New Zealand
Brendan Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Brendan Bell (ice hockey) (born 1983), Canadian ice hockey defenceman
Brendan Bell (politician) (born 1971), Canadian territorial level politician and former cabinet minister
Brendan Bell (footballer) (1910–?), Scottish footballer
Brian Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Brian Bell (born 1968), American musician
Brian Bell (American football) (born 1984), American football fullback
Brian Bell (basketball) (born 1989), American wheelchair basketball player
Brian Bell (businessman) (1928–2010), Australian-born businessman in Papua New Guinea
Brian Douglas Bell (1930–2016), New Zealand ornithologist
Brian Murray (actor) (1937–2018), South African actor born Brian Bell
Buddy Bell (born 1951), American baseball player
Burton C. Bell (born 1969), American rock singer
See also
Beau Bell (disambiguation)
C
Cammy Bell (born 1986), Scottish international football goalkeeper
Carey Bell (1936–2007), American blues harpist
Caroline M. Bell (1874–1970), American artist
Catherine Bell (actress) (born 1968), British-American actress
Catherine J. Bell (born 1954), Canadian politician
Charles Bell (1774–1842), Scottish surgeon
Charles Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Charles Bell (surveyor) (1813–1882), Scottish surveyor, general, artist, and designer
Charles Bell (painter), (1935–1995), American Photorealist who created large scale still lifes.
Charles H. Bell (politician) (1823–1893), American politician
Charles H. Bell (naval officer) (1798–1875), United States naval officer
Charlie Bell (baseball) (1868–1937), Major League Baseball pitcher
Charlie Bell (businessman) ( – 2005), Australian businessman
Charlie Bell (basketball) (born 1979), United States basketball player
Chichester A. Bell, American sound engineer
Chris Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Chris Bell (American musician) (1951–1978), American musician
Chris Bell (director) (born 1972), American director, producer and writer
Chris Bell (politician) (born 1959), American politician
Christopher Bell (racing driver) (born 1994), American racing driver
Clive Bell (1881–1964), British art critic and philosopher
Coby Bell (born 1975), American actor and producer
Colin Bell, multiple people
Cool Papa Bell, American baseball player
Currer Bell, pseudonym of Charlotte Brontë
D
Daniel Bell (1919–2011), American sociologist
Danna C. Bell, American archivist and librarian
D'Anthony Bell (born 1996), American football player
David Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
David Bell (baseball) (born 1972), American baseball player
David Bell (basketball) (born 1981), American basketball player
David Bell (television) (1936–1990), Scottish TV producer and director
David Bell (field hockey player), Australian field hockey player
David Bell (footballer, born 1984) (born 1984), English-born Irish footballer
David Bell (footballer, born 1985) (born 1985), Irish footballer
David Bell (VC), Irish soldier
David Robert Bell (born 1959), Vice-Chancellor of the University of Reading
Dean Bell (born 1962), New Zealand rugby league footballer and coach
Demetress Bell (born 1984), American football offensive tackle
Dennis Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Dennis Bell (Medal of Honor recipient) (1866–1953), Buffalo Soldier of the Spanish–American War
Dennis Bell (basketball) (born 1951), American basketball player
Derek Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Derek Bell (musician) (1935–2002), harpist
Derek Bell (auto racer) (born 1941), British racing driver
Derek Bell (baseball player) (born 1968), American baseball player
Derrick Bell, American law professor
Diane Bell (disambiguation), multiple people
Dillon Bell (1822–1898), New Zealand politician
Don Bell (disambiguation), multiple people
Doug Bell (game designer) (born 1961), American computer game developer
Drake Bell (born 1986), American actor and guitarist
Drew Tyler Bell (born 1986), American actor and performer
Duncan Bell, English rugby union player
Duncan Bell (actor), Scottish actor
E
Earl Bell (born 1955), American pole vaulter
Edith Anna Bell (1870–1929) Irish sculptor
Edward Bell (disambiguation), multiple people
Edmond Bell, English MP
Eileen Bell (born 1943), Northern Ireland politician
Eileen Bell (artist) (1907–2005), British artist
Elizabeth Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Elizabeth Bell (doctor) (1869–1934), Ireland's first woman doctor
Elizabeth Bell (actress) (1941–2012), British actress who played stage and screen
Elizabeth Bell (composer) (1928–2016), founder of the New York Women Composers, Inc.
Ellis Bell, pseudonym of Emily Brontë
Emily Bell (born 1965), British journalist
Emma Bell (born 1986), American actress
Eric Temple Bell (1883–1960), American mathematician
Ernest Bell (animal rights activist) (1851–1933), British author, animal rights activist, humanitarian, and vegetarian
Ernest Bell (footballer), English footballer
F
Francis Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Francis Bell (actor) (1944–1994), UK-born New Zealand actor
Francis Bell (New Zealand politician) (1851–1936), Prime Minister of New Zealand
Francis Bell (engineer) (1813–1879), British railway engineer
Francis Campbell Bell (1892–1968), politician in Manitoba, Canada
Frank Bell, multiple people, including:
Frank Bell (baseball) (1863–1891), Major League Baseball player
Frank T. Bell (1883–1970), U.S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries (1933–1939)
Frederick William Bell (1875–1954), Australian soldier
G
Gary Bell (baseball) (born 1936), American Major League Baseball pitcher
Gary Bell (footballer) (born 1947), English (soccer) footballer
Geoff Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Geoff Bell (rugby league), Australian rugby league footballer
Geoff Bell (actor) (born 1963), British actor
Geoffrey Bell (born 1939), economist, banker
Geoffrey Bell (cricketer) (1896–1984), English cricketer and educationalist
George Bell (disambiguation), one of several people including
George Bell (Australian politician) (1872–1944), Australian politician
George Bell (pitcher) (1874–1941), American baseball player
George Bell (painter) (1878–1966), Australian painter
George Bell (bishop) (1883–1958), Anglican bishop of Chichester
George Irving Bell (1926–2000), American physicist and mountain climber
George Bell (outfielder) (born 1959), Dominican baseball player
Gertrude Bell (1868–1926), British archaeologist, writer & spy
Gladys Kathleen Bell (1882–1965), English painter
Glen Bell, American founder of Taco Bell restaurant chain
Gordon Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Gordon Bell (born 1934), computer engineer
Gordon Bell (artist), British comic strip artist
Gordon Bell (QNX), Canadian computer scientist
Gordon Bell (ice hockey), ice hockey player
Graeme Bell (1914–2012), Australian pianist, composer and band leader
Graham Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Graham Bell (advocate), Scottish advocate
Graham E. Bell, astronomer
Graham J. Bell, English FA accredited referee and radio personality
Graham Bell (artist) (1910–1943), painter
Graham Bell (biologist) (born 1949), English academic, writer and evolutionary biologist
Graham Bell (footballer) (born 1955), English footballer
Graham Bell (singer) (1948–2008), English pop and rock singer
Graham Bell (skier) (born 1966), Olympic skier
Grant Bell, Australian rugby league coach
Griffin Bell (1918–2009), American politician
Gus Bell (1928–1995), American Baseball player
H
Harriet Bell (1923–1995), American advocate for disability rights
Hazel K. Bell, English indexer and writer
Heath Bell (born 1977), American baseball player
Helen Bell, English folk musician
Henri Lobe Bell, Duala ruler in Cameroon
Henry Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Henry Bell (engineer) (1767–1830), Scottish engineer
Henry Glassford Bell (1803–1874), Scottish lawyer, poet and historian
Henry H. Bell (1808–1868), American sailor
Henry Lawrie Bell (1929–1984), Australian ornithologist
Hi Bell (1897–1949), professional baseball player
Hilari Bell (born 1958), American fantasy writer
Hilary Bell (swimmer) (born 1991), swimmer from Canada
Hilary Bell (writer) (born 1966), Australian writer
Hilary Bell (television producer) (1965–2010), reality television pioneer
Hugh Bell (disambiguation)
Hunter Bell, American book author
I
Ian Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Ian Bell (journalist) (1956–2015), Scottish journalist and writer
Ian Bell (literaturist) (born 1947), professor of American literature at Keele University
Ian Bell (musician) (born 1954), Canadian musician
Ian Bell (programmer) (born 1962), British computer programmer
Isaac Lowthian Bell, British industrialist
J
J. Ernest Bell II (born 1941), American politician and lawyer
J. Franklin Bell (1856–1919), U.S. Army Chief of Staff (1906–1910)
Jack Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Jack Bell (footballer, born 1868), footballer with Everton F.C.
Jacob Bell (disambiguation), multiple people
James Franklin Bell, US Army Major General, Medal Of Honor recipient, US Army Chief of Staff
James Spencer-Bell (1818–1872), British politician
Jamie Bell (born 1986), British actor
James Bell (basketball) (born 1992), Basketball Player
Jane Bell (disambiguation), multiple people
Jay Bell (born 1965), American baseball player
Jeanne Bell (1888–1978), British artist
Jeff Bell (disambiguation), multiple people
Jocelyn Bell Burnell (born 1943), British astronomer
Joel Bell (born 1985), professional Canadian football player
Johann Adam Schall von Bell, German Jesuit missionary
John Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
John Bell (Bishop of Worcester) (died 1556), English clergyman
John Bell (New Hampshire) (1765–1836), American politician, Governor of New Hampshire
John Bell (Tennessee politician) (1797–1869), American politician from Tennessee
John Bell (explorer) (1799–1868), Canadian explorer and governor
John Bell (Australian actor), Australian Shakespearean actor
John Joy Bell (1871–1934), Scottish author
John L. Bell, Scottish religious figure
John Lane Bell, Canadian philosopher and mathematician
John Stewart Bell (1928–1990), British physicist originated Bell's Theorem
John Thomas Bell (1878–1965), British businessman, founder of Bellway home builders
John Bell (surgeon) (1763–1820), brother of Charles Bell (anatomist)
John Bell (British Army officer), Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey 1848–1854
John William Bell (1838–1901), Canadian political figure
John Bell (musician), American guitarist and singer
John Bell (farmer) from The Bell Witch legend
John Graham Bell (1812–1899), American taxidermist
John Howatt Bell (1846–1929), Prince Edward Island politician
John Irving Bell (born 1952), British–Canadian biologist
Joique Bell (born 1986), American football player
Jonny Bell (rugby union), rugby union player
Joseph-Antoine Bell (born 1954), Cameroonian international football goalkeeper
Joseph Bell (1837–1911), Scottish physician, pioneer of forensic diagnostics, inspiration for Sherlock Holmes
Josh Bell (disambiguation), multiple people
Joshua Bell (born 1967), American musician
Joshua Peter Bell (1827–1881), Queensland Parliamentarian
Julia Bell (1879–1979), British geneticist
Julian Bell (1908–1937), English poet
Julie Bell (born 1958), American painter
Justin Bell (born 1968), British racecar driver, son of Derek Bell
K
Kahlil Bell (born 1986), American football player
Kathleen Bell, American physician and professor
Katie Bell (Harry Potter), Harry Potter character
Kay Bell (1914–1994), American football player and professional wrestler
Keith Bell (rugby league, born 1934), rugby league footballer of the 1950s for New Zealand, Auckland, and Ponsonby
Keith Bell (rugby league, born 1953), English rugby league footballer of the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s
Keith Bell (rugby union) (born 1948), rugby union player who represented Australia
Kendrell Bell (born 1980), American football linebacker
Kenneth B. Bell, American judge
Kenny Bell (born 1992), American football player
Kerwin Bell (born 1965), American college and professional football player
Kierstan Bell (born 2000), American basketball player
Kristen Bell (born 1980), American actress
Kristine Bell, American engineer
L
Lake Bell (born 1979), American actress
Larry Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Larry Bell (artist) (born 1939), contemporary artist based in Los Angeles, California and Taos, New Mexico
Larry M. Bell, Democratic member of the North Carolina General Assembly
Larry Gene Bell (1949–1996), double murderer in Lexington County, South Carolina
Laura Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Laura Bell (courtesan), courtesan of Victorian England
Laura Anning Bell (1867–1950), British artist
Laura Bell (author) (21st century), American author
Laura Bell Bundy (born 1981), American actress
Laura Joyce Bell (1854–1904), English-American actress
Lauralee Bell (born 1968), actress
Lauren Bell (born 1999), Scottish cyclist
Lauren Bell (cricketer) (born 2001), English cricketer
Lawrence Dale Bell (1894–1956), American aviation pioneer
Lee Phillip Bell, talk show host and soap opera creator
Les Bell (1901–1985), professional baseball player
Le'Veon Bell (born 1992), American football player
Lilian Bell (1867–1929); pen name, "Mrs. Arthur Hoyt Bogue", American novelist, travel writer
Louis Bell (born 1982), American music producer
Louis Bell (engineer) (1864–1923), American engineer, physicist, and academic
M
Mabel Bell (1857–1923), wife of inventor Alexander Graham Bell
Madeline Bell (born 1942), American soul singer
Madison Smartt Bell (born 1957), American author
Maggie Bell (born 1945), British singer
Malcolm Bell (cricketer) (born 1969), English cricketer
Malcolm Bell (entrepreneur) (born 1981), British businessman
Manga Ndumbe Bell (1838–1898), Duala ruler in Cameroon
Marc Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Marc Bell (cartoonist) (born 1971), Canadian cartoonist
Marc Bell (drummer) (born 1956), American drummer for The Ramones and The Voidoids
Marc Bell (entrepreneur), American managing partner of Marc Bell Capital
Maria Arena Bell (born 1963), American novelist, television and freelance writer
Marie Bell (1900–1985), French tragedian, comic actor and stage director
Marie Bell (educationalist) (1922–2012), New Zealand educationalist, lecturer and teacher
Marilyn Bell (born 1937), swimmer
Marjorie Bell (1906–2001), British electrical engineer and factory inspector
Mark Bell (disambiguation), multiple people
Markquese Bell (born 1999), American football player
Marshall Bell (born 1942), American actor
Martin Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Martin Bell (born 1938), British journalist and broadcaster
Martin Bell (skier) (born 1964), British skier
Martin Bell (poet) (1918–1978), British poet
Martyn Bell (born 1964), British racing driver
Marvin Bell (1937–2020), American poet
Mary Bell (born 1957), British killer child
Matthew Bell (disambiguation), multiple people
Matty Bell (1899–1983), American football player and coach
Melissa Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Melissa Bell (singer) (1964–2017), British singer
Melissa Bell (actor) (born 1972), Australian soap opera actress
Michael Bell (disambiguation), multiple people
Montgomery Bell (1769–1855), Tennessee manufacturing entrepreneur
Morley Bell (1894–1976), Canadian lawyer and politician
N
Ndumbe Lobe Bell, Duala ruler in Cameroon
Neil Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Neil Bell (actor) (born 1970), British actor
Neil Bell (politician) (born 1947), Northern Territory politician
Neil Bell, pseudonym of Stephen Southwold (1887–1964), British writer
Nicholas Bell, Australian-based British actor
Nicole Ann Bell (known professionally as Nicole Dollanganger) (born 1991), Canadian singer-songwriter
Noreen Bell, fictional character from British TV series Emmerdale
Norris Garrett Bell (1860–1937), Australian railway engineer
O
O'Neil Bell (1974–2015), Jamaican professional boxer
Oliver Bell (born 2004), American child actor
P
Pat Bell, Canadian politician
Pedro Bell, American artist and illustrator
Peter Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Peter Hansbrough Bell (1849–1853), Inspector-General of the Army of Texas, 3rd Governor of Texas, US Congressman
Peter F. Bell born 1976, Australian rules footballer
Peter R. Bell, born 1954, Australian rules footballer
Philip W. Bell (1924–1990), American accounting scholar
Q
Quentin Bell (1910–1996), English art historian and author
Quinton Bell (born 1996), American football player
R
Raja Bell (born 1976), American basketball player
Regla Bell (born 1970), Cuban volleyball player
Richard Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Richard Bell (director), Canadian writer and director
Richard Bell (British politician) (1859–1930) one of the first two British Labour Members of Parliament
Richard Bell (bishop), Bishop of Carlisle from 1477 to 1495
Richard Bell (Canadian musician), member of The Band
Ricky Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Ricky Bell (running back), National Football League running back
Ricky Bell (cornerback), National Football League cornerback
Rita Bell (1893-1992), American singer, entertainer
Robert Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Robert Bell (speaker) (died 1577), British judge & politician
Robert D. Bell (born 1967), American jurist, judge on the Oklahoma Court of Civil Appeals
Robert E. Bell, American archaeologist
Robert M. Bell (born 1943), American jurist
Robert "Kool" Bell (born 1950), American singer, songwriter and bassist
Robert Bell (writer) (1800–1867), Irish man of letters
Ronald Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Ronald Bell (cricketer) (1931–1989), Middlesex and Sussex cricketer
Ronald Bell (politician) (1914–1982), Conservative Member of Parliament 1945 and 1950–1982
Ronald Bell (musician) (1951–2020), American singer-songwriter, member of Kool & the Gang
Ronald D. Bell, Justice of the Tax Court of Canada
Ronnie Bell British chemist at Oxford University
Ronnie Bell (American football) (born 2000), American football player
Ross Bell (1929–2019), American entomologist
Roy Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Roy Bell (Canadian football) (born 1949), Canadian football player
Roy Bell (ornithologist) (1882–1966), New Zealand and Australian ornithologist
Roy Bell (rugby league) (born 1984), Australian rugby league player
Rudolf Duala Manga Bell (1873–1914), Duala ruler in Cameroon
Ryan Bell (disambiguation), multiple people.
Ryan J. Bell (born 1971), Seventh-day Adventist Pastor, later an Atheist activist.
S
Sam Bell (footballer, born 1909) (1909–1982), English professional footballer
Sam H. Bell (1925–2010), American jurist – Ohio
Sam Hanna Bell (1909–1990), Northern Irish novelist, short story writer, playwright, and broadcaster
Samuel Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Samuel Bell (1770–1850), American jurist & politician – New Hampshire
Samuel Bell (California politician) (fl. 1850s), American politician
Samuel Dana Bell (1798–1868), Chief justice of New Hampshire state supreme court
Samuel Newell Bell (1829–1889), US Congressman from New Hampshire
Sandy Bell (1906–1985), South African Test cricketer
Sean Bell (1984–2006), African American shot by New York City police
Shannon Bell (born 1955), Canadian philosopher and feminist
Shona M. Bell (1924–2011), New Zealand palaeontologist
Stefan Bell (born 1991), German footballer with 1. FSV Mainz 05 in the Bundesliga
Stephen Bell (1965–2001), English footballer
Steve Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Steve Bell (news anchor) (1935–2019), first anchor of the ABC News program World News This Morning, previously reporter for WOWT-TV
Steve Bell (cartoonist) (born 1951), English cartoonist
Steve Bell (musician) (born 1960), Canadian musician
Steve Bell (soccer) (born 1975), retired American soccer midfielder
Steven Bell (born 1976), Australian rugby league player
Stuart Bell (1938–2012), British Labour Party politician
Stuart R. Bell, American academic, President of the University of Alabama
T
Tatum Bell (born 1981), American football running back
Terrel Bell (1921–1996), American Secretary of Education
Terrell Bell (born 1973), American basketball player
Terry Bell (disambiguation), multiple people
Theo Bell (1953–2006), American football wide receiver
Thom Bell (1943-2022), Jamaican-American music producer
Thomas Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Thomas Bell (zoologist), English zoologist, surgeon, and writer
Thomas Cowan Bell, one of the seven founders of Sigma Chi Fraternity
Thomas M. Bell (Ohio politician)
Thomas Reid Davys Bell, Irish lepidopterist
Tim Bell, British public relations and political adviser
Tina Bell (1957–2012), American singer
Tobin Bell, American actor
Tom Bell (Australian footballer) (born 1991), Australian rules footballer
Townsend Bell (born 1975), motor racing driver, married to actress Heather Campbell
Travis Bell (born 1998), American football player
Trevor Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
Trevor Bell (artist) (1930–2017), English painter
Trevor Bell (baseball) (born 1986), American baseball pitcher
Troy Bell (born 1980), American professional basketball player
V
Van D. Bell (1918–2009), American Marine officer, recipient of two Navy Crosses
Vanessa Bell (1879–1961), British painter
Vera Bell (1906-?), Jamaican writer
Vereen Bell, American writer
Vernon Bell, founder of the British karate movement
Vinnie Bell (1932–2019), born Vincent Gambella, American session guitarist
Viola Bell (1897–1990), New Zealand community leader
Virginia Bell (actress), American model and actress
W
Wade Bell (born 1945), American middle-distance runner
Wally Bell (1965–2013), American baseball umpire
W. Kamau Bell, American stand-up comic
W. D. M. Bell (1880–1954), Scottish-born elephant hunter
Wayne Bell (computer specialist), bulletin board pioneer
William Bell (disambiguation), multiple people, including:
William Dwane Bell, New Zealander convicted for a triple murder
William E. Bell (author) (fl. 2000s), Canadian writer
William Henry Bell (1873–1946), English born composer, later South African Professor of Music
William J. Bell (1927–2005), TV producer
William Nathaniel Bell (1817–1887), American settler
Y
Yeremiah Bell (born 1978), American football safety for the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League
See also
Bell (disambiguation)
Notes
References
Americanized surnames
English-language surnames
Scottish surnames
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4928626
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DomainKeys%20Identified%20Mail
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DomainKeys Identified Mail
|
DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) is an email authentication method designed to detect forged sender addresses in email (email spoofing), a technique often used in phishing and email spam.
DKIM allows the receiver to check that an email that claimed to have come from a specific domain was indeed authorized by the owner of that domain. It achieves this by affixing a digital signature, linked to a domain name, to each outgoing email message. The recipient system can verify this by looking up the sender's public key published in the DNS. A valid signature also guarantees that some parts of the email (possibly including attachments) have not been modified since the signature was affixed. Usually, DKIM signatures are not visible to end-users, and are affixed or verified by the infrastructure rather than the message's authors and recipients.
DKIM is an Internet Standard. It is defined in RFC 6376, dated September 2011, with updates in RFC 8301 and RFC 8463.
Overview
The need for email validated identification arises because forged addresses and content are otherwise easily created—and widely used in spam, phishing and other email-based fraud. For example, a fraudster may send a message claiming to be from [email protected], with the goal of convincing the recipient to accept and to read the email—and it is difficult for recipients to establish whether to trust this message. System administrators also have to deal with complaints about malicious email that appears to have originated from their systems, but did not.
DKIM provides the ability to sign a message, and allows the signer (author organization) to communicate which email it considers legitimate. It does not directly prevent or disclose abusive behavior.
DKIM also provides a process for verifying a signed message. Verifying modules typically act on behalf of the receiver organization, possibly at each hop.
All of this is independent of Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) routing aspects, in that it operates on the RFC 5322 message—the transported mail's header and body—not the SMTP "envelope" defined in RFC 5321. Hence, DKIM signatures survive basic relaying across multiple MTAs.
Technical details
Signing
The signing organization can be a direct handler of the message, such as the author, the submission site or a further intermediary along the transit path, or an indirect handler such as an independent service that is providing assistance to a direct handler.
Signing modules insert one or more DKIM-Signature: header fields, possibly on behalf of the author organization or the originating service provider. The specification allows signers to choose which header fields they sign, but the From: field must always be signed. The resulting header field consists of a list of tag=value parts as in the example below:
DKIM-Signature: v=1; a=rsa-sha256; d=example.net; s=brisbane;
c=relaxed/simple; q=dns/txt; [email protected];
t=1117574938; x=1118006938; l=200;
h=from:to:subject:date:keywords:keywords;
z=From:[email protected]|To:[email protected]|
Subject:demo=20run|Date:July=205,=202005=203:44:08=20PM=20-0700;
bh=MTIzNDU2Nzg5MDEyMzQ1Njc4OTAxMjM0NTY3ODkwMTI=;
b=dzdVyOfAKCdLXdJOc9G2q8LoXSlEniSbav+yuU4zGeeruD00lszZ
VoG4ZHRNiYzR
where the tags used are:
The most relevant ones are b for the actual digital signature of the contents (headers and body) of the mail message, bh for the body hash (optionally limited to the first l octets of the body), d for the signing domain, and s for the selector.
An Agent or User Identifier (AUID) can optionally be included. The format is an email address with an optional local-part. The domain must be equal to, or a subdomain of, the signing domain. The semantics of the AUID are intentionally left undefined, and may be used by the signing domain to establish a more fine-grained sphere of responsibility.
Both header and body contribute to the signature. First, the message body is hashed, always from the beginning, possibly truncated to a given length l (which may be zero). Second, selected header fields are hashed, in the order given by h. Repeated field names are matched from the bottom of the header upward, which is the order in which Received: fields are inserted in the header. A non-existing field matches the empty string, so that adding a field with that name will break the signature. The DKIM-Signature: field of the signature being created, with bh equal to the computed body hash and b equal to the empty string, is implicitly added to the second hash, albeit its name must not appear in h — if it does, it refers to another, preexisting signature. For both hashes, text is canonicalized according to the relevant c algorithms. The result, after encryption with the signer's private key and encoding using Base64, is b.
In addition to the list of header fields listed in h, a list of header fields (including both field name and value) present at the time of signing may be provided in z. This list need not match the list of headers in h.
Algorithms, fields, and body length are meant to be chosen so as to assure unambiguous message identification while still allowing signatures to survive the unavoidable changes which are going to occur in transit. No end-to-end data integrity is implied.
Verification
A receiving SMTP server wanting to verify uses the domain name and the selector to perform a DNS lookup. For example, given the example signature above: the d tag gives the author domain to be verified against, example.net ; the s tag the selector, brisbane. The string _domainkey is a fixed part of the specification. This gives the TXT resource record to be looked up as:
brisbane._domainkey.example.net
Note that the selector and the domain name can be UTF-8 in internationalized email. In that case the label must be encoded according to IDNA before lookup. The data returned from the query of this record is also a list of tag-value pairs. It includes the domain's public key, along with other key usage tokens and flags (e.g. from a command line: ) as in this example:
"k=rsa; t=s; p=MIGfMA0GCSqGSIb3DQEBAQUAA4GNADCBiQKBgQDDmzRmJRQxLEuyYiyMg4suA2Sy
MwR5MGHpP9diNT1hRiwUd/mZp1ro7kIDTKS8ttkI6z6eTRW9e9dDOxzSxNuXmume60Cjbu08gOyhPG3
GfWdg7QkdN6kR4V75MFlw624VY35DaXBvnlTJTgRg/EW72O1DiYVThkyCgpSYS8nmEQIDAQAB"
A CNAME record can also be used to point at a different TXT record, for example when one organization sends email on behalf of another.
The receiver can use the public key (value of the p tag) to then validate the signature on the hash value in the header field, and check it against the hash value for the mail message (headers and body) that was received. If the two values match, this cryptographically proves that the mail was signed by the indicated domain and has not been tampered with in transit.
Signature verification failure does not force rejection of the message. Instead, the precise reasons why the authenticity of the message could not be proven should be made available to downstream and upstream processes. Methods for doing so may include sending back an FBL message, or adding an Authentication-Results header field to the message as described in RFC 7001.
Patent
Although DomainKeys is covered , Yahoo! has licensed its patent claims under a dual license scheme: the DomainKeys Patent License Agreement v1.2, or GNU General Public License v2.0 (and no other version).
Relationship to SPF and DMARC
In essence, both DKIM and SPF provide different measures of email authenticity. DMARC provides the ability for an organisation to publish a policy that specifies which mechanism (DKIM, SPF, or both) is employed when sending email from that domain; how to check the From: field presented to end users; how the receiver should deal with failures—and a reporting mechanism for actions performed under those policies.
Advantages
The primary advantage of this system for e-mail recipients is in allowing the signing domain to reliably identify a stream of legitimate email, thereby allowing domain-based blacklists and whitelists to be more effective. This is also likely to make certain kinds of phishing attacks easier to detect.
There are some incentives for mail senders to sign outgoing e-mail:
It allows a great reduction in abuse desk work for DKIM-enabled domains if e-mail receivers use the DKIM system to identify forged e-mail messages claiming to be from that domain.
The domain owner can then focus its abuse team energies on its own users who actually are making inappropriate use of that domain.
Use with spam filtering
DKIM is a method of labeling a message, and it does not itself filter or identify spam.
However, widespread use of DKIM can prevent spammers from forging the source address of their messages, a technique they commonly employ today.
If spammers are forced to show a correct source domain, other filtering techniques can work more effectively.
In particular, the source domain can feed into a reputation system to better identify spam.
Conversely, DKIM can make it easier to identify mail that is known not to be spam and need not be filtered.
If a receiving system has a whitelist of known good sending domains, either locally maintained or from third party certifiers, it can skip the filtering on signed mail from those domains, and perhaps filter the remaining mail more aggressively.
Anti-phishing
DKIM can be useful as an anti-phishing technology. Mailers in heavily phished domains can sign their mail to show that it is
genuine. Recipients can take the absence of a valid signature on mail from those domains to be an indication that the mail is probably forged. The best way to determine the set of domains that merit this degree of scrutiny remains an open question. DKIM used to have an optional feature called ADSP that lets authors that sign all their mail self-identify, but it was demoted to historic status in November 2013. Instead, DMARC can be used for the same purpose and allows domains to self-publish which techniques (including SPF and DKIM) they employ, which makes it easier for the receiver to make an informed decision whether a certain mail is spam or not. For example, using DMARC, eBay and PayPal both publish policies that all of their mail is authenticated, and requesting that any receiving system, such as Gmail, should reject any that is not.
Compatibility
Because it is implemented using DNS records and an added RFC 5322 header field, DKIM is compatible with the existing e-mail infrastructure. In particular, it is transparent to existing e-mail systems that lack DKIM support.
This design approach also is compatible with other, related services, such as the S/MIME and OpenPGP content-protection standards.
DKIM is compatible with the DNSSEC standard and with SPF.
Computation overhead
DKIM requires cryptographic checksums to be generated for each message sent through a mail server, which results in computational overhead not otherwise required for e-mail delivery. This additional computational overhead is a hallmark of digital postmarks, making sending bulk spam more (computationally) expensive.
This facet of DKIM may look similar to hashcash, except that the receiver side verification is a negligible amount of work, while a typical hashcash algorithm would require far more work.
Non-repudiability
DKIM's non-repudiation feature prevents senders (such as spammers) from credibly denying having sent an email. It has proven useful to news media sources such as WikiLeaks, which has been able to leverage DKIM body signatures to prove that leaked emails were genuine and not tampered with.
Many consider non-repudiation a non-wanted feature of DKIM, forced by behaviors such as those just described. Indeed, DKIM protocol provides for expiration. There is an optional x= tag on each signature, which establishes a formal expiration time; however, verifiers can ignore it. In addition, domain owners can revoke a public key by removing its cryptographic data from the record, thereby preventing signature verification unless someone saved the public key data beforehand. DKIM key rotation is often recommended just to minimize the impact of compromised keys. However, in order to definitely disable non-repudiation, expired secret keys can be published, thereby allowing everyone to produce fake signatures, thus voiding the significance of original ones.
Weaknesses
The RFC itself identifies a number of potential attack vectors.
DKIM signatures do not encompass the message envelope, which holds the return-path and message recipients. Since DKIM does not attempt to protect against mis-addressing, this does not affect its utility.
A number of concerns were raised and refuted in 2013 at the time of the standardization.
A concern for any cryptographic solution would be message replay
abuse, which bypasses techniques that currently limit the level of abuse from larger domains. Replay can be inferred by using per-message public keys, tracking the DNS queries for those keys and filtering out the high number of queries due to e-mail being sent to large mailing lists or malicious queries by bad actors.
For a comparison of different methods also addressing this problem see e-mail authentication.
Arbitrary forwarding
As mentioned above, authentication is not the same as abuse prevention. An evil email user of a reputable domain can compose a bad message and have it DKIM-signed and sent from that domain to any mailbox from where they can retrieve it as a file, so as to obtain a signed copy of the message. Use of the l tag in signatures makes doctoring such messages even easier. The signed copy can then be forwarded to a million recipients, for example through a botnet, without control. The email provider who signed the message can block the offending user, but cannot stop the diffusion of already-signed messages. The validity of signatures in such messages can be limited by always including an expiration time tag in signatures, or by revoking a public key periodically or upon a notification of an incident. Effectiveness of the scenario can hardly be limited by filtering outgoing mail, as that implies the ability to detect if a message might potentially be useful to spammers.
Content modification
DKIM currently features two canonicalization algorithms, and , neither of which is MIME-aware. Mail servers can legitimately convert to a different character set, and often document this with X-MIME-Autoconverted header fields. In addition, servers in certain circumstances have to rewrite the MIME structure, thereby altering the preamble, the epilogue, and entity boundaries, any of which breaks DKIM signatures. Only plain text messages written in us-ascii, provided that MIME header fields are not signed, enjoy the robustness that end-to-end integrity requires.
The OpenDKIM Project organized a data collection involving 21 mail servers and millions of messages. 92.3% of observed signatures were successfully verified, a success rate that drops slightly (90.5%) when only mailing list traffic is considered.
Annotations by mailing lists
The problems might be exacerbated when filtering or relaying software makes changes to a message. Without specific precaution implemented by the sender, the footer addition operated by most mailing lists and many central antivirus solutions will break the DKIM signature. A possible mitigation is to sign only designated number of bytes of the message body. It is indicated by l tag in DKIM-Signature header. Anything added beyond the specified length of the message body is not taken into account while calculating DKIM signature. This won't work for MIME messages.
Another workaround is to whitelist known forwarders; e.g., by SPF. For yet another workaround, it was proposed that forwarders verify the signature, modify the email, and then re-sign the message with a Sender: header. However, this solution has its risk with forwarded third party signed messages received at SMTP receivers supporting the RFC 5617 ADSP protocol. Thus, in practice, the receiving server still has to whitelist known message streams.
The Authenticated Received Chain (ARC) is an email authentication system designed to allow an intermediate mail server like a mailing list or forwarding service to sign an email's original authentication results. This allows a receiving service to validate an email when the email's SPF and DKIM records are rendered invalid by an intermediate server's processing. ARC is defined in RFC 8617, published in July 2019, as "Experimental".
Short key vulnerability
In October 2012, Wired reported that mathematician Zach Harris detected and demonstrated an email source spoofing vulnerability with short DKIM keys for the google.com corporate domain, as well as several other high-profile domains. He stated that authentication with 384-bit keys can be factored in as little as 24 hours "on my laptop," and 512-bit keys, in about 72 hours with cloud computing resources. Harris found that many organizations sign email with such short keys; he factored them all and notified the organizations of the vulnerability. He states that 768-bit keys could be factored with access to very large amounts of computing power, so he suggests that DKIM signing should use key lengths greater than 1,024.
Wired stated that Harris reported, and Google confirmed, that they began using new longer keys soon after his disclosure. According to RFC 6376 the receiving party must be able to validate signatures with keys ranging from 512 bits to 2048 bits, thus usage of keys shorter than 512 bits might be incompatible and shall be avoided. RFC 6376 also states that signers must use keys of at least 1024 bits for long-lived keys, though long-livingness is not specified there.
History
DKIM resulted in 2004 from merging two similar efforts, "enhanced DomainKeys" from Yahoo and "Identified Internet Mail" from Cisco. This merged specification has been the basis for a series of IETF standards-track specifications and support documents which eventually resulted in STD 76, currently RFC 6376.
"Identified Internet Mail" was proposed by Cisco as a signature-based mail authentication standard,
while DomainKeys was designed by Yahoo to verify the DNS domain of an e-mail sender and the message integrity.
Aspects of DomainKeys, along with parts of Identified Internet Mail, were combined to create DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM).
Trendsetting providers implementing DKIM include Yahoo, Gmail, AOL and FastMail. Any mail from these organizations should carry a DKIM signature.
Discussions about DKIM signatures passing through indirect mail flows, formally in the DMARC working group, took place right after the first adoptions of the new protocol wreaked havoc on regular mailing list use. However, none of the proposed DKIM changes passed. Instead, mailing list software was changed.
In 2017, another working group was launched, DKIM Crypto Update (dcrup), with the specific restriction to review signing techniques. RFC 8301 was issued in January 2018. It bans SHA-1 and updates key sizes (from 512-2048 to 1024-4096). RFC 8463 was issued in September 2018. It adds an elliptic curve algorithm to the existing RSA. The added key type, k=ed25519 is adequately strong while featuring short public keys, more easily publishable in DNS.
Development
The original DomainKeys was designed by Mark Delany of Yahoo! and enhanced through comments from many others since 2004. It is specified in Historic RFC 4870, superseded by Standards Track RFC 4871, DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) Signatures; both published in May 2007. A number of clarifications and conceptualizations were collected thereafter and specified in RFC 5672, August 2009, in the form of corrections to the existing specification. In September 2011, RFC 6376 merged and updated the latter two documents, while preserving the substance of the DKIM protocol. Public key compatibility with the earlier DomainKeys is also possible.
DKIM was initially produced by an informal industry consortium and was then submitted for enhancement and standardization by the IETF DKIM Working Group, chaired by Barry Leiba and Stephen Farrell, with
Eric Allman of sendmail,
Jon Callas of PGP Corporation, Mark Delany and Miles Libbey of Yahoo!, and Jim Fenton and Michael Thomas of Cisco Systems attributed as primary authors.
Source code development of one common library is led by The OpenDKIM Project, following the most recent protocol additions, and licensing under the New BSD License.
See also
Authenticated Received Chain (ARC)
Author Domain Signing Practices
Bounce message
Context filtering
DMARC (Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting and Conformance)
DomainKeys
Email authentication
OpenPGP
S/MIME
Sender Policy Framework (SPF)
Vouch by Reference
References
50. Why do I need to set DKIM when my DMARC can pass basis the SPF alone?
Further reading
Analysis of Threats Motivating DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM)
DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) Signatures Proposed Standard
DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) Author Domain Signing Practices (ADSP)
DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) Service Overview
RFC 4871 DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) Signatures—Update
DKIM Development, Deployment, and Operations
DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) Signatures Draft Standard
DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) and Mailing Lists
Cryptographic Algorithm and Key Usage Update to DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM)
A New Cryptographic Signature Method for DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM)
External links
DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM)
Email authentication
Cryptographic protocols
Spam filtering
Internet architecture
Network addressing
Internet governance
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4929313
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/79th%20New%20York%20Infantry%20Regiment
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79th New York Infantry Regiment
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The 79th New York Infantry Regiment was a military regiment organized on 20 June 1859, in the state of New York. Prior to the American Civil War it was one of the three regiments which formed the Fourth Brigade of the First Division of the New York State Militia. The 79th gained fame during the American Civil War for its service in the Union Army.
Organization and pre-civil war
The 79th New York was established in the fall of 1858 in response to the State of New York requiring the 2nd New York to conform to the new uniform regulations. The Highland Guard/79th New York was created with the help of the St. Andrews and Caledonian societies of New York and wealthy financial backers like Samuel M. Elliot and Roderick W. Cameron. The New York Militia organization had no connection to the 79th Cameron Highlanders of Scotland, but was recruited from British Army veterans of the Scottish Regiments living in the United States. Similarly to the Queens Own Cameron Highlanders, the 76th Regiment wore the Cameron of Erracht tartan kilt as part of their uniforms until midway through their service in the American Civil War.
The 79th New York (348 strong Spring 1859) was part of 1st Division, 4th Brigade of the New York Militia, the regiment was designated as light infantry cross trained train as heavy artillery for the defense of Manhattan and also provided parade and guard for dignitaries such as the Prince of Wales and the Japanese ambassador when they visited Manhattan.
The 79th, without knowing it, set themselves up to take part in nearly every major engagement of the civil war and become one of the most known and traveled regiments in the Union Army.
Uniform
When the organization had their first drill on 25 October 1858, the men were in civilian clothing as uniforms were not yet available. As per the guide lines set by the New York Militia, the Highland Guard was to uniform their soldiers in tartan trousers, not kilts. The inspector was informed by Col. McLeays that:
"Their stuff for trousers was expected to arrive from Scotland daily, when they would immediately put their uniforms under contract for manufacture". Report of inspection, 4th Brigade, NYSM, 25 October, in annual report of the AG, NYS, (1858) The issued uniform as per the New York State Militia agreement consisted of these items:
Highland Cut Coat
The Highland Cut Coat was dark indigo blue wool broadcloth with applied false red cuffs and a blue collar which were trimmed with red facings with a small white piping line behind the red facing. The coat was trimmed with red wool spun cording on the edges of the coat body and around the circumference of the cuffs midway of the red cuff facing. It had 18 (New York State) buttons in all with 9 2.20 cm (7/8 in) buttons down the front and two on the rear and 3 1.50 cm (5/8 in) buttons on each cuff, 1 1.50 cm (5/8 in) button on the left hip for the belt loop. The jacket was lined in tan polished cotton with quilting in the front panels that extended over and onto the back of the shoulders, following the breast panels. The flaps were lined with red wool or red polished cotton. (Two different materials used on both of the two pre-war jackets still known to exist.)
Tartan Trousers
Cameron of Erracht trousers in the large military sett with a tartan repeat of nine inches. The tartan was matched and had Victorian trousers cut to them consistent with common trousers of the late 1850s.
Glengarry Bonnet
The glengarry was knit and felted as one cover. Dicing and body as one piece. It was dark blue with dicing that were red, blue and white, in two rows high that was off set by one square to the right. The glengarry was lined in black polished cotton and while some of the originals that still exist today have quilting and other lining decorations, three of five have different lining treatments.
Leathers
The belts used were common M1839 "baby US" belts that were 1.5 inches. Also used were Springfield bayonets and scabbards with the various models of .69 weapons, shield pattern cap pouches, and the M1857 cartridge box.
Parade uniform
When on parade the 79th wore the kilt, going against the wishes of the New York Militia.
This uniform used the same jacket and glengarry but instead of trousers made of tartan, they had New York tailors make non-regulation kilts.
Kilts
The kilts were made of the same Cameron of Erracht. They were not pleated to the line as is common in Scottish military regiments, but to the sett as seen in civilian kilts. The kilts were very odd and unlike kilt before or since thanks to their unqualified manufactures. They were box pleated, and used two tartan straps that buckled into suspender buckles on either hip. Because of their lack in size variation, suspenders were worn with them.
Original kilt information:
http://emuseum.nyhistory.org
Sporran
The sporran was made of wavy white horse and or goat hair with three black tassels with a black leather cantle.
Original glengarry information:
http://emuseum.nyhistory.org
Hose and flashes
Common Victorian red and white diced hose with common Victorian flashes.
Shoes
Low cut false buckle shoes
Civil war
Departure for federal service
Sgt. Robert Gair of 3rd Company recalled that the 79th was at a drill when news of the firing on Ft. Sumter came across the telegraph. The Regiment held a formation an unanimously voted to offer their services to the Governor of the state and President Lincoln. The 79th's 6 companies had approximately 300 on the muster rolls - common for a militia regiment at the time, but understrength for the regulation of 1,000 men. The 79th recruited 600 additional men in the weeks between mid April and early May when the Regimental mustered into service on May 13th. Camped in Central Park, the Highlanders waited for orders from the 1st Division 4th Brigade, N.Y.S.M. to move to Washington.
On 2 June 1861, the Highland Guard, 895 men strong, marched down Broadway on its way to Washington. Passing through Baltimore, the Highlanders received a good welcome—in contrast with the reception the 6th Massachusetts Militia had received a few days earlier. After arriving in Washington, the regiment elected James Cameron, the brother of Simon Cameron, President Lincoln's Secretary of War as its Colonel. The Regiment was quartered at Georgetown College, recently vacated by the 69th N.Y.S.M, and spent their first few couple weeks in Washington filling their time with drill and guard mounts. The 79th was moved from Georgetown College to a camp on Maridian Hill overlooking the city. The camp was their first experience with life in tents. Early July saw a moved from the City across the chain bridge into Virginia. Singing "All the Blue Bonnets are Over the Boarder", the Highlanders crossed the Promoac and settled in a placed they named "Camp Weed". They were attached to Sherman's Brigade, Tyler's Division, in McDowell's Army of Northeastern Virginia, for the advance on Manassas.
First Bull Run
At the First Battle of Bull Run on 21 July 1861, the Third Brigade of Tyler's First Division, under Colonel William Tecumseh Sherman, consisted of four regiments of infantry (2nd Wisconsin, 13th, 69th, and 79th New York) and a battery of artillery, the 3rd United States Artillery, Company E. The 79th New York experienced some of the fiercest fighting and suffered some of the highest Union casualties at First Bull Run (referred to by the Confederates as First Manassas) although, to begin with, it appeared that they would miss the action. As Confederates fled from the initial Union attack and withdrew up the hill past the Henry House, Private Todd stepped out of line calling to Colonel Sherman, "Give us a chance at 'em before they get away". His sergeant, a British Army veteran, dragged him back into line, growling "shut up your damned head - you'll get plenty of chance before the day is over".
Sherman, in obedience to orders, committed his regiments piecemeal to the capture of Henry House Hill. He first sent the 2nd Wisconsin who, still wearing their militia gray uniforms, were shot to pieces by both sides. When the Wisconsin boys were eventually driven back, the 79th were ordered forward. Led by their colonel, James Cameron, they charged three times over the dead and wounded of the 2nd Wisconsin. Unluckily, in the smoke of battle, they mistook a Confederate flag for one of their own and ceased firing. It was a costly mistake - "As we lowered our arms and were about to rally where the banner floated we were met by a terrible raking fire, against which we could only stagger". Retreating back down the hill they saw Colonel Cameron lying dead in the yard of the Henry House. He had been killed by the Confederates' second volley.
The Highlanders eventually retreated from the plateau and sank sullenly behind the brow of the hill to nurse their wounds. There they remained for two more hours while the attack was pressed by other Union regiments with an equal lack of success, until all were finally driven from the plateau by Confederate reinforcements. It then acted as a rear guard during the Federals' ignominious retreat to Washington. The regiment sustained one of the heaviest losses of the battle, losing 32 killed, including their commanding officer, 51 wounded (eight mortally) and 115 captured (including Capt. James A. Farrish of Company B who was wounded) or missing—a total of 198 - 22 percent of its strength.
On their return to Washington, following the First Battle of Bull Run, the Highlanders, having sustained one of the highest number of casualties among Union regiments engaged in the battle, were employed building defences around the capital, helping to construct a series of forty-eight forts and other defences plus 20 miles of trenches. The whole project had to be carried out with just picks and shovels. It was backbreaking work; one of the men recalled it as "the hardest kind of manual labor." "Spades were trumps" quipped one New Yorker "and everyman held a full hand"
On the morning of 14 August 1861, the Highlanders, together with the 13th and 21st New York volunteer infantry regiments, mutinied and demanded an adjustment of certain perceived grievances. The men felt tricked when the three-month volunteers were allowed to return home while they, three year-volunteers who had performed their duties equally well, were not permitted to return to New York. They were further incensed that they were unable to quit the army, unlike their officers who had the privilege of being able to resign their commissions. They also objected to having a new colonel, Isaac Ingalls Stevens, appointed on 30 July to replace James Cameron (killed at First Manassas), rather than being able to elect their own commander as was the custom with militia units. The situation was exacerbated by a shortage of junior officers brought about by wounds, capture or resignation. In just over a month, the regiment had lost its colonel, major, nine of its 10 captains and a number of lieutenants. Fueled by alcohol, the men finally refused to carry out any further duties.
These fledgling soldiers were undoubtedly naive as to the seriousness of their actions, believing that, as freemen, they could exercise their democratic right to do whatever they saw fit. They were quickly disabused of these unmilitary notions when Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan, blaming the regiment's own officers for allowing the unrest, appointed a regular army officer with orders to mow the mutineers down if they did not immediately surrender. A battalion of regular infantry, supported by a squadron of regular cavalry and a battery of artillery, was lined up facing the 79th, firearms loaded and ready for use. When the mutineers, who had not anticipated such a response to their complaints and whose own arms were stacked, were ordered to cease their mutiny, they recognised the futility of their position and speedily submitted. The whole matter was handled quickly and efficiently and was a most salutary example to any other regiment that might consider similar disobedience. Twenty-one members of the 79th who were considered to be the ringleaders of the revolt were sent to the military prison at Fort Jefferson, Florida, on the Dry Tortugas, Florida, and the 79th's regimental colours were taken away, which McClellan then kept in his own headquarters until the regiment redeemed itself some months later.
A contemporary account in the publication Harper's Weekly noted, "The scene during the reading of the order of General McClellan was exceedingly impressive. The sun was just going down, and in the hazy mountain twilight the features and forms of officers and men could scarcely be distinguished, Immediately behind his aide was General Porter, firm and self-possessed. Colonel Stevens was in front of the regiment, endeavoring to quiet his rather nervous horse. In the rear of the regulars, and a little distance apart, General Sickels sat carelessly on horseback, coolly smoking a cigar and conversing with some friends. At one time during the reading a murmur passed through the lines of the mutineers, and when the portion of the order directing the regiment to surrender its colors was read a private in one of the rear lines cried out in broad Scotch tones, "Let's keep the colors, boys!" No response was made by the remainder of the regiment. Major Sykes at once rode up the line to where the voice was heard. It would have been more than the soldier's life was worth had he been discovered at the moment in pistol range by any of the officers."
Early 1862
The regiment took part in the expedition to Port Royal Ferry in January 1862 and saw action at Pocotaligo, South Carolina, in May, but not before becoming part of the 2nd Brigade, 2nd Division of the Department of the South in April.
In June, the Highlanders were part of the expedition to James Island and took part in the Battle of Secessionville, where Brigadier General Henry W. Benham, who was in temporary command of the Union forces, ordered a bloody and foolhardy assault on the Confederate positions. Instructed not to undertake any offensive operations Benham, over the objections of his Division commanders, ordered a futile attack on Confederate general, N. G. "Shanks" Evans.
The position was surrounded by a swamp and defended by rifle pits. Although first attack was made by the 8th Michigan, whose history was closely intermixed with the 79th, the two regiments sharing a mutual respect and close friendship, swapping hats and playing pranks with each other. So close was their comradeship, the two regiments were often referred to as the "Highlanders" and the "Michilanders."
The 8th Michigan's assault was cut down by a murderous fire before reaching the enemy lines and the 79th, moving to their support, fared no better. Trapped, without reinforcements, the Highlanders were forced to retreat across open ground. Three futile assaults had been made with the loss of 683 Union soldiers, while the defenders lost only 204. The Highlanders alone lost 110 men out of 474 engaged, but their bravery was recognised by the Confederate Charleston Mercury, which said, "Thank God Lincoln had only one 79th regiment." Brigadier General Benham was relieved of command, arrested for disobedience of orders, and his appointment revoked by Lincoln.
On 12 July the regiment began its transfer to Newport News, Virginia, where it arrived on the 16th to become part of the 9th Army Corps, Army of the Potomac.
Second Bull Run and Chantilly
In August 1862, the regiment was involved in Pope's Campaign in Northern Virginia and, just a year after the death of James Cameron at Bull Run, the regiment was once again fighting over the same battlefield. Manassas was once again to prove unlucky for the 79th as their colonel, Addison Farnsworth, also commanding the First Brigade, was wounded. Lt. Colonel Morrison, returning from a wound received at Seccessionville, was put in command of the brigade. At Chantilly on 1 September 1862, while approaching the crossroads of the Warrenton and Little River turnpikes, the Union forces collided with Stonewall Jackson's men who were formed in a line in front of Ox Hill facing southeast near Chantilly Mansion.
In the ensuing battle, Cameron's successor as regimental commanding officer, Brig. Gen. Isaac Ingalls Stevens, now in command of the division, led his old regiment for one last time. Under an overcast sky, which threatened rain, Stevens organised the 79th into three lines and took them into the attack. As they advanced across the blood soaked battlefield he ran past the body of his own son, who lay critically wounded. Calling "Follow me, my Highlanders" Stevens was killed instantly by a bullet through his temple as he took the regiment colors from the sixth color bearer to fall. He died amid the cheers of victory with the color staff gripped firmly in his hand almost at the same time and nearly on the same ground as Major General Philip Kearny.
The primary opposing unit faced by the 79th was the 6th Louisiana Volunteer Infantry Regiment of Louisiana Tigers fame, led by Irish-born Major William Monaghan. The 6th Louisiana was the most thoroughly Irish of all the Tiger regiments, with the result that the battle in a raging thunderstorm devolved into Celt-on-Celt, hand-to-hand combat, and eventually sputtered to an indecisive end in rain and darkness. A survivor with the Confederate troops said, "We camped on the field, sleeping side by side with the dead of both armies. It was very dark; occasionally the moon would come from under a cloud and show the upturned faces of the dead, eyes wide open seeming to look you in the face."
The Highlanders had sustained heavy losses— nine men were killed, 79 wounded (one mortally) and 17 missing, a total of 105. "I have never seen regular troops that equaled the Highlanders in soldierly bearing and appearance," commented General Sherman on the 79th's performance.
On 12 March 1863, Stevens was posthumously confirmed major general to rank from 18 July 1862. After the war, the surviving members of the 79th sent the same blood-stained flag, for which he given his life, to his widow.
Remainder of 1862
During the Maryland Campaign of September 1862, the 79th saw action at the battles of South Mountain and Antietam. During the latter battle, the Highlanders fought near Burnside's Bridge and were deployed as skirmishers leading an advance along the Sharpsburg Road near the Sherrick House. Despite heavy Confederate fire, they pressed on, managing to drive in part of Jones' Division and capturing a battery of artillery. However, the arrival of A. P. Hill's troops drove the 79th back into the suburbs of Sharpsburg, where they engaged in a vicious firefight around the Sherrick House. In spite of heavy fighting, the regiment escaped relatively lightly with only 40 men killed, missing or wounded.
Following Antietam, the regiment saw duty in Maryland, and in December took part in the Battle of Fredericksburg.
1863
The 79th participated in the ill-fated "Mud March" of January 1863.
In February, Colonel Farnsworth resigned his commission as a result of the wounds he had received at Second Bull Run, and Lt. Col. David Morrison, who had been in command since 1 September 1862, was promoted to Colonel from 17 February.
The regiment, as part of the 9th Corps, joined the Army of the Ohio in April and two months later was assigned to the 3rd Brigade, 1st Division, of the Army of the Tennessee preparatory to joining the Vicksburg Campaign. They travelled by side-wheel steamer down the Ohio River, which was described as being of such shallow draft "it could sail on a heavy dew", and broke their journey at Louisville to spend a riotous couple of nights in the town's bars and "parlour houses", a euphemism for brothels, before arriving at the front.
A few days later, as Sherman rode down his column, on the march towards the town of Jackson, he was startled to be greeted by a loud cheer. Knowing his men were not usually so demonstrative he looked around to see who was showing such uncharacteristic enthusiasm. He saw the 79th New York newly arrived to join his unit. The last time they had met was in the camps around Washington after 1st Manassas when the fresh recruits had been roundly cursing him. Matured into veteran soldiers, they could now appreciate Sherman's merits and were delighted to see their ex-brigade colonel.
The regiment was too late to take part in the Siege of Vicksburg, but instead was sent to Jackson to tear up rail tracks and destroy the Mississippi Central Railroad at Madison Station.
August found the regiment back once more with the Army of the Ohio, in time to take part in Burnside's campaign in East Tennessee, seeing action at Blue Springs, Lenoir and Campbell's Station.
Battle of Fort Sanders
At Fort Sanders (known by the Confederates as Fort Loudoun), Knoxville, the Highlanders helped inflict a massive defeat on Longstreet's troops. The position, a bastioned earthwork, was on top of a hill, which formed a salient at the northeast corner of the town's defences. In front of the earthwork was a 12-foot-wide ditch, some eight feet deep, with an almost vertical slope to the top of the parapet, about 15 feet above the bottom of the ditch. It was defended by 12 guns and, according to different sources, 250 or 440 troops, of which the 79th provided 120.
Longstreet ordered the brigades of Humphreys' Mississippians and Bryan and Wofford's Georgians, approximately 3,000 men, to make a surprise attack on the fort. The night of 28 November was bitterly cold as the Confederate troops quietly moved into position just 150 yards from the fort, but, in spite of their caution, the defenders overheard them and were prepared for the coming assault.
At first light, the Confederates began their attack, struggling through telegraph wire entanglements which the Federals had stretched between stakes a short distance in front of the ditch. In spite of this obstacle the Rebels managed to reach the ditch with relatively light casualties, but it was there that their problems began. They found that there were no scaling ladders with which to climb the slope up to the parapet and the situation was further aggravated by the ground being frozen and covered in sleet which caused the soldiers to lose their footing and fall. In spite of this, some men did manage to reach the top by climbing on the shoulders of their comrades and were able to place their colors on the parapet. There then followed vicious close quarter fighting during which First Sgt. Francis W. Judge of Company K, 79th NY, grabbed the flag of the 51st Georgia from their color bearer and, in spite of a concentrated and deadly fire, was able to return in safety with his trophy into the fort. Judge, who was born in England, was later awarded the Medal of Honor for his action.
Longstreet's men were eventually forced to retreat to the yells of "remember James Island" from the elated Highlanders. The 79th sustained only nine casualties out of a total Federal loss of 20 killed and 80 wounded. They had inflicted terrible punishment on the Confederates who lost 813 men, killed, wounded and missing.
1864
In January, the 79th was reinforced for about two months by the 51st New York Infantry and the 45th, 50th and 100th Pennsylvania Infantry, taking part in fighting at Holston River and Strawberry Plains. In April, the Highlanders rejoined the Army of the Potomac in time to fight at the battles of the Wilderness and Spotsylvania, being engaged in the assault on the salient known as the "Mule Shoe."
It was at Spotsylvania that the original Cameron Highlanders were to fight their last engagement. Again they faced Longstreet's hard fighting veterans and once more the 79th drove them from the field, losing five more men killed or mortally wounded in the fight. Their colonel, David Morrison, was wounded and command was passed to Captain Laing. As the regiment stood in line on the bloody battlefield, the men received the order for muster-out, their term of enlistment having expired on 13 May 1864.
End of the war
Those veterans whose term of enlistment had expired returned to New York City, where they were discharged. Less than 130 of the regiment's original members were left. Those with unexpired service were sent to guard Confederate prisoners bound for Alexandria. These men were later formed into companies A and B, which formed the nucleus of the "New Cameron Highlanders" that Col. Samuel M. Elliott had received authority to recruit on 4 May. In November 1864, companies C and D, made up of new volunteers, were added to the regiment, and Company E joined in January 1865. A further company, F, was organised in the field from recruits received in March 1865.
The new regiment served at Cold Harbor, Bethesda Church, Petersburg, Weldon Railroad and Poplar Springs Church. In October, they were appointed provost guard of the 9th Corps, taking part in the Appomattox Campaign.
After Robert E. Lee's surrender, the regiment moved back to Washington and took part in the Grand Review of the Armies on 23 May 1865. It continued duties at Washington until the men were eventually mustered out of Federal service on 14 June 1865, whereupon the regiment returned to state militia status. Ladies of the New York Scottish Society sent new glengarries for the regiment to wear for their re-entry into New York City.
During the war, the 79th New York lost 198 killed, plus 304 wounded or missing, out of a total enrollment of 2,200.
Postbellum service
After the war, the regiment reorganized into a state militia organization and in 1872 had a uniform change to conform with standards of the United States Army. For example, their 1872 jacket was an artillery jacket modified with a sporran cut out. The 79th New York Highlanders were finally disbanded in January 1876 due to reorganization of the New York State Militia but maintained a strong veterans organization well into the 20th century.
See also
List of New York Civil War regiments
Affiliations, battle honors, detailed service, and casualties
Organizational affiliation
Attached to:
Mansfield's Command, Department of Washington, to June, 1861.
Sherman's Brigade, Tyler's Division. McDowell's Army of Northeast Virginia, to August 1861.
W. F. Smith's Brigade, Division of the Potomac, to October.
Stevens' Brigade, Smith's Division, Army of the Potomac (AoP), to October. 1861.
Stevens' 2nd Brigade, Sherman's South Carolina Expeditionary Corps, to April, 1862.
2nd Brigade, 2nd Division, Department of the South, to July, 1862.
2nd Brigade, 1st Division. IX Corps, AoP, to September, 1862.
1st Brigade, 1st Division. IX Corps, AoP, to April, 1862.
1st Brigade, 1st Division. IX Corps, Army of the Ohio (AoO), to June. 1863.
3rd Brigade. 1st Division, IX Corps, Army of the Tennessee, to August. 1863.
1st Brigade, 1st Division. IX Corps, AoO, to April, 1864.
2nd Brigade, 3rd Division, IX Corps, AoP, to September.
1st Brigade, 1st Division, IX Corps, AoP to October, 1864.
Provost Guard. IX Corps, AoP to July, 186S.
List of battles
The official list of battles in which the regiment bore a part:
Battle of Blackburn's Ford
First Battle of Bull Run
Battle of Lewinsville
Port Royal Expedition
Battle of Secessionville
Second Battle of Bull Run
Battle of Chantilly
Battle of South Mountain
Battle of Antietam
Battle of Fredericksburg
Siege of Vicksburg
Jackson Expedition
Battle of Blue Springs
Battle of Campbell's Station
Siege of Knoxville
Battle of Fort Sanders
Battle of the Wilderness
Battle of Spotsylvania Court House
Battle of Cold Harbor
Siege of Petersburg
Second Battle of Petersburg
Battle of the Crater
Battle of Fort Stedman
Detailed service
1861
Duty In the Defenses of Washington, D. C. till 16 July. 1861.
Advance on Manassas. VA, 16-21 July.
Occupation of Fairfax Court House 17 July.
First Battle of Bull Run, VA, 21 July,
Duty In the Defenses of Washington till October.
Reconnaissance to Lewinsville, VA, 25 September.
Reconnaissance to Lewinsville, VA, 10-11 October.
Little River Turnpike, near Lewinsville, 10 October.
Bailey's Crossroads 12 October.
Sherman's Expedition to Port Royal, SC, 21 October – 7 November.
Capture of Forts Walker and Beauregard, Port Royal Harbor, SC, 7 November.
Occupation of Bay Point 8 November to 11 December.
Duty at Beaufort, SC, and vicinity till 1 June 1862.
1862
Expedition to Port Royal Ferry 1 January.
Port Royal Ferry 1 January.
Action at Pocatello, SC 29 May.
Expedition to James Island, SC, 1-28 June.
Battle of Secessionville 16 June.
Evacuation of James Island and movement to Hilton Head, SC, 28 June – 7 July.
Moved to Newport News, VA, 12-16 July
Moved to Fredericksburg, VA, 4-6 August.
Pope's Campaign In Northern Virginia 13 August – 2 September.
Operations on the Rappahannock and Rapidan Rivers August 1327.
Second Battle of Bull Run 30 August.
Chantilly 1 September.
Maryland Campaign 6-22 September.
Battle of South Mountain 14 September.
Battle of Antietam 16-17 September.
Duty In Maryland till 11 October.
March up the Potomac to Leesburg, thence to Falmouth, VA, 11 October – 18 November.
Battle of Fredericksburg 12-16 December.
1863
"Mud March" 20-24 January.
Moved to Newport News, VA, 13 March
Rail move to Kentucky 20-28 March.
Duty at Paris, Nicholasvllle, Lancaster, Stanford, and Somerset till June.
Movement through Kentucky to Cairo, IL, 4-10 June;
Moved Vicksburg, MS, 14-17 June.
Siege of Vicksburg 17 June – 4 July.
Advance on Jackson, MS, 6-10 July.
Siege of Jackson 10-17 July.
Destruction of Mississippi Central Railroad at Madison Station, MS 18-22 July.
At Milldale, MS till 6 August.
Moved to Crab Orchard, KY, 6-12 August.
Burnsides' Campaign In East Tennessee 16 August – 17 October.
Action at Blue Springs, TN 10 October.
At Lenoir, TN till 16 November.
Knoxville Campaign 4 November – 23 December.
Action at Campbell's Station 16 November.
Siege of Knoxville 17 November – 4 December.
Repulse of Longstreet's assault on Fort Sanders 29 November.
Operations in East Tennessee till March, 1864.
1864
Action at Holston River 20 January.
Strawberry Plains 21-22 January.
Moved to Annapolis, MD., March, 1864
Campaign from the Rapidan to the James 3 May – 15 June.
Battles of the Wilderness 6-7 May;
Spotsylvania 8-12 May;
Ny River 10 May
Spotsylvania Court House 12-21 May.
Assault on the Salient 12 May.
Non-Veterans left front, veterans left for New York 13 May.
Non-Veterans guard prisoners to Alexandria, VA., 13-16 May
Veterans moved to New York and mustered out 31 May. 1864.
North Anna River 23-27 May.
Totopotomoy 28-31 May.
Cold Harbor 1-12 June.
Bethesda Church 1-3 June.
Before Petersburg 16-18 June.
Siege of Petersburg 16 June 1864, to 2 April. 1866.
Mine Explosion. Petersburg, 30 July 1864.
Weldon Railroad 18-21 August.
Poplar Springs Church 29 September 2 October.
Boydton Plank Road, Hatcher's Run, 27-28 October.
1865
Fort Stedman 25 March 1865.
Appomattox Campaign 28 March – 9 April.
Assault on and fall of Petersburg 2 April.
Occupation of Petersburg 3 April.
Pursuit of Lee 3-9 April.
Surrender of Lee and his army 9 April.
Moved to Washington. D. C, 21-28 April.
Grand Review 23 May.
Duty at Washington, D. C, till July.
Mustered out 14 July. 1865.
Casualties
The regiment lost a total of 188 men during service; 3 Officers and 116 Enlisted men killed and mortally wounded and 1 Officer and 78 Enlisted men by disease.
Citations
References
External links
New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center - Civil War - 79th Infantry Regiment History, photographs, table of battles and casualties, newspaper clippings, and national color for the 79th New York Infantry Regiment.
Cameron Highlanders of the Northwest website.
79th New York Volunteer Infantry on Electric Scotland
Highland regiments
Infantry 079
1859 establishments in New York (state)
Military units and formations established in 1858
Military units and formations disestablished in 1876
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikiya%20Koyama
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Rikiya Koyama
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is a Japanese actor, voice actor and narrator currently affiliated with Haiyuza Theatre Company. He has done popular voicing roles in Hajime no Ippo, Utawarerumono, Kamen no Maid Guy and Yakuza, and has become well known for voicing Yamato in Naruto Shippuden and Kogoro Mouri in Case Closed. In addition, he is known for voicing rather tall or massive inhuman villains like Coyote Starrk in Bleach, Fukuro in Fairy Tail and Deep Sea King in One Punch Man. He is the official dub-over artist of George Clooney, Kiefer Sutherland, Dwayne Johnson and Ma Dong-seok. In addition, he dubbed many roles of Denzel Washington, Keanu Reeves and Guy Pearce.
Biography
By the time Koyama was in high school, his voice had already taken on the quality it has today, and when he answered the phone at the time, his own aunt would sometimes mistake him for his father. After attending Ritsumeikan Junior and Senior High School, Koyama entered the law department at Ritsumeikan University in 1982. He became a member of Ritsumeikan Art Theatre Company. At the time, he was performing the works of Minoru Betsuyaku and Kōhei Tsuka. After graduating from college in 1987, he moved from Kyoto to Tokyo to study theater at Toho Gakuen College of Drama and Music. He was a member of the swimming club and had no qualms about wearing a swimsuit. After graduation, he joined the Haiyuza Theatre Company and made his debut as an actor in Kamen Rider Black RX in 1989. In RX, he performed most of the action scenes himself, including wire fu and napalm explosions, except for some dangerous scenes. Due to his connection with the producers of the series, Nagafumi Hori and Susumu Yoshikawa, he often made guest appearances in the Metal Hero Series that they were in charge of.
Koyama made his debut as a voice actor in ER and initially focused on dubbing, but since the 2000s he has also appeared in many anime and video games. In addition, Utawarerumono Radio led to a surge in radio programs in which he worked with various female voice actors. In anime, he plays many austere characters, but he covers the gamut from serious to gag, from good guys to cold-hearted villains, comical roles to dynamic ones, and from lustful characters like Kristofor in the game Infinite Undiscovery to the aloof and free-spirited role of Leonard in the Angelique series. Since he has been working more as a voice actor, Koyama has not made many appearances as an actor. In 2009, he was asked to play the role of Joe of Haze in Kamen Rider Decade, the same role he played in RX, but he turned it down due to his age and discomfort with the image of the role.
Koyama has also been active as a stage actor, actively participating in stage performances in Europe (England, France, the Netherlands, Romania, Italy, and Russia) since around 2000, and his performance as Antonio in The Merchant of Venice in 2001 won the Outstanding Performance Award at the 9th Yomiuri Theater Awards. In 2011, Koyama won the Kei Tomiyama Memorial Award at the 5th Seiyu Awards.
Koyama's role of Jack Bauer in 24 is one of his most popular roles. At the end of 2010, he met Kiefer at the 24 final season campaign and fan thanksgiving event.
Filmography
Television animation
Original video animation (OVA)
Rurouni Kenshin: Trust & Betrayal (1999): Hijikata Toshizō
Fushigi Yūgi Eikoden (2001): Shu Tendo
Hajime no Ippo – Mashiba vs. Kimura (2003): Mamoru Takamura
Full Metal Panic! The Second Raid (2005): Belfangan Grouseaux
The Wings of Rean (2005): Shinjirō Sakomizu
Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex – Individual Eleven (2006): Hideo Kuze
Mahou Sensei Negima: Mō Hitotsu no Sekai (2009): Jack Rakan
Dogs: Bullets & Carnage (2009): Fuyumine
Akaneiro ni Somaru Saka Hardcore (2009): Sejirō Sugishita
Mobile Suit Gundam Unicorn (2010): Flaste Schole
Original net animation (ONA)
The Way of the Househusband (2021): Senpai Cat
Pokémon: Hisuian Snow (2022): Alec's Father
Pluto (2023): Hercules
Anime films
Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust (2000): Public Official
Cowboy Bebop: The Movie (2001): Steve
Tokyo Godfathers (2003): Bridegroom
Hajime no Ippo – Champion Road (2003): Mamoru Takamura
Fullmetal Alchemist the Movie: Conqueror of Shamballa (2005): Rudolf Hess
JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Phantom Blood (2007): William A. Zeppeli
Kite Liberator (2008): Orudo Noguchi
SD Gundam Sangokuden Brave Battle Warriors (2010): Koshin Gyan
Detective Conan: Dimensional Sniper (2014): Kogoro Mori
Saint Seiya: Legend of Sanctuary (2014): Taurus Aldebaran
Dance with Devils: Fortuna (2017): Nesta
Bungo Stray Dogs: DEAD APPLE (2018): Yukichi Fukuzawa
My Hero Academia: Two Heroes (2018): Wolfram
Psycho-Pass: Sinners of the System (2019): Rodion Matsuki
Promare (2019): Ignis Ex
Blackfox (2019): Harold
Human Lost (2019): Atsugi
Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba the Movie: Infinity Train (2020): Shinjuro Rengoku
The Tunnel to Summer, the Exit of Goodbyes (2022): Kaoru's father
Video games
Glass Rose (): Koutaro Katagiri
JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Phantom Blood (): Will A. Zeppeli
Yakuza 4 (): Taiga Saejima
Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 (): Frank West
Project X Zone (): Frank West
Yakuza 5 (): Taiga Saejima
Final Fantasy XIV: A Realm Reborn (): Cid nan Garlond
Granblue Fantasy (): Soriz
JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: All Star Battle (): Yoshikage Kira, "Kosaku Kawajiri"
Ryū ga Gotoku Ishin! (): Nagakura Shinpachi
Yakuza 0 (): Taiga Saejima
Xenoblade Chronicles X (): Douglas
Fate/Grand Order (2015): EMIYA (Assassin)
Devil May Cry 4: Special Edition (): Credo
JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Eyes of Heaven (): Yoshikage Kira, "Kosaku Kawajiri"
#COMPASS (2016): Luciano
NightCry (): Leonard
Yakuza 6: The Song of Life ): Taiga Saejima
Yakuza: Like a Dragon (): Taiga Saejima
Nioh 2 (): Saitō Toshimitsu
Disney Twisted-Wonderland (2020): Mozus Trein
Jujutsu Kaisen: Phantom Parade (): Kensuke Nagino
Arknights (): Młynar
Unknown date
Ace Combat 6: Fires of Liberation: Marcus "Shamrock" Lampert
Angelique Etoile: Leonard
Another Eden: Bertrand
Armored Core 2: Leos Klein
Code: Realize ~Sousei no Himegimi~: Jimmy A Arester
Daemon Bride: Uriel/Dawn
Detective Conan: Tsuioku no Mirajiyu: Tadaki Kai
Drakengard 2: Urick
Eat Lead: The Return of Matt Hazard: Matt Hazard
Everybody's Golf 5:Nakajima
Fantasy Earth: Zero: King Huenkel
Fate/stay night: Kiritsugu Emiya
Fate/tiger colosseum Upper: Kiritsugu Emiya
Final Fantasy XII: Basch
Granado Espada (Japanese version): Nar
Halo 4, Halo 5: Guardians (Japanese version): Master Chief
Infinite Undiscovery: Kristofor
Jak II (Japanese version): Torn
Lego Marvel Super Heroes (Japanese version): Daredevil
Metroid: Other M: Adam Malkovich
Musou Orochi: Rebirth of the Demon Lord: Sun Wukong
No More Heroes: Heroes' Paradise: Thunder Ryu
One Piece World Seeker: Isaac
Phantasy Star Universe: Leogini Santosa Berafort
Ryū ga Gotoku Ishin!: (Nagakura Shinpachi)
Sengoku Basara 3: Kuroda Kanbei
Shin Sangoku Musou: Multi Raid 2: Shi Huangdi
Shining Resonance: Georg
Star Ocean: Second Evolution: Gabriel
Super Robot Wars series: Ricardo Silveira, Gaiou, Shinjirou Sakomizu, Belfangan Grouseaux
Sword Art Online: Fatal Bullet: Bazalt Joe
Tales of Innocence: Asura
Tales of Vesperia: Duke
Tenchu 4: Rikimaru
Time Crisis 4: Terrorist Leader
Too Human (Japanese version): Baldr
Trauma Center: New Blood: Markus Vaughn
Warriors Orochi 3: Nemea, Sun Wukong
White Knight Chronicles: Cyrus
Tokusatsu roles
Kamen Rider Black RX (1989): Joe of Haze
Blue SWAT (1994): Toru Harada
Kamen Rider × Kamen Rider Gaim & Wizard: The Fateful Sengoku Movie Battle (2013): Bujin Gaim (voice)
Kamen Rider Drive: Surprise Future (2015): Spider-Type Roidmude 108 (Past)/Paradox Roidmude (voice)
Kamen Rider Zi-O (2018): Ziku-Driver Related Item Voice (Voiced by Yōhei Ōnishi), OP Narrator, Ohma Zi-O (eps. 1, 15, 16, 30, 40 – ) (voice)
Tensou Sentai Goseiger (2010): Alien Zutinma Dereputa of the Meteor (eps. 1–12 & 16) (voice)
Tokkei Winspector (1990): Matsuyama
Tokkyuu Shirei Solbrain (1991): Sekine (ep. 50)
Tokusou Exceedraft (1992): Dr. Obayashi's assistant
Tokusou Robo Janperson (1993): Takase
Tokusou Sentai Dekaranger: 10 YEARS AFTER (2015): Kight Reidich (voice)
Other live-action
X-Cross (2007, film): Akira Mononobe (voice)
Wonderful World (2010, film): Atsushi Ito
Kami Voice (2011, film)
No Dropping Out: Back to School at 35 (2013, TV): narrator
Reach Beyond the Blue Sky (2021, TV): Sakai Tadashige
Dubbing roles
Live-action
George Clooney
ER: Doug Ross
Friends: Dr. Michael Mitchell
One Fine Day (2001 TV Asahi edition): Jack Taylor
Batman & Robin (2000 TV Asahi edition): Bruce Wayne/Batman
The Peacemaker: Thomas Devoe
Out of Sight: Jack Foley
Three Kings: Major Archie Gates
The Perfect Storm: Frank William "Billy" Tyne
O Brother, Where Art Thou?: Ulysses Everett McGill
Fail Safe: Col. Jack Grady
Ocean's Eleven: Daniel "Danny" Ocean
Spy Kids (DVD/VHS edition): Devlin
Confessions of a Dangerous Mind: Jim Byrd
Welcome to Collinwood: Jerzy
Intolerable Cruelty: Miles Massey
Spy Kids 3-D: Game Over: Devlin
Ocean's Twelve: Daniel "Danny" Ocean
Good Night, and Good Luck: Fred W. Friendly
Syriana: Bob Barnes
Michael Clayton: Michael Raymond Clayton
Ocean's Thirteen: Daniel "Danny" Ocean
Burn After Reading: Harry Pfarrer
Leatherheads: Jimmy "Dodge" Connelly
The Men Who Stare at Goats: Lyn Cassady
Up in the Air: Ryan Bingham
The American: Jack
The Ides of March: Mike Morris
Gravity: Matt Kowalski
Money Monster: Lee Gates
Hail, Caesar!: Baird Whitlock
Kiefer Sutherland
Chicago Joe and the Showgirl (2009 DVD edition): Karl Hulten
Last Light (2009 DVD edition): Denver Bayliss
Freeway (2008 DVD edition): Bob Wolverton
Ground Control (2008 DVD edition): Jack Harris
24: Jack Bauer
Dead Heat: Pally LaMarr
Desert Saints: Arthur Banks
Paradise Found: Paul Gauguin
Taking Lives (2008 TV Asahi edition): Christopher Hart
River Queen: Doyle
The Sentinel: David Breckinridge
Mirrors: Ben Carson
The Confession: The Confessor
The Reluctant Fundamentalist: Jim Cross
Touch: Martin Bohm
Pompeii: Senator Corvus
Forsaken: John Henry Clayton
Zoolander 2: Kiefer Sutherland
Designated Survivor: Tom Kirkman
They Cloned Tyrone: Nixon
Denzel Washington
Crimson Tide (2000 TV Asahi edition): Commander Ron Hunter
Courage Under Fire (2004 TV Asahi edition): Lieutenant Colonel Nathaniel Serling
Fallen (2002 Fuji TV edition): Detective John Hobbes
The Siege: Anthony Hubbard
The Bone Collector (2002 TV Asahi edition): Lincoln Rhyme
John Q. (2007 NTV edition): John Quincy Archibald
Antwone Fisher: LCDR Dr. Jerome Davenport
Man on Fire (2016 Netflix edition): John W. Creasy
The Manchurian Candidate: Major Bennett Marco
Safe House: Tobin Frost
Flight: William "Whip" Whitaker, Sr.
Dwayne Johnson
The Scorpion King: Mathayus
The Rundown: Beck
Gridiron Gang: Sean Porter
Southland Tales: Boxer Santaros/Jericho Cane
Fast Five: Luke Hobbs
Fast & Furious 6: Luke Hobbs
Furious 7: Luke Hobbs
The Fate of the Furious: Luke Hobbs
Baywatch: Mitch Buchannon
Hobbs & Shaw: Luke Hobbs
Jungle Cruise: Captain Frank "Skipper" Wolff
Louis Koo
Bullets Over Summer: Brian
For Bad Boys Only: Jack Shum
The Legend of Zu: Red
Rob-B-Hood: Octopus
SPL II: A Time for Consequences: Hung Mun-Gong
Three: Chief Inspector Ken
League of Gods: General Leopard
Call of Heroes: Cho Siu-lun
Line Walker 2: Invisible Spy: Security Wing Superintendent Cheng
The White Storm 2: Drug Lords: Fung Chun-kwok
Keanu Reeves
The Matrix series: Thomas Anderson/Neo
The Matrix (VHS/DVD/Blu-ray edition)
The Matrix Reloaded (VHS/DVD/Blu-ray and Theatrical edition)
The Matrix Revolutions (VHS/DVD/Blu-ray and Theatrical edition)
The Matrix Resurrections
The Watcher (2005 TV Tokyo edition): David Allen Griffin
Hardball: Conor O'Neill
Constantine (DVD and Blu-ray edition): John Constantine
A Scanner Darkly: Bob Arctor
Man of Tai Chi: Donaka Mark
Cuba Gooding Jr.
A Murder of Crows: Lawson Russell
Instinct: Dr. Theo Caulder
Chill Factor: Arlo
Men of Honor: Carl Brashear
Pearl Harbor: Doris Miller
Snow Dogs: Dr. Theodore "Ted" Brooks
Hardwired: Luke Gibson
Gerard Butler
Shooters: Jackie Junior
Timeline: André Marek
Dear Frankie: The Stranger
The Game of Their Lives: Frank Borghi
Gamer: John "Kable" Tillman
Gods of Egypt: Set
Guy Pearce
Ravenous: Capt. John Boyd
Memento: Leonard
Two Brothers: Aidan McCrory
Fragments: Dr. Bruce Laraby
Jack Irish series: Jack Irish
Breathe In: Keith Reynolds
Aaron Kwok
The Storm Riders: Striding Cloud/Bou Ging Wan
China Strike Force: Darren Tong
Cold War: Sean K.F. Lau
The Monkey King: Bull Demon King
The Monkey King 2: Sun Wukong/Monkey King
The Monkey King 3: Sun Wukong
Antonio Banderas
Interview with the Vampire (2000 TV Tokyo edition): Armand
Spy Kids (Netflix/Hulu edition): Gregorio Cortez
Femme Fatale: Nicolas Bardo
Ballistic: Ecks vs. Sever (2009 TV Asahi edition): Agent Jeremiah Ecks
My Mom's New Boyfriend: Tommy Lucero/Tomas Martinez
Stephen Dorff
FeardotCom: Detective Mike Reilly
Felon: Wade Porter
Brake: Jeremy Reins
Zaytoun: Yoni
Embattled: Cash "The Slayer" Boykins
Ma Dong-seok
Train to Busan: Sang-hwa
Along with the Gods: The Last 49 Days: Seongju
The Gangster, the Cop, the Devil: Jang Dong-soo
Ashfall: Professor Kang Bong-rae
The Roundup: Ma Seok-do
Christian Bale
Captain Corelli's Mandolin: Mandras
Reign of Fire: Quinn
Equilibrium: John Preston
The Machinist: Trevor Reznik
Dougray Scott
Arabian Nights: Sultan Shahryar/Amin
Ripley's Game: Jonathan Trevanny
Dark Water: Kyle Williams
Death Race 3: Inferno: Niles York
Jason Clarke
Everest: Rob Hall
Terminator Genisys: John Connor/T-3000
The Man with the Iron Heart: Reinhard Heydrich
Pet Sematary: Dr. Louis Creed
Nicolas Cage
The Rock (1999 NTV edition): Stanley Goodspeed
City of Angels: Seth
Windtalkers (2005 TV Asahi edition): Sergeant Joe Enders
Left Behind: Rayford Steele
Prabhas
Baahubali: The Beginning: Shivudu alias Mahendra Baahubali and Amarendra Baahubali
Baahubali 2: The Conclusion: Shivudu alias Mahendra Baahubali and Amarendra Baahubali
Saaho: Ashok Chakravarthy / Siddhant Nandan Saaho
101 Dalmatians (2001 TV Asahi edition): Roger Dearly (Jeff Daniels)
Abandon: Wade Handler (Benjamin Bratt)
Air America: Rio Arnet (Lorenzo Lamas)
Ali: Muhammad Ali (Will Smith)
Aliens (2004 TV Asahi edition): Corporal Dwayne Hicks (Michael Biehn)
Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem: Sheriff Eddie Morales (John Ortiz)
All About the Benjamins: Tyson Bucum (Ice Cube)
Ally McBeal: Doctor Greg Butters (Jesse L. Martin)
Angels & Demons: Inspector General Ernesto Olivetti (Pierfrancesco Favino)
Atomic Train: John Seger (Rob Lowe)
Attack Force: Dwayne (David Kennedy)
Austenland: Mr. Henry Nobley (JJ Feild)
Battlefield Earth: Ker (Forest Whitaker)
Belly of the Beast: Sunti (Byron Mann)
Belly of the Beast (2007 TV Tokyo edition): Leon Washington (Patrick Robinson)
Black Book: Hans Akkermans (Thom Hoffman)
Black Water: Adam (Andy Rodoreda)
Brotherhood of the Wolf: Mani (Mark Dacascos)
Burn Notice: Simon Escher (Garret Dillahunt)
Cat People (2003 DVD edition): Paul Gallier (Malcolm McDowell)
Charlie Jade: Charlie Jade (Jeffrey Pierce)
Che: Ernesto "Che" Guevara (Benicio del Toro)
Chicago: Fred Casely (Dominic West)
Children of Men: Luke (Chiwetel Ejiofor)
Clash of the Titans: King Acrisius/Calibos (Jason Flemyng)
Cold Case: Joseph Shaw (Kenny Johnson)
Connie and Carla: Jeff (David Duchovny)
Contact: Willie (Max Martini)
Crash: Cameron Thayer (Terrence Howard)
Crime and Punishment in Suburbia: Chris (Jeffrey Wright)
Curse of the Golden Flower: Emperor Ping (Chow Yun-fat)
Daredevil: Matt Murdock/Daredevil (Ben Affleck)
The Deep End of the Ocean: Pat Cappadora (Treat Williams)
Desperate Housewives: Bill Pearce (Mark Deklin)
The Dilemma: Ronny Valentine (Vince Vaughn)
Don't Breathe 2: Raylan (Brendan Sexton III)
Due South: Benton Fraser (Paul Gross)
El tiempo entre costuras: Ramiro Arribas Querol (Rubén Cortada)
Enemy of the State (2003 Fuji TV edition): Loren Hicks (Loren Dean)
The Exorcist: Father Marcus Keane (Ben Daniels)
Exodus: Gods and Kings: Ramesses II (Joel Edgerton)
Feast: Hero (Eric Dane)
The Final Cut: Fletcher (Jim Caviezel)
Flight of the Living Dead: Outbreak on a Plane: Paul Judd (Richard Tyson)
The Forbidden Kingdom: The Jade Warlord (Collin Chou)
Frankenfish: Sam Rivers (Tory Kittles)
Full Frontal: Calvin/Nicholas (Blair Underwood)
Ghost in the Shell: Hideo Kuze (Michael Pitt)
Gone with the Wind (2000 TV Tokyo edition): Frank Kennedy (Carroll Nye)
The Great Escape (2000 TV Tokyo edition): Louis Sedgwick (James Coburn)
Halo: Master Chief (Pablo Schreiber)
The Hard Corps: Wayne Barclay (Razaaq Adoti)
Hitler: The Rise of Evil: Ernst Hanfstaengl (Liev Schreiber)
Hope Floats: Bill Pruitt (Michael Paré)
Hostage: Marshall "Mars" Krupcheck (Ben Foster)
The Hunted: Aaron Hallam (Benicio del Toro)
In America: Johnny Sullivan (Paddy Considine)
In Enemy Hands: Captain Jonas Herdt (Til Schweiger)
In Hell: Kyle LeBlanc (Jean-Claude Van Damme)
Inception (2012 TV Asahi edition): Robert Fischer (Cillian Murphy)
Invincible: Vince Papale (Mark Wahlberg)
Ip Man 4: The Finale: Barton Geddes (Scott Adkins)
K-19: The Widowmaker: Captain Mikhail Polenin (Liam Neeson)
Kamen Rider: Dragon Knight: Frank Taylor (Jeff Davis)
Kate & Leopold: Stuart Besser (Liev Schreiber)
Killing Me Softly: Adam (Joseph Fiennes)
La Vie en Rose: Marcel Cerdan (Jean-Pierre Martins)
Land of the Dead: Foxy (Tony Nappo)
Lara Croft: Tomb Raider – The Cradle of Life: Sean (Til Schweiger)
The Legend of Bagger Vance: Bagger Vance (Will Smith)
Legionnaire: Luther (Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje)
Lethal Weapon 4: Martin Riggs (Mel Gibson)
Little City: Kevin (Jon Bon Jovi)
The Lord of the Rings trilogy: Boromir (Sean Bean)
The Magnificent Seven (2013 Star Channel edition): Britt (James Coburn)
A Man Apart: Jack "Hollywood" Slayton (Timothy Olyphant)
Mars Attacks!: Billy-Glenn Norris (Jack Black)
The Master: Freddie Quell (Joaquin Phoenix)
Memories of Murder: Detective Seo Tae-yoon (Kim Sang-kyung)
Mentors: King Arthur (Daniel Gillies)
Miami Vice: Ricardo Tubbs (Jamie Foxx)
Midnight in Paris: Ernest Hemingway (Corey Stoll)
Monk: Gavin Lloyd (Ben Bass)
Mother's Day: Bradley Barton (Jason Sudeikis)
Mr. & Mrs. Smith: Eddie (Vince Vaughn)
The Mummy Returns: Lock-Nah (Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje)
The Musketeers: Emile Bonnaire (James Callis)
My Best Friend's Wedding: Michael O'Neal (Dermot Mulroney)
Nash Bridges: Ricky Allen Klinsmann (Kirk Fox)
The Net: Jack Devlin (Jeremy Northam)
New Police Story: Chief Inspector Chiu Chan (Yu Rongguang)
The Next Best Thing: Ben Cooper (Benjamin Bratt)
Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb: Laaa (Ben Stiller)
No Escape: Hawkins (Ernie Hudson)
On the Occasion of Remembering the Turning Gate: Gyung-soo (Kim Sang-kyung)
Payback: Porter (Mel Gibson)
A Perfect Murder: David Shaw (Viggo Mortensen)
Picture Claire: Detective Lee (Raoul Bhaneja)
Piranha 3D: Novak (Adam Scott)
Planet of the Apes (2005 NTV edition): Thade (Tim Roth)
Police Story (2012 Ultimate Blu-Ray edition): Danny Chu Ko (Fung Hark-On)
Pride and Prejudice: Mr. Darcy (Colin Firth)
Psycho (2010 Blu-Ray edition): Sam Loomis (John Gavin)
The Punisher: Frank Castle/Punisher (Thomas Jane)
The Purifiers: John (Gordon Alexander)
Pushing Tin: Russell Bell (Billy Bob Thornton)
Quo Vadis: Marcus Vinicius (Paweł Deląg)
Ransom: Tom Mullen (Mel Gibson)
Rebecca (DVD edition): Maxim de Winter (Laurence Olivier)
Resident Evil: Apocalypse: Nicholai Ginovaeff (Zack Ward)
Robin Hood: Robin Hood (Jonas Armstrong)
Roger Corman's Operation Rogue: Capt. Max Randall (Mark Dacascos)
Rollerball: Marcus Ridley (LL Cool J)
Runaway Jury: Lawrence Greene (Jeremy Piven)
Sahara: Dirk Pitt (Matthew McConaughey)
The Sentinel: Det. Jim Ellison (Richard Burgi)
Secret Agent Man: Davis (Dondre Whitfield)
Sherlock Holmes: Lord Coward (Hans Matheson)
Sidewalks of New York: Tommy Reilly (Edward Burns)
Snakes on a Plane: Three G's (Flex Alexander)
Someone Like You: Eddie Alden (Hugh Jackman)
Spartacus series: Spartacus (Andy Whitfield/Liam McIntyre)
Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones: Captain Gregar Typho (Jay Laga'aia)
Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith: Captain Gregar Typho (Jay Laga'aia)
Starship Troopers: Traitor of Mars: Colonel Johnny Rico (Casper Van Dien)
Stealth: Lieutenant Ben Gannon (Josh Lucas)
The Sum of All Fears: John Clark (Liev Schreiber)
Sweet Home Alabama: Jake Perry (Josh Lucas)
Swordfish: Stanley Jobson (Hugh Jackman)
Taxi: Det. Andrew "Andy" Washburn (Jimmy Fallon)
The Terminator (2003 TV Tokyo edition): Kyle Reese (Michael Biehn)
The Thieves: Andrew (Oh Dal-su)
The Towering Inferno (2013 BS Japan edition): Michael O'Hallorhan (Steve McQueen)
Trapped: Dr. Will Jennings (Stuart Townsend)
Triple 9: Russell Welch (Norman Reedus)
Typhoon: Sin (Jang Dong-gun)
Under the Tuscan Sun: Marcello (Raoul Bova)
Underworld series: Kraven (Shane Brolly)
Unstoppable: Dean Cage (Wesley Snipes)
Vampires: Jan Valek (Thomas Ian Griffith)
Van Helsing: Velkan Valerious (Will Kemp)
Walk the Line: Johnny Cash (Joaquin Phoenix)
The Walking Dead: Daryl Dixon (Norman Reedus)
The Warlords: General Pang Qingyun (Jet Li)
The Watcher: Joel Campbell (James Spader)
Wedding Crashers: Jeremy Grey (Vince Vaughn)
The Wedding Planner: Steve Edison (Matthew McConaughey)
The West Wing: Lt. Cmdr. Jack Reese (Christian Slater)
Wheels on Meals: Thug #1 (Benny Urquidez)
Wild Things: Sam Lombardo (Matt Dillon)
Without a Trace: Danny Taylor (Enrique Murciano)
Wrong Turn: Chris Flynn (Desmond Harrington)
Your Highness: Prince Thadeous (Danny McBride)
Zombieland: Double Tap: Tallahassee (Woody Harrelson)
Animation
Atlantis: Milo's Return: Vincenzo Santorini
Baahubali: The Lost Legends: Amarendra Baahubali
Chuggington: Action Chugger
Epic: Ronin
Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within: Gray Edwards
Finding Nemo: Crush
Finding Dory: Crush
The Nut Job: Raccoon
Resident Evil: Degeneration: Curtis Miller
South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut: Dr. Gouache, Conan O'Brien, The Baldwin Brothers
Star Wars: Clone Wars: Captain Gregar Typho
Star Wars: The Clone Wars: Captain Gregar Typho
Star Wars: Droids (2005 DVD edition): Mungo Baobab
Team America: World Police: Chris
References
External links
Rikiya Koyama at GamePlaza-Haruka Voice Acting Database
Rikiya Koyama at Hitoshi Doi's Seiyuu Database
1963 births
Living people
Japanese male film actors
Japanese male stage actors
Japanese male television actors
Japanese male video game actors
Japanese male voice actors
Male voice actors from Kyoto
Ritsumeikan University alumni
20th-century Japanese male actors
21st-century Japanese male actors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony%20Payne
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Anthony Payne
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Anthony Edward Payne (2 August 1936 – 30 April 2021) was an English composer, music critic and musicologist. He is best known for his acclaimed completion of Edward Elgar's third symphony, which subsequently gained wide acceptance into Elgar's oeuvre. Apart from opera, his own works include representatives of most traditional genres, and although he made substantial contributions to orchestral and choral repertoire, he is particularly noted for his chamber music. Many of these chamber works were written for his wife, the soprano Jane Manning, and the new music ensemble Jane's Minstrels, which he founded with Manning in 1988. Initially an unrelenting proponent of modernist music, by the 1980s his compositions had embraced aspects of the late romanticism of England, described by his colleague Susan Bradshaw as "modernized nostalgia". His mature style is thus characterised by a highly individualised combination of modernism and English romanticism, as well as numerology, wide-spaced harmonies, specific intervallic characterisations, and the frequent alternation between strict and fluid rhythmic frameworks.
Born in London, Payne first seriously studied music at Durham University. Though a composer since childhood, his professional career began around 1969 with his first major work, the Phoenix Mass for choir and brass band, which was firmly rooted in the modernist tradition. He continued to write choral and vocal works, almost exclusively to British poets, particularly Thomas Hardy, Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Edward Thomas. From his 1981 chamber work A Day in the Life of a Mayfly on, he synthesised aspects of English romanticism from his primary influences, Elgar, Delius and Vaughan Williams. Two orchestral commissions for The Proms, The Spirit's Harvest (1985) and Time's Arrow (1990) were well received. After several years, Payne created a completed version of Elgar's unfinished third symphony, which brought him international attention and future commissions for completions and orchestrations of works by Delius, Elgar and Finzi. Unsure of his musical identity, Payne found difficulty in subsequent composition until the 2002 orchestral Proms commission, Visions and Journeys (2002). Further major works include The Period of Cosmographie (2010) and Of Land, Sea and Sky (2016) for The Proms. He died in April 2021, a month after the death of his wife.
Payne held academic posts at various institutions throughout his career, including Mills College, the London College of Music, the Sydney Conservatorium of Music, the University of Western Australia and the University of East Anglia. Despite regular commissions from a variety of English ensembles, Payne was not a particularly mainstream composer and was forced to supplement his income with writings. A renowned critic, he wrote for The Daily Telegraph, The Independent and Country Life. Other writings include publications on a variety of musical topics, notably —a study on the composer Arnold Schoenberg—and numerous works on the music of Frank Bridge, to whom he was particularly devoted.
Life and career
Youth and education (1936–1964)
Anthony Edward Payne was born in London on 2 August 1936 to Edward and Muriel (née Stroud) Payne; his father was a civil servant. Not from a particularly musical background, at the age of 10 Payne went to see relatives in Godalming and first experienced classical music from a radio broadcast of Brahms's Symphony No. 1. Recalling the significance of the moment in a 2013 interview with Time Out, he said he "was absolutely translated" and "hooked like a fish". A recording he was given the next year of Tchaikovsky's Piano Concerto No. 1 solidified his interest; he began composing at around age 11. From 1947 to 1955, Payne attended Dulwich College where he mainly studied the classics, though he still found time to engage in music. Besides private study with Stanley Wilson, he worked on an orchestral suite and piano sonata and regularly played clarinet with Alan Hacker. Payne began further exploration of Western Classical repertoire, particularly Mozart and Haydn of the classical period and the Romantics Dvořák and Sibelius. However, his principal compositional inspirations were the late English Romantics Elgar, Delius and Vaughan Williams, influences which are increasingly prominent in various early works: two—in addition to the earlier one—piano sonatas, a clarinet sonata, and the Polyphonic suite.
After a brief stint in the Royal Corps of Signals (1955–1957), Payne read music at the Durham University Department of Music in St Cuthbert's Society, Durham University (1958–1961). During this time, studying Palestrinian counterpoint and working with the musicologist Peter Evans assisted the growth of his musical maturity. Around his graduation, he had a nervous breakdown and largely stopped composing for four years. He spent his hiatus primarily as a freelance music critic and musicologist. Before his halting of composition, in 1959 Payne had drafted parts of the symphonic poem It Happened Once, and returning to it in 1964 under the name of Liebestod, he began to discover a newly personal style of composition.
Emerging composer (1965–1980)
Payne's new compositional style was first fully realised in the Phoenix Mass for SATB choir and brass, which he began in 1965 and finished by 1969. Commentators note that the 'Phoenix' of the title is both metaphorical and literal, because it is, in the words of music critic Barry Millington, "a symbolic revivification of his compositional ambitions with a newly fashioned method of structural organisation." Characterised by the use of harmonic intervals for specific themes and movements, Payne declared the work to be his first major composition. Payne married the soprano Jane Manning in 1966.
Paraphrases and Cadenzas (1969), his next work, was a 14-minute piece for viola, clarinet and piano, that shared much of the harmonic language of the Phoenix Mass. Payne later revised both the Phoenix Mass and Paraphrases and Cadenzas in 1972 and 1978 respectively. Commissioned and premiered by the Baccholian Singers of London in 1970, his Two Songs without Words for five unaccompanied male voices shifted focus from intervallic organization to music based on numerology. Payne's Sonatas and Ricercars premiered the next year; the nine-movement work featured four full ensemble movements and five movements of solos for flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, horn. Later in 1971 Payne wrote Paean for solo piano, in which a synthesis of the aria and toccata forms is dominated by numerology and tone clusters. Throughout 1972 and early 1973, various writing commissions halted his music composition. By 1970 Payne and Manning had moved to a house in Islington, where they lived until the end of their lives.
In the Spring of 1973 Payne returned to Liebestod, but quickly set it aside to work on the unaccompanied vocal piece A Little Passiontide Cant to an anonymous text from 14th-century England, and later his Concerto for Orchestra (1974) commissioned by Richard Bradshaw and the New London Ensemble. The latter was his largest-scale work to date, featuring ritornellos and—like the Sonatas and Ricercars—rotating instrumental solos. For 16 voices and text by Thomas Hardy, Payne won the Radcliffe Award for another unaccompanied vocal piece, First Sight of Her and After (1975). Though now he planned to finish Liebestod, he was commissioned by the Grimethorpe Colliery Band and Elgar Howarth so instead wrote a tone poem-funeral ode inspired by Beowulf, Fire on Whaleness (1975–1976), for brass band. Throughout 1976–1979, Payne embarked on four more choral pieces, three of which were by British figures: The World's Winter (1976, text by Alfred, Lord Tennyson); The Sea of Glass (1977, text from the Book of Revelation); A Little Ascension Cant (1977, text attributed to Cynewulf); and A Little Whitsuntide Cant (1977, text by Emily Brontë). He was commissioned by the BBC Proms for The Stones and Lonely Places Sing (1979), a tone poem that has a numerology-based structure and evokes "the bleak coastline of western Britain and Ireland".
English Romanticism (1981–1992)
In the A Day in the Life of a Mayfly (1981) Payne first embraced his earlier English Romantic influences, and synthesised them with his predominant modernist style; Susan Bradshaw described this as "modernized nostalgia". Commissioned by the Fires of London and premiered 24 September 1981 at the Queen Elizabeth Hall, London, A Day in the Life of a Mayfly soon became Payne's best known work up to that point. He continued his renewal of the English tradition in his next major orchestral work, The Spirit's Harvest, which was his second commission for the Proms. Throughout the 1980s he engaged in a variety of genres; he wrote solo, choral, orchestral, brass and chamber works. Also in the 1980s, he held various academic posts. He spent 1983 as a visiting professor at Mills College, California and from 1983 to 1985–6 taught composition at the London College of Music. During 1986 he was also a composition professor at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music, New South Wales. Among his students was the composer Enid Luff.
In 1988 he co-founded the new music ensemble Jane's Minstrels with Manning. Many of his works, such as transcriptions of seven songs by Peter Warlock entitled the Aspects of Love and Contentment (1991), were composed for Jane's Minstrels. The group also performed music by Purcell, Elgar, Bridge, Grainger, Webern, Schoenberg, and Maxwell Davies.
Payne's next important orchestral work, Time's Arrow (1990) was his third orchestral commission for the BBC Proms. The piece was well received and described by Millington as "one of his finest achievements". The work is a musical depiction of the Big Bang, beginning in almost complete silence and utilizing dense brass and percussion textures to represent the immensity of the subject. Another orchestral work, Symphonies of Wind and Rain (1991), was commissioned by the Endymion Ensemble and premiered the following year.
Elgar's Third Symphony (1993–1997)
Payne's realisation of the sketches for Edward Elgar's incomplete Third Symphony took several years to complete. When Elgar died in 1934, he left an incomplete score for a third symphony commissioned by the BBC. Elgar's own thoughts on posthumous completions were ambiguous: though he had expressed a wish that no-one should 'tinker' with the sketches, but also said "If I can't complete the Third Symphony, somebody will complete it". Although initially reluctant to allow anyone to use this material, the Elgar family realised that in 2005 the sketches would come out of copyright. After hearing Payne's 1995 radio talk on his ideas, the composer's estate approved his elaboration, which Payne had been working on since 1993, having studied the sketches since 1972. Elgar's sketches were fragmentary; he often wrote inconsistently and haphazardly, recording unrelated ideas side by side in the 130 pages—141 individual sketches—that he left behind.
Payne's version of the symphony, titled Edward Elgar: the sketches for Symphony No 3 elaborated by Anthony Payne, was first performed in February 1998 at the Royal Festival Hall, London by Sir Andrew Davis and the BBC Symphony Orchestra. The work was immediately acclaimed and after it quickly began receiving further performances, totalling over 150 performances in four years. As of 2021 the piece has been recorded six times, and it has gained wide acceptance into Elgar's oeuvre. Payne released a book in 1998, , discussing his process of completion for the work.
While Payne worked on the symphony from 1993 to 1997, he simultaneously engaged in commissions for various English ensembles: Hidden Music (1992) for the London Festival Orchestra; Orchestral Variations – The Seeds Long Hidden (1994) for the English Chamber Orchestra; and Empty Landscape – Heart's Ease (1995) for the Nash Ensemble. Other activities during this time include his tenure as the co-artistic director of the 1994 Spitalfields Music with Judith Weir and Michael Berkeley, and teaching composition at the University of Western Australia during 1996.
Later career and death (1998–2021)
After his international success in completing Elgar's 3rd symphony, Payne initially found difficulty in composing further. Payne explained "It was rather like an actor must feel in a role – I was playing Elgar to the best of my ability. However, I was seriously worried at the end of it that I would not be able to be myself again. For 18 months I was living inside this work. It was fantastic while I was doing it, but I thought: How can I possibly get back to writing my stuff?". He wrote the Micro-Sonata (1997) and Hommage to Debussy (1998)—his first solo piano works since 1980. Payne's resurgence in large-scale composition came with the Isles of Scilly-inspired Visions and Journeys (2002), an orchestral commission for the Proms that was especially well received.
Payne subsequently also composed a version of Pomp and Circumstance March No. 6 from Elgar's incomplete sketches for the work, which received its first performance under the baton of Sir Andrew Davis at a Prom concert on 2 August 2006 – Payne's 70th birthday. From 2012 to 2013, Payne was a Professorial Fellow the University of East Anglia's composition department. His String Quartet No. 2 (2010) won the Chamber category of the 2011 British Composer Awards. His last major work, Of Land, Sea and Sky (2016) was a commission for The Proms. The piece was written around his 80th birthday, and took inspiration from the sounds of horses' hooves, masses of clouds and the landscape art of Arthur Streeton.
Payne died on 30 April 2021. He was 84, and died a month after the death of his wife, which reportedly affected his health. His colleague and fellow composer Colin Matthews noted that "They were inseparable in life, and I suppose it's not a surprise that he would follow her so soon after". Payne and Manning had no children, but were survived by a nephew and two nieces.
Music
General character
Though Payne was drawn to various Classical and Romantic composers in his youth, the late English Romanticism of Elgar, Delius and Vaughan Williams proved to be the most impactful on his work. His success from the Elgar Symphony completion led to orchestrations of various works by all three; he likened Vaughan Williams in particular to a "musical godfather". These influences are considerably apparent in the works from his time at Dulwich and Durham. By the mid-1960s, Payne began to readily engage with modernist aesthetics, looking for musical content by more narrow means.
As a part of his interest in modernistic music, each movement of the Phoenix Mass centres on a particular interval, such as whole tones in the Gloria and major thirds in the Sanctus. Paraphrases and Cadenzas (1969) also utilises specific intervallic designations for each movement, each of which align with a movement of the Mass. Another interest of Payne's was numerology; the virtuosic Paean (1971) is built on a series of sequences based on a random number table: 7 3 4 1 1 2 5 2 1 9 5 5 7 8 4 2 3 3 4 9 9 6. The Stones and Lonely Places Sing (1979) uses numerology of a different fashion; the proportions of 3 2 7 4 1 6 5 decide the phrase length, resulting in phrases of 21 bars (3x7), 14 bars (2x7), 49 bars (7x), 28 bars (7x4), 7 bars (7x1), 42 bars (7x6) and 35 bars (7x5). Other musical trademarks include wide spaced harmonies and frequent alternation between strict and fluid rhythmic frameworks.
Apart from opera, Payne engaged in most traditional genres: large-scale orchestral, brass band, chamber works, solo piano, solo strings, choral works and song cycles. However, he was principally a composer of chamber music, much of which was written for Jane's Minstrels and often included vocal parts specifically for Manning. Other chamber ensembles Payne wrote compositions for include the Baccholian Singers of London, New London Ensemble, the Fires of London, the Endymion Ensemble, the London Festival Orchestra, the English Chamber Orchestra and the Nash Ensemble. Bradshaw asserts that these chamber works most clearly demonstrate the compositional evolution of Payne throughout his career. Despite these regular commissions, Payne said in 2005 that after 30 years as a composer he made only what would be £15,000 in 2020 annually. He was forced to supplement his composition with work as a music critic and musicologist. Reflecting on this, Payne said "Still, you do it for love, don’t you?".
Legacy and reputation
Payne was not a particularly mainstream composer of contemporary classical music, in part from his straddling the worlds of English Romanticism and modernism. Payne reflected on this, recalling his 2003 Radio 3 British Composer Awards, saying "I was absolutely amazed... because I’m one of those composers who never win awards." Along these lines, Michael White of The Independent described Payne as "a quiet but thoughtful presence in British music [that] always strikes me as a kind of anchorage in sanity, confirming the continuing life of trusted values".
Payne made substantial contributions to both the orchestral and choral/vocal repertoires: his Time's Arrow (1990) and Visions and Journeys (2002) for orchestra were acclaimed, and he was a prolific composer of song cycles. However, he remains most noted as a composer of chamber music; he was best known for the chamber work A Day in the Life of a Mayfly (1981) before his 1997 Elgar completion. Though he developed a highly individual style, The Telegraph asserts that Payne's legacy is "inevitably dominated" by his Elgar completion.
At the Proms on 13 August 2021, the BBC Symphony Orchestra played Payne's Spring’s Shining Wake as a memorial tribute.
Selected recordings
List of compositions
Other
Selected publications
Alongside his career as a composer, Payne simultaneously built up a reputation as a writer on music, writing books about Arnold Schoenberg and Frank Bridge. He also became a renowned critic, regularly writing for The Daily Telegraph, The Independent and Country Life. Other writing contributions include articles in Tempo, Musical Times and Music and Musicians.
Books
Articles
Awards and honours
Radcliffe Award, 1975, for First Sight of Her and After
Listeners' award in the first Radio 3 British Composer Awards of The Ivors Academy, 2003, for Visions and Journeys
Honorary Doctor of Music (with Manning), University of Durham, 2007
British Composer Awards Winners: Chamber of The Ivors Academy, 2011, for String Quartet No. 2
Elgar Medal of the Elgar Society, 2011
Honorary Doctor of Music, Kingston University
Honorary Doctor of Music, University of Birmingham
Fellow of the Royal College of Music; arts research fellow for two years
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
External links
Biography and Catalogue of works for Anthony Payne at Wise Music Classical
Articles by Anthony Payne on The Independent
Interview with Anthony Payne on WNIB Classical 97, Chicago, 5 March 1999
The Symphony - all Bits and Pieces, a BBC documentary about Payne's completion of Elgar's 3rd symphony
1936 births
2021 deaths
English classical composers
Musicians from London
Alumni of St Cuthbert's Society, Durham
People educated at Dulwich College
Honorary Members of the Royal Philharmonic Society
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
Edward Elgar
20th-century British Army personnel
Royal Corps of Signals soldiers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastopexy
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Mastopexy
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Mastopexy (Greek μαστός mastos "breast" + -pēxiā "affix") is the plastic surgery mammoplasty procedure for raising sagging breasts upon the chest of the woman, by changing and modifying the size, contour, and elevation of the breasts. In a breast-lift surgery to re-establish an aesthetically proportionate bust for the woman, the critical corrective consideration is the tissue viability of the nipple-areola complex (NAC), to ensure the functional sensitivity of the breasts for lactation and breast-feeding.
The breast-lift correction of a sagging bust is a surgical operation that cuts and removes excess tissues (glandular, adipose, skin), overstretched suspensory ligaments, excess skin from the skin-envelope, and transposes the nipple-areola complex higher upon the breast hemisphere. In surgical practice, mastopexy can be performed as a discrete breast-lift procedure, and as a subordinate surgery within a combined mastopexy–breast augmentation procedure.
Moreover, mastopexy surgery techniques also are applied to reduction mammoplasty, which is the correction of oversized breasts. Psychologically, a mastopexy procedure to correct breast ptosis is not indicated by medical cause or physical reason, but by the self-image of the woman; that is, the combination of physical, aesthetic, and mental health requirements of her self.
The patient
The usual mastopexy patient is the woman who desires the restoration of her bust (elevation, size, and contour), because of the post-partum volume losses of fat and milk-gland tissues, and the occurrence of breast ptosis. The clinical indications presented by the woman—the degrees of laxness of the suspensory Cooper's ligaments; and of the breast skin-envelope (mild, moderate, severe, and pseudo ptosis)—determine the applicable restorative surgical approach for lifting the breasts. Grade I (mild) breast ptosis can be corrected solely with breast augmentation, surgical and non-surgical. Severe breast ptosis can be corrected with breast-lift techniques, such as the Anchor pattern, the Inverted-T incision, and the Lollipop pattern, which are performed with circumvertical and horizontal surgical incisions; which produce a periareolar scar, at the periphery (edge) of the nipple-areola complex (NAC), and a vertical scar, descending from the lower margin of the NAC to the horizontal scar in the infra-mammary fold (IMF), where the breast meets the chest; such surgical scars are the aesthetic disadvantages of mastopexy.
Breast ptosis
Etiology
Gravity is the most common cause of breast ptosis, or sagging.
In a young woman with large breasts the sagging occurs because the volume and weight of the bust is disproportionate to body type, and because of the great elasticity of the thin, young skin envelope of each breast.
In middle-aged women, breast ptosis usually is caused by postpartum hormonal changes to the maternal body (e.g., depleted adipose fat tissue and atrophied milk glands) and because of the inelasticity of the skin envelope, which is overstretched by engorgement during lactation.
In post-menopausal women, in addition to gravity, breast ptosis atrophy is aggravated by the inelasticity of overstretched, aged skin.
Pathophysiology and presentation
In the course of a woman's life, her breasts change in size and volume as the skin envelope becomes inelastic, and the Cooper's suspensory ligaments—which suspend the mammary gland high against the chest—become loose, and so cause the falling forward and the sagging of the breast and the nipple-areola complex (NAC). Moreover, additional to tissue prolapse, postpartum diminishment (involution) of the voluminous milk glands in the breast aggravates the looseness of the suspensory ligaments, and of the inelastic, overstretched skin envelope. Mastopexy corrects said degenerative physical changes, by elevating the (internal) parenchymal tissues, cutting and re-sizing the skin envelope, and transposing the nipple-areola complex higher upon the breast hemisphere. The degree of breast ptosis of each breast is determined by the position of the nipple-areola complex (NAC) upon the breast hemisphere; ptosis of the breast is measured with the modified Regnault ptosis grade scale.
The Regnault ptosis grade scale
Grade I: Mild ptosis — The nipple is located below the inframammary fold (IMF), but remains located above the lower pole of the breast.
Grade II: Moderate ptosis — The nipple is located below the IMF; yet some lower-pole breast tissue hangs lower than the nipple.
Grade III: Advanced ptosis — The nipple is located below the IMF, and is at the maximum projection of the breast from the chest.
Grade IV: Severe ptosis — The nipple is far below the inframammary fold, and there is no lower-pole breast tissue below the nipple.
Laurence Anthony Kirwan published an alternative classification system for ptosis of the primary or non augmented breast that is meant to be better suited than the Regnault scale for planning surgery.
Additional mastopexy considerations
Pseudoptosis — The indication is the sagging of the skin of the lower half (inferior pole) of the breast, featuring the nipple located either at or above the inframammary fold (IMF); as such, pseudoptosis is a usual consequence of postpartum milk-gland atrophy. The nipple is located either at or above the IMF, while the lower half of the breast sags below the IMF. Pseudoptosis usually occurs when the woman ceases nursing, because the milk glands have atrophied, and so reduced the volume of the breast, thus the sagging of the breast-envelope skin.
Parenchymal maldistribution — The lower breast lacks fullness, the inframammary fold is very high under the breast hemisphere, and the nipple-areola complex is close to the IMF. Such indications of the maldistribution of parenchymal tissues indicate a developmental deformity.
Surgical anatomy of the breast
Composition
Surgically, the breast is a milk-producing apocrine gland overlaying the chest; and is attached at the nipple, and suspended with ligaments from the chest; and which is integral to the skin, the body integument of the woman. The dimensions and the weight of the breasts vary with the woman's age and her habitus (body build and physical constitution). Hence, small-to-medium-sized breasts weigh approximately 500 gm or less, and large breasts weigh approximately 750–1,000 gm. Anatomically, the breast topography and the locale of the nipple-areola complex (NAC) on the breast hemisphere are particular to each woman; thus, the statistically desirable (mean average) measurements are a 21–23 cm sternal distance (nipple to sternum-bone notch), and a 5–7 cm inferior-limb distance, from the nipple to the inframammary fold, where the breast joins the chest.
Blood supply and innervation
The arterial blood supply of the breast has medial and lateral vascular components; it is supplied with blood by the internal mammary artery (from the medial aspect), the lateral thoracic artery (from the lateral aspect), and the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th intercostal perforating arteries. Drainage of venous blood from the breast is by the superficial vein system under the dermis, and by the deep vein system parallel to the artery system. The primary lymph drainage system is the retromammary lymph plexus in the pectoral fascia. Sensation in the breast is established by the peripheral nervous system innervation of the anterior and lateral cutaneous branches of the 4th, 5th, and 6th intercostal nerves, and thoracic spinal nerve 4 (T4 nerve) innervates and supplies sensation to the nipple-areola complex.
Mechanical structures of the breast
In realizing the breast lift, the mastopexic correction takes anatomic and histologic account of the biomechanical, load-bearing properties of the three tissue types (glandular, adipose, skin) that compose and support the breast; among the properties of the soft tissues of the breast is near-incompressibility (Poisson's ratio of ~0.5).
Rib cage. The 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th ribs of the thoracic cage are the structural supports for the mammary glands.
Chest muscles. The breasts lie upon the pectoralis major muscle, the pectoralis minor muscle, and the intercostal muscles (between the ribs), and can extend to and cover a portion of the (front) anterior serratus muscle (attached to the ribs, the rib muscles, and the shoulder blade), and to the rectus abdominis muscle (a long, flat muscle extending up the torso, from pubic bone to rib cage). The body posture of the woman exerts physical stresses upon the pectoralis major muscles and the pectoralis minor muscles, which cause the weight of the breasts to induce static and dynamic shear forces (when standing and when walking), compression forces (when lying supine), and tension forces (when kneeling on four limbs).
Pectoralis fascia. The pectoralis major muscle is covered with a thin superficial membrane, the pectoral fascia, which has many prolongations intercalated among its fasciculi (fascicles); at the midline, it is attached to the front of the sternum, above it is attached to the clavicle (collar bone), while laterally and below, it is continuous with the fascia.
Suspensory ligaments. The subcutaneous layer of adipose tissue in the breast is traversed with thin suspensory ligaments (Cooper's ligaments) that extend obliquely to the skin surface, and from the skin to the deep pectoral fascia. The structural stability provided by the Cooper's ligaments derives from its closely packed bundles of collagen fibers oriented in parallel; the principal, ligament-component cell is the fibroblast, interspersed throughout the parallel collagen-fiber bundles of the shoulder, axilla, and thorax ligaments.
Glandular tissue. As a mammary gland, the breast comprises lobules (milk glands at each lobe-tip) and the lactiferous ducts (milk passages), which widen to form an ampulla (sac) at the nipple.
Adipose tissue. The fat tissue of the breast is composed of lipidic fluid (60–85% weight) that is 90–99 per cent triglycerides, free fatty acids, diglycerides, cholesterol phospholipids, and minute quantities of cholesterol esters, and monoglycerides; the other components are water (5–30% weight) and protein (2–3% weight).
The skin envelope. The breast skin is in three layers: (i) the epidermis, (ii) the dermis, and (iii) the hypodermis. The epidermis is 50–100 μm thick, and is composed of a stratum corneum of flat keratin cells, that is 10–20 μm thick; it protects the underlying viable epidermis, which is composed of keratinizing epithelial cells. The dermis is mostly collagen and elastin fibers embedded to a viscous water and glycoprotein medium. The fibers of the upper dermis ("papillary dermis") are thinner than the fibers of the deep dermis, thus the skin envelope is 1–3 mm thick. The thickness of the hypodermis (adipocyte cells) varies from woman to woman, and body part.
Surgical procedures
Indications
The surgeon–physician evaluates the woman requesting a breast-lift operation to confirm that she understands the health risks and benefits of the mastopexy procedure. The surgeon confirms that her ideal body image (aesthetic goal) corresponds to what can realistically be achieved with the plastic surgery options available. The following conditions are indications for mastopexy.
Sagging breasts, which prolapsed (fell forward) consequent to postpartum milk gland diminishment, menopause, gross weight-loss, et cetera.
Post-explantation ptosis, the sagging of the inelastic skin envelopes, once emptied of the breast implants.
Congenital ptosis and pseudoptosis, as observed in conditions such as tuberous breast deformity (constricted breast).
Acquired or relative ptosis, as seen in the post-mastectomy breast reconstruction of a bust that is of natural and proportionate size, look, and feel.
Mastopexy of the sagging breast
The following descriptions of the full breast-lift and of the modified breast-lift techniques are limited to the surgical incisions used to address the skin envelope of the breast, not the internal parenchyma, the substance of the breast.
Full breast lift
The sagging bust is lifted using the circumvertical- and horizontal-incision plan of the Anchor mastopexy (also Lexer pattern, inverted-T incision, Wise pattern, inferior pedicle), which features three incisions:
The Anchor ring: a circular incision at the upper-edge of the periphery of the nipple-areola complex.
The Anchor shank: a vertical incision from the lower edge of the nipple-areola complex to the inframammary-fold incision.
The Anchor stock: a horizontal incision along the inframammary fold, where the breast joins the chest.
In cutting the folds of excess skin from the sagging, inelastic skin-envelope of the breast (and occasionally reducing the nipple-areola complex diameter), the three-incision technique of the Anchor mastopexy allows maximal corrections to the breasts, thereby producing an elevated bust with breasts of natural size, look, and feel. Moreover, each of the three scars to the breast hemisphere produced by the Anchor-pattern mastopexy has a characteristic healing pattern:
at the periareolar area — the edge of the nipple-areola complex — the surgical scar is concealed by the light-to-dark skin color at the pigment transition, where the light-color breast skin becomes the dark-color areola skin (the ring of the Anchor pattern)
the medial vertical scar (the shank of the Anchor pattern) extends from the lower edge of the nipple-areola complex to the inframammary fold; the shadow of the breast hemisphere hides it
the horizontal scar (the stock of the Anchor pattern), which follows, and is hidden in, the inframammary fold.
Post-surgically, of the three breast-lift surgery scars, the scar to the inframammary fold exhibits the greatest tendency to hypertrophy, to thickness and large size. Although the coloration of mastopexy scars fades with the full maturation of the tissues, they do remain visible.
Modified breast lift
The incision plans of the techniques for modified breast lift feature fewer cuts and fewer scars, but limit the plastic surgeon by allowing fewer changes to the skin envelope of the breast. In surgical praxis, the modified breast lift often is a sub-ordinate surgery within a mastopexy–breast augmentation procedure, the simultaneous lifting and enlarging the bust. Moreover, these incisions are applied to correct the ptosis discussed above; some technical variants of the modified breast lift are:
the periareolar lift (crescent lift), featuring a crescent-shaped incision, above and at a variable portion of the nipple-areola complex perimeter, allows the cutting and removal of a crescent of flesh, thereby facilitates the elevation (transposition) of the nipple-areola complex to its higher (new) locale upon the breast hemisphere.
the circumareolar lift (Benelli breast lift, donut lift), featuring the cutting out of a concentric ring of flesh from around the nipple-areola complex, limits the size and diameter of the circular scar.
the circumvertical lift (lollipop lift, vertical scar), featuring a circumareolar incision, around the circumference of the nipple-areola complex, and a vertical incision from the lower edge of the nipple-areola complex periphery to the inframammary fold.
Mastopexy of the augmented breast
Women who have undergone breast augmentation also are susceptible to breast ptosis; which incidence might be induced by the physical and mechanical stresses exerted by the breast implants upon the internal tissues and the skin envelope; such overstretching thins the skin and atrophies its elastic qualities. Statistically, breast augmentation and mastopexy are plastic surgery operations with low incidence rates of medical complications; yet, when performed as a combined breast-repair procedure (mastopexy–augmentation), the physiologic stresses upon the health of the woman increase the risks of incision-wound infection, breast-implant exposure, damage to the breast and nipple nerves leading to sensation changes, malposition of the nipple-areola complex, and malposition of the breast implant in the implant pocket. Therefore, a mastopexy–augmentation procedure features increased surgical complication rates, when compared to the lesser complication rates of breast augmentation and mastopexy as discrete surgical operations; likewise, the individual incidence rates of surgical revision and complications, when compared to the revision and complication rates for the combined mastopexy–augmentation procedure. Recent studies of a newer technique for simultaneous augmentation mastopexy (SAM) indicate that it is a safe surgical procedure with minimal medical complications. The SAM technique involves invaginating and tacking the tissues first, in order to previsualize the result, before making any surgical incisions to the breast.
Contraindications
The contraindications for mastopexy are few: aspirin use, tobacco smoking, diabetes, and obesity are medical and health conditions associated with increased incidences of nipple necrosis. In resolving the perceived ptosis of a woman with encapsulated breast implants, the surgeon determines her suitability for a breast lift procedure after explantation, which facilitates assessment of the true degree of ptosis present in the explanted breasts; likewise the assessment of the effects of a combined breast-lift and revision-augmentation procedure, featuring the removal and the replacement of breast implants. For the woman who is at high risk for developing breast cancer (primary or recurrent), the mastopexy might alter the histologic architecture of the breasts, which tissue change might interfere with the accurate MRI detection and subsequent treatment of cancer; the risks and benefits will be discussed in that setting.
Surgical techniques
General
In realizing a breast lift, a conservative surgical technique produces the fewest, least visible scars after excising (cutting) excess folds of skin from the skin-envelope, when either replacing or rearranging or augmenting the internal breast tissues (parenchymal and adipose). Breast lift techniques are known according to the number of scars produced, which is related to the achievable degree of breast-lift. Pre-operatively, the patient and the surgeon decide upon the appropriate surgical technique (superior, medial, or inferior pedicle) that will achieve the best degree of breast lift. Generally, breast ptosis (sagging) is determined by the locale of the nipple-areola complex upon the breast; the lower the nipple-areola complex, the greater the degree of breast prolapsation (ptosis). Nonetheless, in breast-lift surgery, the primary consideration is the tissue viability of the nipple-areola complex, so that the outcome is a functionally sensate breast of natural size, contour, and feel.
Evaluating severity
The surgical management of breast ptosis is evaluated by the degree of severity.
Grade I: Mild breast ptosis, which can be corrected with breast implant augmentation, or with a periareolar skin resection (crescent lift), with or without breast augmentation.
Grade II: Moderate ptosis, which can be corrected with a circumareolar donut mastopexy technique featuring Benelli cerclage suturing; and with circumvertical-incision (lollipop mastopexy) techniques such as the Regnault B Mastopexy (and the Lejour–Lassus breast reduction).
Grade III: Severe ptosis, which usually can be corrected with the circumvertical and horizontal incisions of the Anchor mastopexy (inverted-T incision), regardless of the type of pedicle used (inferior or superior).
Repairing false ptosis
Pseudoptosis, or false breast prolapse, can be addressed two ways:
With a breast augmentation, or with a skin excision, or with both procedures; and without transposing the nipple-areola complex, which requires cutting the skin of the lower pole of the breast.
With the circumareolar suturing that encircles the nipple-areola complex. To achieve the desired degree of breast lift in accordance with the woman's anatomy, the circumareolar mastopexy technique (circumvertical lift) can be modified with an additional vertical incision. The extra skin-envelope tissue remaining after a vertical-incision technique can either be gathered in a series of pleats, along the vertical limb of the incision, or can be resected, cut and removed, at the inframammary fold, thereby producing a horizontal incision of varying length, as in the circumvertical and horizontal breast lift.
Mastopexy procedures
Pre-operative matters
The plastic surgeon delineates the mastopexy incision-plan upon the patient's breasts and torso; the principal corrective consideration is the correct level of the nipple-areola complex upon the breast hemisphere. In most women, the nipple should be located at, or slightly above, the inframammary fold, because emplacing it too high might later lead to a difficult revision surgery. The proper topographic locale for the nipple is determined by transposing the semicircular line of the inframammary fold to the face of the breast (anterior aspect), thereby configuring a circle, wherein the nipple-areola complex is centred. After determining the nipple locale, the surgeon delineates the remaining skin incisions of the correction, while maintaining the inferior limit of the vertical-incision at a distance above the pre-operative inframammary-fold, which precaution avoids extending the surgical scar to the chest wall after the lifting of the breast and the inframammary fold.
Intra-operative matters
The sole application of breast augmentation mammoplasty to correct minimal breast ptosis (Grade I) usually is effected with a breast implant prosthesis. The dual application of mastopexy and of breast augmentation surgeries — as one surgical procedure — requires thorough planning, because of the required resections of the parenchymal tissues. The periareolar incision lends itself to breast prosthesis implantation and to nipple-areola complex transposition, whilst maintaining the tissue viability of the nipple-areola complex.
Mastopexy by internal surgical approach applies to the woman who has undergone explantation of breast prostheses. In operative praxis, the plastic surgeon elevates the flaps of the cut breast-implant capsules, and folds them in order to increase the volume of the internal mass of the breasts — thereby increasing the projection of the bust from the chest surface. The nipple-areola complex is elevated with plication sutures, and requires no skin resection when there is no excess skin.
Pedicles — superior, inferior, and medial
Although the aforementioned descriptions are of the incisions used to address the breast skin envelope, the surgical management of the breast tissue (parenchyma) is a separate consideration, including maintenance of the neurovascular integrity of the nipple-areola complex. The degree of hemispheric elevation of the nipple-areola complex determines the type of pedicle (superior, inferior, medial) that will provide the best venous and arterial vascular supply to the nipple-areola complex. Therefore, the application of the superior pedicle approach affords the surgeon greater procedural flexibility in determining the incision site for emplacing the breast implant, but it limits the possible degree of elevation of the nipple. Application of the inferior pedicle approach affords a greater degree of nipple-areola complex elevation, but makes difficult emplacing the breast implant, and the subsequent contouring of the breast. Application of the medial pedicle approach preserves breast sensation with a reliable venous and arterial vascular supply, and avoids the technical and procedural limitations of the superior pedicle and the inferior pedicle approaches.
Post-operative matters
After the breast-lift surgery, wound care is minimal when the sutured closure is subcuticular (under the epidermis), and reinforced with strips of absorbable adhesive tape (butterfly stitches) applied to maintain the wound closed.
Post-operative surgery scars upon the breast hemisphere can alter the way that the woman conducts her breast self-examination for cancerous changes to the tissues; thus exists the possibility that masses of necrotic fat might be mistakenly palpated as neoplasm lumps; or might be detected as such in the woman's scheduled mammogram examinations; nonetheless, such benign histologic changes usually are distinguishable from malignant neoplasms.
Complications
General medical complications of mastopexy include bleeding, infection, and the secondary effects of the anaesthesia. Specific complications include skin necrosis, and dysesthesia, abnormal changes in sensation (numbness and tingling). Serious medical complications include occurrences of seroma, a pocket of locally accumulated serous fluid, and occurrences of hematoma, a local accumulation of blood outside the vascular system. Necrosis of the nipple and necrosis of the skin flap (or both), when it occurs, can either be partial, and heal imperceptibly with wound care, or can be complete, and necessitate reconstruction. A complication of the Anchor mastopexy is the tension-caused wound breakdown at the junction of the three limbs of the incision, yet the scars usually heal without undergoing hypertrophy. Asymmetry of the bust is usually present pre-operatively, and the breast-lift surgery usually does not definitively eliminate it, regardless of the applied mastopexy technique or of the plastic surgeon's operative expertise. Moreover, a combined mastopexy–breast augmentation procedure can make the surgical revision of breast asymmetry more difficult because of the overstretched tissues of nipple-areola complex. Moreover, a possible, undesirable outcome of the periareolar mastopexy (circumareolar incision) is the underprojection of the corrected breast from the chest wall.
Mastopexy with medial pedicle flap
Pre-operative matters
To realize a breast lift using the medial pedicle technique, the surgeon delineates the incision plan upon the breasts, chest, and torso of the woman:
The breast meridian for the length of the sternum bone (from the sternal notch at the lower-throat) to the xiphoid process (at the lower tip).
An ellipse, centered upon and bisecting, the breast meridian line on the sternum.
The form and dimensions of the medial pedicle skin-flap, the base of which is above the midline of the ellipse. A long pedicle-base will provide an adequate vascular supply of venous and arterial blood to ensure the tissue viability of the nipple-areola complex.
A semicircle at the superior face of the ellipsis — either a hemisphere (1/2 circle) or a crescent (3/4 circle) — to indicate the transposed locale of the nipple-areola complex. The top of the semicircle is marked at from the superior margin of the sternal notch. In surgical praxis, the incision plan is modified to the woman's anatomy (height, weight, degree of ptosis), and the treatment of the parenchymal tissue.
Operative technique
Incision plan
After delineating the surgical incision-plan that establishes a technically reliable central axis of the front torso, and before cutting into the breast(s), the plastic surgeon confirms the topographic accuracy of the delineated incision plan, by triangulating the measures at the upper sternum and at the umbilicus, and modifying the incisional lines, if required. Afterwards, the surgical incision lines are infiltrated to the breast skin with a local anaesthetic mixture (lidocaine 1.0% and epinephrine 1:100,000) that constricts the pertinent vascular system to limit bleeding.
Pedicle skin-flap
After establishing the dimensions of the new nipple-areola complex, the surgeon de-epithelializes the medial pedicle skin-flap that provides the venous-arterial vascular system for the nipple-areola complex. The first incisions are through the parenchymal tissue, and separate the medial pedicle. The incision is effected to avoid undercutting the skin pedicle and so preserve the nipple-areola complex blood-supply vessels. Hence, the tissue volume of the pedicle flap is essential for establishing the adequate projection of the upper pole of the breast, where the breast originates from the chest. The surgeon resects (cuts and removes) an almost-triangular segment of tissue below the medial pedicle. Finally, for emplacing the nipple-areola complex, the incisions are completed by cutting the ellipse and the tissue adjacent to the medial pedicle.
If the incisions to the breast are satisfactory, the patient's homeostasis is feasible at that juncture of the mastopexy operation. The surgeon then evaluates the tissue-thickness of the medial pedicle flap, and its physical capability for rotating in a superomedial direction (above and to the center) with no resultant torsion tension to the tissue of the inferior portion of the pedicle; afterwards, the surgeon reduces the tissue thickness of the skin pedicle. Once positioned superiorly, the pedicle tissue thickness is reviewed to ascertain that it fits into the new position, without undue pressure or constriction; thus are assured the tissue viability of the medial pedicle and of the nipple-areola complex.
Symmetry
The critical procedural step in forming the new breast is the collecting and the joining of the three folds of breast tissue (the medial pillar and the two lateral pillars) of the lower pole of the breast, where it meets the chest. The suturing is critical to supporting and shaping the flaccid breast tissues into a hemispheric breast-mound that well projects from the chest wall—a lifted breast. The supine patient then is elevated to a sitting position so that the breasts drape naturally, and the surgeon then delineates upon them the incision plan for the resection (cutting and removing) of the excess folds of skin from the lower sides (inferolateral) and the lower midline (inferomedial) of the new breast. Afterwards, the patient is laid supine, and the excess breast skin is cut; to avoid a scar at the inframammary fold, a purse-string closure gathers the excess folds of skin at the lower pole of the breast; in due course, the three joined pillars of skin will integrate to the inframammary fold. Again, the supine patient is elevated to a sitting position so that the surgeon can ascertain the size, shape, and symmetry, or asymmetry, of the corrected breasts. If the degree of breast-lift is satisfactory, the patient is re-laid to the operating table, and the plastic surgeon sutures the incision wounds.
Post-operative matters
During the initial post-operative period, the plastic surgeon examines the patient for occurrences of hematoma, and to evaluate the histologic viability of the breast-pedicle skin flaps and of the nipple-areola complex.
During the first three weeks of post-operative convalescence, the surgeon monitors the healing of the mastopexy wounds during weekly consultations with the patient. Depending upon the wound-healing progress of the woman, more or fewer follow-up examinations shall follow.
Complications
Tissue necrosis of the nipple-areola complex is the principal mastopexy medical complication. To prevent nipple-areola complex necrosis, the surgeon monitors and evaluates the viability of the transposed tissue; by the presence of oxygenated, bright red arterial blood demonstrates the proper functioning of the nipple-areola complex vascular system. A more common post-operative nipple-areola complex complication is dysesthesia, manifest as an abnormal sensation of numbness, and as a sensation of tingling, that perdures for the wound-healing period, yet it diminishes as the full functioning of the breast's innervation resumes the full sensitivity to the nipple-areola complex; nonetheless, permanent numbness of the nipple-areola complex is rare.
Tissue necrosis of the medial pedicle flap is a potential, but rare, complication of mastopexy procedures. Moreover, the occurrence of hematoma also is possible; in post-operative praxis, a large hematoma is drained immediately, whereas a small hematoma can be observed for self-resolution, before draining.
Wound dehiscence, the bursting of a surgical wound at the line of closure sutures, is a medical complication resulting from the poor healing of the wound. Unless wound dehiscence aesthetically compromises the breast-lift outcome, it is managed conservatively.
Breast contour irregularities occurred when the tissues of the inferior part of the incision are gathered to avoid forming a scar at the inframammary fold. If the complications do not self-resolve, if the tissues do not flatten, or become smooth, they are revised with additional surgery.
Mastopexy with B-pedicle
B mastopexy or Regnault mastopexy technique
The B mastopexy (breast lift) is a variation of the circumvertical approach that features an inverted, upper-case letter-B incision, which, when performed with simultaneous breast augmentation via submuscular or subglandular implantation of the breast prosthesis, restores the natural contour and appearance of the breasts. Moreover, the B mastopexy technique can procedurally include the simultaneous microliposuction to reduce the lateral parenchymal and adipose tissues in order to achieve the correct size, volume, and contour of the corrected breasts. The B mastopexy can correct several types of breast deformity, every form of breast ptosis, and breast hypertrophy; it usually has low incidence rates of hypertrophic scarring, and of loss of sensation in the nipple-areola complex; furthermore, the B mastopexy technique also applies to reduction mammoplasty, the correction of oversized breasts.
The technical and procedural efficacy of the B-technique mastopexy was established in Clinical Techniques: B Mastopexy: Versatility and 5-Year Experience (2007), a retrospective study of a 40-woman mammoplasty cohort upon whom were performed 13 breast-lift procedures without breast augmentation, and 27 procedures with simultaneous breast augmentation, using a medium-sized breast implant. The cohort reported no medical complications, only one woman underwent scar-revision surgery; and each of the 40 women was satisfied with her mastopexy outcome.
Surgical consultation — The plastic surgeon explains the technical and aesthetic considerations of the breast lift operation to the woman. That the B technique mastopexy yields improved aesthetic results with a breast-skin pedicle created with a curvilinear incision (an inverted, upper-case letter-B). That said curvilinear incision technique eliminates the medial vertical incision of the Anchor mastopexy, and so creates a lifted bust with breasts of natural size, appearance, and contour, and few surgical scars. The consultation includes detailed, pre-operative, post-operative, and healing-stage photographs that illustrate the nature and extent of the mastopexy incisions and the resultant scars. That the full healing (scar maturation) might require approximately one year to establish the final contour of the lifted breasts, after the suspensory ligaments and the parenchymal tissue have settled into and upon the chest as an aesthetically satisfactory bust of natural size, appearance, and contour.
Pre-operative matters
To the standing patient, the plastic surgeon delineates the mastopexy incision-plan to the chest, breasts, and torso of the woman. The distance from the suprasternal notch (atop the sternum) to the nipple is measured and recorded to the medical record; the level of the inframammary fold is identified and delineated to the front of the breast (anterior aspect), which indicates the elevated locale to which the nipple-areola complex will be transposed. The medial aspect of the new nipple-areola complex locale is marked approximately from the midline, along the mid-breast; and a semicircle with a 38-mm-diameter is delineated around the nipple; the distance of the semicircle from the ptotic nipple-areola complex indicates the new locale of the nipple-areola complex upon the breast hemisphere.
Operative technique
Incision plan
With the patient laid supine upon the operating table, the surgeon performs a free-hand, curvilinear delineation of an inverted, upper-case letter-B pattern to the breast. Then, per the landmarks of the initial incision-plan, a semicircular pattern is delineated around the nipple-areola complex. The vertical and horizontal component-incisions of the B mastopexy are created with a tapering, curvilinear incision that begins from the lower margin of the areola to the lateral crease of the breast. The B-pattern incision results in a vertical closure long, from the bottom margin of the nipple-areola complex to the inframammary fold.
Wound closure
The surgeon tests the closure tension of the wound sutures by in-folding the breast over the index finger, and towards the transposed nipple-areola complex, to observe if the skin blanches (whitens) or over-stretches, afterwards, the nipple-areola complex-area dermis is de-epithelialized. In the combined mastopexy–augmentation procedure, wherein the breast prosthesis is emplaced to a submuscular implant pocket, an anaesthetic tumescent solution is injected along the marked incision line. When the breast implant will be emplaced to a subglandular implant pocket, the hypodermic needle penetrates un-resisted into the anatomic plane above the pectoralis major muscle; the tumescent solution anaesthesia allows blunt dissection. After establishing anaesthesia, the surgeon de-epithelializes each edge of skin by undermining it , with a razor scalpel, thereby facilitating the closing of the surgical wound without tight sutures. In a mastopexy–augmentation, the breast-implant pocket (locale) determines when the surgeon performs the de-epithelialization of the B pedicle; for submuscular implantation, the skin pedicle de-epithelialization is performed after the emplacement; for subglandular implantation, the skin pedicle de-epithelialization is performed before the emplacement.
If the mastopexy includes simultaneous breast augmentation with submuscular emplacement, the surgeon observes that the pectoralis major muscle is divided from the sternum and the ribs. After cutting the implant pocket, the surgeon then de-epithelializes the B-pedicle. To facilitate the dermal closure (joining the wound edges) with minimal tension to the sutures, the breast implant either is displaced up, into the implant pocket, or is partially deflated. For the subglandular emplacement of breast implants, the technique is different; the de-epithelialization of the pedicle dermis is performed initially, after which an incision is made through the de-epithelialized dermis, at the base of the vertical limb of the mastopexy, and then, by means of blunt dissection, an implant pocket is cut above the pectoralis major muscle.
Symmetry
During the dermal closure, the nipple-areola complex is transposed to its new locale, as determined by the skin pedicle. To create the curvilinear scar, the deep dermal closure is accomplished by rotating the lateral flap down and then medially. The deep dermis is approximated (joined) with sutures, in a simple, interrupted fashion. The key suture is emplaced at the junction where the apex of the vertical incision meets the nipple-areola complex—because it is the skin area of the breast subject to the greatest tension(s). The subcutaneous dermal closure is effected with interrupted sutures. As required, the final adjustments before suturing the skin closed, might include either micro-liposuction or additional de-epithelialization. After the dermal closure, a suture is emplaced to achieve the continuous approximation of the nipple-areola complex to the adjacent skin edge, and to the lower skin incisions.
Post-operative matters
Convalescence — Post-operative care is minimal after a mastopexy procedure; the lifted breasts are supported with a porous, soft elastic tape, which is removed at 7–10 days post-operative, and then is reapplied to the mastopexy incisions for an additional 1–2 weeks during convalescence. For comfortable healing of the wounds, the woman wears a surgical brassière, and avoids wearing an underwire brassière until the breast implants have settled into position. The mastopexy outcome is photographed at 2–3 months post-operative.
Mastopexy technique observations
Mastopexic correction results in surgical scars on the lifted breasts; the periareolar mastopexy outcome often is a breast of bottom-heavy appearance, with puckered surgical scars; and the Anchor mastopexy outcome is an aesthetic breast of natural size, look, and feel, but with many scars. Whereas, advocates of the mechanical principle of the B technique mastopexy propose that the creation of a rotational pedicle (with an elevated epidermal flap that rotates around the nipple-areola complex), lifts the breasts with an incision plan with vertical and horizontal incisions that eliminate the medial incision (and its vertical scar), whilst providing good projection of the corrected bust from the chest, and a viable nipple-areola complex. Furthermore, advocates of the B technique mastopexy report that it usually does not require secondary correction, because it allows for the better transposition of excess lateral tissues of the breasts by means of curvilinear incision (inverted, upper-case, letter-B) to the skin envelope.
See also
Breast
Breast augmentation (augmentation mammoplasty)
Breast implant
Breast reduction (reduction mammoplasty)
Mammoplasty
Plastic surgery
References
Breast surgery
Obstetrical and gynaecological procedures
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Nambassa
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Nambassa was a series of hippie-conceived New Zealand festivals held from 1976 to 1981 on large farms around Waihi and Waikino in the Waikato. They were music, arts and alternatives festivals that focused on peace, love, and an environmentally friendly lifestyle. In addition to popular entertainment, they featured workshops and displays advocating alternative lifestyle and holistic health issues, alternative medicine, clean and sustainable energy, and unadulterated foods.
The New Zealand hippie movement was part of an international phenomenon in the 1960s and 1970s in the Western world, heralding a new artistic culture of music, freedom and social revolution where millions of young people across the globe were reacting against old world antecedents and embracing a new hippie ethos. Specifically New Zealand's subculture had its foundations in the peace and anti-nuclear activism of the 1960s where hippies were actively trying to stop New Zealand's involvement in the Vietnam war and to prevent the French from testing nuclear weapons at Mururoa atoll in French Polynesia in the Pacific Islands.
The January 1979 three-day music and alternatives festival, held over Auckland anniversary weekend, attracted over 75,000 patrons making it the largest arts, multiple cultural and popular music event of its type in the world.
Nambassa is also the tribal name of a charitable trust that has championed sustainable ideas and demonstrated practical counterculture ideals, a spiritually based alternative lifestyle, environmentalism and green issues from the early 1970s to the present.
Significant events
1977 January. Waikino music festival at Bicknel's farm, Waitawheta Valley, between Waihi and Waikino. Attendance 5500.
1977 December. Parade from Queen St, Auckland, to nearby Albert Park for a free concert. Attendance 10,000.
1978 January. Nambassa three-day music, crafts and alternative lifestyles festival on Phil and Pat Hulses' farm in Golden Valley, north of Waihi. Attendance 25,000.
1978 October. Nambassa winter road show toured the North Island promoting the 1979 festival.
1978 December. Two-day gathering in Maritoto Valley for the Mother Centre and friends. Attendance 1500.
1979 January. Nambassa beach festival touring family roadshow – Whangamatā, Waihi Beach, Mount Maunganui and Coromandel.
1979 January. Nambassa three-day music, crafts and alternative lifestyles festival on Phil and Pat Hulses' farm in Golden Valley, north of Waihi. Attendance 75,000 plus.
1981 January. Nambassa five-day celebration of music, crafts and alternative lifestyles culture on a farm at Waitawheta Valley between Waihi and Waikino. Attendance 15,000 – well down on the 1979 festival. Reacting against the huge 1979 event which was deemed by many of the counterculture movement too large and not reflective of the alternative message, the organizers purposely ran this festival on the same weekend as a major commercial rock concert. While this event lost money, it dramatically changed its character away from rock music towards hippie and New Age culture.
Performers and guests
Some of the hundreds of performers and guests who took part in Nambassa activities included:
Split Enz, Nambassa 1979, relaunching their career with a new line-up.
The Little River Band, Nambassa 1979, with Glenn Shorrock.
Skyhooks, Nambassa 1978, like Split Enz, Australia's early developers of theatre rock and costume extravaganza.
John Mayall, Nambassa 1981. Pioneer of British blues in the 1960s and 1970s.
Dizzy Gillespie, Nambassa 1981.
Sonny Terry and Brownie McGhee, Nambassa 1981. Early black American blues exponents who influenced the 1960s music revolution.
Charlie Daniels, Nambassa 1981.
Barry McGuire Nambassa 1979. Famous for the 1960s international smash hit Eve of Destruction.
Kevin Borich, Nambassa 1981. New Zealander formerly of The La De Das and an Australian Blues Foundation Hall of Famer.
Topp Twins, Nambassa 1979 and 1981.
Limbs Dance Company, Nambassa 1978, 1979 and 1981. Internationally known NZ dance troupe.
Alan Clay, Nambassa 1979 and 1981. Children's entertainer, author and international arts coordinator.
Hello Sailor, Waikino 1977.
Th' Dudes, Waikino 1977. Featuring a youthful Dave Dobbyn, then nurtured by Charlie Gray from the Island of Real café.
Citizen Band ex Split Enz. Performed Good Morning Citizens.
Alastair Riddell, Nambassa 1978.
Midge Marsden, Nambassa 1978 and 1979.
Beaver, Nambassa 1978.
Golden Harvest, Nambassa 1979.
Andy Anderson, Nambassa 1978 and 1979. Musician and actor.
The Plague, Nambassa 1979 and 1981. Performed naked but covered in paint in 1979.
Mahana. A travelling Māori theatrical rock band whose rock opera depicts the trials and tribulations of early white colonisation of New Zealand. Showcased at the Nambassa Winter Show 1978 and the Nambassa festivals 1978, 1979 and 1981. Produced by John Tucker.
Billy TK, Nambassa 1979 and 1981.
John Hore-Grenell, Nambassa 1978 and 1979.
The Rodger Fox Big Band, Nambassa 1981.
Gary McCormick, Nambassa 1978, '79 and '81. Poet and comedian.
Sam Hunt, Nambassa 1979. Poet.
Cultural guests
Stephen Gaskin, Nambassa 1978, 1979 and 1981. Co-founder of "The Farm", an internationally known spiritual community in Summertown, Tennessee. Stephen Gaskin was a Green Party presidential primary candidate in the US elections of 2000. He and wife Ina May Gaskin, plus other farm residents, made the annual pilgrimage to Nambassa.
Swami Satchidananda, Nambassa 1979. Known among the 1960s counterculture as the man who opened the original Woodstock festival of 1969, and as the sage from India who introduced the art of Yoga to the west.
Ina May Gaskin, Nambassa 1978 and 1981. Widely credited with having created the modern home birth movement and helping to inspire the renaissance of midwifery in the United States.
Eileen Caddy Nambassa 1981. Eileen co-founded the Findhorn spiritual community in Scotland in 1962. Her workshops and discussions on Findhorn Foundation were well received.
Dr Richard Alpert, aka Baba Ram Dass, Nambassa 1981. Richard Alpert was a professor of psychology at Harvard University who became well known for researching the effects of LSD, working closely with Dr. Timothy Leary. At Nambassa there was standing room only for Ram Dass' diverse lecturers on meditation and health.
Chief Oren Lyons, Nambassa 1981. Lyons is a Native American, a traditional faithkeeper of the Turtle Clan of the Onondaga (tribe) Council of Chiefs of the Hau de no sau . He conducted lectures and coordinated with Māori land rights activists, sharing his Native American land rights experiences.
Dr. Jim Cairns, Nambassa 1981. Former deputy Prime Minister of Australia and Labor Treasurer in the Australian government who opposed Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War and in 1970 led a protest against the war. He resigned from parliament in 1977 to devote his life to the counter-cultural movement.
The Twin Oaks Community eco community from Louisa County, Virginia sent a delegation of six people to the 1981 Nambassa five-day celebration. Their workshop contributions were well received.
Eva Rickard, Nambassa 1979. Vocal agitator for return of Raglan golf course land to the Tainui Awhiro people from whom it was taken during World War II. Gave a number of powerful lectures, on aerial railway and the main stage. Nambassa is sympathetic towards many indigenous Māori land claims.
Tim Shadbolt, Nambassa 1978, 1979 and 1981. Political activist and workshop participant. In the 1970s, he founded a commune and concrete cooperative at Huia. He wrote an autobiography, Bullshit and Jellybeans.
Arts, self-sufficiency and healing arts workshops
The notion for education-based workshops and displays developed out of a philosophical view; that the world was heading towards difficult times and that people needed to learn how to become more self-sufficient so that they would be less reliant on a system unable to provide spiritual and survivalist needs.
The following extracts are taken from the first 1976 "Nambassa Sun" newsletter proposal, in support of their survivalist workshops on self sufficiency and to heal the body and the mind.
The Nambassa festivals were not only music and entertainment events but included educational components which sought to instruct people on lifestyle aids it felt important enough to promote within the then conservative society of New Zealand's 1970s. Many of those involved in Nambassa aspired to the notion that throughout the evolution of western civilisation, many valuable ancient survival, healing and spiritual techniques, had been lost over 1700 years of a philosophically and culturally dominating Roman Christianity. Nambassa advocates that many past civilisations supporting religious and political institutions, have historically sought to alienate, and too often violently eliminate, many worthwhile belief systems which did not conform to its then strict conservative doctrines on culture and religion. Adherents of Nambassa promote the ideology which suggests that, to deny what was once integral to survival in ancient history, is essentially to deny one's personal spiritual development. Through its wide variety of workshop subjects, the festivals attempted to nurture a better understanding of culture and spirituality with the goal of fostering a more tolerant and better informed society.
The idea of integrating education based workshop demonstrations with popular mainstream entertainment, set the Nambassa festivals aside from other festivals coming before it. It was during the social revolution of the early 1960s and 1970s that Nambassa pioneered the concept, and was a world leader, in what was to evolve as a new format of presentation for the all encompassing major cultural, creative arts and music festivals. Most large open-air entertainment gatherings, prior to Nambassa, were essentially pop concerts. This new format demonstrated the merits of combining, in a complementary way, multiple and diverse entertainment and cultural modules, within the one grand celebratory event. During the 1970s, the Nambassa Trust developed this concept of large scale multidimensional events, which the rest of the world only began adopting some 20 years later.
While the 1960s and 1970s hippy movements were, and continue to be, unfairly derided
for their infatuation with rediscovering ancient religion and culture, many of these re-birthing systems are now part of mainstream ideology.
At Nambassa, one could attend and participate in free workshop demonstrations, symposium and discussion groups on diverse subjects such as: leather-work, hand crafted jewellery, spinning (textiles), pottery, indigenous Australians didgeridoo, boomerang throwing, creative art, musical instruments, puppeteering, bonsai trees, batiking, screen printing, basket weaving, Māori woodcarving, furniture and woodturning, natural cosmetics, custom made Sandal (footwear), clay therapy, aboriginal emu egg carving, silk screening, crochet and embroidery, macramé, ceramics, bone carving, candle making, stained glass, paper making, journalism and printing, glass blowing, enamelling, Māori art and jewellery, wood carving, the art of throwing pottery, weaving on inkle and back strap looms, wood-adzing, moccasin making, airbrushing, organic gardening, tie-dye, Māori kit making, mulching and composting, growing and using soya beans, herb gardening, hydroponics, small orcharding, natural child birth, breast feeding, child care, alternative education, animal husbandry, raku pottery, fencing, small dams and irrigation, solar heating, methane gas plants, wind pumps and generators, solar power, solar cooker, waterwheels, goat farming, sheep milking, rammed earth walls, soil-cement adobe, stone-masonry, hydraulic power, wind power, low cost housing and renovation, furniture making, moulds and mud houses, bamboo and its uses, alternative lifestyles and communities, Rudolf Steiner Schools, permaculture, ecology and mining, native forests, saving the whales, food preparation and storage, dried fruit, bread making, self-sufficiency, wine making, beekeeping, butter and cheese making, soap making, food cooperatives, healthy eating, civil liberties, New Zealand's nuclear-free zone, world peace and disarmament, music, Gay Rights, puppetry, origami, theatre, dance and costumes, mask making, conservation and pesticides, clean water, mobile homes construction, bush craft, legal aspects of alternative land development, horse ploughing, family planning, vegetarianism, animal rights, martial arts, Third World poverty, civil and human rights, work cooperatives, craft cooperatives, wood gas producers, solar panels, development of electric cars and bikes, Feminism, Women's Rights, amateur radio, wood stoves and wetbacks, kite making, the environment (Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth), alternative education, Pacific cultural exchange (Pacific Islander), Māori land rights, community development, Māori marae, Māori hangi, Maori Language Tutorial, substance abuse, new age and green politics, alternative media, meditation, yoga, sufi dancing, I Ching, tarot cards, alchemy, massage, sweat lodge, nutrition, alternative medicine, astrology, prayer and chanting, clairvoyance, meditation, spiritual healing, naturopathy, acupuncture, tai chi, herbalism, natural remedies, reflexology, iridology and osteopathy.
At all festivals there was a smorgasbord of spiritual and religious learning. Here the public could venture to various Healing Arts areas and attend either a bible study course, or chant spiritual names with the Buddhists and Hare Krishnas, or sing and pray with Christians, or attend Sunday mass with the Catholics or learn how to meditate with Ananda Marga or find out the meaning of Karma from the Hindus. The policy of the Nambassa Trust was to attempt to create an ambiance which would dispel all religious factionalism, so that philosophical labels could dissipate enabling people of all religious persuasion to share in their most common fundamental of traits, their humanity. In maintaining Nambassa's nonsectarian and open door policy on religious philosophy, workshops were conducted on: Hinduism, Hare Krishna, Bible scholarship and born again Christianity, Roman Catholic Church, Judaism, Ananda Marga, Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Krishna-Haribol, Sufism, Esoteric Christianity, shamanism, Wicca, and Zen.
Village market
At the centre of all Nambassa festivals lay the village marketplaces. These consisted of dozens of hand craft outlets and health food eateries. Here the hustle and bustle, the exuberant colour and relaxed atmosphere, prevalent at the various Nambassa village marketplaces, was a feature. These centers of community are where one found the main information centre or where folks simply culminated just to absorb the diverse quirky celebratory ambiance. Over the various festivals the marketplaces evolved and became major attractions in themselves. Not only a space for the enjoyment of bartering for the various eclectic products and oddities, but they were a place of fun and entertainment, spontaneous or otherwise. The idea of a marketplace servicing the local population, as a method of doing business, buying, selling and exchanging products, is as old as civilisation itself.
The 1981 festival village was designed around a central rotunda with a maypole, where spontaneously, poets, buskers and ravers alike featured. Nambassa vigorously promoted handcrafts, not only because of their therapeutic qualities, but because they had the potential to be a source of revenue to lifestyle proponents looking towards self-sufficiency and economic independence. From the festival village one could attend any number of craft workshops, pick up a copy of the daily Nambassa Waves newspaper, go buy fresh bread cooked in the wood-fired oven bakery constructed in a converted hay shed, go do some shopping, check out Radio Nambassaland, pick up some information from the mother centre, or just simply chill out and absorb the atmosphere.
Personnel
The multiple festival format which combined Creative Arts, popular music and multiculturalism that shaped the Nambassa festivals, was conceived by Peter Terry while living in the Waikino craft village during early 1976. January 1977 heralded the Waikino music festival, a prelude to Nambassa, which experimented with the concept of amalgamating into a singular festive event, controversial alternative culture with popular music. By February 1977 Lorraine Ward and Bernard Woods in an old restored farmhouse atop of rural Bulltown Rd in Waihi, assisted Terry to edit a blueprint for the Nambassa Trust and the first festival. The first Nambassa newsletter proposal was printed, ten thousand copies of a free 13-page manuscript outlining the model and need for a Nambassa event, were circulated among the music, arts and alternative communities throughout the nation, inviting the wider community to participate. The first Mother Centre was opened on a farm in Willow Road at Waihi early November 1977, where the initial Nambassa support base and volunteers assembled to construct the festival facilities to accommodate a small city for the planned three-day music, crafts and alternative lifestyle event which was to be held at the end of January 1978 on two farms at the end of Landlyst Waihi.
The Nambassa administration involved hundreds, to the extent that the 1981 five-day celebration gave out 1500 complimentary tickets to people and groups involved in the event in some official capacity. Those mainly responsible were: Peter Terry (Nambassa trustee, founder and events coordinator 1976–2005), Lorraine Ward (Nambassa secretary and trustee 1977–2005), Neil Wernham (art and graphics 1977–1981), Doug Rogers (music and staging technical adviser, 1976–1979), Fred Alder (Nambassa sun coordinator 1979, 1978 construction team, and former trustee 1978 and 1979), Bryce Lelievre (1981 festival secretary), Mike Taylor (communications and site coordinator 1978 and 1979), Jonathon Acorn (1981 Woozlebub coordinator), Chris Hegan (main stage manager), Murray Grey (assistant stage manager),Trevor Kotlowski (1981 goffa), Mike Colonna (children's facility coordinator 1978 and 1979), Colin Broadley (programing, Nambassa book coordinator and open-air theatre 1979–1981) and Barry Lowther, (Mother Centre father, 1978 and 1979).
The organising of the festivals and supporting events were themselves practical workshops in every sense. The Nambassa spectacles were organised on a purely voluntary basis by energetic and visionary young unemployed hippies (at a time when New Zealand's unemployment rate was at an unprecedented high), coordinated into a cohesive working force by Terry. Three months out of each festival its supporters would assemble at a farm community called the "Mother Centre", living in house trucks, vans, cars and tents. Nambassa's open door policy encouraged anyone of whatever race, creed or economic circumstance to join in, providing one met the basic rules of the Mother Centre camp. The guidelines were no alcohol or hard drugs, and vegetarian diet was supplied by the Trust. Participants were required to work each day towards the collective goal of preparing the festival in time for opening day. In exchange they were fed and had immediate needs catered for. Over the years thousands of people, young and old, carved out permanent careers from the inspiration learnt, just from being involved with or going to a Nambassa event.
Nambassa is administered not by private enterprise but through a registered charitable trust whose articles list provisions and aims allowing it to organise public events to raise funds to meet objectives. Consequently, the organisation is nurtured by and for the people, as opposed to being driven by corporate interests looking to maximise profit. This effectively enabled the events organisers to set minimal entry fees, based upon projected profits, so that festivals were affordable to lower income people. For example, the 1979 festival entrance was $18 (pre-paid) for a three-day adult pass. The trustees have several times declined offers of corporate sponsorship because the products offered have not met the Trust's philosophical aims and objects. In the 1970s the Nambassa Trust donated $29,698 to other organisations which meet its criteria. All Nambassa events made a profit with the exception of Celebration 1981.
Sound and lighting
Nambassa significantly expanded the concept of multiple open air staging, all running simultaneously at the one event. Out of the first 1978 three-day festival, the requirement of a second stage grew from the need to expand the entertainment program because of the resounding feedback from local performers and artists wanting to play at Nambassa. This became the "Aerial Railway", a second fully operational stage with sound, lighting and management. Aerial Railway absorbed the overflow of performers from the Main Stage, and also acted as a venue for spontaneous performances or raves. This second option was integral to the Nambassa philosophy of promoting local music and arts. Although the Miami Pop Festival in December 1968 featured two simultaneous 'main' stages, most of the early U.S. and European rock festivals, including Woodstock festival, Monterey Pop Festival and Isle of Wight Festival were predominantly single stage productions. The Nambassa 1978 festival had three stages; 1979 saw this expanded to four (including workshop stages), and the 1981 5-day celebration heralded five separate sound and lighting venues, all running at the same time. In 1981, "Aerial Railway" was replaced with the "Open Air Theatre" and "Woozlebub" for children. The multiple staging concepts seem to be finally making a comeback in the 21st century as seen at the recent Big Day Out and Glastonbury festivals.
The 1981 Nambassa 5-day event introduced "Radio Nambassaland". This broadcast live feeds from all the 5 stages and workshops, into the surrounding community.
Interesting occurrences from the Nambassa festivals
On a per-capita basis, the 1979 Nambassa festival was over 10 times bigger than the famous 1969 Woodstock Festival. Swami Satchidananda, who also opened Woodstock ten years previously said, "This is better than Woodstock- you've got it made, lead the world".
As Nambassa sought to demonstrate the practical ideals of alternative lifestyle, alcohol and meat could not be purchased at any Nambassa event. However, festival patrons were welcome to bring their own if they so desired.
On the Friday night before the 1979 festival was officially opened, the festival attendance had already reached its maximum capacity. At 3 am Saturday morning Peter was on the phone negotiating paddocks from neighbouring farms, while Fred, Mike and Bernie were out in the dead of night with bolt cutters, removing fences to allow cars and campers into newly acquired festival acreage. By 11 am Saturday morning on opening day, the traffic police closed the festival, and were telling people to go home, announcing on radio that the event could accommodate no more patrons. They ordered the organizers to remove the entry gates to free the roads, as vehicles and pedestrians were banked up in all directions for some 20 kilometres. But still they arrived. Some 5 kilometres towards Waihi a tent city spontaneously arose on a neighbouring farm where approximately 15,000 people parked and then walked the final leg into the festival site. Others abandoned their vehicles in Waihi itself and made the pilgrimage to Nambassa on foot.
Nudity was a factor at all Nambassa festivals. In an atmosphere of openness and compelling spiritual flow, a sense of personal freedom and discovery prevailed and this led to a considerable amount of nudity in the most innocent sense. Thousands of people simply got naked and wandered the festivals with little or no clothing.
Due to post 1978 festival intimidation by the media concerning the public smoking of marijuana at Nambassa, and whether the police were going to act on it in 1979, 58 people were arrested for cannabis on the first day of Nambassa 1979. As a response, tens of thousands of festival goers marched up the hill of the main auditorium to the police compound, threatening to storm it if the arrests did not cease. Festival organiser Peter Terry arranged a meeting with the police principals and advised them that they had made their point. He told the police that they themselves had become the focus of disruption, threatening the peaceful outcome of the event. He advised the police that if the arrests continued then he too would join the civil disobedience campaign to have them removed from the festival site. The police discontinued their arrest policy. Peter Terry was advised that the New Zealand Defence Force had been placed on standby as a precaution to any further protest directed at the police.
Just a month out of the 1981 5-day celebration at Waitawheta Valley, the Ohinemuri Council sought, and were granted, a legal injunction which effectively cancelled the festival. This resulted from objections to the event from local Waitawheta farmers. Once the red tape and bureaucracy was negotiated to everyone's satisfaction, the injunction was lifted.
The 1978 campaign to bring Split Enz home from England to play Nambassa 1979, was initially fraught with all kinds of complications. No one, including Michael Gudinski and his Mushroom Records label, (Split Enz record company), would back the venture because the band had not fared overly well in the UK and had undergone significant member changes. After talks between Nambassa and Mushroom, (Peter Terry flew to Melbourne in an attempt to negotiate a deal), Michael Gudinski declined to assist financially with the proposed Nambassa venture. He said Mushroom had already lost considerable money on the band's UK adventure and was not in a position to invest further in their future. Gudinski, who Nambassa had dealt with the previous year with Skyhooks, instead offered a compromise without Split Enz, involving top Australian bands eager to play Nambassa. This was rejected by Nambassa organizers. The Trust wanted Split Enz, who they considered to be integral to the NZ music scene, or nothing. Nambassa eventually decided to negotiate directly with the band itself and ultimately financed the band's return. Split Enz performed for free at Nambassa 1979, forgoing their appearance fee so that they could return to New Zealand. In an eleventh hour deal Mushroom agreed to take the band from Nambassa and tour Australia, after which Mushroom Records subsequently released their hit single "I See Red" to coincide with their Nambassa appearance. When Split Enz played at 8.30 pm on Saturday night on 28 January 1979, their professional performance was widely regarded as having heralded a new and unprecedented era for the new band.
Due to the huge volume of people who attended the Nambassa 3-day festival in 1979, the organizers were unable to get an accurate census of attendees, but have given estimates of 75,000 people. Some segments of the media, including Television New Zealand who were regularly flying over the festival, were quoting estimates as high as 150,000 people. This event became a free concert, because the police, unable to control the large volume of traffic which had closed all roads in a 20 kilometre radius, officially closed the event down mid-morning of the first day.
The Nambassa Winter Show with Mahana
The Nambassa Winter Show with Mahana was a musical theatrical production of 60 entertainers and crew who toured the North Island of New Zealand in a convoy of Mobile homes, buses and vans, performing at major centres and theatres throughout September and October 1978. While initially 4 main shows were scheduled for this collective theatre company, repeat and spontaneous performances around the nation saw this number of live performances increased to over 10. This theatrical extravaganza was organised by the Nambassa Trust as part of its national promotion of the arts and towards promoting its 1979 3-day music, crafts and Alternative lifestyle festival which was held in Waihi attracting 70,000 people.
New Zealand's Housetruckers of the 1970s
Housetruckers are individuals, families and groups who convert old trucks and school buses into mobile-homes and live in them, preferring an unattached and transient gypsy lifestyle to more conventional housing. These unique vehicles began appearing around New Zealand during the mid-1970s and even though there are fewer today they continue to adorn NZ roads.
Sources
Film
Nambassa Festival, a two-hour musical film documentary which had five crews working on it, New Zealand, 1980 The New Zealand Film Archive / Ngā Kaitiaki O Ngā Taonga Whitiāhua The film (50-minute version) was part of the New Zealand Film Commissions entry to the 1980 Cannes Film Festival. Director/editor, Philip Howe. Production company: Nambassa Trust, Peter Terry and Dale Farnsworth.
Radio
"Enzology" Frenzy (1978–1979). Episode 5 of Radio New Zealand National's story of Split Enz. Frenzy (duration: 49′55″).
Insight 79 – Nambassa Sound Archives/Nga Taonga Korero is New Zealand's foremost radio archive. This documentary is about the alternative lifestyles festival at Nambassa in January 1979. 70,000 people attended workshops covering such topics as religion, medicine, food, music, education, low cost housing, ham radio, wind energy, pottery etc. 29'00".
Album
A double album made up of music, raves and comedy was recorded live from the main stage of the 1979 event and released throughout New Zealand as "Festival Music" (Stetson Records, 2SRLP12). This vinyl release featured Split Enz, Living Force, Flight 77, Chapman and White, Mahana, John Hore, Steve Tulloch, Plague, Chris Thompson, Schtung, Rick Steel, Tribrations, Nevil Purvis, Satchidananda, Gary McCormick, Andy Anderson. It was produced by Peter Terry, and re-recorded and mixed by Peter MacInnes and Dave Hurley at Mandrill Studios, Auckland NZ.
Publications
Nambassa: A New Direction, edited by Colin Broadley and Judith Jones, A. H. & A. W. Reed, 1979. It records the huge three-day 1979 festival, with its 137 pages, 18 pages of full colour and 200 B&W photo images. Nambassa: Judith Jones: Source link. .
Nambassa Festival Newsletter 1 edited by Peter Terry, Lorraine Ward and Bernard Woods. Published in 1976, 1977 and printed by Goldfields Press Ltd, Paeroa.
The Nambassa Sun and the Nambassa Waves newspapers published quarterly 1978–1981. Archived at the Alexander Turnbull Library
The Aotearoa Digital Arts Reader published by Aotearoa Digital Arts and Clouds
The Wong Way to Marry , by C. A. Poulter.
Art New Zealand Road People of Aetearoa by Andrew Martin.
The 1960s Cultural Revolution by John C. McWilliams
The Dark Side of Christian History by Helen Ellerbe (1995)History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages Henry Charles Lea (New York, 1888)''
See also
List of historic rock festivals
Nambassa Winter Show with Mahana
New Zealand's Housetruckers of the 1970s
Waikino music festival
ConFest
Waikino
Ohu
Ecovillage
Back-to-the-land movement
Permaculture
Green politics
Nuclear-free zone – New Zealand
Holistic health
Alternative medicine
References
External links
Official Nambassa Website
The Nambassa Blog
155 Photos, videos and interests
YouTube video snippets of the 1979 Nambassa Festival
Enzology is National Radio's documentary covering the history of New Zealand's most iconic band – and Split Enz at Nambassa
Documentary:INSIGHT 79 – NAMBASSA
New Zealand Government's "Ohu" land settlement scheme from 1974 to the present day.
Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
Busking venues
Clothing-optional events
New Age
Hippie movement
Rock festivals in New Zealand
Naturism in New Zealand
1981 disestablishments in New Zealand
Counterculture festivals
1976 establishments in New Zealand
Music festivals established in 1976
Music festivals in New Zealand
Pop music festivals
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4930035
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989%20World%20Snooker%20Championship
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1989 World Snooker Championship
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The 1989 World Snooker Championship (also referred to as the Embassy World Snooker Championship for sponsorship reasons) was a professional snooker tournament that took place from 15 April to 1 May 1989 at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. Organised by the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association, it was the eighth and final ranking event of the 1988–89 snooker season and the thirteenth consecutive World Snooker Championship to be held at the Crucible, the first tournament at this location having taken place in 1977. There were 142 entrants to the competition.
The defending champion was Steve Davis, who had previously won the World Championship five times. He met John Parrott in the final, which was a best-of-35- match. Davis won the match 18–3, which remains the biggest winning margin in the sport's modern era, and meant that the final, scheduled for four , finished with a . This was Davis's sixth and last world title, and his last appearance in a World Championship final. Stephen Hendry scored the championship's highest , a 141, in his quarter-final match. There were 19 century breaks compiled during the championship.
A five-round qualifying event for the championship was held at the Preston Guild Hall from 22 March to 4 April 1989 for 126 players, 16 of whom reached the main stage, where they met the 16 invited seeded players. The tournament was broadcast in the United Kingdom by the BBC, and was sponsored by the Embassy cigarette company. Davis received £105,000 from the total prize fund of £525,000.
Overview
The World Snooker Championship is an annual professional snooker tournament organised by the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA). Founded in the late 19th century by British Army soldiers stationed in India, the cue sport gained popularity in the British Isles in the 1920s and 1930s. In the modern era, which started in 1969 when the World Championship reverted to a knockout format, it has become increasingly popular worldwide, especially in East and Southeast Asian nations such as China, Hong Kong and Thailand.
Joe Davis won the first World Championship in 1927, hosted by the Billiards Association and Control Council, the final match being held at Camkin's Hall in Birmingham, England. Since 1977, the event has been held at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. The 1989 championship featured 32 professional players competing in one-on-one snooker matches in a single-elimination format, each round being played over a pre-determined number of , and each match divided into two or more s containing a set number of frames. These competitors in the main tournament were selected using a combination of the top 16 players in the snooker world rankings and the winners of a pre-tournament qualification stage. It was the eighth and final ranking event of the 1988–89 snooker season, and the thirteenth consecutive World Snooker Championship to be held at the Crucible, the first tournament there having taken place in 1977. The defending champion in 1989 was Steve Davis, who had defeated Terry Griffiths 18–11 in the final of the 1988 World Snooker Championship to win his fifth world title. The 1989 championship was sponsored by cigarette brand Embassy, and was also referred to as the Embassy World Snooker Championship. The tournament was broadcast in the United Kingdom by the BBC.
Prize fund
The breakdown of prize money for the championship is shown below:
Winner: £105,000
Runner-up: £63,000
Semi-finalist: £31,500
Quarter-finalist: £15,750
Last 16: £7,875
Last 32: £4,429.68
Last 48: £3,445.31
Last 64: £1,804.68
Highest break (televised stage): £10,500
Highest break (untelevised stage): £2,625
Maximum break: £100,000
Total: £525,000
Tournament summary
Qualifying
Qualifying matches took place at Preston Guild Hall from 22 March to 4 April 1989, all matches being the best of 19 frames. There were 126 participants in the qualifying competition, 16 of whom reached the main stage, where they met the 16 invited seeded players. Mannie Francisco, playing his first match in the United Kingdom since losing in the final of the 1972 World Amateur Snooker Championship, led Tony Wilson 5–4 after their first session, but was eliminated 6–10. Darren Morgan compiled breaks of 108 and 103 against Eric Lawlor, the first time that two century breaks had been achieved in consecutive frames in the World Snooker Championship. Bill Werbeniuk had been due to return to competitive play after a six-month ban imposed by the WPBSA for his use of beta blockers, but did not appear for his match. From 4–9 in arrears, Paddy Browne won six consecutive frames against Steve Meakin to progress to the next round, 10–9 after a . Joe O'Boye built a 9–0 lead over Danny Fowler, who then won six successive frames before O'Boye achieved a 10–6 victory. Six-time champion Ray Reardon was eliminated 5–10 by Gary Wilkinson.
In the final round qualifying, Tony Meo established a new record highest break for world championship qualifying by compiling a 142 during his defeat of Tony Jones. Steve Duggan eliminated two former World Championship title-holders, Fred Davis and John Spencer. Another ex-champion, Alex Higgins, failed to qualify for the championship for the first time in his career, after he lost to Morgan. Higgins, the world number 17, who had beaten four of the top seven players in the rankings on the way to victory at the 1989 Irish Masters on 2 April, was defeated 8–10 by Morgan the following day. Morgan broke Meo's record for the highest break in world championship qualifying by compiling a break of 143, his fourth century break of the competition. Seven players qualified for the main event for the first time: Morgan, Wilkinson, Browne, O'Boye, Duggan, Steve Newbury, and David Roe.
First round
The first round took place between 15 and 20 April, each match played over two sessions as the best of 19 frames. Defending champion Davis played Newbury, and took a 7–2 lead at the end of the first session after being 0–2 behind. Newbury won the first three frames of the second session to narrow the deficit to 5–7 before Davis won 10–5. For the seventh time, Cliff Wilson failed to win a match at the Crucible, eliminated 1–10 by Steve Duggan. Winning seven consecutive frames to move from 2–4 behind Tony Knowles to 9–4 ahead, David Roe went on to defeat Knowles 10–6. Mike Hallett was 0–3 behind Doug Mountjoy before winning the fourth frame after he a , ended the first session at 4–4, then fell 4–6 behind, but won six of the next seven frames to progress to the next round 10–7.
Terry Griffiths led Bob Chaperon 4–0 and, always at least three frames ahead from that point on, won 10–6. Silvino Francisco eliminated Joe O'Boye 10–6 after leading 6–1. Paddy Browne was 5–4 ahead of Willie Thorne after their first session, but then lost six successive frames as Thorne progressed 10–5. Stephen Hendry built a 4–0 lead over Gary Wilkinson, and led 6–3 as the second session commenced, but after missing several short-length during the match, won only in the deciding frame, 10–9.
Third seed Neal Foulds lost 9–10 to Wayne Jones, at the end of a season that saw Foulds fall from third to twentieth place in the rankings. Peter Francisco held a 7–4 lead over Dean Reynolds but lost 7–10. Meo led the 1987 champion Joe Johnson 8–0 before winning the match 10–5. Eddie Charlton defeated Cliff Thorburn 10–9 in a match that finished at 2:39 am, which was the second-latest finish time for a match at the Crucible. Charlton, aged 59 years and 169 days, became the second-oldest player to win a match at the World Championship, after Fred Davis in 1979.
After constructing breaks of 110, 103 and 102, John Parrott led James 9–7. In each of the next two frames, he missed pots on the that would have won him the match, James taking both frames. The deciding frame was won by Parrott, who compiled a break of 33. Parrott, from Liverpool, wore a black armband during the match in recognition of the Hillsborough disaster that had happened on 15 April at the FA Cup semi-final between Nottingham Forest and Liverpool. Dennis Taylor led Hughes 6–3 after their first session, and in the second session won four consecutive frames including breaks of 106 and 94, to qualify for the next round 10–3. John Virgo progressed to the second round for the first time since 1982 by eliminating Darren Morgan 10–4. Second seed Jimmy White defeated Dene O'Kane, who recorded a 127 break, 10–7.
Second round
The second round, which took place between 20 and 24 April, was played as best-of-25-frames matches spread over three sessions. Davis defeated Duggan within two sessions, going from a 7–1 lead after the first to a 13–3 victory in the second. Hallett won in the deciding frame against Roe. Griffiths and Silvino Francisco were 3–3 at the end of their first session, after which Griffiths obtained a 10–6 lead during the second session, and eliminated Francisco 13–9. Thorne took a 2–0 lead against Hendry, but was eventually defeated 4–13.
Jones lost 3–13 to Reynolds. Meo was warned by the referee for slow play during the 21st frame against Charlton. This turned out to be the last frame, as Meo won the contest 13–8. Parrot won four consecutive frames to go from 9–10 behind Taylor to win 13–10. The match between White and Virgo saw White take a 5–3 lead from the first session, and went to a deciding frame during which Virgo, leading by two points in the frame, announced that he had committed a by slightly touching a with his cue stick. White went on to win the frame and match.
The afternoon session on 22 April, featuring the matches between Parrott and Taylor, and Griffiths and Francisco, had its start time delayed from 3:00 pm until 3:06 pm, commencing with a minute's silence in acknowledgement of the Hillsborough disaster a week earlier. There was no television coverage of matches on 24 April due to strike action by the Broadcasting and Entertainment Trades Alliance and the National Union of Journalists relating to a pay dispute.
Quarter-finals
The quarter-finals were played as best-of-25-frames matches over three sessions on 25 and 26 April. As in the previous round, Davis won his match before the final session was required. Davis compiled a 128 break in the second frame as he built a 7–0 lead, before Hallett took the last frame of the first session.
The first four frames of the second session were won by Davis, putting him 11–1 ahead. Hallett compiled a 133 break when 2–12 behind, but lost the match 3–13. Griffiths and Hendry were level at 4–4 at the conclusion of their first session. Hendry won nine successive frames to progress 13–5, constructing a 141 break in the thirteenth frame of the match.
Reynolds, who had criticised Meo for the slow pace of his play during the 1989 British Open final between the pair in March, was warned by referee John Williams for slow play. Meo won the match 13–9, having held leads of 4–3 and 9–7 after the first two sessions, At the post-match press conference, Reynolds started crying during his opening sentence, and, a few minutes later, expressed his dissatisfaction with the referee's decisions during the match. Making several mistakes, White trailed Parrott 1–7 after their first session, but recovered to 6–8, and finished the second day 6–10 behind. Parrott won three of the first four frames on the third day to complete a 13–7 win.
Semi-finals
The semi-finals took place between 27 and 29 April as best-of-31-frames matches played over four sessions. After trailing Davis 2–5 and 4–10 at the end of their first two sessions, Hendry reduced his arrears to 6–10, and compiled a 68 break to lead by 51 in the 17th frame. Davis then forced a by compiling a 51 break consisting of the three remaining red balls, each followed by a black ball, and the colours, and went on to win the frame. Hendry won three of the next four frames, making a break of 139 in the 20th frame. Davis took a 13–9 lead by prevailing 67–59 in the last frame of the third session. In the final session, Hendry scored only eight points across three frames, while Davis made breaks of 63, 71, 54 and 40 to wrap up a 16–9 victory.
Meo's highest break in the first session of his match against Parrott was just 28, and he finished that session 2–6 behind, narrowing Parrott's lead to 4–6 by winning the first two frames of the second session. The session finished with Parrott 10–5 ahead. Meo won on the black having needed Parrott to concede penalty points in the 16th frame, then Parrott won the next three frames, the 18th and 19th both being close. The session ended with Meo having made a 112 break but Parrott 15–7 ahead. In the fourth session, Parrott's break of 82 won him the frame, and the match 16–7.
Final
The final between Steve Davis and John Parrott took place on 30 April and 1 May. It was a best-of-35-frames match scheduled for four sessions, with John Street as referee. In the afternoon session on the first day, Davis established a 2–0 lead, before Parrott won the third frame. Davis extended his lead to 5–1, Parrott winning the last frame of the first session to leave Davis 5–2 ahead.
Davis increased his advantage to 9–2 by winning the first four frames of the evening session on 30 April, recording breaks of 42, 37, 55 and 112, whilst Parrott potted only six balls, totalling 15 points. Parrott led by 44 points in the twelfth frame after constructing a 52 break, but lost the frame after Davis compiled a 62 break. Parrott went after potting a red in the thirteenth frame, allowing Davis the opportunity to win the frame with a break of 59. In the next frame, Davis missed potting the whilst using the , and Parrott made it 3–11 with a break of 68. During the last two frames of the first day, Parrott potted only one red as Davis extended his lead to 13–3, including breaks of 80 and 68.
Although Parrott had chances to win both of the first two frames in the third session, Davis won them both on the pink. With breaks 59 and 38 to add the next two frames, Davis increased his lead to 17–3. Parrott led 40–0 in the 21st frame, before a break of 42 by Davis. Davis won the frame, his 18–3 victory becoming a new record margin of victory in a World Snooker Championship final at the Crucible, surpassing his 18–6 defeat of Thorburn in 1983. It was a third consecutive World Snooker Championship win for Davis, and his sixth title, to equal Reardon's total since the competition was re-launched in 1969. The match ended with a , and the pair played an exhibition match at the venue in place of the last session.
Parrott said afterwards that "Me not playing anything like, and Steve playing exceptionally well, that's a recipe for 18–3." Davis remarked that "A month before the championship I wasn't playing well enough to beat players like Hendry and Parrott. To actually pull out all the stops and produce the standard of play that I have must rate as one of my greatest achievements. I've played the best snooker of my career." The two players occupied the top places in the 1989/1990 world rankings, calculated based on results from the previous two seasons; Davis retaining first position with 64 points, followed by Parrott on 48. Parrott later won the 1991 World Snooker Championship title, whilst 1989 was the last world final reached by Davis.
In his 1989 book Snooker: Records, Facts and Champions, Ian Morrison wrote "Don't let the scoreline lead you to believe that Parrott did not do justice to the occasion. But simply, no man could have lived with Davis the way he played at the Crucible in 1989." Snooker historian Clive Everton, who played in the qualifying rounds of the tournament, reflected in 2012 that after the 1989 tournament, despite Davis having lost the 1985 and 1986 championship finals, "such was his dominance that it would have been impossible to predict with confidence that [Davis] would never win the title again." Authors Luke Williams and Paul Gadsby claimed that "It is ironic, then, that in the wake of his most dominant World Championship triumph, Davis's career almost immediately headed into decline," and that Davis's losses to Hendry in the finals of the 1989 UK Championship and the 1990 UK Championship "symbolised a monumental power shift in the game."
Main draw
Shown below are the results for the tournament. The numbers in parentheses beside some of the players are their seeding ranks (each championship has 16 seeds and 16 qualifiers). Players in bold are match winners.
Qualifying
Results from the qualification event are shown below. Players shown in bold denote match winners.
Century breaks
Main stage centuries
There were 19 century breaks in the 1989 World Snooker Championship. The highest of the event was a 141 break made by Stephen Hendry.
141, 139, 103 Stephen Hendry
133, 111 Mike Hallett
128, 124, 112, 106 Steve Davis
127 Dene O'Kane
112, 101 Tony Meo
110, 104, 103, 102 John Parrott
106 Dennis Taylor
104 Willie Thorne
100 Joe Johnson
Qualifying stage centuries
There were 28 century breaks in the qualifying stages, the highest of which was a 143 break made by Darren Morgan.
143, 113, 108, 101 Darren Morgan
142 Tony Meo
136, 111 Wayne Jones
128 Malcolm Bradley
122 Nick Terry
119 Mario Morra
117 James Giannaros
115 Ian Graham
113 Robert Marshall
112 Jason Smith
111, 100 Martin Smith
107 Joe O'Boye
107 Geoff Foulds
105, 104 Mick Price
103 Jim Wych
102 Paddy Browne
102 Les Dodd
102 Craig Edwards
101 Gary Wilkinson
100 Jack McLaughlin
100 Francois Ellis
100 Brian Rowswell
References
1989
World Championship
World Snooker Championship
Sports competitions in Sheffield
World Snooker
World Snooker
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4930095
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathophysiology%20of%20multiple%20sclerosis
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Pathophysiology of multiple sclerosis
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Multiple sclerosis is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the CNS in which activated immune cells invade the central nervous system and cause inflammation, neurodegeneration, and tissue damage. The underlying cause is currently unknown. Current research in neuropathology, neuroimmunology, neurobiology, and neuroimaging, together with clinical neurology, provide support for the notion that MS is not a single disease but rather a spectrum.
There are three clinical phenotypes: relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS), characterized by periods of neurological worsening following by remissions; secondary-progressive MS (SPMS), in which there is gradual progression of neurological dysfunction with fewer or no relapses; and primary-progressive MS (MS), in which neurological deterioration is observed from onset.
Pathophysiology is a convergence of pathology with physiology. Pathology is the medical discipline that describes conditions typically observed during a disease state; whereas physiology is the biological discipline that describes processes or mechanisms operating within an organism. Referring to MS, the physiology refers to the different processes that lead to the development of the lesions and the pathology refers to the condition associated with the lesions.
Pathology
Multiple sclerosis can be pathologically defined as the presence of distributed glial scars (or sclerosis) in the central nervous system disseminated in time (DIT) and space (DIS). The gold standard for MS diagnosis is pathological correlation, though given its limited availability, other diagnosis methods are normally used. The scleroses that define the disease are the remainders of previous demyelinating lesions in the CNS white matter of a patient (encephalomyelitis) showing special characteristics, such as confluent instead of perivenous demyelination.
There are three phases for how an unknown underlying condition may cause damage in MS:
An unknown soluble factor (produced by CD8+ T-cells or CD20+ B-cells), creates a toxic environment that activates microglia.
MRI-abnormal areas with hidden damage appear in the brain and spine (NAWM, NAGM, DAWM). Some clusters of activated microglia, axonal transection and myelin degeneration are present.
Leaks in the blood–brain barrier appear and immune cells infiltrate, causing demyelination. and axon destruction.
Multiple sclerosis differs from other idiopathic inflammatory demyelinating diseases in its confluent subpial cortical lesions. These types of lesions are the most specific finding for MS, being exclusively present in MS patients, though currently they can only be detected at autopsy.
Most MS findings take place inside the white matter, and lesions appear mainly in a periventricular distribution (clustered around the ventricles of the brain). Apart from white matter demyelination, the cortex and deep gray matter (GM) nuclei can be affected, together with diffuse injury of the NAWM. GM atrophy is independent of classical MS lesions and is associated with physical disability, fatigue, and cognitive impairment in MS
At least five characteristics are present in CNS tissues of MS patients: Inflammation beyond classical white matter lesions, intrathecal Ig production with oligoclonal bands, an environment fostering immune cell persistence, and a disruption of the blood–brain barrier outside of active lesions. The scars that give the name to the condition are produced by astrocytes healing old lesions. MS is active even during remission periods.
Meningeal tertiary lymphoid-like structures
Follicle-like aggregates in the meninges are formed only in secondary progressive MS. and correlate with the degree of subpial cortical demyelination and brain atrophy, suggesting that they might contribute to cortical pathology in SPMS
These ectopic lymphoid follicles are composed mainly of EBV infected B-cells.
Demyelination patterns
Four different damage patterns have been identified in patient's brain tissues. The original report suggests that there may be several types of MS with different immune causes, and that MS may be a family of several diseases. Though originally a biopsy was required to classify the lesions of a patient, since 2012 it is possible to classify them by a blood test looking for antibodies against 7 lipids, three of which are cholesterol derivatives Cholesterol crystals are believed to both impair myelin repair and aggravate inflammation.
It is believed that they may correlate with differences in disease type and prognosis, and perhaps with different responses to treatment. In any case, understanding lesion patterns can provide information about differences in disease between individuals and enable doctors to make more effective treatment decisions.
According to one of the researchers involved in the original research, "Two patterns (I and II) showed close similarities to T-cell-mediated or T-cell plus antibody-mediated autoimmune encephalomyelitis, respectively. The other patterns (III and IV) were highly suggestive of a primary oligodendrocyte dystrophy, reminiscent of virus- or toxin-induced demyelination rather than autoimmunity."
The four identified patterns are:
Pattern I The scar presents T-cells and macrophages around blood vessels, with preservation of oligodendrocytes, but no signs of complement system activation.
Pattern II The scar presents T-cells and macrophages around blood vessels, with preservation of oligodendrocytes, as before, but also signs of complement system activation can be found. This pattern has been considered similar to damage seen in NMO, though AQP4 damage does not appear in pattern II MS lesions Nevertheless, pattern II has been reported to respond to plasmapheresis, which points to something pathogenic into the blood serum.
The complement system infiltration in these cases convert this pattern into a candidate for research into autoimmune connections like anti-Kir4.1, anti-Anoctamin-2 or anti-MOG mediated MS About the last possibility, research has found antiMOG antibodies in some pattern-II MS patients.
Pattern II pathogenic T cells has been shown to be different from others The functional characterization shows that T cells releasing Th2 cytokines and helping B cells dominate the T-cell infiltrate in pattern II brain lesions.
Pattern III The scars are diffuse with inflammation, distal oligodendrogliopathy, microglial activation and loss of myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG). It is considered atypical and an overlap between MS and Balo concentric sclerosis. The scars do not surround the blood vessels, and a rim of preserved myelin appears around the vessels. There is evidence of partial remyelinization and oligodendrocyte apoptosis. At first, some researchers thought it was an early stage of the evolution of the other patterns. Recently, it is thought that it represents ischaemia-like injury with absence of oligoclonal bands in the CSF, related to the pathogenesis of Balo concentric sclerosis.
Pattern IV The scar presents sharp borders and oligodendrocyte degeneration, with a rim of normal-appearing white matter. There is a lack of oligodendrocytes in the center of the scar. There is no complement activation or MAG loss.
These differences are noticeable only in early lesions and the heterogeneity was controversial for some time because some research groups thought that these four patterns could be a consequence of the age of the lesions. Nevertheless, after some debate among research groups, the four patterns model is accepted and the exceptional case found by Prineas has been classified as NMO
For some investigation teams this means that MS is an immunopathogenetically heterogeneous disease. The latter hypothesis is further corroborated by a recent study that demonstrated significant differences in routine cerebrospinal fluid findings between patients with pattern I lesions and patients with non-pattern I lesions, including a lack of CSF-restricted oligoclonal bands, in most pattern II and III patients. Finally, some previously diagnosed with pattern II MS were later found to have in fact MOG-IgG-related encephalomyelitis, suggesting that both the current clinicoradiological diagnostic criteria for MS and the histopathological criteria for MS may be insufficiently specific. This was already indicated by previous studies that found a relatively high rate of false diagnoses of MS among patients with AQP4-IgG-positive neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders or MOG encephalomyelitis.
Currently antibodies to lipids and peptides in sera, detected by microarrays, can be used as markers of the pathological subtype given by brain biopsy.
Another development in this area is the finding that some lesions present mitochondrial defects that could distinguish types of lesions.
Physiology of MS
In multiple sclerosis, inflammation, demyelination, and neurodegeneration are observed together. Some clinical trials have shown that the inflammation produces both the relapses and the demyelination, and that neurodegeneration (axonal transection) is independent from inflammation, produces the accumulative disability, and advances even when inflammation and demyelination are delayed. It seems that neurodegeneration is produced by damaged mitochondria, which in turn comes from activated microglia.
Currently it is unknown what the primary cause of MS is; if MS is a heterogeneous disease, the lesion development process would not be unique. In particular, some PPMS patients having a special clinical course named rapidly progressive multiple sclerosis could have a special genetic cause and a different development process.
Several types of damage appear in the brain: normal appearing white matter (NAWM) and characteristic lesions. Changes in NAWM include axonal injury without demyelination, low-grade inflammation, and microglial and astrocytic activation
MS lesion development
MS lesions develop inside NAWM areas. Their shape is influenced by their activity
The most accepted sequence of events is first NAWM appearance, then the so-called pre-active lesions, with activated microglia, and finally the BBB breakdown, which enables the entry of T-cells to the CNS. This marks the beginning of an autoimmune attack which destroys myelin in active lesions. When the attack is resolved, a characteristic glial scar is formed by astrocytes.
Current models can be divided into two categories: inside-out and outside-in. In the former, it is hypothesized that a problem in CNS cells produces an immune response that destroys myelin and subsequently breaks the BBB. In latter, an external factor produces BBB leaks, enters the CNS, and destroys myelin and axons. Whatever the underlying condition for MS is, it appears that damage is triggered by an unknown soluble factor in the CSF, potentially produced in meningeal areas; this factor can diffuse into the cortical parenchyma and destroy myelin either directly or indirectly through microglia activation.
The evolution of a preactive lesion is related to microglia reactivity. Increased expression of pro-inflammatory cell surface markers have been observed in NAWM and "initial" lesions, corresponding to a so-called loss of homeostatic microglial equilibrium.
Some authors report active lesion formation before BBB breakdown; others point to adipsin as a factor of the breakdown.
MS lesions are driven mainly by T-cells. It has been found recently that B-cells are also involved.
Blood–brain barrier disruption
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a protective barrier that denies the entrance of foreign material into the nervous system. BBB disruption is the moment in which penetration of the barrier by lymphocytes occur and has been considered one of the early problems in MS lesions.
The BBB is composed of endothelial cells which line the blood vessel walls of the central nervous system. Compared to normal endothelial cells, the cells lining the BBB are connected by occludin and claudin which form tight junctions in order to create a barrier to keep out larger molecules such as proteins. In order to pass through, molecules must be taken in by transport proteins or an alteration in the BBB permeability must occur, such as interactions with associated adaptor proteins like ZO-1, ZO-2 and ZO-3.
The BBB is compromised due to active recruitment of lymphocytes and monocytes and their migration across the barrier. Release of chemokines allow for the activation of adhesion molecules on the lymphocytes and monocytes, resulting in an interaction with the endothelial cells of the BBB which then activate the expression of matrix metalloproteinases to degrade the barrier. This results in disruption of the BBB, causing an increase in barrier permeability due to the degradation of tight junctions which maintain barrier integrity. Inducing the formation of tight junctions can restore BBB integrity and reduces its permeability, which can be used to reduce the damage caused by lymphocyte and monocyte migration across the barrier as restored integrity would restrict their movement.
After barrier breakdown symptoms may appear, such as swelling. Activation of macrophages and lymphocytes and their migration across the barrier may result in direct attacks on myelin sheaths within the central nervous system, leading to the characteristic demyelination event observed in MS. After demyelination has occurred, the degraded myelin sheath components, such as myelin basic proteins and Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoproteins, are then used as identifying factors to facilitate further immune activity upon myelin sheaths. Further activation of cytokines is also induced by macrophage and lymphocyte activity, promoting inflammatory activity as well continued activation of proteins such as matrix metalloproteinases, which have detrimental effect on BBB integrity.
Recently it has been found that BBB damage happens even in non-enhancing lesions. MS has an important vascular component.
Postmortem BBB study
Postmortem studies of the BBB, especially the vascular endothelium, show immunological abnormalities. Microvessels in periplaque areas coexpressed HLA-DR and VCAM-1, some others HLA-DR and urokinase plasminogen activator receptor, and others HLA-DR and ICAM-1.
In vivo BBB
The damaged white matter is known as "Normal-appearing white matter" (NAWM) and is where lesions appear. These lesions form in NAWM before blood–brain barrier breakdown.
BBB can be broken centripetally (the most normal) or centrifugally. Several possible biochemical disrupters were proposed. Some hypotheses about how the BBB is compromised revolve around the presence of compounds in the blood that could interact with vessels only in the NAWM areas. The permeability of two cytokines, Interleukin 15 and LPS, may be involved in BBB breakdown. Breakdown is responsible for monocyte infiltration and inflammation in the brain. Monocyte migration and LFA-1-mediated attachment to brain microvascular endothelia is regulated by SDF-1alpha through Lyn kinase.
Using iron nanoparticles, involvement of macrophages in BBB breakdown can be detected. A special role is played by Matrix metalloproteinases. These increase BBB T-cell permeability, specially in the case of MMP-9 and are supposedly related to the mechanism of action of interferons.
Whether BBB dysfunction is the cause or the consequence of MS is disputed, because activated T-Cells can cross a healthy BBB when they express adhesion proteins. Apart from that, activated T-Cells can cross a healthy BBB when they express adhesion proteins. (Adhesion molecules could also play a role in inflammation) In particular, one of these adhesion proteins involved is ALCAM (Activated Leukocyte Cell Adhesion Molecule, also called CD166), and is under study as therapeutic target. Another protein involved is CXCL12, which is found also in brain biopsies of inflammatory elements, and which could be related to the behavior of CXCL13 under methylprednisolone therapy. Some molecular biochemical models for relapses have been proposed.
Normally, gadolinium enhancement is used to show BBB disruption on MRIs. Abnormal tight junctions are present in both SPMS and PPMS. They appear in active white matter lesions and in gray matter in SPMS. They persist in inactive lesions, particularly in PPMS.
A uric acid deficiency was implicated in this process. Uric acid added in physiological concentrations (i.e. achieving normal concentrations) is therapeutic in MS by preventing BBB breakdown through inactivation of peroxynitrite. The low level of uric acid found in people with MS is manifestedly causative rather than a tissue damage consequence in the white matter lesions, but not in the grey matter lesions. Uric acid levels are lower during relapses.
Proposed causes
It is not known what causes MS. Several problems appear together with the white matter lesions, like cortical lesions and normal-appearing tissues. Several theories have been proposed to explain it.
Some areas that appear normal under normal MRI look abnormal under special MRI, like magnetisation transfer MTR-MRI. These are called Normal Appearing White Matter (NAWM) and Normal Appearing Grey Matter (NAGM). The cause why the normal appearing areas appear in the brain is unknown, but seems clear that they appear mainly in the ventricles and that they predict the course of the disease.
Given that MS lesions begin inside the NAWM areas, these areas are expected to be produced by the same underlying condition that produces the lesions, and therefore the ultimate MS underlying condition, whatever it is. Historically, several theories about how these areas appear have been presented:
Autoimmune theories
The search for an auto-antigen has taken a long time, but at least there is one reported. It is the enzyme GDP-L-fucose synthase.
This theory in part could also explain why some patients report amelioration under dietary treatment.
HERVs
Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) have been reported in MS for several years.
In fact, one of the families, Human Endogenous Retrovirus-W was first discovered while studying MS patients.
Recent research as of 2019 point to one of the HERV-W viruses (pHEV-W), and specifically one of the proteins of the viral capsid that has been found to activate microglia in vitro. Activated microglia in turn produces demyelination. Some interactions between the Epstein-Barr virus and the HERVs could be the trigger of the MS microglia reactions. Supporting this study, a monoclonal antibody against the viral capside (Temelimab) has shown good results in trials in phase IIb.
Blood flow related theories
Venous pathology has been associated with MS for more than a century. Pathologist Georg Eduard Rindfleisch noted in 1863 that the inflammation-associated lesions were distributed around veins. Some other authors like Tracy Putnam pointed to venous obstructions.
Mechanical flow: Later the focus moved to softer hemodynamic abnormalities, which were showing precede changes in sub-cortical gray matter and in substantia nigra. However, such reports of a "hemodynamic cause of MS" are not universal, and possibly not even common. At this time the evidence is largely anecdotal and some MS patients have no blood flow issues. Possibly vascular problems may be an aggravating factor, like many others in MS. Indeed, the research, by demonstrating patients with no hemodynamic problems actually prove that this is not the only cause of MS.
Endothelium: Other theories point to a possible primary endothelial dysfunction. The importance of vascular misbehaviour in MS pathogenesis has also been independently confirmed by seven-tesla MRI. It is reported that a number of studies have provided evidence of vascular occlusion in MS, which suggest the possibility of a primary vascular injury in MS lesions or at least that they are occasionally correlated.
Venous insufficiency: Some morphologically special medullar lesions (wedge-shaped) have also been linked to venous insufficiency.
BBB infection: It has also been pointed out that some infectious agents with positive correlation to MS, specially Chlamydia pneumoniae, can cause problems in veins and arteries walls
CCSVI: The term "chronic cerebrospinal venous insufficiency" was coined in 2008 by Paolo Zamboni, who described it in patients with multiple sclerosis. Instead of intracranial venous problems he described extracranial blockages, and he stated that the location of those obstructions seemed to influence the clinical course of the disease. According to Zamboni, CCSVI had a high sensitivity and specificity differentiating healthy individuals from those with multiple sclerosis. Zamboni's results were criticized as some of his studies were not blinded and they need to be verified by further studies. the theory is considered at least defensible
A more detailed evidence of a correlation between the place and type of venous malformations imaged and the reported symptoms of multiple sclerosis in the same patients was published in 2010.
Haemodynamic problems have been found in the blood flow of MS patients using Doppler, initially using transcranial color-coded duplex sonography (TCCS), pointing to a relationship with a vascular disease called chronic cerebro-spinal venous insufficiency (CCSVI). In 2010 there were conflicting results when evaluating the relationship between MS and CCSVI. but is important to note that positives have appeared among the blinded studies.
CSF flow: Other theories focus in the possible role of cerebrospinal fluid flow impairment. This theory could be partially consistent with the previous one. Currently a small trial with 8 participants has been performed
CSF composition: Kir4.1 and Anoctamin-2
Whatever the underlying primary condition is, it is expected to be a soluble factor in the CSF, maybe an unknown cytokine or ceramide, or a combination of them. Also B-cells and microglia could be involved. In particular, it is known that B-cells of MS patients secrete an unknown toxin against oligodendrocytes
It has been reported several times that CSF of some MS patients can damage myelin in culture and mice and ceramides have been recently brought into the stage. Whatever the problem is, it produces apoptosis of neurons respecting astrocytes
In 2012 it was reported that a subset of MS patients have a seropositive anti-Kir4.1 status, which can represent up to a 47% of the MS cases, and the study has been reproduced by at least two other groups.
In 2016 a similar association was reported for anti-Anoctamin-2
If the existence of any of these subsets of MS is confirmed, the situation would be similar to what happened for Devic Disease and Aquaporin-4. MS could be considered a heterogeneous condition or a new medical entity will be defined for these cases.
Primary neuro-degeneration theories
Some authors propose a primary neurodegenerative factor. Maybe the strongest argument supporting this theory comes from the comparison with NMO. Though autoimmune demyelination is strong, axons are preserved, showing that the standard model of a primary demyelination cannot be hold. The theory of the trans-synaptic degeneration, is compatible with other models based in the CSF biochemistry.
Others propose an oligodendrocyte stress as primary dysfunction, which activates microglia creating the NAWM areas and others propose a yet-unknown intrinsic CNS trigger induces the microglial activation and clustering, which they point out could be again axonal injury or oligodendrocyte stress.
Finally, other authors point to a cortical pathology which starts in the brain external layer (pial surface) and progresses extending into the brain inner layers
Genetic causes
If as expected MS is an heterogeneous disease and the lesion development process would not be unique. In particular, some PPMS patients have been found to have a special genetic variant named rapidly progressive multiple sclerosis which would behave differently from what here is explained.
It is due to a mutation inside the gene NR1H3, an arginine to glutamine mutation in the position p.Arg415Gln, in an area that codifies the protein LXRA.
Biomarkers
Main:Multiple sclerosis biomarkers
Several biomarkers for diagnosis, disease evolution and response to medication (current or expected) are under research. While most of them are still under research, there are some of them already well stablished:
oligoclonal bands: They present proteins that are in the CNS or in blood. Those that are in CNS but not in blood suggest a diagnosis of MS.
MRZ-Reaction: A polyspecific antiviral immune response against the viruses of measles, rubella and zoster found in 1992. In some reports the MRZR showed a lower sensitivity than OCB (70% vs. 100%), but a higher specificity (69% vs. 92%) for MS.
free light chains (FLC). Several authors have reported that they are comparable or even better than oligoclonal bands.
See also
Multiple sclerosis borderline
References
External links
The lesion project page
MRI and CT of Multiple Sclerosis MedPix Image Database
Neurology
Multiple sclerosis
Lesion Project
Multiple sclerosis
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988%20World%20Snooker%20Championship
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1988 World Snooker Championship
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The 1988 World Snooker Championship, also known as the 1988 Embassy World Snooker Championship for sponsorship reasons, was a professional snooker tournament that took place from 16 April to 2 May 1988 at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. Organised by the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA), it was the sixth and final ranking event of the 1987–88 snooker season and the twelfth consecutive World Snooker Championship to be held at the Crucible, the first tournament there having taken place in 1977.
A five-round qualifying event for the championship was held at the Preston Guild Hall from 22 March to 2 April 1988 for 113 players, 16 of whom reached the main stage, where they met the 16 invited seeded players. The tournament was broadcast in the United Kingdom by the BBC, and was sponsored by the Embassy cigarette company. The winner received £95,000 from the total prize fund of £475,000.
The defending champion was Steve Davis, who had previously won the World Championship four times. He met the 1979 champion Terry Griffiths in the final, which was a best-of-35- match. Davis won the match 18–11 after the pair had been level at 8–8 at the end of the first day of the final. Steve James scored the championship's highest , a 140, in his first-round match. There were 18 century breaks compiled during the championship.
Overview
The World Snooker Championship is an annual professional snooker tournament organised by the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA). Founded in the late 19th century by British Army soldiers stationed in India, the cue sport gained popularity in the British Isles in the 1920s and 1930s. In the modern era, which started in 1969 when the World Championship reverted to a knockout format, it has become increasingly popular worldwide, especially in East and Southeast Asian nations such as China, Hong Kong and Thailand.
Joe Davis won the first World Championship in 1927, organised by the Billiards Association and Control Council, the final match being held at Camkin's Hall in Birmingham, England. Since 1977, the event has been held at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. The 1988 championship featured 32 professional players competing in one-on-one snooker matches in a single-elimination format, each match played over several . These competitors in the main tournament were selected using a combination of the top players in the snooker world rankings and the winners of a pre-tournament qualification stage that took place at Preston Guild Hall from 22 March to 2 April 1988. The qualifying competition consisted of five knockout rounds, all contested as the best-of-19-frames, including a single preliminary round match. There were 113 players involved in the qualifying competition, which produced 16 players who each faced one of the top 16 players in the world rankings in the first round of the main event. The rounds held at the Crucible Theatre were broadcast in the United Kingdom by the BBC. The 1988 championship was sponsored by cigarette brand Embassy, and was also referred to as the Embassy World Snooker Championship.
Prize fund
The tournament featured a total prize fund of £475,000, with £95,000 being awarded to the winner. The prize money allocation is shown below. An award of £90,000 would have been made to a player making a maximum break.
Main tournament
Winner: £95,000
Runner-up: £57,000
Semi-finalists: £28,000
Quarter-finalists: £14,250
Last 16: £7,125
Last 32: £4,007.81
Highest : £9,500
Qualifying
Fourth qualifying round: £3,117.19
Third qualifying round: £1,632.81
Highest break: £2,375
Tournament summary
Qualifying
Qualifying matches took place at Preston Guild Hall from 22 March to 2 April 1988. The qualifying competition consisted of five knockout rounds, including a single preliminary round match, starting with 113 players, and all qualifying matches were played as best-of-19-frames. American pool player Steve Mizerak made his professional snooker debut in the preliminary round, losing 3–10 to Anthony Harris. On the first day of the qualifying competition, Billy Kelly established a new record highest for world championship qualifying, compiling a 141 in the sixth frame of his match against Tony Kearney. Kelly won 10–4, concluding with a 76 break in the 14th frame. Alain Robidoux had walkovers against Frank Jonik, who withdrew due to problems with his back, and Robbie Grace, who was unable to travel from South Africa, which meant Robidoux earned a ranking merit point that enabled him to gain full professional status for the following season. He lost 2–10 to Bill Oliver in the third round.
Dene O'Kane, a quarter-finalist in 1987, led 9–8 against Eddie Sinclair but lost 9–10. Oliver eliminated six-time champion Ray Reardon 10–4 before losing 6–10 to Cliff Wilson. It was the first time in his career that Reardon had failed to qualify for the main event. Returning to snooker after a four-month absence during which he had been treated in a Canadian clinic for cocaine addiction, Kirk Stevens defeated Mark Bennett 10–7. Eight-time champion Fred Davis, aged 74, progressed past Jack Fitzmaurice, 10–8, and Jim Bear, 10–4, before losing 3–10 to John Campbell in the last qualifying round. John Spencer, three-times world champion, was eliminated 7–10 by Warren King at the same stage.
Four players, Steve James, Bob Chaperon, Tony Drago and Peter Francisco, qualified for the main event for the first time. James received a walkover against Terry Whitthread in the first round, and eliminated Joe O'Boye, Paddy Browne and Eugene Hughes; Chaperon defeated Robert Marshall, Tommy Murphy and David Taylor; Drago won against Tony Chappel; and Francisco eliminated Robby Foldvari.
First round
The first round took place between 16 and 21 April, each match played over two as the best of 19 frames. Davis, who had won three of the five ranking events during the season leading up to the world championship, was Coral bookmakers' pre-tournament favourite to win, with odds of 5/4. Stephen Hendry, winner of the other two ranking tournaments, was the second favourite at 4/1. They were followed by Jimmy White at 8/1 and John Parrott at 10/1.
Davis won a closely contested match against John Virgo, finally prevailing 10–8. Mike Hallett was 8–1 ahead of Chaperon at the end of their first session, and completed a 10–2 victory. Alex Higgins, who won the competition in 1972 and 1982, had been banned (in April 1987) from the first two ranking events of the season, as part of a punishment imposed by the WPBSA for behaviour including headbutting the tournament director at the 1986 UK Championship. He trailed Drago 2–7 after their first session, and after being defeated 2–10, lost his place in the elite top 16 of the snooker world rankings for the first time since rankings were introduced in 1976. The 1985 champion Taylor was 4–5 behind to Bill Werbeniuk as their first session ended. After their second session the following morning was stopped due to over-running as a result of lengthy tactical exchanges and several delays while Werbeniuk visited the toilet during frames, eventually prevailed 10–8 when it was reconvened. This was Werbeniuk's last appearance at the World Snooker Championship finals.
Joe Johnson, champion in 1986 and runner-up in 1987, knocked out Wilson 10–7. Nine days after suffering a serious road traffic accident that wrote off his car, James compiled a break of 140, and another of 104, on his way to defeating Rex Williams 10–6. In the opening frame against King, Parrott produced a break of 80, which turned out to be his only break above 40 as he won 10–4. Cliff Thorburn, the champion in 1980 and the first player to make a maximum break in the championship, in 1983, was only able to compete after his lawyers managed to postpone a disciplinary hearing relating to his failed drug test at the 1988 British Open. He eliminated Stevens, who had undergone voluntary treatment for cocaine addiction and fell from fourth place to outside the top 32 in the rankings during the season. Thorburn won the match 10–6.
From 3–3 against Wayne Jones, Neal Foulds led 6–3 at the end of the first session and progressed by winning 10–7. Doug Mountjoy recorded a 10–6 win against Barry West, and Willie Thorne won by the same score against Peter Francisco. Steve Longworth won only a single frame as he went out 1–10 to the 1979 champion Terry Griffiths.
Tony Knowles eliminated Danny Fowler 10–8. Silvino Francisco made breaks of 91, 109 and 105 against Eddie Charlton in their first session, but still ended it 4–5 behind. Charlton, playing with a cue stick that he had only started using earlier that year, won 10–7. Hendry led Dean Reynolds 6–3 and 7–6, taking the last three frames to progress at 10–6. After winning the first seven frames against Campbell, White achieved a 10–3 victory.
Second round
The second round, which took place between 21 and 25 April, was played as best-of-25-frames matches spread over three sessions. Davis finished a 13–1 defeat of Hallett with a break of 106. This result matched the heaviest defeat ever recorded in the world snooker championship at the Crucible, Davis's 18–6 victory over Thorburn in the 1983 final. Drago, having defeated a former world champion in the first round, knocked out another in the second round, winning 13–5 against Dennis Taylor. James compiled a break of 112 in the last frame of the first session against Johnson and led 7–1. During the second session, he increased this to 11–3. Johnson won the last two frames of the second session, and the first four frames of the third session, before James took two consecutive frames to qualify 13–9. Thorburn defeated Parrott 13–10, after the pair had been level at 6–6 and 7–7.
Foulds equaled Davis's record for an emphatic victory at the Crucible, and had a break of 102, eliminating Mountjoy 13–1; Mountjoy's failure to progress further meant that he lost his place in the top 16 of the rankings. Griffiths reached the quarter-finals for the fifth year in succession, going from 9–9 to 13–9 against Thorne and concluding with a 101 break in the 22nd frame. Knowles led Charlton 12–4 as they started the third session, and won 13–7.
White finished the first session against Hendry 5–3 ahead, the pair both preferring attempts to pot balls rather than play shots. White added the first frame of the second session, before Hendry won six frames in a row, including breaks of 52, 79, 125, 56 and 101, thus led 9–6. White took the final frame of the second session. In the third session, Hendry claimed the first frame to lead 10–7. White replied with breaks of 62, 50, 78 and 71, to take the lead at 11–10. A 108 break from Hendry made it 11–11, but he scored no points in the 23rd frame as White moved ahead again. On a break of 43 in the 24th frame, White , and Hendry won the frame after a break of 48. In the , White started a break of 86 by a long-range , and prevailed 13–12 in the match. In all, the match featured twenty breaks of 50 or more, including three century breaks. The match was re-shown on BBC Two on 23 April 2020 in a series called Crucible Classics shown in place of the 2020 World Snooker Championship which was postponed because of the coronavirus pandemic. It was the first of seven Crucible matches between White and Hendry over the following decade, including four finals, White losing each encounter until their seventh world championship clash in 1998.
Quarter-finals
The quarter-finals were played as best-of-25-frames matches over three sessions on 26 and 27 April. Davis led Drago 3–2, and then won the next four frames scoring a total of 271 points while Drago scored none. Drago took the tenth frame, but from 3–7 was later one frame from defeat at 3–12. In the 16th frame, Davis himself while on a break of 61, and Drago recovered to win that frame. The third session consisted of a single frame, as Davis completed a 13–4 victory. After the eight frames of the first session between Thorburn and James, the score was 4–4. James, who the bookmakers had rated a 500/1 outsider to win the tournament at the start, was still level at 6–6 but lost 11–13. During the match, he compiled a break of 103, his fourth century break of the competition.
Griffiths reached the quarter-finals for the first time since he won the title in 1979 by eliminating Foulds 13–9, having been 1–3 behind. White lost the opening frame but took a 7–1 lead over Knowles in their first session. After extending this lead to 10–2, White later commented "I did the worst thing possible. I started playing to the crowd." Knowles won four consecutive frames, compiling a break of 124 in the process, to trail 6–10. White responded by winning the next three to progress 13–6.
Semi-finals
The semi-finals took place between 28 and 30 April as best-of-31-frames matches played over four sessions. Thorburn won the first frame against Davis with a clearance of 32, but lost the second on a despite having made a break of 62. Davis took the next three frames, one with a break of 103, and ended the first session 4–3 ahead after Thorburn won the last two frames. During the second session, the players were level at 6–6 before Davis moved into an 8–6 lead, increasing this to 11–6 by taking the first three frames of the third session. Breaks of 77 and 49 in the 18th frame, and a narrow win in the 19th frame, saw Thorburn move to 8–11. Thorburn led by 57 points in the twentieth frame but conceded 4 points by accidentally missing the red balls when playing a safety shot, and Davis compiled a break of 54 to clinch the frame by a single point, finishing the session 14–8 ahead after winning the last two frames. Davis won the first two frames of the fourth session to complete a 16–8 victory.
White won the first two frames against Griffiths, compiling a break of 83 in the second, and made it 3–1 after Griffiths had won the third frame. Griffiths reduced White's advantage to one frame with a fifth frame break of 114. In the next frame, Griffiths missed a red to allow White in and gain the frame. Griffiths won the following two frames and the first session ended level at 4–4. During the second session, White compiled breaks of 44, 77, and 83 while gaining a 7–6 lead. Griffiths replied with breaks of 32, 71, and 61 during the session's last two frames, and took the lead at 8–7. The third session included a 119 break from White in the 17th frame and saw Griffiths increase his lead to 12–10. Griffiths a red in the first frame of the fourth session and went on to compile a winning break of 78. White responded with a 69 break to gain the following frame, making it 13–11 to Griffiths. After potting a re-spotted black to go 14–11 ahead, Griffiths added the following two frames, winning 16–11.
Final
The final between Davis and Griffiths took place on 1 and 2 May, as a best-of-35-frames match played over four sessions. It was Davis's sixth successive final, and Griffith's first since his win in 1979. Davis had won fifteen of the previous nineteen matches between the pair. Griffiths won the first frame before missing an easy in the second frame that allowed Davis in to equalise at 1–1. Davis then won the next four frames, Griffiths taking the last frame of the first afternoon session to finish it 2–5 behind. In the second session, Griffiths won the first frame after a break of 34. Davis followed this by taking the next two frames with breaks of 83 and 81 to lead 7–3. Griffiths equalised at 7–7, making breaks of 30, 49, 63 and 55. Davis took the lead back with a break of 66 in the 15th frame, but a fluke on a red by Griffiths and a later miss on a red by Davis contributed to Griffiths equalising at 8–8 at the session's end.
Davis missed some easy pots at the start of the third session, but still won the first three frames to lead 11–8 as Griffiths made several errors. Griffiths took the 20th frame with a break of 46, but Davis restored a three-frame advantage with breaks of 33 and 36 in the 21st frame. In the 22nd frame, Griffiths laid a snooker and obtained the from Davis that he would have required to win the frame, but then missed in an attempt to pot the and lost the frame as Davis moved to a 13–9 lead. A break of 57 by Griffiths won him a frame to reduce Davis's lead to 13–10, and he led 41–0 in the next frame before Davis compiled a 92 break to lead 14–10 at the end of the session.
In the fourth session, Davis won the opening frame after making a break of 46, and then won two of the next three frames with breaks of 118 and 123. In the 29th frame, Griffiths missed a black from its spot, and Davis went on to win the frame with a break of 66 and take the title, achieving victory at 18–11.
Clive Everton, who played in the qualifying rounds of the tournament, wrote in The Guardian that, despite Griffiths equalising at 7–7 by winning four consecutive frames, "it was not a vintage final." The Benson and Hedges Snooker Year report of the championship concluded that "The final was never a classic but merely emphasized Davis's superiority and grip on the world of professional snooker." Griffiths, who was the oldest world snooker championship finalist since Reardon in 1982, said "My long potting got me to the final. But in the end it let me down. Steve's safety is so good that you have to make the long potting count and I didn't which was the most disappointing part of my performance in the final." This was Davis's fifth world championship win, leaving him one behind Reardon's record total of six titles in the modern era. Davis commented "You are always delighted to win a world championship, and I'm not thinking about records. All I know is I keep coming back to the World Championship, which is two and a half weeks of agony and turmoil and trauma."
It was Davis's fourth win in six ranking tournaments in the 1987–88 snooker season, a period in which he also won the 1988 Masters and the 1988 Irish Masters, and he became first player to win all of the snooker "Triple Crown" events in a single season. His prize money earnings for the season were £425,000, and he retained his top position in the end-of-year rankings with 59 points, ahead of White in second on 44 points. Griffiths, with 33 points, was fifth, one place higher than in the previous ranking list.
Main draw
Shown below are the results for each round. The numbers in brackets denote player seedings; match winners are denoted in bold.
Qualifying
A preliminary round match, and four rounds of qualification for the main draw, were played at the Guild Hall in Preston, England from 22 March to 2 April 1988. Match winners are denoted in bold.
Century breaks
There were 18 century breaks in the championship, the highest being 140 compiled by Steve James. James's performance at the championship earned him the WPBSA's Most Memorable Performance of the Year award, and he shared the Association's Highest Televised Break of the Year award with Steve Davis, who had compiled a break of 140 at the 1987 International Open.
140, 112, 104, 103 Steve James
125, 108, 101 Stephen Hendry
124 Tony Knowles
123, 118, 106, 104 Steve Davis
119 Jimmy White
114, 101 Terry Griffiths
109, 105 Silvino Francisco
102 Neal Foulds
Qualifying stages
There were 20 century breaks in the qualifying stages, the highest of which was 141 compiled by Billy Kelly.
141 Billy Kelly
132 Steve James
131 Wayne Jones
125 Barry West
120, 109 Bill Werbeniuk
113 David Roe
112, 104 Matt Gibson
110, 100 David Taylor
108 Peter Francisco
105 Patsy Fagan
104 John Spencer
104, 102 Dene O'Kane
102 Gary Wilkinson
100 Tony Chappel
100 Tommy Murphy
100 Robby Foldvari
Notes
References
1988 in snooker
1988 in English sport
1980s in Sheffield
April 1988 sports events in the United Kingdom
May 1988 sports events in the United Kingdom
Sports competitions in Sheffield
1988
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel%20by%20region
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Biodiesel by region
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This article describes the use and availability of biodiesel in various countries around the world.
Argentina
Argentina’s biodiesel industries are booming as a result of domestic demand along with strong export markets. Biodiesel production in Argentina grew from 130,000 tons in 2006 to 2.5 million tons in 2010, expecting to produce 3 million tons by 2011. Argentina is a net exporter of biodiesel, nearly all of which was shipped to Europe, overtaking in production the U.S. this year. Argentina ranks as the world’s fourth largest producer (by 2011, after Germany, France and Brazil), due to its rapidly emerging domestic market. Argentina is considering a raise from B7 to B10, increasing consumption to 1.3 million tons per year but negotiations need to happen with the automotive industry first.
The Argentine biodiesel industry is mainly based on the use of soybean as feedstock. Production is geographically concentrated in the provinces of Buenos Aires and Santa Fe. Almost all major players in Argentina’s vegetable oil industry own or are constructing biodiesel plants.
Brazil
Brazil opened a commercial biodiesel refinery in March 2005. It is capable of producing 12,000 m³ (3.2 million US gallons) per year of biodiesel fuel. Feedstocks can be a variety of sunflower oil, soybean oil, or castor bean oil. The finished product will be a blend of diesel fuel with 2% biodiesel and, after 2013, 5% biodiesel, both usable in unmodified diesel engines. As of 2005, there were 3 refineries and 7 that are planned to open. These three factories were capable of producing 45.6 million of liters per year.
Petrobras (the Brazilian national petroleum company) launched an innovative system, making biodiesel (called H-Bio) from the petroleum refinery.
In Brazil, castor bean is the best option to make biodiesel, because it's easier to plant and costs less than soybean, sunflower or other seeds.
Belgium
In Belgium, there are refineries in Ertvelde (belonging to the company Oleon) and at Feluy.
Cambodia
Phnom Penh Biodiesel Cambodia started producing biodiesel in 2007 using a 100-liter biodiesel batch processor imported from Thailand. Biodiesel Cambodia focused on biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas plants. They originally worked on grass roots projects, encouraging farmers to plant Jatropha. In 2008 Biodiesel Cambodia started focusing on large scale plantations and attempted to partner with large scale land owners and investors. When oil prices crashed suddenly investors pulled out and Biodiesel Cambodia sold their production equipment and ceased operations in late 2008.
Sihanoukville in 2007 a non-profit named Planet Biodiesel Outreach Cambodia started a small scale biodiesel production plant. The biodiesel was used to operate their school bus and to provide fuel for their travel company. Their idea was to operate an environmentally friendly tour company and to use the proceeds to run a school for impoverished Cambodian children and provide food, clothing, education, school supplies and transportation free of charge. They ran their school bus on 100% biodiesel that was produced from waste vegetable oil. Planet Biodiesel Outreach Cambodia shut down in 2008 due to lack of donor funding and the inability to raise enough revenue from their tour company.
Siem Reap - In 2008 Angkor Hospital for Children decided they wanted to power their new visitor center with 100% biodiesel in an effort to be environmentally responsible. A new local NGO was formed called Naga Biofuels to produce the biodiesel from used cooking oil. Naga Biofuels worked with Angkor Hospital and also partnered with several other non-profits in Cambodia to produce biodiesel and a glycerin based soap from used cooking oil. In 2011 Naga Biofuels started working with Angkor Golf Resort and several other businesses and expanded their operations.
After 7 years of being the only biodiesel producer in Cambodia, Naga Biofuels changed their name to Naga Earth and started focusing on additional recycling projects in the Kingdom of Cambodia. As of July 2016, they currently are partnering with 25 different businesses and NGOs that are using their biodiesel.
Canada
The Government of Canada exempted biodiesel from the federal excise tax on diesel in the March 2003 budget.
However Government of Canada re-introduced federal excise tax on Bio-Diesel in the March 2013 budget and took effect on April 1, 2014.
Quebec - Rothsay of Ville Ste Catherine, Quebec, produces 35,000 m³ of biodiesel per year. The shuttle bus connecting students between the two campuses of Concordia University are run solely on Biodiesel. Targray, one of the most important B99 and B100 biodiesel suppliers in North America, is headquartered in Kirkland, Quebec, an on-island suburb of Montreal.
Nova Scotia - The Provincial Government of Nova Scotia uses biodiesel in some public buildings for heating as well as (in more isolated cases) for public transportation. Halifax Regional Municipality has converted its bus fleet to biodiesel, with a future demand of 7,500 m³ of B20 (20% biodiesel fuel mixture) to B50—reducing biodiesel content in low temperatures to avoid gelling issues—and 3,000 m³ split between B20 and B100 for building heat. The municipality forecasts a greenhouse gas reduction of over 9,000 tonnes CO2 equivalents (4,250 tonnes from fleet use and 5,000 tonnes from building heating) if fully implemented. Private sector uptake is slower—but not unheard of—possibly due to a lack of price differential with petroleum fuel and a lack of federal and provincial tax rebating. Ocean Nutrition Canada produces of fatty acid ethyl esters annually as a byproduct of its Omega-3 fatty acid processing.
Ontario - Great Lakes Biodiesel the Largest Producer of Biodiesel in Canada. Annual Production: 170 million liters per year. Completed and started production in October 2013.
Methes Energies Canada Inc. of Mississauga is processing out of two facilities (Sombra and Mississauga) with a production capacity of 55 million liters of biodiesel per year.
Biox Corporation of Oakville is building a biodiesel processing plant in the Hamilton harbor industrial lands, due for completion in the first half of 2006. There are also a few retail filling stations selling biodiesel to motorists in Toronto and Unionville.
SIL-TRI Biofuels in Hamilton also delivers B1-B100 blends in bulk for commercial users.
Manitoba A rush of building of biodiesel plants in 2005 and 2006 started in June 2005 with Bifrost Bio-Diesel in Arborg. In addition, biodiesel is made by individuals and farmers for personal use.
British Columbia - the cooperative association proves a successful structure for micro-economy-of-scale biodiesel production reaching the end-user. Vancouver Biodiesel Co-op, Nelson Biodiesel Co-op, WISE Energy and Island Biodiesel Co-op are notable examples.
The Canadian government has stated a goal of producing 500 million liters of biodiesel by 2010.
China
At least two publicly traded companies, China Clean Energy, Inc. and Gushan, manufacture and sell significant amounts of biodiesel in China.
Costa Rica
Costa Rica is a large producer of crude palm oil and this has spurred interest in biodiesel. Currently several small biodiesel production projects are starting in the country. There are also biodiesel reactor manufacturers in Costa Rica which provide equipment to the Central American and Caribbean region.
Czech Republic
Czech production of biodiesel was already above 60,000 m³ per year by the early 1990s and is now even larger. Many of the plants are very large, including one in Olomouc which produces almost 40,000 m³ per year. From the summer of 2004, Czech producers of biodiesel for blend receive a subsidy of roughly CEK 9.50/kg. All Škoda diesels built since 1996 are warrantied for DIN EN 590 biodiesel use.
European Union
According to EU Strategy for Biofuels at year 2010 target is 5.75% market share for biofuels. At year 2020 the target is 10% market share.
European standard DIN EN 14214 and DIN EN 590 describes the physical properties of diesel fuels.
The EU and environmental organization e.g. Greenpeace demand transparent criteria for sustainable biofuel production. Concern includes deforestation for oil palms in Indonesia and deforestation in Brazil.
Finland
Neste Oil is producer of NExBTL renewable diesel oil. NExBTL is first renewable fuel suitable for all diesel engines in the world. Neste Oil claims EN-590 outperforms both regular diesel as well as other biodiesels on the market.
France
The French government have ambitious objectives of incorporation of biofuels in fuels: 5,75% (energy value) in 2008, 7% in 2010 and 10% by 2015.
Germany
According to the Union zur Förderung von Öl- und Proteinpflanzen UFOP (Union to promote oil- and protein plants), in 2006 the sale of biodiesel through German gas stations rose to 2,000,000 m³, although it is only available at privately owned filling stations and generally not available at outlets operated by major petroleum companies, such as Shell and Esso/Exxon (the petroleum companies see biodiesel as competition to their core petroleum business). In 2004, 45% of all biodiesel sales went directly to large end users, such as trucking companies.
In Germany biodiesel is, for the most part, produced from rapeseed. Sales in Germany stood at two billion litres (about ) in 2006. This amount was sufficient to meet the average yearly consumption of well over 2,000,000 automobiles. Diesel engines have become increasingly popular in Germany and almost half of all newly manufactured cars are diesel powered. This is in part due to the greater efficiency of diesel engines, the desire by consumers to use environmentally friendlier technologies and lower taxes on diesel fuel that make it cheaper than gasoline.
Verbio is a biodiesel and bioethanol producer in Germany. They currently produce 400,000 tons of biodiesel from rape seed oil, soybean oil and fatty acids, selling the product to markets in the E.U.
With 1,900 sales points, equal to one in every ten public gas stations, biodiesel is the first alternative fuel to be available nationwide. The industry is expecting a surge in demand since the authorisation at the beginning of 2004, through European Union legislation, of a maximum 5% biodiesel addition to conventional diesel fuel. In Germany biodiesel is sold at a lower price than diesel from petroleum.
Hong Kong
Dynamic Progress International is the largest biodiesel producer in Hong Kong, the feedstock for the biodiesel it sells locally, being used cooking oil also sourced locally. In November 2011, Dynamic Progress International was chosen in an open tendering procedure, to supply over 3.5 million litres of B5 diesel to various Hong Kong Government departments on a 16-month contract. [For more details about the Hong Kong Government contract, go to https://www.gldpcms.gov.hk/etb_prod/jsp_public/cn/scn00101.jsp then select ‘2011’ and ‘December’] Another biodiesel plant is currently under construction in Hong Kong on the Tseung Kwan O Industrial Estate by the ASB Biodiesel (Hong Kong) Limited. Upon completion, ASB Biodiesel will become the biggest biodiesel plant in Hong Kong.
India
Biodiesel is now being produced locally in India for use in stationary engines and large or slow engines like those in trains, trucks and tractors. Efforts are also on to use ethanol as a substitute for petrol. Biodiesel is rapidly replacing both kerosene (which was used illegally and inefficiently) and diesel as a more efficient, cheap, and clean alternative for large engines. Today plans are being chalked out to cultivate non-edible seed oil trees such as Pongamia on barren land to use their oil for biodiesel production. The Southern Railways have been very supportive of the program and various state governments recommend planting these plants in unused areas through aid from the government sectors. Biodiesel-blends are being used to run state transport corporation buses in Karnataka. The University of Agriculture Sciences at Bangalore has identified many elite lines of Jatropha curcas and Millettia pinnata (Pongamia tree). Castor is already a well established crop in India with several very high yielding varieties in the market. Large-scale activities have been initiated quite recently. For example, the government of Karnataka has distributed several million saplings of Pongamia to farmers for planting along borders of farmland and in waste lands. Large-scale plantations have been initiated in North-East India and Jharkhand by D1 Williamson Magor Bio Fuel Limited, a joint venture between D1 Oils of U.K. and Williamson Magor of India. The hilly areas of the North-East are ideal for growing hardy, low-maintenance plants.
Indian Oil Corporation has tied up with Indian Railways to introduce biodiesel crops over 1 million square kilometers. Also, Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh have tied up with IndianOil to cultivate large tracts of land with jatropha, the former crop of choice for Indian biodiesel plans. Jatropha is now being replaced by Pongamia and Castor due to its very (comparative) high cost of cultivation.
In order to organize the industry, the BioDiesel Society of India has been formed to encourage energy plantations for increasing feedstock supplies.
Indonesia
Since September 2005, the Eterindo Group has been producing biodiesel using palm oil. Currently the production capacity of the Eterindo Group has reached 120,000 tonnes of Biodiesel annually. Meeting the standard requirements of ASTM D-6751 and EN 14214, in 2006 the group begin to export its biodiesel to United States, Germany and Japan. It is now exploring another export destinations, i.e.: Asia Pacific countries, etc. It is expected that biodiesel production of Indonesia will reach more than 3.5 million tons in 2018.
Italy
Italy has the capacity to produce over 2,711 million litres of biodiesel each year, but due to competition from imports, production has decreased to about 500,000 tonnes in 2012. Consumption was 1,681 million litres in 2011, and was expected to be 1,573 million litres in 2012.
Lithuania
There are two biodiesel producing plants in Lithuania. One in close to Mažeikiai (Samogitia) and other in Klaipėda free economic zone. Most of biodiesel produced in Lithuania is consumed at the local market and a fraction exported.
Malawi
Bio Energy Resources Ltd. of Malawi announced in May 2011 that it would construct a USD 18 million plant with an annual production capacity of 20 million liters which were to process the seeds of Jatropha Curcas into Straight Vegetable Oils, which were to be blended with diesel to make bio-fuel and with paraffin to make bio-paraffin. The production facility was commissioned in 2013 and had a production capacity of 5,000 liters per day.
The Malawi Energy Regulatory Authority and the National Bureau of Standards have been involved in product quality, prices and licensing, and by the start of 2015 the company Bio Energy Resources was given a pre-permit approval for production and distribution of jatropha-based diesel. By August 2010 a total of 9 million Jatropha trees had been planted, and "38.000 small scale farmers [were] enrolled".
Malaysia
The biodiesel industry has been identified as one of the 12 National Key Economic Activities (NKEA) under the Tenth Malaysia Plan.
Projects requiring Malaysian and Indonesian palm oil as feedstocks have been criticized by some environmental advocates. Friends of the Earth has published a report asserting that clearance of forests for oil-palm plantations is threatening some of the last habitat of the orangutan. Also, in a column for The Guardian, writer George Monbiot claimed that land clearance by cutting and burning large forest trees frees large amounts of carbon dioxide that is never reabsorbed by the smaller oil palms. If true, then biodiesel production from plantation-grown palm oil may be a net source of atmospheric carbon dioxide. How these issues are resolved may determine whether Malaysia eventually becomes a major producer of biodiesel.
The palm oil industry has recognized this concerned and in conjunction with the WWF has formed the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) which endeavours to ensure development of palm oil in a sustainable way. In 2014, after many delays Malaysia began the introduction in the sale of B5 biodiesel in most petrol stations in the country. This would be eventually replaced by B7 and finally B10 biodiesel blends in late 2015.
Pakistan
In Pakistan Biodiesel has been launched by Pakistan State Oil in the Sindh province. Although details about the Biodeisel are still cloudy as there was almost no media campaign, the mix used is E10.
Currently ethanol is being derived from Sugar Mills, that produce it as a by product and in many cases, use it to power their own mills.
Spain
It is possible to buy biodiesel, mixed with diesel fuel, in more than 480 petrol stations around the country.
Singapore
Two biodiesel plants will be built on Jurong Island, Singapore's petrochemicals hub. The first plant, by Peter Cremer (S) GMBH, will have a capacity of 200,000 tons/year and it is expected to be ready by early 2007, while the second is a joint venture between Wilmar Holdings and Archer Daniels Midland Company, to be operational by end 2006 with an initial capacity of 150,000 tons/year.
Natural Fuel Pte Ltd., has mechanically completed a 600,000 tons/year biodiesel plant in early 2008 - making it one of the world's largest biodiesel located in a single site.
Singapore was selected for the companies' first biodiesel plant in Asia because of its excellent connectivity. There is easy access to abundant palm oil feedstock from the neighboring countries of Malaysia and Indonesia. Also, Singapore has terminal facilities which allow the biodiesel to be shipped to markets around the world.
Neste Oil is building NExBTL renewable diesel oil plant, production 800,000 tons/year. According plan it will be ready 2010.
Thailand
Thailand was the first country to launch biodiesel as a national program on July 10, 2001. It was reported that the work was initiated by the Royal Chitralada Project, a royal -sponsored project to help rural farmers . International co-operation among ASEAN country was also starting by the Renewable Energy Institute of Thailand (Dr. Samai Jai-In) and Asia-Pacific Roundtable for Sustainable consumption and Production (Dr. Olivia Castillo, ). The primary aims of the project in Thailand are:
an alternative output for excess agricultural produce
substituting diesel imports
In 2007, several biodiesel plants are operating in Thailand using the excess palm oil / palm stearin and in some cases, waste vegetable oil as raw materials. The production capacity is about 1 million litre/day and should reach 2 million litre by early 2008. About 400 petrol stations are now distributing B5 (5% biodiesel with 95% diesel) in Chiangmai and Bangkok. The national biodiesel standard has been developed based on the European standard. The target of the Government is to mandate B2 by 2 April 2008 and to increase to B5 by 2011 which will require almost 4 Million litres/day of biodiesel .
The raw material will most likely come from palm oil, coconut oil, Jatropha Curcas Linn, and tallow. Several pilot plants are now operating such as the Royal Chitralada Projects , Rajabiodiesel in Surattani , Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency , Royal Naval Dockyard, MTEC , and Tistr [www.tistr.or.th].
United Kingdom
Biodiesel is sold by a small but growing number of filling stations in B5 and B100 blend, including a significant fraction of supermarket filling stations. Some farmers have also been using small plants to create their own biodiesel for farm machinery since the 1990s.
Several Co-ops and small-scale production facilities have recently begun production, typically selling fuel several pence per litre less than petrodiesel.
The first large-scale plant, capable of producing 50 million litres (13 million US gallons) a year, opened in Scotland in 2005, soon followed by a large plant co-owned by Tesco and Greenergy (Tesco sell 5% biodiesel at many of their petrol stations. The Fuel conforms to standard EN590 which allows up to 5% biodiesel inclusion ). Biodiesel is treated like any other vehicle fuel in the UK and the paperwork required to register as a producer is a major limiting factor to growth in the market. Although since July 2007 home users may produce 2500 litres per year for personal use without registering or paying duty.
United States
Biodiesel is commercially available in most oilseed-producing states in the United States. As of 2005, it is somewhat more expensive than fossil diesel, though it is still commonly produced in relatively small quantities (in comparison to petroleum products and ethanol). Many farmers who raise oilseeds use a biodiesel blend in tractors and equipment as a matter of policy, to foster production of biodiesel and raise public awareness. It is sometimes easier to find biodiesel in rural areas than in cities. Similarly, some agribusinesses and others with ties to oilseed farming use biodiesel for public relations reasons. As of 2003 some tax credits were available in the U.S. for using biodiesel. In 2004 almost of commercially produced biodiesel were sold in the U.S., up from less than in 1998. Projections for 2005 were produced from 45 factories and . Due to increasing pollution control requirements and tax relief, the U.S. market is expected to grow to or by 2010.
Uruguay
Uruguayan law 18.195 stipulates a minimum of 2% of biodiesel in diesel since January 2009 and 5% from January 2012. As of March 2009, state fuel monopoly ANCAP pretends to start blending biodiesel for automotive use in late May or early June 2009.
See also
Biofuels by region
National Biodiesel Board
Grays Harbor Biodiesel Plant
Biodiesel producers
References
Further reading
External links
Towards Sustainable Production and Use of Resources: Assessing Biofuels, United Nations Environment Programme, October 2009
Find Biodiesel - an open directory of biodiesel availability around the world with interactive maps
World Bank, Biofuels: The Promise and the Risks. World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development
Biodiesel
Palm oil
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmong%20customs%20and%20culture
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Hmong customs and culture
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The Hmong people are an ethnic group currently native to several countries, believed to have come from the Yangtze river basin area in southern China. The Hmong are known in China as the Miao, which encompasses not only Hmong, but also other related groups such as Hmu, Qo Xiong and A-Hmao. There is debate about usage of this term, especially amongst Hmong living in the West, as it is believed by some to be derogatory, although Hmong living in China still call themselves by this name. Throughout recorded history, the Hmong have remained identifiable as Hmong because they have maintained the Hmong language, customs, and ways of life while adopting the ways of the country in which they live. In the 1960s and 1970s, many Hmong were secretly recruited by the American CIA to fight against communism during the Vietnam War. After American armed forces pulled out of Vietnam the Pathet Lao, a communist regime, took over in Laos and ordered the prosecution and re-education of all those who had fought against its cause during the war. While many Hmong are still left in Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, and China (which houses one of the biggest Hmong populations in the world, 5 million), since 1975 many Hmong have fled Laos in fear of persecution. Housed in Thai refugee camps during the 1980s, many have resettled in countries such as the United States, French Guiana, Australia, France, Germany, as well as some who have chosen to stay in Thailand in hope of returning to their own land. In the United States, new generations of Hmong are gradually assimilating into American society while being taught Hmong culture and history by their elders. Many fear that as the older generations pass on, the knowledge of the Hmong among Hmong Americans will die as well.
Social organization
The clan (xeem; ) has been a dominant organizing force in Hmong society. There are about eighteen Hmong clans that are known in Laos and Thailand. Clan membership is inherited upon birth or occasionally through adoption. All children are members of the father’s clan, through which they will trace their ancestors. Women become members of their husband's family upon marriage but will retain their clan name of their father. Members of the same clan consider each other to be kwv tij, translated as "brothers", "siblings," and they are expected to offer one another mutual support. The term kwv tij is regarded as one's father's family or in the case of women who are married it refers to their in-laws. A related term neej tsa is the wife family after marriage. However, she regards her birth family to be her kwv tij until she is married. Also, many clans even consider each last name as kwv tij Example: Khang, Kue, and Kong are kwv tij because they share a history of helping each other and respect for each other. Respected clan leaders are expected to take responsibility for conflict negotiation and occasionally the maintenance of religious rituals. Members of a clan who share the same ritual practices may identify as a group on the sub-clan level.
Marriage
Clan groups are exogamous: that is, Hmong may not marry within their own clan group; a marriage partner must be found from another clan. For example, a Xiong may not marry another Xiong. However, they are allowed to marry blood relatives from their mother's side (Neejtsa). This allows for such cases as two cousins related through their mother to marry, so long as they are in different clans. Traditionally, when a boy wants to marry a girl, he will make his intentions clear, and will "zij" or snatch (In western countries this act is not popular and is considered to be illegal) her at any opportunity that is appropriate. This is traditionally only a symbolic kidnapping.
Before he may "zij" her, the boy must first give a gift to the girl whom he wants to marry. After waiting a few days, the boy may then "zij" the girl. If the boy never gave the girl a gift, she is allowed to refuse and return home with any family member who comes to save her. The parents are not notified at the time of the "zij", but an envoy from the boy's clan is sent to inform them of the whereabouts of their daughter and her safety (fi xov). This envoy gives them the boy's family background and asks for the girl's in exchange. For example, the envoy may tell the girl's family that the groom is from a Stripe Hmong family from Luang Prabang, Laos; the bride's parents may then reply that they are Moob Leej/Mong Leng from Nong Het, Xieng Khouang, Laos. Before the new couple enters the groom's house, the groom's father performs a blessing ritual, asking the ancestors to accept the new bride into the household (Lwm qaib). The head of the household moves the chicken in a circular motion around the couple's head. The girl is not allowed to visit anyone's house for three days after this.
After three days or more, the groom's parents will prepare the first wedding feast for the newlywed couple (hu plig nyab tshiab thaum puv peb tag kis). The wedding is usually a two-day process. At the end of this first wedding feast, the couple will return to the bride's family's home, where they spend the night preparing for the next day. On the second day, the family of the bride prepares a second wedding feast at their home, where the couple will be married (Noj tshoob). Hmong marriage customs differ slightly based on cultural subdivisions within the global Hmong community, but all require the exchange of a bride price from the groom’s family to the bride’s family.
The bride price is compensation for the new family taking the other family's daughter, as the girl's parents are now short one person to help with chores (the price of the girl can vary based on her value or on the parents). The elders of both families negotiate the amount prior to the engagement and is traditionally paid in bars of silver or livestock. In modern times, settlements made in monetary terms are also common.
During the bride's time with the groom's family, she will wear their clan's traditional clothes. She will switch back to the clothes of her birth clan while visiting her family on the second day of the wedding. After the wedding is over, her parents will give her farewell presents and new sets of clothes. Before the couple departs, the bride's family provides the groom with drinks until he feels he can't drink anymore, though he will often share with any brothers he has. At this point the bride's older brother or uncle will often offer the groom one more drink and ask him to promise to treat the bride well, never hit her, etc. Finishing the drink is seen as proof that the groom will keep his promise. Upon arriving back at the groom's house, another party is held to thank the negotiator(s), the groomsman, and the bride's maid (tiam mej koob).
During and post-wedding, there are many rules or superstitious beliefs a bride must follow. Here are some examples:
When the groom's wedding party is departing from the bride's house, during that process, the bride must never look back for it is to be a bad omen endured into her marriage.
During the wedding feast, there are to be no spicy dishes or hot sauces served for it will make the marriage bitter.
At some point during the wedding, an elder would come to ask the bride if she has old gifts or mementos from past lovers. She is to forfeit these items.
The bridesmaid's, known as the green lady, job is to make sure the bride does not run off with a man as, historically, many girls were forced to marry and would elope with their current or past lovers.
In the 21st century, Hmong people who practice Christianity may follow traditional Hmong weddings; however, some rituals such as "lwm qaib" and "hu plig" are no longer practiced. Some of them follow both traditional Hmong weddings and westernized weddings.
When a husband dies, it is his clan's responsibility to look after the widow and children. The widow is permitted to remarry, in which case she would have two choices: she may marry one of her husband's younger brothers/ younger cousins (never the older brothers) or she can marry anyone from an outside clan (besides her own). If she chooses to marry an extended member from her deceased husband's clan, her children will continue to be a part of that clan. If she chooses to remarry outside of her deceased husband's clan, her children are not required to stay with the clan unless a member of the clan (usually the deceased husband's brother or a male cousin of the same last name) is willing to take care of the children. (This is mostly the practice today in many Western Nations). If no one from the deceased husband's clan is willing to raise the children, they will follow their mother into her second marriage. Once the children go with their mother to be a part of their stepfather's family, a spiritual ceremony may take place. The children can choose to belong to their stepfather's clan (by accepting his surname, his family spirits, and relatives) or they can choose to remain with their original clan (the family, spirits, and relatives of their deceased father). Often, regardless of the wishes of the mother or children, the clan would keep the son(s).
Polygamy is a form of marriage among the Hmong, it has been documented. It is rare among those Hmong who have migrated to Western nations.
Divorce was rare in traditional Hmong society, however, it is becoming more prevalent in westernized Hmong communities. If a husband and wife decide to divorce, the couple's clans will permit divorce but will evaluate the situation fairly. If just the wife wants to divorce her husband without any firm grounds, the bride price must be returned to the husband’s family, as the wife will be the one choosing to leave the household. If just the husband wants to divorce his wife without any firm grounds, the husband will have to come up with some money to send the wife back to her family with all the daughters and the sons will stay with the husband, as the husband will be the one choosing to leave the household. By tradition, the man and the woman do not have equal custody of all the children. If it is determined the wife had committed adultery, the husband will receive custody of the sons, the bride price and an additional fine. However, if it is determined the husband had committed adultery or married a second wife and the wife can not continue being part of the family, she will have the option to peg the husband. If the husband allows it, she can take her children with her. If a divorced man dies, custody of any male children passes to his clan group.
Traditional gender roles
Traditional gender roles throughout Hmong society have changed throughout the dominance in China along with Confucianism.
During the periods in which Confucianism reached its peaks (206 BCE – 220 CE) along with Legalism (法家) or Taoism (道家) during the Han Dynasty. Although the early Hmong had no real commitment to the subordination of women, over time Confucian teachings were expanded upon. It was during the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) that Confucianism was adopted as the government's state doctrine in China, becoming part of official education.
In later dynasties, Neo-Confucian interpretations further reinforced male authority and patrilineal customs. According to the Confucian structure of society, women at every level were to occupy a position lower than men. Most citizens accepted the subservience of women to men as natural and proper. At the same time, they accorded women's honor and power as mother and mother-in-law within their family.
There are traditional gender roles in Hmong society. A man's duty involves family responsibility and the provision for the physical and spiritual welfare of his family. Hmong men have a system for making decisions that involve clan leaders. Husbands may consult their wives if they wish before making major decisions regarding family affairs, but the husband is seen as the head of the household who announces the decision.
Hmong women are responsible for nurturing the children, preparing meals, feeding animals, and sharing in agricultural labor. Traditionally, Hmong women eat meals only after the Hmong men have eaten first, especially if there are guests present in the house.
Spirituality
See also: Hmong folk religion
Contemporary Hmong people cannot be characterized as subscribing to a single belief system. Missionaries to Southeast Asia converted many Hmong people to Christianity beginning in the 19th-century and many more have become Christian since immigrating from Southeast Asia to the West. However, most Hmong people, both in Asia and the West, continue to maintain traditional spiritual practices that include shamanism, and ancestor veneration.
These spiritual beliefs are combined with their beliefs related to health and illness. In traditional Hmong spiritual practices, one does not separate the physical well-being of a person from their spiritual health; the spiritual realm is highly influential and dictates what happens in the physical world. According to these beliefs, everything possesses a spirit, both animate and inanimate objects. There is a delicate balance between these two worlds; thus the necessity to revere and honor the ancestors for guidance and protection. The spirits of deceased ancestors are thought to influence the welfare and health of the living. Individuals perform rituals which include the offering of food and spirit money, pouring libation, and burning incense to appease the spirits and earn their favor.
Role - the male head of the household does the worshipping of ancestral spirits. However, it is not surprising to find women also partake in this role. Rituals performed by the head of the household “in honor of the ancestral spirits” are for individual benefits which are usually done during Hmong New Year celebrations. It is mainly to call upon the spirits of the house to protect the house.
Each person is thought to have 12 parts of the soul. These parts must remain in harmony to remain healthy. Some parts have specific roles. One of the 12 parts is reincarnated or join a living relative or descendant after death while the main part returns to the home of the ancestors into the spirit world and stays near the grave of the deceased. The soul of the living can fall into disharmony and may even leave the body. The loss of a soul or parts (poob plig) can cause serious illness. The number of parts lost determines how serious the illness is. A soul-calling ceremony (hu plig) can be performed by shamans, when the soul has been frightened away, within the community to entice the soul home with chanting and offerings of food. Shamans perform rituals because they are the ones who have special access to go in contact with souls or spirits, or in other words, the otherworld. Rituals are usually performed to restore the health of an individual, or family, and call one’s wandering spirit back home. For soul calling, there are a couple of different ceremonies; One usually done by the head of the household and one by the shaman.
Animism and shamanism
For followers of traditional Hmong spirituality, the shaman, a healing practitioner who acts as an intermediary between the spirit and material world, is the main communicator with the otherworld, able to see why and how someone got sick. The Hmong view healing and sickness as supernatural processes linked to cosmic and local supernatural forces.
In ancient times, it is said that humans and spirits used to live with each other. However, due to conflict between the two very different beings, the deity Saub had blinded the two from being able to see each other. However, there is this good and evil in both worlds and thus whenever humans come into contact with the evilness of the otherworld, a Shaman is needed to perform rituals to go rescue or call back the sick person’s spirit and/or look at the reason for why the person is so sick. A shaman’s real job is to “reproduce and restore belief” not really the physical health, although it may seem so. Rituals, which serve as a treatment, might include herbal remedies or offerings of joss paper money or livestock. In cases of serious illness, the shaman enters a trance and travels through the spirit world to discern the cause and remedy of the problem, usually involving the loss or damage of a soul.
This ritual ceremony, called "ua neeb", consists of several parts. The first part of the process is "ua neeb Saib": examining the spiritual aura of the situation to determine what the factors are.
If during ua neeb Saib the shaman observes something seriously wrong with the individual, such as a soul having lost its way home and caught by some spiritual being, the shaman will end the first part of the ceremony process by negotiating with the spiritual being ("whoever has control of this individual soul") to release the soul; most of the time this will do. After that, the shaman would lead the soul to its home.
After a waiting period, if the sick individual becomes well, then the second part of the ceremony, referred to as ua neeb kho, will be performed, in which joss paper is burned and livestock is sacrificed in exchange for the well-being and future protection of the individual's soul. Extended family and friends are invited to partake in the ceremony and tie a white string around the wrist (khi tes) of the individual. The strings are blessed by the shaman and as each person ties it around the individual's wrist, they say a personalized blessing.
Studies done within the Hmong American communities show that many Hmong continue to consult shamans for their health concerns.
A household always has a sacred wallpaper altar (a Thaj Neeb made of Xwmkab) in which when the shaman comes, he/she performs the ritual in front of it. Domestic worshipping is usually also done in front of this. This wallpaper altar serves as the main protector of the house. It is the place, wherever a household decides to place it, where worshiping, offerings (joss paper, animal, etc.), and rituals are done. In addition, Shamans also have their own personal altar that holds their special instruments and dag neeg. During a ritual, or when a shaman is under a trance, it is prohibited to walk between the altar and the shaman when the shaman is speaking directly with the otherworld.
Not everyone gets to become a shaman; they must be chosen by the spirits to become an intermediary between the spiritual realm and the physical world. In Hmong shamanism, a shaman can be a man or a woman. Typically, there is a strong chance for an individual to become a shaman if their family history contains shamans. This is due to the belief that ancestral spirits, including the spirits of shamans, are reincarnated into the same family tree. Once blessed with the powers of a shaman, the particular individual will have to seek a teacher (which is a shaman) and he/she will begin training to become an official Shaman society can call upon. Usually, the amount of time for a shaman to be done with training depends on the spiritual guardians that guide the shaman in the process of performing the rituals (dag neeg).
People that inherit the skills to become a shaman often experience symptoms of unexplained physical illness, bipolar personality, and multi-personality/ schizophrenia. According to traditional Hmong beliefs, these symptoms are the result of shamanic spirits (dab neeb) trying to get through to the Shaman-to-be. For those that still practice Shamanism, they're able to recognize these symptoms and cure their loved ones by helping them develop into full-fledged Shamans. For those that are blessed to become a Shaman and do not want to practice Shamanism, they often turn to Christian exorcism, western medicine, and psych wards. For the few that accept becoming Shamans, it is considered an honor to help their own. In the Hmong community, shamans are highly respected.
Treatments and Practices
Many Hmong still follow the tradition of taking herbal remedies. A common practice among Hmong women is following a strict diet after childbirth. This consists of warm rice, freshly boiled chicken with herbs (koj thiab ntiv), lemongrass, and a little salt. It is believed to be a healing process for the women. For 30 days (nyob dua hli), she will stay on this diet in order to cleanse her body of leftover blood and avoid future illness.
Kav (coining or spooning) is another form of treatment that involves using the edge of a silver coin or spoon to scrape the surface of the skin. The process begins by applying tiger balm (tshuaj luan paub) onto the areas that will be scraped to supposedly help open the pores on the body and supposedly release toxins.
Hmong festivals
Hmong New Year
One festive holiday the Hmong culture celebrates is the Hmong New Year celebration, which is a cultural tradition that takes place annually in selected areas where Hmong communities exist and in a modified form where smaller communities come together. During the New Year's celebration, Hmong dress in traditional clothing and enjoy traditional food, dance, music, bullfights, and other forms of entertainment. Hmong New Year celebrations follow ethnic traditions and culture, and may also serve to educate those who have an interest in Hmong tradition. Hmong New Year celebrations frequently occur in November and December (traditionally at the end of the harvest season when all work is done), serving as a Thanksgiving holiday for the Hmong people. According to folklore and legends, Hmong New Year is traditionally held on the last day of December, and lasts 3 or 4 days.
Historically, the Hmong New Year celebration was created to give thanks to ancestors and spirits as well as to welcome in a new beginning. It is also a time of the year where Hmong people gather with family. Traditionally, the celebration lasted for ten days, but has been shortened in America due to the difference between the traditional Hmong farming schedule and that of the American 40-hr workweek schedule. It has also served the double purpose of a convenient meeting place and time for the Hmong leadership.
During the Hmong New Year celebration, the Hmong ball-tossing game pov pob is a common activity for adolescents. Boys and girls form two separate lines in pairs that are directly facing one another. Girls can toss the cloth ball to other girls or boys, but boys cannot toss the ball to other boys. It is also taboo to toss the ball to someone of the same clan. The partners toss the ball back and forth until one member drops the ball. When this happens, an ornament or item is given to the player who did not drop the ball. Ornaments are recovered by singing love songs (hais kwv txhiaj) to the opposite player. The young lovers have been seen to carry tape players to play their favorite love songs for one another.
The Hmong New Year celebration—specifically based on both religious and cultural beliefs—is an “in-house” ritual that takes place annually in every Hmong household. The celebration is to acknowledge the completion of the rice-harvesting season—thus, the beginning of a new year—so that a new life can begin as the cycle of life continues. During this celebration, every "wandering" soul of every family member is called back to unite with the family again and the young will honor the old or the in-laws—a ritual of asking for blessings from elders of the house and clan, as well as the in-laws of other clans.
Also, during the Hmong New Year celebration, house spirits as well as the spirit of wealth (xwm kab) are honored. In addition, if a shaman is in the house, the healing spirits of She-Yee are also honored and released to wander the land (Neeb Foob Yeem)—similar to vacationing after a long year of working—until they are called back right after the new year. Hmong New Year lasts only for 3 days—with 10 dishes of food each day, for a total of 30 dishes—thus the Hmong saying “eat 30.” Here are a few practices that the Hmong observe during their New Year Celebration, performed anytime during the 3 days of celebration.
Hu Plig (Soul Calling)—Calling back every soul in the family to unite with the family
Txi Xwm Kab (Honoring Xwm Kab)—Offerings to the God of Wealth
Neeb Foob Yeem/Neeb Tso Qhua—Shamanistic Ritual to release the Curing spirits of She-Yee for “vacationing"—occurs only if the specific family has a shaman in the house
Noj peb caug (Eat 30)—The main meal of New year
Pe Tsiab (Asking for Blessings from Elders)—Occurred early morning during New Year’s day, including parents, uncles, father/moth-in-law, and dead ancestors
Ntxuav Kauv Laug (Cleaning the Body)—To cleanse the body of dirtiness
Ntuag Qhauv—A ritual to get rid of problems, issues, temper, loneliness, and all the bad things which have occurred in the household
Lwm Qaib/Sub—Using a chicken, a ritual also
Tog Neej Tsa Tuaj Noj Tsiab—Request special guests (such as father-in-law, son-in-law, etc.) to come “eat Tsiab,” a very big “eat 30”.
Xa Noob Ncoos/Tsoog Laug—A very special “thanksgiving” event where parents and in-laws are honored
Tam Noob Ncoos—A thank you feast from parents and in-laws
Tso Plig—To release the souls of all dead ones
Noj Tsiab (eat tsiab)—a very big “eat 30,” involving pigs, cows, and buffalo.
Nyuj Dab (cow offering) - A cow, pig, and chickens to sacrifice and offer to the spiritual family member who has passed on to the spiritual realm. Event is when family members have certain dreams interpreted by shamans that their family member is requesting/"hungry" for offerings.
The list above is what a Hmong New Year is. All these things take place for only 3 days. After all these things are done, then the “outside” fun begins, which has nothing to do with Hmong New Year. In the United States, people refer to the “outside” event as “new year”—but, this is a misconception. Hmong New Year occurs in-house, and whatever occurs outside after the “new year” is called “Tsa Hauv Toj”—meaning “raising the mountain.” This is the tradition where Hmong toss balls and sing “kwv txhiaj.”
During the Tsa Hauv Toj celebration, Hmong dress in traditional clothing and enjoy Hmong traditional foods, dance, music, bullfights, and other forms of entertainment. Hmong New Year celebrations preserve Hmong ethnic traditions and culture, and may also serve to educate those who are interested in Hmong tradition. Hmong New Year celebrations occurred anytime within or close to the end of the harvesting period give or take a few days. However, the Tsa Hauv Toj event is based on the lunar calendar, typically in November and December (which would consider a month ahead of the western calendar).
Clothing
Many tribes are distinguished by the color and details of their clothing. Black Hmong wear deep indigo-dyed hemp clothing that includes a jacket with embroidered sleeves, sash, apron, and leg wraps. The Flower Hmong are known for very brightly colored embroidered traditional costumes with beaded fringe.
An important element of Hmong clothing and culture is the paj ntaub, (pronounced pun dow) a complex form of traditional textile art created using stitching, reverse-stitching, and reverse applique. Traditionally, Hmong designs were ornamental, geometric, and non-representational, being that they did not allude to nor contain any symbols that related to real-world objects, with the occasional exception of flower-like designs. Paj ntaub creation is done almost exclusively by women. Paj ntaub are created to be sewn on to Hmong clothing as a portable expression of Hmong cultural wealth and identity. The main traditional functions of paj ntaub are in funerary garments, where the designs are said to offer the deceased spiritual protection and guide them towards their ancestors in the afterlife, and for the Hmong New Year celebration. In the new year celebration, new paj ntaub and clothes are made by women and girls as it was seen as bad luck to wear clothes from a previous year, and they would serve as an indicator of the women’s creativity, skill, and even propensity as a successful wife.
Sports
Crossbow
Hmong people have traditionally used the Austroasiatic crossbow for waging war and hunting game. Today, crossbow has become an ethnic sport of the Hmong and regular shooting competitions are organized.
Spin-Top
Hmong people play a sport called tuj lub (pronounced "too loo"), or "spin-top", which resembles aspects of baseball, golf, and bocce. Tuj lub is played on a field 70 feet or longer, with large spinning tops 4 to 5.25 inches in height. Two teams of six players compete. Players spin or fling their top at the opposing team's tops using a length of thread attached to a two-foot stick, earning points by striking the opposing team's tops. A game lasts eight stages, and in each stage, the players must strike tops further away. It is traditional to play tuj lub on the first three days of the Hmong new year. An annual tuj lub competition between Hmong American teams is held annually in Saint Paul, Minnesota, where the city installed a tuj lub court in 2016.
See also
Hmong churches
Hmong funeral
Hmong music
Hmong textile art
The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down, a book by Anne Fadiman about the cultural and religious comparisons and misunderstandings between a Hmong refugee family and the California health care system.
Hmong Archives
References
External links
My big, fat Hmong wedding
Bulk, Jac D. "Hmong History, Customs and Culture---In Brief Racial and Ethnic Minorities (Sociology 225)-." (Archive) University of Wisconsin-La Crosse.
Lecture on Hmong shamanism by Txongpao Lee, Executive Director of Hmong Cultural Center in Saint Paul, MN (11 min.)
Street Style Vietnam: Hmong Fashion
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Room
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East Room
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The East Room is an event and reception room in the Executive Residence, which is a building of the White House complex, the home of the president of the United States. The East Room is the largest room in the Executive Residence; it is used for dances, receptions, press conferences, ceremonies, concerts, and banquets. The East Room was one of the last rooms to be finished and decorated, and it has undergone substantial redecoration over the past two centuries. Since 1964, the Committee for the Preservation of the White House has, by executive order, advised the president of the United States and first lady on the decor, preservation, and conservation of the East Room and other public rooms at the White House.
Construction and early decoration
The White House was designed by architect James Hoban. Leinster House in Ireland was the main inspiration for the White House, and includes a large east room which may have inspired Hoban's East Room. But the newly added Large Dining Room at Mount Vernon may also have been a source for the design of the East Room. As his drawings of the second and third floor do not exist, it is unclear what use Hoban intended for the room. It is possible that Hoban intended it for use as a private gallery for the family. It was the largest room in the White House, however, about in size with a ceiling. The middle window in the north wall was designed to provide access to a terrace (never built).
The East Room was first assigned a purpose in 1807. Architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe had been brought to the capital by Thomas Jefferson, who made him commissioner of public buildings. Latrobe surveyed the White House in 1803, and architectural drawings of the building (produced in 1807) are the earliest extant plans now known. On his sketches, Latrobe comments "Public Audience chamber entirely unfinished, the ceiling has given way." Latrobe also proposed sealing the windows on the east side of the room based on an architectural theory about natural light. But this change was not made.
Early furnishings
The East Room was among the last rooms on the State Floor to be completed and used. The White House was unfinished when President John Adams occupied it between 1800 and 1801. His wife, Abigail Adams, hung laundry in the bare East Room to dry. Although much of the White House was finished and decorated during Adams administration, the East Room was not. The room's lone artwork was a copy of the Lansdowne portrait depicting George Washington, painted by Gilbert Stuart in 1797. It was purchased by the White House in 1800, and hung in the East Room. (Rescued from the 1814 fire, it still hangs there, with a companion portrait of Martha Washington painted by Eliphalet Frazer Andrews in 1878.) There was extensive feeling in Congress that Adams had adopted too many of the trappings of monarchy, and Congress declined to appropriate funds to finish the room for fear it would look too much like a throne room. During the Jefferson administration, 38 gold-and-black painted chairs were purchased and placed in the room, but little else is known of the room's furnishings prior to 1814. Jefferson also had the East Room partitioned (using canvas and sailcloth for walls) and the southern end used for a bedroom and office for Meriwether Lewis and Lewis Harvie (both Private Secretary to the President).
Jefferson's successor, James Madison, sought to make the partitions permanent and asked Latrobe to design bedrooms and office space across the southern part of the room. But these changes were not made, either. Madison did use a portion of the East Room, however, for Cabinet meetings.
Post-fire restoration and furnishings
The East Room, along with the rest of the White House, was burned in 1814 during the Burning of Washington in the War of 1812. The interior was gutted, although most of the exterior sandstone walls remained standing. The north facade of the White House was the most damaged. But because the East Room had so little furniture in it, the section of the north facade fronting the East Room was the least damaged. Latrobe helped to reconstruct the White House. In 1814 and 1815, the rebuilt East Room received new door frames and inlaid mahogany doors that remain in the room today. New plaster work in the form of a gilded cornice-line frieze of anthemion (a flowerlike, traditional Greek decorative pattern) was installed, and the walls plastered (and left unpainted) as well.
Federal style furniture, made by Georgetown craftsman William King Jr., was added to the East Room by President James Monroe in 1818. (First Lady Elizabeth Monroe's involvement was limited to choosing drapery fabric for the room). King produced 24 armchairs and four sofas, all made of mahogany. The total cost was $1,408. The furniture was not upholstered, and sat along the walls largely unused. In 1829, the first year of the Jackson administration, the King furniture was finally upholstered in blue damask silk. Monroe also purchased (for $80) a marble bust of George Washington by the Italian sculptor Giuseppe Ceracchi, which remained in the East Room probably until the Kennedy redecoration in 1962 (when it was moved to the Blue Room). Monroe also purchased in 1817 for the fireplace mantels four gilt bronze candelabra, designed and manufactured by the French bronzemaker Pierre-Philippe Thomire.
By 1825, the room contained 24 unfinished mahogany armchairs, four large unfinished mahogany sofas, eight tables made of pine, a door screen, a paper partition, a three-shelf bookshelf, a mahogany map stand, a washstand (with basin and ewer), and a clothes press. But for the most part, from 1818 to 1829 the East Room was unused. Occasionally it was cleared and used for dances, but usually its doors were locked and it served as storage space. A widely reported story claims that for two months in the summer of 1825, the East Room housed at least one live alligator that belonged to the visiting Marquis de Lafayette, but a lack of contemporary evidence suggests that the story might be apocryphal. Congress appropriated $6,000 to finally finish the room in 1826, although the funds were not made available until 1825. President John Quincy Adams used the money to repair the White House rather than finish the room.
1829 completion under Jackson
The East Room was finally completed and decorated in 1829 by Andrew Jackson. New plaster work in the form of a cornice-line frieze of anthemion (a flowerlike, traditional Greek decorative pattern) was installed, three Neoclassical plasterwork medallions affixed to the ceiling, and the demi-lune over the east wall's Venetian window removed and turned into a wall. Decorative wooden beams were added to the ceiling, and two of the east-facing windows were blocked off and fireplaces with black Italian marble mantelpieces installed in their place. The Jackson administration turned to French-born American importer Louis Véron of Philadelphia for assistance in furnishing the executive mansion. Véron was one of the first merchants to display items from a wide range of suppliers in a showroom, rather than manufacture the items himself. Nearly all the 1829 furnishings for the East Room were supplied by Véron. Véron also added gilt rays and stars over the west door (the one the president usually used when entering the room).
The bare walls were covered with yellow wallpaper with cloth edging, light-blue moreen drapes were added to the windows, and plaster cornices adorned with eagles were installed over the windows. Véron covered the floor with a red-bordered blue, fawn, and yellow carpet woven in Brussels. The 1818 Monroe furniture was upholstered, three large mahogany tables topped with marble, and four white marble-topped pier tables placed in the room. For lighting, Véron provided several astral and mantel lamps. Gilded bronze wall brackets for hanging lamps and candles were attached to the walls, and mirrors in gilt frames placed over the fireplace mantels.
Jackson also purchased three cut-glass chandeliers to light the room. Each chandelier, which featured 18 whale oil lamps, hung from the ceiling medallions and were complemented with whale oil wall sconces and table lamps. There were also 20 spittoons. His expenditures totaled $9,358.27, provided by a friendly Congress eager to make the White House a more elegant symbol of the nation.
The East Room's original 18-lamp chandeliers were removed by Jackson in 1834 and placed in the State and Family Dining Rooms. Véron supplied the East Room with a more luxurious set.
Mid to late 19th century refurbishments
Furniture upholstered in light blue, light blue curtains, and imported French silver wallpaper with a gold border were added to the East Room by the Martin Van Buren administration in 1839. At some point prior to the inauguration of President William Henry Harrison in March 1841, the East Room acquired eight floor-to-ceiling mirrors with broad, heavily carved frames. President James K. Polk had the White House plumbed for gas heating and lighting in 1848. Cornelius & Company of Philadelphia retrofitted the 1834 chandeliers for gas, and Polk himself watched their first lighting. By the end of the Polk administration in January 1849, the East Room was adorned with three chandeliers, three "pier glasses" (mirrors), red damask window drapes, white muslin window curtains, four new sofas, 24 new chairs, three large tables (placed in the center of the room), four pier tables with marble tops, a large carpet, four new hearthrugs, four fire fenders, four large candelabra, eight small candelabra, eight mantle ornaments, and a bust of George Washington.
New draperies, lace curtains, and a carpet were added by Jane Pierce, wife of President Franklin Pierce, in 1853. The Pierces also had the over-mantel mirrors and pier mirrors reframed by L. R. Menger of New York.
1861 Lincoln refurbishment
Despite this redecoration, the East Room was nonetheless somewhat shabby by 1861. On April 18, 1861, about 60 militiamen from Kansas took up temporary residence in the East Room pending construction of barracks for them in the city. They did serious damage to the carpet, and sometimes shot bullets into the walls. Mary Todd Lincoln refurbished the room with damask drapes, lace curtains, wallpaper, and a new $2,500 carpet later that year. The wallpaper was heavy patterned velvet cloth paper from Paris in crimson, garnet, and gold, and supplied by William H. Carryl & Brother of New York. The floor covering was an carpet woven in Glasgow, Scotland. The largest loom in the world was needed to weave the carpet, which covered the entire floor. The drapes were crimson with heavy gold fringe and numerous gold tassels, while the lace curtains behind them were imported from Switzerland.
The East Room under the Lincolns remained sparsely furnished, however, as befit a reception hall. The three chandeliers, which dated from the Jackson administration, were cleaned and reinstalled. They were so brilliant that the press assumed they were new. Mrs. Lincoln left the three large mahogany tables with black and gold marble inlays, which had long occupied the room, below each chandelier.
Two funerals for Lincoln Family members were held in the East Room in the 1860s. The first was that of 11-year-old Willie Lincoln, President Abraham Lincoln's son, who died of typhoid fever on February 21, 1862. Just over three years later, Lincoln's body lay in state in the East Room as well, and his funeral was held there on April 19.
At the time of Lincoln's death in 1865, the East Room contained 24 chairs, four sofas, four tables, eight sets of drapes, eight sets of lace curtains, eight mirrors, and one carpet. All the furniture was in poor shape. During his administration, members of the public attending the weekly receptions in the room had heavily vandalized the room in seeking souvenirs, ripping down portions of the wallpaper and stealing cords and tassels from the drapes. Someone even cut a square yard from one of the damask drapes. Others took scissors and knives to the carpet, gouging the oak floor beneath, and gilded ornaments were stolen from the mantels.
President Andrew Johnson had the public rooms on the State Floor refurbished in 1866. His wife, Eliza McCardle Johnson, was in frail health and did little in the way of entertaining or overseeing the White House. Johnson instead relied on his daughter, Martha Patterson (wife of Senator David T. Patterson). In May, the East Room was cleared of furnishings. Mrs. Patterson oversaw the selection of new yellow wallpaper with a black and gold border, lace curtains, and reupholstered furniture. The ceiling was repainted and frescoes added, and the ceiling centerpieces and cornices were regilded. Only once did Mrs. Johnson intervene, and that was to request that the paint applied to ceiling be of the highest quality. Patterson also had the three large marble-topped tables removed from the East Room and placed in the family private quarters, and two of the four pier tables added to the Family Dining Room. The East Room was finished in early 1867.
1873 Grant refurbishment
The East Room was radically redecorated in 1873 during the administration of Ulysses S. Grant. Architects Orville Babcock (Commissioner of Public Buildings and Grounds), Richard Ezdorf, William J. McPherson, and Alfred Mullett were faced with both a decorative and structural task. The heavy walls above the East Room as well as inadequate structural support had caused the ceiling to sag appreciably. Furthermore, the Grants wanted to renovate the East Room into a far more modern space reflective of their Midwest tastes. The architects added new load-bearing beams across the ceiling, which made the room appear to be much lower in height. Corinthian columns were added to support these beams. To integrate the beams into the room, they extended the 1815 frieze decoratively across the beams. The ceiling, divided into three sections by the beams, was refrescoed as well. Elaborately carved new fireplaces painted in white and gold replaced the simpler 1829 fireplaces. To help integrate the load-bearing columns into the room, white and gold painted pilasters were added to the room. White-painted carved paneling with Greek Revival designs; massive, low-hanging, cut-glass chandeliers (replacing those which had hung since 1834); pearl gray and gilt wallpaper, and wall-to-wall carpeting in a floral pattern completed the redecoration. Much of the furniture in the room was sold at public auction (a common and unremarkable practice until the 20th century). The architects called the style "Pure Greek", and architectural historian Patrick Phillips-Schrock called it "sumptuous", but it was widely derided as "Steamboat Gothic". Nellie Grant's lavish wedding took place in the East Room on May 21, 1874.
Late 19th century changes
President Chester A. Arthur hired the Washington, D.C., firm of W. B. Moses & Son to redecorate much of the White House in 1881, including the East Room. Moses & Son added new window curtains and drapes, and a suite of ebony furniture carved in a Japanese style. This suite included sofas, arm chairs, side chairs, and corner chairs. Arthur then auctioned off an immense quantity of older White House furnishings in April 1882, including some amount of undescribed older furniture from the East Room. Desiring an even grander approach to the public rooms, Arthur hired Tiffany & Co. in 1882 to redecorate the East Room yet again. Most of this work involved painting and regilding, however. No new furniture was ordered, and the over-mantel and pier mirrors reframed or regilded.
President Grover Cleveland made no changes to the East Room, although a divan upholstered in gold was added below the main chandelier. It was supplied by W. H. Houghton & Co. of Washington, D.C.
Cleveland's successor, Benjamin Harrison, refurbished most of the State Floor rooms again in 1891 after the White House was wired for electricity. W. H. Post & Co. of Hartford, Connecticut, did the work. The ceiling was repainted, the wallpaper replaced, and new silk damask curtains installed. The furniture in the East Room was reupholstered as well in a gold brocatelle (a brocade with the design in high relief). A new Axminster carpet, in size, was also laid down. When Caroline Harrison died on October 25, 1892 (two weeks before the presidential election), her funeral was held in the East Room.
Two Sèvres vases (on marble pedestals) were added to the East Room in 1897. They were a gift of the government of France to mark the laying of the Franco-American transatlantic telegraph cable that year.
1902 Roosevelt restoration
In 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt engaged the architectural firm of McKim, Meade & White to renovate and expand the White House. Their intention was three-fold: To modernize the White House, to establish a decorating motif that would never have to be altered, and to recreate the White House's early American interiors. Although this last guideline was followed in most rooms, it was not in the East Room. McKim, Meade & White drew their inspiration for the East Room from British and French manor house interiors of the 1790s. Nonetheless, the Colonial Revival style was more of an idealized than historically accurate aesthetic, and McKim, Mead & White's interiors reflected a tendency toward light-filled spaces and away from patterns and "busy" or cluttered spaces.
As the East Room had not been decorated until 1829, the architects took some liberties, devising a room based on the 1780 Louis XVI style salon de famille in the Château de Compiègne. For the walls, the designers chose pilasters carved by Herter Brothers of New York City, which appeared to support Neoclassical entablatures. There were 12 faux entablatures, each made of marble and depicting scenes from Aesop's Fables. They were designed by Leon Marcotte of L. Marcotte & Co. of New York, and carved by the Piccirilli Brothers of New York City. The rest of the walls were painted cream white, and adorned with gilded sconces (supplied by the lighting firm of Edward F. Caldwell & Co.) and gold wall hangings. McKim, Meade & White strongly disliked the East Room's four fireplaces, which divided the area into three spaces. The fireplaces and mantels, which projected about , were considerably reduced in depth to just . The mantels were replaced with new ones in the Georgian style. The marble for each mantel came from a different state, and each was a different color.
Marcotte & Co. also designed, manufactured, and installed gilded ceiling decorations. The central section of the ceiling was decorated with a large plaster panel featuring an intricate medallion flanked by swags, acanthus, escutcheons, and scrollwork. A border of acanthus, scrollwork, and egg-and-dart moldings bordered the section. On the narrow ends of the room were smaller sections, similarly decorated.
Hanging from the ceiling were three large Bohemian crystal chandeliers. These replaced the larger, out-of-style chandeliers placed there in 1873 during the Grant administration. The tent-and-bowl chandeliers were also provided by Caldwell & Co. but manufactured by Christoph Palme & Co. of Parchen, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary. Their design was copied from 18th century English and French chandeliers. Each chandelier weighed more than , was high, and had 7,000 glass pieces. Caldwell & Co. also designed four gilded bronze floor lamps in the Louis XVI style, and four floor candelabra in the Empire style with Egyptian Revival elements (such as winged lions).
The floor of the East Room was replaced with oak parquet, and trimmed in red Numidian marble from North Africa. (A box made from the old parquet floor was donated to the White House during the Jimmy Carter administration.)
In addition to the wall hangings, McKim, Meade & White commissioned a wide range of other furnishings more in line with their Louis XVI style salon de famille style. Marcotte and Co. supplied heavy velvet gold drapes, and topped each window with carved and gilded cornices of the company's own design. The existing pier tables were removed, and four richly carved and gilded Louis XVI Revival style console tables, also designed by Marcotte & Co., were placed between the pilasters. The existing seating was also removed, and Marcotte & Co. replaced it with 13 Louis XVI Revival gilded banquettes (upholstered benches). Marcotte & Co. also supplied new ornate gilded frames for each over-mantel mirror. A few items in the room were reused, however. These included the mantel candelabra, manufactured by Russell & LaFarge and purchased in the Monroe administration in 1817.
A personal inspection by Charles Follen McKim also found the East Room clearly sinking. The problem, not rectified until 1952, was that the interior walls rested on brick columns in the basement, which themselves were sitting on loose rubble footings atop soft soil. The columns were sinking into the soil under the mansion's weight. But forced by Roosevelt to finish the restoration as quickly as possible, McKim was unable to make any structural changes to solve the problem.
Post-1902 early 20th century changes
The East Room chandeliers were altered in 1903 to reduce their diameter slightly to , leaving them with just 6,000 glass pieces. The renovated chandelier weight dropped to . That same year, the Steinway & Sons piano company donated an ornate gilded grand piano to the White House. This piano (serial number 100,000) was placed in the East Room. During Roosevelt's term, the government of France donated Limoges porcelain busts of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, and Benjamin Franklin to the White House. These were also placed in the East Room.
Slight changes were made to the East Room during the Woodrow Wilson administration. Ellen Axson Wilson, the president's first wife, made almost no changes to the room. She died in 1914, just two years into Wilson's first term. Wilson remarried a year later, and the new First Lady, Edith Bolling Galt Wilson, had the 1902 drapes replaced.
In the early 1930s, First Lady Lou Henry Hoover purchased a number of gilt upholstered dining room chairs in something approaching an Art Deco style for use in the East Room.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt did little to either renovate or maintain the White House during his unusually long tenure. Roosevelt believed that the White House should "do its part" during the Great Depression and World War II, and economize by minimizing expenditures. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt had little interest in redecorating, and little in the way of social engagements occurred during the war. One of the few revisions came in the East Room, where the Vollmer suite of furniture was moved from the Blue Room. Steinway & Sons donated a second grand piano to the White House in 1938. Steinway historians Miles Chapin and Rodica Prato call it the "best-known art-case Steinway" in the world. Architect Eric Gugler designed the , mahogany case piano (serial number 300,000). The case is decorated with scenes depicting American music and dance, each gilded in gold leaf. The tableaux, designed by artist Dunbar Beck, depict people dancing the Virginia reel, chanting by Native Americans, cowboys singing during a cattle drive, a barn dance, and African American slaves singing in the fields. The legs of the piano feature gilded eagles, designed and carved by Albert Stewart. (Steinway & Sons completely refurbished the piano in 1992.) Eleanor Roosevelt also changed the draperies in the East Room from gold to crimson.
1952 Truman restoration
By the late 1940s, the East Room—along with the rest of the White House—was in such poor shape that its structural integrity was at risk. President Harry S. Truman was attending a concert in the East Room on February 11, 1947, when he was informed that the ceiling of the room was being pulled down by the weight of the chandeliers. The following day, the chandeliers were taken down. On October 26, 1948, plaster fell from the ceiling of the East Room, exposing a crack in the ceiling. Engineers discovered that the ceiling had also dropped by . The East Room was cleared of all furniture, and floor-to-ceiling X-shaped wooden braces erected in the room to stabilize it. The room was then sealed off. Engineers with the Public Building Administration and White House staff feared the entire building could collapse. President and Mrs. Truman left the White House on September 27, 1948, for a 45-day nationwide political barnstorming tour. When they returned to the White House on November 5, they were immediately informed that the White House had to be evacuated. The White House was closed to the public on November 7, and after a two-week vacation in Key West, Florida, the Trumans moved into Blair House on November 21, 1948.
During the Truman White House reconstruction that began in 1949, the East Room was found to be in very poor condition. Previous renovations had seriously damaged the interior walls. In one section of wall, no fewer than five doors had been cut through the masonry, severely weakening it. Paneling, windows, and furnishings were dismantled, numbered, and stored. Although great care was taken in removing the plasterwork, there was no way to avoid cracking it during removal. Molds were made from the originals, and new plasterwork installed. Even so, architect Lorenzo Winslow simplified many of the designs before they were cast, allegedly to make them look less Renaissance Revival and more "American". Less care was taken in removing the woodwork, some of which was damaged when pried loose. Other pieces were too brittle to be reused, and what could be reused had to be restored (often by removing many layers of paint). But by late 1951, with the White House renovation months behind, costs soaring, and President Truman demanding that the work be sped up, workers found it easier to machine new pieces than restore old wood. All of the paneling for the East Room was condemned as unfit for reuse, whether it was actually unusable or not, and replaced with new wood. (Although some of the East Room woodwork would be chopped up for souvenirs, most of it was used as landfill at Fort Myer in Arlington County, Virginia.) The new panelling was also simpler and had considerably less presence, and was covered in a somewhat lighter color than the 1902 paint. A simpler crown molding and ceiling medallions were also installed.
The Herter pilasters and Piccirilli marble panels were either lost or too damaged to be reused during removal, and their fate remains unclear. To cut costs, the replacement entablature was made of a composite glue and sawdust mixture pressed into forms rather than carved from wood. While the feeling was similar, the robust architectural effect was diminished. Red marble mantels were installed, and the remaining Venetian window in the room was narrowed to help create the "American" feel. (The 1902 mantels were given away.)
The East Room's chandeliers were rewired and cleaned. The size of the large chandeliers was reduced by several inches, assuming their correct size ( wide and high). They were also outfitted with softer internal illumination, and the chains holding the chandeliers shortened. The East Room also had a new parquet floor in a style taken from a design at the Palace of Fontainebleau, and silk curtains over the windows.
The Truman administration did not seek, nor did it receive, many donations of furniture for the White House during the 1952 renovation. But two items were received which made it into the East Room. These were mid-17th century Adam cambelback sofas, which were placed beneath the George and Martha Washington paintings.
Post-1952 refurbishments
Kennedy refurbishment
Jacqueline Kennedy made extensive renovations to the White House in 1961 and 1962. Her renovation was overseen by American antiques autodidact Henry Francis du Pont and French interior designer Stéphane Boudin and his company, Maison Jansen. Although many rooms were extensively altered by du Pont and Boudin, the Kennedy restoration made almost no changes to the East Room.
The biggest change to the room was in the window treatments. Jacqueline Kennedy specifically asked for new curtains for the East Room consisting of opaque silk undercurtains and yellow drapes. Boudin oversaw the design of new draperies, with silk provided by Maison Jansen. A draft design of the drapes and valances was not ready until mid-1963. Boudin, apparently wishing to draw attention to the center window between the fireplaces, designed a valance for the center window while putting all other drapes behind window boxes. For the drapes, Boudin suggested a braid border and tie-backs made of ball fringe covered in satin. Kennedy disapproved of Boudin's proposal for the valance and window boxes, as it did not make use of the historic 1902 gilt window cornices. She did, however, approve of the fabric and tie-backs. Made of a custom-manufactured gold and cream silk lampas, the fabric contained a non-repetitive design of birds, butterflies, cupids, flowers, medallions, roosters, and wheat and featured heavy fringe at the bottom. The drapes were hung in straight panels from the carved and gilded 1902 wooden cornices. The design of the valances was not finalized until April 1964. First Lady Lady Bird Johnson asked Jacqueline Kennedy to assist her in finalizing the design. Originally, they were to be of brocatelle, a jacquard weave fabric similar to brocade but thicker and heavier and with designs in high relief. But this design was countermanded by Boudin. Instead, gold lampas, trimmed with braid and hemmed with gilt, spun-metal twisted fringe at the bottom, was installed in flat panels from behind each cornice. The curtains and valances took nearly three years to design and manufacture, and were not hung in the room until the Johnson administration in 1965. The drapes and valances cost $26,149. The cost was covered by sales of Jacqueline Kennedy's guidebook to the White House, which by 1965 was in its fourth edition.
Another major change involved the fireplace mantels, which were painted at Boudin's request to appear like white marble, unifying the look of the room.
The Kennedy administration was the first to permit smoking in rooms on the State floor. To accommodate smoking, Jacqueline Kennedy wanted portable ashtrays for the East Room. She initially considered modified versions of ashtrays seen at the home of her friend, Bunny Mellon, but rejected this idea in favor of a unique design. Maison Jansen designed stands which featured brass legs shaped like bamboo, brass handles, and Carrara glass tops. The ashtrays cost $280, were manufactured in Maison Jansen's New York City office, and delivered in January 1963. Finding the cost too high (and without any economy of scale cost-savings), Kennedy then designed her own portable standing ashtrays. Twenty were eventually manufactured out of dark wood by White House carpenters, although the gray granite tops for the Kennedy-designed ashtrays were made by Jansen at a cost of $310.
Much of the furniture in the East Room was removed by Boudin to make the room appear to be of a single historic era. The 1902 console tables were removed from the piers between the windows, and the 1902 Louis XVI style floor lamps moved out of the corners and in front of the piers. The 1952 Adam-style camelback sofas were removed at the instigation of du Pont, and replaced with gilt benches. Research conducted by White House Curator Lorraine Waxman Pearce and Jacqueline Kennedy identified the four Monroe-era candelabra (which had been moved), and restored them to the mantels in the room's southern wall. Early 19th-century crystal candelabra (of an indeterminate manufacture) were placed on the mantels on the room's northern wall. To complement the paintings of George and Martha Washington, Jacqueline Kennedy was loaned portraits of a young Bushrod Washington (George Washington's nephew and an Associate Supreme Court Justice) and his wife, Julia Ann Blackburn Washington. These portraits by Chester Harding were hung on the east wall. Kennedy's friend, Jayne Wrightsman, donated two early 19th-century wall sconces, which were wired for electricity by White House staff and hung on either side of the center window.
Jacqueline Kennedy also conceived the idea of constructing a portable stage for use in the East Room. Designed by ballet impresario Lincoln Kirstein and constructed by White House carpenters, the stage was clad in red velvet, small, and easily portable. It was stored off-site in a government warehouse, and took three men eight hours to retrieve, set up, clean, and prepare for performances.
The Kennedys often provided entertainment in the East Room after formal dinners, which necessitated finding seating for these events. The Hoover Art Deco dining room chairs (which by 1961 had been moved to the White House theater) were used for this purpose. Additional seating was provided by cushioned bentwood chairs with canework backs (which had long been owned by the White House but whose provenance was unclear).
Johnson and Carter administration alterations
While the Kennedy stage was fine for the small, intimate performances in the East Room which the Kennedys favored, the President Lyndon B. Johnson and First Lady Lady Bird Johnson favored larger, more elaborate performances. Ballet patron Rebekah Harkness learned of the Johnsons' desire for a larger stage, and contacted noted ballet and theatrical designer Jo Mielziner to design something. Mielziner crafted a stage which took up a full third of the East Room, and featured cream white-painted pilasters matching the room's architecture. Mileziner originally wanted the stage's curtains to have the same fabric used for the East Room drapes. But when he learned of the cost, he settled for American-made gold silk curtains instead. The larger stage took eight men three days to set up.
In 1964, President Johnson issued an executive order creating a new Committee for the Preservation of the White House. This body was tasked with advising the President and First Lady on the decor, preservation, and conservation of the East Room and other public rooms at the White House. The committee has met continuously since then, except for the period 1981 to 1988.
In 1967, the government of Italy donated a late 18th-century carved wood and terra cotta nativity scene to the White House. This 30-piece creche, manufactured in Naples and with the figures clad in original hand-sewn fabrics, was placed on view in the East Room during the Christmas season, and it has been erected there every holiday season since. Ten additional antique Italian nativity figures were donated to the East Room creche set during the Carter administration.
The East Room flooring was replaced in 1978 during the Carter administration. Years of wear and tear had nearly worn through the parquet.
Reagan, Clinton, and Bush refurbishments
In 1981, the Reagan administration undertook a private fund-raising campaign to extensively renovate the White House. Hoping to raise $200,000, the project raised $822,641, and Nancy Reagan oversaw a $730,000 project which largely renovated the private living quarters and restored hundreds of antique furniture items throughout the Executive Mansion. The floors, paneling, and plasterwork in the room all were assessed and underwent conservation to ensure their longevity. Mrs. Reagan made only minor improvements to the East Room, however. These included repainting the room (it retained its warm cream color), and adding gold silk swag valances over the draperies. Over-draperies, ordered in the Carter administration, were also replaced in the East Room during the Reagan administration, at a cost of $130,000.
During the Clinton administration, the faux white marble finish painted on the mantels and baseboards in the 1960s was removed to reveal the original "rouge antique" (reddish) marble from Vermont installed during the White House's renovation in 1951. Although the East Room's oak floors had been bare since 1903, three matching $259,330 wool carpets were installed in February 1995. These carpets, ordered in 1990, were designed to reflect the plaster ceiling moldings created during the John Quincy Adams administration in the late 1820s. Woven by Edward Fields Inc. of New York and paid for with private donations raised by the White House Endowment Fund, the carpets were designed to cover most of the floor to protect it from dirt and the occasional pebble stuck in the tread of a shoe.
Minor refurbishment was made to the East Room in September 2003 during the administration of George W. Bush. The Committee for the Preservation of the White House had become dissatisifed with the golden silk swag valances installed during the Reagan presidency. The Kennedy-era Empire-style gold draperies were replaced with nearly identical ones, but the swags were made deeper to make them appear more substantial. The room was repainted in the same warm cream color it had for the last century. The refurbishment cost $200,000, and was paid for by private donations to the White House Endowment Fund.
Notable events in the East Room
The East Room is used for a wide range of events, which include the swearing-in of Cabinet members and justices of the Supreme Court, press conferences, the signing of legislation, receptions for foreign dignitaries.
Presidential funerals and lying in repose
Eight presidents have died in office. All but one (James A. Garfield) lay in repose or had a funeral in the East Room. Presidential funerary events held in the East Room comprise:
William Henry Harrison – Harrison's body lay in repose for just under three days in the East Room. An Episcopal funeral service was read over Harrison's body on April 7, 1841.
Zachary Taylor – Taylor's body lay in repose for slightly more than three days in the East Room. An Episcopal funeral service was read over Taylor's body on July 13, 1850.
Abraham Lincoln – Lincoln's body lay in repose for four days in the East Room. A Presbyterian funeral service was read over Lincoln's body on April 19, 1865.
William McKinley – McKinley's body arrived in the East Room about 9:00 p.m. on September 16, 1901. He lay in repose until about 8:00 a.m. on September 17, when his remains were removed to the United States Capitol rotunda for a funeral.
Warren G. Harding – Harding's body lay in repose in the East Room beginning about 11:00 p.m. on August 7, 1923. At 10:00 a.m. on August 8, his remains were removed to the Capitol rotunda for a funeral.
Franklin D. Roosevelt – Roosevelt's body lay in repose in the East Room beginning about 11:00 a.m. on April 14, 1945. An Episcopal funeral service was read over his body at 4:00 p.m. that same day. The service lasted 25 minutes, and Roosevelt lay in repose from 4:30 p.m. until about 9:00 p.m., when his casket was removed to Union Station for the train ride to Hyde Park, New York.
John F. Kennedy – Kennedy's body lay in repose in the East Room beginning about 4:40 a.m. on November 23, 1963. A blessing was said by a Roman Catholic priest at 5:00 a.m. on November 23, but the Mass at 10:00 a.m. was held in the State Dining Room rather than East Room. A second Mass (not a funeral Mass), for Kennedy family members and close friends, occurred in the East Room at 11:15 a.m. on November 24. Kennedy's casket was removed from the East Room at about 1:00 p.m.
First Family funerals
In addition to Presidents, several members of First Families have died while living in the White House. Funerals held in the East Room for family members include:
Letitia Tyler – An Episcopal funeral service for her was held in the East Room on September 12, 1842.
Willie Lincoln – Lincoln's body lay in repose in the Green Room of the White House until his burial. A Presbyterian funeral service for him was held in the East Room on February 21, 1862. (Pointedly, his family asked that his casket not be moved to the East Room for the service.)
Caroline Harrison – A Presbyterian funeral service for her was held in the East Room on October 27, 1892.
Ellen Axson Wilson – A Presbyterian funeral service for her was held in the East Room on August 10, 1914.
Calvin Coolidge Jr. – A Congregationalist funeral service for him was held in the East Room on July 9, 1924.
Robert Trump - A funeral service was held for him in the East Room on August 21, 2020.
Weddings
As of 2007, the White House had seen 17 weddings. Seven have occurred in the Blue Room, seven in the East Room, two in the Rose Garden, and one in the Yellow Oval Room. The East Room weddings include:
Mary A. Eastin, niece of First Lady Rachel Jackson, to Lucius J. Polk, a Tennessee cotton planter and state legislator, on April 10, 1832.
Mary Anne Lewis, daughter of one of President Jackson's U.S. Army friends, married Alphonse Pageot, chargé d'affaires at the Embassy of France, on November 29, 1832.
Elizabeth Tyler, daughter of President John Tyler, married William Waller, Virginia businessman, on January 31, 1842.
Nellie Grant, daughter of President Grant, married Algernon Sartoris, wealthy English singer and son of Adelaide Kemble, on May 21, 1874.
Alice Roosevelt, daughter of President Theodore Roosevelt, married Representative Nicholas Longworth, on February 17, 1906.
Jessie Wilson, daughter of President Wilson, married diplomat Francis Bowes Sayre Sr. on November 25, 1913.
Lynda Bird Johnson, daughter of President Lyndon B. Johnson married Chuck Robb, a captain in the United States Marine Corps and future Senator from Virginia, on December 9, 1967.
Other important East Room events
East Room has served as the site of many important ceremonies, legislation and treaty signings, and other events. Some of these are:
1860 – 15th President James Buchanan received the first diplomatic mission from Japan in the East Room on May 18.
1861 – The funeral of Colonel Elmer E. Ellsworth, the first Union Army soldier to die in the American Civil War, was held in the East Room on May 25. Ellsworth, commander of the 11th New York Infantry ("Fire Zouaves"), had become a close friend of Lincoln's, who wept when he learned of Ellsworth's death.
1890 – The funerals of Mrs. Delinda Catlin Tracy, 57 and Miss Mary Farrington Tracy, 35, were held in the East Room on February 3. They were the wife and daughter of Secretary of the Navy Benjamin F. Tracy, and died in a fire at their home two blocks from the White House on February 3. Tracy himself would have died of smoke inhalation trying to rescue them had not President Benjamin Harrison rushed to the scene and revived him.
1929 – President Calvin Coolidge signed the Kellogg–Briand Pact in the East Room on January 17. President Herbert Hoover then met with representatives of the governments that ratified the Kellogg-Briand Pact in the East Room on July 24.
1936 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt presided over a state funeral in the East Room for his long-time advisor Louis Howe on April 21.
1943 – The agreement establishing the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration was signed in the East Room by representatives from 44 nations on November 9.
1957 – President Dwight D. Eisenhower took the presidential oath of office in the East Room on January 20. The Constitution of the United States requires the oath to be administered at noon on January 20. But since this was a Sunday, Eisenhower took the oath in private at the required time. A public inauguration was held the following day.
1964 – President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in the East Room on July 2. The ceremony was nationally televised, and more than 100 Senators and civil rights leaders attended the event.
1973 – President Richard Nixon and Leonid Brezhnev, leader of the Soviet Union, signed the Scientific and Technical Cooperation Agreement in the Field of Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. in the East Room on June 21.
1974 – President Nixon gave a farewell address to the White House staff in the East Room at 9:00 a.m. on August 9. His resignation as President of the United States became effective at 11:35 a.m. when it was received by Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. Vice President Gerald Ford took the presidential oath of office in the East Room at 12:03 p.m. the same day.
1976 – President Ford signed the Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty in the East Room on May 28 while, simultaneously, Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev signed the treaty in Moscow.
1978 – President Carter, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat, and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin signed the Camp David Accords in the East Room on September 17 at 11:00 p.m.
1987 – President Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF Treaty) in the East Room on December 8.
1990 – President George H. W. Bush and Soviet President Gorbachev signed five treaties in the East Room on June 2: the 1990 Chemical Weapons Accord, the USSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement, new protocols governing the 1974 Threshold Test Ban Treaty and Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty, and the Agreement on Trade Relations Between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (which provided for reciprocal Most Favored Nation status for the Soviet Union, improved market access in the Soviet Union for U.S. goods and services, freer operation of U.S. commercial representations in the USSR, and stronger intellectual property rights protection).
2011 – President Barack Obama announced the death of Osama bin Laden in the East Room on May 2.
In popular culture
The East Room has appeared in a number of motion pictures about the president of the United States. It is one of the most commonly depicted spaces in the White House, along with the Entrance Hall, Cross Hall, and West Sitting Hall. Accuracy in its depiction has generally been good. One outstanding example is the 1944 biographical picture Wilson, which was extremely accurate (even down to the style of paneling). The film's art director Wiard Ihnen and set decorator Thomas Little won an Academy Award for their work on the film. Many recent films have used Zuber wallpaper to depict the East Room—the same wallpaper purchased by Jacqueline Kennedy during the East Room's 1963 redecoration. President Bill Clinton gave the producers of the 1995 film The American President extensive access to the White House, which allowed them to create a superb replica of the East Room as well. Far less successful was the 2005 television series Commander in Chief, which depicted the East Room as a kind of shabby hotel lobby.
A life-size replica of the East Room was built at the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum. It is slightly larger in size and, while very similar, not completely accurate in its details.
The East Room made the news on September 29, 2014, after The Washington Post revealed that Omar J. Gonzalez had run through the room during his September 19, 2014, intrusion at the White House. Initially, the United States Secret Service reported that Gonzalez, who jumped the fence at the North Lawn and raced to the mansion, had only gotten a few steps into the Entrance Hall. But the Post revealed that the knife-wielding Gonzalez knocked down a Secret Service agent, ran into the Cross Hall, and ran through the East Room before being tackled by a counter-assault agent at the door leading to the Green Room.
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Abbott, James A. A Frenchman in Camelot: The Decoration of the Kennedy White House by Stéphane Boudin. Boscobel Restoration Inc.: 1995. .
Clinton, Hillary Rodham. An Invitation to the White House: At Home with History. Simon & Schuster: 2000. .
Seale, William. The President's House. White House Historical Association and the National Geographic Society: 1986. .
Seale, William, The White House: The History of an American Idea. White House Historical Association: 1992, 2001. .
The White House: An Historic Guide. White House Historical Association and the National Geographic Society: 2001. .
External links
White House Museum: East Room floor plan and historical photographs
Articles containing video clips
Rooms in the White House
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State%20Dining%20Room%20of%20the%20White%20House
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State Dining Room of the White House
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The State Dining Room is the larger of two dining rooms on the State Floor of the Executive Residence of the White House, the home of the president of the United States in Washington, D.C. It is used for receptions, luncheons, larger formal dinners, and state dinners for visiting heads of state on state visits. The room seats 140 and measures approximately .
Originally office space, the State Dining Room received its name during the presidency of James Monroe, at which time it was first extensively furnished. The room was refurbished during several administrations in the early to mid 1800s, and gasified in 1853. Doors were cut through the west wall in 1877. The State Dining Room underwent a major expansion and renovation in 1902, transforming it from a Victorian dining room into a "baronial" dining hall of the early 19th century—complete with stuffed animal heads on the walls and dark oak panelling. The room stayed in this form until the White House's complete reconstruction in 1952.
The 1952 rebuilding of the White House retained much of the 1902 renovation, although much of the "baronial" furnishings were removed and the walls were painted celadon green. Another major refurbishment from 1961 to 1963 changed the room even further, more closely approximating an Empire style room with elements from a wide range of other periods. Incremental changes to the room were made throughout the 1970s and 1980s, with major refurbishments of the furnishings in 1998 and 2015.
Early history
The Adams administration
The northern third of what is now the State Dining Room was originally the western part of the Cross Hall. Two flights of stairs (one against the north wall, one against the south wall) led from the State Floor to the Second Floor. A single, central stair then led up to the Third Floor (then an attic). Not completed when the White House was occupied in 1800, the Grand Stairs were probably finished by architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe in 1803 or shortly thereafter. To the south of the Grand Stair was a small room, designated by Hoban for use as a Cabinet Room or President's Library.
President John Adams was the first president to occupy the White House. The White House was far too large for their needs, and they had few furnishings with which to make it a home. The State Dining Room was temporarily partitioned in order to make it usable. The southwest corner became a "levee room", where the public could meet and mingle with the president, while the northwest corner became a dining room.
The Jefferson office
President Thomas Jefferson used the southwest corner of the State Dining Room as his primary office from 1801 to 1809. The room was sparsely furnished at this time, with only a desk and chairs. He also kept his gardening tools and an assortment of potted plants in the room. The floor was covered with canvas, painted green. In time, charts, maps, and globes; six small mahogany sets of shelves; three long mahogany tables with green cloth tops; two mahogany stools; two mahogany armshairs; a tall bookcase; a small set of mahogany steps (for reaching the top of the bookcase); and a desk, letterpress printer, and sofa. For seating, Jefferson moved 12 of the black-and-gold painted mahogany chairs (purchased during the Adams administration) from the dining room to the office.
Transformation into the State Dining Room
Jefferson's successor, James Madison, wanted the room to be a dining room. First Lady Dolley Madison worked with Jefferson's architect, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, to make some structural changes to the State Dining Room, which primarily meant closing off two windows in the west wall.
A large dining table, capable of seating at least 40, was placed in the room, surrounded by simple rush-bottomed chairs.
A silver service and a blue-and-gold china service purchased from the Lowestoft Porcelain Factory in England were used for dining, and a simple surtout de table (or "plateau") was used as the centerpiece. Other than the dining table, the largest piece of furniture in the room was a massive sideboard. The windows were uncurtained, and walls papered. Paintings of George Washington, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson were hung on the walls. The Washington image was a copy of the Lansdowne portrait, a full-length, life-size figure of the first President painted by Gilbert Stuart in 1796.
The canvas flooring was removed, and an ingrain carpet (an inexpensive, flatwoven textile) installed. Otherwise, the room remained only sparsely furnished.
Reconstruction of the State Dining Room
The White House was burned on August 24, 1814, by the British Army during the War of 1812. The Landsdowne copy was saved from destruction by doorman Jean Pierre Sioussat and White house gardener Tom Magraw, who cut it from its elaborate frame and spirited it away from the White House just minutes before British troops arrived.
The White House was reconstructed in 1817, after which the Cabinet Room/Presidential Library was called the State Dining Room. The reconstruction added an extensive chimney breast to the fireplace in the room's west wall.
The State Dining Room was extensively furnished at this time. President James Monroe, rather than First Lady Elizabeth Monroe (who was in fragile physical health), was primarily responsible for making decorative decisions for the White House. Monroe decided to have the walls of the State Dining Room covered in green silk. Two Italian Carrara marble mantels, featuring Neoclassical caryatids on either side, were also bought by Monroe and installed over the two fireplaces in this room.
One of Monroe's most important purchases were several ornamental ormolu (or bronze doré) pieces to furnish the State Dining Room. The surtout de table, crafted by Denière et Matelin in France, was long when fully extended. The piece had seven sections, each long, which could be removed or inserted as needed to adjust the length. It had a mirrored floor, and garlands of fruit and flowers formed the rim. Seventeen bacchantes (personifications of the female servants of Bacchus, the ancient Roman god of wine) standing on orbs, their outstretched arms holding candleholders, could be inserted into small rectangular pedestals at equidistant points around the centerpiece. Although surtout de table were common in elegant English and French dining rooms, few Americans had seen them and the piece deeply impressed those who saw it. Other ormolu items included three pedestals for crystal vases (one large, two small), consisting of the Three Graces holding up a basket; three porcelain vases in the Etruscan style and ornamented with festoons of flowers; and a pair of pedestal stands, or trepieds, consisting of sphinxes sitting on slender legs, their upraised wings supporting a shallow bowl.
Monroe also ordered the White House's first tableware and dinnerware. These included 72 silver place-settings, which included an unknown number of serving dishes, platters, tureens, chafing dishes, and other items. These were manufactured by Jacques Henri Fauconnier of Paris. Thirty-six vermeil (gold-gilt silver) flatware settings, manufactured by J. B. Boitin of Paris, were also purchased. A 30-setting gilt porcelain china service was also purchased, although its design and manufacturer are not known as no pieces have survived. A few items of the accompanying 166-piece, 30-setting dessert service, manufactured by Dagoty et Honoré in Paris, have survived. The dessert plates for this amaranth-on-white china service feature a Napoleonic eagle in the center. Five vignettes, representing agriculture, strength, commerce, science, and arts, are set into the broad, red rim.
Changes in the early to mid 1800s
President Andrew Jackson had the dining room wallpapered some time after 1829. The paper was purchased from French-born Louis Véron, a Philadelphia fine furnishings purveyor. This material, which was blue, green, yellow, and white and with a scattering of gold stars and gilt borders, was used in most of the rooms on the State Floor. Some time during 1833 and 1834, Veron supplied mirrors as well, and carpeting from Belgium and new mahogany dining room chairs from Alexandria, Virginia, cabinetmaker James Green also helped refurbish the room. An 1829, 18-light chandelier (fueled by whale oil and of unknown make) was moved from the East Room into the State Dining Room in 1834 to provide light.
Heavy crowds in the White House during the Jackson administration left the mansion in shabby condition. President Martin Van Buren purchased a new, table for the State Dining Room, and reupholstered the chairs in blue satin fabric. Blue and yellow drapes and rugs complimented the chairs. At some point, the mantels over the fireplace had been replaced with new ones of black marble, and three chandeliers now lit the room.
Although little upkeep was made to the White House during the administrations of William Henry Harrison and John Tyler due to a national depression, President James K. Polk redecorated the State Dining Room in the summer of 1845. New purple and gold drapes were hung in the room, and 42 rosewood balloon-back side chairs with cabriole legs and a heart-shaped crest were purchased. They were upholstered in purple velvet and manufactured by New York City furniture maker Charles Baudouine. The carpet was likely replaced with one of Turkish make.
President Franklin Pierce completely refurbished the room in 1853. The chandeliers were converted to natural gas, the wood moldings and dado rails replaced, the room replastered and repainted, and new carpets and drapes provided. L. R. Menger & Co. of New York provided gilt plaster cornices for the windows, and new gilt frames for the mirrors in the room. It is likely that Anthony and Henry Jenkins, furniture makers from Baltimore, crafted four walnut side tables for Pierce, and that these were later used in the State Dining Room.
A large greenhouse was added to the west side of the White House by President Pierce in 1857, replacing one on the east side which had been torn down that year to make way for expansion of the Treasury Building.
Although First Lady Mary Todd Lincoln refurbished most of the rooms in the White House in 1861, there is scant evidence to indicate she did much to the State Dining Room. However, the room was used by Francis Bicknell Carpenter as an artist's workshop as he painted First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln from February to July 1864. In 1867, four walnut console tables were placed against the walls of the dining room.
Changes in the mid to late 1800s
The western greenhouse burned down in 1867, and in 1869 President Ulysses S. Grant built a larger, taller greenhouse in its place. Grant also rebuilt the Grand Stair at this time, so that only a single staircase against the north wall led to the Second Floor. (A second stair on the south wall of the Second Floor led to the Third Floor.) Later presidents expanded the greenhouse further, and after it was turned into a palm court in 1877 by President Rutherford B. Hayes new doors were cut through the stone of the mansion's walls to provide access between the Palm Court and State Dining Room.
Minor furnishing changes were also made in the last quarter of the 1800s. In 1880, First Lady Lucy Webb Hayes installed a new carpet and lace curtains in the State Dining Room. She also purchased two Victorian candelabra for $125 each ($ in dollars) from Tiffany & Co. The three-tiered items, featuring floral garlands and the heads of satyrs and reclining children at the base, were probably made in Europe (their manufacturer is not known) and have remained in the room ever since.
In 1882, President Chester A. Arthur contracted with Tiffany & Co. to redecorate the State Dining Room. Most of the work involved painting and regilding, and it was at this time that the Monroe surtout du table was regilded. A major redecoration of the State Dining Room occurred again about 1884, which received new carpets, curtains, draperies, and wall and ceiling paint. Paint scheme was a yellow-brown, and featured a high stencil frieze in various shades of yellow and gold.
The room was electrified in 1891, which included the installation of bronze wall sconces. By 1901, 40 dining room chairs were moved from the Family Dining Room to the State Dining Room.
1902 Roosevelt renovation
The White House was extensively renovated in 1902 after the West Wing was completed, which allowed a number of government offices to vacate the Executive Residence. President Theodore Roosevelt selected the New York City architectural firm of McKim, Mead & White to oversee the renovations and redecoration. The Grand Stair was demolished and a new Grand Staircase built east of the Entrance Hall. The State Dining Room expanded northward into the space formerly occupied by the Grand Stair. The small fireplaces in the east and west walls of the State Dining Room were removed, and the northern door leading west to the Palm Court sealed. (Another door to the Palm Court, beneath the former Grand Stairs, was also sealed.) Where the old Palm Court door existed, a new, massive stone fireplace and oversize mantel (the famous "Buffalo mantel") were added, to match the enlarged room's size and grandeur. McKim, Mead & White implemented a decorative style for the room similar to that of an English manor house. This mixed style has been described as early Elizabethan with elements of Italian Renaissance, Beaux-Arts, early 19th century Georgian, late Victorian, and "baronial". Herter Brothers of New York City designed and installed new plasterwork ceiling and cornice. The ceiling was white, while the cornice was painted a delicate gray. Below the cornice was a delicately carved frieze featuring (at Roosevelt's insistence) taxidermied animal heads. Dark English oak panelling carved in a Renaissance Revival style, with Corinthian pilasters, was also crafted and installed by Herter Brothers. A baseboard of white marble ran around the room, and a new oak floor was installed.
The furnishing of the White House (including the State Dining Room) was overseen by First Lady Edith Roosevelt, and carried out by Charles Follen McKim. The creation of "baronial" hall look included the hanging of tapestries and 11 stuffed animal heads on the wall and cooking racks over the fireplace. The Monroe mantels were moved to the Green Room and Red Room to make way for the "Buffalo mantel".
To furnish the room, Stanford White designed William and Mary oak armchairs with caned backs and Queen Anne style mahogany side chairs. The chairs were then manufactured by the A. H. Davenport and Company of Boston. Based on furniture in his own home, he also designed two small and one large mahogany side tables with marble tops and carved wooden eagle pedestals. All these pieces of furniture were manufactured by A. H. Davenport and Company of Boston. Large, heavy Chiavari chairs were also used in the room.
A silver-plated chandelier and eight, silver-plated, six-branch wall sconces were designed by McKim and manufactured and installed by Edward F. Caldwell & Co. The chandelier was of a unique design, as it contained no glass or crystal. Instead, it consisted of individual candelabra, each supported by curved piping (a gooseneck). Each gooseneck was attached to the central body, and the entire chandelier hung from the ceiling by a chain. The chandelier proved too wide, and had to be taken down and altered. What other furnishings were needed were drawn from the pre-1902 items in the room.
Limited changed were made to the State Dining Room after the Roosevelt renovation. First Lady Ellen Axson Wilson had the taxidermied heads removed in March 1913, shortly after occupying the White House. Ellen Wilson died in August 1914. President Woodrow Wilson then married Edith Bolling Galt in December 1915. Mrs. Wilson disliked the two square tables in the State Dining Room, and had them removed in favor of a round table (capable of seating 14 to 16 people) which she found in the White House kitchen. Mrs. Wilson also had the drapes replaced and chairs reupholstered.
1952 Truman reconstruction
The room remained largely unchanged until 1952. One of the few changes made was the addition of a painting, Abraham Lincoln by George P.A. Healy, hung over the fireplace by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937. The 1869 oil-on-canvas painting by George Peter Alexander Healy depicts a seated, thoughtful Abraham Lincoln, and has remained over the State Dining Room fireplace ever since. Roosevelt also added an inscription to the "Buffalo mantel". The inscription was taken from a letter by John Adams to his wife Abigail written the second night he lived in the White House: "I pray Heaven to bestow the best of blessings on this House, and all that shall hereafter inhabit it. May none but honest and wise men ever rule under this roof."
Systematic failure of the internal wood beam structure required reconstruction during the administration of Harry S. Truman. The building was dismantled and an internal steel superstructure was constructed within the sandstone walls. While providing critically needed repairs, much of the original interior materials were damaged or not reinstalled. The State Dining Room, more than any room, had the majority of its wall and ceiling materials reinstalled.
During the 1948-to-1952 reconstruction of the White House, the State Dining Room was completely redecorated. The "Buffalo mantel" was replaced with a simple neo-Georgian style mantel of dark green marble. The upscale New York City department store, B. Altman and Company, was selected as the chief interior design consultant and supplier for decor and furnishings. Charles T. Haight, director of Altman's design department, chose new fabrics for the carpet and chairs in the room. The "Buffalo mantel" was given to President Truman (who had it installed it in his presidential library). The oak panelling, heavily damaged during its removal, was reinstalled and given a coat of bright celadon green to hide the flaws. (Some of the frieze had to be recarved where it had been sanded down to accommodate the stuffed animal heads.) King George VI of the United Kingdom donated a late 17th-century carved and gilded overmantel mirror and painting frame, and a pair of 1770 bronze and blue candelabra designed and manufactured by the renowned metalsmith, Matthew Boulton. Edith Wilson's round dining table was removed, and replaced with a mahogany dining table in the style of George Hepplewhite.
Kennedy renovation
First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy worked with American antiques expert Henry Francis du Pont and French interior designer Stéphane Boudin on the restoration of the State Dining Room. Du Pont and Boudin both recommended that changes should emphasize the earlier work of McKim. Most of Boudin's suggestions for the room mirrored changes he had made to the dining room at Leeds Castle in Kent, England.
On Boudin's recommendation, the panelling was repainted bone white and the silver plated chandelier and wall sconces were regilded to match the Monroe-era surtout du table. The pilaster-mounted sconces were reinstalled on the side panels at the suggestion of Henry Francis du Pont, who chaired the Fine Arts Committee for the White House. Boudin and du Pont were in agreement that the 1952 mantel should be replaced. Boudin designed a replacement mantel, but du Pont wanted the original 1902 "Buffalo mantel" and asked the Truman presidential library to return it. The library declined, so a reproduction "Buffalo mantel" was made and installed. This mantel was of white marble (rather than unpolished grey stone) to match the room's new color scheme.
At Boudin's suggestion, McKim's mahogany side and console tables were painted to mimick white marble with gold veining, and the eagle supports and bowknots were gilded. The new color scheme for those pieces were intended to make them blend into the panelling. A new carpet, a copy of one Boudin designed for Leeds Castle, was woven by Stark Carpet Co. of New York City and installed. The "Healy Lincoln" portrait was restored, reversing conspicuous damage. The Chippendale reproduction side chairs were removed and replaced by the Chiavari chairs by McKim, Mead & White.
The gold damask draperies installed during the Truman administration were retained until 1967, when new, straight-falling drapes and scalloped window valances were installed. These window treatments had been designed by Boudin in 1963, based on work at Leeds Castle. The fabrics were supplied by Maison Jansen, Boudin's firm.
A Chinese coromandel screen was set up in the State Dining Room in 1961. This screen was on loan from Anne McQuarrie Hatch, wife of Lorenzo Boyd Hatch (co-founder of Atlas Corporation). It was later donated to the White House, and eventually moved to the Second Floor. The Monroe administration surtout de table, long absent from the room, was retrieved from storage and placed on the table. New vermeil baskets were purchased and used for floral arrangements on the other rounds, while plain tulip-shaped crystal glasses were purchased from the Morgantown Glassware Guild of West Virginia to augment the existing china service.
The way the State Dining Room was set for events was also fundamentally changed by the Kennedys. All previous administrations had set the tables in an E-shaped or horseshoe arrangement. The Kennedys changed this to rounds, which made for more socializing and relaxed protocol. On occasion, tables were also set up in the adjacent Blue Room as well.
Johnson, Nixon, Reagan, and George H.W. Bush refurbishments
In 1967, Lady Bird Johnson oversaw the installation of new draperies, based on a design created by Stephane Boudin shortly before President Kennedy's assassination, as well as reupholstery of the 1902 chairs. First Lady Pat Nixon worked with White House curator Clement Conger to refresh the room in 1971. She had the room painted antique white in 1971 after the Kennedy-era paint proved too bright, and she replaced the Kennedy-era carpet with one of Indian manufacture.
In 1973, a man and woman broke away from the public tour of the White House and splashed six vials of blood on the walls and some of the furniture in the State Dining Room. The couple said they were protesting the status of oppressed people everywhere.
First Lady Nancy Reagan hung new gold silk draperies designed by interior designer Ted Graber. She initially had the room repainted antique white in 1981, but in 1985, the room was painted off-white with an umber glaze.
During the presidency of George W. Bush, the badly worn 1952 floor of the State Dining Room was removed. New flooring made of white oak, manufactured by Kentucky WoodFloors, was installed by Mountain State Floors (a West Virginia company) in a herringbone pattern.
Clinton renovation
By the early 1990s, more than 50,000 people a year were being entertained in the State Dining Room. The heavy use left the room shabby and in need of significant repair and conservation.
In December 1998, First Lady Hillary Clinton unveiled a renovated State Dining Room. She was advised by interior designer Kaki Hockersmith (a long-time friend of the Clintons), interior designer Mark Hampton of New York City (who had worked on the White House for President George H. W. Bush and First Lady Barbara Bush), and the Committee for the Preservation of the White House. The room's walls were repainted a light stone color, with architectural details lightly highlighted. The pedestal console tables were stripped of paint which mimicked white marble with gold veining, and their original mahogany finish was restored. The gilded chandelier and wall sconces were polished and brightened. The room's 66 chairs were reupholstered in a gold damask. New ivory silk draperies, manufactured by F. Schumacher & Co., with printed full-color baskets, flowers, and ribbons replicating a 1901 damask design used by the firm, replaced the solid gold fabric drapes of the 1980s. The drapes were designed to reflect the color pattern of the White House china. A $113,031 ($ in dollars), carpet with a floral medallion pattern was also installed. The Colonial Revival-style carpet was woven by Scott Group Custom Carpets in Grand Rapids, Michigan. The 1902 silver-plated chandelier and the wall sconces—last gilded in 1961—were refinished, repaired, rewired, and cleaned. Sources differ as to the cost, with one putting it at $270,507 ($ in dollars) and another at $341,000 ($ in dollars), but the cost was paid for by the White House Endowment Trust. The Clinton refurbishment was not as successful as hoped. White House Curator William G. Allman noted that at night, the lack of backlighting from outside tended to make the drapes fade into the walls.
The Clintons were also the first to use the East Room for most state dinners, rather than the much smaller State Dining Room. The reason was size: The State Dining Room could accommodate only about 136 people, while the East Room sat 260. The Clintons also used marquees, set up on the South Lawn of the White House, for state dinners, which allowed seating to run as high as 700 individuals. President George W. Bush, however, returned to the practice of hosting state dinners almost exclusively in the State Dining Room. The gold-upholstered chairs were often removed for meals and replaced with smaller chairs from elsewhere in the White House, as they proved too bulky to accommodate large numbers of guests around dining tables.
Obama renovation
By 2011, the heavy wear and tear on the State Dining Room had taken a toll on the rugs and drapes in State Dining Room.
On June 25, 2015, a renovated State Dining Room was unveiled by First Lady Michelle Obama. Mrs. Obama and the Committee for the Preservation of the White House began planning the renovation in 2012. The first element of the renovation, a carpet, was installed in 2012. The wool rug, woven by Scott Group Custom Carpets, features a border of wreaths surrounding a field of mottled light blue accented by clusters of oak leaves. The carpet's design mimics the plaster molding of the ceiling.
The new silk window draperies are ecru in color, accented with stripes of peacock blue intended to mimic the Kailua blue color of the White House china (which in turn mimics the waters of President Obama's home state of Hawaii). Fabric for the draperies was manufactured by an undisclosed firm in Pennsylvania. The window valances feature heavy swags, with gold bullion fringe, and reflect similar window treatments from the 1800s. The drapes hang from carved and gilded poles whose design echoes that of similar drapery poles in the Red Room and Green Room. The walls and moldings were repainted in various shades of white and glazed, to highlight their details.
A new set of 34 mahogany chairs replaced the Theodore Roosevelt-era Chiavari chairs, which had proved too large and cumbersome. The set includes six armchairs and 28 side chairs. The new chairs were designed to be multifunctional, and fit with both the heavy, main dining table as well as smaller dining rounds. The look of the Obama armchairs is based on chairs designed by Georgetown cabinetmaker William King, Jr. in 1818 for President James Monroe. The side chairs are an adaptation of this design. All the chairs are upholstered in brown horsehair fabric in a grid-like pattern, and trimmed with brass nailheads. The chairs were manufactured by Baker Furniture in Hickory, North Carolina, and the fabric by Brunschwig & Fils.
The White House Endowment Trust paid for the $590,000 renovation.
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Abbott, James A. A Frenchman in Camelot: The Decoration of the Kennedy White House by Stéphane Boudin. Boscobel Restoration Inc.: 1995. .
Clinton, Hillary Rodham. An Invitation to the White House: At Home with History. Simon & Schuster: 2000. .
McKellar, Kenneth, Douglas W. Orr, Edward Martin, et al. Report of the Commission on the Renovation of the Executive Mansion. Commission on the Renovation of the Executive Mansion, Government Printing Office: 1952.
Seale, William. The President's House. White House Historical Association and the National Geographic Society: 1986. .
Wolff, Perry. A Tour of the White House with Mrs. John F. Kennedy. Doubleday & Company: 1962.
The White House: An Historic Guide. White House Historical Association and the National Geographic Society: 2001. .
External links
White House Web site
Rooms in the White House
Dining events
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Mountebanks
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The Mountebanks
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The Mountebanks is a comic opera in two acts with music by Alfred Cellier and Ivan Caryll and a libretto by W. S. Gilbert. The story concerns a magic potion that causes the person to whom it is administered to become what he or she has pretended to be. It is similar to several "magic lozenge" plots that Gilbert had proposed to the composer Arthur Sullivan, but that Sullivan had rejected, earlier in their careers. To set his libretto to music, Gilbert turned to Cellier, who had previously been a musical director for Gilbert and Sullivan and had since become a successful composer. During the composition of the piece Cellier died, and the score was finished by the original production's musical director, Ivan Caryll, who became a successful composer of Edwardian Musical Comedy.
The opera was first produced at the Lyric Theatre, London, on 4 January 1892, for a run of 229 performances. It also toured extensively, had a short Broadway run, in 1893, American tours and Australian productions. The original cast included Geraldine Ulmar, Frank Wyatt, Lionel Brough, Eva Moore and Furneaux Cook. The American cast included Hayden Coffin and Lillian Russell. A professional recording of the work was released in 2018.
Background
The story of the opera revolves around a magic potion that transforms those who drink it into whoever, or whatever, they pretend to be. The idea was clearly important to Gilbert, as he repeatedly urged his famous collaborator, Arthur Sullivan, to set this story, or a similar one, to music. For example, he had written a treatment of the opera in 1884, which Sullivan rejected, both because of the story's mechanical contrivance, and because they had already produced an opera concerning a magic potion, The Sorcerer (1877); Sullivan felt that the story lacked "human emotion". The idea of a magic potion that changes human behaviour has long been a common theme of literature and opera. The device allowed Gilbert to explore "how people behave when they are forced to live with the consequences of their own actions."
The Gilbert and Sullivan partnership and their Savoy operas dominated the London musical stage from the late 1870s to 1890. When that partnership temporarily disbanded, due to a quarrel over finances after the production of The Gondoliers, Gilbert sought another composer who would collaborate on the "magic lozenge" idea that Sullivan had repeatedly rejected. He eventually found a willing partner in Alfred Cellier, a logical choice for Gilbert. The two had collaborated once before (Topsyturveydom, 1874), and Cellier had been the musical director for Gilbert and Sullivan's early operas. Cellier had also achieved much success apart from Gilbert and Sullivan, particularly with his comic opera Dorothy (1886), a smash hit. It played for over 900 performances, considerably more than The Mikado, Gilbert and Sullivan's most successful piece. Dorothy set and held the record for longest-running piece of musical theatre in history until the turn of the century.
Composition
Gilbert and Cellier agreed to collaborate on The Mountebanks in July 1890, and Gilbert began fleshing out the libretto, but unlike his usual daily interactions with Sullivan during development of a libretto, he found Cellier to be far less responsive. He was annoyed when Cellier sailed for Australia in mid-December without having responded to Gilbert's repeated queries about potential conflicts between some plot changes that he had suggested and a recently composed opera of Cellier's with B. C. Stephenson, The Black Mask, including a Spanish setting involving guerillas during the Peninsular War. Gilbert then completed Act I assuming that there were no conflicts, but finally received a response from Cellier by early January, stating that the change in setting did indeed conflict with his earlier work; Gilbert replied that he was ending the collaboration, and that Horace Sedger, the manager and lessee of London's Lyric Theatre, where the piece was to be produced, agreed with this. In early February, Gilbert approached composer Arthur Goring Thomas to set the libretto to music, and Thomas sketched out music to four musical numbers. For unknown reasons, possibly Thomas's poor health, he never set the opera; when Cellier returned to England in April 1891, he sought, through his and Gilbert's mutual friend, Edward Chappell, to mend fences with Gilbert, and, after some flattery, succeeded. Gilbert changed the setting to Sicily, and the guerillas became brigands; it turned out that The Black Mask was never produced.
Cellier suffered from tuberculosis for most of his adult life, but during the composition of The Mountebanks he deteriorated rapidly and died, at the age of 47, while the opera was still in rehearsals. All of the melodies and vocal lines in the opera were composed by Cellier, but the orchestration was incomplete when he died. The score was completed by the Lyric Theatre's musical director, Ivan Caryll, a successful composer who became one of the best-known composers of Edwardian Musical Comedy. Caryll composed the entr'acte, using the melody from Number 16, and he wrote or modified the orchestration for more than half a dozen of the songs. He chose the 4th movement of Cellier's 1878 orchestral piece, the Suite Symphonique, to use as the opera's overture. One song whose lyrics were printed in the libretto available on the first night were never set to music, and another was cut before the opening night. After Cellier's illness prevented him from finishing the score, Gilbert modified the libretto around the gaps, and the order of some of the music was changed.
Productions and recordings
The Mountebanks''' initial run of 229 performances surpassed most of Gilbert's later works and even a few of his collaborations with Sullivan. Gilbert engaged his old friends John D'Auban, to choreograph the piece, and Percy Anderson, to design costumes. The initial run closed on 5 August 1892. Despite the opera's warm reception, Gilbert wrote on 7 January 1892, shortly after the premiere, "I had to make rough & ready alterations to supply gaps – musical gaps – caused by poor Cellier's inability to complete his work. It follows that Act 2 stands out as a very poor piece of dramatic construction ... this is the worst libretto I have written. Perhaps I am growing old."
The success of the London production led its producer, Sedger, to establish at least three touring companies, which visited major towns and cities in Britain for a year and a half, from March 1892 to mid-November 1893. Louie René played Ultrice on one tour in 1893. While playing in Manchester, one touring company found itself competing with a D'Oyly Carte Opera Company touring company at a nearby theatre. The strained relations between Carte and Gilbert after The Gondoliers did not prevent the two companies from playing a cricket match in May 1892. Relations between Gilbert and his new producer had also deteriorated, and the author unsuccessfully sued Sedger for cutting the size of the chorus in the London production without his approval. It was toured for a year in America by the Lillian Russell Opera Company, starring Lillian Russell and C. Hayden Coffin, including a run of a month and a half at the Garden Theatre on Broadway, opening on 11 January 1893. It was also produced in Australia and New Zealand by the J. C. Williamson company until 1900.
Gilbert and Cellier's widow later sold the performing and score rental rights to the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company. Occasional amateur performances were staged in Britain, America and Australia until the Second World War, and the professional J. C. Williamson company continued to perform it occasionally in Australia and New Zealand. After that, the first known staging was in New York City, in 1955, in a small-scale production at the St. John's Theater, in Greenwich Village, by the Chamber Opera Players, accompanied only by a piano. It was produced in 1964 by the Washington, D.C., Lyric Theatre Company, with orchestra, and the company recorded the score. Other amateur performances accompanied only by piano followed until James Gillespie's Ramsgate production in 1982, which used orchestra parts from Australia.
The full score of the opera was published in 2014 by Robin Gordon-Powell, followed by a piano/vocal score. A 2015 production was staged in Palo Alto, California by Lyric Theatre, directed by John Hart, using Gordon-Powell's score. The score was finally recorded professionally and released in 2018 with the BBC Concert Orchestra conducted by John Andrews, garnering warm reviews for the conducting and performances.Rohan, Mike Scott. "Alfred Cellier: The Mountebanks; "Suite Symphonique", Classical Music (BBC Music Magazine), July 7, 2020, accessed April 28, 2022 One reviewer noted Cellier's "fine lyrical detail and sumptuous orchestration with which he provides a wide variety of musical effects. … [O]ne is aware of the growing sophistication in Gilbert's choice of words in his lyrics during this mature period of his writing. Clever as some of the lyrics are they may well have gone over the heads of the 'comedy opera' orientated audiences."
Roles and original cast
Arrostino Annegato, Captain of the Tamorras – a Secret Society (baritone) – Frank Wyatt
Giorgio Raviolo, a Member of his Band (baritone) – Arthur Playfair
Luigi Spaghetti, a Member of his Band (baritone) – Charles Gilbert
Alfredo, a Young Peasant, loved by Ultrice, but in love with Teresa (tenor) – J. G. Robertson
Pietro, Proprietor of a Troupe of Mountebanks (comic baritone) – Lionel Brough (later Cairns James)
Bartolo, his Clown (baritone) – Harry Monkhouse
Elvino di Pasta, an Innkeeper (bass-baritone) – Furneaux Cook
Risotto, one of the Tamorras – just married to Minestra (tenor) – Cecil Burt
Beppo – A member of the Mountebanks' crew (speaking) – Gilbert Porteous
Teresa, a Village Beauty, loved by Alfredo, and in love with herself (soprano) – Geraldine Ulmar
Ultrice, Elvino's niece, in love with, and detested by, Alfredo (contralto) – Lucille Saunders
Nita, a Dancing Girl (mezzo-soprano or soprano) – Aida Jenoure
Minestra, Risotto's Bride (mezzo-soprano) – Eva Moore
Tamorras, Monks, Village Girls.
Synopsis
Act I
Outside a mountain Inn on a picturesque Sicilian pass, a procession of Dominican monks sings a chorus (in Latin) about the inconveniences of monastic life. As soon as the coast is clear, the Tamorras appear. They are a secret society of bandits bent on revenge against the descendants of those who wrongly imprisoned an ancestor's friend five hundred years previously. The Tamorras tell Elvino, the innkeeper, that they are planning to get married – one man each day for the next three weeks. The first is Risotto, who is marrying Minestra later that day. Elvino asks them to conduct their revels in a whisper, so as not to disturb the poor old dying alchemist who occupies the second floor of the inn. Arrostino, the Tamorras's leader, has learned that the Duke and Duchess of Pallavicini will be passing through the village. He suggests that the Tamorras capture the monastery and disguise themselves as monks. Minestra will dress as an old woman and lure the Duke into the monastery, where he will be taken captive and held for ransom.
Alfredo, a young peasant, is in love with Teresa, the village beauty. He sings a ballad about her, but it is clear that she does not love him in return. She suggests that he marry Elvino's niece, Ultrice, who follows Alfredo everywhere, but Alfredo wants nothing to do with Ultrice. Elvino is concerned that he does not know the proper protocol for entertaining a Duke and Duchess. He suggests that Alfredo impersonate a Duke, so that he can practice his manners. Alfredo implores Teresa to impersonate the Duchess, but Teresa insists that Ultrice play the role.
A troupe of strolling players arrives. Their leader, Pietro, offers the villagers a dress rehearsal of a performance to be given later to the Duke and Duchess. Among the novelties to be presented, he promises "two world-renowned life-size clock-work automata, representing Hamlet and Ophelia". Nita and Bartolo, two of the troupe's members, were formerly engaged, but Nita became disenchanted with Bartolo's inability to play tragedy, and she is now engaged to Pietro. While they are discussing this, Beppo rushes in to tell Pietro that the clock-work automata have been detained at the border. Pietro wonders how his troupe will deliver the promised performance.
Elvino and Ultrice have a problem of their own. Their alchemist tenant has blown himself up while searching for the philosopher's stone, leaving six weeks' rent unpaid. All he has left behind is a bottle of "medicine" with a label on it. Believing the medicine to be useless, Elvino gives it to Pietro. Pietro reads the label and learns that the mysterious liquid "has the effect of making every one who drinks it exactly what he pretends to be". Pietro hatches the idea of administering the potion to Bartolo and Nita, who will pretend to be the clock-work Hamlet and Ophelia when the Duke and Duchess arrive. After the performance, Pietro can reverse the potion by burning the label. While preparing for the performance, Pietro accidentally drops the label, which Ultrice retrieves. Ultrice realises that if she and Alfredo drink the potion while they are pretending to be the Duke and Duchess, Alfredo's feigned love for her will become a reality.
Teresa, meanwhile, decides that, to taunt Alfredo, she will pretend to be in love with him, only to dash his hopes later on. Alfredo, who overhears this, declares that he will pretend to reject Teresa. When she learns this, Teresa says that she will feign insanity. By this point, all of the major characters are pretending to be something they are not. Alfredo pretends to be a Duke married to Ultrice and indifferent to Teresa. Ultrice pretends to be Duchess, married to Alfredo. Teresa pretends to be insane with love for Alfredo. Bartolo and Nita pretend to be clock-work Hamlet and Ophelia. The Tamorras pretend to be monks. Minestra pretends to be an old lady.
Alfredo and Ultrice appear in their guise as the faux Duke and Duchess. He proposes a toast, drawing wine from Pietro's wine-skin. Pietro, who has put the Alchemist's potion into the wine-skin, implores Alfredo to stop, telling him that it contains poison from which he is already dying. Alfredo ignores the warning and distributes the wine to everyone assembled.
Act II
It is night-time outside the monastery. As the potion's label had foretold, everyone is now what they had pretended to be. Although Risotto and Minestra are married, he is disappointed to find that she is now an old woman of seventy-four. Teresa has gone completely mad with love for Alfredo. Bartolo and Nita are waxwork Hamlet and Ophelia, walking with mechanical gestures as if controlled by clockwork. Pietro, because he had pretended the wine was poisonous, is now dying slowly.
The Tamorras, who had pretended to be monks, have renounced their life of crime, and they no longer find the village girls attractive. They demand an explanation of Pietro, who explains that the wine was spiked. He promises to administer the antidote in an hour or two – as soon as Bartolo and Nita have performed for the Duke and Duchess. Alfredo, now pretending to be a Duke, greets the monks. They tell him that he has chosen a fortunate time for his arrival, as the Tamorras had planned to kidnap him. But now he is safe, as they are all virtuous monks.
Teresa is still crazed with love for Alfredo. He replies that, although he used to love her, he is now "married" to Ultrice and is blind to her charms. They are grateful that the charm will last for only another hour or so. Left alone, Ultrice admits that she alone has the antidote, and she has no intention of administering it. Pietro brings on Bartolo and Nita to entertain the Duke and Duchess, but he quickly recognises that his audience is only Alfredo and Ultrice. They explain that they are victims of a potion, and Pietro realises that the only solution to the mess is to administer the antidote. When he realises he has lost it, everyone accuses him of being a sorcerer. Bartolo and Nita discuss what it will be like to be Hamlet and Ophelia for the rest of their lives. Pietro steals the keys, so that neither one can touch the other's clockwork.
Ultrice confronts Teresa and gloats over her triumph. However, when Teresa threatens to jump off a parapet, Ultrice relents and admits that she has stolen the antidote. Pietro seizes the label and burns it. The potion's effects expire, and the characters resume their original personalities, although some seem to have learned a lesson.
Musical numbers
Overture: Cellier's Suite SymphoniqueAct I
No. 1. "The chaunt of the Monks" and "We are members of a secret society" (Men's Chorus and Giorgio)
No. 2. "Come, all the Maidens" (Chorus)
No. 3. "If you Please" (Minestra and Risotto)
No. 4. "Only think, a Duke and Duchess!" (Chorus and Minestra)
No. 5. "High Jerry Ho!" (Arrostino and Male Chorus)
No. 6. "Teresa, little Word" and "Bedecked in fashion Trim" (Alfredo)
No. 7. "It's my Opinion" (Teresa)
No. 8. "Upon my word, Miss" (Ultrice, Teresa, Alfredo and Elvino)
No. 9. "Fair maid, take Pity" (Alfredo, Teresa, Ultrice and Elvino)
No. 10. "Tabor and Drum" (Female Chorus, Pietro, Bartolo and Nita)
No. 11. "Those days of Old" and "Allow that the plan I Devise"(Nita, with Bartolo and Pietro)
No. 12. "Oh luck unequalled" ... "Alfredo Hers?" ... "When man in lovesick Passion" (Ultrice, Teresa and Alfredo)
No. 13. "Finale Act I" (Ensemble)
Act II
No. 14. "Entr'acte" (By Ivan Caryll)
No. 15, "I'd be a young girl if I Could" (Minestra and Risotto)
No. 16. "All alone to my Eerie" (Teresa)
No. 17. "If I can catch this jolly Jack-Patch" (Teresa and Minestra)
No. 18. "If our action's stiff and Crude" ... "Put a penny in the Slot" (Bartolo and Nita)
No. 19. "Where gentlemen are eaten up with Jealousy ... Tic, Tic" (Bartolo, Nita and Pietro)
No. 20. "Time there was when earthly Joy" (Chorus (with Soprano and Contralto solos), Arrostino and Pietro)
No. 20a. OPTIONAL SONG: "When your clothes, from your hat to your Socks" (Pietro)1
No. 21. "The Duke and Duchess hither wend their Way" (Luigi, Arrostino, Alfredo and Chorus)
No. 22. "Willow, willow, where's my Love?" (Teresa)
No. 23. "In days gone By" (Alfredo, Teresa, and Ultrice)
No. 24. "An hour? Nay, Nay." (Ultrice; this recit. – Ultrice's confession – was later moved to after No. 25)
No. 25. "Oh, please you not to go Away" (Chorus, Pietro, Elvino, Alfredo, Ultrice, Bartolo, Nita)
No. 26. "Ophelia was a dainty little Maid" (Pietro, Bartolo and Nita)
No. 27. "Finale" (Ensemble)
1 The placement of this song changed within the act before it was cut. "Ophelia was a dainty little maid" replaced it. However, it was included on the only commercial recording of The Mountebanks.
Critical reception
At the first night, the audience's response was enthusiastic. The producer, Horace Sedger, came before the curtain at the end of the performance to explain that Gilbert preferred, because of the death of Cellier, not to take a curtain call.
Reviews for the libretto were consistently excellent. Cellier's music received mixed reviews. The Times noted with approval that Gilbert had returned to his favourite device of a magic potion, already seen in The Palace of Truth and The Sorcerer, and found the dialogue "crammed with quips of the true Gilbertian ring." The reviewer was more cautious about the score, attempting to balance respect for the recently dead Cellier with a clear conclusion that the music was derivative of the composer's earlier works and also of the Savoy operas. The Pall Mall Gazette thought the libretto so good that it "places Mr Gilbert so very far in advance of any living English librettist." The paper's critic was more emphatic about the score than his Times colleague, saying, "Mr Cellier's portion of the work is disappointing," adding that the composer never rose in this piece "to within measurable distance of his predecessor. ... If we judge the late Alfred Cellier's score by a somewhat high standard it is all Sir Arthur Sullivan's fault." The Era also noted Gilbert's reuse of old ideas, but asked, "who would wish Mr Gilbert to adopt a new style?" The paper thought equally well of the score, rating it as highly as Cellier's best-known piece, Dorothy. The Daily Telegraph called the music "accompaniment merely" but found it "completely satisfactory" as such. The Manchester Guardian considered the music "a triumph." All the reviewers singled out for particular praise the duet for the automata, "Put a penny in the Slot".
A later critic, Hesketh Pearson, rated the libretto of The Mountebanks'' "as good as any but the best Savoy pieces".
Notes
References
External links
The Mountebanks at The Gilbert & Sullivan Archive (includes links to score and libretto)
The Mountebanks at The Gilbert & Sullivan Discography
Description of The Mountebanks
Photographs from a 1909 production
Works by W. S. Gilbert
English-language operas
English comic operas
Operas
1892 operas
Operas by Alfred Cellier
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%20Bank
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Ottoman Bank
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The Ottoman Bank (), known from 1863 to 1925 as the Imperial Ottoman Bank (, ) and correspondingly referred to by its French acronym BIO, was a bank that played a major role in the financial history of the Ottoman Empire. By the early 20th century, it was the dominant bank in the Ottoman Empire, and one of the largest in the world.
It was founded in 1856 as a British institution chartered in London, and reorganized in 1863 as a French–British venture with head office in Constantinople, on a principle of strict equality between British and French stakeholders. It soon became dominated by French interests, however, primarily because of the greater success of its offerings among French savers than British ones. In its early years, the BIO was principally a lender to the Ottoman government with a monopoly on banknote issuance and other public-interest roles, including all treasury operations of the Ottoman state under an agreement ratified in February 1875 that was however never fully implemented. In the 1890s, it pivoted to a greater emphasis on commercial and investment banking, which it developed with lasting success despite a serious crisis in 1895.
Following World War I, the Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas (known since the 1980s as Paribas) took control of the BIO, and renamed it Ottoman Bank in 1925. The bank's remaining public-interest privileges and monopolies were phased out. Its operations outside Turkey were gradually dismantled, a process that was completed in 1975. The Ottoman Bank became Turkish-owned when Garanti Bank purchased it from Paribas in 1996, and was eventually subsumed in 2001 into the Garanti Bank operations and corporate identity, in turn rebranded Garanti BBVA in 2019.
Name
During its heyday between 1863 and 1925 the bank was generally referred to using its French name, (BIO), even in English-speaking contexts. This was because French was the international language of the era and especially prominent in the business community among the many languages of the Ottoman Empire. In Turkey after 1925, the bank increasingly operated under its Turkish name .
Background
The Ottoman Empire had traditionally relied on credit from individual financiers known as sarraf, which included not only Muslims but also Armenians, Greeks, Jews, and Levantines (long-established, mostly Catholic or Jewish families of western European descent). In the early 19th century, prominent sarraf families had coalesced into a community mainly based in the Galata neighborhood of Constantinople, known as the which operated as family businesses. The first formal banking establishment that was not strictly family-controlled was a joint venture between the Ottoman state and two prominent Leventine Galata bankers, Jacques Alléon and Theodore , which took the name of in 1847 but was wound up in 1852. Another project, proposed as the by French entrepreneur Ariste Jacques Trouvé-Chauvel, was considered by the Ottoman government in 1853 but not implemented.
During the Crimean War that started in October 1853, France and Great Britain were allied in support of the Ottoman Empire. In 1855, the two nations sent a joint mission to assess Ottoman finances, led by for France and Augustus Edward Hobart-Hampden for the UK, who would later become respectively the first and second General Managers of the Imperial Ottoman Bank in Constantinople.
London-based Ottoman Bank (1856–1863)
In early 1856, Sultan Abdulmejid I called for modern banks to be created in the Empire to improve its financial system and foster economic development. Three main projects emerged in response, respectively promoted by the Rothschild family (in London, Paris and Vienna), the Pereire brothers (in Paris), and a group of British financiers around Austen Henry Layard and the private bank Glyn, Mills & Co. The Ottoman government opted for the latter, which it identified as better preserving the country's independence from western financiers in comparison with the assertive approaches of the Rothschilds and Pereires. The British project was initially conceived by two businessmen, Peter Pasquali et Stephen Sleight, who had participated earlier in 1856 in the creation of the Bank of Egypt, the first Egyptian joint-stock bank. The project benefited from the support of such influential diplomats as George Villiers, 4th Earl of Clarendon and Stratford Canning, 1st Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe, in contrast to the Pereire initiative that was not much supported by French ambassador Édouard Thouvenel. As was customary at the time for an enterprise that would operate abroad, the British authorities sought approval from the Ottoman government, and once that was confirmed in April 1856, the bank was chartered on as an English entity with seat at 26, Old Broad Street in London. The group of financiers that supported it also included Thomas Charles Bruce, William Richard Drake, Pascoe Du Pré Grenfell, Lachlan Mackintosh Rate, and John Stewart.
The Ottoman Bank then sought an issuance privilege from the Ottoman government, but the latter temporized as it preferred a solution that would combine British and French stakeholders, mirroring the Crimean War coalition. As high-ranking official Mehmed Fuad Pasha put it in May 1856 to French Ambassador Thouvenel, the Sublime Porte's wish "was to perpetuate as much as possible the spirit of alliance that saved Turkey during the war, namely providing equal shares to French and English interests." Even as the Ottoman Bank started its operations and opened its first branches, Layard soon understood that a different scheme would be needed to secure the issuance privilege. In a communication to Grand Vizier Mustafa Reşid Pasha in December 1856, he outlined what would eventually be the concept of the still-to-come BIO: a head office in Constantinople, but governance by two parallel committees in London and Paris that would be accountable to the British and French shareholders. Contrary to the desires of the Ottoman authorities, however, Layard insisted that they should not control the bank's management, only conceding a "supervisor" role for a high-ranking Ottoman official. In contrast to Layard, a competing British investor group led by Joseph Paxton presented a project to establish a "Bank of Turkey" with a Governor and Vice Governor who would be both appointed by the Sublime Porte. Paxton's project was endorsed by the Ottoman government in March 1857 but, as Layard had anticipated, it failed to raise investor interest in London. A follow-up effort by some of Paxton's associates under the same name of "Bank of Turkey" started operations in 1858, but had to be placed into liquidation in 1861.
Without the issuance privilege, the Ottoman Bank had modest beginnings with six staff in Constantinople (12 in 1858) and four in Smyrna as well as a branch office in , then the main building in the Beirut Souks. It also had a branch in Galaţi in Moldavia, complemented by Bucharest in Wallachia from 1861. The bank made some poor credit allocation decisions, suffered from the 1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and a financial crisis in 1861, and met hostility from the Galata bankers.
Early development as quasi-state bank (1863–1881)
Establishment of the Imperial Ottoman Bank
By early 1862, circumstances favored the reconsideration of the Ottoman Bank project. Foreign investors had grown more confident about the reforming intent of the Porte. Mehmed Fuad Pasha had become Grand Vizier and was eager to see a bank emerge with an effective banknote issuance capacity. In line with the insistent position of France's ambassador, he made clear that British–French equality of participation would remain a necessary condition for granting the issuance privilege. In response, the Ottoman bank reached out to the Pereire brothers and their Crédit Mobilier, who assembled a group of distinguished French investors. On in Paris, the British and French negotiators reached an agreement that foresaw the winding up of the Ottoman Bank and transfer of its business to a newly created institution. Negotiations in Constantinople followed in December 1862 between a group of British and French representatives, supported by the two countries' embassies, and the Ottoman authorities. As Layard had suspected in late 1856, and in spite of the replacement of Fuad by Yusuf Kamil Pasha as Grand Vizier, the compromise that was found on the new bank's governance stipulated that its formal head office, board of directors and general manager would be located in Constantinople, but that the latter would be a foreign national and ultimately report to the committees to be formed in London and Paris. The Porte would only appoint a Commissioner with limited powers of oversight. The issuance privilege would be initially granted for a duration of thirty years, and came with a full tax exemption. The bank would execute all financial operations of the Ottoman Treasury in Constantinople, and would be the government's financial agent both domestically and abroad. The bank would thus provide services of a central bank with simultaneous commercial operations, a combination that was not unusual at the time.
These arrangements were enshrined in a concession agreement which Kamil signed on together with Fuad, foreign minister Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha, finance minister Mustafa Fazıl Pasha, and chief auditor Ahmed Vefik Pasha. On , the agreement was ratified by firman of Sultan Abdulaziz. On , the Ottoman government registered the new Imperial Ottoman Bank which could then start its operations. That same day in London, the shareholders of the English-chartered Ottoman Bank voted to liquidate it in accordance with the November 1862 agreement, a process that was only finalized in June 1865. Meanwhile, the transfer of the old bank's operations in Constantinople to the new one had been completed on .
The governance concept of the BIO was unique and unprecedented. The two committees in London and Paris were not expected to meet jointly; instead, decisions by one committee became effective once ratified by the other committee. The annual general meetings of its shareholders were held in London. The original committees included: in London, Sir William Clay (chair), James Alexander, John Anderson, Thomas Charles Bruce, George T. Clark, William Richard Drake, Pascoe St Leger Grenfell, Augustus Edward Hobart-Hampden, John W. Larking, Lachlan Mackintosh Rate, and John Stewart; and in Paris, (chair), A. André, Vincent Buffarini, Raffaele de Ferrari, Achille Fould, Frédéric Greininger, Jean–Henri Hottinguer, the Pereire brothers, Alexis Pillet-Will, Casimir Salvador, and . became the first general manager in Constantinople, with Edward Gilbertson as his deputy and the local board being otherwise composed of John Stewart, representing the London and Paris committees, and local bankers Antoine Alléon and Charles Simpson Hanson.
First years of activity and convention of February 1875
The early activity of the BIO was mostly about providing financing to the Ottoman government, even though as early as August 1865 the bank's staff was concerned about the creditworthiness of its main debtor, and the BIO was by no means the only player on that market.
The BIO was not entirely oblivious of the broader financing needs of the Ottoman economy, however. As a complement to its own activity of lending to the Imperial government and international financial transactions, it sponsored in 1864 the creation of a separate bank that would focus on lending to local businessmen and local government. That "younger sister", named the (SGEO, "General Company of the Ottoman Empire"), had as initial shareholders the BIO itself together with a number of Galata bankers such as Aristide , the Camondo family bank, Boghos Mısırlıoğlu, the Zafiropoulo & Zafiri partnership, and Christakis Zografos, as well as international partners Bischoffheim & Goldschmidt (Paris and London), Frühling & Göschen (London and Leipzig), Oppenheim, Alberti et Cie (Paris), Augustus Ralli (Marseille), Stern Brothers (London), and (Frankfurt). After a few years, however, the relations within that group deteriorated, and by the 1870s the BIO had cut most of its exposure to the SGEO, which was eventually liquidated at the expiration of its initial 30-year term in 1893, at the time when the BIO was starting to develop its own commercial and retail banking operations throughout the Empire.
Also in 1864, the BIO opened a branch in Salonica, the main Ottoman port city where it was not already present, and another one in the Cypriot port city of Larnaca. In November 1865, however, the shareholders rejected plans for more ambitious branch network expansion. In 1866, political developments in the newly formed United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia led the BIO to transform its two branches there, in Galaţi (est. 1856) and Bucharest (est. 1861) to a local subsidiary, the Bank of Romania, while their bad assets were retained by the BIO and eventually liquidated by 1872. In October 1867, the BIO opened a branch in Alexandria, its first in the Khedivate of Egypt. In 1868, a commercial branch was opened in Paris, first at 30, boulevard Haussmann; in 1870 it moved to the prestigious address of 7, rue Meyerbeer, facing the Palais Garnier, where it would remain for more than a century.
In 1868, the Ottoman Bank faced its first serious competitor with the creation of , a rival institution sponsored by France's Société Générale and several Galata bankers including the Tubini family but also Christakis Zografos and Stefanos Zafiropoulo, who had been the BIO's partners in the SGEO venture. The Crédit Général Ottoman was a major underwriter of Ottoman treasury bonds, but ceased to operate in 1899. Two other competitors were promoted soon afterwards by Austria-Hungary, namely the Austro-Ottoman Bank (, ) sponsored by the Anglo-Austrian Bank and Wiener Bankverein in 1871, and the Austro-Turkish Bank (, sometimes ) in 1872. Neither survived the financial turmoil of the 1870s; the Austro-Ottoman Bank was merged into the BIO in 1874.
The Ottoman state's continued financial challenges led successive grand viziers Mehmed Rushdi Pasha and Hüseyin Avni Pasha to seek an expansion of the role of the BIO by making it the operator of all imperial treasury operations, including all revenue collection, expenditures, and short-term funding, with the aim to restore confidence in the state's financial discipline and thus improve its access to credit. The Porte sent senior official Mehmed Sadık Pasha to Paris to negotiate the new convention in April 1874, and the text was promptly signed there on . It stipulated that the bank would operate the Ottoman treasury in all provinces where it had a branch, and would open new branches where it was not already present. The BIO would receive a fee of 0.75 percent on all government financial transactions, and 1 percent on short-term government debt issuance. The BIO subsequently absorbed the Austro-Ottoman Bank at the Porte's request, and led a major Ottoman bond issuance in several phases, later in 1874 and early 1875. Nevertheless, the convention of May 1874 became an object of controversy in Constantinople, not least among foreign powers other than France and the UK, namely the German Empire and especially the Russian Empire. It was renegotiated into an amended version, which was signed on and promptly ratified by Sultan Abdulaziz, with a reduction of the BIO's commission on treasury operations from 0.75 to 0.5 percent.
The creation of new branches was a generally loss-making proposition for the BIO and consequently fell well short of the convention's stated ambitions, with only three new locations opened in 1875 in Bursa, Edirne and Ruscuk plus a sub-office of the Beirut branch in Damascus. More generally, the implementation of the convention and of the BIO's new role quickly ran into practical difficulties and opposition from local government officials, compounded by the dismissal in late April 1875 of its champion Hüseyin Avni Pasha. The BIO syndicated a number of new loans throughout 1875 but retained little of them on its own balance sheet.
Crisis of 1875–1881
Starting with the Herzegovina uprising in July 1875, the Great Eastern Crisis resulted in renewed financial stress. On , grand vizier Mahmud Nedim Pasha unilaterally decided and announced a change in the terms of reimbursement of the recent loans, without consulting the BIO, and later in 1875 the Ottoman authorities suspended the implementation of the February convention altogether. The Empire's security situation kept deteriorating with the April Uprising of 1876 in Bulgaria and the declaration of Serbian–Ottoman War in June 1876, as well as the successive depositions of Sultan Abdulaziz on and of his nephew and short-lived successor Murad V on . In 1876 and 1877, the authorities fueled inflation by issuing new Ottoman liras in the form of paper currency or kaime, as they had done during the Crimean War, which were later repurchased at a depreciated rate. On , Russia in turn declared war on the Ottoman empire. Following protracted negotiations in London, the BIO led a new loan backed by the tribute from the Khedivate of Egypt, which was partly released from its pledging as collateral for prior Ottoman borrowing in 1854 and 1871, but its placement failed in December 1877 following Ottoman military setbacks at the Battle of Kars and the Siege of Plevna. During that turbulent period, the BIO reduced its activity and cost base and suspended dividends, while its claims on the Ottoman state ballooned.
In the spring of 1878, following the Treaty of San Stefano and cessation of hostilities, the BIO lobbied for a resolution of the Ottoman public debt situation to be considered at the Congress of Berlin. The chairman of its Paris committee, , suggested to French foreign minister William Waddington a new organization on the model of the Caisse de la Dette that had been established in 1876 for Egypt, but with greater consideration of Ottoman sensitivities. The Treaty of Berlin of partly addressed the debt challenge by establishing revenue flows from the newly independent territories (Bulgaria, Montenegro, Eastern Rumelia and Serbia), thus supporting the payment of the Ottoman public debt and war reparations. By convention of the Ottoman authorities farmed out six revenue streams to a BIO-led syndicate for a duration of ten years, namely stamp duty, taxes on alcohols, on fishing in Constantinople, on silk in four provinces, and the salt and tobacco monopolies, the latter two being by far the largest. This pledging of the so-called six contributions was widely understood as a stopgap measure pending a comprehensive solution to the debt problem, which the BIO kept advocating.
The war and its aftermath affected the BIO's network. In Bulgaria, the recently created branch in Ruscuk was transferred in May 1877 to Varna. Its activity restarted in 1878 but was then again transferred to Varna. The BIO considered building it up into a national bank, as it had done in Romania in 1866, but that project failed given the new country's instability, and the Varna branch closed in 1882. Meanwhile, immediately after the Berlin Congress created Eastern Rumelia in 1878, the BIO opened a branch in the capital Philippopoli (later Plovdiv). As Cyprus came under British rule, the BIO promptly opened branches in Nicosia and Limassol in 1879 to serve the new authorities on the island, with a dominant position despite local competition from the Anglo-Egyptian Bank. In the Khedivate of Egypt, the BIO opened a branch in Cairo in early 1881, and its main branch in Alexandria withstood the riots during the ʻUrabi revolt in 1882.
Negotiations on the Ottoman debt eventually started in Constantinople on , and led to the agreement known by its ratification instrument, the Decree of Muharram of , which closed the period of financial distress that had started in 1875. It created the Ottoman Public Debt Administration under a council of seven members, of which one was to be appointed by the BIO and to represent the signatories of the convention of November 1879, whose claims were reduced in line with the decree's general debt restructuring. Meanwhile, the BIO endeavored to implement its role of treasurer under the convention of February 1875, which in principle was still applicable, in a limited number of locations such as Bursa, Damascus, Edirne, Salonica, and Smyrna. It restarted distributing dividends from 1880.
Expansion into commercial and investment banking (1881–1911)
Investment projects
During the turmoil of the 1870s, and despite French hostility to Germany following defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the BIO started reaching out to Austrian and German partners. Its acquisition of the Austro-Ottoman Bank in 1874 had given it connections in Vienna, and in 1881 it entered an informal partnership with banks Creditanstalt of Vienna and S. Bleichröder of Berlin to invest in joint projects, which became known as the "Consortium". Their first venture was to form a company to sell tobacco products, for which they obtained assent from the Ottoman Public Debt Administration which held rights over tobacco revenue, formed an entity known as in 1883, and secured a thirty-year monopoly from 1884. The Régie or Ottoman Tobacco Company had a difficult start fighting smuggling, but became prominent enough that it shared half of the new head office building that the BIO had erected for itself in Galata in 1892.
From 1882, the Consortium sought to develop railways in the European part of the Ottoman Empire, or Rumelia, with the aim to connect Constantinople to Vienna. The Ottoman government in 1869 had granted the concession for what was known as the Chemins de fer Orientaux to international financier Maurice de Hirsch, who did not start the works and in 1882 approached the BIO with the aim to exit the venture. After several years of negotiations, the BIO in 1885 led the formation of the , which pledged to build railway lines to the respective borders of Bulgaria and Serbia. Eventually, Hirsch sold his concession in 1890 to a group formed by Deutsche Bank and Wiener Bankverein in which the BIO was given a 25 percent stake, most of which it sold on to other investors including the Comptoir d'Escompte de Paris and Société Générale. This initiated an informal partnership between the BIO and Deutsche Bank, which gradually replaced the Consortium especially after Gerson von Bleichröder passed away in 1893.
The BIO was involved in early considerations of a railway from Haydarpaşa railway station, on the Asian side of Constantinople, to Anatolia and ultimately to Baghdad, which would later be known as part of the Berlin–Baghdad railway. In 1888, it formed a group of investors to this effect together with Bleichröder and the Disconto-Gesellschaft in Berlin, but Deutsche Bank won a competing concession later that year and the BIO redirected its focus to railway projects in the Levant and Syria. From 1888, the BIO was involved in the creation of the to develop the Port of Beirut together with the led by Edmond de Perthuis. This was the first time the BIO acted in close coordination with the French government, which promoted the project. Construction works were completed in 1894, including the demolition of the ancient Beirut Castle, and the new port facility started operations on . In 1891, the BIO participated in the creation of the to build a railway connecting Beirut with Damascus and the Hauran region to its south, with the main Beirut–Damascus branch completed in June 1895. Further northwards extensions, however, turned out to be commercially and financially problematic, despite pressure from the French government to counter the German-sponsored Berlin–Baghdad railway. The rebranded eventually built a line to Hama in 1902, prolonged to Aleppo in 1906 and completed by an east–west branch between Homs and Tripoli in 1911. In 1906, the BIO relocated its Beirut branch to a new building on the port's waterfront.
In May 1899 in Berlin, the BIO and the Deutsche Bank agreed on a joint approach for the railway project toward Baghdad, which would unfold and unravel in subsequent years. On in Paris, the two institutions agreed to form a financing syndicate, an operating company and a construction company to execute the project. On , a final act of concession was signed in Constantinople. But the project was conditional on attracting an international set of investors including a group from the UK, which failed to materialized in April 1903 because of negative British public perceptions about participation in a German-led endeavor. Through negotiations in Berlin in June, the BIO and Deutsche Bank produced a revised concept that maintained the appearance of equality between France and Germany, but given the tense relationship between the two countries, that was refused by both governments later in June. The railway to Baghdad ended up dominated by German and affiliated interests, with only limited participation by the BIO.
The BIO participated in the construction of the railway from Constantinople to Salonica from 1892 to 1896 (the greater part of which later became the Thessaloniki–Alexandroupoli railway), but with no large financial commitment as it correctly anticipated that the line would not be profitable. From 1894 to 1897 it led the development of the railway from Smyrna to Afyonkarahisar, known as Smyrne Cassaba & Prolongements. In 1896, the BIO played a major role in the establishment of a coal mining company in Heraclea on the Black Sea shore, now Karadeniz Ereğli, the main coal mine in Asia Minor.
Sovereign debt management and the liquidity crisis of late 1895
During the 1880s, 1890s and 1900s, the BIO kept its dominant role in orchestrating the financing of the Ottoman government, but reduced the exposures it retained on its own balance sheet. In 1886, it agreed on a restructuring of its outstanding loans to the government. It subsequently restarted short-term lending to the Ottoman treasury, but attempted to limit the corresponding amounts, which generated serious friction with finance minister Hagop Kazazian Pasha in the late 1880s. In October 1889, the BIO sought a new impetus by appointing Edgar Vincent as managing director for a term of five years. In March 1890, the BIO accepted a new restructuring of its lending to the government, and went on to work out other segments of the Ottoman debt legacy under favorable credit conditions in the early 1890s. It sponsored financial affiliates in third countries for purposes of financial arbitrage, namely the Geneva-based in 1892 (joint venture with Union Financière de Genève), and the Brussels-registered in 1896, which was actually managed from Paris.
Starting in 1894, the BIO invested in South African gold mines. The rapid expansion of these and other BIO exposures led to an incipient bank run at Constantinople in early November 1895, following a market downturn in London, but that was promptly put to an end by a show of support by the Ottoman government including a 12-year extension of the BIO's convention term, from 1913 to 1925. The BIO subsequently reorganized its management to make it less centralized, placing the branch network under deputy general manager Gaston Auboyneau, and sharply reduced its exposures to railway projects and those in a number of branches. The late-1895 liquidity crisis was the most severe experienced by the BIO so far, but also eliminated many of its local competitors including several of the remaining Galata bankers.
In the 1900s, the bank was continuously involved in efforts to work out the Ottoman public debt, including the negotiation of a restructuring enshrined in the decree of together with the Comptoir National d'Escompte de Paris and the Banque Française pour le Commerce et l'Industrie. The deterioration of security in the three Ottoman provinces of Macedonia (Salonica, Monastir and Üsküb) during the period of Macedonian Struggle led the Western powers to request administrative reforms in the region. Rather than having to countenance yet more foreign intervention, Sultan Abdul Hamid II in early 1905 asked the BIO to take over the full treasury service in the three Macedonian provinces along the terms of the convention of February 1875, which had never been formally abrogated.
Commercial and retail banking
Simultaneously as he led the financial relationship with the Ottoman government in the early 1890s, Edgar Vincent initiated a program of opening new branch offices, particularly in Anatolia and beyond, as previously considered in 1865 and 1874 but never before implemented at scale. The BIO restarted a network in Bulgaria beyond the branch in Philippopoli that had opened in 1878, opening in Sofia in 1890 and (once again) in Ruse in 1892. From 1891, the BIO started opening savings accounts for retail customers in Turkey (and a bit earlier in Egypt). The 1890s were the time when the BIO's banknotes started circulating widely throughout the empire, instead of being largely confined to use in Constantinople as had been the case until then.
On , the BIO's new head office in Galata, inaugurated on , was the scene of a dramatic episode, remembered as the occupation of the Ottoman Bank. Activists of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation stormed the building to draw international attention to the plight of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire that were the targets of the Hamidian massacres. The bank's managers negotiated their safe exit and transfer to Marseille. Even so, the attack left eight dead and fourteen wounded among the Armenian activists, the Ottoman police, the bank's staff and clients.
In the late 1890s, the Bulgarian government requested the transformation of the BIO's branches in the country into a fully fledged local bank. The BIO attempted to create a "Bank of Sofia" with support from Bleichröder and Berliner Disconto-Gesellschaft, but that did not succeed and all three Bulgarian locations were liquidated in 1899.
In 1903, the BIO was again the target of an action intended to shock Western European public opinion, this time by Bulgarian nationalists participating in the Macedonian Struggle. The Boatmen of Thessaloniki, an anarchist group, bombed the bank's branch in Salonica and adjacent buildings on , killing a night guard, as part of a two-day campaign of terrorist attacks that also damaged railways and a French passenger ship. The bank was able to reopen on a nearby location on .
In 1903, the Cairo Stock Exchange was first established under leadership of businessman Moïse Yacoub (Moussa) Cattaui, in the former BIO branch building on what is now Adly Street. From 1904 on, the BIO was able to accelerate the expansion of its branch network, including in Egypt. One of the BIO's aims in opening new branches was to preempt competition from new peers such as the Banque de Salonique in Macedonia. Unlike in the past, the new branches quickly generated profits, and the BIO's commercial banking operations became increasingly dominant in its overall activity.
Years of turmoil (1911–1925)
Wars in Libya and the Balkans
From the start of the Italo-Turkish War in September 1911, the Ottoman Empire entered a protracted period of near-continuous military engagements which put yet more strain on its finances. The BIO's role in the state's financing became less central, in part because of rising competition from the Banque de Salonique (despite the acquisition by the BIO of a minority stake in 1911), the Deutsche Orientbank, created in 1906 by three German competitors of Deutsche Bank, and the National Bank of Turkey, created in 1909 by financier Ernest Cassel. Following Ottoman setbacks in the Balkan Wars, the BIO and Deutsche Bank successfully lobbied to avoid the imposition of war reparations on the Empire in the treaties of Bucharest and Constantinople, but did not obtain a reduction of the Ottoman debt in proportion to the Empire's territorial losses.
Branch network in 1914
The early years of the war period did not interrupt the rapid expansion of the BIO's branch network, with 31 openings from 1908 to 1914, despite the closing of Benghazi and Tripoli following Italy's victory in Libya. An advert of early 1914 lists 83 branches, sub-branches and offices, in addition to the three head office locations of Galata, London and Paris:
4 in the remaining Ottoman lands in Europe: Stamboul (now Eminönü, opened 1886) and Pera (now İstiklal Avenue 115/A, 1891) in Constantinople; Edirne (1875) and Rodosto/Tekirdağ (1909) in East Thrace;
42 in Ottoman Anatolia: Smyrna (1856), Aydın (1863), Afyonkarahisar (1863–1880 and reopened 1899), Adalia/Antalya (1869), Bursa (1875), Nazilli (1881, with interruption 1898–1905), Adana and Konya (1889), Denizli (1890), Balıkesir, Uşak, Samsun and Trabzon (1891), Mersin (1892), Ankara (1893), Castambol/Kastamonu and Sivas (1899), Eskişehir and Akşehir (1904), Panderma/Bandırma and Bilecik (1905), Erzurum, Kerassunde/Giresun, Kütahya and Aintab/Gaziantep (1906), Adapazarı (1907), Tarsus (1908), Césarée/Kayseri, İnebolu, Ordu, Geyve and Bolvadin (1910), Diyarbakır, Kharput/Mamuret-el-Aziz/Elazığ, Bitlis, Van and Djihan/Ceyhan (1911), Bolu, Urfa, Sandıklı and Sokia/Söke (1912), and Dardanelles/Çanakkale (1914);
15 in the Arab-speaking Ottoman territories: Beirut (1856), Damascus (1875), Baghdad (1892), Aleppo and Bassorah (1893), Tripoli (1904), Jaffa and Jerusalem (1905), Haifa (1906), Mosul (1907), Homs (1908), Sidon and Hodeida (1911), Jeddah (1912), and Hama (1914?);
3 in the Khedivate of Egypt: Alexandria (1866), Port Said (1872), and Cairo (1881);
4 in British Cyprus: Larnaca (1862), Nicosia and Limassol (1879), and Famagusta (1906);
14 in European and Aegean territories lost by the Ottoman Empire during the Italo-Turkish War and Balkan Wars of 1911–1913: Shkodër in the fledgling Principality of Albania; Dedeağaç/Alexandroupoli (1904), Xanthi (1906), Gyumyurdjina/Komotini and Soufli (1910) in the Kingdom of Bulgaria; Salonica (1863), Mytilini (1898), Kavala (1904), Drama, Serres and Ioannina (1910) in the Kingdom of Greece; Rhodes (1911) in the Kingdom of Italy; and Monastir/Bitola and Üsküb/Skopje (1903) in the Kingdom of Serbia;
1 in the UK: Manchester (1911).
In April 1914, the BIO sold its Macedonian branches of Monastir/Bitola and Üsküb/Skopje to the Banque franco-serbe (BFS), established in 1910 and in which the BIO had an equity interest. Facing hostility from the Bulgarian government which had taken over Dedeagac, Gyumyurdjina and Xanthi, it had to liquidate all three branches. It also closed the branch in Shkodër in October 1914 following local turmoil.
Some of the bank's branches hosted other public services. For example, the BIO branch in the eastern Anatolian city of Van also served as the local office of the Ottoman Tobacco Company, the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, and the .
World War I
On , the Ottoman Empire entered World War I against France and the UK. By then, three-quarters of the BIO's shareholders were French, the rest were mostly British, and its most senior managers were nationals from the two countries. Its seats in London and Paris were not treated harshly by the respective governments, but they were forbidden from transacting with the head office which was now in enemy territory. Conversely, London and Paris kept control of the bank's operations on allied ground, including Egypt, Cyprus, northern Greece, and territories conquered from the Ottomans such as Basra from February 1915, Mytilene from June 1917, and Palestine from January 1918, as well as Trabzon during its occupation by Russian forces. The BIO opened a branch in Marseille in 1916 to centralize the relations with France of its branches in Egypt and Greece. In Cyprus, nominally an Ottoman province but administered by the UK since 1878, the island was annexed in immediate response to the Ottoman declaration of war in November 1914. A run left the BIO's local operation with less than £4,000 in its vaults, and no means of replenishing its reserves from the head office in Constantinople. The bank was briefly closed by the island's British authorities and then allowed to re-open effectively as a separate semi-state company. In part this compromise seems to have been reached as the British authorities in Cyprus had themselves deposited their entire funds at the BIO, some £40,000, which would have been lost had the bank been forced to close.
In Constantinople, the BIO declined to further finance the government, and unilaterally renounced its issuance privilege, leaving the Ottoman authorities to issue paper money as they had already done in the late 1870s. On , with no hope of receiving more credit from the BIO, Talaat Bey requested the replacement of its the three French senior executives (namely Arthur Nias, Louis Steeg, and Isidore Dupuis) with their most senior colleagues who were Ottoman nationals, namely Georges Cartali, Marius Hanemoglou, and Berch Kerestejian. Nias instructed the latter to act as a collegial leadership, before traveling back to France together with Dupuis and Steeg. The other British, French, Italian and Russian employees of the BIO were generally allowed to keep their jobs. A later attempt by Talaat Bey to nationalize the BIO failed in July 1915, in part due to opposition from Deutsche Bank with which the BIO had a longstanding partnership, and to advocacy by Mehmed Cavid that the BIO's survival as a credible institution was in the Ottoman state's longer-term interest.
The ways the war affected individual branches were extremely diverse. In eastern Anatolia and elsewhere, the BIO's leadership led by Cartali managed to obtain exemptions for many of its Armenian staff from the Armenian genocide. The BIO's staff in Syria and Mesopotamia were also able to provide some financial services to deported Armenians despite the hostile environment. Throughout the war, the BIO kept processing the local financial transactions of the Ottoman government through its unparalleled network of branches, which made it easier to secure protection for its staff. It mostly refrained, however, from new lending business to either the government or the private sector, which led to a considerable erosion of its market share.
Postwar adjustments and change of control
Following the end of World War I, the BIO determined that its former activity as a state bank had limited prospects, and that its future lay in the expansion of retail, commercial and investment banking services in the eastern Mediterranean. Instead of relocating its head office to France as it had briefly considered in 1918, the BIO decided to leverage its international identity and to re-emphasize the complementarity between London and Paris in its governance, even though by then only about a tenth of its shareholding base was British. It even envisaged co-opting some American nationals into its London and Paris committees. It regrouped the direction of its activities in Cyprus, Palestine, Mesopotamia and Arabia in London, which already had a leading role for Egypt.
The BIO opened a branch in Tunis in 1920, and three branches in Persia, namely Kermanshah (1920), Hamadan and Tehran (both in 1922). Between 1919 and 1923, it made an abortive attempt to expand into the South Caucasus region with branches in Baku, Batumi, and Tbilisi. The BIO, however, declined in May 1920 the suggestion to be the anchor investor in a new state bank of the First Republic of Armenia, promoted by Calouste Gulbenkian. In Cyprus and the near east the BIO further opened branches in Paphos (1918), Kirkuk (1920), and Troödos (1921), Bethlehem, Ramallah, and Nablus (1922), in the Musky neighborhood of Cairo and in Ismailia (1924), Amman (1925), and Tel Aviv (1931). Conversely, it had to close both its branches in Arabia (Jeddah and Hodeida) and many in Albania, northern Greece and the Aegean (Shkodër, Ioannina, Serres, Drama, Komotini, Mytilene, and Rhodes).
In the Levant, following the secret Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916, the French authorities pressured the BIO to transform its branches in the territories under French influence into a separate subsidiary. On , the BIO consequently sponsored the establishment of a new Banque de Syrie, of which it initially held 94.45 percent ownership and which opened operations in Marseille and Beirut in April 1919. The situation in the region remained uncertain, however, until the French authorities expelled Emir Faisal from Syria in July 1920. Subsequently in 1921, the Banque de Syrie acquired from the BIO all its branches in the region, while the BIO sold some of its shares to local business leaders.
In October 1920, the Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas (BPPB), together with the Banque Industrielle de Chine, the , and Basil Zaharoff's , acquired a significant block of BIO shares from a group of investors who had tried and failed to force the creation of an Italian constituency in the BIO's governance. After initial misgivings in both Paris and London, the BPPB thus became the BIO's controlling shareholder. It would maintain that position until 1996.
In the BIO's core area of operations, the Turkish War of Independence disrupted its business until the return of peace with the Treaty of Lausanne in July 1923. During the war, the BIO endeavored to keep a position of neutrality and instructed its branches to cooperate with whichever forces were in control of the territory, while temporarily closing them if the local conditions made business entirely impossible. Its branch building in Smyrna, by then located on the waterfront, was entirely destroyed by fire on during the Burning of Smyrna. Some branches such as Aydın, Afyonkarahisar, Erzurum and Kütahya only reopened in late 1923.
Normalization in Turkey
Following its victory of the Turkish War of Independence, the Republic of Turkey signed a convention with the BIO on , under which it provided credit to the new Republican government in Ankara as well as its two banking champions, Ziraat Bank and the newly established İşbank. The BIO did not resume note issuance but agreed to continue servicing the financial operations of the public treasury, pending the creation of a new national bank, which only came in 1931 with the establishment of the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey. In line with the new circumstances, the bank's name was changed back to Ottoman Bank in May 1925; even so, it was the only institution allowed to keep the word "Ottoman" in its name.
Two other conventions, respectively in 1933 and 1952, led to the full normalization of the Ottoman Bank's status as a commercial bank. In 1947, it redeemed its last circulating banknotes (all issued before 1914) and reimbursed them in gold at par, an achievement unmatched by any other note-issuing bank since the beginning of World War I.
Ottoman Bank (1925–2001)
French and British groups
Under the direction of the BPPB, the Ottoman Bank kept its dual British–French structure with individual country operations allocated to one or the other of the two committees. The Turkish bank itself and its subsidiaries in Syria, Lebanon and Yugoslavia remained under the Paris Committee. The London Committee managed the existing network in Cyprus and Egypt, and led new developments in Jordan (1925), Sudan (1949), Qatar (1956), Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Rhodesia (1958), Abu Dhabi (1962), and Oman (1969). Increasingly, this resulted in a bifurcation of the Ottoman Bank into two mutually autonomous groups.
The French group was gradually reduced to the Turkish operations of the Ottoman Bank. The was nationalized by Yugoslavia in 1939. The Banque de Syrie et du Liban, formed in 1919 to take over the former BIO branches in those countries, had its Syrian activity nationalized in 1956 following the Suez Crisis, and merged into the state-owned Commercial Bank of Syria in 1966. The Lebanese operation lost its issuance privilege in 1963 following the creation of the country's central bank, the Banque du Liban;
As for the British group, the bank further opened branches in Egypt (El-Geneifa in the Sinai in 1940, Port Tewfik in 1941, El Mahalla El Kubra in 1942, Fayoum and Tanta in 1947), Cyprus (Kyrenia in 1943, Lefka and Morphou in 1946), as well as in West Jerusalem (1947), Erbil (1948), Khartoum and Port Sudan (1949). In 1956, Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized all Ottoman Bank operations in Egypt, and transferred them to the purposed-created Bank Al-Goumhourieh together with those of Ionian Bank. The Ottoman Bank nevertheless kept opening new branches, in Qatar (1956), Abu Dhabi (1962), and Muscat (1969). In 1969, the BPPB sold all these remaining operations of the London-led group to National and Grindlays Bank. In 1975, Grindlays also purchased the Paris commercial branch and affiliated operations in Switzerland, which were renamed Grindlays Banque - France. Grindlays, in turn, was acquired in 1984 by the Australia and New Zealand Banking Group.
As of 1991, Paribas held nearly half of the total equity capital of the Ottoman Bank, the rest being dispersed among many shareholders.
Merger into Garanti Bank
In 1996, Paribas ceded its control of the Ottoman Bank to Garanti Bank, by then a fully-owned subsidiary of the Doğuş Group. On , Garanti merged the Ottoman Bank with , and on , integrated it fully into its own operations. This led to the disappearance of the Ottoman Bank brand name from all remaining branches. At the time of its merger, the Ottoman Bank had a network of 58 branches and around 1,400 personnel. Most of these branches have been maintained as branches of Garanti Bank since the merger.
Human resources and leadership
The Ottoman Bank was set up as an institution in which people from multiple nationalities would work, even though the nationality of its most senior executives was the matter of numerous negotiations over the years.
The General Manager in Constantinople and their deputy were British or French, even though during World War I the BIO was administered by Ottomans of Armenian and Greek ethnicity as British and French nationals had to leave the country at war. The top executives and most of the branch managers were Europeans. Many mid-level officers and some branch managers were non-Muslim Ottomans of Greek, Armenian, Jewish and Arab Christian background. The bottom of the hierarchy was mostly Muslim Ottomans performing services as clerks, couriers, guards and doorkeepers.
Compared to the proportion of the different population of the empire, the number of the non-Muslim personnel was comparatively high, partly reflecting the fact that non-Muslims had better access to western language skills, accounting and banking education, and culturally western orientation until the forming of the Republic of Turkey.
Chairmen
First Ottoman Bank
Austen Henry Layard (1856–1861)
Thomas Charles Bruce (1861–1862)
Sir William Clay (1862–1865)
BIO London Committee
Sir William Clay (1863–1866)
Austen Henry Layard (1866–1870)
Thomas Charles Bruce (1870–1890)
Charles Mills, 1st Baron Hillingdon (1890–1898)
Charles Mills, 2nd Baron Hillingdon (1898–1907)
Edward Ponsonby (1907–1920)
George Goschen (1920–1924)
Herbert Lawrence (1924–1943)
BIO Paris Committee
(1863–1902)
Rodolphe Hottinguer (1902–1919)
Jean de Neuflize (1919–1928)
Raoul Mallet (1928–1937)
Charles Rist (1937–1954)
Emmanuel Monick (1954–1975)
Bernard (1975–1989)
Gustave Rambaud (1989–1992)
Hubert de Saint-Amand (1992–1996)
General managers
Constantinople / Istanbul
(1863–1868)
Augustus Edward Hobart-Hampden (1868–1871)
Morgan Hugh Foster (1871–1889)
Edgar Vincent (1889–1897)
Robert Hamilton Lang (1897–1902)
Gaston Auboyneau (1902–1903)
Charles (1903–1904)
Jules Deffès (1904–1910)
Paul Révoil (1910–1913)
Arthur Nias (1913–1919)
Louis Steeg (1920–1925)
Jacques Jeulin (1966–1985)
Aclan Acar (1996–2000)
Turgay Gönensin (2000–2001)
Paris
From the 1880s to World War I, a Paris-based officer generally known as the , starting with Théodore Berger who had earlier been the Secretary of the Paris Committee, played a key executive role in running the BIO in close coordination with the management based in Constantinople.
Théodore Berger (1882–1900)
Frank Auboyneau (1900–1903)
Gaston Auboyneau (1903–1911), Frank's son
Charles (1914–?)
Buildings
Galata head office
The Ottoman Bank (from 1856) and then the BIO (from 1863) were initially established on the top floor of Saint Pierre Han, a commercial facility that was a dependency of the Church of Saints Peter and Paul in Galata. In the late 1880s, the BIO decided to commission a new headquarters building slightly downhill on Voyvoda Street, now Bankalar Caddesi in Karaköy, which would also serve as headquarters for the Ottoman Tobacco Company in which the BIO was the main investor. Architect Alexander Vallaury designed the building for that purpose, with an east–west division between the two entities and separate street entrances (the BIO on No.11 and the Tobacco Régie on No.13); and a north–south stylistic division between the Western-looking street front and the neo-Ottoman, asymmetric rear façade that rose prominently above the Golden Horn. Thus, Vallaury's design embodied the BIO's unique identity as a bridge between Western European capitalism and Ottoman statehood.
The building was inaugurated on and was kept in use by the Ottoman Bank until 1999. From 1999 to 2009, it housed the Karaköy branch of Garanti Bank and its area directorates, as well as the Ottoman Bank Archives and Research Centre. It was then closed for refurbishment and reopened in November 2011 as the Galata site of SALT, a cultural institution that is funded by Garanti Bank, complementing SALT's other Istanbul site on İstiklal Avenue, formerly Platform Garanti Contemporary Art Center.
SALT operates the Ottoman Bank Museum in the building together with a café, a bookstore, an auditorium, temporary exhibition spaces, a public library, and an archive that is open to the public (Açık Arşiv). The twin neighboring building, on Bankalar Caddesi 13, has hosted the Tobacco Monopoly Administration (succeeding the Régie) from 1925 to 1934, and since 1934 has been the Istanbul branch of the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey.
The Ottoman Bank Museum was initially opened in the building's basement and expanded into the upper floors in 2017. It displays objects and provides insight into the late Ottoman and early Republican period, including stock and bond certificates, accounting books, customer files, deposit cards, personnel files and photographs. The basement includes four bank vaults, the largest of which is two-storied and has been repurposed to display the banknotes and silver coins issued between 1863 and 1914 together with the story, design, registration and samples of each.
Branch offices
At the very outset in 1856, the BIO established itself in existing commercial malls or caravanserais, namely Saint Pierre Han in Galata, in Beirut, and Baltazzi Han in Smyrna. In 1863, it purchased a prominent mansion from Levantine businessman Jake Abbott for its new branch in Salonica which would be destroyed by terror attack in 1903. In later years, the BIO would usually rent an existing space when opening a new branch, and if it generated sufficient activity after some years, commission an in-house or external architect to erect a prominent new branch building.
See also
State Bank of the Russian Empire
Austro-Hungarian Bank
Imperial Bank of Persia
State Bank of Morocco
Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey
References
Notes
External links
Bank history at the Ottoman Bank Archives and Research Centre
Ottoman Bank Museum
saltonline.org
1856 establishments in the Ottoman Empire
2001 disestablishments in Turkey
Banks established in 1856
Bank
Ottoman
Defunct banks of France
Defunct banks of Turkey
Defunct banks of the United Kingdom
Banks disestablished in 2001
British overseas banks
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor
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Capacitor
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A capacitor is an electronic device that stores electrical energy in an electric field by accumulating electric charges on two closely spaced surfaces that are insulated from each other. It is a passive electronic component with two terminals.
The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While some capacitance exists between any two electrical conductors in proximity in a circuit, a capacitor is a component designed to add capacitance to a circuit. The capacitor was originally known as the condenser, a term still encountered in a few compound names, such as the condenser microphone.
The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many types of capacitor are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical conductors, often in the form of metallic plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be a foil, thin film, sintered bead of metal, or an electrolyte. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, air, and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy, although real-life capacitors do dissipate a small amount (see Non-ideal behavior). When an electric potential difference (a voltage) is applied across the terminals of a capacitor, for example when a capacitor is connected across a battery, an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing a net positive charge to collect on one plate and net negative charge to collect on the other plate. No current actually flows through the dielectric. However, there is a flow of charge through the source circuit. If the condition is maintained sufficiently long, the current through the source circuit ceases. If a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, the source experiences an ongoing current due to the charging and discharging cycles of the capacitor.
The earliest forms of capacitors were created in the 1740s, when European experimenters discovered that electric charge could be stored in water-filled glass jars that came to be known as Leyden jars. Today, capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow. The property of energy storage in capacitors was exploited as dynamic memory in early digital computers, and still is in modern DRAM.
History
In October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania, Germany, found that charge could be stored by connecting a high-voltage electrostatic generator by a wire to a volume of water in a hand-held glass jar. Von Kleist's hand and the water acted as conductors and the jar as a dielectric (although details of the mechanism were incorrectly identified at the time). Von Kleist found that touching the wire resulted in a powerful spark, much more painful than that obtained from an electrostatic machine. The following year, the Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek invented a similar capacitor, which was named the Leyden jar, after the University of Leiden where he worked. He also was impressed by the power of the shock he received, writing, "I would not take a second shock for the kingdom of France."
Daniel Gralath was the first to combine several jars in parallel to increase the charge storage capacity. Benjamin Franklin investigated the Leyden jar and came to the conclusion that the charge was stored on the glass, not in the water as others had assumed. He also adopted the term "battery", (denoting the increase of power with a row of similar units as in a battery of cannon), subsequently applied to clusters of electrochemical cells. Leyden jars were later made by coating the inside and outside of jars with metal foil, leaving a space at the mouth to prevent arcing between the foils. The earliest unit of capacitance was the jar, equivalent to about 1.11 nanofarads.
Leyden jars or more powerful devices employing flat glass plates alternating with foil conductors were used exclusively up until about 1900, when the invention of wireless (radio) created a demand for standard capacitors, and the steady move to higher frequencies required capacitors with lower inductance. More compact construction methods began to be used, such as a flexible dielectric sheet (like oiled paper) sandwiched between sheets of metal foil, rolled or folded into a small package.
Early capacitors were known as condensers, a term that is still occasionally used today, particularly in high power applications, such as automotive systems. The term was first used for this purpose by Alessandro Volta in 1782, with reference to the device's ability to store a higher density of electric charge than was possible with an isolated conductor. The term became deprecated because of the ambiguous meaning of steam condenser, with capacitor becoming the recommended term in the UK from 1926, while the change occurred considerably later in the United States. In other countries, the term condensator has been in common use.
Since the beginning of the study of electricity, non-conductive materials like glass, porcelain, paper and mica have been used as insulators. Decades later, these materials were also well-suited for use as the dielectric for the first capacitors.
Paper capacitors, made by sandwiching a strip of impregnated paper between strips of metal and rolling the result into a cylinder, were commonly used in the late 19th century; their manufacture started in 1876, and they were used from the early 20th century as decoupling capacitors in telephony.
Porcelain was used in the first ceramic capacitors. In the early years of Marconi's wireless transmitting apparatus, porcelain capacitors were used for high voltage and high frequency application in the transmitters. On the receiver side, smaller mica capacitors were used for resonant circuits. Mica capacitors were invented in 1909 by William Dubilier. Prior to World War II, mica was the most common dielectric for capacitors in the United States.
Charles Pollak (born Karol Pollak), the inventor of the first electrolytic capacitors, found out that the oxide layer on an aluminum anode remained stable in a neutral or alkaline electrolyte, even when the power was switched off. In 1896 he was granted U.S. Patent No. 672,913 for an "Electric liquid capacitor with aluminum electrodes". Solid electrolyte tantalum capacitors were invented by Bell Laboratories in the early 1950s as a miniaturized and more reliable low-voltage support capacitor to complement their newly invented transistor.
With the development of plastic materials by organic chemists during the Second World War, the capacitor industry began to replace paper with thinner polymer films. One very early development in film capacitors was described in British Patent 587,953 in 1944.
Electric double-layer capacitors (now supercapacitors) were invented in 1957 when H. Becker developed a "Low voltage electrolytic capacitor with porous carbon electrodes". He believed that the energy was stored as a charge in the carbon pores used in his capacitor as in the pores of the etched foils of electrolytic capacitors. Because the double layer mechanism was not known by him at the time, he wrote in the patent: "It is not known exactly what is taking place in the component if it is used for energy storage, but it leads to an extremely high capacity."
The metal–oxide–semiconductor capacitor (MOS capacitor) originates from the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) structure, where the MOS capacitor is flanked by two doped regions. The MOSFET structure was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. The MOS capacitor was later widely adopted as a storage capacitor in memory chips, and as the basic building block of the charge-coupled device (CCD) in image sensor technology. In dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), each memory cell typically consists of a MOSFET and MOS capacitor.
Theory of operation
Overview
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-conductive region can either be a vacuum or an electrical insulator material known as a dielectric. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, plastic, ceramic, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. From Coulomb's law a charge on one conductor will exert a force on the charge carriers within the other conductor, attracting opposite polarity charge and repelling like polarity charges, thus an opposite polarity charge will be induced on the surface of the other conductor. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a constant capacitance C, in farads in the SI system of units, defined as the ratio of the positive or negative charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:
A capacitance of one farad (F) means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device. Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for a given voltage than when the conductors are separated, yielding a larger capacitance.
In practical devices, charge build-up sometimes affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:
Hydraulic analogy
In the hydraulic analogy, charge carriers flowing through a wire are analogous to water flowing through a pipe. A capacitor is like a rubber membrane sealed inside a pipe. Water molecules cannot pass through the membrane, but some water can move by stretching the membrane. The pressure differential is analogous to voltage, while the rate of flow is analogous to electric current:
The current alters the charge on a capacitor: just as the flow of water changes the position of the membrane. More specifically, the effect of an electric current is to increase the charge of one plate of the capacitor, and decrease the charge of the other plate by an equal amount. This is just as when water flow moves the rubber membrane, it increases the amount of water on one side of the membrane, and decreases the amount of water on the other side.
The more a capacitor is charged, the larger its voltage drop: as the membrane stretches, allowing more water to flow in from the high pressure side, the membrane "pushes back" against the charging current, increasing the pressure differential between the two sides.
Charge can flow "through" a capacitor even though no individual electron can get from one side to the other. As more water flows into the high pressure side, the expanding membrane pushes an equal quantity of water out of the low pressure side. The flow cannot continue in the same direction forever; the capacitor experiences dielectric breakdown, and analogously the membrane will eventually break.
The capacitance describes how much charge can be stored on one plate of a capacitor for a given voltage drop. The elasticity of the membrane is analogous to capacitance. A very stretchy, flexible membrane will expand more with a given pressure differential, allowing a greater volume of water to flow into the high pressure side. This corresponds to a higher capacitance than a stiff membrane.
A charged capacitor stores potential energy, analogously to a stretched membrane.
Circuit equivalence at short-time limit and long-time limit
In a circuit, a capacitor can behave differently at different time instants. However, it is usually easy to think about the short-time limit and long-time limit:
In the long-time limit, after the charging/discharging current has saturated the capacitor, no current would come into (or get out of) either side of the capacitor; Therefore, the long-time equivalence of capacitor is an open circuit.
In the short-time limit, if the capacitor starts with a certain voltage V, since the voltage drop on the capacitor is known at this instant, we can replace it with an ideal voltage source of voltage V. Specifically, if V=0 (capacitor is uncharged), the short-time equivalence of a capacitor is a short circuit.
Parallel-plate capacitor
The simplest model of a capacitor consists of two thin parallel conductive plates each with an area of separated by a uniform gap of thickness filled with a dielectric of permittivity . It is assumed the gap is much smaller than the dimensions of the plates. This model applies well to many practical capacitors which are constructed of metal sheets separated by a thin layer of insulating dielectric, since manufacturers try to keep the dielectric very uniform in thickness to avoid thin spots which can cause failure of the capacitor.
Since the separation between the plates is uniform over the plate area, the electric field between the plates is constant, and directed perpendicularly to the plate surface, except for an area near the edges of the plates where the field decreases because the electric field lines "bulge" out of the sides of the capacitor. This "fringing field" area is approximately the same width as the plate separation, , and assuming is small compared to the plate dimensions, it is small enough to be ignored. Therefore, if a charge of is placed on one plate and on the other plate (the situation for unevenly charged plates is discussed below), the charge on each plate will be spread evenly in a surface charge layer of constant charge density coulombs per square meter, on the inside surface of each plate. From Gauss's law the magnitude of the electric field between the plates is . The voltage(difference) between the plates is defined as the line integral of the electric field over a line (in the z-direction) from one plate to another
The capacitance is defined as . Substituting above into this equation
Therefore, in a capacitor the highest capacitance is achieved with a high permittivity dielectric material, large plate area, and small separation between the plates.
Since the area of the plates increases with the square of the linear dimensions and the separation increases linearly, the capacitance scales with the linear dimension of a capacitor (), or as the cube root of the volume.
A parallel plate capacitor can only store a finite amount of energy before dielectric breakdown occurs. The capacitor's dielectric material has a dielectric strength Ud which sets the capacitor's breakdown voltage at . The maximum energy that the capacitor can store is therefore
The maximum energy is a function of dielectric volume, permittivity, and dielectric strength. Changing the plate area and the separation between the plates while maintaining the same volume causes no change of the maximum amount of energy that the capacitor can store, so long as the distance between plates remains much smaller than both the length and width of the plates. In addition, these equations assume that the electric field is entirely concentrated in the dielectric between the plates. In reality there are fringing fields outside the dielectric, for example between the sides of the capacitor plates, which increase the effective capacitance of the capacitor. This is sometimes called parasitic capacitance. For some simple capacitor geometries this additional capacitance term can be calculated analytically. It becomes negligibly small when the ratios of plate width to separation and length to separation are large.
For unevenly charged plates:
If one plate is charged with while the other is charged with , and if both plates are separated from other materials in the environment, then the inner surface of the first plate will have , and the inner surface of the second plated will have charge. Therefore, the voltage between the plates is . Note that the outer surface of both plates will have , but those charges do not affect the voltage between the plates.
If one plate is charged with while the other is charged with , and if the second plate is connected to ground, then the inner surface of the first plate will have , and the inner surface of the second plated will have . Therefore, the voltage between the plates is . Note that the outer surface of both plates will have zero charge.
Interleaved capacitor
For number of plates in a capacitor, the total capacitance would be
where is the capacitance for a single plate and is the number of interleaved plates.
As shown to the figure on the right, the interleaved plates can be seen as parallel plates connected to each other. Every pair of adjacent plates acts as a separate capacitor; the number of pairs is always one less than the number of plates, hence the multiplier.
Energy stored in a capacitor
To increase the charge and voltage on a capacitor, work must be done by an external power source to move charge from the negative to the positive plate against the opposing force of the electric field. If the voltage on the capacitor is , the work required to move a small increment of charge from the negative to the positive plate is . The energy is stored in the increased electric field between the plates. The total energy stored in a capacitor (expressed in joules) is equal to the total work done in establishing the electric field from an uncharged state.
where is the charge stored in the capacitor, is the voltage across the capacitor, and is the capacitance. This potential energy will remain in the capacitor until the charge is removed. If charge is allowed to move back from the positive to the negative plate, for example by connecting a circuit with resistance between the plates, the charge moving under the influence of the electric field will do work on the external circuit.
If the gap between the capacitor plates is constant, as in the parallel plate model above, the electric field between the plates will be uniform (neglecting fringing fields) and will have a constant value . In this case the stored energy can be calculated from the electric field strength
The last formula above is equal to the energy density per unit volume in the electric field multiplied by the volume of field between the plates, confirming that the energy in the capacitor is stored in its electric field.
Current–voltage relation
The current I(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a charge Q(t) passing through it. Actual charges – electrons – cannot pass through the dielectric layer of an ideal capacitor (real capacitors have a small dielectric leakage current). Rather, one electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the voltage, as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to represent the initial voltage V(t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation:
Taking the derivative of this and multiplying by C yields the derivative form:
for independent of time, voltage and electric charge.
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in a magnetic field rather than an electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the capacitor equations and replacing with the inductance .
DC circuits
A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a switch and a constant DC source of voltage is known as a charging circuit. If the capacitor is initially uncharged while the switch is open, and the switch is closed at , it follows from Kirchhoff's voltage law that
Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first-order differential equation:
At , the voltage across the capacitor is zero and the voltage across the resistor is V0. The initial current is then . With this assumption, solving the differential equation yields
where is the time constant of the system. As the capacitor reaches equilibrium with the source voltage, the voltages across the resistor and the current through the entire circuit decay exponentially. In the case of a discharging capacitor, the capacitor's initial voltage () replaces . The equations become
AC circuits
Impedance, the vector sum of reactance and resistance, describes the phase difference and the ratio of amplitudes between sinusoidally varying voltage and sinusoidally varying current at a given frequency. Fourier analysis allows any signal to be constructed from a spectrum of frequencies, whence the circuit's reaction to the various frequencies may be found. The reactance and impedance of a capacitor are respectively
where is the imaginary unit and is the angular frequency of the sinusoidal signal. The phase indicates that the AC voltage lags the AC current by 90°: the positive current phase corresponds to increasing voltage as the capacitor charges; zero current corresponds to instantaneous constant voltage, etc.
Impedance decreases with increasing capacitance and increasing frequency. This implies that a higher-frequency signal or a larger capacitor results in a lower voltage amplitude per current amplitude – an AC "short circuit" or AC coupling. Conversely, for very low frequencies, the reactance is high, so that a capacitor is nearly an open circuit in AC analysis – those frequencies have been "filtered out".
Capacitors are different from resistors and inductors in that the impedance is inversely proportional to the defining characteristic; i.e., capacitance.
A capacitor connected to a sinusoidal voltage source causes a displacement current to flow through it. In the case that the voltage source is V0cos(ωt), the displacement current can be expressed as:
At , the capacitor has a maximum (or peak) current whereby . The ratio of peak voltage to peak current is due to capacitive reactance (denoted XC).
XC approaches zero as approaches infinity. If XC approaches 0, the capacitor resembles a short wire that strongly passes current at high frequencies. XC approaches infinity as ω approaches zero. If XC approaches infinity, the capacitor resembles an open circuit that poorly passes low frequencies.
The current of the capacitor may be expressed in the form of cosines to better compare with the voltage of the source:
In this situation, the current is out of phase with the voltage by +π/2 radians or +90 degrees, i.e. the current leads the voltage by 90°.
Laplace circuit analysis (s-domain)
When using the Laplace transform in circuit analysis, the impedance of an ideal capacitor with no initial charge is represented in the domain by:
where
is the capacitance, and
is the complex frequency.
Circuit analysis
For capacitors in parallel
Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same applied voltage. Their capacitances add up. Charge is apportioned among them by size. Using the schematic diagram to visualize parallel plates, it is apparent that each capacitor contributes to the total surface area.
For capacitors in series
Connected in series, the schematic diagram reveals that the separation distance, not the plate area, adds up. The capacitors each store instantaneous charge build-up equal to that of every other capacitor in the series. The total voltage difference from end to end is apportioned to each capacitor according to the inverse of its capacitance. The entire series acts as a capacitor smaller than any of its components.
Capacitors are combined in series to achieve a higher working voltage, for example for smoothing a high voltage power supply. The voltage ratings, which are based on plate separation, add up, if capacitance and leakage currents for each capacitor are identical. In such an application, on occasion, series strings are connected in parallel, forming a matrix. The goal is to maximize the energy storage of the network without overloading any capacitor. For high-energy storage with capacitors in series, some safety considerations must be applied to ensure one capacitor failing and leaking current does not apply too much voltage to the other series capacitors.
Series connection is also sometimes used to adapt polarized electrolytic capacitors for bipolar AC use.
Voltage distribution in parallel-to-series networks.
To model the distribution of voltages from a single charged capacitor connected in parallel to a chain of capacitors in series :
Note: This is only correct if all capacitance values are equal.
The power transferred in this arrangement is:
Non-ideal behavior
In practice, capacitors deviate from the ideal capacitor equation in several aspects. Some of these, such as leakage current and parasitic effects are linear, or can be analyzed as nearly linear, and can be accounted for by adding virtual components to the equivalent circuit of an ideal capacitor. The usual methods of network analysis can then be applied. In other cases, such as with breakdown voltage, the effect is non-linear and ordinary (normal, e.g., linear) network analysis cannot be used, the effect must be considered separately. Yet another group of artifacts may exist, including temperature dependence, that may be linear but invalidates the assumption in the analysis that capacitance is a constant. Finally, combined parasitic effects such as inherent inductance, resistance, or dielectric losses can exhibit non-uniform behavior at varying frequencies of operation.
Breakdown voltage
Above a particular electric field strength, known as the dielectric strength Eds, the dielectric in a capacitor becomes conductive. The voltage at which this occurs is called the breakdown voltage of the device, and is given by the product of the dielectric strength and the separation between the conductors,
The maximum energy that can be stored safely in a capacitor is limited by the breakdown voltage. Due to the scaling of capacitance and breakdown voltage with dielectric thickness, all capacitors made with a particular dielectric have approximately equal maximum energy density, to the extent that the dielectric dominates their volume.
For air dielectric capacitors the breakdown field strength is of the order 2–5 MV/m (or kV/mm); for mica the breakdown is 100–300 MV/m; for oil, 15–25 MV/m; it can be much less when other materials are used for the dielectric. The dielectric is used in very thin layers and so absolute breakdown voltage of capacitors is limited. Typical ratings for capacitors used for general electronics applications range from a few volts to 1 kV. As the voltage increases, the dielectric must be thicker, making high-voltage capacitors larger per capacitance than those rated for lower voltages.
The breakdown voltage is critically affected by factors such as the geometry of the capacitor conductive parts; sharp edges or points increase the electric field strength at that point and can lead to a local breakdown. Once this starts to happen, the breakdown quickly tracks through the dielectric until it reaches the opposite plate, leaving carbon behind and causing a short (or relatively low resistance) circuit. The results can be explosive, as the short in the capacitor draws current from the surrounding circuitry and dissipates the energy. However, in capacitors with particular dielectrics and thin metal electrodes shorts are not formed after breakdown. It happens because a metal melts or evaporates in a breakdown vicinity, isolating it from the rest of the capacitor.
The usual breakdown route is that the field strength becomes large enough to pull electrons in the dielectric from their atoms thus causing conduction. Other scenarios are possible, such as impurities in the dielectric, and, if the dielectric is of a crystalline nature, imperfections in the crystal structure can result in an avalanche breakdown as seen in semi-conductor devices. Breakdown voltage is also affected by pressure, humidity and temperature.
Equivalent circuit
An ideal capacitor only stores and releases electrical energy, without dissipation. In practice, capacitors have imperfections within the capacitor's materials that result in the following parasitic components:
, the equivalent series inductance, due to the leads. This is usually significant only at relatively high frequencies.
Two resistances that add a real-valued component to the total impedance, which waste power:
, a small series resistance in the leads. Becomes more relevant as frequency increases.
, a small conductance (or reciprocally, a large resistance) in parallel with the capacitance, to account for imperfect dielectric material. This causes a small leakage current across the dielectric (see ) that slowly discharges the capacitor over time. This conductance dominates the total resistance at very low frequencies. Its value varies greatly depending on the capacitor material and quality.
Simplified RLC series model
As frequency increases, the capacitive impedance (a negative reactance) reduces, so the dielectric's conductance becomes less important and the series components become more significant. Thus, a simplified RLC series model valid for a large frequency range simply treats the capacitor as being in series with an equivalent series inductance and a frequency-dependent equivalent series resistance , which varies little with frequency. Unlike the previous model, this model is not valid at DC and very low frequencies where is relevant.
Inductive reactance increases with frequency. Because its sign it positive, it counteracts the capacitance.
At the RLC circuit's natural frequency , the inductance perfectly cancels the capacitance, so total reactance is zero. Since the total impedance at is just the real-value of , average power dissipation reaches its maximum of , where V is the root mean square (RMS) voltage across the capacitor.
At even higher frequencies, the inductive impedance dominates, so the capacitor undesirably behaves instead like an inductor. High-frequency engineering involves accounting for the inductance of all connections and components.
Q factor
For a simplified model of a capacitor as an ideal capacitor in series with an equivalent series resistance , the capacitor's quality factor (or Q) is the ratio of the magnitude of its capacitive reactance to its resistance at a given frequency :
The Q factor is a measure of its efficiency: the higher the Q factor of the capacitor, the closer it approaches the behavior of an ideal capacitor. Dissipation factor is its reciprocal.
Ripple current
Ripple current is the AC component of an applied source (often a switched-mode power supply) whose frequency may be constant or varying. Ripple current causes heat to be generated within the capacitor due to the dielectric losses caused by the changing field strength together with the current flow across the slightly resistive supply lines or the electrolyte in the capacitor. The equivalent series resistance (ESR) is the amount of internal series resistance one would add to a perfect capacitor to model this.
Some types of capacitors, primarily tantalum and aluminum electrolytic capacitors, as well as some film capacitors have a specified rating value for maximum ripple current.
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors with solid manganese dioxide electrolyte are limited by ripple current and generally have the highest ESR ratings in the capacitor family. Exceeding their ripple limits can lead to shorts and burning parts.
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors, the most common type of electrolytic, suffer a shortening of life expectancy at higher ripple currents. If ripple current exceeds the rated value of the capacitor, it tends to result in explosive failure.
Ceramic capacitors generally have no ripple current limitation and have some of the lowest ESR ratings.
Film capacitors have very low ESR ratings but exceeding rated ripple current may cause degradation failures.
Capacitance instability
The capacitance of certain capacitors decreases as the component ages. In ceramic capacitors, this is caused by degradation of the dielectric. The type of dielectric, ambient operating and storage temperatures are the most significant aging factors, while the operating voltage usually has a smaller effect, i.e., usual capacitor design is to minimize voltage coefficient. The aging process may be reversed by heating the component above the Curie point. Aging is fastest near the beginning of life of the component, and the device stabilizes over time. Electrolytic capacitors age as the electrolyte evaporates. In contrast with ceramic capacitors, this occurs towards the end of life of the component.
Temperature dependence of capacitance is usually expressed in parts per million (ppm) per °C. It can usually be taken as a broadly linear function but can be noticeably non-linear at the temperature extremes. The temperature coefficient may be positive or negative, depending mostly on the dielectric material. Some, designated C0G/NP0, but called NPO, have a somewhat negative coefficient at one temperature, positive at another, and zero in between. Such components may be specified for temperature-critical circuits.
Capacitors, especially ceramic capacitors, and older designs such as paper capacitors, can absorb sound waves resulting in a microphonic effect. Vibration moves the plates, causing the capacitance to vary, in turn inducing AC current. Some dielectrics also generate piezoelectricity. The resulting interference is especially problematic in audio applications, potentially causing feedback or unintended recording. In the reverse microphonic effect, the varying electric field between the capacitor plates exerts a physical force, moving them as a speaker. This can generate audible sound, but drains energy and stresses the dielectric and the electrolyte, if any.
Current and voltage reversal
Current reversal occurs when the current changes direction. Voltage reversal is the change of polarity in a circuit. Reversal is generally described as the percentage of the maximum rated voltage that reverses polarity. In DC circuits, this is usually less than 100%, often in the range of 0 to 90%, whereas AC circuits experience 100% reversal.
In DC circuits and pulsed circuits, current and voltage reversal are affected by the damping of the system. Voltage reversal is encountered in RLC circuits that are underdamped. The current and voltage reverse direction, forming a harmonic oscillator between the inductance and capacitance. The current and voltage tends to oscillate and may reverse direction several times, with each peak being lower than the previous, until the system reaches an equilibrium. This is often referred to as ringing. In comparison, critically damped or overdamped systems usually do not experience a voltage reversal. Reversal is also encountered in AC circuits, where the peak current is equal in each direction.
For maximum life, capacitors usually need to be able to handle the maximum amount of reversal that a system may experience. An AC circuit experiences 100% voltage reversal, while underdamped DC circuits experience less than 100%. Reversal creates excess electric fields in the dielectric, causes excess heating of both the dielectric and the conductors, and can dramatically shorten the life expectancy of the capacitor. Reversal ratings often affect the design considerations for the capacitor, from the choice of dielectric materials and voltage ratings to the types of internal connections used.
Dielectric absorption
Capacitors made with any type of dielectric material show some level of "dielectric absorption" or "soakage". On discharging a capacitor and disconnecting it, after a short time it may develop a voltage due to hysteresis in the dielectric. This effect is objectionable in applications such as precision sample and hold circuits or timing circuits. The level of absorption depends on many factors, from design considerations to charging time, since the absorption is a time-dependent process. However, the primary factor is the type of dielectric material. Capacitors such as tantalum electrolytic or polysulfone film exhibit relatively high absorption, while polystyrene or Teflon allow very small levels of absorption. In some capacitors where dangerous voltages and energies exist, such as in flashtubes, television sets, microwave ovens and defibrillators, the dielectric absorption can recharge the capacitor to hazardous voltages after it has been shorted or discharged. Any capacitor containing over 10 joules of energy is generally considered hazardous, while 50 joules or higher is potentially lethal. A capacitor may regain anywhere from 0.01 to 20% of its original charge over a period of several minutes, allowing a seemingly safe capacitor to become surprisingly dangerous.
Leakage
Leakage is equivalent to a resistor in parallel with the capacitor. Constant exposure to heat can cause dielectric breakdown and excessive leakage, a problem often seen in older vacuum tube circuits, particularly where oiled paper and foil capacitors were used. In many vacuum tube circuits, interstage coupling capacitors are used to conduct a varying signal from the plate of one tube to the grid circuit of the next stage. A leaky capacitor can cause the grid circuit voltage to be raised from its normal bias setting, causing excessive current or signal distortion in the downstream tube. In power amplifiers this can cause the plates to glow red, or current limiting resistors to overheat, even fail. Similar considerations apply to component fabricated solid-state (transistor) amplifiers, but owing to lower heat production and the use of modern polyester dielectric barriers this once-common problem has become relatively rare.
Electrolytic failure from disuse
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are conditioned when manufactured by applying a voltage sufficient to initiate the proper internal chemical state. This state is maintained by regular use of the equipment. If a system using electrolytic capacitors is unused for a long period of time it can lose its conditioning. Sometimes they fail with a short circuit when next operated.
Lifespan
All capacitors have varying lifespans, depending upon their construction, operational conditions, and environmental conditions. Solid-state ceramic capacitors generally have very long lives under normal use, which has little dependency on factors such as vibration or ambient temperature, but factors like humidity, mechanical stress, and fatigue play a primary role in their failure. Failure modes may differ. Some capacitors may experience a gradual loss of capacitance, increased leakage or an increase in equivalent series resistance (ESR), while others may fail suddenly or even catastrophically. For example, metal-film capacitors are more prone to damage from stress and humidity, but will self-heal when a breakdown in the dielectric occurs. The formation of a glow discharge at the point of failure prevents arcing by vaporizing the metallic film in that spot, neutralizing any short circuit with minimal loss in capacitance. When enough pinholes accumulate in the film, a total failure occurs in a metal-film capacitor, generally happening suddenly without warning.
Electrolytic capacitors generally have the shortest lifespans. Electrolytic capacitors are affected very little by vibration or humidity, but factors such as ambient and operational temperatures play a large role in their failure, which gradually occur as an increase in ESR (up to 300%) and as much as a 20% decrease in capacitance. The capacitors contain electrolytes which will eventually diffuse through the seals and evaporate. An increase in temperature also increases internal pressure, and increases the reaction rate of the chemicals. Thus, the life of an electrolytic capacitor is generally defined by a modification of the Arrhenius equation, which is used to determine chemical-reaction rates:
Manufacturers often use this equation to supply an expected lifespan, in hours, for electrolytic capacitors when used at their designed operating temperature, which is affected by both ambient temperature, ESR, and ripple current. However, these ideal conditions may not exist in every use. The rule of thumb for predicting lifespan under different conditions of use is determined by:
This says that the capacitor's life decreases by half for every 10 degrees Celsius that the temperature is increased, where:
is the rated life under rated conditions, e.g. 2000 hours
is the rated max/min operational temperature
is the average operational temperature
is the expected lifespan under given conditions
Capacitor types
Practical capacitors are available commercially in many different forms. The type of internal dielectric, the structure of the plates and the device packaging all strongly affect the characteristics of the capacitor, and its applications.
Values available range from very low (picofarad range; while arbitrarily low values are in principle possible, stray (parasitic) capacitance in any circuit is the limiting factor) to about 5 kF supercapacitors.
Above approximately 1 microfarad electrolytic capacitors are usually used because of their small size and low cost compared with other types, unless their relatively poor stability, life and polarised nature make them unsuitable. Very high capacity supercapacitors use a porous carbon-based electrode material.
Dielectric materials
Most capacitors have a dielectric spacer, which increases their capacitance compared to air or a vacuum. In order to maximise the charge that a capacitor can hold, the dielectric material needs to have as high a permittivity as possible, while also having as high a breakdown voltage as possible. The dielectric also needs to have as low a loss with frequency as possible.
However, low value capacitors are available with a vacuum between their plates to allow extremely high voltage operation and low losses. Variable capacitors with their plates open to the atmosphere were commonly used in radio tuning circuits. Later designs use polymer foil dielectric between the moving and stationary plates, with no significant air space between the plates.
Several solid dielectrics are available, including paper, plastic, glass, mica and ceramic.
Paper was used extensively in older capacitors and offers relatively high voltage performance. However, paper absorbs moisture, and has been largely replaced by plastic film capacitors.
Most of the plastic films now used offer better stability and ageing performance than such older dielectrics such as oiled paper, which makes them useful in timer circuits, although they may be limited to relatively low operating temperatures and frequencies, because of the limitations of the plastic film being used. Large plastic film capacitors are used extensively in suppression circuits, motor start circuits, and power-factor correction circuits.
Ceramic capacitors are generally small, cheap and useful for high frequency applications, although their capacitance varies strongly with voltage and temperature and they age poorly. They can also suffer from the piezoelectric effect. Ceramic capacitors are broadly categorized as class 1 dielectrics, which have predictable variation of capacitance with temperature or class 2 dielectrics, which can operate at higher voltage. Modern multilayer ceramics are usually quite small, but some types have inherently wide value tolerances, microphonic issues, and are usually physically brittle.
Glass and mica capacitors are extremely reliable, stable and tolerant to high temperatures and voltages, but are too expensive for most mainstream applications.
Electrolytic capacitors and supercapacitors are used to store small and larger amounts of energy, respectively, ceramic capacitors are often used in resonators, and parasitic capacitance occurs in circuits wherever the simple conductor-insulator-conductor structure is formed unintentionally by the configuration of the circuit layout.
Electrolytic capacitors use an aluminum or tantalum plate with an oxide dielectric layer. The second electrode is a liquid electrolyte, connected to the circuit by another foil plate. Electrolytic capacitors offer very high capacitance but suffer from poor tolerances, high instability, gradual loss of capacitance especially when subjected to heat, and high leakage current. Poor quality capacitors may leak electrolyte, which is harmful to printed circuit boards. The conductivity of the electrolyte drops at low temperatures, which increases equivalent series resistance. While widely used for power-supply conditioning, poor high-frequency characteristics make them unsuitable for many applications. Electrolytic capacitors suffer from self-degradation if unused for a period (around a year), and when full power is applied may short circuit, permanently damaging the capacitor and usually blowing a fuse or causing failure of rectifier diodes. For example, in older equipment, this may cause arcing in rectifier tubes. They can be restored before use by gradually applying the operating voltage, often performed on antique vacuum tube equipment over a period of thirty minutes by using a variable transformer to supply AC power. The use of this technique may be less satisfactory for some solid state equipment, which may be damaged by operation below its normal power range, requiring that the power supply first be isolated from the consuming circuits. Such remedies may not be applicable to modern high-frequency power supplies as these produce full output voltage even with reduced input.
Tantalum capacitors offer better frequency and temperature characteristics than aluminum, but higher dielectric absorption and leakage.
Polymer capacitors (OS-CON, OC-CON, KO, AO) use solid conductive polymer (or polymerized organic semiconductor) as electrolyte and offer longer life and lower ESR at higher cost than standard electrolytic capacitors.
A feedthrough capacitor is a component that, while not serving as its main use, has capacitance and is used to conduct signals through a conductive sheet.
Several other types of capacitor are available for specialist applications. Supercapacitors store large amounts of energy. Supercapacitors made from carbon aerogel, carbon nanotubes, or highly porous electrode materials, offer extremely high capacitance (up to 5 kF ) and can be used in some applications instead of rechargeable batteries. Alternating current capacitors are specifically designed to work on line (mains) voltage AC power circuits. They are commonly used in electric motor circuits and are often designed to handle large currents, so they tend to be physically large. They are usually ruggedly packaged, often in metal cases that can be easily grounded/earthed. They also are designed with direct current breakdown voltages of at least five times the maximum AC voltage.
Voltage-dependent capacitors
The dielectric constant for a number of very useful dielectrics changes as a function of the applied electrical field, for example ferroelectric materials, so the capacitance for these devices is more complex. For example, in charging such a capacitor the differential increase in voltage with charge is governed by:
where the voltage dependence of capacitance, , suggests that the capacitance is a function of the electric field strength, which in a large area parallel plate device is given by . This field polarizes the dielectric, which polarization, in the case of a ferroelectric, is a nonlinear S-shaped function of the electric field, which, in the case of a large area parallel plate device, translates into a capacitance that is a nonlinear function of the voltage.
Corresponding to the voltage-dependent capacitance, to charge the capacitor to voltage an integral relation is found:
which agrees with only when does not depend on voltage .
By the same token, the energy stored in the capacitor now is given by
Integrating:
where interchange of the order of integration is used.
The nonlinear capacitance of a microscope probe scanned along a ferroelectric surface is used to study the domain structure of ferroelectric materials.
Another example of voltage dependent capacitance occurs in semiconductor devices such as semiconductor diodes, where the voltage dependence stems not from a change in dielectric constant but in a voltage dependence of the spacing between the charges on the two sides of the capacitor. This effect is intentionally exploited in diode-like devices known as varicaps.
Frequency-dependent capacitors
If a capacitor is driven with a time-varying voltage that changes rapidly enough, at some frequency the polarization of the dielectric cannot follow the voltage. As an example of the origin of this mechanism, the internal microscopic dipoles contributing to the dielectric constant cannot move instantly, and so as frequency of an applied alternating voltage increases, the dipole response is limited and the dielectric constant diminishes. A changing dielectric constant with frequency is referred to as dielectric dispersion, and is governed by dielectric relaxation processes, such as Debye relaxation. Under transient conditions, the displacement field can be expressed as (see electric susceptibility):
indicating the lag in response by the time dependence of , calculated in principle from an underlying microscopic analysis, for example, of the dipole behavior in the dielectric. See, for example, linear response function. The integral extends over the entire past history up to the present time. A Fourier transform in time then results in:
where εr(ω) is now a complex function, with an imaginary part related to absorption of energy from the field by the medium. See permittivity. The capacitance, being proportional to the dielectric constant, also exhibits this frequency behavior. Fourier transforming Gauss's law with this form for displacement field:
where is the imaginary unit, is the voltage component at angular frequency , is the real part of the current, called the conductance, and determines the imaginary part of the current and is the capacitance. is the complex impedance.
When a parallel-plate capacitor is filled with a dielectric, the measurement of dielectric properties of the medium is based upon the relation:
where a single prime denotes the real part and a double prime the imaginary part, is the complex impedance with the dielectric present, is the so-called complex capacitance with the dielectric present, and is the capacitance without the dielectric. (Measurement "without the dielectric" in principle means measurement in free space, an unattainable goal inasmuch as even the quantum vacuum is predicted to exhibit nonideal behavior, such as dichroism. For practical purposes, when measurement errors are taken into account, often a measurement in terrestrial vacuum, or simply a calculation of C0, is sufficiently accurate.)
Using this measurement method, the dielectric constant may exhibit a resonance at certain frequencies corresponding to characteristic response frequencies (excitation energies) of contributors to the dielectric constant. These resonances are the basis for a number of experimental techniques for detecting defects. The conductance method measures absorption as a function of frequency. Alternatively, the time response of the capacitance can be used directly, as in deep-level transient spectroscopy.
Another example of frequency dependent capacitance occurs with MOS capacitors, where the slow generation of minority carriers means that at high frequencies the capacitance measures only the majority carrier response, while at low frequencies both types of carrier respond.
At optical frequencies, in semiconductors the dielectric constant exhibits structure related to the band structure of the solid. Sophisticated modulation spectroscopy measurement methods based upon modulating the crystal structure by pressure or by other stresses and observing the related changes in absorption or reflection of light have advanced our knowledge of these materials.
Styles
The arrangement of plates and dielectric has many variations in different styles depending on the desired ratings of the capacitor. For small values of capacitance (microfarads and less), ceramic disks use metallic coatings, with wire leads bonded to the coating. Larger values can be made by multiple stacks of plates and disks. Larger value capacitors usually use a metal foil or metal film layer deposited on the surface of a dielectric film to make the plates, and a dielectric film of impregnated paper or plasticthese are rolled up to save space. To reduce the series resistance and inductance for long plates, the plates and dielectric are staggered so that connection is made at the common edge of the rolled-up plates, not at the ends of the foil or metalized film strips that comprise the plates.
The assembly is encased to prevent moisture entering the dielectricearly radio equipment used a cardboard tube sealed with wax. Modern paper or film dielectric capacitors are dipped in a hard thermoplastic. Large capacitors for high-voltage use may have the roll form compressed to fit into a rectangular metal case, with bolted terminals and bushings for connections. The dielectric in larger capacitors is often impregnated with a liquid to improve its properties.
Capacitors may have their connecting leads arranged in many configurations, for example axially or radially. "Axial" means that the leads are on a common axis, typically the axis of the capacitor's cylindrical bodythe leads extend from opposite ends. Radial leads are rarely aligned along radii of the body's circle, so the term is conventional. The leads (until bent) are usually in planes parallel to that of the flat body of the capacitor, and extend in the same direction; they are often parallel as manufactured.
Small, cheap discoidal ceramic capacitors have existed from the 1930s onward, and remain in widespread use. After the 1980s, surface mount packages for capacitors have been widely used. These packages are extremely small and lack connecting leads, allowing them to be soldered directly onto the surface of printed circuit boards. Surface mount components avoid undesirable high-frequency effects due to the leads and simplify automated assembly, although manual handling is made difficult due to their small size.
Mechanically controlled variable capacitors allow the plate spacing to be adjusted, for example by rotating or sliding a set of movable plates into alignment with a set of stationary plates. Low cost variable capacitors squeeze together alternating layers of aluminum and plastic with a screw. Electrical control of capacitance is achievable with varactors (or varicaps), which are reverse-biased semiconductor diodes whose depletion region width varies with applied voltage. They are used in phase-locked loops, amongst other applications.
Capacitor markings
Marking codes for larger parts
Most capacitors have designations printed on their bodies to indicate their electrical characteristics. Larger capacitors, such as electrolytic types usually display the capacitance as value with explicit unit, for example, 220 μF.
For typographical reasons, some manufacturers print MF on capacitors to indicate microfarads (μF).
Three-/four-character marking code for small capacitors
Smaller capacitors, such as ceramic types, often use a shorthand-notation consisting of three digits and an optional letter, where the digits (XYZ) denote the capacitance in picofarad (pF), calculated as XY × 10Z, and the letter indicating the tolerance. Common tolerances are ±5%, ±10%, and ±20%, denotes as J, K, and M, respectively.
A capacitor may also be labeled with its working voltage, temperature, and other relevant characteristics.
Example:
A capacitor labeled or designated as 473K 330V has a capacitance of = 47 nF (±10%) with a maximum working voltage of 330 V. The working voltage of a capacitor is nominally the highest voltage that may be applied across it without undue risk of breaking down the dielectric layer.
Two-character marking code for small capacitors
For capacitances following the E3, E6, E12 or E24 series of preferred values, the former ANSI/EIA-198-D:1991, ANSI/EIA-198-1-E:1998 and ANSI/EIA-198-1-F:2002 as well as the amendment IEC 60062:2016/AMD1:2019 to IEC 60062 define a special two-character marking code for capacitors for very small parts which leave no room to print the above mentioned three-/four-character code onto them. The code consists of an uppercase letter denoting the two significant digits of the value followed by a digit indicating the multiplier. The EIA standard also defines a number of lowercase letters to specify a number of values not found in E24.
RKM code
The notation to state a capacitor's value in a circuit diagram varies. The RKM code following IEC 60062 and BS 1852 avoids using a decimal separator and replaces the decimal separator with the SI prefix symbol for the particular value (and the letter for weight 1). The code is also used for part markings. Example: for 4.7 nF or for 2.2 F.
Historical
In texts prior to the 1960s and on some capacitor packages until more recently, obsolete capacitance units were utilized in electronic books, magazines, and electronics catalogs. The old units "mfd" and "mf" meant microfarad (μF); and the old units "mmfd", "mmf", "uuf", "μμf", "pfd" meant picofarad (pF); but they are rarely used any more. Also, "Micromicrofarad" or "micro-microfarad" are obsolete units that are found in some older texts that is equivalent to picofarad (pF).
Summary of obsolete capacitance units: (upper/lower case variations are not shown)
μF (microfarad) = mf, mfd
pF (picofarad) = mmf, mmfd, pfd, μμF
Applications
Energy storage
A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be used like a temporary battery, or like other types of rechargeable energy storage system. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices to maintain power supply while batteries are being changed. (This prevents loss of information in volatile memory.)
A capacitor can facilitate conversion of kinetic energy of charged particles into electric energy and store it.
Conventional capacitors provide less than 360 joules per kilogram of specific energy, whereas a conventional alkaline battery has a density of 590 kJ/kg. There is
an intermediate solution: supercapacitors, which can accept and deliver charge much faster than batteries, and tolerate many more charge and discharge cycles than rechargeable batteries. They are, however, 10 times larger than conventional batteries for a given charge. On the other hand, it has been shown that the amount of charge stored in the dielectric
layer of the thin film capacitor can be equal to, or can even exceed, the amount of charge stored on its plates.
In car audio systems, large capacitors store energy for the amplifier to use on demand. Also, for a flash tube, a capacitor is used to hold the high voltage.
Digital memory
In the 1930s, John Atanasoff applied the principle of energy storage in capacitors to construct dynamic digital memories for the first binary computers that used electron tubes for logic.
Pulsed power and weapons
Groups of large, specially constructed, low-inductance high-voltage capacitors (capacitor banks) are used to supply huge pulses of current for many pulsed power applications. These include electromagnetic forming, Marx generators, pulsed lasers (especially TEA lasers), pulse forming networks, radar, fusion research, and particle accelerators.
Large capacitor banks (reservoir) are used as energy sources for the exploding-bridgewire detonators or slapper detonators in nuclear weapons and other specialty weapons. Experimental work is under way using banks of capacitors as power sources for electromagnetic armour and electromagnetic railguns and coilguns.
Power conditioning
Reservoir capacitors are used in power supplies where they smooth the output of a full or half wave rectifier. They can also be used in charge pump circuits as the energy storage element in the generation of higher voltages than the input voltage.
Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. This is used in car audio applications, when a stiffening capacitor compensates for the inductance and resistance of the leads to the lead–acid car battery.
Power-factor correction
In electric power distribution, capacitors are used for power-factor correction. Such capacitors often come as three capacitors connected as a three phase load. Usually, the values of these capacitors are not given in farads but rather as a reactive power in volt-amperes reactive (var). The purpose is to counteract inductive loading from devices like electric motors and transmission lines to make the load appear to be mostly resistive. Individual motor or lamp loads may have capacitors for power-factor correction, or larger sets of capacitors (usually with automatic switching devices) may be installed at a load center within a building or in a large utility substation.
Suppression and coupling
Signal coupling
Because capacitors pass AC but block DC signals (when charged up to the applied DC voltage), they are often used to separate the AC and DC components of a signal. This method is known as AC coupling or "capacitive coupling". Here, a large value of capacitance, whose value need not be accurately controlled, but whose reactance is small at the signal frequency, is employed.
Decoupling
A decoupling capacitor is a capacitor used to protect one part of a circuit from the effect of another, for instance to suppress noise or transients. Noise caused by other circuit elements is shunted through the capacitor, reducing the effect they have on the rest of the circuit. It is most commonly used between the power supply and ground.
An alternative name is bypass capacitor as it is used to bypass the power supply or other high impedance component of a circuit.
Decoupling capacitors need not always be discrete components. Capacitors used in these applications may be built into a printed circuit board, between the various layers. These are often referred to as embedded capacitors. The layers in the board contributing to the capacitive properties also function as power and ground planes, and have a dielectric in between them, enabling them to operate as a parallel plate capacitor.
High-pass and low-pass filters
Noise suppression, spikes, and snubbers
When an inductive circuit is opened, the current through the inductance collapses quickly, creating a large voltage across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the inductance is large enough, the energy may generate a spark, causing the contact points to oxidize, deteriorate, or sometimes weld together, or destroying a solid-state switch. A snubber capacitor across the newly opened circuit creates a path for this impulse to bypass the contact points, thereby preserving their life; these were commonly found in contact breaker ignition systems, for instance. Similarly, in smaller scale circuits, the spark may not be enough to damage the switch but may still radiate undesirable radio frequency interference (RFI), which a filter capacitor absorbs. Snubber capacitors are usually employed with a low-value resistor in series, to dissipate energy and minimize RFI. Such resistor-capacitor combinations are available in a single package.
Capacitors are also used in parallel with interrupting units of a high-voltage circuit breaker to equally distribute the voltage between these units. These are called "grading capacitors".
In schematic diagrams, a capacitor used primarily for DC charge storage is often drawn vertically in circuit diagrams with the lower, more negative, plate drawn as an arc. The straight plate indicates the positive terminal of the device, if it is polarized (see electrolytic capacitor).
Motor starters
In single phase squirrel cage motors, the primary winding within the motor housing is not capable of starting a rotational motion on the rotor, but is capable of sustaining one. To start the motor, a secondary "start" winding has a series non-polarized starting capacitor to introduce a lead in the sinusoidal current. When the secondary (start) winding is placed at an angle with respect to the primary (run) winding, a rotating electric field is created. The force of the rotational field is not constant, but is sufficient to start the rotor spinning. When the rotor comes close to operating speed, a centrifugal switch (or current-sensitive relay in series with the main winding) disconnects the capacitor. The start capacitor is typically mounted to the side of the motor housing. These are called capacitor-start motors, that have relatively high starting torque. Typically they can have up-to four times as much starting torque as a split-phase motor and are used on applications such as compressors, pressure washers and any small device requiring high starting torques.
Capacitor-run induction motors have a permanently connected phase-shifting capacitor in series with a second winding. The motor is much like a two-phase induction motor.
Motor-starting capacitors are typically non-polarized electrolytic types, while running capacitors are conventional paper or plastic film dielectric types.
Signal processing
The energy stored in a capacitor can be used to represent information, either in binary form, as in DRAMs, or in analogue form, as in analog sampled filters and CCDs. Capacitors can be used in analog circuits as components of integrators or more complex filters and in negative feedback loop stabilization. Signal processing circuits also use capacitors to integrate a current signal.
Tuned circuits
Capacitors and inductors are applied together in tuned circuits to select information in particular frequency bands. For example, radio receivers rely on variable capacitors to tune the station frequency. Speakers use passive analog crossovers, and analog equalizers use capacitors to select different audio bands.
The resonant frequency f of a tuned circuit is a function of the inductance (L) and capacitance (C) in series, and is given by:
where is in henries and is in farads.
Sensing
Most capacitors are designed to maintain a fixed physical structure. However, various factors can change the structure of the capacitor, and the resulting change in capacitance can be used to sense those factors.
Changing the dielectric
The effects of varying the characteristics of the dielectric can be used for sensing purposes. Capacitors with an exposed and porous dielectric can be used to measure humidity in air. Capacitors are used to accurately measure the fuel level in airplanes; as the fuel covers more of a pair of plates, the circuit capacitance increases. Squeezing the dielectric can change a capacitor at a few tens of bar pressure sufficiently that it can be used as a pressure sensor. A selected, but otherwise standard, polymer dielectric capacitor, when immersed in a compatible gas or liquid, can work usefully as a very low cost pressure sensor up to many hundreds of bar.
Changing the distance between the plates
Capacitors with a flexible plate can be used to measure strain or pressure. Industrial pressure transmitters used for process control use pressure-sensing diaphragms, which form a capacitor plate of an oscillator circuit. Capacitors are used as the sensor in condenser microphones, where one plate is moved by air pressure, relative to the fixed position of the other plate. Some accelerometers use MEMS capacitors etched on a chip to measure the magnitude and direction of the acceleration vector. They are used to detect changes in acceleration, in tilt sensors, or to detect free fall, as sensors triggering airbag deployment, and in many other applications. Some fingerprint sensors use capacitors. Additionally, a user can adjust the pitch of a theremin musical instrument by moving their hand since this changes the effective capacitance between the user's hand and the antenna.
Changing the effective area of the plates
Capacitive touch switches are now used on many consumer electronic products.
Oscillators
A capacitor can possess spring-like qualities in an oscillator circuit. In the image example, a capacitor acts to influence the biasing voltage at the npn transistor's base. The resistance values of the voltage-divider resistors and the capacitance value of the capacitor together control the oscillatory frequency.
Producing light
A light-emitting capacitor is made from a dielectric that uses phosphorescence to produce light. If one of the conductive plates is made with a transparent material, the light is visible. Light-emitting capacitors are used in the construction of electroluminescent panels, for applications such as backlighting for laptop computers. In this case, the entire panel is a capacitor used for the purpose of generating light.
Hazards and safety
The hazards posed by a capacitor are usually determined, foremost, by the amount of energy stored, which is the cause of things like electrical burns or heart fibrillation. Factors such as voltage and chassis material are of secondary consideration, which are more related to how easily a shock can be initiated rather than how much damage can occur. Under certain conditions, including conductivity of the surfaces, preexisting medical conditions, the humidity of the air, or the pathways it takes through the body (i.e.: shocks that travel across the core of the body and, especially, the heart are more dangerous than those limited to the extremities), shocks as low as one joule have been reported to cause death, although in most instances they may not even leave a burn. Shocks over ten joules will generally damage skin, and are usually considered hazardous. Any capacitor that can store 50 joules or more should be considered potentially lethal.
Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a circuit; this charge can cause dangerous or even potentially fatal shocks or damage connected equipment. For example, even a seemingly innocuous device such as a disposable-camera flash unit, powered by a 1.5 volt AA battery, has a capacitor which may contain over 15 joules of energy and be charged to over 300 volts. This is easily capable of delivering a shock. Service procedures for electronic devices usually include instructions to discharge large or high-voltage capacitors, for instance using a Brinkley stick. Capacitors may also have built-in discharge resistors to dissipate stored energy to a safe level within a few seconds after power is removed. High-voltage capacitors are stored with the terminals shorted, as protection from potentially dangerous voltages due to dielectric absorption or from transient voltages the capacitor may pick up from static charges or passing weather events.
Some old, large oil-filled paper or plastic film capacitors contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). It is known that waste PCBs can leak into groundwater under landfills. Capacitors containing PCB were labelled as containing "Askarel" and several other trade names. PCB-filled paper capacitors are found in very old (pre-1975) fluorescent lamp ballasts, and other applications.
Capacitors may catastrophically fail when subjected to voltages or currents beyond their rating, or as they reach their normal end of life. Dielectric or metal interconnection failures may create arcing that vaporizes the dielectric fluid, resulting in case bulging, rupture, or even an explosion. Capacitors used in RF or sustained high-current applications can overheat, especially in the center of the capacitor rolls. Capacitors used within high-energy capacitor banks can violently explode when a short in one capacitor causes sudden dumping of energy stored in the rest of the bank into the failing unit. High voltage vacuum capacitors can generate soft X-rays even during normal operation. Proper containment, fusing, and preventive maintenance can help to minimize these hazards.
High-voltage capacitors may benefit from a pre-charge to limit in-rush currents at power-up of high voltage direct current (HVDC) circuits. This extends the life of the component and may mitigate high-voltage hazards.
See also
Capacitance meter
Capacitor plague
Electric displacement field
Electroluminescence
List of capacitor manufacturers
Notes
References
Bibliography
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society LXXII, Appendix 8, 1782 (Volta coins the word condenser)
Further reading
Tantalum and Niobium-Based Capacitors – Science, Technology, and Applications; 1st Ed; Yuri Freeman; Springer; 120 pages; 2018; .
Capacitors; 1st Ed; R. P. Deshpande; McGraw-Hill; 342 pages; 2014; .
The Capacitor Handbook; 1st Ed; Cletus Kaiser; Van Nostrand Reinhold; 124 pages; 1993; .
Understanding Capacitors and their Uses; 1st Ed; William Mullin; Sams Publishing; 96 pages; 1964. (archive)
Fixed and Variable Capacitors; 1st Ed; G. W. A. Dummer and Harold Nordenberg; Maple Press; 288 pages; 1960. (archive)
The Electrolytic Capacitor; 1st Ed; Alexander Georgiev; Murray Hill Books; 191 pages; 1945. (archive)
External links
The First Condenser – A Beer Glass – SparkMuseum
How Capacitors Work – Howstuffworks
Capacitor Tutorial
Electrical components
Energy storage
Science and technology in the Dutch Republic
Dutch inventions
18th-century inventions
German inventions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia%20Bath
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Patricia Bath
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Patricia Era Bath (November 4, 1942 – May 30, 2019) was an American ophthalmologist and humanitarian. She became the first female member of the Jules Stein Eye Institute, the first woman to lead a post-graduate training program in ophthalmology, and the first woman elected to the honorary staff of the UCLA Medical Center. Bath was the first African-American to serve as a resident in ophthalmology at New York University. She was also the first African-American woman to serve on staff as a surgeon at the UCLA Medical Center. Bath was the first African-American woman doctor to receive a patent for a medical purpose. A holder of five patents, she founded the non-profit American Institute for the Prevention of Blindness in Washington, D.C.
Early life and education
Born 1942, in Harlem, New York, Patricia Bath was the daughter of Rupert and Gladys Bath. Her father was an immigrant from Trinidad, a newspaper columnist, a merchant seaman and the first black man to work for the New York City Subway as a motorman. Her father inspired her love for culture and encouraged her to explore different cultures. Her mother was descended from African slaves and Cherokee Native Americans. Throughout her childhood, Bath was often told by her parents to "never settle for less than [her] best" and had been encouraged by their support of her education. Her mother, encouraging her dreams and love of science, had bought her her first chemistry set. By the time she had reached high school, Bath was already a National Science Foundation scholar. This led to her cancer research earning a front-page feature in the New York Times. Patricia and her brother attended Charles Evans Hughes High School where both students excelled in science and math.
Inspired by the French Nobel Peace Prize laureate Albert Schweitzer's work in medicine, Bath applied for and won a National Science Foundation Scholarship while attending high school; this led her to a research project at Yeshiva University and Harlem Hospital Center studying connections between cancer, nutrition, and stress. In this summer program, led by Rabbi Moses D. Tendler, Bath had studied the effects of streptomycin residue on bacteria. Through this, she was able to conclude that cancer, itself, was a catabolic disease and tumor growth was a symptom. She had also discovered a mathematical equation that could be used to predict cancer cell growth. The head of the research program realized the significance of her findings and published them in a scientific paper. Her discoveries were also shared at the International Fifth Congress of Nutrition in the fall of 1960.
In 1960, at the age of eighteen years old, Bath won a "Merit Award" of Mademoiselle magazine for her contribution to the project.
Bath received her Bachelor of Arts in chemistry from Manhattan's Hunter College in 1964. She then relocated to Washington, D.C. to attend Howard University College of Medicine. Her first year at Howard coincided with the Civil Rights Act of 1964. She co-founded the Student National Medical Association and became its first woman president in 1965. At Howard, she was awarded a Children's Bureau National Government Fellowship Award to do research in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, in the summer of 1967, where her research focused on pediatric surgery. The highlight of the award ceremony was the meeting of Earl Warren, chief justice of the United States Supreme Court, at the US Embassy in Belgrade. Bath graduated with honors from Howard University College of Medicine in 1968. She was awarded the Edwin Watson Prize for Excellence in Ophthalmology by her mentor, Lois A. Young.
The assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., in 1968, caused Bath to dedicate herself to achieving one of the dreams of King, namely the empowerment of people through the Poor People's Campaign. She organized and led Howard University medical students in providing volunteer health care services to the Poor People's Campaign in Resurrection City in the summer of 1968.
Bath returned to her Harlem community and interned at Harlem Hospital Center, which had just become affiliated with Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. During her internship, she observed large proportions of blind patients at Harlem Hospital in comparison to patients at the Columbia University Eye Clinic. Prior to beginning her ophthalmology residency study at NYU in 1970, Bath was awarded a one-year fellowship from Columbia University to study and contribute to eye care services at Harlem Hospital. She began collecting data on blindness and visual impairment at Harlem Hospital, which did not have any ophthalmologists on staff. Her data and passion for improvement persuaded her professors from Columbia to begin operating on blind patients, without charge, at Harlem Hospital Center. Bath was proud to be on the Columbia team that performed the first eye surgery at Harlem Hospital in November 1969.
Bath served her residency in ophthalmology at New York University, from 1970 to 1973, the first African American to do so. She got married and had a daughter, Eraka, in 1972.
Career
After completing her residency at NYU, Bath began a Corneal fellowship program at Columbia University, which focused on corneal transplantation and keratoprosthesis surgery (1973 to 1974). While a fellow, she was recruited by both the UCLA Jules Stein Eye Institute and Charles R. Drew University to co-found an ophthalmology residency program at Martin Luther King, Jr. Hospital. She then began her career in Los Angeles, becoming the first woman ophthalmologist on the faculty at Jules Stein Eye Institute at UCLA. When asked who her mentor was, Bath responded by saying her relationship with family physician Dr. Cecil Marquez inspired her to pursue this specific career. She was appointed assistant chief of the King-Drew-UCLA Ophthalmology Residency Program in 1974, and was appointed chief in 1983.
At both institutions, Bath rose to the rank of associate professor. At UCLA, she founded the Ophthalmic Assistant Training Program (OATP) in 1978. The graduates of the OATP are key personnel to provide screening, health education, and support for blindness prevention strategies.
While at UCLA Jules Stein Eye Institute, Bath established the Keratoprosthesis Program to provide advanced surgical treatment for blind patients. The program continues today as the KPRO and thousands of patients have had their eyesight restored with this innovative technology. Based on her research and achievements with keratoprosthesis, Bath was chosen to lead the first national keratoprosthesis study in 1983.
In 1983, Bath was appointed Chair of the KING-DREW-UCLA Ophthalmology Residency Program, becoming the first woman in the US to head an ophthalmology residency program.
While at UCLA, Bath had wanted to pursue research, though being denied the grants and resources by the National Institutes of Health and the National Eye Institute. It was then she had decided to look further for the best laboratories in the world, to support her plans for innovation in the world of ophthalmology. In 1986, Bath elected to take a sabbatical from clinical and administrative responsibilities and concentrate on research. She resigned her position as chair of ophthalmology and followed her research pursuits as visiting professor at centers of excellence in France, England and Germany. In France, she served as visiting professor at the Rothschilde Eye Institute of Paris with Director, Daniele Aron-Rosa. In England, she served as visiting professor with Professor Emmony at the Loughborough Institute of Technology. In Germany, she served as visiting professor at the University of Free Berlin and the laser medical center.
In 1993, Bath retired from UCLA, which subsequently elected her the first woman on its honorary staff.
Bath served as a professor of ophthalmology at Howard University's School of Medicine and as a professor of telemedicine and ophthalmology at St. Georges University ophthalmology training program. Being a strong advocate for telemedicine, Dr. Bath had supported the innovation of virtual labs, as a part of the curriculum in ophthalmology residency training programs, to provide surgeons with more realistic experience, made possible by 3D imaging. In an article written by Dr. Bath, in the Journal of Cataract and Refractive Surgery, she had proven that with better training and supervision in residency programs, students were able to achieve better results in their surgeries, leading to greater visual acuity.
Bath lectured internationally and authored over 100 papers.
Blindness studies and community ophthalmology
Based on her observations at Harlem Hospital, Bath published the first scientific paper showing the higher prevalence of blindness among Blacks. Bath also found that African American people had eight times higher prevalence of glaucoma as a cause of blindness.
Based on her research, Bath pioneered the worldwide discipline of "community ophthalmology" in 1976 after observations of epidemics rates of preventable blindness among under-served populations in urban areas in the US as well as under-served populations in "third-world" countries. Community ophthalmology was described as a new discipline in medicine promoting eye health and blindness prevention through programs using methodologies of public health, community medicine and ophthalmology to bring necessary eye care to under-served populations.
Humanitarian work
Bath's main humanitarian efforts can be seen through her work at the American Institute for the Prevention of Blindness. Co-founded in 1976 with Alfred Cannon, an American psychiatrist and community organizer, and Aaron Ifekwunigwe, a Nigerian-born pediatrician and human rights advocate, this organization had been created on the principle that "eyesight was a basic human right." Through this organization, Bath was able to spread eye care throughout the globe by providing newborns with free eye drops, vitamins for malnourishment, and vaccinations against diseases that can cause blindness, like measles. Bath was able to spend her time as director traveling the world performing surgeries, teaching and lecturing at colleges. Bath claims her "personal best moment" was while she was in North Africa and using keratoprosthesis, was able to restore the sight of a woman who been blind for over 30 years.
Through this organization, Bath traveled to Tanzania in 2005, where cataracts had become the lead cause of childhood blindness during this time. In Africa, the American Institute for the Prevention of Blindness provided computers and other digital resources for visually impaired students, specifically at the Mwereni School for the Blind in Tanzania and St. Oda School for the Visually Impaired in Kenya.
Bath was also recognized for her philanthropic work in the field of ophthalmology by President Barack Obama. In 2009, she was on stage with President Obama and was put on his commission for digital accessibility to blind children.
In April 2019, Bath testified in a hearing called the "Trailblazers and Lost Einsteins: Women Inventors and the Future of American Innovation" at the Senate Office Building in Washington D.C. Here, Bath showed the gender disparities in the STEM field and lack of female inventors.
Inventions
In 1986, Bath did research in the laboratory of Danièle Aron-Rosa, a pioneer researcher in lasers and ophthalmology at Rothschild Eye Institute of Paris, and then at the Laser Medical Center in Berlin, where she was able to begin early studies in laser cataract surgery, including her first experiment with excimer laser photoablation using human eye bank eyes.
Bath coined the term "Laser phaco" for the process, short for laser PHotoAblative Cataract surgery, and developed the laser phaco probe, a medical device that improves on the use of lasers to remove cataracts, and "for ablating and removing cataract lenses". Bath first had the idea for this type of device in 1981, but did not apply for a patent until several years later. The device was completed in 1986 after Bath conducted research on lasers in Berlin and patented in 1988, making her the first African-American woman to receive a patent for a medical purpose. The device — which quickly and nearly painlessly dissolves the cataract with a laser, irrigates and cleans the eye and permits the easy insertion of a new lens — is used internationally to treat the disease. Bath continued to improve the device and successfully restored vision to people who had been unable to see for decades.
Bath holds five patents in the United States. Three of Bath's five patents relate to the Laserphaco Probe. In 2000, she was granted a patent for a method for using pulsed ultrasound to remove cataracts, and in 2003 a patent for combining laser and ultrasound to remove cataracts.
List of U.S. patents
U.S. patent 4744360, "Apparatus for ablating and removing cataract lenses", issued May 17, 1988
U.S. patent 5843071, "Method and apparatus for ablating and removing cataract lenses" issued December 1, 1998
U.S. patent 5919186, "Laser apparatus for surgery of cataractous lenses", issued July 6, 1999.
U.S. patent 6083192, "Pulsed ultrasound method for fragmenting/emulsifying and removing cataractous lenses, issued July 4, 2000.
U.S. patent 6544254, "Combination ultrasound and laser method and apparatus for removing cataract lenses", issued April 8, 2003.
Honors and awards
1995: NAACP Legal Defense Fund Black Woman Achievement Award
2000: Smithsonian Museum's Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation included her in the Innovative Lives program
2001: American Medical Women's Association induction into Hall of Fame
2006: Tubman's Sheila Award
2011: Dr. Bath was interviewed for the American Academy of Ophthalmology's Museum of Vision oral history collection that "preserves the memories and experiences of people whose lives are an inspiration."
2012: Tribeca Film Festival Disruptive Innovation Award
2013: Association of Black Women Physicians Lifetime Achievement Award for Ophthalmology Contributions
2014: Alpha Kappa Alpha Presidential Award for Health and medical Sciences
2014: Howard University Charter Day Award for Distinguished Achievement in Ophthalmology and Medicine
2017: Medscape one of 12 "Women Physicians who Changed the Course of American Medicine"
2017: Time Magazine "Firsts: Women Who Are Changing the World” for being the first to invent and demonstrate laserphaco cataract surgery
2017: Hunter College Hall of Fame induction
2018: New York Academy of Medicine John Stearns Medal for Distinguished Contributions in Clinical Practice, for invention of laserphaco cataract surgery
2018: Alliance for Aging research: Silver Innovator Award for contributions and research towards blindness prevention
2021, it was announced that she would be one of the first two black women (along with Marian Croak) to be inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.
Dr. Bath had also been a Fellow of the American College of Surgeons from 1976 to 1989, a fellow of the American Academy of Ophthalmology, as well as a member of the American Society of Cataract and Refractive Surgery and the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology.
Bath has been honored by two of her universities. Hunter College placed her in its "hall of fame" in 1988 and Howard University declared her a "Howard University Pioneer in Academic Medicine" in 1993. Several books for young people have been published about her life and work in science, including "Patricia’s Vision: The Doctor Who Saved Sight" by Michelle Lord; "Patricia Bath and Laser Surgery" by Ellen Labrecqua, and "The Doctor with an Eye for Eyes: The Story of Dr. Patricia Bath" by Julia Finley Mosca, which was cited by both the National Science Teachers Association and the Chicago Public Library's list of best children's books of the year. She is also the subject of a short play, "The Prize (about Dr. Patricia Bath)" by Cynthia L. Cooper
See also
Timeline of women in science
List of African-American inventors and scientists
List of Alpha Kappa Alpha sisters
References
Notes
External links
Laserphaco – Bath's website containing information relevant to the technique
Bath at the Black Inventor Online Museum
Interview by the American Academy of Ophthalmology, 2011
American Institute for the Prevention of Blindness – a nonprofit organization founded by Bath
1942 births
2019 deaths
People from Harlem
20th-century American inventors
20th-century American women physicians
20th-century American physicians
21st-century American women physicians
21st-century American physicians
African-American inventors
African-American women physicians
American ophthalmologists
American people who self-identify as being of Cherokee descent
American people of Trinidad and Tobago descent
David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA faculty
Women vision scientists
Fellows of Optica (society)
Howard University alumni
Hunter College alumni
Women in optics
Women inventors
Women ophthalmologists
American women academics
20th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American physicians
21st-century African-American women
21st-century African-American physicians
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4932488
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20medical%20services
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General medical services
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General medical services (GMS) is the range of healthcare that is provided by general practitioners (GPs or family doctors) as part of the National Health Service in the United Kingdom. The NHS specifies what GPs, as independent contractors, are expected to do and provides funding for this work through arrangements known as the General Medical Services Contract. Today, the GMS contract is a UK-wide arrangement with minor differences negotiated by each of the four UK health departments. In 2013 60% of practices had a GMS contract as their principal contract. The contract has sub-sections and not all are compulsory. The other forms of contract are the Personal Medical Services or Alternative Provider Medical Services contracts. They are designed to encourage practices to offer services over and above the standard contract. Alternative Provider Medical Services contracts, unlike the other contracts, can be awarded to anyone, not just GPs, don't specify standard essential services, and are time limited. A new contract is issued each year.
Normal working hours of 8 am to 6.30 pm Monday to Friday are specified in the contract.
History of the contract
National contracting of general medical (general practitioner) services can be traced to the National Insurance Act 1911 which introduced a pool (similar to today's "global sum") to pay GPs on a capitation system building on the traditions of the friendly society.
The scheme was administered by local insurance committees covering counties and conurbations which held a panel of doctors prepared to work under the scheme. The panel doctors were subject to "terms of service" which were later lifted directly into the NHS GP contract. Lloyd George's "nationalisation of club medicine and local insurance in 1912 was the progenitor of the NHS in 1948". Lloyd George, when proposing to increase from 6 to 9 shillings per head the proposed annual payment to panel GPs insisted: "If the remuneration is increased, the service must be improved. Up to the present the doctor has not been adequately paid, and therefore we have had no right or title to expect him to give full service. In a vast number of cases he has given his services for nothing or for payment which was utterly inadequate. There is no man here who does not know doctors who have been attending poor people without any fee or reward at all".
In 1924 agreement was reached between the British Medical Association and the Ministry of Health that capitation fees would comprise 50% of a GPs income but only occupy 2/7 of his time, the remaining income being generated privately.
The meaning of independent contractor in respect of GPs has not always been very clear, but was generally tied to their rejection of salaried status. It has been argued that their behaviour has rarely been that of self-employed entrepreneurs, but rather that of salaried professionals who emphasise and defend the importance of their autonomy.
GPs' contract arrangements were originally made with local executive councils, and then their successors family practitioner committees, family health service authorities and primary care trusts. In England the contract is now between the GP practice and NHS England. In Scotland GP practices are contracted by the health boards. It was agreed in August 2014 that GPs in Scotland would have a separate contract with negotiations taking place which would come into force from 2017/18. It is proposed that they should give up employing practice staff and move 'as far towards salaried model as possible without losing independent status'.
Early years of the NHS
The Beveridge Report of 1942 gave the impetus for White Paper under the Conservative Health Minister Henry Willink that supported the idea of salaried GP services in health centres. The 1946 National Insurance Act under Labour Health Minister Aneurin Bevan, which laid the foundation for the NHS, reduced the clinical role of GPs in hospitals and their involvement in public health issues. The capitation fees was based on the number of patients the GP had on his list. Proposals to make GPs salaried professionals were rejected by the profession in 1948. In 1951 the capitation started to be based on the number of doctors, rather than patients.
From 1948 to 2004 the contract was an individual one. Virtually every doctor working in general practice had a personal contract with the local NHS and patients were registered with a named doctor. There was a clause which stated "a doctor is responsible for ensuring the provision for his patients of the services referred to … throughout each day during which his name is included in the … medical list".
In 1953, general practitioners were estimated to be making between 12 and 30 home visits each day and seeing between 15 and 50 patients in their surgeries.
The College of General Practitioners was founded in November 1952, and became an increasingly important player in negotiations about the GP contract. It became a driving force in developing postgraduate training for doctors wishing to enter general practice.
1966 GP contract
In 1965 GPs demanded a new contract and threatened mass resignation from the NHS. One of their complaints was that there was no provision for improvement of practices. A GP who employed a secretary or nurse was paid no more than others who did the minimum. The main problem, however, was in comparison to the pay and status of hospital consultants. The career earnings of a consultant at that time were 48% higher than those of a GP. The Socialist Medical Association complained that the role of the family doctor as the lynch-pin of the NHS, as intended in the NHS Act had not been fulfilled. The reverse position had gradually developed, and general practice, was now frequently described as a "cottage industry". The BMA formulated a Charter for the Family Doctor Service. It demanded:
"To give the best service to his patients, the family doctor must:
Have adequate time for every patient.
Be able to keep up to date.
Have complete clinical freedom.
Have adequate, well-equipped premises.
Have at his disposal all the diagnostic aids, social services and ancillary help he needs.
Be encouraged to acquire skills and experience in special fields.
Be adequately paid by a method acceptable to him which encourages him to do his best for his patients.
Have a working day which leaves him some time for leisure".
The resulting 1966 contract addressed major grievances of GPs and provided for better equipped and better staffed premises (subsidised by the state), greater practitioner autonomy, a basic practice allowance for any GP principal with a list of more than 1000 patients, and pension provisions. Fees for service were introduced for interventions related to the prevention of disease. There was considerable pressure from doctors for the introduction of charges to patients but the Minister, Kenneth Robinson and the leadership of the BMA resisted this. Despite some changes, the capitation principle and the pool survived. The new payment system, known as the red book, allowed doctors to claim back from the NHS 70% of staff costs and 100% of the cost of their premises. Maternity Services and contraception were optional services which attracted additional payments. GPs were allowed to practise privately, to hold part-time hospital or other appointments within the NHS, to work in industry or for an insurance company, although few did very much private work.
In 1976 parliament approved legislation requiring doctors who wanted to become principals in general practice to complete vocational training.
1990 GP contract
The Conservative government under Margaret Thatcher from 1979 onwards looked for ways of changing the NHS, with a greater role of the private sector, and for limiting health spending and it was not afraid to take on the doctor's trade union, the British Medical Association (BMA). The 1990 contract which was imposed by Kenneth Clarke after it was rejected in a ballot, linked GP pay more strongly to performance. More money was attached to capitation and less to the basic practice allowance, in line with the Thatcher government's general enthusiasm for competition – an enthusiasm which was not shared by many GPs. The number of professional members on the family health services authority was considerably fewer than had been the case with the family practitioner committee. The terms and conditions of primary medical service delivery were closely specified. The 'Red Book' (Statement of Fees and Allowances) detailed the payment tariffs for each individual treatment. Targets were set for cervical smears and immunisations. GPs were required to give health checks to new patients, patients over 75 and those who had not seen a GP for 3 years.
The GP Fundholding scheme gave them a budget for commissioning for the first time. The government also introduced a new locally negotiated personal services contract for general practitioners in 1997, permitting them to be salaried, paid by the session, or work as locums.
The 2004 GMS contract
The new GMS contract came into force in April 2004, abolished the "Red Book" and led to a significant but temporary increase in some practices' income. Every practice gets a share of a total amount of money allocated towards primary care in GMS practices (the "Global Sum"). This share is determined by the practice's list size, adjusted for age and sex of the patients (children, women and the elderly have higher weights than young men because they cause a greater workload). Furthermore, the practice gets an adjustment for rurality (greater rurality causes greater expenses), for the cost of employing staff (the "Market Forces Factor"), which captures differences in pay rates between areas, (e.g., it is more expensive to hire a nurse in London than in Perth), the rate of "churn" of the patient list and for morbidity as measured by the Health Survey for England.
The application of the formula to this reduced "Global Sum" would have resulted in great changes in GP income and income loss for many GPs and through their representative organisations the GPs were able to extract a concession. They received a "Minimum Practice Income Guarantee", which temporarlily protected the previous income levels of those who would otherwise have lost out – that guarantee being withdrawn over time by a combination of inflation and the clawback of pay rises.
At the same time the Government introduced the Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF) which was designed to give GPs the incentive to do more work and fulfil government-set requirements (146 indicators) to earn points (varying amounts per indicator) which translate into greater income. The money for the QOF was taken out of the "Global Sum", so is not really new extra money.
Participation in the QOF is voluntary but since the standards change each year, practically all practices participating have to do more work each year for the same income. However, the substantial additional workload of QOF has led to substantial improvements in the screening for risk factors in the community by primary care, particularly for older patients with cardiovascular disease.
The Working in Partnership Programme (WiPP) was launched under the 2004 contract to support doctors in general practice by providing them with innovative ideas on how to improve services for the public.
The new contract forced almost all GPs to opt-out of weekend and night out-of-hours service provision – largely because the cost of providing a good quality service was roughly double the funding allocated to it by the patient, but also because the government set standards (all calls to be answered within 60 seconds etc.) that cannot be met by individuals. The inevitable consequences of systematic underfunding of primary care OOH services and their provision by the cheapest bidder came to a head with the Dr Ubani case, although there have been many others. It should perhaps stand as a warning of the risks inherent in the "lowest bid cheapest provider" model of medical care.
A series of amendments have followed each year – each time reducing income for the current workload, and tying existing pay to new targets (adding new QoF indicators, making them harder to meet, extending working hours). This combined with the other workload factors (increasing consultation length, increasing consultation frequency, ageing population (see Office for National Statistics) increasing medical complexity, and transfer of work from hospital means that GP workload is rising 5% year on year as GP income falls – concealed largely by the rise of "half-time GPs" working 40 hours a week which makes pay look artificially high.
The 2015 contract
The contract changes for 2015/16 in England were announced in September 2014 and formulated in the National Health Service (General Medical Services Contracts) Regulations 2015 (SI 2016/1862). Main changes included a named, accountable GP for all patients, publication of GPs' average net earnings and expansion and improvement of online services. Practices have to help anyone who wants it to sign up for patient-facing services. All practices were required to have a patient participation group According to Jeremy Hunt the right to a named GP turned into a tick-box exercise as there were not enough GPs.
The 2017 contract
GP practices in England will receive £85.35 per weighted patient under the 2017 Contract, an increase of 5.9% from 2016/17.
The 2019 contract
The 2019 contract will run for 5 years. £405 million of funding has been confirmed for 2019/20. The contract provides changes to the rurality index payment and London adjustment payment, so that rurality index payments will only apply to patients living inside a GP's catchment area and the London adjustment payment will only apply to patients actually living in London. Babylon Health complained that this penalised their GP at Hand operation which had invested in technology in order to serve patients over a wide geographic area. According to the BMA the deal will guarantee a minimum 2% uplift for GP and staff pay and expenses this year.
There is an incentive of £2 a patient for practices to join geographically based primary care networks.
There will be funding for pharmacists, physiotherapists, paramedics, physician associates and social prescribing support workers to support practices.
Practices will be obliged to make one appointment per 3,000 patients available per day for direct booking by NHS 111. Richard Vautrey described the changes as the most significant in 15 years.
For the first time State indemnity is extended to GPs and practice staff.
Practices are banned from advertising or hosting private services.
The Carr-Hill formula
Capitation payments, which make up about 60% of a typical practice's income, are calculated using a formula developed by Professor Roy Carr-Hill. "This formula takes into consideration, along with other practice characteristics, individual patients' age, gender and health conditions and calculates a "weighted" count of patients according to need. This means that two practices with the same number of patients may have very different weighted patient numbers due to widely varying patient characteristics and health conditions, and as a result, these practices which may seem to be similar in terms of list size, could receive very different levels of funding".
This includes patient age and gender which is used to reflect frequency of home and surgery visits, Standardized mortality ratio and Standardised Long-Standing Illness for patients under 65, the number of newly registered patients, numbers of residential and nursing home patients, rurality and the cost of living, particularly in London.
In 2019 GPs were paid around £150 on average for each patient on their list. In 2018 3.6 million more patients were registered in England than the population. The NHS Counter Fraud Authority is to investigate where registered patients have not visited their doctor for five years. Richard Vautrey said "Some of these will be people that have recently died, or left the country, others may be homeless or simply unaccounted for in government statistics, and we would be concerned at any suggestion that any discrepancies are down to wilful deception by hard-working GPs."
Other primary care contracts
Apart from GPs in the GMS, primary care is also provided through Personal Medical Services (PMS) and Alternative Provider Medical Services (APMS) contracts.
Personal Medical Services (PMS) were first tried in April 1998 and became a permanent option in April 2004. The health care professional/health care body and the primary care trust (PCT) enter a local contract. The main use of this contract is to give GPs the option of being salaried. Alternative Provider Medical Services (APMS) are primary care services provided by outside contractors (like US health companies).
A study, published by the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine in 2015 found that 347 of the 8,300 general practices in England were run by under 'alternative provider medical service' contracts. The study found the introduction of the alternative contract had not led to improvements in quality and may have resulted in worse care. The results showed that APMS providers performed significantly worse across 13 out of the 17 indicators (p=<0.01 in each) in each year from 2008/09 and 2012/13, and were significantly worse than traditional general practice in three out of the five years for a further two indicators.
Profitability
In 2013/4 the average gross earnings of a single handed GP was £107,200. In practices with six or more GPs the average was £99,100.
References
National Health Service
Primary care
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4932518
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underfloor%20heating
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Underfloor heating
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Underfloor heating and cooling is a form of central heating and cooling that achieves indoor climate control for thermal comfort using hydronic or electrical heating elements embedded in a floor. Heating is achieved by conduction, radiation and convection. Use of underfloor heating dates back to the Neoglacial and Neolithic periods.
History
Underfloor heating has a long history back into the Neoglacial and Neolithic periods. Archeological digs in Asia and the Aleutian islands of Alaska reveal how the inhabitants drafted smoke from fires through stone covered trenches which were excavated in the floors of their subterranean dwellings. The hot smoke heated the floor stones and the heat then radiated into the living spaces. These early forms have evolved into modern systems using fluid filled pipes or electrical cables and mats. Below is a chronological overview of under floor heating from around the world.
Description
Modern underfloor heating systems use either electrical resistance elements ("electric systems") or fluid flowing in pipes ("hydronic systems") to heat the floor. Either type can be installed as the primary, whole-building heating system or as localized floor heating for thermal comfort. Some systems allow for single rooms to be heated when they are a part of a larger multi-room system, avoiding any wasted heat. Electrical resistance can only be used for heating; when space cooling is also required, hydronic systems must be used. Other applications for which either electric or hydronic systems are suited include snow/ice melting for walks, driveways and landing pads, turf conditioning of football and soccer fields and frost prevention in freezers and skating rinks. A range of underfloor heating systems and designs are available to suit different types of flooring.
Electric heating elements or hydronic piping can be cast in a concrete floor slab ("poured floor system" or "wet system"). They can also be placed under the floor covering ("dry system") or attached directly to a wood sub floor ("sub floor system" or "dry system").
Some commercial buildings are designed to take advantage of thermal mass which is heated or cooled during off-peak hours when utility rates are lower. With the heating/cooling system turned off during the day, the concrete mass and room temperature drift up or down within the desired comfort range. Such systems are known as thermally activated building systems or TABS.
The terms radiant heating and radiant cooling are commonly used to describe this approach because radiation is responsible for a significant portion of the resulting thermal comfort but this usage is technically correct only when radiation composes more than 50% of the heat exchange between the floor and the rest of the space.
Hydronic systems
Hydronic systems use water or a mix of water and anti-freeze such as propylene glycol as the heat transfer fluid in a "closed-loop" that is recirculated between the floor and the boiler.
Various types of pipes are available specifically for hydronic underfloor heating and cooling systems and are generally made from polyethylene including PEX, PEX-Al-PEX and PERT. Older materials such as Polybutylene (PB) and copper or steel pipe are still used in some locales or for specialized applications.
Hydronic systems require skilled designers and tradespeople familiar with boilers, circulators, controls, fluid pressures and temperature. The use of modern factory assembled sub-stations, used primarily in district heating and cooling, can greatly simplify design requirements and reduce the installation and commissioning time of hydronic systems.
Hydronic systems can use a single source or combination of energy sources to help manage energy costs. Hydronic system energy source options are:
Boilers (heaters) including combined heat and power plants heated by:
Natural gas or "methane" industry-wide is considered the cleanest and most efficient method of heating water, depending on availability. Costs about $7/million b.t.u.
Propane mainly made from oil, less efficient than natural gas by volume, and generally much more expensive on a b.t.u. basis. Produces more carbon dioxide than "methane" on a b.t.u. basis. Costs about $25/million b.t.u.
Coal, oil, or waste oil
Electricity
Solar thermal
Wood or other biomass
Bio-fuels
Heat pumps and chillers powered by:
Electricity
Natural gas
Geothermal heat pump
Electric systems
Electric systems are used only for heating and employ non-corrosive, flexible heating elements including cables, pre-formed cable mats, bronze mesh, and carbon films. Due to their low profile, they can be installed in a thermal mass or directly under floor finishes. Electric systems can also take advantage of time-of-use electricity metering and are frequently used as carpet heaters, portable under area rug heaters, under laminate floor heaters, under tile heating, under wood floor heating, and floor warming systems, including under shower floor and seat heating. Large electric systems also require skilled designers and tradespeople but this is less so for small floor warming systems. Electric systems use fewer components and are simpler to install and commission than hydronic systems. Some electric systems use line voltage technology while others use low voltage technology. The power consumption of an electric system is not based on voltage but rather wattage output produced by the heating element.
Features
Airflow from vertical temperature gradients
Thermal comfort quality
As defined by ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55 – Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy, thermal comfort is, "that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation." Relating specifically to underfloor heating, thermal comfort is influenced by floor surface temperature and associated elements such as radiant asymmetry, mean radiant temperature, and operative temperature. Research by Nevins, Rohles, Gagge, P. Ole Fanger et al. show that humans at rest with clothing typical of light office and home wear, exchange over 50% of their sensible heat via radiation.
Underfloor heating influences the radiant exchange by warming the interior surfaces. The heating of the surfaces suppresses body heat loss resulting in a perception of heating comfort. This general sensation of comfort is further enhanced through conduction (feet on floor) and through convection by the surface's influence on air density. Underfloor cooling works by absorbing both short wave and long wave radiation resulting in cool interior surfaces. These cool surfaces encourage the loss of body heat resulting in a perception of cooling comfort. Localized discomfort due to cold and warm floors wearing normal footwear and stocking feet is addressed in the ISO 7730 and ASHRAE 55 standards and ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbooks and can be corrected or regulated with floor heating and cooling systems.
Indoor air quality
Underfloor heating can have a positive effect on the quality of indoor air by facilitating the choice of otherwise perceived cold flooring materials such as tile, slate, terrazzo, and concrete. These masonry surfaces typically have very low VOC emissions (volatile organic compounds) in comparison to other flooring options. In conjunction with moisture control, floor heating also establishes temperature conditions that are less favorable in supporting mold, bacteria, viruses and dust mites. By removing the sensible heating load from the total HVAC (Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning) load, ventilation, filtration and dehumidification of incoming air can be accomplished with dedicated outdoor air systems having less volumetric turnover to mitigate distribution of airborne contaminates. There is recognition from the medical community relating to the benefits of floor heating especially as it relates to allergens.
Energy
Under floor radiant systems are evaluated for sustainability through the principles of efficiency, entropy, exergy and efficacy. When combined with high-performance buildings, underfloor systems operate with low temperatures in heating and high temperatures in cooling in the ranges found typically in geothermal and solar thermal systems. When coupled with these non-combustible, renewable energy sources the sustainability benefits include reduction or elimination of combustion and greenhouse gases produced by boilers and power generation for heat pumps and chillers, as well as reduced demands for non-renewables and greater inventories for future generations. This has been supported through simulation evaluations and through research funded by the U.S. Department of Energy, Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, Fraunhofer Institute ISE as well as ASHRAE.
Safety and health
Low-temperature underfloor heating is embedded in the floor or placed under the floor covering. As such it occupies no wall space and creates no burn hazards, nor is it a hazard for physical injuries due to accidental contact leading to tripping and falling. This has been referenced as a positive feature in healthcare facilities including those serving elderly clients and those with dementia. Anecdotally, under similar environmental conditions, heated floors will speed evaporation of wetted floors (showering, cleaning, and spills). Additionally, underfloor heating with fluid-filled pipes is useful in heating and cooling explosion-proof environments where combustion and electrical equipment can be located remotely from the explosive environment.
There is a likelihood that underfloor heating may add to offgassing and sick building syndrome in an environment, particularly when the carpet is used as flooring.
Electric underfloor heating systems cause low frequency magnetic fields (in the 50–60 Hz range), old 1-wire systems much more so than modern 2-wire systems. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified static and low-frequency magnetic fields as possibly carcinogenic (Group 2B).
Longevity, maintenance and repair
Equipment maintenance and repair is the same as for other water or electrical based HVAC systems except when pipes, cables or mats are embedded in the floor. Early trials (for example homes built by Levitt and Eichler, c. 1940–1970s) experienced failures in embedded copper and steel piping systems as well as failures assigned by the courts to Shell, Goodyear and others for polybutylene and EPDM materials. There also have been a few publicized claims of failed electric heated gypsum panels from the mid-1990s.
Failures associated with most installations are attributable to job site neglect, installation errors, and product mishandling such as exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Pre-pour pressure tests required by concrete installation standards and good practice guidelines for the design, construction, operation and repair of radiant heating and cooling systems mitigate problems resulting from improper installation and operation.
Fluid based systems using cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) a product developed in the 1930s and its various derivatives such as PE-rt have demonstrated reliable long term performance in harsh cold-climate applications such as bridge decks, aircraft hangar aprons, and landing pads. PEX has become a popular and reliable option in-home use for new concrete slab construction, and new underfloor joist construction as well as (joist) retrofit. Since the materials are produced from polyethylene and its bonds are cross-linked, it is highly resistant to corrosion or the temperature and pressure stresses associated with typical fluid-based HVAC systems. For PEX reliability, installation procedures must be precise (especially at joints) and manufacturers specifications for a maximum temperature of water or fluid, etc. must be carefully followed.
Design and installation
The engineering of underfloor cooling and heating systems is governed by industry standards and guidelines.
Technical design
The amount of heat exchanged from or to an underfloor system is based on the combined radiant and convective heat transfer coefficients.
Radiant heat transfer is constant based on the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.
Convective heat transfer changes over time depending on
the air's density and thus its buoyancy. Air buoyancy changes according to surface temperatures and
forced air movement due to fans and the motion of people and objects in the space.
Convective heat transfer with underfloor systems is much greater when the system is operating in a heating rather than cooling mode. Typically with underfloor heating the convective component is almost 50% of the total heat transfer and in underfloor cooling the convective component is less than 10%.
Heat and moisture considerations
When heated and cooled pipes or heating cables share the same spaces as other building components, parasitic heat transfer can occur between refrigeration appliances, cold storage areas, domestic cold water lines, air conditioning and ventilation ducts. To control this, the pipes, cables and other building components must all be well insulated.
With underfloor cooling, condensation may collect on the surface of the floor. To prevent this, air humidity is kept low, below 50%, and floor temperatures are maintained above the dew point, (66F).
Building systems and materials
Heat losses to below grade
The thermal conductivity of soil will influence the conductive heat transfer between the ground and heated or cooled slab-on-grade floors.
Soils with moisture contents greater than 20% can be as much as 15 times more conductive than soils with less than 4% moisture content.
Water tables and general soil conditions should be evaluated.
Suitable underslab insulation such as rigid extruded or expanded polystyrene is required by Model National Energy Codes.
Heat losses at the exterior floor framing
The heated or cooled sub-floor increases the temperature difference between the outdoors and the conditioned floor.
The cavities created by the framing timbers such as headers, trimmers and cantilevered sections must then be insulated with rigid, batt or spray type insulations of suitable value based on climate and building techniques.
Masonry and other hard flooring considerations
Concrete floors must accommodate shrinkage and expansion due to curing and changes in temperature.
Curing times and temperatures for poured floors (concrete, lightweight toppings) must follow industry standards.
Control and expansion joints and crack suppression techniques are required for all masonry type floors including;
Tile
Slate
Terrazzo
Stone
Marble
Concrete, stained, textured and stamped
Wood flooring
The dimensional stability of wood is based primary on moisture content, however, other factors can mitigate the changes to wood as it is heated or cooled, including;
Wood species
Milling techniques, quarter sawn or plane sawn
Acclimation period
Relative humidity within the space
Piping standards
Control system
Underfloor heating and cooling systems can have several control points including the management of:
Fluid temperatures in the heating and cooling plant (e.g. boilers, chillers, heat pumps).
Influences the efficiency
Fluid temperatures in distribution network between the plant and the radiant manifolds.
Influences the capital and operating costs
Fluid temperatures in the PE-x piping systems, which is based on;
Heating and cooling demands
Tube spacing
Upward and downward losses
Flooring characteristics
Operative temperature
Incorporates the mean radiant and dry bulb
Surface temperatures for;
Comfort
Health and safety
Material integrity
Dew point (for floor cooling).
Mechanical schematic
Illustrated is a simplified mechanical schematic of an underfloor heating and cooling system for thermal comfort quality with a separate air handling system for indoor air quality. In high performance residential homes of moderate size (e.g. under 3000 ft2 (278 m2) total conditioned floor area), this system using manufactured hydronic control appliances would take up about the same space as a three or four piece bathroom.
Modeling piping patterns with finite element analysis
Modeling radiant piping (also tube or loop) patterns with finite element analysis (FEA) predicts the thermal diffusions and surface temperature quality or efficacy of various loop layouts. The performance of the model (left image below) and image to the right are useful to gain an understanding in relationships between flooring resistances, conductivities of surrounding mass, tube spacings, depths and fluid temperatures. As with all FEA simulations, they depict a snap shot in time for a specific assembly and may not be representative of all floor assemblies nor for system that have been operative for considerable time in a steady state condition. The practical application of FEA for the engineer is being able to assess each design for fluid temperature, back losses and surface temperature quality. Through several iterations it is possible to optimize the design for the lowest fluid temperature in heating and the highest fluid temperature in cooling which enables combustion and compression equipment to achieve its maximum rated efficiency performance.
Economics
There is a wide range of pricing for underfloor systems based on regional differences, materials, application and project complexity. It is widely adopted in the Nordic, Asian and European communities. Consequently, the market is more mature and systems relatively more affordable than less developed markets such as North America where market share for fluid based systems remains between 3% and 7% of HVAC systems (ref. Statistics Canada and United States Census Bureau).
In energy efficiency buildings such as Passive House, R-2000 or Net Zero Energy, simple thermostatic radiator valves can be installed along with a single compact circulator and small condensing heater controlled without or with basic hot water reset control. Economical electric resistance based systems also are useful in small zones such as bathrooms and kitchens, but also for entire buildings where heating loads are very low. Larger structures will need more sophisticated systems to deal with cooling and heating needs, and often require building management control systems to regulate the energy use and control the overall indoor environment.
Low temperature radiant heating and high temperature radiant cooling systems lend themselves well to district energy systems (community based systems) due to the temperature differentials between the plant and the buildings which allow small diameter insulated distribution networks and low pumping power requirements. The low return temperatures in heating and high return temperatures in cooling enable the district energy plant to achieve maximum efficiency. The principles behind district energy with underfloor systems can also be applied to stand alone multi story buildings with the same benefits. Additionally, underfloor radiant systems are ideally suited to renewable energy sources including geothermal and solar thermal systems or any system where waste heat is recoverable.
In the global drive for sustainability, long term economics supports the need to eliminate where possible, compression for cooling and combustion for heating.
System efficiency
System efficiency and energy use analysis takes into account building enclosure performance, efficiency of the heating and cooling plant, system controls and the conductivities, surface characteristics, tube/element spacing and depth of the radiant panel, operating fluid temperatures and wire to water efficiency of the circulators. The efficiency in electric systems is analyzed by similar processes and includes the efficiency of electricity generation.
Though the efficiency of radiant systems is under constant debate with no shortage of anecdotal claims and scientific papers presenting both sides, the low return fluid temperatures in heating and high return fluid temperatures in cooling enable condensing boilers, chillers and heat pumps to operate at or near their maximum engineered performance. The greater efficiency of 'wire to water' versus 'wire to air' flow due to water's significantly greater heat capacity favors fluid based systems over air based systems. Both field application and simulation research have demonstrated significant electrical energy savings with radiant cooling and dedicated outdoor air systems based in part on the previous noted principles.
In Passive Houses, R-2000 homes or Net Zero Energy buildings the low temperatures of radiant heating and cooling systems present significant opportunities to exploit exergy.
Efficiency considerations for flooring surface materials
System efficiency is also affected by the floor covering serving as the radiational boundary layer between the floor mass and occupants and other contents of the conditioned space. For example, carpeting has a greater resistance or lower conductance than tile. Thus carpeted floors need to operate at higher internal temperatures than tile which can create lower efficiencies for boilers and heat pumps. However, when the floor covering is known at the time the system is installed, then the internal floor temperature required for a given covering can be achieved through proper tube spacing without sacrificing plant efficiency (though the higher internal floor temperatures may result in increased heat loss from the non-room surfaces of the floor).
The emissivity, reflectivity and absorptivity of a floor surface are critical determinants of its heat exchange with the occupants and room. Unpolished flooring surface materials and treatments have very high emissivity's (0.85 to 0.95) and therefore make good heat radiators.
With underfloor heating and cooling ("reversible floors") flooring surfaces with high absorbance and emissivity and low reflectivity are most desirable.
Thermographic evaluation
Thermography is a useful tool to see the actual thermal efficacy of an underfloor system from its start up (as shown) to its operating conditions. In a startup it is easy to identify the tube location but less so as the system moves into a steady state condition. It is important to interpret thermographic images correctly. As is the case with finite element analysis (FEA), what is seen, reflects the conditions at the time of the image and may not represent the steady conditions. For example, the surfaces viewed in the images shown, may appear ‘hot’, but in reality are actually below the nominal temperature of the skin and core temperatures of the human body and the ability to ‘see’ the pipes does not equate to ‘feel’ the pipes. Thermography can also point out flaws in the building enclosures (left image, corner intersection detail), thermal bridging (right image, studs) and the heat losses associated with exterior doors (center image).
Global examples of large modern buildings using radiant heating and cooling
41 Cooper Square, United States
Akron Art Museum, United States
BMW Welt, Germany
California Academy of Science, United States
Copenhagen Opera House, Denmark
Ewha Womans University, South Korea
Hearst Tower, New York City, United States
Manitoba Hydro Place, Canada
National Renewable Energy Laboratory Research Support Facility, United States
Pearl River Tower, China
Post Tower, Germany
Suvarnabhumi Airport, Bangkok
See also
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
Electric heating
Hydronics
Gloria (heating system)
Heater (types of heaters)
Hypocaust
Kang bed-stove
Psychrometrics
Ondol
Renewable heat
Underfloor air distribution
References
Notes
Residential heating
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
Ancient inventions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target%20Field
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Target Field
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Target Field is a baseball stadium in the historic warehouse district of downtown Minneapolis. Since its opening in 2010, the stadium has been the ballpark of Major League Baseball's Minnesota Twins. The stadium hosted the 2014 Major League Baseball All-Star Game. It has also served as the home of other local and regional baseball events.
The ballpark is open-air; though originally designed for baseball, it has also hosted football, soccer, hockey games, and concerts.
In 2010, ESPN The Magazine ranked Target Field as the number one baseball stadium experience in North America.
Summary
Target Field is the Twins/Senators sixth ballpark, and the franchise's third in Minnesota. The Twins had played 28 seasons at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, and before that 21 seasons at Metropolitan Stadium. The Twins shared both facilities with the Minnesota Vikings, and the Metrodome with the University of Minnesota Golden Gophers football team.
The final budget for construction was $435 million, of which $175 million was paid by the Twins and $260 million was paid by Hennepin County by way of a 0.15% county-wide sales tax. An additional $120 million in infrastructure costs were split between the county ($90 million), the team ($20 million), Target Corporation ($4.5 million), the Minnesota Department of Transportation ($3.5 million) and the Minnesota Ballpark Authority ($2 million) bringing the project's total cost to US$555 million.
History
Background
The Twins were in their 13th season in the Metrodome when they formally declared their desire to find a new home on July 18, 1994. Carl Pohlad, owner of the Twins, told the Metropolitan Sports Facilities Commission (owners of the Metrodome) the current facility was "economically obsolete" due to changes in the economy of Major League Baseball. This declaration started a process which would culminate nearly 16 years later with the opening of Target Field. In the intervening years, many ideas, financing plans and possible locations came and went. The long process included threats of relocation, infighting between the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, and numerous pieces of legislation (both passed and not passed) at various levels of government. The process spanned the terms of three Minnesota governors, five mayors of Minneapolis or St. Paul, and even two long-tenured Twins managers.
Timeline
1961 – The original Washington Senators become the Minnesota Twins, and move to Metropolitan Stadium
1982 – Twins move to HHH Metrodome
1984 – Calvin Griffith sells Twins to Carl Pohlad
1994 – Pohlad declares Metrodome "economically obsolete"
1996 – First new ballpark plan fails to win support
1997 – Second new ballpark plan fails to win support; Minneapolis stadium contributions capped by referendum
1998 – Referendum to build ballpark in Greensboro, NC fails
1999 – Referendum to build ballpark in St. Paul, MN fails
2000 – Eventual site of Target Field identified
2001 – Twins become part of MLB's "contraction" plans
2002 – Hennepin County makes its first financing proposal; St. Paul options eliminated
2005 – Twins and Hennepin County reach financing agreement
2006 – Ballpark legislation enacted
2007 – Construction begins, land dispute settled
2010 – Twins move to Target Field
Source: Minnesota Legislative Reference Library
Early plans (1994–1999)
Immediately following Pohlad's 1994 declaration of intent, the Twins began making plans to build a new, retractable-roof stadium on a site just north of the Metrodome. Extensive conceptual work went into the site and stadium. At that time, the desired site was largely underused as surface parking, despite being adjacent to the Mississippi River, and located in the city's historic milling district. It included land which would be used for the Guthrie Theater (2006), Gold Medal Park (2007), and high-end housing.
1996
The riverfront plan formed the basis for all of the early discussions, and was first presented to the Minnesota Legislature during the 1996 session. It did not pass, largely due to widespread public sentiment that Pohlad, Minnesota's second most wealthy citizen, should pay for a new facility himself.
1997
After that failure, private negotiations between Pohlad and Governor Arne Carlson yielded a deal which was brought to the 1997 legislative session. The Twins had agreed to make an up-front financial contribution to kick-start the project, as well as sell 49% of team ownership to the state. This plan unraveled when local media reported that the complicated "contribution" to be made by the team amounted to a loan from Pohlad which was to be repaid with interest. Public outrage made passing this plan impossible.
Later that same year, the voters in Minneapolis overwhelmingly approved a referendum which prevented the city of Minneapolis from ever spending more than $10 million on a professional sports facility without approval from voters. This effectively removed the city from consideration as a financial partner for a new Twins ballpark.
1998
Meanwhile, the Twins’ Metrodome lease was set to expire in 1998. Governor Carlson felt the issue pressing enough that he called a special session of the Minnesota Legislature for that fall. In advance of the session, Pohlad announced he had signed a letter of intent to sell the team to a potential ownership group in North Carolina (Piedmont Triad) led by Don Beaver. The sale would be nullified if either a new stadium was approved in Minnesota, or a referendum to build a new stadium in Greensboro failed.
The Minnesota legislature not only defeated the stadium bill, but passed a resolution urging Congress to intervene in what it saw to be the worst practices of professional sports. Then, on May 5, 1998, voters in Greensboro rejected the ballpark referendum by a wide margin and the sale of the team was cancelled. Meanwhile, the public had come to view Pohlad very unfavorably.
1999
St. Paul mayor Norm Coleman jumped into this void with an enthusiastic pitch to move the Twins to his city. Several downtown locations were offered, the most likely option being adjacent to the new Xcel Energy Center (though another site considered was in the Lowertown neighborhood, a location which eventually became CHS Field, home of the St. Paul Saints). A referendum was scheduled to ask St. Paul voters to approve a sales tax increase for the city's contribution to the project, which would have been an open-air ballpark. Once again, Pohlad agreed to "sell" the team contingent upon the outcome of a referendum. This sale would have been to a group led by Minnesota-based billionaires Glen Taylor and Robert Naegele. Because Pohlad was so unpopular, it was thought that removing him from the transaction might help the prospects of the referendum, but it did not. On November 2, 1999, St. Paul voters rejected the plan by a large margin and the concept quickly evaporated.
Warehouse District site identified (2000)
The threat of the Twins moving to St. Paul had caught the attention of the business community in Minneapolis, which, up to this point, had been largely silent on the issue. During the run-up to the St. Paul referendum in 1999, an independent working group was formed by Minneapolis businessmen Bruce Lambrecht and Rich Pogin, representatives of a group of investors which owned the Rapid Park parking lot in the historic warehouse district on the northern edge of downtown Minneapolis. This group, initially known as Minnesota Urban Ballpark, and later as MN Twinsville, formed with the express purpose of bringing their land into the discussion about sites for a new Twins ballpark.
At first, the 8-acre site appeared to be an extremely unlikely location for a modern professional baseball facility. Besides being far smaller than most MLB sites (modern facilities typically require ), it was hemmed in by railroad tracks, a freeway, and two city streets passing on bridges. Though very near to Target Center, it was also adjacent to the Hennepin Energy Recovery Center (HERC), more commonly known as the city's "garbage burner," considered by some to be an undesirable neighbor for a ballpark.
But the site's perceived liabilities were easily offset by significant assets. Careful measurements were made by Lambrecht and local architect David Albersman, which proved that there was enough room for a baseball field and the amenities associated with a Major League ballpark. The site was adjacent to three large, underused parking ramps, and at the potential nexus of a light rail line then being planned (ultimately the Metro Transit Blue Line), and a commuter rail line also under consideration (the eventual Northstar Line). It was also controlled by a single owner who would be a willing seller. This fact alone would significantly simplify the process of acquisition by a governmental entity for a large-scale project. Owing largely to these logistical advantages, as well as an expansive view of the Minneapolis skyline, and the persistence of Lambrecht and Pogin's group, this site would eventually come to house Target Field.
In early 2000, Lambrecht's group commissioned a visit by Earl Santee of Populous (then known as HOK Sport) to evaluate whether the site had the potential to house Major League Baseball. His visit, independent of the Twins and all government entities, happened with no publicity whatsoever. Santee reviewed the site and reacted with skepticism, but saw no fatal flaws, nothing that made a ballpark impossible. He agreed to provide the working group with a concept drawing of a ballpark on that site, an image which was first published in August 2000, and quickly became the center of their ultimately successful campaign.
As Santee's dramatic drawing became more widely published, and Lambrecht and Pogin ramped up their lobbying efforts, others began to realize the advantages of the site. This included Mark Oyaas, founder of New Ballpark, Inc., a separate group of downtown Minneapolis business leaders, who sought to create a private financing plan for a stadium. They quickly settled on Rapid Park as their preferred ballpark site, which enhanced its visibility significantly. The Twins, however, completely ignored Rapid Park, and kept their distance from all of the ad hoc working groups. They would eventually go on record as believing that the Rapid Park site was too small and constrained to house the type of facility they sought to build.
Committees, contraction and competition (2000–2002)
2000
No fewer than three committees were created in 2000 to offer recommendations on how to proceed.
The city of Minneapolis created a panel of citizens known as C-17 to consider various financing models. Their final report, issued in February 2001, while not specifically recommending a site, heavily featured the concept drawing of the Rapid Park site on multiple pages. The committee recommended that the city continue its discussions with New Ballpark, Inc., in the hopes of finding a private financing solution. Even before the work of the C-17 was complete, another (unnamed) group of staff analysts within city government, working with the Metropolitan Community Development Agency (MCDA), formally recommended the Rapid Park site to the City Council.
Simultaneously, the Twins assembled a 130-member advisory group, dubbed Minnesotans for Major League Baseball, which met to discuss possible stadium alternatives. Their deliberations included a meeting with Bud Selig, commissioner of baseball, to discuss economic issues within the sport. Their final report did not recommend a site (and did not even mention Rapid Park), but did provide advice to the team on how to proceed in winning public approval for any plan.
Late in 2000, Twins CEO Chris Clouser proposed playing three games in a temporary outdoor stadium to be built adjacent to the Mall of America in Bloomington. He hoped to demonstrate the pleasures of outdoor baseball as a way of jump-starting the political process. The proposal ran into problems from insurance companies, the Minnesota Vikings (who stood to lose Metrodome revenue) and Major League Baseball. It was ultimately scrapped.
2001
During the 2001 legislative session, the Twins pushed for a new financing plan based on ideas gleaned from their advisory committee. The $300 million site-neutral plan would have featured a $150 million contribution from the Pohlads, $50 million from private enterprises, and the remaining $100 million in the form of an interest-free loan from the state of Minnesota. Many viewed the deal as significantly better for taxpayers than the 1997 plan. But the details of the financial arrangements once again were very complicated. Ultimately, the proposal fell victim to a political climate filled with distaste for the economics of baseball, general anti-stadium sentiments, and an unrelated budget standoff which nearly shut down the Minnesota government.
Despite that legislative misfire, in the summer of 2001 the city of Minneapolis became quite serious about the warehouse district site for a ballpark, after selecting the Twins' preferred riverfront site to house the new Guthrie Theater. Though no deal was struck to purchase the Rapid Park land at that time, an initial valuation of $10 million was assumed by the city for a roughly parcel. Though not a realistic amount, it did fall conveniently within the restrictions of the 1997 referendum. The Twins were not involved in these discussions, and still exhibited no public interest whatsoever in the warehouse district location.
The Twins, stung by the repeated rejections, and feeling that they had no real prospects for a new ballpark in the Twin Cities, next became officially associated with Major League Baseball's long-rumored "contraction" plans. On November 6, 2001, MLB owners voted 28–2 to authorize the elimination of two teams, the Twins and the Montreal Expos (though the teams were not named publicly). The Pohlads were reportedly offered a $250 million check to fold their franchise.
This attempt at placing more pressure on decision-makers ultimately failed—spectacularly and quickly—when, a mere 10 days later, Hennepin County District Court Judge Harry Crump ruled that the Twins, by virtue of Major League Baseball's federal anti-trust exemption, could not act as a typical business and simply buy out their Metrodome lease. Their standing as a community asset meant that they had an obligation to honor the lease and continue playing. His decision was upheld by the Minnesota Court of Appeals on January 21, 2002, and the Minnesota Supreme Court refused to hear an appeal on February 5, 2002, effectively ending contraction as a negotiating tactic (though its echoes would remain until a new labor agreement between MLB and the MLBPA was reached on August 30, 2002).
2002
Even as the Twins were forced to continue playing in 2002, the seeds of the eventual financing solution were sown when Hennepin County, in which the city of Minneapolis is located, began to express interest in being a financial partner in a ballpark. Unfortunately for the Twins, Minnesota governor Jesse Ventura wanted to foster competition between the various localities, thinking it would spur more creativity in the structure of any deal. Instead, St. Paul legislators, led by new mayor Randy Kelly, and aided by Hennepin County legislators wanting to keep their constituents off the hook, played hardball, and amended the ballpark bill so that only cities—not counties—could become financial partners in a ballpark. They knew that this move would eliminate both Hennepin County and Minneapolis (by virtue of the $10 million cap on any contribution), and leave only St. Paul as a viable partner. The bill passed, and Ventura signed it, but the strategy backfired. The Twins investigated and quickly rejected St. Paul as an implausible place to build. Nothing came of the bill, and it effectively ended any serious talk of the team moving to St. Paul.
As 2002 ended, the Twins proclaimed publicly their dissatisfaction with the Rapid Park site. Twins president Dave St. Peter was quoted as saying that the site was "set off to the side of Downtown, and [has] the garbage incinerator issue."
Evolving deals (2003–2005)
2003
With the 2003 Minnesota Legislature locked in bitter budget issues, the ballpark was never a central focus. No ballpark bill was passed during the session.
New governor Tim Pawlenty, who, as a legislator, had been against public spending on stadiums, created the 20-member Stadium Screening Committee to "solve Minnesota's stadium conundrum." The committee was notable primarily for focusing equally on facilities for the Vikings and the Twins. They requested proposals from anyone anywhere with an idea for a stadium, and received 26, some more serious than others. Serious baseball proposals were received from Hennepin County/City of Minneapolis, and the City of St. Paul. The Twins, though they did not either send or endorse a proposal, did premiere a new design and scale model for the committee. Football proposals were received from the cities of Blaine and Eden Prairie. In the end, the recommendations in their final report (issued on February 2, 2004) were so general that they added nothing new to the debate, and the committee was dismissed as being for appearances only.
Separately, Bruce Lambrecht and Rich Pogin reframed the discussion of their site with a proposal to create "Twinsville" as a neighborhood anchored by the new Twins ballpark. Concept drawings showed apartment buildings, commercial buildings and townhouses flanking the ballpark to the north and south, all clustered around a newly daylighted Bassett Creek (which runs in a deep culvert beneath the land). In a nod to Pawlenty's football focus, one provocative drawing included a football stadium to the west (on the current HERC site), sharing a retractable roof with the baseball facility. But this concept also hinted at the possibility that the land might have more valuable uses than as a home for the Twins, an idea which would play a significant role later. Nevertheless, their reframing succeeded in jump-starting interest in the project as plans began to form for bringing about action during the forthcoming 2004 legislative session.
The year ended with Minneapolis officially authorizing negotiations with Land Partners II (the investment group which owned the Rapid Park site) to gain control of the land.
2004
Early in 2004 the Twins unveiled a new vision of a stadium which could be built on any site with a footprint of at least four square blocks. Two concept drawings, with and without a retractable roof, were accompanied by a scale model (with roof) which was displayed at TwinsFest in January at the Metrodome.
The report of Gov. Pawlenty's Stadium Screening Committee set off what the Star Tribune described as "bitter financing competition between St. Paul and Hennepin County." Though never seriously in the running, St. Paul's efforts effectively sabotaged Hennepin County again. Pawlenty advanced a plan that could build up to three stadiums (Twins, Vikings, and Gophers) albeit with uncertain financing. That uncertainty, combined with dollar amounts now in the billions, and intense partisan bickering over unrelated budget issues, meant that the stadium bill took a back seat and was not passed during the 2004 session.
Behind the scenes in 2004, Hennepin County, led by commissioner Mike Opat, continued negotiations with the Twins, settling on the rough framework for financing which was ultimately used.
And the city of Minneapolis, acting on the recommendation of its own advisory committee, worked out an option (assignable to Hennepin County) to purchase the Rapid Park land. They agreed to pay $12.95 million plus of adjacent land in exchange for the rights to purchase the main ballpark site, effectively agreeing to pay $4.3 million per acre. This agreement expired at the end of 2004 when no stadium bill was passed, but it would play a key role in the later condemnation proceedings.
2005
On April 26, 2005, Hennepin County and the Twins announced that they had reached a deal on financing. It closely matched what would be the eventual funding solution. In it, the Twins essentially relinquished their desire to put a roof on any new facility, accepting that it was not a financial possibility.
Though the ballpark was a subject of sometimes intense discussion in the 2005 Minnesota Legislative session, it fell victim to a political climate which resulted in a lengthy shutdown of Minnesota government due to a budget impasse. No action was taken in either the regular session or the special session which resolved the budget dispute. Until the very end of the year, proponents held out hope that Pawlenty would call a second special session just for the purpose of dealing with the stadium issue, but he did not.
Success (2006)
With the entire Minnesota Legislature up for reelection in 2006, the session began with no expectation that a ballpark bill could pass. All parties were now committed to both the Hennepin County financing plan and the Rapid Park site, meaning all of the building blocks were in place for a deal, but optimism among the stakeholders was almost impossible to find.
On April 18, 2006, Hennepin County formally approved a plan to contribute $392 million to a Twins ballpark on the Rapid Park site. The funds would be raised through a county-wide 0.15% sales tax which would also raise funds to support the Hennepin County Libraries and youth sports activities within the county. The plan was exempted from any public referendum.
Final deliberations in the legislature centered on whether a referendum either was or should be required for any portion of the financing. All sides recognized that such a requirement would kill the project, and thus it became a proxy for deciding whether a ballpark should be built at all.
On May 20, 2006, the Minnesota Legislature approved a bill authorizing a new Twins ballpark on the Rapid Park site at an initial budgeted cost of $522 million. The cost was to be split between the Minnesota Twins (25%) and Hennepin County (75%). The Twins agreed to a total contribution of $130 million. A public referendum was not required.
On May 26, 2006, Governor Tim Pawlenty signed the legislation in front of a large crowd at the Metrodome before the start of a Twins game.
Several procedural votes were still necessary by the Hennepin County Board, any of which had the potential to derail the project. The final of these was held on August 29, 2006, officially authorizing the imposition of the sales tax, effective January 1, 2007. With the success of this vote, all legislative pieces were in place to formally authorize the ballpark, though acquisition of the Rapid Park land remained.
Construction of Target Field began on May 21, 2007.
Land dispute (2007)
As work began on the ballpark, a final major snag threatened to derail the entire project for almost a year.
The bill authorizing the financing of Target Field specified a cap of $90 million for onsite infrastructure costs, which included land acquisition. Surprisingly, even though they were now authorized, Hennepin County did not take any action to acquire the land until very late in 2006.
Eventually, it was revealed that the county had budgeted $13.5 million for the land, or about $1.7 million per acre for , mistakenly assuming they could acquire it for roughly the dollar amount of the 2004 option agreement between the city of Minneapolis and Land Partners II (the investment group which owned Rapid Park). The dollar amount on that deal had been $12.9 million, though the deal had also included of adjacent land. Effectively, it would have paid for only three acres of the site that Hennepin County now needed to acquire, at a proposed price of $4.3 million per acre.
In addition to those numbers being far apart, much had changed since the 2004 deal expired. The Hiawatha Light Rail (later Blue Line) had opened and become a huge success. Funding for the Northstar commuter rail line had been approved. As anticipated, these two lines would eventually converge on the northwest corner of the Rapid Park Site, now the likely location for a future multi-modal transportation hub. The site itself had been rezoned in 2005, allowing its development into high end commercial and residential space. Land Partners II had entered into a development agreement with Hines Corporation for this purpose, as a backup in the event that the land was not chosen as home for the Twins. Given the scarcity of land available in downtown Minneapolis, the land owners had multiple reasons to believe that the land's value had, in fact, increased substantially since 2004, with or without a ballpark.
Still, Lambrecht and Pogin, now acting as spokesmen for Land Partners II and Hines, had long been on record as "willing sellers" of the land for a ballpark, stipulating only that their investment group would expect "fair market value." Eventually, they admitted that they fully expected the transaction to take place in eminent domain (condemnation) proceedings, but accepted that inevitability because it would likely result in a fair purchase price, which they had reason to believe would be at least as much as the per-acre amount of the 2004 deal, or $4.3 million per acre (approximately $34 million for the entire 8-acre site), and perhaps significantly more due to market changes.
Hennepin County claimed that accepting the price set by an eminent domain judge was not an option for them, due to the infrastructure cap. Any additional money needed for the land would have to come out of some other piece of infrastructure. If the price set by a judge came in over their budget, they would have no funds to pay, and the project could collapse. But eminent domain did offer them the advantage of getting started on construction while working out the details of the land price later.
On September 19, 2006, Hennepin County officially authorized acquisition of the land, including doing so under eminent domain proceedings, if necessary. In late October the initial county appraisal of the land came in at the same $13.5 million that had been budgeted. Eminent domain proceedings were then initiated on November 1, 2006, as a precaution in case no agreement on land value could be reached by the time construction needed to start. The county set March 1, 2007 as the target date for finalizing acquisition of the Rapid Park site. There had still been no negotiations between the county and the land owners.
After months passed without an agreement, a harsh war of words erupted in the media in February 2007. The Twins angrily cancelled a planned unveiling of the ballpark design scheduled for February 15, declaring that the entire project was in jeopardy. Jerry Bell of the Twins and Mike Opat of Hennepin County gave multiple interviews in which they described the land owners as being "unwilling sellers," "greedy," "lawyered-up," painted them as "greedy landowners in black hats," and as not negotiating in good faith. Lambrecht and Pogin continued to insist that they had an obligation to their investors to secure nothing more than "fair market value" for the land. They repeatedly said that they would accept whatever valuation was determined in eminent domain proceedings, while media reports would later reveal their internal valuation (required by eminent domain laws) to be $65 million.
In early April 2007 Hennepin County received assurances that the Twins would provide additional funds, if necessary, to cover cost overruns on infrastructure, including the land acquisition. This allowed the initiation of "quick take" proceedings, and the county gained control of the site effective May 1, 2007, with a final sale price to be determined later. This effectively mitigated the problem of the infrastructure cap and allowed the unveiling of the ballpark design on April 12, and construction to begin on May 21, 2007.
Despite the beginning of construction, the land stalemate dragged on for months, as did the harsh rhetoric in the media. Some members of the media and public placed blame on Hennepin County for not securing the land before getting authorization to build the ballpark, while others laid the blame on the sellers for allegedly increasing their price once the legislation passed.
On August 19, 2007, a three-member condemnation panel set the value of the land at $23.8 million by a vote of 2–1. The next day, a separate opinion valuing the land at $33.2 million was filed by the dissenting judge. The landowners immediately announced that they would appeal the condemnation ruling, and a court date was set for November.
Ten days later, on August 30, 2007, the ceremonial groundbreaking took place, despite the ongoing land dispute (the event had been scheduled for August 2, but was postponed in the aftermath of the I-35W bridge collapse).
Eventually, after exchanging divergent values for several weeks, both parties agreed to mediation, and with the November court date fast approaching, the final agreement was reached on October 12, 2007, with a negotiated price of $29 million. To make the deal possible, the Twins had agreed to make up the $15 million difference between that price and what Hennepin County had originally budgeted. In exchange, they received the right to develop several acres near the ballpark. Land Partners II received property and air rights over Dock Street, which was to be created for access to the ballpark from the north.
With the establishment of the land value, the final potential obstacle to the completion of Target Field was resolved.
Naming
On September 15, 2008, the Twins and Minneapolis-based Target Corporation announced that the ballpark would be named Target Field. Financial terms of the naming rights agreement were not disclosed. The company's investment also funded a pedestrian bridge from the ballpark to downtown, Target Plaza, more seating, canopies and public art.
Design
Designed by Populous with Bruce Miller as principal lead, Target Field is a modern take on other Populous-designed stadiums such as Oriole Park at Camden Yards in Baltimore, PNC Park in Pittsburgh, and Oracle Park in San Francisco.
The architects tried to avoid creating a replica of the old-style brick Camden Yards or modern urban design of the new Nationals Park (both also designed by Populous). Instead, the design for the stadium employs local limestone, heated viewing areas and a heated field. The stadium does not have a roof, but there is a canopy above the top deck. The stadium is integrated with the intermodal Target Field station which connects the Metro Blue and Green Line light rail service with the Minneapolis terminus of the Northstar commuter rail line leading from the northwest. Walter P Moore served as the structural engineer for the stadium and canopy.
The stadium does not have a retractable roof, though one was considered initially. Such a roof was cited to add $100 million to the total budget and none of the parties (Twins, Hennepin County, or Minnesota Legislature) was willing to pay for that cost. Much like other northern cities with outdoor professional baseball (i.e. Chicago, Detroit, Boston, Cleveland, New York), the weather in Minneapolis during a 162-game baseball season and playoffs can vary from early-spring snow to rain and hot, humid weather. The Metrodome was climate-controlled, and thus, protected the baseball schedule during the entire time that it had been the venue for the Minnesota Twins. However, many Twins fans and baseball purists argue that this same sterile, climate-controlled environment creates a less-than-desirable atmosphere for watching baseball. The architect also tested the feasibility of heated seats.
The site is about the same size as that of Fenway Park, and the ballpark holds roughly the same number of seats. The site is bounded by 3rd Avenue (southeast, right field, across from Target Center); 5th Street North (northeast, left field); 7th Street North (southwest, first base); Hennepin Environmental Recovery Center [garbage incinerator] and 6th Avenue North (northwest, third base). 3rd Avenue is a westbound one-way street which dips down under the right field seats and serves as a ramp to I-394 westbound. A separate, small westbound segment of 3rd Avenue, connecting 7th Street North with Glenwood Avenue, was renamed "Twins Way". The ballpark's street address, "1 Twins Way", is at the "foot" of the renamed street.
Construction
Mortenson Construction of Minneapolis built the stadium. Metropolitan Mechanical Contractors completed the mechanical contracting. Danny's Construction Company erected the structural steel. Subcontractors involved in the concrete work include CECO Concrete Construction, Gephart Electric, E&J Rebar, Ambassador Steel Corporation, Amsysco Inc., and Nordic Construction/Cemstone.
The first concrete slab was poured on December 17, 2007. The concrete portion of construction was completed in November 2008 with a roof deck pour for the Twins administration building. In March 2009 Tekna Kleen (commercial cleaning company), started doing the finishing cleaning touches to Target Field. In late August, 2009, the playing field was installed.
The Twins received the certificate of occupancy from Mortenson Construction on December 22, 2009. The Twins staff moved in on January 4, 2010.
LEED Certification
Target Field was initially awarded LEED Silver Certification by the U.S. Green Building Council, the second LEED-certified professional sports stadium in the United States, after Oracle Park. It is one of 3 baseball stadiums with LEED certification (the other being Nationals Park). In 2017, Target Field was recertified LEED Gold, the first sports site in the nation to be so designated.
Upgrades
On February 12, 2008, the Twins announced $22.4 million in upgrades to the original design, and increased the Twins ownership stake in the ballpark to $167.4 million, bringing the total ballpark cost to $412 million. The upgrades were mainly based around increasing fan experience and comfort. The upgrades included an enlarged canopy soffit (the largest in baseball), protecting fans further from the elements, in light of the stadium not having a roof. The Twins also upgraded the scoreboard – the fourth-largest in Major League Baseball – from standard definition to a high definition display from Daktronics measuring long and high. Other upgrades included warming shelters, changing of the exterior surface to Kasota stone, and increasing the number of restrooms and concession areas. The park features a modernized version of the original "Minnie and Paul Shaking Hands" logo used on the team's original uniforms from 1961 until 1986 (the logo has also been on the home uniforms since 2001). When a Twins player hits a home run, the Minnie and Paul sign lights up with strobe lights surrounding the Minnesota state outline and Minnie and Paul shake hands, akin to the Liberty Bell used at Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia. The original flagpole from Metropolitan Stadium – completely restored – is located on the right field plaza. The flagpole was located at the American Legion post in Richfield after Metropolitan Stadium's closing, and was donated back to the Twins by the Legion as a gesture of goodwill.
On November 10, 2010, the Twins announced a number of upgrades to Target Field, all of which were completed in time for the 2011 season. Highlights among the upgrades included a scoreboard in right-center field and the "Twins Tower" (a tall illuminated tower), next to the new scoreboard. Other changes include free Wi-Fi service for fans, expanded concession stand menus, and the addition of more radiant heaters and artwork around the ballpark. In total, the changes were expected to cost the Twins $4–6 million.
Additionally, the 14 black spruce trees located in the batter's eye were removed, following hitters' complaints that the trees interfered with the ability to see pitches as they would sometimes sway in the wind. The batter's eye wall itself was covered in a black material designed to reduce glare.
Non-baseball events
Concerts
This is not a complete list of every concert hosted at Target Field, but it does highlight the most noteworthy so far.
In 2013, Target Field has hosted every summer the Skyline Music Festival, named so because its seating, with only the seats around third base in an Amphitheatre-like manner, allows for extensive views of the Minneapolis skyline. The inaugural edition was held on July 26, 2013, featuring three of four bands in a package tour – Soul Asylum, Matthew Sweet and Big Head Todd and the Monsters, each of whom played one of their past albums in their entirety – along with Minnesota band Gear Daddies. The 6,752 tickets allowed by the section were sold out. The following edition was extended to two nights. August 8 featured an indie rock night sponsored by KCMP, featuring Andrew Bird, The New Pornographers, Thao and the Get Down Stay Down, S. Carey and Dosh. The following night was headlined by Melissa Etheridge, accompanied by the returning Gear Daddies, along with The Honeydogs, O.A.R. and The Rembrandts. Attendance was 2,500 for the first night and 5,500 for the second.
In 2014, pop rock group Panic! At The Disco performed on the field during the 2014 All Star Game.
In 2022, country music star Thomas Rhett performed a short set during the NHL Winter Classic. He performed in -5 degree weather, quite possibly the coldest concert in Minnesota history.
Beginning in 2022, post game concerts would take place on the field. The first being Cole Swindell on August 4. In 2023, postgame concerts included T-Pain on June 15 and Carly Pearce on August 24.
College football
Soccer
Hockey
Target Field was scheduled to host the 2021 NHL Winter Classic on January 1, 2021, but the event was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The 2022 NHL Winter Classic was held at the stadium on January 1, 2022. The St. Louis Blues defeated the Minnesota Wild 6-4. During the game, the temperature recorded was a high -3 degrees to a low -9.
Features
The stadium
The popular left-field Budweiser roof deck features mostly standing room and the only bonfire in the Majors.
The bullpens are "double-decker" style in left-center field. The Twins' pen is farthest from the field, with the opposing team's pen below it, closest to the field.
The batter's eye featured 14 young black spruce trees (each about 6 feet high) the first year. After criticism from Twins and opposing players concerning the shadows that they cast, the trees were removed prior to the second year. Some were auctioned to fans and ticket holders while the rest were donated to Minnesota state parks.
Kasota limestone is used in much of the stadium and is from Kasota, near Mankato.
The admission gates are numbered according to former Twins legends and roughly located near to the positions that they played;
Left field gate is #6 honoring Tony Oliva (with his bronze statue nearby)
Centerfield gate is #3 for Harmon Killebrew
Target Plaza gate (in right field) is #34 in tribute to Kirby Puckett
Right field gate is #29 in tribute to Rod Carew
Home plate gate is #14 in honor of Kent Hrbek (featuring his bronze statue)
Target Plaza
Target Plaza is the gathering area behind the right field gate (Gate 34). On the wall of the adjacent parking garage facing the ballpark is a wind veil that makes waves as the wind blows. At night, color-changing lights add to the effect. Near the wind veil there are nine topiary frames each high shaped like baseball bats with hops growing on them. They are lit up every night with the same color changing scheme as the veil, however, during games they are lit up red, in sequential order, to denote the current inning. In this plaza are statues of former players Kirby Puckett, Rod Carew, Kent Hrbek and Harmon Killebrew, as well as former owner Carl Pohlad, his wife Eloise Pohlad, and Twins mascot TC Bear. Following protests over the murder of George Floyd, a statue of former owner Calvin Griffith was removed in June 2020 because of his history of racist comments.
A large "Golden Glove" sits in the plaza in recognition of all Twins players to win the Gold Glove Award. The statue can be sat on and is a popular photo attraction. It is located exactly from home plate, the distance of Harmon Killebrew's longest home run at Met Stadium (although his was hit into the left field upper deck).
There is also a monument that shows all the venues that Minnesota-based baseball teams played in. On the rails of the pedestrian skybridge are pennants that contain the rosters of all the Twins teams, and pennants of players, coaches, front office people, and other contributors who have been elected to the Twins Hall of Fame.
The field
The main flagpoles are in right field near the Plaza. The largest pole, which flies the American Flag and POW/MIA Flag, is the original pole used at Metropolitan Stadium. It was relocated to the Richfield Legion Post 435 after the Met was demolished, and, after being cut in half and refurbished, was re-installed for baseball at Target Field. The first flags—both US and POW/MIA—donated by Post 435 were raised at the first Twins exhibition game by veteran and flagpole historian B.W. McEvers of Bloomington. On September 6, Jim Thome hit a solo home run against the Kansas City Royals that hit the flag pole.
The championship banners fly on small flagpoles located on the upper rim of the stadium beyond left field. Each pole recognizes each division, league, and world championship since the team's arrival in . On the stadium's upper rim in right-center field are small flagpoles that fly the flag for all the teams (including the Twins) in the division. The order that the flags fly are determined by the divisional standings.
Home plate is the same one used at the Metrodome. After the Twins' final dome game (Game 3 of the 2009 ALDS), the plate was dug up and later installed at Target Field. In addition, several handfuls of dirt were taken from the sliding pit and pitcher's mound areas from the Metrodome and scattered near their counterparts at Target Field.
Twins bars and restaurants
At Target Field, there are four prominent bars and restaurants:
The Town Ball Tavern is located on the upper concourse by the left field corner, and is famous for serving the Jucy Lucy burger. The wood flooring is the same used on the basketball court at the Minneapolis Armory during the NBA Minneapolis Lakers stay, before leaving for Los Angeles.
Hrbek's is located on the main concourse behind home plate, and is named after former Twins first baseman Kent Hrbek.
There are two bars located on the upper concourse behind home plate, collectively called the Two Gingers Pubs. In one of these bars, fans can watch the Target Field organist, Sue Nelson, perform during games. Out of these three bars and restaurants, the Two Gingers Pub (formerly known as the Twins Pub) is the only one that does not serve food, however it is the only one in which the field is visible from inside.
The former Metropolitan Club (reserved for season ticket holders) was renovated prior to the 2019 season as restaurant Bat & Barrel, along with expansion of Target Plaza by moving Gate 34 further toward 1st Ave.
Concessions throughout also include several Minnesota favorites like walleye, wild rice soup, Kramarczuk's sausages, as well as a "State Fair Foods" stand where many items are served "on a stick", such as the J.D. Hoyt's pork chop.
In 2018, PETA declared Target Field number one on its annual list of vegan-friendly ballparks, thanks to the availability of foods like tofu vindaloo, vegan Sriracha Brats and Italian Sausages, Daiya cheese pizza, and Field Roast burgers and dogs.
Minnie and Paul logo
The large original version of the Twins' original "Minnie and Paul" logo (designed by local artist, Ray Barton ) stands in center field. It shows two players wearing the uniforms of the two minor-league teams that played in the Twin Cities before the Twins' arrival, the Minneapolis Millers and St. Paul Saints, shaking hands across the Mississippi River. During various points in the game, the strobe lights surrounding the logo flash. This sign was a concept designed and illustrated by RipBang Studios but built by others.
When the Twins score a run by any means other than a home run, the strobe lights trace the border from the bottom-left corner for each Twins player that crosses home plate, symbolizing that a Twins player rounded the bases. For each strikeout, the corners of the sign flash to portray the strike zone. The strobe lights will flash at the end of the top of an inning if the Twins do not surrender a run during the inning. After a Twins home run, the strobe lights flash, Minnie and Paul shake hands, and the Mississippi River flows. After a Twins victory, the "T" and "s" in "Twins" will blink to show the message "Twins win" in addition to the animation shown following a Twins home run. The Sign was updated for the 2023 season now including more LED lights with "Twins Win" being the words above Minnie and Paul. Minnie and Paul's hands physically shake up and down as well instead of the use of neon lights.
METRO and commuter rail connections
The stadium is well-connected to the city's transit network, being immediately adjacent to the "A" and "B" parking ramps of the large ABC Ramps complex at the end of Interstate 394, which include two major transit bus terminals and link to the rest of downtown Minneapolis via skyway. Over 8,000 people typically arrive to each game via the Metro Blue Line and Metro Green Line, both of which terminate at Target Field Station, just 10 yards from the park's Gate 6. For fans arriving from the northwest suburbs, the Northstar Line commuter rail terminates in downtown Minneapolis with a station underneath the ballpark.
Park firsts
The first "soft event" at Target Field was an open house held for season ticket holders on March 20 and 21, 2010.
The first baseball game at the new ballpark took place on March 27, 2010, with a college baseball game between the University of Minnesota and Louisiana Tech attended by 37,757 fans.
The Twins played two preseason games against the St. Louis Cardinals on April 2 and 3, while the stadium's inaugural regular season game was on April 12, against the Red Sox.
Opening day (April 12, 2010)
Other firsts
Comparison to the Metrodome
*This is the official capacity. However, Standing Room Only (SRO) tickets are available that can increase this capacity by approximately 2,500+.
**6,000 seats were covered by a curtain; these and others made the stadium expandable to 55,883 during baseball playoffs and certain games in the last homestand and one-game playoff in October 2009.
***Controlled by the Minnesota Vikings football team.
Field dimensions are roughly comparable, with the left field area being a few feet closer to the plate, and the center field area being bounded by a 45° facet instead of a quarter-circle.
The Twins' previous homes in the Twin Cities, Metropolitan Stadium and the Metrodome, were friendly to hitters. The team intended to build Target Field as a "neutral" park, favoring neither hitters nor pitchers. However, following the 2010 regular season, statistics seemed to show that the park played more to the favor of pitchers than hitters. It became known as a "pitcher's park" in that it is difficult for batters to hit home runs and the pitcher has an advantage. Twins star Justin Morneau spoke for many of the players' concerns by calling "right-center to left-center... ridiculous" and that it is "almost impossible for a right-handed hitter to [homer to the] opposite field and very difficult for lefties". Since 2010, further studies indicated both the Twins and their opponents fared much better in other offensive categories in spite of the lack of home runs and runs scored. Target Field doesn't come off as being primarily a pitcher's park anymore.
See also
List of NCAA Division I baseball venues
References
External links
Stadium site on Twins.com
Minnesota Ballpark Authority official website
The Twins Stadium Bill MN State Legislature HF2480, SF2297
Minnesota Legislative Reference Library: Baseball Stadiums
Ballpark FAQ
Baseball venues in Minnesota
College baseball venues in the United States
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design basic silver certified buildings
Minnesota Golden Gophers baseball
Minnesota Twins stadiums
Major League Baseball venues
Rugby union stadiums in the United States
Populous (company) buildings
Sports venues completed in 2010
Sports venues in Minneapolis
Target Corporation
2010 establishments in Minnesota
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melia%20Watras
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Melia Watras
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Melia Watras is an American violist, composer and professor of viola. She is a soloist, chamber musician and recording artist, who has commissioned, premiered and recorded numerous new compositions, and appeared at venues such as Carnegie Hall, Weill Recital Hall and Alice Tully Hall. Her compositions have been performed in the United States and Europe. Educated at Indiana University and the Juilliard School, Watras has been on the faculty of the University of Washington in Seattle since the fall of 2004, where she is Chair of Strings.
Education
Watras attended Indiana University, where she studied with Abraham Skernick and Atar Arad, earning bachelor's and master's degrees and the prestigious Performer's Certificate. While at Indiana, she served as Arad's teaching assistant. She studied chamber music at the Juilliard School, while also teaching as an assistant to the Juilliard String Quartet.
Career
Performing and recording artist
As a recording artist, Watras has garnered considerable attention and praise from the media. Her solo CDs have been recognized by publications such as Gramophone (which hailed her as “an artist of commanding and poetic personality”), The Strad, ("staggeringly virtuosic") and Strings (“Watras is a young player in possession of stunning virtuosic talent and deserving of the growing acclaim”). She has been heard on numerous radio programs, including NPR's All Things Considered and Performance Today, and a live performance for the Danish Broadcasting Corporation.
Composers that have written works especially for Watras include: Alessandra Barrett, Charles Corey, Brent Michael Davids, Joël-François Durand, Orlando Jacinta García, Richard Karpen, Garth Knox, Anne Leilehua Lanzilotti, Shih-Wei Lo, Sandesh Nagaraj, Juan Pampin, Joshua Parmenter, Shulamit Ran, Jonathan Rodriquez Grijalva, Kathryn Sullivan, Heinrich Taube, Breana Tavaglione, Diane Thome, Cuong Vu, Andrew Waggoner, Anna Weesner, Frances White and Wei Yang. As a soloist and chamber musician, Watras has given world premieres of works by Atar Arad, Charles Corey, John Corigliano, Brent Michael Davids, Tina Davidson, Alexander De Varon, Joël-François Durand, Orlando Jacinta García, Jesse Jones, Richard Karpen, Garth Knox, Michael Jinsoo Lim, Shih-Wei Lo, Patrick Long, Eric Maestri, Anthony Moore, Jeffrey Mumford, Sandesh Nagaraj, Ichiro Nodaira, Juan Pampin, Joshua Parmenter, Robert Pound, Shulamit Ran, Jonathan Rodgriguez Grijalva, Adam Silverman, Kathryn Sullivan, Sir John Taverner, Heinrich Taube, Breana Tavaglione, Diane Thome, Dan Visconti, Cuong Vu, Andrew Waggoner, Melia Watras, Anna Weesner, Frances White, Theodore Wiprud, Tamar Witkin, Wei Yang and Mischa Zupko.
Watras is violist of the Seattle-based ensemble, Frequency, a group she has composed for and recorded with on Planet M Records. For twenty years, Watras concertized worldwide and recorded extensively as violist of the renowned Corigliano Quartet, which she co-founded. The ensemble's album on the Naxos label was honored as one of the Ten Best Classical Recordings of the Year by The New Yorker. Other chamber music explorations include improvising in concert with jazz innovators Cuong Vu and Ted Poor. She and Vu premiered and recorded a work of his for viola and trumpet.
Composer
Watras's compositions have been performed in New York City, Chicago, Seattle, Bloomington (IN), Mammoth Lakes (CA), Columbus (GA), Denmark, Spain, Switzerland, and Wales. She has been commissioned by Avalon String Quartet, the American Viola Society, Mark Fewer (violin), Rachel Lee Priday (violin), Michael Jinsoo Lim (violin), Sæunn Thorsteinsdóttir (cello), Cristina Valdés (piano), Rose Wollman (viola), and has had works performed by artists such as Atar Arad (viola), Galia Arad (voice), Winston Choi (piano), Catherine Connors (voice), Charles Corey (Harmonic Canon and Bass Marimba), Tekla Cunningham (baroque violin and baroque viola), Frequency Ensemble, Manuel Guillén (violin), Yura Lee (violin), Tawnya Popoff (viola), Carrie Henneman Shaw (voice), Bonnie Whiting (percussion) and Vina Vu Valdés (voice). Her music has been heard on National Public Radio’s Performance Today, and can be found on her albums Play/Write: String Masks: 3 Songs for Bellows, Buttons and Keys; Firefly Songs; Schumann Resonances and 26. Watras's adaptation of John Corigliano's Fancy on a Bach Air for viola is published by G. Schirmer, Inc. and can be heard on her Viola Solo album.
Professor
Watras serves as Professor of Viola and Chair of Strings at the University of Washington, where she holds the Adelaide D. Currie Cole Endowed Professorship, was awarded the Donald E. Petersen Endowed Fellowship, the Kreielsheimer and Jones Grant for Research Excellence in the Arts and the Royalty Research Fund. Watras has given viola and chamber music classes throughout the United States and abroad, at schools such as Indiana University, Cleveland Institute of Music, Strasbourg Conservatoire (France), and Chosun University (South Korea). She has returned on a number of occasions to her alma mater, Indiana, to teach as a guest professor.
Discography
Solo recordings
Atar Arad: Caprice Four (George) for viola solo (2003) (CD SLE 70002)
Atar Arad: Sonata for Viola Solo (1992) (CD FDS 57962)
J.S. Bach/Kodály: Chromatic Fantasy (CD FDS 57962)
Luciano Berio: Naturale for solo viola, percussion and recorded voice (19850; with Matthew Kocmieroski, percussion (CD SLE 70002)
Rebecca Clarke: Passacaglia on an Old English Tune for viola and piano; with Kimberly Russ, piano (CD FDS 58007)
John Corigliano (arr. Watras): Fancy on a Bach Air (1997) for solo viola* (CD FDS 57962)
Brent Michael Davids: Viola Jokes for viola and tenor (2005)*; with William George, tenor (CD FDS 57992)
Georges Enescu: Concert Piece for viola and piano; with Kimberly Russ, piano (CD FDS 58007)
Betsy Jolas: Episode sixième for viola solo (1984)* (CD FDS 58007)
Richard, Karpen: Aperture for amplified viola and interactive electronics (2006)* (CD FDS 57992)
György Ligeti: Loop (1994) from Sonata for viola solo (CD FDS 58007)
Juan Pampin: Nada for viola and live electronics (2006)* (CD FDS 57992)
Krzystof Penderecki: Cadenza per Viola Solo (CD FDS 57962)
Quincy Porter: Speed Etude for viola and piano (CD FDS 58007)
Paola Prestini: Sympathique* (CD FDS 57962)
Shulamit Ran: Perfect Storm for viola solo (2010)* (CD SLE 70002)
Igor Stravinsky: Elégie (CD FDS 57962)
Heinrich Taube: Tacoma Narrows for viola and tape (2006)* (CD FDS 57992)
Diane Thome: And Yet... for viola and computer realized sound (2006)* (CD FDS 57992)
Henri Vieuxtemps: Elégie for viola and piano, Op. 30; with Kimberly Russ, piano (CD FDS 58007)
Dan Visconti: Hard-Knock Stomp for viola solo (2000)* (CD FDS 58007)
Andrew Waggoner: Collines parmi étoiles... (2003)* (CD FDS 57962)
Andrew Waggoner: Elle s’enfuit for viola and piano (2008)*; with Kimberly Russ, piano (CD FDS 58007)
Melia Watras: Black wing, brown wing for viola solo (2019)* (CD PMR 003)
Melia Watras: Lament for viola solo (2016)* (CD PMR 002)
Melia Watras: Sonata for viola solo (2012)* (CD SLE 70007)
Melia Watras: Photo by Mikel for viola solo (2012)* (CD SLE 70007)
Anna Weesner: Flexible Parts for viola and piano (2008)*; with Kimberly Russ, piano (CD FDS 58007)
Henryk Wieniawski: Rêverie for viola and piano; with Kimberly Russ, piano (CD FDS 58007)
Chamber music recordings (selected)
Atar Arad: Esther for two violas (2008)*; Atar Arad and Melia Watras, violas (CD SLE 70007)
Atar Arad: Toccatina a la Turk for two violas (2008)*; Atar Arad and Melia Watras, violas
(CD SLE 70007)
Luciano Berio: Black is the color... (from Folk Songs) for mezzo-soprano, viola and harp; Galia Arad, voice; Melia Watras viola; Valerie Muzzolini-Gordon, harp (CD SLE 70002)
Richard Karpen: Bicinium for violin and viola (2014)*; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin; Melia Watras, viola (CD SLE 70007)
Richard Karpen: Tertium Quid for violin, viola and piano (2015)*; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin; Melia Watras, viola; Winston Choi, piano (CD PMR 001)
Garth Knox: Stranger for viola and viola d’amore (2014)*; Melia Watras, viola; Garth Knox, viola d’amore (CD SLE 70007)
George Rochberg: Sonata for viola and piano (1979); Melia Watras, viola; Winston Choi, piano (CD SLE 70002)
Robert Schumann: Märchenbilder (Pictures from Fairyland) for viola and piano, Op. 113; Melia Watras, viola; Winston Choi, piano (CD PMR 001)
Cuong Vu: Porch Music viola and trumpet (2015)*; Melia Watras, viola; Cuong Vu, trumpet (CD PMR 001)
Melia Watras: Kreutzer for violin, viola and cello (2016)*; Frequency: Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin; Melia Watras, viola, Sæunn Thorsteinsdóttir, cello (CD PMR 003)
Melia Watras: String Masks for voices, viola, violin, Harmonic Canon, Cloud-Chamber Bowls and Bass Marimba (2017*; Sheila Daniels, actor/director; Jose Gonzales, actor; Rhonda J. Soikowski, actor; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin and voice; Melia Watras, viola; Charles Corey, Harmonic Canon and Bass Marimba; Bonnie Whiting, Cloud-Chamber Bowls (CD PMR 003)
Melia Watras: Berceuse for violin and viola (2015)*; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin; Melia Watras, viola (CD PMR 002)
Melia Watras: Berceuse with a Singer in London for voice and viola (2015)*; Galia Arad, voice; Melia Watras, viola (CD PMR 001)
Melia Watras: Firefly for voices and cello (2018)*; Melia Watras, voice; Michael Jinsoo Lim, voice; Sæunn Thorsteinsdóttir, cello (CD PMR 002)
Melia Watras: The Lesson for recorded voice, violin and viola (2017)*; Atar Arad, recorded voice; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin; Melia Watras, viola (CD PMR 002)
Melia Watras: Liquid Voices for violin and viola (2013)*; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin; Melia Watras, viola (CD SLE 70007)
Melia Watras: Lontano for violin and viola (2017)*; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin; Melia Watras, viola (CD PMR 002)
Melia Watras: O. Reverie for narrator and violin (2018)*; Melia Watras, narrator; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin (CD PMR 002)
Melia Watras: (one) for voice(s), viola and cello (2018)*; Michael Jinsoo Lim, voice; Melia Watras, viola; Sæunn Thorsteinsdóttir, cello (CD PMR 002)
Melia Watras: Schumann Resonances for viola and piano (2015)*; Melia Watras, viola; Winston Choi, piano (CD PMR 001)
Melia Watras: Source for viola, percussion and violin (2015)*; Melia Watras, viola; Matthew Kocmieroski, percussion; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin (CD PMR 001)
Melia Watras: Viola for narrator and viola (2017)*; Arturo Alto, narrator; Melia Watras, viola (CD PMR 002)
Recordings of music composed by Melia Watras
Melia Watras: Berceuse for violin and viola (2015)*; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin; Melia Watras, viola (CD PMR 002)
Melia Watras: Berceuse with a Singer in London for voice and viola (2015)*; Galia Arad, voice; Melia Watras, viola (CD PMR 001)
Melia Watras: Black wing, brown wing for viola solo (2019)*; Melia Watras, viola (CD PMR 003)
Melia Watras: Blue Rose for viola solo (2021)*; Rose Wollman, viola (CD ACIS)
Melia Watras: Firefly for voices and cello (2018)*; Melia Watras, voice; Michael Jinsoo Lim, voice; Sæunn Thorsteinsdóttir, cello (CD PMR 002)
Melia Watras: Kreutzer for violin, viola and cello (2016)*; Frequency: Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin; Melia Watras, viola, Sæunn Thorsteinsdóttir, cello (CD PMR 003)
Melia Watras: The Lesson for recorded voice, violin and viola (2017)*; Atar Arad, recorded voice; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin; Melia Watras, viola (CD PMR 002)
Melia Watras: Liquid Voices for violin and viola (2013)*; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin; Melia Watras, viola (CD SLE 70007)
Melia Watras: Luminous Points for violin solo (2013)*; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin (CD SLE 70007)
Melia Watras: Mozart Doesn’t Live in Seattle for voice (2017)*; Vina Vu Valdés, voice (CD PMR 002)
Melia Watras: Lontano for violin and viola (2017)*; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin; Melia Watras, viola (CD PMR 002)
Melia Watras: O. Reverie for narrator and violin (2018)*; Melia Watras, narrator; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin (CD PMR 002)
Melia Watras: (one) for voice(s), viola and cello (2018)*; Michael Jinsoo Lim, voice; Melia Watras, viola; Sæunn Thorsteinsdóttir, cello (CD PMR 002)
Melia Watras: Photo by Mikel for viola solo (2012)*; Melia Watras, viola (CD SLE 70007)
Melia Watras: Prelude for viola solo (2014)*; Atar Arad, viola (CD SLE 70007)
Melia Watras: Schumann Resonances for viola and piano (2015)*; Melia Watras, viola; Winston Choi, piano (CD PMR 001)
Melia Watras: Sonata for viola solo (2012)*; Melia Watras, viola( CD SLE 70007)
Melia Watras: Source for viola, percussion and violin (2015)*; Melia Watras, viola; Matthew Kocmieroski, percussion; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin (CD PMR 001)
Melia Watras: String Masks for voices, viola, violin, Harmonic Canon, Cloud-Chamber Bowls and Bass Marimba (2017*; Sheila Daniels, actor/director; Jose Gonzales, actor; Rhonda J. Soikowski, actor; Michael Jinsoo Lim, violin and voice; Melia Watras, viola; Charles Corey, Harmonic Canon and Bass Marimba; Bonnie Whiting, Cloud-Chamber Bowls (CD PMR 003)
Melia Watras: 3 Songs for Bellows, Buttons and Keys for accordion (2021)*; Jeanne Velonis, accordion (PMR 004)
Melia Watras: Vetur for cello solo (2016)*; Sæunn Thorsteinsdóttir, cello (CD PMR 003)
Melia Watras: Vetur öngum lánar lið for voice (2016)*; Sæunn Thorsteinsdóttir, voice (CD PMR 003)
* denotes world premiere recording
Compositions
Selected works by Melia Watras:
Solo
Violin:
A dance of honey and inexorable delight for violin solo (2022)
Hertabuise for violin solo (2021)
Dear Nightingale for violin solo (2020)
Echo for violin solo (2020)
Cadenzas to Beethoven's Concerto for Violin and Orchestra, Op. 61 for violin solo (2020)
Homage to Swan Lake for violin solo (2018)
Selvaggio for violin solo (2018)
Doppelgänger Dances for violin solo (2017)
Luminous Points for violin solo (2013)
Viola:
Blue Rose for viola solo (2021)
The cloud that touched the ground for viola solo (2021)
Dear Nightingale for viola solo (2020)
Black wing, brown wing for viola solo (2019)
Lament for viola solo (2016)
Prelude for viola solo (2014)
Sonata for viola solo (2012)
Ansioso for viola solo (2012)
Photo by Mikel for viola solo (2012)
Cello:
Vetur for cello solo (2016)
Prelude for cello solo (2014)
Piano:
Summer Songs for piano (2020)
Otra vex for piano (2020)
Voice:
Weeping Pendula for voice and loop pedal (2021)
Mozart Doesn't Live in Seattle for voice (2017)
Vetur öngum lánar lið for voice (2016)
Recorded Voice:
Seeing Cypresses with Catherine C. for recorded voice (2017)
Animoji Voice:
Penicilli-yum! for Animoji mouse (2020)
Sotto squeako for Animoji mice (2020)
Baby, I Love You for Animoji mouse (2020)
Accordion:
3 Songs for Bellows, Buttons and Keys for accordion (2021)
Chamber music
Violin and viola:
The almond tree duos: a collection of 18 duos for violin and viola (2019-2021)
Lontano for violin and viola (2017)
Vetur öngum lánar lið for violin and viola (2017)
Wise Tentacles for violin and viola (2017)
Berceuse for violin and viola (2015)
Liquid Voices for violin and viola (2013)
Violin and cello:
Vetur öngum lánar lið for violin and cello (2017)
Wise Tentacles for violin and cello (2017)
Violin, viola and cello:
Kreutzer for violin, viola and cello (2016)
String Quartet:
Contemplation of Beethoven's Op. 18, No. 4 for string quartet (2020)
Two violas:
The almond tree duos: a collection of 18 duos for two violas (2019-2021)
Viola and piano:
Schumann Resonances for viola and piano (2015)
Viola, percussion and violin:
Source for viola, percussion and violin (2015)
2-8 voices:
Weeping Pendula for 2-8 voices (2021)
Voice and violin:
A dance of honey and inexorable delight for narrator and violin (2022)
Hertabuise for narrator and violin (2021)
O. Reverie for voice and violin (2018)
William Wilson for voice and violin (2016)
Voice and viola:
Viola for narrator and viola (2017)
Berceuse for a Singer in London for voice and viola (2015)
Voice, violin and viola:
5 Poems of Herbert Woodward Martin for narrator, violin and viola (2021)
Voice(s) and cello:
Firefly for voices and cello (2018)
Vetur öngum lánar lið for voice and cello (2016)
Voice(s), viola and cello:
(one) for voice(s), viola and cello (2018)
Voices, viola, Harmonic Canon, Cloud-Chamber Bowls and Bass Marimba:
String Masks for voices, viola, Harmonic Canon, Cloud-Chamber Bowls and Bass Marimba (2017)
Recorded voice, violin and viola:
The Lesson for recorded voice, violin and viola(2017)
Various voices and instruments:
Firefly Songs for various voices and instruments (2015-2018)
Concertos
Viola and harp:
A brazen butterfly alights for solo viola, harp and strings (2021)
References
External links
Melia Watras
Frequency Ensemble
'Ep. 46: Melia Watras, violist and composer' Interview by Tigran Arakelyan
American classical violists
American women violists
Indiana University alumni
Juilliard School alumni
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20%20Exchange%20Place
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20 Exchange Place
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20 Exchange Place, formerly the City Bank–Farmers Trust Building, is a skyscraper in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. Completed in 1931, it was designed by Cross & Cross in the Art Deco style as the headquarters of the City Bank–Farmers Trust Company, predecessor of Citigroup. The building, standing at approximately with 57 usable stories, was one of the city's tallest buildings and the world's tallest stone-clad building at the time of its completion. While 20 Exchange Place was intended to be the world's tallest building at the time of its construction, the Great Depression resulted in the current scaled-back plan.
The building has a granite and limestone facade, while its internal superstructure is made of steel. The lower section of the facade fills an entire irregular city block, and contains giant piers supporting standalone figures depicting the "giants of finance", as well as decorations designed by David Evans. The main entrance on Exchange Place has a round arch with granite medallions representing the countries where City Bank Farmers Trust operated offices. The upper stories rise as a square tower with chamfered corners and is offset from the base.
The City Bank–Farmers Trust Building was built between 1930 and 1931, for the newly merged National City Bank of New York and the Farmers' Loan and Trust Company. It remained the company's headquarters until 1956 and was ultimately sold in 1979. The 16th through 57th floors of the building were converted from commercial to residential space by Metro Loft Management during the 1990s. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated 20 Exchange Place as an official city landmark in 1996. It is also a contributing property to the Wall Street Historic District, a National Register of Historic Places district created in 2007.
Site
20 Exchange Place occupies a full block along Exchange Place to the north, Hanover Street to the east, Beaver Street to the south, and William Street to the west. The surrounding street grid, built as part of the colony of New Amsterdam, remains mostly as documented in the 17th-century Castello Plan. As such, the block is irregular in shape. Nearby buildings include 55 Wall Street to the north; the Wall and Hanover Building to the northeast; the 1 Wall Street Court to the east; 56 Beaver Street and 1 William Street to the southwest; and 15 William and the Broad Exchange Building to the west.
The first recorded structure on the site was the house of Dutch ship's carpenter Tymen Jansen, built in the 17th century. By the 1890s, the block was occupied by larger buildings. Just prior to 20 Exchange Place's construction, the block contained four structures: two 10-story buildings on William Street, one 9-story building on Hanover Street, and one 15-story building extending between Beaver Street and Exchange Place.
Architecture
The City Bank–Farmers Trust Building was designed by Cross & Cross and constructed by the George A. Fuller Company. George Maguolo was the chief designer of the building, while Moran & Proctor as the engineers for the foundation and tower. Cross & Cross described the building as having no particular architectural style, although the firm said its client, the City Bank-Farmers Trust Company, "will always want a tie with the past". Observers characterized the building as having a "modern classic" style with minimal Art Deco ornamentation.
The precise height of 20 Exchange Place is disputed. The author Daniel M. Abramson gives the largest figure for the building's height, citing 20 Exchange Place as being tall with 54 stories. According to Emporis, SkyscraperPage, and author Dirk Stichweh, the building is tall with 57 usable stories; Emporis and SkyscraperPage also cite the building as having an antenna reaching . Christopher Gray of The New York Times described the building as being 59 stories high and in 2008. Another Times article and the Wall Street Journal, in 1931, quoted the building as being tall (accounting for minor deviations), but having only 54 usable stories, excluding the spaces at the top. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission quotes New York City Department of Buildings records as saying that the building is only tall.
The base of the building fills the entire block and is shaped as a keystone. There are three setbacks between the base and tower portions of 20 Exchange Place, including at the 19th and 21st floors. The tower portion, rising above the 21st floor, is octagonal in plan, with four chamfered corners between four longer sides. Only the William Street elevation of the base is parallel to the tower, creating the effect of an offset tower; a similar design was used at 19 Rector Street and 26 Broadway. When 20 Exchange Place was completed, the Architectural Forum wrote that the building avoided "exaggeration of forms for originality's sake alone".
Facade
The facade was made almost entirely of white Rockwood stone, except the first floor, which is clad with Mohegan granite. Some of gray- and blue-tinted stone was quarried from Alabama and brought to New York in pieces weighing up to . The stone weighs in total. British sculptor David Evans was hired to design much of the lower stories' decoration. In contrast to older classical-style buildings, but similar to other early-20th-century skyscrapers such as 70 Pine Street, the facade of 20 Exchange Place was designed as a "flowing unified surface" and was not visually linked to its internal superstructure.
Entrances
The entrances are designed with nickel-silver doors rather than bronze doors; one source attributed this to the architects' desire to avoid using "colored metal". The main entrance, on the Exchange Place elevation, has a round arch surrounded by eleven granite medallions, representing the countries where City Bank Farmers Trust operated offices. There are also granite medallions flanking and above the arch, as well as the National City Bank's seal at the top left and the National City Company's seal at the top right. Two vertical illuminated signs, one on either side of the arch, contain the word "Twenty". Within this arch, there are steps leading to doors underneath a large grouping of windows, while a lamp hangs from a soffit at the top of the arch's ceiling.
Another entrance faces the corner of Exchange Place and William Street. It has four doors made of silver and an alloy of bronze, zinc, and copper, and are trimmed with bronze. The doors each contain three panels showing different modes of transportation. Above the outer doors are nickel silver panels with allegorical bronze figures, one symbolizing banking and the other symbolizing abundance; both are surrounded by animal and floral figures. There are glass panes above the doors and panels; they are separated by mullions ornamented with industry symbols. A seal of City Bank Farmers Trust and a flagpole are mounted above the entrance. This led to City Bank Farmers Trust's main banking space.
A third entrance, at Beaver and William Streets, is similar to the Exchange Place and William Street entrance, except that it only has two paneled doors. The doors and the panels above the doors are surrounded by a granite frame. The glass panes above the granite frame do not have ornamented mullions.
A fourth entrance faces Beaver Street and consists of three round arches with carved surroundings. The center arch is a service entrance and has another carved surround with a small pediment above the door, consisting of snakes flanking a bison head above the door. The side arches each have four nickel-silver doors underneath marble-and-glass transoms. There is also a medallion above the center arch.
A fifth entrance is centered on the Hanover Street elevation, and is an arched opening with a carved surround. Similar to the entrance at Exchange Place and William Street, there are four paneled doors, as well as nickel silver panels above the doors, and a set of glass panes above the doors and panels separated by ornamental mullions. When the building opened, the Canadian Bank of Commerce used a banking space accessible from this entrance.
Other base elements
On the William Street, Beaver Street, and Exchange Place elevations, the lowest two stories of the base have several double-height window openings, all of which contain a silver grille at the bottom and keystones above the top center. There are smaller square-headed windows at the extreme ends of all of the building's elevations, including the Hanover Street side. On William Street, the only side that does not have a direct entrance, there are five large window openings. The Beaver Street elevation has seven large windows: three to the west of the entrance and four to the east. The Exchange Place elevation has three large windows east of the center archway and one large window to the west, as well as an additional two small windows on either side of the arch. The Hanover Place entrance is flanked by the smaller windows.
The rest of the base contains relatively little decoration, with sash windows on each floor. The 4th floor contains small rectangular openings, and the 5th floor contains single windows or pairs of windows separated by geometric panels, and topped by a boxy cornice with geometric shapes. Between the 6th and 17th stories, the spandrels between the windows on each floor are made of either blue-pearl granite or aluminum, and many spandrels have medallions. Piers subdivide the windows into either singular or paired groupings. The spandrels are decorated with motifs themed to agriculture, such as wheat sheaves and flower heads. Other motifs on the spandrels include balancing scales resembling trade, hourglasses resembling investment, and eagles and fasces resembling government.
Tower elements
There are fourteen figures at the 19th floor, corresponding to the piers directly in front of the tower. The figures, designed by David Evans, contain representations of "giants of finance"; half are depicted with scowls, while the other half have smiles. These faces allude to a prophecy made by biblical figure Joseph, who predicted that "seven years of plenty" would precede "seven years of famine". The piers also aesthetically separated the base and tower, as well as symbolized the bull and bear markets of finance. The intake pipes for the building's heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system are concealed behind the spandrels, while the exhaust pipes are behind the giants of finance. A 2022 article in The New York Times characterized the giants of finance as being "Assyrian-style busts". The outermost piers are topped by eagles at the 17th floor. At the highest setback, there are buttresses that transfer some of the upper-story loads to the base.
The upper floors contain sparse decoration as well. Between the sash windows on each floor are aluminum spandrels, many of which also contain medallions. These windows are grouped into three pairs per side. They are separated by projecting piers, which rise to the top of the tower. The corners of the tower are chamfered, with one window on each floor. At the 29th, 39th, 48th, and 55th stories, there are ashlar bands between each floor, instead of aluminum spandrels. The 55th through 57th stories contain three tall arches on each side. The arches are underneath the two-tiered "crown", which has communications equipment. The crown is similar in design to that of the General Electric Building, also designed by Cross and Cross, at 570 Lexington Avenue in Midtown Manhattan.
Features
The underlying ground contained quicksand and water, as well as foundations from the previous buildings on the site, and the entire city block was irregularly shaped. As a result, the building used cross-lot bracing as well as a heavy steel frame. The building's foundation descends below the curb and includes four or five basement levels. The two lowest basement floors were dug out of the bedrock, which extended below the depth of the groundwater. The basement also had to avoid a nearby New York City Subway line.
The superstructure uses of steel as well as . The building was constructed with four elevator banks, containing a total of 31 elevators; these are placed in the core of the building, allowing them to rise to the upper stories without interruption. The banking floors also had what was described as the world's largest pneumatic-tube system to be used in a banking facility. The two buildings comprising National City Bank's global headquarters, 20 Exchange Place and 55 Wall Street, were connected by a pedestrian bridge over Exchange Place, located at the ninth floor. The bridge, which no longer exists, was above the ground.
The building was intended to accommodate 5,000 bank employees as well as 2,000 other office employees. As with other early-20th-century skyscrapers in the Financial District, the lower stories had large floor areas for the building's primary tenant, Irving Trust, while the upper stories were smaller and were rented to other companies. The high ceilings of the building's lower stories have been used as a filming location for several movies such as Inside Man and The Amazing Spider-Man 2.
Lower stories
David Evans designed many of the lobby's decorations, including doors and grilles containing representations of navigation, engineering, mechanics, and architecture. The entrance from Exchange Place and William Street leads to a rotunda that measures high by across. The ceiling of the rotunda is carried by six red columns, whose capitals are decorated with carvings of eagles. The floor of the rotunda contains various motifs representing the bank, while the walls contain stone pieces in various hues. The lobbies contained of marble in 45 different types. signifying "corporate America's global reach". The lobby included marble from at least six European countries, such as Czechoslovak golden travertine; only two types of marble were from the United States. The rotunda's design might have been inspired by French architect Roger-Henri Expert's work. The dome consists of stepped concentric rings with black and silver stenciling, with a plastic hemisphere at the apex of the dome.
A half-flight of stairs leads upward from the rotunda to a space that formerly served as the senior officers' room. The space measures , with large pillars and English oak paneling, and contained officers' desks on either side of a central hall. The senior officers' room was decorated with reliefs of the building and representations of agriculture, banking, and industry. The central hall contained oak paneling, leather seats, and wood carvings by Evans. City Bank's executive office were behind the senior officers' room. These offices contained classical decor such as carpeting, lamps, curtains, chairs, and desks; according to Abramson, the president's office was intended to "combine dignity with warm friendliness".
Another half-flight of curved marble stairs, leading down from the rotunda, connected to the branch banking rooms, whose main entrance was at William and Beaver Streets. The lobby from the center of Exchange Place leads to separate elevator banks for the lowest 14 stories, the upper office stories, and the dining rooms on the 51st and 52nd stories. This lobby, used as the tenants' lobby, contains colored mosaic panels, as well as details inspired by Native American culture, such as "radial ceiling patterns, eagle motifs, and earth tones". There is also a private ground-floor lobby with green-marble decorations.
The lower stories housed the Canadian Bank of Commerce and the City Bank Farmers Trust Company, which required separate entrances and rooms. There were five banking rooms used by the City Bank Farmers Trust Company. The ground level contained a narrow space for the National City Bank, which handled commercial and retail banking clients. There was also a securities room at ground level, a transfer room and another securities room in basement level A, and a reserve banking room in basement level B. The basements contained two large vaults each measuring , as well as a smaller vault for overnight storage; the vaults were guarded by doors weighing between . The security system could detect tiny vibrations in the steel and concrete. The basement also had a three-man shooting gallery for the vault's guards to practice. The Canadian Bank of Commerce occupied the ground level and first story on the Hanover Street side. Floor plans indicate that this space had cable and telegraph offices on the Exchange Place side and accountants' offices on the Beaver Street side.
Upper stories
The 15th floor was occupied by a telephone exchange, which supposedly could handle over 100,000 calls per day. Telephone engineers considered the exchange to be the world's largest, with 37 switchboard operators connecting with 600 trunk lines and 3,600 extensions. The rest of the building was similarly technologically advanced. For instance, soap was stored in a basement reservoir and pumped to every bathroom sink. The offices were connected by an extensive system of pneumatic tubes. Wires were concealed within the elevator shaft, beneath the floor surfaces, and within the baseboards of the walls. There were dining rooms and kitchens on the 51st and 52nd floors. The 57th story was designed as an "observation floor", although it is unknown if the 57th story was ever used in this way.
The upper floors were decorated with 15 types of wood. A copper and nickel alloy was used for other ornamental features; the baseboards used stainless steel; and the handrails and toilets were plated with chromium. The floors in the 27 upper stories average . The top floors taper to . Since being converted to residential use, 20 Exchange Place has contained 767 residential apartments. There are also several residential amenities such as a gym, lounge, and gaming room.
History
National City Bank and the Farmers' Loan and Trust Company were both longstanding New York City institutions, with the former being founded in 1812 and the latter in 1822. In subsequent years, other banks began moving to residential buildings on Wall Street and, by the 1820s, financial institutions made up the vast majority of tenants there. By the late 19th century, the site of 20 Exchange Place had become associated with the banking industry as well, with institutions such as the Canadian Bank of Commerce occupying the buildings on the block. In 1908, National City Bank moved its headquarters to 55 Wall Street, directly north of what would become 20 Exchange Place. The Farmers Loan and Trust Company, meanwhile, occupied one of the buildings on 20 Exchange Place's site.
Development
Planning
In February 1929, Cross & Cross filed plans for a 25-story building for National City Bank at 22 William Street, which would replace the bank's existing building there. The plans called for a structure with setbacks and chamfered corners, but no tower. National City Bank and the Farmers' Loan and Trust Company merged in April 1929. National City Bank took over the expanded bank's banking operations, while Farmers' Trust became the City Bank Farmers Trust Company, a subsidiary of National City Bank that took over the trust operations. After the merger, City Bank Farmers Trust commissioned a new structure at 20 Exchange Place to house the operations of the expanded bank. The site was one of the few large lots near the New York Stock Exchange Building that was still available. Cross & Cross subsequently proposed a 40-story building that would replace all structures on the block, including the structure occupied by the Canadian Bank of Commerce. Following further revisions, the proposed building was expanded to 52 stories; this design would have contained a colonnade at its base, as well as a pyramidal roof.
When plans for 20 Exchange Place were announced, several skyscrapers in New York City were competing to be the world's tallest building, including the Chrysler Building, the Empire State Building, and 40 Wall Street, none of which were yet under construction. 20 Exchange Place was originally among those contenders for that title. According to the Architectural Forum, the design process had to be "a coordinated solution to complex mechanical problems and the strenuous demands of economics", with aesthetic considerations as an afterthought. Cross & Cross established an office at 385 Madison Avenue in Midtown Manhattan specifically for the project; the office contained drafting, filing, and sample rooms, and relevant desks and files were clustered for convenience. George J. Maguolo supervised a design team that sculpted clay models for the proposed skyscraper.
In October 1929, City Bank Farmers Trust filed tentative plans for a structure of either , with 75 stories and a budget of $9.5 million. This building would have consisted of an tower rising above the 28th floor and tapering at the 50th floor, with a globe-shaped lantern at the pinnacle supported by four eagles. The skyscraper, as initially planned, would have been the headquarters for a larger bank, to be created by merging the City Bank Farmers Trust and the Corn Exchange Bank. At least three early architectural sketches were drawn. The merger between the City Bank Farmers Trust and the Corn Exchange Bank was canceled after the Wall Street Crash of 1929. Consequently, the building was reduced to 64 stories, then to 54 stories.
Construction and opening
Steel construction started in late February 1930, with the first steel column being placed on February 25. The building took twelve months to construct. The Fuller Company, the building's contractor, employed an average of 2,000 workers simultaneously, with up to 3,000 workers on-site at a time. A large proportion of the workforce, comprising over 600 workers, were hired for the stonework. The project also employed timekeepers and auditors, who checked employees' attendance, as well as job runners, who delivered architectural drawings and ensured that materials were delivered. The builders anticipated a total payroll of $7.5 million with 5,000 total workers. A contemporary source wrote that the project provided "unemployment relief, a matter of much moment at this writing", when the Great Depression in the United States was just beginning. The stonework was completed in November 1930. Some of the construction workers involved in the project were honored in a January 1931 ceremony.
The bank had started moving into its quarters by February 20, 1931, and the building opened for City Bank Farmers Trust workers on February 24. On opening day, the building had 25,000 visitors; The New York Times stated that about 3,851 people per hour visited the building. The upper floors were not open because the elevators had not been completed. When it opened, 20 Exchange Place was the tallest stone-clad building in the city and the world, but that record was surpassed by the Empire State Building, which opened on May 1, 1931. In addition, 20 Exchange Place was the fourth-tallest building in the world, behind the Empire State Building, the Chrysler Building, and 40 Wall Street. Construction was officially completed in mid-March 1931, one and a half months ahead of schedule. The same month, National City Bank conveyed a one-fourth interest in the building to the City Bank Farmers Trust Company in March 1931.
Office use
When the building opened, it had an estimated 6,500 employees. City Bank Farmers Trust occupied almost all of the space on the first through 12th floors, as well as the basement stories. The Canadian Bank of Commerce also took some space on the Hanover Street side of the ground level. Other tenants took space in the upper floors, including law firms, which comprised a majority of the building's outside tenants. The building also contained offices for financial firms such as Lehman Brothers, BNY Mellon, and First Boston. City Bank Farmers Trust remained the largest occupant of the building, occupying 75 percent of the floor area at its peak. Part of the interior was altered in 1945.
National City Bank merged with the First National Bank in 1955, becoming First National City Bank. Shortly afterward, in March 1958, City Bank Farmers Trust took over the construction of a skyscraper on 399 Park Avenue, which was to contain most of the operations of First National City Bank. City Bank Farmers Trust moved to the newly completed 399 Park Avenue in 1961. The same year, 20 Exchange Place's eastern wing was undergoing renovations; in late 1961, some of these materials caught fire, leading 25 people to be trapped in the elevators. First National City Bank was renamed Citibank in 1976, and the bank sold off 20 Exchange Place in 1979, though it retained space there. Both Citibank and the Canadian Bank of Commerce moved out of 20 Exchange Place in 1989. Although the facade remained largely unchanged over the years, the lobbies had been closed to the public by the end of the 20th century.
Residential use
In late 1997, the building was sold to a joint venture between the Witkoff Group and Kamran Hakim. Witkoff and Hakim considered plans to convert 20 Exchange Place into a hotel or a residential building, or retain office uses, before they ultimately decided to renovate the building for $25 million and convert the upper floors into apartments. Some in the lowest eighteen floors was retained as commercial space; a third of this area was taken by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation in 1999. During the renovation, some of the building's decorative elements were stolen. When DMJM Harris Arup took a sublease at 20 Exchange Place in early 2002, it became one of the largest office leases in Lower Manhattan since the September 11, 2001, attacks.
By 2004, developers Yaron (Ronny) Bruckner and Nathan Berman had bought 20 Exchange Place. They proposed converting the building to nearly entirely residential use, with 250 condominiums in the tower and commercial space at the building's base. DTH Capital, a joint venture between the Bruckner family's Eastbridge Group and AG Real Estate, became the new developers of the building. The project received two mezzanine loans of a combined $135 million in 2004. Two years later, the joint venture received a $256.5 million construction loan from a group of several lenders; this loan was refinanced in 2009. These loans were used to convert some units to apartments. The first apartments were ready for occupancy by early 2008. Metro Loft Management, which oversaw the conversion, created 350 units between the 16th and 57th floors. In 2014, DTH Capital received an additional $240 million loan that allowed the firm to convert the 9th through 15th floors to 221 luxury units. DMJM Harris Arup had recently vacated the space at the time. The remaining units were added in a third phase that was ultimately completed in 2015. Some of the units benefited from rent stabilization.
Starting in November 2021, the building's elevators began to break down frequently, particularly eight elevators that served units above the 15th story. As a result, DTH Capital hired elevator mechanics to remain on site at all times and offered rent concessions and hotel rooms to 20 Exchange Place's residents. DTH had also hired several teams of experts, who suspected the issues were related to power surges from Consolidated Edison machinery, but Con Ed said its equipment was functioning properly. The New York Times reported that DTH had tried to acquire controller boards for the elevators, but the 2021–2022 global supply chain crisis had delayed the delivery of those boards. The elevator issues led some residents to report feeling trapped in the building, while others said they had to climb many flights of stairs to access their apartments. Local politicians met with 20 Exchange Place's residents in March 2022 to address the chronic elevator outages. Problems with the elevators persisted through mid-2022.
Critical reception and landmark designations
At the time of the building's completion, the Times characterized 20 Exchange Place as "magnificent", and other unnamed critics had called it "one of the handsomest buildings" in New York City. In a book published in 1932, W. Parker Chase wrote, "Everything in connection with this monumental building expresses beauty, completeness and grandeur." According to the Real Estate Record and Guide, 20 Exchange Place was "conservative modern in style and classic proportions".
In 2014, Christopher Gray of the Times said that "from a distance it appears a straightforward limestone skyscraper. But up close, it is rich with silver nickel moderne-style metalwork, and the interiors are a perplexing mix of staid banker and Art Deco classicism." By contrast, architecture critic Robert A. M. Stern wrote in his 1987 book New York 1930 that 20 Exchange Place's proximity to other skyscrapers including 70 Pine Street, 1 Wall Street, 40 Wall Street, and the Downtown Athletic Club "had reduced the previous generation of skyscrapers to the status of foothills in a new mountain range".
The building was designated by the Landmarks Preservation Commission as a city landmark in 1996. In 2007, the building was designated as a contributing property to the Wall Street Historic District, a National Register of Historic Places district.
See also
60 Wall Street
List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan below 14th Street
List of tallest buildings in the United States
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
1931 establishments in New York City
Art Deco architecture in Manhattan
Art Deco skyscrapers
Bank buildings in Manhattan
Financial District, Manhattan
Historic bank buildings in the United States
Historic district contributing properties in Manhattan
New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan
Office buildings completed in 1931
Residential buildings completed in 1931
Residential condominiums in New York City
Residential skyscrapers in Manhattan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnaby%27s%20black%20cockatoo
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Carnaby's black cockatoo
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Carnaby's black cockatoo (Zanda latirostris), also known as the short-billed black cockatoo, is a large black cockatoo endemic to southwest Australia. It was described in 1948 by naturalist Ivan Carnaby. Measuring in length, it has a short crest on the top of its head. Its plumage is mostly greyish black, and it has prominent white cheek patches and a white tail band. The body feathers are edged with white giving a scalloped appearance. Adult males have a dark grey beak and pink eye-rings. Adult females have a bone-coloured beak, grey eye-rings and ear patches that are paler than those of the males.
This cockatoo usually lays a clutch of one to two eggs. It generally takes 28 to 29 days for the female to incubate the eggs, and the young fledge ten to eleven weeks after hatching. The young will stay with the family until the next breeding season, and sometimes even longer. The family leaves the nesting site after the young fledge until the following year. Carnaby's black cockatoo forms flocks when not breeding, with birds in drier habitats usually being more migratory than those in wetter ones. It flies with deep and slow wingbeats, generally high above trees. Seeds of plants of the families Proteaceae and, to a lesser extent, Myrtaceae form a large part of its diet.
Carnaby's black cockatoo nests in hollows situated high in trees with fairly large diameters, generally Eucalyptus. With much of its habitat lost to land clearing and development and threatened by further habitat destruction, Carnaby's black cockatoo is listed as an endangered species by the Federal and Western Australian governments. It is also classified as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Like most parrots, it is protected by CITES, an international agreement that makes trade, export, and import of listed wild-caught species illegal.
Taxonomy and naming
Carnaby's black cockatoo and Baudin's black cockatoo were once known collectively as the white-tailed black cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus baudinii) until formally classified as separate species. In a 1933 report on the birds of Lake Grace, Western Australian naturalist Ivan Carnaby wrote of a distinctive population of white-tailed black cockatoos that he named mallee black cockatoos. These birds lived in mallee and sandplains, using their large bills to crack open woody seed pods; the typical form had a long narrow bill it used to extract eucalypt seeds from marri seed pods. He classified the large-billed form as a subspecies of the white-tailed black cockatoo in 1948, giving it the name Calyptorhynchus baudinii latirostris. The epithet latirostris is from the Latin latus "wide" and rostrum "bill". The holotype specimen is from Hopetoun, Western Australia.
Among the black cockatoos, the two Western Australian white-tailed species (Carnaby's and Baudin's black cockatoos), together with the yellow-tailed black cockatoo (Z. funerea) of eastern Australia, form the genus Zanda. The two red-tailed species, red-tailed black cockatoo (C. banksii) and glossy black cockatoo (C. lathami), form the genus Calyptorhynchus. The three species of Zanda were formerly included in Calyptorhynchus (and still are by some authorities), but are now widely placed in a genus of their own due to a deep genetic divergence between the two groups. The two genera differ in tail colour, head pattern, juvenile food begging calls and the degree of sexual dimorphism. Males and females of Calyptorhynchus sensu stricto differ markedly in appearance, whereas those of Zanda have similar plumage.
The three species of the genus Zanda have been variously considered as two, then as a single species for many years. During the 1970s, Australian ornithologist Denis Saunders analysed the two white-tailed taxa and found that Baudin's black cockatoo also has a longer wing, and wider and higher skull than Carnaby's black cockatoo. Furthermore, there was no overlap in the range of (bill) lengths. In a 1979 paper, Saunders highlighted the similarity between the short-billed and the southern race xanthanotus of the yellow-tailed and treated them as a single species with the long-billed as a distinct species. He proposed that Western Australia had been colonised on two separate occasions, once by a common ancestor of all three forms (which became the long-billed black cockatoo), and later by what has become the short-billed black cockatoo. An analysis of protein allozymes published in 1984 revealed the two Western Australian forms to be more closely related to each other than to the yellow-tailed, and the consensus since then has been to treat them as three separate species.
The two white-tailed cockatoo species were called short-billed and long-billed black cockatoos in scientific works, yet they were called Carnaby's and Baudin's black cockatoo in Western Australia. Hence ornithologists Les Christidis and Walter Boles pushed for the latter two names to be used. The International Ornithologists' Union has taken up this suggestion and uses these names as their official common names.
The local Noongar people did not distinguish between Carnaby's and Baudin's black cockatoos. Nyungar names recorded include ngolyenok, ngoolyoo (from Northampton), and G'noo-le-a (from Geraldton).
Description
Carnaby's black cockatoo is in length with a wingspan, and weighs 520–790 grams. It is mostly greyish black, with narrow light grey scalloping produced by narrow off white margins at the tips of dark feathers. The scalloping is more prominent on the neck. It has a crest of long feathers on its head that form a short crest that can be raised and lowered, and a prominent off-white patch of feathers on its cheek. Its lateral tail feathers are white with black tips, and the central tail feathers all black. The irises are dark brown and the legs brown-grey. Its beak is shorter and broader than that of the closely related and similar Baudin's black cockatoo; the two are often difficult to distinguish in the field.
The adult male has a dark grey beak and pink eye-rings. The adult female has a bone-coloured beak, grey eye-rings and ear patches that are whiter and more distinctive than those of the male. The feathers of its underparts and underwing coverts have larger white margins than those of the male, leading to a more barred or scalloped pattern to its plumage. Its legs and feet are a little lighter than those of the male. Moulting appears to take place in stages in late summer—some time between January or February and April or May, and is poorly understood.
Juveniles have a bone-coloured beak, grey eye-rings, and less white in the tail feathers. They can also be distinguished by their constant begging calls. It is not possible to tell the sexes apart until the male's bill begins to darken. This begins when the male is around one year old, and is complete some time after two years of age.
Distribution and habitat
Carnaby's black cockatoo is found across a broad swathe of southwest Australia—mostly within the Wheatbelt region—in places that receive over of rainfall yearly. The limits of its range include Cape Arid to the east, Lake Cronin, Hatters Hill and Lake Moore inland, and Kalbarri to the north. Breeding takes place in areas receiving rainfall a year, from the Stirling Range to Three Springs as well as around Bunbury. The cockatoo pairs form flocks outside the breeding season, moving away from nesting areas. Carnaby's black cockatoo is sedentary in wetter parts of its range, and migratory in drier areas as birds move south and west towards the coast in summer.
Carnaby's black cockatoo is found in Eucalyptus woodland, most commonly of wandoo (Eucalyptus wandoo) or salmon gum (E. salmonophloia). It is also found nearby pine plantations and sandplains or kwongan heath with abundant Hakea, Banksia, and Grevillea shrubs.
Behaviour
Carnaby's black cockatoo communicates by auditory and visual displays. The voice is generally noisy with several calls; loudest and most frequent is a wailing wy-lah, which is uttered by both sexes and often heard before the birds themselves are seen. There is usually an interval of 0.4 seconds before the call is repeated. This call is made by birds in flight, before taking off and returning to the nest. Carnaby's black cockatoos that are not in flight may answer with this call when they hear it. The call is often shortened or chopped off three-quarters of the way through as the bird takes off. The call varies between individual Carnaby's black cockatoos, and older nestlings can distinguish their parents' calls. Saunders labelled a variant of the wy-lah as the interrogative call—it is drawn out and ends with an inflection. Birds often utter a soft chuck call when alone. Females make a whistling call composed of two notes of varying volume when perched or about to take off. They also utter a softer version that is 0.6 seconds long, as well as a long single-noted whistle when alone. The male makes a soft shot wy-lah call in similar situations. Birds may also make a harsh screeching alarm call when they notice something is out of place. They squawk loudly in disputes with their own kind, when other animals enter breeding territory, or when they are handled by people in captivity. Males can utter a harsh chattering squeak when arguing with other males.
Males make two calls that are directed at females, sometimes as a prelude to mating. One is a sequence of short squeaks; the other is made up of consecutive ah notes with 0.1 second between each note. These calls can be brief or last up to several minutes. Nestlings make a noisy grating begging call when seeking or expecting food. An adult female may also make the call while incubating the eggs. Immature birds also make a grating call not associated with begging that parents ignore.
Carnaby's black cockatoo flies with deep, slow wingbeats, giving it a wavelike movement. It can also glide for extended periods with its wings held downwards. Flocks generally fly at height, descending to treetops to feed or roost. Birds can be agile, manoeuvring quickly if startled or disturbed. In contrast, they waddle awkwardly on the ground.
Previously, the maximum age recorded from banding was 25 years 10.8 months for a bird banded in November 1988 at Coomallo Creek and encountered in a field 5 km away at Tootbardie in October 2014. However, in October 2021, a male individual was discovered to be alive and still nesting at the age of 35, having first been tagged in 1986. The bird was discovered six kilometres from where it had been originally tagged.
Breeding
Carnaby's black cockatoos begin breeding from four years of age and mate for life. Mature wandoo and salmon gum woodlands provide important breeding habitat for the cockatoos as they need large hollows in tall trees. The nests are generally located about above the ground, and spaced away from each other, on average. There is competition for nest hollows with western corellas (Cacatua pastinator), galahs (Eolophus roseicapilla), and feral honeybees (Apis mellifera). Galahs seek out hollows at any time of year, unlike the Carnaby's black cockatoos, which only look before breeding. Mated pairs return to a breeding locale in late winter and begin preparing to breed, the female choosing a suitable hollow in a tree. She becomes highly territorial, driving off other females from the vicinity of the nest. After a bushfire burnt out much of the species' breeding habitat in 2009, local wildlife officers of the Department of Parks and Wildlife in Western Australia constructed artificial breeding hollows. After some experimentation by authorities, the survival rate of nestlings in these hollows increased to 75%.
Breeding season is from late winter to summer. The female lays a clutch of one or two white eggs, with the second egg laid eight days after the first. One egg is generally larger in a two-egg clutch, and does not differ in size from the egg of a single-egg clutch. It ranges from around long and in diameter. The second egg is around 3 mm shorter. The egg has been calculated to weigh around 33 g, which is 5% of that of the adult female. The female incubates the eggs alone over a period of 28 to 29 days. The eggs hatch asynchronously, with the second one hatching eight days after the first. The second chick usually perishes within the first two days of life; only a small number fledge successfully. Newly hatched chicks are covered with pale yellow down, and are blind. They can sit but are otherwise helpless. By the third week, their eyes begin to open and they have a greyish colour as the black pin feathers start to appear under the down. The down has largely disappeared by week five and the black feathers and pale cheek patch are prominent. Female young have a whiter cheek patch from this age onwards. The nestlings are usually fed by both parents, with the chicks fledging ten to eleven weeks after hatching. The chicks usually remain in the company of their parents till at least the next breeding season or even longer. The family leaves the vicinity of the nest until they return to breed the following season.
Feeding
The cockatoo feeds primarily on seeds of proteaceous plants such as Banksia, Hakea and Grevillea, and secondarily on seeds from myrtaceous plants such as Eucalyptus and Corymbia. Over fifty native plant species are commonly used for food, either as seed or flowers, and this includes western sheoak (Allocasuarina fraseriana), orange wattle (Acacia saligna), and balga (Xanthorrhoea preissii). Typically, Carnaby's black cockatoos sit in the crowns of trees cracking the seed pods or cones. First, a bird chews through the stem holding the item before holding it with its foot and tearing bits off and extracting the seed. Birds may move along the branches breaking stems at random as well. Occasionally they forage for fallen seed and fruit on the ground. This cockatoo acts as an agent in biological control, eating the larvae of invertebrates such as wood-boring insects and moths from rare plants.
The Swan Coastal Plain north of Perth has become an important feeding area. There, cockatoos also forage in the Gnangara pine plantations, where they feed on the seeds of Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) and maritime pine (Pinus pinaster). Carnaby's black cockatoos have come to depend on these plantations since the early 20th century. Almost two-thirds of the Carnaby's black cockatoos in the Perth–Peel Coastal Plain roost in the Gnangara-Pinjar pine plantation. Other non-native plants that the birds also consume include Erodium species, doublegee (Emex australis) seeds, the fruit of the umbrella tree (Heptapleurum actinophyllum), seeds of liquidambar (Liquidambar styraciflua), sunflower (Helianthus annuus), jacaranda (Jacaranda mimosifolia), almond (Prunus amygdalus), onion grass (Romulea rosea), white cedar (Melia azedarach), and hibiscus flowers.
When it is not breeding, a Carnaby's black cockatoo forages over land ranging from around roost sites, although daily movements are generally short, with birds travelling an average of from the roost during the morning and in the afternoon.
Predators and parasites
The wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax) kills Carnaby's black cockatoos sporadically, and is the only natural predator of the adult cockatoo. Carnaby's black cockatoo is occasionally parasitised by the bird louse species Franciscoloa funerei. In captivity, it is also susceptible to nematodes of the genus Ascaris if it is in a cage with open dirt flooring.
Status and conservation
The cockatoo is recognised as endangered under the federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, and as Schedule 1 "fauna that is rare or is likely to become extinct" by Western Australia's Wildlife Conservation (Specially Protected
Fauna) Notice 2008(2) under the Wildlife Conservation Act 1950. The population size of Carnaby's cockatoo fell by over 50% in 45 years, and up to a third of their traditional breeding grounds in the Wheatbelt have been abandoned. The bird is part of an annual census, the Great Cocky count, that has been held every year since 2009 to track the population change of Carnaby's and other black cockatoos. The 2016 Great Cocky Count counted 10,919 Carnaby's black cockatoos, indicating the population had declined by 50% on the Perth–Peel Coastal Plain since 2010, dropping by around 10% each year. The total population is estimated to consist of 40,000 individuals.
Major threats to the cockatoo include clearance of their feeding and nesting habitat, destruction of nesting hollows (e.g. during firewood collection), competition with other species for nest sites, and poaching. Since European settlement, 56% of its habitat has been cleared, mainly for agriculture. Furthermore, 54% of its habitat on the Swan Coastal Plain—an important area outside the breeding season—has been lost. Much of this area lies within the Perth metropolitan area, and the city's population is predicted to increase 70% by 2050. The Western Australian State Government has produced a Green Growth Plan to manage this expansion; conservation groups are concerned the cockatoo (along with other species) could suffer further loss of habitat. In particular, the loss of pine plantations north of Perth could jeopardise the species' food supply. In February 2017, WWF-Australia and BirdLife Australia appealed to the Federal Environment Minister Josh Frydenberg to intervene and halt the ongoing removal of pine trees. BirdLife International designated 13 sites (Important Bird Areas) as being important specifically for Carnaby's black cockatoo. These are the Northern Swan Coastal Plain, which supports between 4600 and 15000 birds outside the breeding season, the Stirling Range, and 11 other sites that support between 20 and 110 breeding pairs of Carnaby's black cockatoos.
The species' low rate of reproduction and long period of immaturity render it vulnerable to rapid change in the environment as response and recovery are slow. Their habit of forming flocks predisposes them to outbreaks of disease and localised adverse weather events. A probable outbreak of a disease led to the deaths of up to 23 breeding female cockatoos at Koobabbie in September–October 2009, a hailstorm killed 68 individuals around Perth on 22 March 2010, and 145 perished in a heatwave around Hopetoun when temperatures reached on 6 January 2010. Temperature and weather extremes in southwest Australia are predicted to worsen with climate change. Carnaby's black cockatoos have been brought to veterinary hospitals with traumatic injuries. Motor vehicles are a hazard, as much vegetation useful to Carnaby's black cockatoos lies on road verges. The cockatoos fly into open space when leaving the vegetation, which is often over a road and in the path of oncoming traffic.
Like most species of parrots, Carnaby's black cockatoo is protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) with its placement on the Appendix II list of vulnerable species, which makes the import, export, and trade of listed wild-caught animals illegal.
Notes
References
Cited texts
External links
Carnaby's black cockatoo
Endemic birds of Southwest Australia
Endangered fauna of Australia
Carnaby's black cockatoo
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983%20World%20Snooker%20Championship
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1983 World Snooker Championship
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The 1983 World Snooker Championship (also known as the 1983 Embassy World Snooker Championship for the purposes of sponsorship) was a professional snooker tournament that took place between 16 April and 2 May 1983 at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. This was the third and final world ranking event of the 1982–83 snooker season following the 1982 Professional Players Tournament. Sixteen seeded players qualified directly for the event, with an additional sixteen players progressing through a two-round qualification round held at the Romiley Forum in Stockport, and Redwood Lodge in Bristol. The winner of the event received £30,000, and the tournament was sponsored by cigarette company Embassy.
Alex Higgins was the defending champion, having won the 1982 championship, but he lost 5–16 to Steve Davis in the semi-finals. Davis, the 1981 champion, won the event for the second time, defeating Cliff Thorburn 18–6 in the final. A total of 18 century breaks were made during the tournament. The highest was made by Thorburn in the fourth of his second round match against Terry Griffiths, where he compiled a maximum break of 147 points, becoming the first player to make such a break in a World Championship match.
Overview
The World Snooker Championship is a professional snooker tournament and the game's official world championship. Developed in the late 19th century by British Army soldiers stationed in India, snooker was popular in the United Kingdom before being introduced to Europe and the Commonwealth. The sport is now played worldwide, especially in East and Southeast Asian nations such as China, Hong Kong and Thailand.
The 1983 Championship was organised and governed by the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA). It featured 32 professional players competing in one-on-one single-elimination matches, played over several . The players were selected to take part using a combination of the world snooker rankings and a pre-tournament qualification tournament. The first World Championship, in 1927, was won by Joe Davis in a final at Camkin's Hall in Birmingham, England. Since 1977, the tournament has been held at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. The defending champion for 1983 was Alex Higgins, who defeated Ray Reardon 18–15 in the 1982 championship final. The tournament was sponsored by cigarette company Embassy, and broadcast on BBC television.
Prize fund
The winner of the event received a prize of £30,000, the highest amount ever awarded for a snooker tournament up to that point. A breakdown of prize money for this tournament is shown below:
Winner: £30,000
Runner up: £15,000
Semi-finals: £8,400
Quarter-finals: £4,450
Last 16: £2,950
Last 32: £1,500
Highest break: £3,000
Record high break: £5,000
Maximum break: £10,000
Summary
Qualifying
A two-round qualification tournament was held in March and April across three venues: at the Snooker Centre in Sheffield, Romiley Forum in Stockport, and Redwood Lodge, Bristol. In round one, Mario Morra was 4–9 behind Ian Black, but won five frames to equalise at 9–9. In the deciding frame, Morra made a 51 break, but Black replied with a 37 to win the frame and the match with just two balls remaining. Black compiled a 108 break against Paul Medati in the sixth fame of their second qualifying round, and won seven of the next eight frames to qualify for the main draw with a 10–4 win. Eddie Sinclair recorded a 112 break during a decisive 10–2 defeat of Colin Roscoe. In the second round, Sinclair played Eugene Hughes and led 5–4 after making six breaks over 40. He later won the match 10–8 after making breaks of 99 and 54 in the final two frames. Patsy Fagan failed to qualify for the main draw for the first time in his career, losing 8–10 to Mick Fisher. Les Dodd won a long match against Ian Williamson that concluded at 1:10 am with Dodd winning the deciding frame. Dodd had received a walkover in the first qualifying round after John Dunning did not appear for their match.
Snooker veteran Pat Houlihan took a 7–1 lead against Tommy Murphy, but Murphy won seven of the next eight to bring the match to 8–8. Houlihan won the 17th frame, but Murphy took the next two frames with breaks of 52 and 71, allowing him to progress to the next round. Murphy then lost 8–10 to John Virgo after leading 8–7. Virgo made a break of 101 in the 13th frame. Tony Meo defeated Vic Harris 10–0, and then defeated Geoff Foulds 10–4 to qualify. The tournament's promoter, Mike Watterson lost 6–10 to John Campbell. The reigning world billiards champion, Rex Williams, lost just one frame in qualifying, securing a 10–0 whitewash over Mike Darrington and then defeating Fred Davis 10–1.
Mark Wildman won 10–7 against Bob Harris in the first round and qualified directly for the main draw, receiving a walkover as Jim Wych (who had received a bye into the second round) had not travelled from Canada for the match. Cliff Wilson faced Joe Johnson in the second round, a rematch of the 1978 World Amateur Snooker Championship final. In the first round, Wilson had lost only one frame against Clive Everton, whilst Johnson had whitewashed Paul Watchorn. Wilson won against Johnson 10–8.
First round
The first round was played between 16 and 22 April with best-of-19-frame matches held over two . Steve Davis was Coral bookmakers' favourite to win the event, priced at 11/8 the day before the tournament began. Terry Griffiths was the second-favourite at 7/1, with Reardon and defending champion Higgins at 8/1. Davis had won four individual tournaments during the season leading up to the competition, whilst Reardon had claimed three titles, and Higgins's only notable success had been in the 1983 Irish Professional Championship. Higgins led Dean Reynolds, 5–1 and finished their first session 6–3 ahead. He then increased his lead to 8–3, before he won the match 10–4. Willie Thorne took a 6–3 lead over Virgo and won the first four frames of their second session to complete a 10–3 victory.
Having built a 6–3 advantage over Dave Martin in their first session, Canadian Bill Werbeniuk won 10–4. Jim Meadowcroft made a highest break of just 36 as he was defeated 2–10 by David Taylor. Eddie Charlton completed a 10–7 victory against Dodd after ending their first session 5–3 in front. Three-time former winner John Spencer defeated Mike Hallett 10–7 in a closely contested match. Dennis Taylor wore glasses that he later credited for winning the event two years later. He won the last three frames of his match to defeat Silvino Francisco 10–9. Davis took a 6–0 lead over Williams, but Williams reduced the deficit by winning the next three frames. In their second session, Davis won three of the first four frames to complete a 10–4 victory.
Thorburn had a single-frame lead against Campbell after their first session and won 10–5, despite suffering from influenza symptoms. The 1979 champion Griffiths trailed Wildman 7–8 but won the final three frames to secure a 10–8 victory. In an attacking match, Meo defeated his childhood friend Jimmy White 10–8 having led 6–3 after the first session. White was the only one of the top 16 seeds to lose in the first round. Doug Mountjoy won 10–2 against Wilson, and Kirk Stevens defeated Fisher by the same margin. Reardon, having been 5–4 in front overnight, prevailed 10–7 against Hughes in a match that featured few breaks higher than 30. Perrie Mans and Tony Knowles both progressed with 10–3 wins, over Black and Miles respectively.
Second round
The second round was played between 21 and 26 April as the best-of-25-frame matches held over three sessions. Higgins lost the first two frames against Thorne, and in the third frame accused Thorne of making a deliberate miss. Thorne commented that Higgins had accused him of being a cheat, which Higgins denied, although he later said Thorne "hadn't been very sporting". Higgins won the frame, and led Thorne 5–3 by the end of the session. Thorne equalised at 7–7 by the end of the second session. From there, Thorne won only one further frame as Higgins took the match 13–8.
David Taylor led Werbeniuk 10–6 after two sessions, but lost 10–13 after Werbeniuk won seven consecutive frames. Dennis Taylor was a frame ahead of Davis, at 4–3 after their first session, but Davis emerged as the winner, 13–11. Stevens compiled a break of 139 in the second frame against Mans, and went on to take a 7–1 lead after the first session and win 13–3 in two sessions. In a session of slow play, Charlton moved from 9–7 against Spencer to take their match 13–11. Knowles led Reardon 9–7 and, after Reardon had equalised at 11–11 and 12–12, defeated him with a break of 66 in the deciding frame. Meo gained a 5–3 lead over Mountjoy after their first session and went on to win 13–11.
The final session of the match between Thorburn and Griffiths lasted more than seven hours and finished at 3:51 am, which, at the end of the 2019 Championship, still stood as the latest finish for a snooker match at the Crucible, and at 6 hours and 25 minutes, the longest session. Thorburn achieved the first maximum break at a World Snooker Championship in the fourth frame. He was only the second player after Davis at the 1982 Classic to make an official maximum. The break started with Thorburn a . While he was completing the break, play stopped on the tournament's second table because his friend and fellow Canadian Werbeniuk wanted to watch.
Quarter-finals
The quarter-finals were played between 25 and 27 April as the best-of-25 frames held over three sessions. Charlton compiled a break of 115 in his match against Davis, but Davis took a 5–3 lead into their second session, and then won six of the next eight frames. Davis claimed the first two frames of the final session to complete a 13–5 victory.
Higgins made a break of 109 in the first frame against Werbeniuk, and won the next on the final . At 46 points ahead in the third frame, Higgins attempted to play a behind the pink and was annoyed by referee John Williams, who awarded a against him as the cue ball had not touched the pink. After protestations from Higgins, Williams asked the match scorers for a second opinion, and the decision stood. Werbeniuk then made a break of 57 and won the frame. Higgins said that he wanted a change of referee, and threatened to walk out, but following a discussion with tournament promoter Mike Watterson, agreed to return. He won the following two frames, but lost the next after going while playing a shot on the pink. Werbeniuk won that frame and the next, leaving the scores tied at 4–4 at the end of their first session. Werbeniuk took a 9–7 lead by the end on the next session, but Higgins started the third session by winning three consecutive frames. Werbeniuk recorded a break of 109 to level at 11–11, but Higgins won the next two frames to take the match 13–11.
Knowles won the first five frames against Meo and led 6–2 after their first session, before winning 13–9. Thorburn took a 4–0 lead over Stevens, and was 5–3 ahead at the end of their first session. Stevens had led 12–10, but Thorburn won 13–12, with the final session finishing at 2:12 am. As of 2019, this was still the second-longest session (at 6 hours and 11 minutes), and the third-latest finish, since the World Snooker Championship has been held at the Crucible.
Semi-finals
The semi-finals were played between 28 and 30 April as best-of-31-frame matches scheduled over four sessions. Davis won the first session against Higgins 5–2, and also took the first four frames the following day, making a break of 103 in the opening frame of the second session, to extend his lead to 9–2. At the mid-session interval, the Crucible Theatre was evacuated due to a death threat against Davis that had been telephoned to the venue, saying that he would be shot if he won a tenth frame. After an hour-long police search, the audience was readmitted and the match resumed. Davis was 10–4 ahead at the end of the first day. On the second day of their match, Davis compiled a break of 90 to make his lead 11–4. Higgins replied with a break of 74 to reduce his deficit to 5–11, but Davis then won the next five frames to take the match 16–5.
Knowles led Thorburn 5–3 at the end of their first session before Thorburn levelled the match at both 5–5 and 7–7. Knowles led 8–7 at the end of the second session. Thorburn took the first two frames of the third session, to gain the lead. The players were again equal at 10–10 before Thorburn moved 12–10 ahead at the end of the third session. Knowles won the next two frames after lengthy tactical exchanges, and then took a 13–12 lead with a break of 74. Knowles was within a frame of reaching the final at 15–13, but Thorburn won the next two to force a deciding frame. After Knowles missed a red, Thorburn went on to win the frame, and the match 16–15. Due to the length of the frames, the semi-final finished at 12:45 am.
Final
The final was played on 1 and 2 May between Thorburn and Davis as the best of 35 frames, scheduled to be held over four sessions. It was Thorburn's third appearance in a World Championship final, after he had been runner-up in 1977 and champion in 1980. For Davis, it was the second world final, two years after his victory in 1981. At 2–2 after the first four frames, Davis won four in a row to lead 6–2. He increased his advantage to 9–2 at the start of the second session as Thorburn made several errors, including missing a pot on a red when using the , an unsuccessful attempt to a red, and an easy half-ball shot. Thorburn then won two frames, but Davis still finished the first day 12–5 ahead.
On the second day, Davis won the first frame on the black ball after Thorburn had missed a shot on the pink to win the frame. Thorburn missed several attempted pots in the second frame of the session, and Davis won this frame too, following it with a break of 59 in winning the third frame, and taking the fourth after another missed pot attempt from Thorburn. After the mid-session interval, Davis compiled a break of 131 in the 22nd frame to leave him one frame from victory at 17–5. Thorburn won one further frame, before Davis achieved victory at 18–6. This was the first final at the Crucible to be completed with a . The concluding frame was won on a . Thorburn was exhausted during the final after winning his last three matches in deciding frames, according to Everton. He played 14 hours more than Davis throughout the tournament. Snooker historian Clive Everton commented that the long matches Thorburn had played earlier in the tournament "left him so drained ... that he was able to offer only token resistance." Davis became the first player to win the event for a second time at the Crucible.
Davis thanked his family in his post-match speech, and said that his father, and his coach Frank Callan, were the only two people that could help him with snooker. An emotional Davis also offered his commiserations to Thorburn, and said that "he has had a lot of hard things happening to him and I want to thank him for a great final." Thorburn commented on the match, "I know what purgatory is like now. I tried like hell, but it was too hard for me to win." The £30,000 prize money brought Davis's winnings from tournaments to more than £80,000 for the season, with his expected earnings for the following year being estimated at £750,000, including income from sponsorship deals, and from charging £3,000 for playing exhibition matches.
Main draw
Shown below are the results for the tournament. The numbers in brackets are players seedings, whilst those in bold denote match winners.
Qualifying
Qualifying was played over two rounds both played as the best-of-19 frames in March and April. The 16 players qualifying for the event met a seeded player in the main competition. Players in bold denote match winners.
Century breaks
There were 18 century breaks compiled during the championship, a record which stood until 1986. The highest of the event was a maximum break of 147 made by Thorburn, earning a £5,000 bonus.
147 Cliff Thorburn
139, 105 Kirk Stevens
131, 103 Steve Davis
122, 116 Ray Reardon
118, 115, 104 Eddie Charlton
118, 106 Doug Mountjoy
111 Jimmy White
109, 102 Alex Higgins
109 Bill Werbeniuk
106 John Spencer
102 Tony Meo
References
World Snooker Championships
World Championship
World Snooker Championship
Sports competitions in Sheffield
World Snooker Championship
World Snooker Championship
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shane%20Salerno
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Shane Salerno
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Shane Salerno (born November 27, 1972) is an American screenwriter, producer, director, and Chief Creative Officer of The Story Factory. His writing credits include the films Avatar: The Way of Water, Armageddon, Savages, Shaft, and the TV series Hawaii Five-0. He was chosen by director James Cameron to co-write the four sequels to Avatar, Avatar: The Way of Water (released in 2022), Avatar: The Seed Bearer (2025), Avatar: The Tulkun Rider (2029), and Avatar: The Quest for Eywa (2031). He spent ten years writing, producing, financing, and directing the documentary Salinger, and co-writing with David Shields the companion book which became a New York Times bestseller.
As a screenwriter, Salerno has collaborated with James Cameron, Steven Spielberg, Michael Mann, Michael Bay, William Friedkin, Oliver Stone, Ron Howard, John Singleton, Jan de Bont, and Ridley Scott, He has sold pitches, spec screenplays, fiction and non-fiction books, feature film documentaries, television pilots, television documentaries, and foreign book deals reaching eight figures. All-told, films he has either written or co-written have resulted in six movies premiering at number one at the box office, and have grossed over three billion dollars (not including the upcoming Avatar: The Seed Bearer, Avatar: The Tulkun Rider, and Avatar: The Quest for Eywa).
Salerno is also the founder and Chief Creative Officer of The Story Factory, a production company and literary agency for novelists, which produces films and TV series based on literary properties, including the Showtime miniseries The Comey Rule in 2020, for which Jeff Daniels and Brendan Gleeson were both nominated for Golden Globes. Through his company The Story Factory, Salerno has been principally involved in the creation and publication of some of the most critically acclaimed books of the last decade, including 27 books that hit 53 different New York Times bestseller lists (with six books hitting #1 on ten lists), six New York Times Critics’ Choice Selections for Best Book of the Year with additional Best of the Year selections by more than 200 publications around the world, as well as multiple literary awards and nominations. The Story Factory's most recent book, Heat 2, written by four-time Academy Award nominee Michael Mann and Edgar winner Meg Gardiner debuted at #1 on the New York Times bestseller list.
Surrounding the 2020 presidential election, Salerno partnered with Don Winslow to champion Democratic candidates and causes and to fight back against Donald Trump and his agenda. Together they launched Don Winslow Films and began creating their own political videos for social media, highlighting the corruption of Trump and his administration. On October 13, 2020, Don Winslow Films released a video critical of Trump prior to his campaign event in Pennsylvania. The video features Bruce Springsteen's song "Streets of Philadelphia" and has been viewed more than 10 million times. According to a January 4, 2021 Los Angeles Times article, Don Winslow Films videos had garnered over 135 million views at that time. As of April 2022, the total is now over 250 million views.
Early life and education
Shane Salerno was born in Memphis, Tennessee in 1972. He attended 10 schools in 12 years, including St. John's College High School, a military academy in Washington, D.C. where he was co-captain of the football team and the only write-in class president since the school was founded in 1851. At San Dieguito High School in Encinitas, California, he was editor of the school newspaper, played varsity football, and was voted most likely to succeed.
Salerno has repeatedly cited the influence of filmmaker Michael Mann and the TV show Miami Vice, which Mann created and produced. His first formative cinematic memory from childhood was watching Mann's movie Thief when he was eight years old. He wrote two films for Mann in 2000 and 2012 and dedicated his documentary film Salinger to him in 2013. As a literary agent, Salerno now currently represents Michael Mann Books, Mann's publishing imprint at HarperCollins.
Teenage filmmaker
Salerno first made national headlines as a high school senior when he wrote, produced and directed the award-winning documentary film Sundown: The Future of Children and Drugs. The film had its world premiere on Larry King Live in September 1991. Larry King ended the interview by saying "And Shane Salerno, one has a feeling we are going to be hearing about you. I have this feeling." Sundown won several "Best Documentary of the Year" honors and Salerno was honored in separate ceremonies in houses of the United States Congress.
TV and film
At the age of 19, Salerno was invited by Gregory Hoblit, a nine-time Emmy winning producer/director, to apprentice as a writer/director on NYPD Blue. In an interview with Creative Screenwriting, Salerno credited the backstage pass as his "film school". At 22, Salerno signed a three-year contract with Universal Television to work on various series beginning with New York Undercover. His television scripts led film producers to offer him the opportunity to write feature films. As a result of these offers, Salerno asked Universal to release him from his contract.
Salerno's first feature screenplay was the World War II submarine thriller Thunder Below for Steven Spielberg and DreamWorks Pictures based on the book by Congressional Medal of Honor recipient Eugene B. Fluckey. Salerno has called this time with Steven Spielberg his "writing school".
Salerno was then hired to do a production rewrite of the Kurt Russell film Breakdown, directed by Jonathan Mostow. Breakdown debuted #1 at the box office with $12.3 million. The film grossed a total of $50,159,144 in the United States and Canada. Rotten Tomatoes reported that 73% of critics gave the film positive reviews. Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle praised the film, saying, "Breakdown use[s] old-fashioned ingenuity – plus a compelling star, a fast-paced mystery and a deadpan villain – to come up with a sizzler." Roger Ebert gave the film a positive review, calling it "taut, skillful and surgically effective".
In 1997, director Michael Bay asked him to rewrite the screenplay for Armageddon. The film was released on July 1, 1998, in 3,127 theaters in the United States and Canada. It ranked first at the box office with an opening weekend gross of $36 million. It grossed $201.6 million in the United States and Canada and $352.1 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $553.7 million. It was the highest-grossing film of 1998, both worldwide and in the United States. The film received four Academy Award nominations at the 71st Academy Awards and also received the Saturn Award for Best Direction and Best Science Fiction Film (where it tied with Dark City). In the book Visions of Armageddon, Bay called Salerno's work "brilliant." Following the film, Salerno was named by Variety as one of the "hottest new creatives on the film scene."
In 1998, working with director John Singleton and writer Richard Price, Salerno wrote the screenplay for the 2000 movie Shaft. It began Salerno's lifelong friendship with the director and when Singleton passed in 2019, Salerno wrote a tribute to Singleton in Deadline Hollywood. The film opened at #1 with $21.7 million; by the end of its run, Shaft had grossed $70.3 million in the domestic box office and $107.2 million worldwide, against a $46 million budget.
In 1999, Salerno sold the rights to the bestseller Zodiac to Disney's Touchstone Pictures in a seven-figure deal. Despite Salerno delivering a well-regarded screenplay, Disney was unwilling to greenlight a violent film about a serial killer. When Disney let the rights lapse, David Fincher directed Zodiac based on the same book for another studio.
In February 2000, acclaimed filmmaker Michael Mann announced his next project after Ali would likely be a "fact-based film about the drug trade in the U.S. and Mexico," written by Salerno.
In 2001–2002, Salerno returned to television by co-creating (with crime novelist Don Winslow) the NBC series UC: Undercover, which TV Guide described as "Donnie Brasco meets Mission Impossible." The series starred Vera Farmiga, Oded Fehr, Jon Seda and Ving Rhames. Salerno served as executive producer, showrunner, head writer, and music supervisor. The New York Times called it a "fast paced, good-looking series," and Variety wrote that series lead Oded Fehr is a "commanding and interesting addition to television." Variety added that "technical credits are comparable to theatrical quality," which led the series winning awards for acting, cinematography and sound. Despite the favorable reviews, the series lasted just one season. But Salerno's friendship with Winslow would last, and the two would partner again in the future, with Salerno eventually becoming Winslow's book agent.
In 2003, working with director Paul W. S. Anderson, Salerno adapted the screenplay for Alien vs. Predator. Salerno spent six months writing the shooting script, finished its development, and stayed on for revisions throughout the film's production. Alien vs. Predator grossed $38.2 million in its opening weekend and debuted at #1 at the box office. It would gross another $97.1 million internationally, making it the second highest-grossing film in either the Alien or Predator franchises (behind only Prometheus). Salerno would go on to write the screenplay for the sequel Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem.
In 2004, Salerno became the youngest "Guest of Honor" speaker in the history of the Los Angeles Screenwriting Expo. He made follow up appearances in 2005 and 2006. When interviewed for Expo 5, Creative Screenwriting Magazine publisher Erik Bauer remarked that "Shane Salerno has been really supportive over the years, and is a great mentor for a number of writers that I know."
In 2005, Salerno was brought on to adapt Meg, the Steve Alten novel, with Jan de Bont directing. The project had originally been set up at Disney, but languished in development. New Line then optioned the book, where it was developed for two and a half years. New Line's original script was written by Alten, but the studio feared it too closely resembled Jurassic Park and they brought in Salerno to do a rewrite. (Salerno turned in a script that was more serious in tone than the version of the film that would eventually be released in 2018.) de Bont hired his dream team of special effects and production experts, and New Line even pre-sold the rights to foreign distributors. But when budgeted out, the film was estimated to cost north of $150 million. Salerno and de Bont worked to bring the budget down under $125 million, but in the end New Line got cold feet and let the option expire.
In 2006, Salerno was brought on board to do a production draft of the Nicolas Cage vehicle Ghost Rider. Released in 2007, the film went on to gross almost $230 million.
On Monday, June 29, 2009, Variety carried a front-page story about Salerno selling License to Steal, a pitch for "seven figures upfront" to Paramount Pictures and Kurtzman-Orci Productions (Star Trek, Transformers). Variety described the project as "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid set in the world of hi-line repo." Several studios and A-list directors pursued Salerno. According to Variety, Salerno made the pitch four times. He accompanied Bryan Singer (X-Men, The Usual Suspects) to Sony, McG (Terminator: Salvation) to Warner Brothers and Timor Bekmambetov (Wanted) to Universal before deciding on Paramount Pictures and Kurtzman-Orci in a deal Variety said was "...the priciest project deal of the summer." After the sale, Kurtzman and Orci issued a joint statement: "We're thrilled to be working with Shane, a wildly inventive and talented creator."
On December 10, 2009, MTV broke the story that the "secret James Cameron/Shane Salerno project" is a remake of the 1966 Academy Award-winning film Fantastic Voyage. While the film would ultimately not get made, it proved to be an important moment for Salerno, as Cameron later hired Salerno to be one of the co-writers on the upcoming sequels to Avatar, one of the highest-grossing movies of all time.
In 2010, Salerno worked as a writer and consulting producer on the CBS reboot of Hawaii Five-0, which was co-created by Alex Kurtzman, one of the producers on Salerno's previous project, License to Steal. That season, the show was nominated for a Golden Globe and won the People's Choice Award for Favorite New TV Drama.
In 2012, Universal released Savages, based on Don Winslow’s novel. Salerno and Winslow co-wrote the screenplay with writer/director Oliver Stone. The film starred Aaron Taylor-Johnson, Taylor Kitsch, Blake Lively, Benicio del Toro, Salma Hayek, and John Travolta. Roger Ebert gave the film 31/2 stars (out of 4), saying, "A return to form for Stone’s darker side, Savages generates ruthless energy." The film was nominated for four 2012 ALMA Awards, honoring accomplishments made by Hispanics in film, television, and music.
In 2013, Salerno began working as a screenwriter on James Cameron’s much-anticipated sequels to Avatar. Cameron chose Salerno, along with Rick Jaffe, Amanda Silver, and Josh Friedman, to establish a writer’s room for Avatar: The Way of Water, Avatar: The Seed Bearer, Avatar: The Tulkun Rider, and Avatar: The Quest for Eywa. Details of the project are being kept under wraps but Cameron praised Salerno and the other writers, telling Deadline Hollywood they were chosen because he has "long-admired" them.
In 2016, Salerno brokered the seven-figure film rights deal to Don Winslow’s Cartel Trilogy, which will be titled The Border. The trilogy of novels was originally purchased by 20th Century Fox for Salerno to write the script for Ridley Scott to direct. But in 2019, due to the sprawling nature of the story and world therein, FX Networks acquired the rights from their sister studio to turn the novels into a TV series. FX gave the pilot order in December 2022, and production will being in Mexico in 2023.
In 2017, Salerno and Winslow teamed up again to write the cartel-themed narrative for Tom Clancy’s Ghost Recon Wildlands video game for Ubisoft. Wildlands was nominated for IGN's E3 2015 Game of the Show, Best PlayStation 4 Game, Best Xbox One Game and Best PC Game awards, and received one of GameSpot's Best of E3 2015 awards. It was also named the best co-operative and the best shooter by Game Informer in their Best of E3 2015 Awards. Wildlands was the best-selling retail game in both the UK and the US in March 2017.
In 2018, Salerno was instrumental in selling the film rights to former FBI Director James Comey’s book A Higher Loyalty. Comey was reluctant to have his book adapted into a film or TV series, but credits Salerno with convincing him, telling Comey, "If your book sells a million copies, it’ll be a huge nonfiction success. If a TV show has a million viewers, it’s canceled today." The project – retitled The Comey Rule – eventually landed at Showtime with Salerno and The Story Factory Executive Producing and acclaimed screenwriter Billy Ray (Captain Phillips, Shattered Glass) adapting the book and directing the two-night limited series. Jeff Daniels starred as James Comey and Brendan Gleeson portrayed Donald Trump. Both were nominated for Golden Globes. The two-night special went on to become the highest rated miniseries premiere in the history of Showtime.
Avatar Sequels
Avatar: The Way of Water
After repeated delays in the expected release schedule, Avatar: The Way of Water premiered in London on December 6, 2022, and was theatrically released in the United States on December 16, 2022. The film received positive reviews from critics, who praised the visual effects and technical achievements but criticized the plot and lengthy runtime. It was a major box office success, breaking multiple records, and grossing over $2.320 billion worldwide, making it the highest-grossing film of 2022, the highest-grossing film since the COVID-19 pandemic, and the third-highest-grossing film of all time. Organizations like the National Board of Review and the American Film Institute named it as one of the top ten films of 2022. Among its many accolades, the film was nominated for four awards at the 95th Academy Awards, including Best Picture, and won for Best Visual Effects. Three further sequels are in production, with the next film set to be released in December 2025.
Film and television credits
Salinger
Salerno spent ten years on his documentary Salinger, a project that he researched, wrote, produced, directed, and financed. The film examined the life of author J. D. Salinger, a writer noted for protecting his privacy. The movie includes interviews with Philip Seymour Hoffman, Edward Norton, John Cusack, and Tom Wolfe. A director's cut appeared on the PBS series American Masters in January 2014.
With author David Shields, Salerno wrote the book Salinger to accompany the film. It reached number six on The New York Times bestseller list and number one on the Los Angeles Times bestseller list. It was also a Barnes & Noble bestseller, an Amazon Best Book of the Month, NPR bestseller, Independent Booksellers bestseller, Book-of-the-Month Club Selection, History Book Club Selection, and earned starred reviews from both Publishers Weekly and Kirkus Reviews.
The Story Factory
Shane Salerno is the founder of The Story Factory, an entertainment company that currently represents authors, including Don Winslow, the Michael Crichton estate, Steve Hamilton, Lou Berney, Meg Gardiner, Marcus Sakey, TJ Newman, John Katzenbach, Adrian McKinty, Reed Farrel Coleman, Bill Beverly, Dervla McTiernan, Eric Rickstad, James Phelan, Greg Harden, former US Capitol Police Chief Steven A. Sund, as well as four-time Oscar-nominated filmmaker Michael Mann.
The Story Factory has put 27 books onto 53 different New York Times Bestseller lists (with six books hitting #1 on ten lists), made over 200 Best Books of the Year lists, and its authors have either won or been nominated for every major writing award in the world, including the Pulitzer Prize, the National Books Critics Circle Award, the Edgar Award, the Barry Award, the Macavity Award, the Los Angeles Times Book Prize, and the New York Times Notable Books of the Year.
Screenwriter and producer Salerno’s foray into literary representation happened during a lunch with his friend and former co-collaborator, Don Winslow. Despite widespread critical accolades, Winslow was lamenting the state of his career and the difficulty of supporting his family on his meager book advances and was contemplating quitting writing and going back to being a safari guide. Salerno told him "a lot of people can be safari guides, not many people can write the way you do." Salerno offered to help negotiate Winslow’s next book deal and Winslow, who figured he was quitting anyway, fired his agent minutes later. Salerno would go on to transform Winslow’s book, film, and TV deals and began accruing seven-figure deals for Winslow’s work. The publishing world took notice and soon other prominent authors began calling Salerno to represent them, as well.
In 2012, Salerno was flipping through novels in a bookstore when he came across Steve Hamilton’s Edgar Award-winning novel The Lock Artist. Salerno optioned the book. This too would prove fruitful, as Salerno and Hamilton struck up a friendship and Hamilton would sign on as Salerno’s second novelist client. Hamilton’s first book with The Story Factory, The Second Life of Nick Mason, became a New York Times bestseller.
One thing that sets Salerno and The Story Factory apart from other agencies is their collaboration with authors and publishers on the marketing of the novels. The early days of the company saw Salerno pulling double-duty, splitting his time between his screenwriting career and his literary company. He would spend all day working with James Cameron and the other writers on the Avatar sequels, then spend all night working on the deals, marketing, and publicity for his author’s books.
2016 saw Salerno broker a seven-figure book deal for award-winning filmmaker Michael Mann (Heat, The Insider, The Last of the Mohicans) to launch a new book imprint, Michael Mann Books, at HarperCollins. The two had previously worked together on two film projects.
Salerno had heard of Irish author Adrian McKinty’s struggles to sustain his family on his writing advances and, recognizing his immense talent, Salerno called McKinty. But the author thought it was a joke and hung up. Salerno called back, this time with Don Winslow (who saw similarities to his own writing journey), and the two convinced McKinty to sign with The Story Factory. McKinty’s first book with Salerno, The Chain, created a bidding war and the publishing rights were sold in lucrative deal to Mulholland Books. The Chain would go on to become a New York Times bestseller, win the Barry and Macavity awards, and was named Best Book of the Year by International Thriller Writers. Salerno sold the film rights in another seven-figure deal to Universal, with Edgar Wright slated to begin directing the project later in 2022.
In 2019, flight attendant-turned-author TJ Newman sent a query letter to The Story Factory. Salerno happened to pick up the letter on the top of his pile of mail and was intrigued by her concept for a novel about a pilot whose family is kidnapped and will be killed unless he crashes the plane. Salerno signed Newman and eventually sold the publishing rights for seven-figures, then the film rights to Universal in another seven-figure deal.
A full list of the seven-figure book-to-film sales negotiated by The Story Factory includes Don Winslow’s Savages (to Universal, with Oliver Stone directing), Shane Salerno’s Salinger (to PBS for the 200th episode of American Masters, as well as to The Weinstein Company for theatrical release), Steve Hamilton’s The Second Life of Nick Mason (to Lionsgate, with Nina Jacobson and Shane Salerno producing), Winslow’s The Cartel (to Twentieth Century Fox, with Ridley Scott directing and producing), Don Winslow’s The Force (again to Fox, with James Mangold directing a script from Scott Frank, for Matt Damon to star in), Don Winslow’s Satori (to Warner Brothers and Leonardo DiCaprio’s Appian Way, for DiCaprio to star in and produce), Don Winslow’s A Cool Breeze on the Underground (to MRC, for Rian Johnson to executive produce), Meg Gardiner’s UNSUB series to Amazon, Bill Beverly’s Los Angeles Times Book Prize and Gold Dagger-winning novel Dodgers (to FX network), Marcus Sakey’s Afterlife (to Brian Grazer and Ron Howard at Imagine Entertainment), Marcus Sakey’s Brilliance (to Paramount for Will Smith to executive produce and star), Adrian McKinty’s The Chain to Universal (with Edgar Wright directing), TJ Newman’s Falling to Universal, and Adrian McKinty’s upcoming novel The Island to Hulu.
The Story Factory Bestsellers
The Story Factory has put 27 books onto 53 different New York Times Bestseller lists, with six books hitting #1 on ten lists:
References
External links
Filmmakers.com interview
Living people
1972 births
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American male non-fiction writers
American male screenwriters
American television writers
Film directors from Tennessee
American male television writers
Writers from Memphis, Tennessee
Screenwriters from Tennessee
21st-century American screenwriters
St. John's College High School alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic%20language%20influence%20on%20the%20Spanish%20language
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Arabic language influence on the Spanish language
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Arabic influence on the Spanish language overwhelmingly dates from the Muslim colonization of the Iberian Peninsula between 711 and 1492. The influence results mainly from the large number of Arabic loanwords and derivations in Spanish, plus a few other less obvious effects.
History
The Spanish language, also called Castilian, is a Romance language that evolved from the dialects of Roman Vulgar Latin spoken in the Iberian peninsula. The first documents written in a language with some features specific of modern Spanish are ascribed to a number of documents from various monasteries in the area of Burgos and La Rioja in what is now northern Spain. However Toledo, in central Spain, which became the capital of the early Kingdom of Castile during its southward expansion, is where Spanish began to appear in a written form recognizable today. The pre-existing Mozarabic dialect of this region (i.e. the Romance present during Muslim rule) is therefore likely to have also had an influence on modern Spanish.
The lexical influence of Arabic reached its greatest level during the Christian Reconquista, when the emerging Kingdom of Castile conquered large territories from Moorish rulers, particularly in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. These territories, which included the former Taifa of Toledo, had large numbers of Arabic speakers as well as many who spoke local Romance dialects (Mozarabic language) that were heavily influenced by Arabic, both influencing Castilian. It is possible that Arabic words and their derivatives had also already been brought into Castilian by Mozarab Christians who emigrated northwards from Al Andalus in times of sectarian violence, particularly during the times of Almohad and Almoravid rule in the 12th and 13th centuries. As such, Arabic can be considered to have had a formative influence on the Spanish language.
The degree to which the Arabic language percolated through the Iberian Peninsula varied enormously from one period and area to another and is the subject of academic debate. However it is generally agreed that in much of the peninsula Arabic was used among the local elites, both Muslims and Christians, and that the prevalent vernacular in many areas was Mozarabic, a continuum of Arabic-influenced local Romance dialects. Only the southern third of the peninsula became totally Arabized as both Mozarabic and Christianity were extinguished following the Almoravid and Almohad periods.
Much of the Arabic influence upon Spanish came through the various Arabized Romance dialects spoken in areas under Moorish rule, known today by scholars as Mozarabic. This resulted in Spanish often having both Arabic- and Latin-derived words with the same meaning. For example, aceituna and oliva (olive), alacrán and escorpión (scorpion), jaqueca and migraña (migraine), alcancía and hucha (piggy bank), ajonjolí and sésamo (sesame) etc.
The influence of the Arabized Mozarabic and of Arabic itself is more noticeable in the Spanish dialects from regions with a longer history of Moorish domination than in those where it was shorter-lived. For this reason the dialects of the southern half of the country, known collectively as castellano meridional or Southern Castilian, seem collectively to show a higher degree of preference for Arabisms. Northern Spanish dialects tend to prefer Romance synonyms to terms of Arabic origin, such as the Romance calendario v. Arabic almanaque, hucha v. alcancía, espliego v. alhucema etc. Because Canarian and all Hispanic American dialects are mainly derived from Southern Castilian, Spanish words of Arabic origin are common in most varieties of Modern Spanish.
A number of words were also borrowed from Moroccan Arabic, principally as a result of Spain's protectorate over Spanish Morocco in the 19th and 20th centuries, although these are of minor significance.
The Spanish spoken in the Canary Islands has also adopted a small number of words from Hassaniya Arabic, principally from Canarian sailors who fish in proximity to the Saharan coast as well as by those Canarians who returned from Western Sahara after the Green March of 1975.
Lexical influence
The influence of Arabic on the Spanish language is fundamentally lexical but its other influences are also briefly examined in this article. It is estimated that there are about one thousand Arabic roots and approximately three thousand derived words,making a total of around four thousand words or 8% of the Spanish dictionary. See Influences on the Spanish language for more on how the number of Arabisms in Spanish has been estimated. The exact number of words of Arabic origin and their derivatives in Spanish is not known, and many words not included on this list are regionalisms: words that are used in certain parts of Spain and/or Hispanic America but are generally unknown elsewhere.
The high point of Arabic word use in Spanish was in late medieval times and has declined since then but hundreds are still used in normal conversation. The large majority of these words are nouns, with a number of verbs and adjectives derived direct from these nouns, e.g. alquilar (to rent) and alquilado (rented) from alquiler (rent), most of which are excluded from this list. There is also one preposition: hasta (until), and one adverb: he. There has been little influence on the basic grammatical structure of the language.
Many Arabic loanwords in Spanish start with a- or al-, where these sounds come from the Arabic article al- (giving just a- when the Arabic word begins with a solar letter). This initial a(l)- is an integral part of the word in Spanish, that is it's not a morpheme.
List of words of Arabic origin
This is an open list of Spanish words acquired directly from Classical and Andalusi Arabic, listed in alphabetical order. This list includes the Spanish meaning of the word as well as the Arabic etymology. No fixed standard of Arabic transliteration is used.
Rationale for inclusion
Due to the large influence of Arabic on Spanish vocabulary, this list is relatively restrictive:
This list has been edited to include only words considered to appertain to the Spanish language and the Hispanic culture and society. Arabic words that may be understood by Spanish speakers but remain foreign to the Hispanic civilisation such as Ayatolá, Yihad and Chiita are excluded from this list.
Only words that have passed direct from Arabic are included. Arabic words that entered the Spanish language through other, non-Iberian, Indo-European languages (such as Ayatolá, Beduino, Sofá and sorbete) are not included. Included as exceptions to this rule are álcali and álgebra, words of Arabic origin thought to have entered Spanish through "Low Latin"—as suggested by their initial stress (the Arabic definite article al- is not normally borrowed as a stressed syllable).
Generally, only Spanish root words are listed, derivations (including nouns, verbs or adjectives) not being included. For example, aceite (from az-zeit, oil) is included but not aceitería, aceitero, aceitón or aceitoso. On the other hand, aceituna (olive) is included since it derives not from az-zeit but from az-zeituna in Arabic, even though the root of the Arabic word is the same. Aceituno (olive tree), on the other hand, would not be included, since it shares the same root as aceituna. For this reason a significant number of verbs and adjectives are excluded from this list. An exception to this rule may be made when the derived word is much more commonly used than the root word, when the meaning of the derivative has no evident connection with the root word or when it is not clear that one is derived from the other (e.g. horro and ahorrar).
Words derived from Mozarabic are not included (Mozarabic being fundamentally a Romance language) unless the Mozarabic word is itself derived from classical or Andalusi Arabic.
Words acquired from Berber or Hebrew (or other Afro-Asiatic languages) are not included.
The etymology and meaning of most of these words can be verified on the site of the Real Academia de la Lengua Española, although a small minority are available only in other sources or past editions of this dictionary.
Many of these words will be unfamiliar to many Spanish speakers because their use is restricted to certain regions of Spain or Spanish-speaking countries or they are no longer in regular use. For example the Arabic-derived word for ‘jewel’, alhaja, is very common in Mexico whereas in Spain it is restricted to rural areas of the southern half of the country, the alternative Spanish term joya being much more common. On the other hand the Arabic derived term for fruit juice zumo is the standard term in Spain whereas in Hispanic America the Latin-derived jugo or agua are generally used. The Arabic term alberca in Spain refers to agricultural water deposits whereas in Mexico it is the common term used for swimming pool as opposed to piscina elsewhere or pileta in Argentina.
A (Ababol to Azumbre)
ababol: poppy, in Aragon, Navarre, Albacete and Murcia. From Andalusian Arabic Happapáwr, a fusion from the Arabic plural al-ḥabūb (الْحُبُوب) (), the generic term for "seeds, beans or grains", and the Latin papāver.
abacero: owner of an abacería, small food shop. From Andalusi Arabic *ṣaḥb uz-zād () "owner of supplies." ()
abadí: descendant/lineage of Mohammed ben Abad, founder of the Taifa Kingdom of Seville in the 11th century AD. From Andalusi Arabic 'abbādī (عبّادي) ().
abalorio: cheap jewellery or jewellery beads. From Andalusi Arabic and Arabic al-ballūriy[u] (بَلْورَة) () "[made of/ like] glass or clear as crystal". Ultimately from Greek , "beryl" ()
abarraz: stavesacre (Delphinium staphisagria), a medicinal plant. From Andalusian Arabic ḥább arrás () "head seeds" ().
abasí: pertaining to the Abbasid dynasty from Arabic عَبَّاسِيّ (), which overthrew the Umayyads in the 8th century.
abelmosco: musk seeds, an aromatic plant. From Andalusi Arabic ḥabb al musk () literally "musk seeds." Classical Arabic ḥabbu 'l musk ().
abencerraje: used in expression: "Zegríes y abencerrajes", "partisans of opposite interests". The Abencerrajes (in Arabic aban as-sarráǧ) was an Arabic family of the Kingdom of Granada, rivals of the Zegríes in the 15th century ().
abenuz: ebony. From Arabic abanūs (أَبَنُوس) of the same meaning but in Arabic referring to the "black wood" of the tropical tree. ()
abismal: screw in head of a spear. From Arabic al-mismar (الْمِسْمَر) "nail." ().
abitaque: a cut of wood used in construction of a certain shape and dimension. From Arabic aṭ-ṭabaqah (الطَّبَقَة) "layer" or "intermediate chamber" or "group, standard, type". ().
acebibe: raisin. From Arabic az-zabīb (الزَّبِيب) of the same meaning but also "dried grape" or "currant" [= Ribes, genus of berry plants, e.g. blackcurrant, redcurrant and white currant]. ().
acebuche: wild olive tree, or wood from such a tree. From Andalusi Arabic azzabbúǧ.
aceche: copper, iron or zinc sulphate. From Andalusi (Hispanic) Arabic *azzáj, < az-zāj, < . From Classical Arabic az-zāj (الزَّاج), meaning vitriol - sulphuric acid or a sulphate زاج ().
aceifa: Muslim summer military expedition. From Arabic aṣ-ṣayf (الصَّيْف), "summer" ().
aceite: oil. From Arabic az-zayt (الزَّيْت) "oil" ().
aceituna: olive. From Arabic az-zaytūn (الزَّيْتُون) () "olive" ().
aceituní: precious cloth from the Orient. From Arabic az-zaytuni, a possible adaptation of the Chinese city Tsö-Thung .
acelga: Chard. From Arabic as-salq (السَّلْق) of the same meaning ().
acémila: beast of burden; tax formerly paid in Spain. From Arabic az-zamilah "beast of burden", most likely stemming the Arabic scientific term for "pack-animal", "aḍ-ḍābatu 'l-ḥaml (الذَّابَةُ الْحَمْل)" ()
acemite: wheat husk; a type of wheat porridge. From Arabic semolina, as-samid (السَّمِيد) ().
acenefa: see cenefa.
aceña: watermill. From Arabic as-saniyah (السانية) "the lifter."
acequia: irrigation canal. From Arabic as-saqiyah () "the irrigator" ().
acerola: fruit of the trees Malpighia emarginata or M. glabra, generally found in the Americas, of the Malpighiaceae family. This should be differentiated from the European Service Rowan Tree (Sorbus domestica), family Rosaceae. From Arabic zu 'rūrah (). Originally from Syriac za‘rārā.
acetre: bucket or cauldron used to extract water from a well; small cauldron used to spray holy water in Christian liturgy. From Arabic as-saṭl () (), from the latin word sitŭla.
aciar: (or acial): instrument used to keep farm-animals still by squeezing their ear or snout. From Arabic az-ziyār (الزِيَار) with the same meaning ().
acíbar: aloe (both the plant and its bitter juice); bitterness, grief, distaste. From Arabic aṣ-ṣabir (الصَّبِر) ().
acicalar: to clean or polish (Acicalarse in reflexive form); to make oneself look good by combing, shaving etc. From Arabic aṣ-ṣaql (الصَّقْل), an instrument used for polishing things ().
acicate: spurs or the spikes on spurs; incentive. From Arabic (Muzil) as-siqaT "what takes away weaknesses."
acidaque: Muslim dowry. From Arabic aṣ-ṣadāq (الصّداق), dowry in Islamic law. ()
acimut: azimuth, an astronomical concept - the angle with which the meridian forms a vertical circle which passes through a point in the globe. From Arabic as-sumut (السُّمُوت) plural of samt سَمْت.
ación: handle on the stirrup. From Arabic as-suyūr (السُّيُور), plural of sayr (سَيْر) "strap" or "belt" ().
acirate: line of soil used to separate different plots of land; path between two lines of trees. From Arabic aṣ-ṣirāṭ (الصِّرَاط) () ().
acitara or citara: thin wall, normally on a bridge. From Arabic as-sitārah (السِّتَارَة), wall to avoid falls - possibly from the Arabic for curtain, drapes or "hangings" ().
achacar: to blame. From Arabic tashakkà (): to complain or to blame ().
adafina: pot used by Jews to cook. It is buried in embers on Friday night, where it cooks until Saturday. From Arabic: dafina () "buried", alternative meaning "hidden treasure" ().
adalid: leader; general of Spanish militia. From Arabic dalil (). ().
adaraja: each of the gaps made by the bricks in a horizontally unfinished wall. From daraja () ().
adarga: leather shield. From Arabic daraqa(t) (درقة) "shield." ().
adárgama: flour, rarely used today. From Arabic darmaka دَرْمَك ().
adarme: small portion of something; type of measurement. From Arabic dirham () ().
adarvar: to shock. From Arabic dharb () "blow." Replaced by pasmar and aturdir in current speech ().
adarve: wall of a fortress; protection, defense. From Arabic dharb ()
adefera: a small, square wall or floor tile. From Arabic add-ddafeera ().
adehala: that which is granted or taken as obligatory with the price in the leasing or sale of a property. From Mozarabic ad ihala and originally from Arabic ihala "offering credit.".
adelfa: oleander. From Arabic ad-difla (الدِّفْلَى) of the same meaning ().
ademán: gesticulation which expresses the will to do something. From Arabic adh-dhamān (الضَّمَان), literally meaning legal guarantees. The change of meaning is due to the exaggerated promises and gesticulations which were offered in such a plea ().
ademe: wooden structures used to strengthen tunnels in mines. From Arabic da'm (دَعم), meaning "buttress, support, fortify, pillar, hold up". ()
adiafa: present or refreshment given to sailors when back from a voyage. From Arabic Diyafa (adh-dhiyāfah الضِّيَافَة) "present of hospitality", the word for "accommodation, hospitality, housing" or "hospitable reception" ()
adivas: a disease provoking throat inflammation in animals. From Arabic aD-Dibbah "wolverine", which is the old Arabic name for this disease. Most likely the disease lupus, aḍ-ḍa'ab (الذَّأَب) ().
adive: a type of canid similar to a fox. From Arabic aḍ-ḍi'b (الذِّئْب) ().
adobe: brick made from clay. From Arabic aṭ-ṭūbah (الطُّوبَة, from Coptic tôbe) of the same meaning, and from ad-dabba.
adoquín: paving-stone, cobble; block. From Arabic Dukkan bench of rock or wood () .
ador: in regions where water for irrigation is restricted and shared out by local authorities, irrigation-time for each farm/field. From Arabic dawr .
aduana: customs house; customs. From Arabic diwaan () ().
aduar: semi-permanent rural settlement, normally used for Gypsies, Bedouins or Amerindians in South America. From Bedouin Arabic دُوَّار duwwar ().
adúcar: type of silk made from the outside of the silk-worm's cocoon. From Andalusi Arabic Haduqa ().
adufe: tambourine used by Spanish Muslims. Originally from Arabic ad-duff (الدُّفّ), the generic word for tambourine ().
adul: in Morocco, assessor of the Cadí (see under letter C, another Arabic loanword). From Arabic ‘adl (عَدْل), "honorable, trustworthy person" or "fair, impartial" ().
adula: see dula.
adunia: (adverb) lots. From Andalusi Arabic addunya, originally from classical Arabic ad-dunyā (الدُّنْيَا) "the (whole) world", "the material world" ()
adutaque: same meaning as adárgama. From Arabic ad-duqāq (الدُّقَاق) "fine flour" or "flour meal" ().
afán: effort; desire; zeal. From afanar.
afanar: to steal; to work with passion. From Arabic al-fanā‘ (فناء) "extinction, extinction, destruction, vanishing", the notion, emotion of "annihilation through passion", used in poetry or to describe a type of madness ()
aguajaque: the whitish resin of fennel. From Arabic aw-washaq "contaminated with water" ().
agüela: Income from interest on loans assigned in public documents; Renta de los derechos sobre préstamos consignados en documento público. From Arabic Hawalah ().
ajabeba: Moorish flute. From Classical Arabic ash-shabbābah (الشَّبَّابَة), the generic word for "flute, clarinet" ().
ajaquefa: Roof. Same origin as Azaquefa (see the word).
ajaraca: Ornamental loop in Andalusian and Arabic architecture. From Andalusi Arabic Ash-sharakah "loop".
ajarafe: terrace. From Classical Arabic saraf "commanding height ()
ajebe: Alum; Para rubber tree. From Arabic ash-Shabb ().
ajedrea: plant in the genus Satureja (family Lamiaceae), about 30 cm in height, with many branches and dark, narrow leaves. It is cultivated as an ornamental in gardens. From Arabic assariyya or assiriyya (), ultimately from Latin satureia.
ajedrez: chess. From Arabic ash shatranj (الشطرنج) which is from Persian Shatranj from the Sanskrit Chaturang (four armed) as was the shape of the original chess board in India ()
ajenuz: nutmeg flower or Roman Coriander (Nigella sativa). From Andalusi Arabic Shanuz and ultimately Classical Arabic Shuniz ().
ajimez: bifora (twin arched window); wooden balcony with lattice windows. From Arabic shamis ().
ajomate: pluricellular alga formed by very thin filaments, without knots, bright and of intense green color. It abounds in fresh waters of Spain. From Classical Arabic gumam, pl. of gumma, "luxurious hair".
ajonjolí: sesame; herbaceous, annual plant of the family of the Pedaliaceae, a meter high, straight stem, serrate and almost triangular leaves, white or rosy corolla, and fruit with four delicate, yellowish, oily and edible capsules and many seeds. From Classical Arabic gulgulān ()"sesame." ().
ajorca: bangle; type of gold hoop, silver or another metal, used by the women to adorn the wrists, arms or the feet. From Classical Arabic shuruk الشَرَكة (), ultimately from the word shirāk "strap."
ajorrar: To drag, to tow. See Jorro.
ajuagas: equine animal ulcers. From Classical Arabic shuqaq ().
ajuar: dowry, a collection of household and personal items (clothes, furniture, jewelry etc...) which women in Spain traditionally prepare from a young age for the day in which they marry and move in with their husband. From Arabic shawār, "household utensils".
alacena: cupboard. From Classical Arabic ẖizānah (خزانة) ().
alacet: foundation of a building. From Classical Arabic asas (أساس). ()
alacrán: scorpion. From Classical Arabic aqrab (عقرب) of same meaning ().
aladar: Tuft of hair which falls on either side of the head. From Arabic idar ().
aladroque: Anchovy. From Andalusi Arabic Al Hatruk (), "big mouthed".
alafa: wage; pay. From Classical Arabic alafah () "subsistence allowance." The word was replaced by sueldo in modern Spanish.
alafia: grace; pardon; mercy. From Andalusian Arabic al afya ultimately from Classical Arabic afiyah (عافية) "health" ().
alahílca: tapestry to adorn the walls. Perhaps of alailaca from Andalusian Arabic ilaqa, and this of Classical Arabic ilāqah (علاقة) perhaps meaning "hanger" ().
alajor: Tax which was paid to owners of land where buildings were built. From Arabic Ashur, period of ten days before Easter when debts were paid and alms were given.
alajú: Andalusian cake made of almonds, nuts, pine nuts, bread, spices and cooked honey. From al Hashu "filling".
alamar: A type of decorative attachment which is buttoned on clothing. From Andalusi Arabic Alam, decoration (in clothes).
alambique: alembic, alchemical still consisting of two vessels connected by a tube, used for distilling chemicals. From Arabic al-anbiq "the cup/container holding water", in turn from Greek.
alambor: Two meanings in Spanish with two different etymologies. 1) Embankment, from Andalusi Arabic Harabul "rim", from classical Arabic verb Hawwala, "to alter". 2) Type of orange tree. From Catalan l'ambor, singular of els zambors, derived from Andalusi Arabic Azzambu.
alamín: Village judge who decided on irrigation distribution or official who measured weights. From Arabic al-amin ().
alamud: Steel bar used to close windows. From Arabic amud ().
alaqueca: A type of blood-coloured quartz. From Arabic 'aqiq. Currently replaced by the word cornalina ().
alárabe: Arab. From Andalusi Arabic, maintaining the definite article al arabi.العربي ().
alarde/alardear: To boast/to show off. From Arabic "show" (ala?ard العرض) ().
alarife: 1) Architect 2) Builder (in mining) 3) Astute or quick witted person (in Argentina and Uruguay). From Arabic al 'arif: The expert ().
alarije (uva): A type of grape. From Arabic al'aris.
alaroz: Crossbar which divides a window or a door. From Arabic al'arud: Obstacle placed to block entry.
alaroza: Fiancée or newly wed wife. From Arabic Andalusi Arabic al-arusa (العروسة), ().
alatar: Drug, spice or perfume dealer. From Arabic al attar(العطّار), (). .
alatrón: Nitrate foam. From Arabic an-nattrun.
alazán/alazano: Reddish cinnamon coloured, used commonly to describe sorrel-coloured horses. From Arabic al-as·hab. From Andalusian Arabic الاسهاب, from Arabic اَصْهَب (aṣ·hab, () "reddish, reddish-brown").
alazor: safflower. From Arabic al-usfur.
albacara: Wall around a fortress, within which cattle were normally kept. From Arabic bab al-baqqara "The cattle gate/door". baqara (بقرة) means "cow" in Arabic.
albacea: Executor (of a will). From Andalusi Arabic Sahb al Wassiya (صاحب الوصية); "The owner of the will".
albacora: Albacore. From Arabic al-bakura "premature" or al-bakrah "young camel."
albadena: Type of tunic or silk dress. From Arabic badan: Type of shirt which covers the torso.
albahaca: Basil. From Arabic al-habaqah ().
albahío: Pale yellowish colour, used commonly for cattle. From Arabic bahi: "Shining" (الباهية) ().
albalá: Official document. From Arabic al-bara'ah.
albaida: Anthyllis cystoides (Flowering plant). From Arabic al-baida: "The white one" (البيضاء) ()..
albanega: 1) Net used for hair. 2) Rabbit trap. From Arabic al-baniqa.
albañal: Sewer. From Andalusi Arabic al-ballá: "swallower".
albañil: Construction worker. From Andalusi Arabic al-banni. Originally from classical Arabic banna ().
albaquía: The remainder. From Arabic al-baqi (الباقي) of the same meaning ().
albarán: Invoice. From Arabic al-bara'ah ().
albarazo: Vitiligo. From Andalusi Arabic Al-Barash ().
albarda: Pack-saddle. From Arabic al-barda'ah ().
albardán: Clown or fool. From Andalusi Arabic albardán: "insolent". Originally from Classical Arabic bardan: "Idiot (cold headed)" ().
albardín: Plant endemic to the Spanish steppes, similar in nature and use to Esparto. From Arabic "al-bardi": "papyrus" ().
albaricoque: Apricot. From Arabic al-barqouq (البرقوق) "plum" or "early-ripe."
albarrada: 1) Clay vase, see alcarraza. 2) Stone wall. From Arabic al-barradah: "the cooler".
albarrán: 1) Farm boy 2) Shepherd 3) Person with no fixed residence. From Andalusi Arabic al-barrani: "Outsider".
albatoza: Small, covered boat. From Arabic al-gattosha: grebe. Due to the Arabic custom of giving names of birds to vessels.
albayalde: Cerrusite. From Arabic al-bayad ().
albéitar: Vet. From Arabic al-baytar ().
albenda: Decorated white linen. From Arabic al-band.
alberca: Water deposit for irrigation. In Mexico and Honduras it is also the term of choice for swimming pool. From Arabic al-birka (البِركة) "pond" ().
albérchigo: Apricot tree. From Andalusi Arabic al-bershiq.
albihar: Mayweed. From Arabic al-bahar.
albitana: 1) Fence to protect plants in gardening. 2) Prolongation of the keel or stern post of a ship. From Arabic al-bitana.
alboaire: The craft of decorating churches and domes with "azulejos". From Andalusi Arabic al-buhaira: lagoon.
albogue: Single-reed clarinet used in Spain. From Arabic al-bûq (البوق): The horn or the trumpet ().
alboheza: Malva, from Andalusi Arabic al-hubayza ().
albohol: Morning glory, from Andalusi Arabic al-hubuul: "rope".
albollón: Drainage or sewage. From Mozarabic Ballaón and ultimately from Classical Arabic balla'ah.
albóndiga: Meatball; ball. From Arabic al-bunduqa (البندقة) "the ball," from Greek (κάρυον) ποντικόν (káryon) pontikón, "Pontic [nut]" ().
albórbola: Joy, celebratory noise. From Arabic walwalah.
alborga: Matweed sandal. From Arabic albúlḡa ().
albornía: A type of large vase. From Arabic barniya ().
albornoz: Bath-robe. From al-burnos (البرنس); "(bath)robe" ().
alboronía: A type of Andalusian vegetable stew. From Arabic al buranniya "Buran's (stew)." Buran was the wife of Caliph Ma'moun.
alboroque: 1) A present or gratuity given in exchange for a service. 2) The kind treatment and lavish attention offered and received in anticipation of a commercial transaction. From Andalusi Arabic al-borok, possibly ultimately from Classical Arabic arbun.
alboroto: Riot, joy. Comes from arabism alborozo (joy), from andalusí Arabic al-burúz derived from Classical Arabic al-burūz, "military parade previous to a campaign"; or related to Latin volutāre.
alborozo: Extreme chaos or happiness. From Andalusi Arabic al-buruz: "Military parade prior to an expedition".
albotín: Turpentine Tree. From Arabic butm of the same meaning ().
albricias: 1) Term used to congratulate someone. 2) Present or gift provided to a bringer of good news. From Arabic bushra ().
albudeca: A bad watermelon. From Andalusi Arabic al batiha ().
albufera: Lagoon. From Arabic al buhaira(البُحيرَة) ()..
albur: This term has a wide range of meanings: 1) Flathead mullet (Spain and Cuba), 2) A card combination in a card game known as Banca, 3) A chance occurrence on which an enterprise hedges its bets, 4) An expression which has a double or hidden meaning (Mexico and Dominican Republic) 4) An amorous affair (Nicaragua), 5) A lie, slander or rumour (Puerto Rico and Honduras). From Arabic al-boori ().
alcabala: 1) A tax on commercial transactions. 2) Police checkpoint outside cities and on main roads (Colombia and Venezuela). From Andalusi Arabic al qabala ().
alcabor: Hollow interior of a chimney or oven. From Arabic al qabw ().
alcabtea: A type of linen. From Arabic al qubtiya, meaning "Egyptian" or "Coptic" ().
alcacel or alcacer: 1) Green barley 2) A barley field. From Arabic al qasil ().
alcachofa: Artichoke. From Arabic al-ẖarshoof of the same meaning.
alcaduz: Water pipe. From Arabic Qâdûs (قادوس) meaning "water-wheel scoop" ().
alcafar: Limbs of a cuadruped (normally a horse). From Arabic al kafal ().
alcahaz: Birdcage. From Arabic qafaṣ (قفص) () of the same meaning.
alcahuete: Accomplice, pimp, a person who helps another in a love affair, specially an illicit one; gossipy person. Alcahuete comes from Hispanic Arabic alqawwad (the messenger), and this from Classical Arabic qawwad (القوَّاد) (). This "messenger" carried messages to a married woman's lover. By extension it became commonly known as any person who sets up a love affair, generally illicit.
alcaicería: an establishment where silk farmers presented their produce, under the rights reserved to the Muslim rulers in Granada and other towns of the Nasrid Kingdom. From Andalusi Arabic Al-Qaysariya, originally from the Latin Caesarea ().
alcaide: a term historically referred to various positions of government authority. In modern Spanish commonly refers to a prison warden. From Arabic al qa'id(القائد) (), "military commander".
alcalde: Mayor. From Arabic al-qadi (the judge). Qadi comes from the verb qada (to judge) ().
álcali: Alkali. From Arabic qalawi (قلوي) of the same meaning thru Medieval Latin.
alcaller: Clay artisan or his helper. From Andalusi Arabic al qallal ().
alcamiz: An obsolete term referring to a list of soldiers. Its etymology is an erroneous transmission of at-taymiz, "Military inspection" in Andalusi Arabic and "Distinction" in Classical Arabic.
alcamonías: Seeds used in spice mixes such as anisseed or cumin. It is also a now obsolete expression referring to the act of hiding things. From Arabic kammuniya(الكَمّون) (), a cumin-based concoction.
alcana: Henna or Henna tree. From Arabic, hinna ().
alcaná: Commercial street or neighbourhood. From Arabic القناة qanaah: "Drains or water pipes" ().
alcancía: Clay money box, penny or piggy bank. From Andalusi Arabic alkanzíyya, derived from classical Arabic kanz: "treasure" ().
alcándara: Hook used to hang clothes or fowl. From Arabic Kandarah.
alcandía: Sorghum. From Andalusi Arabic qatniyya.
alcandora: A type of shirt. From Arabic qandura.
alcanería: A rural term for a type of artichoke. From Andalusi Arabic al-qannariya, an Arabic rendering of the Latin cannaria.
alcanfor: Camphor. From Andalusi Arabic Al-Kafur.
alcántara/alcantarilla: Drain. From Arabic al-qantarah meaning "bridge" ().
alcaparra: Caper. From Andalusian Arabic al-kaparra. Via Latin and Greek.
alcaraván: Stone-Curlew. From Andalusian Arabic al-karawan.
alcaravea: Caraway. From Andalusi Arabic al-Karawiya.
alcarceña: Name given to the Ervil and the Carob. From Andalusi Arabic al-kershana, meaning "the big bellied", due to the plants causing a swelled stomach when consumed in large quantities.
alcarraza: A type of clay container similar to a Spanish Botijo. From Andalusi Arabic al-karraza. Ultimately from Persian Koraz.
alcarria: Of uncertain Arabic etymology. Refers to a flat highland with little vegetation.
alcatenes: A type of medicine which is mixed with copper sulfate to treat ulcers. From Arabic al-qutn.
alcatara (or alquitara): Alembic. From Arabic root for the verb "to distill" qattara ().
alcatifa: An obsolete term for a thin carpet or underlay for carpet. From Arabic al-qatifa ().
alcatraz: Cormorant. From Arabic القطرس al-qaṭrās, meaning "sea eagle".
alcaucil: Artichoke. From Spanish Andalusi Arabic alqabsíl[a], that comes from Mozarab diminutive kapićéḻa, and this from Spanish Latin capĭtia, "head". Standard Latin, caput-itis.
alcaudon: Shrike. From Andalusi Arabic al-kaptan.
alcavela/alcavera: Mob, herd, family, tribe. From Arabic al-qabila.
alcayata: Metallic hanger or hook. From Andalusi Arabic al-kayata, originally from Latin Caia
alcazaba: Palace. From Arabic al-qasbah, (قصبة), "the quarter" ().
alcázar: Citadel; palace. From Arabic al-qasr (القصر) "the citadel," from Latin castrum, "castle," same etymology with Spanish term castro ().
alcazuz (or orozuz): Liquorice. From Arabic ‘urúq sús or ‘írq sús, and from classic Arabic irqu [s]sús.
alcoba: Alcove. From Arabic al-qubba (القُبَّة) () "the vault" or "the arch".
alcohela: Endive. From the Andalusi Arabic alkuḥáyla, and this one from the Arabic kuḥaylā'.
alcohol: From Arabic al-kuhul (الكحول), fine powder of antimony sulfide used as eye makeup. Derivate word: alcoholar.
alcolla: Large glass bulb or a Decanter. From Hispanic Arabic alqúlla, and this one from the Arabic qullah.
alcor: Hill. From Hispanic Arabic alqúll, and this one from the Latin collis.
alcora
alcorcí
alcorque
alcorza
alcotán
alcotana
alcrebite
alcuacil
alcubilla
alcuña
alcuza
alcuzcuz
alchub
aldaba
aldea/aldeano: Village / Villager.
aldiza
alefriz
aleja
alejija
alema
alerce
aletría
aleve/alevoso/alevosía: from Hispanic Arabic al'áyb and the latter from Classical Arabic áyb, "defect, blemish, or smudge of infamy" ()
aleya
alfaba
alfábega
alfadía
alfaguara: Geyser. From Arabic fawwâra (فوارة): "spout, fountain, water jet" ().
alfahar/alfaharería
alfaida
alfajeme
alfajor: Sweet almond shortbread. From Spanish Arabic fašúr, and this from Persian afšor (juice).
alfalfa: alfalfa hay. From Hispanic Arabic alfáṣfaṣ[a], from Classical Arabic fiṣfiṣah, and this from Pelvi aspast.
alfaneque: 1) A type of bird, from Arabic al-fanak () 2) A tent, from Berber afarag.
alfanje: A type of sword. From Arabic al-janyar "dagger".
alfaque
alfaqueque
alfaquí
alfaquín
alfaraz
alfarda: Two meanings; from Arabic al-farda and from Arabic al-fardda.
alfarero: potter.
alfardón
alfareme
alfarje
alfarrazar
alfaya
alfayate
alfazaque
alféizar: Window ledge. From Arabic al-hayzar, "The one which takes possession".
alfeñique: 1) Weakling. 2) A type of sweet consumed in Spain and Mexico. From Andalusi Arabic Al-Fanid. Ultimately from Persian and Sanskrit.
alferecía
alferez
alferraz
alferza: Piece, known as Vizir in other languages, corresponding to the modern chess "queen" (though far weaker), from which modern chess developed in medieval Spain. From Andalusi Arabic Al Farza, ultimately from Persian Farzan, "the guardian".
alficoz
alfil: Bishop, in chess. From Arabic al-fiyl (الفيل) () "The elephant."
alfilel/alfiler
alfinge
alfitete
alfiz
alfolí
alfombra: Carpet. Two meanings; from Arabic al-jumra and from Arabic al-humra.
alfóncigo: Pistachio. From Arabic al-fustuq ().
alfóndiga
alforfón
alforja: Saddlebag. From Arabic al-khurj ( الخرج ) "saddle-bag", portmanteau ().
alforre
alforrocho
alforza
alfóstiga
alfoz: Neighborhood, district. From Arabic hauz (حوز) meaning "Precinct" or "City limits" ().
algaba
algadara
algaida
algalaba
algalia
algalife
algar
algara
algarada
algarabía: Incomprehensible talk; gabble; gibberish. From Arabic al-'arabiya: "Arabic" ().
algarivo
algarazo: Short rainstorm. From Arabic al 'ard: "cloud".
algarrada
algarrobo: Carob. From Arabic al-kharouba "the carob" ().
algavaro
algazafán
algazara
algazul
álgebra: Algebra. From Latin algebræ from Arabic al-jabr, meaning "completion, rejoining", from the name of al-Khwarizmi's book Hisab al-jabr w’al-muqabala "The Calculus of Completion and Equality."
algodón: Cotton. From Arabic "al-qúţun (قطن)", meaning "The cotton", "Egyptian", "Coptic".
algorfa
algoritmo: algorithm, comes from the Latin word algobarismus, influenced by the Greek word arithmos "number". The persian name of Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, محمد بن موسى الخوارزمي, famous mathematician, through its Latinized prounuciation Algorithmi.
algorza:
alguacil: Sheriff. From Arabic "al-wazîr (الوزير)", meaning "Minister".
alguaquida: fuel for a fire. From Arabic waqîda (وقيدة) meaning "Fuel" ()
alguaza: Window or door hinge.From Arabic wasl "juncture".
alhadida: From Arabic "al-hadida" (الحديدة) (), meaning Copper sulfate.
alhaite: Jewel. From Arabic al hayt "string". الخيط ()
alhaja: Jewel. From Arabic al-hajah "the valuable thing." الحاجة ()
alhamar: Red mattress or bed cover. From Arabic hanbal, "fur bedcover". Also from Arabic Alhamar ()/ Al-Ahmar "red".
alhamel: Beast of burden or human porter, in Andalusian Spanish. From Arabic hammal. الحامل، حمّال ()
alhamí: Stone bench normally covered with azulejos. Refers to the Grenadine town of Alhama.
alhandal: Colocynth. From Arabic Alhandhal. الحنظل ()
alhanía: 1) Bedroom 2) Cupboard 3) A type of small mattress. From Andalusi Arabic al haniyya, "alcove".
alhaquín: Weaver. From Arabic plural Al Hayikeen, "weavers". الحيّاكين ()
alharaca: Violent reaction to a small issue. From Arabic haraka. حركة ()
alhavara: Flour. From Arabic huwara.
alhelí: Aegean Wallflower. From Arabic hiri.
alheña: Spanish word for Henna and the plant from which it is derived.
alholva: Fenugreek. From Arabic hulbah. ()
alhorí: Same meaning and etymology as more commonly used term alfolí.
alhorre: 1) Feaces of a newborn child. From Arabic hur, "feaces". 2) Common skin rash in babies, nappy rash. Commonly used in expression "Yo te curaré el alhorre!" when threatening to beat a child. From Arabic shakatu el hurr, "skin infection".
alhorría: (or ahorría): Expression used for when a slave is freed. From Arabic al-hurriya, "freedom".
alhucema: Lavender. From Arabic huzama ().
alhuceña: Woodruff. From Arabic uhshina.
aliara: Drinking horn. From Andalusian Arabic al fiyara.
alicante: Vernacular name of two different types of poisonous snakes present in Spain and Northern Mexico respectively. From Arabic al aqrab, "scorpion".
alicatar: To till. From Arabic qat, "to cut".
alicate: Pliers. From Arabic laqaat, "tongs".
alidada: Alidade. From Andalusian Arabic al'idada ().
alifa: Sugar cane, two years old, in Andalusian and Mexican Spanish. From Arabic halifa () "successor".
alifafe: 1) Light indisposition. 2) Type of tumor which develops on the legs of horses from excessive work. From Arabic ifash "sowing bag".
alifara
alijar
alimara
alioj
alirón
alizace
alizar
aljaba
aljabibe
aljama
aljamía/aljamiado: Medieval Romance Spanish or Mozarabic written in Arabic script.
aljaraz
aljarfa
aljébana
aljerife from arabic شريف ()
aljez
aljibe
aljófar/aljofarar
aljofifa
aljor (or aljez)
aljuba
aljuma
añagaza
almacabra
almacén: Deposit, dry goods store. From Arabic al-majzan of makhzan (المخزن) () "the storage" or "the depot."
almacería
almáciga
almadén
almádena: sledgehammer. From Andalusian Arabic al-māṭana (الْمَاطَنَة) "sledgehammer."
almadía
almadraba: Tuna fishing in Andalusia and particularly in Cadiz province. From Andalusi Arabic Al-madraba (), "place where to hit", in reference to the fishing technique.
almadraque
almagazén
almagra
almahala
almaizar
almaja
almajaneque
almajar
almajara
almalafa
almanaque: almanac (see etymology section in the article for further discussion). From Andalusian Arabic almanáẖ "calendar", from Arabic munāẖ "caravan stop", or from Greek almenichiakon "calendar."
almancebe: type of river fishing net, from Spanish Arabic al-manṣába, bank.
almarada
almarbate
almarcha
almarjo
almarrá
almarraja or almarraza
almártaga: two meanings, from al-marta'a and al martak.
almástica
almatroque
almazara: Olive press. From Arabic "al-ma'sarah" (المعصرة) (), "juicer".
almazarrón
almea: two meanings, from almay'a عالمية () and alima. الميعة ()
almejía
almenara: two meanings, from al-manara () and al-minhara.
almez
almíbar: sugar syrup, juice concentrate.
almicantarat
almijar
almijara
almijarra
almimbar
alminar
almiraj/almiraje/almiral
almirez
almirón: Dandelion. From Andalusian Arabic al mirun.
almizate
almizcle/almizque
almocadén
almocafre
almocárabe
almocela
almocrebe
almocrí
almodón
almófar
almofariz
almofía
almofrej/almofrez
almogama
almogávar
almohada: Pillow, from Arabic al-makhada (المخده) with the same meaning.
almoharrefa
almohaza
almojábana
almojama: see mojama
almojarife
almojaya
almona
almoneda: Sale or auction. From Arabic munadah ().
almoraduj/almoradux
almorávide
almorí
almoronía: see alboronía.
almotacén
almotalafe
almotazaf/almotazán
almozala/almozalla
almud
almuédano
almuerzo: Lunch. Arabic al- + Latin morsus (bite).
almunia: an agricultural settlement, from () meaning desire. (see Article in Spanish).
alpargata
alpechín
alpiste
alquería: Farmhouse. From Arabic al-qaria () "the village."
aloque
aloquín
alpargata
alquequenje
alquería
alquermes
alquerque: Two meanings, from al-qirq and al-qariq. القرق ()
alquez
alquezar
alquibla
alquicel
alquiler: Rent. From Arabic Al kira' (الكراء) ()
alquimia: alchemy, from Arabic al-kīmiyā' ( or ) via Medieval Latin alchemia, from the Late Greek term khēmeía (χημεία), also spelled khumeia (χυμεία) and khēmía (χημία), meaning 'the process of transmutation by which to fuse or reunite with the divine or original form'.
alquinal
alquitira
alquitrán: tar, from Arabic اَلْقِطْرَان al-qitran. ()
alrota
altabaca
altamía
altramuz: Lupin bean. From Arabic at-turmus ().
alubia: Pea, bean. From Arabic lubiya ().
aludel
aluquete/luquete
alloza
amán
ámbar: amber, from Arabic ʿanbar , meaning "anything that floats in the sea", via Middle Latin ambar.
ámel
amín
amirí
anacalo
anacora
anafaga
anafalla/anafaya
anafe
anaquel
andorra
andrajo
anea
anejir
anúteba
añacal
añacea/añacear
añafea
añafil
añagaza
añascar
añazme
añil: Ultimately from Sanskrit nilah, "dark blue".
arabí
arancel
arbellón/arbollón
archí
argadillo
argamandel
argamula
argán
argel
argolla
arguello/arguellarse
arije
arimez
arjorán
arnadí
arrabá
arrabal
arracada
arráez
arrayán
arrecife
arrejaque/arrejacar
arrelde
arrequife
arrequive
arriate
arricés
arroba
arrobda
arrocabe
arrope
arroz: Rice ().
áscar/áscari
asequi
asesino: Assassin. From Arabic hashshshin "someone who is addicted to hashish (marijuana)." Originally used to refer to the followers of the Persian Hassan-i-Sabah (حسن صباح), the Hashshashin.
atabaca
atabal
atabe
atacar: To tie, to button up. From Andalusi Arabic tákka, originally from classical Arabic tikkah (), ribbon used to fasten clothes.
atacir
atafarra/ataharre
atafea
atahona
atahorma
ataifor
ataire
atalaya
atalvina
atambor
atanor
atanquía
ataracea
atarazana
atarfe
atarjea
atarraga
atarraya
ataúd: Coffin.
ataujía
ataurique
atifle
atijara
atíncar
atoba
atocha
atracar: To assault, to burgle, to dock a boat, to get stuck, to gorge oneself with food, to cheat, to get stuck. From Arabic Taraqa, "To rise".
atríaca/atriaca: Obsolete word.
atún: Tuna fish. From the Arabic word al-tuna (التونه).
atutía
auge: surge, rise, boom.
aulaga
avería
azabache
azabara
azacán
azacaya
azache
azafate/azafata
azafrán: Saffron. From Arabic اَلزَّعْفَرَان az-za`farān (), from Persian زعفران zaferān or زرپران zarparān gold strung.
azahar: White flower, especially from the orange tree. From Spanish Arabic azzahár, and this from Classic Arabic zahr (), flowers.
azalá
azamboa
azándar
azaque: Alms-giving or religious tax in Islam. From Arabic zakāt (Arabic: زكاة (), "that which purifies"[1]). See article zakat.
azaquefa: Covered portico or patio. From Andalusi Arabic assaqifa, "portico", originally from Arabic as-saqf (السَّقْف), () meaning "roof" or "upper covering of a building".
azar: Luck; chance. From Arabic az-zahr "the dice" or North African Arabic az-zhar () "luck".
azarbe
azarcón
azarja
azarnefe
azarote
azófar
azofra/azofrar
azogue: Two meanings, from az-za'uq () and from as-suq.
azolvar
azorafa
azote: Smacking, beating, scourge. From Arabic sawṭ ().
azotea: Flat roof or terrace. From Andalusi Arabic assutáyha, diminutive of sath, "terrace" in Classical Arabic.السطيحة ()
azoya
azúcar: Sugar. From Arabic (سكر) sukkar of the same meaning (), from Persian shekar.
azucarí
azucena
azuche
azud
azufaifa/azufaifo
azul: Blue. From Arabic lāzaward, ultimately from Sanskrit.
azulaque (or zulaque)
azulejo: Handpainted glazed floor and wall tiles, from Arabic az-zellīj (), a style of mosaic tilework made from individually hand-chiseled tile pieces set into a plaster base, from zalaja () meaning "to slide". See also alboaire and alhamí.
azúmbar
azumbre: Measurement for liquids equivalent to around two litres. From Del Andalusi Arabic aTTúmn, and this from Classical Arabic: Tum[u]n, "an eighth" ().
B
babucha: Slippers. From French babouche, derived from Persian "papoosh" (پاپوش) literally meaning "foot covering" via Arabic baboush (بابوش). The transition from Persian "p" to Arabic "b" occurs due to lack of the letter p in the Arabic alphabet. "Pa-" in Persian means foot and "poosh" means covering. Persian "pa" or foot shares the same root with other Indo-European languages, i.e. Latin pede[m], French "pied", Spanish "pie" and "pata", etc ().
badal: Cut of meat from the back and ribs of cattle, close to the neck. From Andalusi Arabic bad'a "Calf muscle" derived from classical Arabic bad'ah () "piece".
badán: Trunk of an animal. From Arabic badan, (بدن) ().
badana: 1) Sheepskin, 2) Hat lining, 3) Lazy person. From Arabic bitana, "lining", (بِطانة) ().
badea: 1) Watermelon or melon of bad quality. 2) Insipid cucumber, 3) Weak person, 4) Unimportant thing. From Arabic battiha "bad melon".
badén: Dip in land, road, sidewalk or ford. From Arabic bāṭin (بطين) "sunken" (land) ().
bagarino: Free or hired sailor, as opposed to a press-ganged or enslaven one. Same origin as baharí ().
bagre: a freshwater fish that has no scales and has a chin. From Arabic baghir or baghar.
baharí: Bird of prey. From Arabic bahri: "from the sea".
baja: Pasha, Turkish officer or governor of high rank. From Arabic basha (باشا) (). Ultimately from Turkish pasha of the same meaning.
baladí: 1) Unimportant thing or matter. 2) Something of the land our country. From Arabic baladiy "From the country" ().
balaj/balaje: Purple ruby. From Arabic Balahshi: From Balahshan (region in central Asia where these stones are found).
balate
balda (and baldío)
baldar
balde: 1) Free. 2) Without cause. 3) In vain. From Arabic batil "false" or "useless" ().
bancal
baño
baraka: Heavenly providence or unusual luck. From Moroccan Arabic. Recently introduced word. (بركة) ().
barbacana
barcino
bardaje
bardoma/bardomera
barragán
barrio/barriada: Area, district or neighbourhood in a town. From Arabic barri "outside" ().
bata: either from Arabic batt or French ouate.
batán
batea
baurac
bayal
belez
bellota: Acorn, the fruit or seed of the oak tree. From Arabic ball-luta (بلوط) of the same meaning ().
ben
benimerín
benjui
berberí
berberís
bereber
berenjena/berenjenal: eggplant, aubergine, from Arabic بَاذِنْجَان (bāḏenjān), from Persian بادنجان (bâdenjân) of the same meaning.
bezaar/bezoar
biznaga
bocací
bodoque/bodocal
bófeta
bórax: Borax, from Arabic word bawraq (بورق), from Persian bure of the same meaning.
borní
boronía
botor
bujía
bulbul
burche
buz
buzaque
C
cabila: Tribe of Berbers or Bedouins. From Arabic qabila (قبيلة) () "tribe."
cachera
cadí: From Arabic qādiy / qādī (قَاضِي), a "judge", type of public officer appointed to hear and try causes in a court of justice; same etymology with alcalde ().
cadira
café: Coffee. From Italian caffe, from Turkish kahve via Arabic qahwa (قهوة) of the same meaning, from the Kaffa region of Ethiopia.
cáfila
cafiz (or cahiz)
cafre
caftán
cáid (same origin as alcaide)
caimacán
calabaza: Pumpkin or squash. From Arabic qerabat (قربات), plural of qerbah (قربة), meaning wineskin ().
calafate/calafatear
calahorra
calí: same root as álcali.
cálibo/calibre
cambuj
camocán
canana: Cartridge belt.
cáncana/cancanilla
cáncano
cande: in azúcar cande.
canfor
caraba
cárabe
cárabo: Owl; dog. Taken from Arabic qaraab and kalb "dog" (kalaab "dogs"), respectively ().
caracoa
caramida
caramuzal
caravasar
carcax
carmen/carme: From Spanish Arabic kárm, and this from Classical Arabic karm, vine ().
carmesí: Crimson, bluish deep red. From Arabic quirmizi.
carrafa
cártama/cártamo
catán
catifa
cazurro
cebiche
cebtí
ceca
cedoaria
cegatero
cegrí
ceje
celemí/celemín/celeminero
cenacho
cendolilla
cenefa
ceneque
cení
cenia
cenit: zenith, from Arabic samt سَمْت, same etymology with acimut.
cequí
cerbatana
cero: Zero. From Arabic sifr of the same meaning.
cetís
ceutí
chafariz
chafarote
chaleco
charrán
chifla
chilabai: From Moroccan Arabic.
chirivía
chivo
choz
chupa
chuzo
cianí
cibica
cica
cicalar
cicatear
cicatero: different root to cicatear.
ciclán
ciclar
ciclatón
cid
cifaque
cifra/cifrar
címbara
cimboga
cimitarra
circón
citara
civeta/civeto
coba/cobista
cofa
coima
coime
colcótar
cora
corán: from qur'aan (قرآن), the Muslim Holy Book.
corbacho
corma
cotonía
cubeba
cúrcuma
curdo
cuscuta
D, E
dado: Dice, cube or stamp. From Classical Arabic a'dad "numbers" ().
daga - dagger
dahír
daifa
dante
darga (adarga): Shield.
dársena: Dock / basin.
daza
descafilar
destartalado
dey
dirham
diván: Divan / couch. From Arabic from Persian دیوان dēvān (="place of assembly", "roster"), from Old Persian دیپی dipi (="writing, document") + واهانم vahanam (="house"). This is a recent loanword and directly entered Spanish via Persian, as [v] sound in دیوان dēvān is a modern Persian pronunciation. ()
droga: Drug.
druso
dula/dular
edrisí
ejarbe
elche
elemí
elixir: from al-ʾiksīr (الإكسير) through Medieval Latin, which in turn is the Arabization of Greek xērion (ξήριον) "powder for drying wounds" (from ξηρός xēros "dry") ().
embelecar/embeleco
emir (or amir)
encaramar
enchufar/enchufe: 1) To plug in/plug; 2) To connect, 3) To offer an unmerited job or a post through personal connections. From Andalusi Arabic Juf derived from Classical Arabic jawf "stomach; internal cavity" ().
engarzar: To set/thread.
enjalma
enjarje
enjeco
escabeche: Pickle or marinade. From Arabic as-sukbaj. Originally from Persian Sekba ().
escafilar (see descafilar)
escaque/escaquear
espinaca: Spinach.
exarico
F, G
faca
falagar
falca
falleba
faltriquer: Pocket.
falúa/faluca
fanega/hanega
fanfarrón
faranga (or haragán): Lazy, idler, loafer ().
farda
fardacho
farfán
fárfara
farnaca
farota
farruco: Insolent or "cocky". From Andalusian Arabic Farrouj, "Cock" ().
felús
fetua
fez
fideo
filelí
foceifiza
fondolí
fondac/fonda
fulano: "any one" without naming, X of people. From Arabic Fulan ().
fustal
fustete
gabán
gabela
gacel/gacela
gafetí
galacho
galanga
galbana
gálibo
galima
gandula/gandula
gañan
garbi: Sirocco wind.
garama
garbino
gardacho
garfa
gárgol
garra
garrafa
garrama
garroba
gazpacho
gilí
gomer
granadí
grisgrís
guadamací
guájara
guájete
guala
guarismo: figure, character. From the name of Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, محمد بن موسى الخوارزمي, famous mathematician, through its Latinized prounuciation Algorithmi, same etymology with algoritmo ().
guifa
guilla
gumía
gurapas
H, I
habiz: Donation of real estate under certain conditions to muslim religious institutions. From Classical Arabic: ḥabīs: amortized.
habús: Same meaning as habiz has in Morocco. From Arabic ḥubūs, "property belonging to the deceased used for charity".
hachís: Hashish. From Classical Arabic Hashish (), "grass". This is a recent loanword influenced by written form , wherein hachís is pronounced [], since <h> is always silent in the beginning of Spanish, and [x] (voicless velar fricative) which is closer to [h] did not exist yet in Old Spanish; the [] sound in Arabic like in the word hashish existed in Old Spanish, that evolved to [x] in Modern Spanish ([h] in other dialects of Modern Spanish) and [] in loanwords in Spanish is pronounced either [] or [s].
hacino: Miser or from Andalusian Arabic ḥazīn ().
hadruba: Hump (on someone's back): From Andalusian Arabic ḥadúbba.
hafiz: Guard or minder. From Andalusian Arabic ḥāfiẓ ().
hálara: Same meaning and etymology as fárfara. 1) Interior lining of egg. 2) Coldsfoot. From Andalusian Arabic falḡalála.
hallulla: 1)A type of bread or bun consumed in Spain and parts of Hispanic America. 2) Nausea (Eastern Andalusia only) From Andalusian Arabic ḥallún.
hamudí: Descendants of Ali Ben Hamud, founders of the Málaga and Algeciras Taifas during the 11th century.
haragán: 1) Someone who refuses to work. 2) In Cuba and Venezuela, a type of mop. From Andalusian Arabic: khra kan: "Was shit".
harambel: See "arambel".
harbar
harén
harma
harón
Hasaní
hasta: "Until". From Arabic hatta (same meaning). Influenced by Latin phrase 'ad ista' ()
hataca
hazaña
he: Adverb used in following manner: "he aquí/ahí/allí": Here it is/there it is. From Arabic haa.
hégira
hobacho/hobacha
holgazán: Lazy person. From Arabic Kaslan. Influenced by Holgar ().
holgar
hoque/oque
horro/horra
imam, imán
imela
islam
J, K
jabalí : Wild Boar. From Arabic jebeli: From the mountains. Perhaps originally from Khanzeer Jebelí: Mountain Pig ().
jabalón
jábega
jabeca
jabeque
jabí : A type of apple and type of grape. From Andalusi Arabic sha‘bí, a type of apple.
jácara
jácena
jacerino
jadraque
jaez
jaguarzo
jaharí
jaharral
jaharrar
jaima
jaique
jalear
jalma (or enjalma)
jaloque
jamacuco
jametería
jámila
japuta
jaque
jaqueca: Migraine. From Arabic Shaqiqa, with same meaning ().
jáquima
jara
jarabe: Syrup. From Arabic Sharab. Usually in the context of cough syrup or linctus.
jaraíz
jarcha
jareta
jaricar
jarifo/jarifa
jarquía
jarra: Pitcher or other pot with handle(s). From ǧarrah, same as English jar.
jatib
jazarino/jazarina
jazmín: jasmine. From Arabic yasmin (يسمين) then from the Persian word (same word).
jebe
jeliz
jemesía
jeque: From Arabic shaikh or sheikh, older
jerife: From Arabic sharif, noble, respected.
jeta: Snout, face, cheek (in both literal and figurative sense). From Arabic khatm: "snout" ().
jifa
jinete
jirafa: giraffe. From ziraffa of the same meaning (زرافة) ()..
jirel
jofaina: a wide and shallow basin for domestic use. From ǧufaynah.
jofor
jorfe
joroba
jorro
juba/aljuba/jubón
julepe
jurdía
jurel
kermes
L, M
laca: resinous substance tapped from the lacquer tree. From Arabic lak, taken from Persian lak, ultimately from Sanskrit laksha literally meaning "one hundred thousand" referring to the large number of insects that gather and sap out all the resin from the trees.
lacre
lapislázuli: lapis lazuli, a deep blue mineral. From Arabic lazaward () from Persian lagvard or lazward, ultimately from Sanskrit rajavarta literally meaning "ringlet of the king."
latón: brass. From Arabic latun from Turkish altın "gold."
laúd: lute. From Arabic al 'ud () "the lute."
lebeche: Southeasterly wind on the Mediterranean coast of Spain. From Andalusi Arabic Labash.
lebení: a Moorish beverage prepared from soured milk. From Arabic labani () "dairy" ().
leila: from Arabic layla () "night" ().
lelilí: Shouts and noise made by moors when going into combat or when celebrating parties. From Arabic lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāh (): There is no god but Allah; Ya leilí () : Night of mine; ya ʿayouni () : My eyes.
lima: lime. From Arabic limah of the same meaning ().
limón: lemon. From laymoon (), derived from the Chinese word limung.
loco: crazy. From Arabic lawqa "fool."
macabro
macsura
madraza
magacén
magarza/magarzuela
maglaca
maharon/maharona
maharrana/marrana/marrano
mahozmedín
maimón
majareta
majzén
mamarracho
mameluco
mamola
mandeísmo
mandil
maquila
marabú
maravedí
marcasita
marchamo
márfega
marfil
marfuz/a
margomar
marjal
marlota
marojo
maroma
marrano pig; cf. Arabic muharram "forbidden" ().
marras
márraga
masamuda: (adj) Individual from the Berber Masmuda tribe, from which originate the Almohades, a movement which ruled Spain and North Africa in the 12th century. From Arabic: Masamuda.
matafalúa
matalahúga/matalahúva: Aniseed, from Andalusi Arabic habbat halwa, "sweet seed" ().
mártaga
máscara
matarife
mate
matraca
matula
mauraca
mazamorra: Word to designate a number of bread or cereal based dishes typical of Southern Spain and parts of Hispanic America. From Andalusi Arabic Pishmat ().
mazapán
mazarí
mazarrón
mazmodina
mazmorra: Dungeon. From Arabic matmura "silo".
mazorca: corn cob; roll of wool or cotton. From Andalusi Arabic: Masurqa, derived from classical Arabic Masura () : a tube used as a bobbin (sewing) () .
meca: Place which is attractive because of a particular activity. From Arabic Makkah ().
mechinal
mejala
mejunje
mendrugo: Piece of dry or unwanted bread, often reserved to give to beggars. From Andalusi Arabic Matruq "Marked/Touched" ().
mengano/mengana: Expression of similar meaning as fulano or zutano, used always after the former but after the latter, meaning "whoever". From Arabic man kan meaning "whoever".
mequetrefe: Nosy or useless person. From Andalusi Arabi qatras meaning person of boastful demeanor.
mercal
metical
mezquino
mía: A military term, formerly designating a regular native unit composed of 100 men in the Spanish protectorate of northern Morocco; by analogy, any colonial army. From Arabic Miʿah: one hundred () ().
mihrab ():
miramamolín
moaxaja
mogataz
mogate
moharra: tip of the sword. From muharraf, meaning "beached" ().
moharracho
mohatra
mohedal
mohino
mojarra: Refers to fish in the Gerreidae order. From Arabic muharraf.
mojama (originally almojama): Delicacy of phoenician origin from the region of Cadiz. It consists of filleted salt-cured tuna. From the Arabic al mushama: "momified or waxed" ().
mojí
momia
mona
monfí
morabito
moraga
morapio
mozárabe
mudéjar
muftí
mujalata
mulato: Perhaps from Muwallad, as with the Muladi. Walad () means, "descendant, offspring, scion; child; son; boy; young animal, young one". According to DRAE, from latin mulus mulo (mule), in the sense of hybrid. ()
mulquía: Owned/Property. From "Mulkiyya" ()
muslim / muslime: (Adjective) Muslim. A rare alternative to musulmán. From Arabic Muslim () ().
N, O, P, Q
nabí: Prophet among arabs. From Arabic nabiy ().
nácar: Innermost of the three layers of a seashell. From Catalan nacre, derived from Arabic naqra (), small drum.
nácara: Type of small metallic drum used historically by the Spanish cavalry. Same etymology as nacar.
nacarar: The process of browning rice in oil in a pan prior to boiling it. Same etymology as nacar.
nadir: Nadir, the point on the celestial sphere opposite the zenith directly below the observer. From nadheer.
nádir: In Morocco, administrator of a religious foundation.
nagüela: Small hut for human habitation. From Andalusi Arabic nawalla: hut.
naife: High quality diamond. From Andalusi Arabic nayif. Originally from classical Arabic na'if: excellent.
naipe: Playing card. From Catalan naíp. Originally from Arabic ma'ib.
naranja: Orange. from Arabic nāranja (), fr Persian nārang, fr Sanskrit nāranga, fr a Dravidian language akin to Tamil naŗu "fragrant".
narguile
natrón
nazarí: Related to the Nasrid kingdom or dynasty of Granada.
neblí: Subspecies of the peregrine falcon, valued in the art of falconry. Possibly from Andalusi Arabic burni.
nenúfar: Water-lily. From Arabic naylufar from Persian nilofer, niloofar, niloufar.
nesga:
noria: Watermill, Ferris wheel. From Arabic na'urah ().
nuca: Nape of the neck. From Arabic nuḵāʿ , ().
ojalá: "I hope"; "I wish that...". From law šhaʾ allāh "If God wills."
¡ole! (or olé): The most famous expression of approval, support or encouragement, said to have come from wa-llah , "by Allah!". However, its proposed Arabic origin is disputed and it is described as "falsos arabismos" (false Arabisms) by the Spanish Arabist Federico Corriente in his Diccionario de Arabismos y Voces Afines en Iberorromance.
omeya: adj. Related to the Umayyad.
orozuz
ox: Expression to scare away wild and domesticated birds. From Andalusi Arabic Oosh.
papagayo
quermes
quilate/quirate: Carat or Karat. From Andalusi Arabic Qirat ().
quilma
quintal: weight unit of about 46 kg. In its current use under the metric system, it represents 100 kg. From Arabic Qintar () "referring to a large number similar objects or an object which is large in its size ().
R, S, T
rabadán: A rural position. One who oversees the training of shepherds on a farm. From Andalusian Arabic rab aḍ-ḍān (رب الضأن) "lord/master of the lambs."
rabal
rabazuz
rabel
rábida
rafal
rafe
ragua
rahez
ramadán
rambla: A ravine; a tree-lined avenue. From Arabic ramlah (رملة) "sand." ()
rauda
rauta
real: Military encampment; plot where a fair is organized; (in Murcia region) small plot or garden. From Arabic rahl: camping ().
rebato
rebite
recamar
recua
redoma
rehala
rehalí
rehén: Hostage or captive. From Arabic , captive, ransom. ()
rejalgar: realgar. From Andalusi Arabic reheg al-ghar (): "powder of the cave"
requive
resma
retama
rincón: Corner. From Andalusi Arabic rukan, derived from classical Arabic Rukn, or perhaps related to French recoin ().
robda
robo (or arroba)
roda
romí/rumí
ronzal
roque: rook (chess piece), from Arabic روخ rukh (), from Persian رخ rukh.
sajelar
salema
sandía: Watermelon. From Arabic Sindiya "from Sindh (province of Pakistan)".
sarasa: Homosexual or effeminate man. From "Zaraza".
sarraceno
sebestén
secácul
serafín
siroco
sofí
sófora
soldán
soltaní
sufí
sura
tabal (or atabal)
tabaque
tabefe
tabica
tabique
taca
tafurea
tagarino/tagarina
tagarnina
taha
tahalí
tahona
tahúr
taifa: Refers to an independent Muslim-ruled principality, an emirate or petty kingdom, of which a number formed in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia) after the final collapse of the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba in 1031. Used in numerous expressions. Can also mean 1) a faction 2) a group of people of ill judgement. 3) un reino de Taifas (a kingdom of Taifas) can also refer to a chaotic or disorderly state of affairs. From classical Arabic Ta'ifah: faction ().
tajea
talco
talega
talvina
támara
tamarindo
tambor
tara
taracea
taraje: Salt Cedar. From Arabic Tarfah.
tarasí
tarbea
tarea: Task. From Arabic ṭaríḥaand root (), "to throw".
tareco
tarida
tarifa
tarima
tarquín
tarraya
taza: cup. From Tasa. ().
tértil
tíbar
tochibí
tomín
toronja
toronjil
trafalmejas
truchimán/na
trujamán/na
tuera
tumbaga
Tunecí
turbit
turquí (in Azul Turquí)
tutía (or atutía)
V, X, Y, Z
vacarí: from Arabic baqari () "bovine" ().
valencí: Uva Valencia. A type of grape from Murcia region in South East Spain.
velmez: from Arabic malbas () .
verdín: Spontaneous growth of grass or sprouting. From Arabic bardi (Same etymology as albardín). Influenced by Spanish word "Verde" ().
visir: vizier. From Arabic wazir () "minister," recent loanword. Same etymology with alguacil ().
yébel: from Arabic jabal (جبل) "mountain"; same etymology as jabalí ().
zabalmedina: in the Middle Ages, judge with civil and criminal jurisdiction in a city. From Arabic ṣāḥib al-madīna (صاحب المدينه) "Chief of the City" ().
zabarcera: women who sells fruits and other food. Same origin as abacero
zabazala: imam who leads Islamic prayer. From Arabic ṣāḥib aṣ-ṣalāh (صاحب الصلاه) "leader of prayer" ().
zabazoque: same meaning as almotacén. From Arabic ṣāḥib as-sūq (صاحب السوق) "leader of the market" ().
zábila: aloe vera (used mainly in Hispanic America) From Andalusi Arabic sabíra, originally from classical Arabic Sibar, () same etymology with acíbar.
zabra: type of vessel used in the Bay of Biscay in the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Age. From Arabic zauraq ().
zacatín: in some villages, a square where clothes are sold. From saqqatin, plural of saqqat: seller of clothes.
zafar: a number of meanings in Spain and Hispanic American countries: To free, to untie, to ignore, to unknit among others. From Arabic azaHa: to take away.
zafarí: Granada zafarí: a type of pomegranate. Higo zafarí: a type of fig. From Arabic Safr.
zafariche: Structure used for placing clay urns. Same etymology as jaraíz (see above).
zafio: Uncouth. From Andalusi Arabic Fellah safi: "Mere peasant".
zafrán: See Azafran.
zaga: Backside of something. Cargo on the back of a truck. From Arabic Saqah: Rear, rearguard ().
zagal: A boy. From Andalusian Arabic zaḡāl (زغال), traditional Arabic zuḡlūl (زغلول) () with the same meaning.
zagaya (or azagaya)
zagua
zaguán: Vestibule, foyer, entry-way. From Andalusian Arabic ʾisṭiwān (إِسْطِوَان), traditional Arabic ʾusṭuwāna (أسطوانة) () "pillar."
zagüía: A zawiya. From Arabic zāwiyah (زاوية) () "corner."
zaharrón
zahén
zahón
zahora: (Mainly used in Spanish region of La Mancha): Large meal accompanied by dancing or partying. From Arabic Islamic term suhoor ().
zahorí
zaida
zaino
zala
zalamelé
zalea/zalear
zalema/zalama
zalmedina: Same meaning and origin as zabalmedina.
zalona
zamacuco
zambra: Traditional festivity of the Moriscos in Spain which is maintained by the Gypsy community of Sacromonte, Granada. From Andalusi Arabic Zamra, originally from classical Arabic Zamr زَمْر ().
zanahoria: carrot, presumably from Andalusi Arabic safunariyya (سَفُنَّارْيَة) (), via Classical Arabic: isfanariyya (إِسْفَنَارِيَّة), ultimately from Ancient Greek σταφυλίνη.
zaque: Leather recipient for wine or extracting water from a well. Drunken person. From Andalusi Arabic zaqq. Originally from classical Arabic ziqq ().
zaquizamí
zaragüelles
zaranda/zarandillo/zarandaja
zarandear: To shake vigorously / push around / toss about. From Zaranda.
zaratán: Breast cancer. From the Arabic saratan (): crab.
zarazán:
zarco
zarracatín
zarzahán: Astrakhan, a type of fleece used in making outerwear. From Arabic zardakhān (زردخان).
zatara
zéjel: a form of Arabic poetry. From arabic zajal (زجل) ()
.
zoco: market in an Arab country. From Arabic sūq (سوق) () "market." Not to be confused with other meanings of zoco.
zofra
zorzal: An intelligent person. From Andalusi Arabic zurzāl (زورزال), originally from classical Arabic zurzūr (زرزور) () "thrush".
zubia: Place where a large amount of water flows. From Arabic Zubya ().
zulaque
zulla
zumaque: sumac. From Arabic summāq (سماق) () of the same meaning.
zumo: fruit juice. From Arabic zum.
zuna: Sunnah, from Arabic Sunnah ()
zurriaga or zurriago: Refers to a type of whip and to a lark. From Andalusi Arabic surriyaqa
Words with a coincidental similarity to Arabic and false arabisms
el: The Spanish definite articles el / la / lo / los / las, like most definite articles in the Romance languages, derive from the Latin demonstratives ille / illa / illud. The similarity to the Arabic article al is a mere coincidence. The exact Spanish article al is a contraction of a el, translated as "to the."
usted: The formal second-person pronoun usted is derived from a shortening of the old form of address Vuestra merced, as seen in dialectal Spanish vosted, Catalan vostè, etc. Usted is the remaining form from a number of variants used in Renaissance Spanish, such as Usté, Uced, Vuesa Merced, Vuesarced, Vusted, Su Merced, Vuesasted or Voaced. The possibility of a link with the Arabic word ustādh ('mister'/'professor'/'doctor') seems very remote.
paella: It is commonly believed in certain Arabic countries that the rice dish paella comes from the Arabic baqiya (meaning leftovers). The Spanish pronunciation of paella is similar to the Arabic "baqiya", particularly where the latter is pronounced with a silent qaaf as in a number of eastern Arabic dialects. Nevertheless, the word paella is a Catalan word of Latin origin and refers to the pan in which it is cooked, with Spanish, Italian, French and Portuguese cognates Padilla, Padella, Poêle and Panela.
Other influences
Hypothesis of the Verb–subject–object (VSO) sentence structure
As in most Romance languages, word order in Spanish is primarily governed by topicalization and focalization. This means that in practice the main syntactic constituents of a Spanish sentence can be in any order. In addition, certain types of sentence tend to favour specific orders. However, as all Romance languages, modern Spanish is classified in linguistic typology as an SVO language, because this order of constituents is considered the most unmarked one.
In 1981, Spanish philologist Rafael Lapesa hypothesized that VSO sentence orders being more frequent in Spanish than other Romance languages was likely due to a Semitic (presumably Arabic) input in the language. Lapesa at the time considered that the topic had not been sufficiently investigated and required a more rigorous comparative study of Spanish with other Romance and Semitic languages.
A 2008 study concludes that, although the earliest documentation written in Spanish (13th century) can be analysed as having a VSO order, this does not affect documents written after that time. It has also been hypothesized that VSO was still the unmarked order for literary works as late as the 17th century.
A 2012 comparative study of Spanish, Italian and French showed French to be the most strictly Subject–verb–object (SVO) language of the three followed by Italian. In terms of constituent order, Spanish is the least restricted among the three languages, French is the most restricted, and Italian is intermediate. In the case of French, this is the result of a historical process, as old French was less restricted in word order. As for the VSO order, it is absent from both French and Italian, but not from Spanish.
The suffix í
Arabic has a very common type of adjective, known as the nisba or relationship adjective, which is formed by adding the suffix -ī (masc.) or ية -iyya (fem.) to a noun. This has given Spanish the suffix -í (both masc. and fem.), creating adjectives from nouns which indicate relationship or belonging, mostly for items related to medieval history, or demonyms in Arab. Examples are marbellí, ceutí, maghrebí, zaragocí, andalusí or alfonsí.
Expressions
A number of expressions such as "¡Ole!" (sometimes spelled "olé" ), possibly from wa'llah, or ojalá, from law sha'a Allah, have been borrowed directly from Arabic. Furthermore, many expressions in Spanish might have been calqued from their Arabic equivalent. Examples would be si Dios quiere, que Dios guarde or bendito sea Dios.
Idafa
The Idafa was a feature of the Mozarabic dialects which had a major formative on modern Spanish. Although this morphological structure is no longer in use, it is still widely present in toponyms throughout Spain including names of recent origin such as the suburban colonies of Ciudalcampo and Guadalmar in Madrid and Malaga respectively.
Toponyms (place names) in Spain of Arabic origin
There are thousands of place names derived from Arabic in the Iberian peninsula including provinces and regions, cities, towns, villages and even neighborhoods and streets. They also include geographical features such as mountains, mountain ranges, valleys and rivers. Toponyms derived from Arabic are common in Spain except for those regions which never came under Muslim rule or where it was particularly short-lived. These regions include Galicia and the Northern coast (Asturias, Cantabria and the Basque country) as well as much of Catalonia, Navarre and northern Aragon. Regions where place names of Arabic origin are particularly common are Balearics, Eastern Coast (Valencia and Murcia) and Andalusia.
Those toponyms which maintained their pre-Islamic name during the Muslim period were generally Arabized, and the mark of either the old Arabic pronunciation or the popular pronunciation from which it derived is sometimes noticeable in their modern names: e.g. Latin Hispalis = Arabic Ishbiliya = modern Sevilla.
Major towns, cities and regions
Albarracín City of Aragón. Derived from Al Banū Razin, name of the Berber family of the town.
Alcalá de Henares City in the Community of Madrid. Derived from al-qal'a (), meaning citadel or fortress. Henares may also come from the Arabic name for river: nahar.
Alcántara (several places) from Arabic al qantara (القنطرة), meaning "the bridge".
Alcarria Large plateau region east of Madrid covering much of Guadalajara as well as part of eastern Madrid and northern Cuenca. From Arabic al-qaryat.
Axarquía Eastern region of Málaga province, From Arabic Ash-sharquía(): The eastern/oriental (region).
Andalucía Most populated and 2nd largest autonomous community in Spain. Derived from , Al Andalus, the Arabic name for Muslim Iberia, traditionally thought to come in turn from the name of the Vandals.
Albacete city and province of Castilla-La Mancha. Derived from Arabic Al-Basit () (the plain).
Algarve Region of southern Portugal. From Arabic Al-Gharb (), the west.
Algeciras City and port in Cadiz province. Derived from Al Jazeera Al Khadra () meaning the green island.
Almería City and province of Andalucía. From Al-Meraya, the watchtower.
Alpujarras (originally Alpuxarras) Region extending South of Granada into Almería. From Arabic al-basharāt: The grasslands.
Calatayud City of Aragón. Derived from Qal'at Ayyūb (Arabic ) meaning "(Ayyūb's) Job's Fortress".
Gibraltar British overseas territory and name given to surrounding area in Southern Spain (Campo de Gibraltar). From Arabic ( pronounced Jebel Tariq), "Mountain of Tariq", or Gibr al-Tariq meaning "Rock of Tariq".
Granada City in Andalusia. Originally Garnata in Andalusi Arabic. From Gar-a-nat, Hill of pilgrims.
Guadalajara City and province of Castilla la Mancha. From Wādī al-Ḥijārah (Arabic ), River or canyon of Stones.
Jaén City and province of Andalusia From Arabic Jayyan, crossroads of caravans.
Medina-Sidonia: Town and municipality in Cadiz province, from Madina, city.
Tarifa town in Cadiz province, Andalusia. Originally Jazeera Tarif (): the island of Tarif. Derived from the first name of the Berber conqueror Tarif ibn Malik.
La Sagra, an arid region between Toledo and Madrid. Name derived from Arabic ṣaḥrāʾ () "desert".
Úbeda, a town in Jaén province, Andalusia. From the Arabic Ubadat el Arab.
Sanlúcar de Barrameda, a city in the northwest of Cádiz province, Andalusia. "Sanlúcar" may have derived from the Arabic shaluqa (), the Arabic name for the Levant wind called sirocco or jaloque; "Barrameda" was derived from bar-am-ma'ida, an Arabic phrase for "water well of the plateau".
Geographical features
River Almanzora. Derived from Arabic: Al-Mansura.
River Guadiana. Meaning "River Anae" (from the original Latin name Fluminus Anae, "River of Ducks").
River Guadalquivir. Derived from Arabic: Al-Wādĩ Al-Kabir , "the big river".
Javalambre. Mountain in southern Aragon, Jabal 'Amr, meaning "Mountain of 'Amr".
Mulhacén. Highest mountain in peninsular Spain. Named after 15th century Sultan of Granada Ali Muley Hacén Abu al-Hasan.
Pico Almanzor. Mountain in the Gredos Mountains of Central Spain. Named after "Almanzor" Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir, de facto ruler of Al Andalus in late 10th - early 11th centuries.
Cape Trafalgar. From Andalusi Arabic Taraf-al-gharb ('Western Cape' or 'Cape of the West').
Given names and surnames
Given names
Almudena (from the Virgin of Almudena, patroness of Madrid, Spain) and Fátima (derived from Our Lady of Fátima) are common Spanish names rooted in the country's Roman Catholic tradition, but share Arabic etymologies originating in place names of religious significance. Guadalupe, a name present throughout the Spanish-speaking world, particularly in Mexico, also shares this feature.
A few given names of Arab origin have become present in the Spanish-speaking world. In Spain, this coincided with a more flexible attitude to non-Catholic names, which were highly discouraged during the first decades of the Francoist dictatorship. Arabic names that have been present in Spain for many decades include Omar and Soraya. Zaida is also present in Spain, perhaps after Zaida of Seville, the mistress or wife of King Alfonso VI of Castile in the 11th century. A number of streets throughout Spain bear the name of this Muslim princess. Zahira and Zaira are also popular girls' names of Muslim origin. It is in the Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla in the African continent where Arabic given names are common.
Surnames
Surnames of indirect Arabic origin, such as Medina, Almunia, Guadarrama or Alcaide, are common and often refer to toponyms or professions, but they are not of Arabic origin, properly speaking. Few Arabic surnames explicitly denote Arabic origin since in the 15th and the 16th centuries, religious minorities were required to change their surnames upon baptism to escape persecution. The Muslim minority was specifically compelled to convert and adopt Christian surnames by a series of royal decrees in the 16th century, when Morisco leader Muhammad Ibn Ummaya, for example, was born to the Christian name Fernando de Córdoba y Valor.
Exceptions to the general rule are rare, but one is the surname "Benjumea" or "Benjumeda", which denotes ancestry from the Ummayad nobility. Currently, fewer than 6,000 Spaniards have this surname. Another, even less common, surname denoting Muslim lineage is "Muley", which is still present in the Spanish South East, and was maintained for its noble lineage.
See also
Influences on the Spanish language
Influence of Arabic on other languages
List of Arabic loanwords in English
List of French words of Arabic origin
Spanish terms derived from Arabic (wiktionary)
References
Selected reference works and other academic literature
These works have not necessarily been consulted in the preparation of this article.
Abu-Haidar, J. A. 1985. Review of Felipe Maíllo Salgado, Los arabismos del castellano en la baja edad media (consideraciones históricas y filológicas). Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 48(2): 353-354. University of London.
Cabo Pan, José Luis. El legado del arabe. Mosaico 8:7-10. Revista para la Promoción y Apoyo a la Enseñanza del Español. Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia del Reino de España, Consejería de Educación y Ciencia en Bélgica, Países Bajos y Luxemburgo. [Article with convenient, short word lists, grouped by theme. In PDF. Refer to Mosaico'''s portal page.] ]
Corominas, Joan. 1980-1991. Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico. Madrid: Gredos. The first edition, with the title Diccionario crítico etimológico de la lengua castellana (1954–1957) includes an appendix that groups words according to language of origin.
Corriente, Federico. 2003. Diccionario de arabismos y voces afines en iberorromance. (2nd expanded ed.; 1st ed. 1999) Madrid: Gredos. 607 p.
Real Academia Española (Royal Spanish Academy). Diccionario de la lengua española (DRAE), online.
Maíllo Salgado, Felipe. 1991/1998. Los arabismos del castellano en la Baja Edad Media : consideraciones históricas y filológicas. Salamanca: Universidad de Salamanca. 554 p. [2nd ed., corrected and enlarged; 1st ed. 1983]
Ibid. 1996. Vocabulario de historia árabe e islámica. Madrid: Akal. 330 p.
Marcos Marín, Francisco 1998 Romance andalusí y mozárabe: dos términos no sinónimos. Estudios de Lingüística y Filología Españolas. Homenaje a Germán Colón. Madrid: Gredos, 335-341.
Ibid. 1998 Toledo: su nombre árabe y sus consecuencias lingüísticas hispánicas. Revista del Instituto Egipcio de Estudios Islámicos en Madrid, XXX, 1998, 93-108.
Sola-Solé, Josep María. 1983. Sobre árabes, judíos y marranos y su impacto en la lengua y literatura españolas. Barcelona: Puvill. 279 p.
Spaulding, Robert K. 1942/1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Vl8lFy4qQX4C&q=%22how+spanish+grew%22+spaulding How Spanish Grew. Berkeley: University of California Press. Chapter 5: "Arabic Spain", pp. 53–62.
Toro Lillo, Elena. La invasión árabe. Los árabes y el elemento árabe en español''. In the Cervantes Virtual Library. Includes a brief list of historical sound changes. Useful bibliography.
Selected resource pages of universities and research institutes
Instituto de Estudios Islámicos y del Oriente Próximo. Search results consisting of Institute publications whose entries contain the word "arabismos"
Universidad de Granada. Holdings under the subject "arabismos"
External links
La invasión árabe. Los árabes y el elemento árabe en español, by Elena Toro Lillo; Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes
Arabic Influences in Various Languages
Size and nature of the Spanish vocabulary
Spanish etymology
Lists of Spanish words of foreign origin
Spanish language
Arabic words and phrases
L
Islam in Spain
Language contact
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System%20justification
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System justification
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System justification theory (SJT) is a theory within social psychology that system-justifying beliefs serve a psychologically palliative function. It proposes that people have several underlying needs, which vary from individual to individual, that can be satisfied by the defense and justification of the status quo, even when the system may be disadvantageous to certain people. People have epistemic, existential, and relational needs that are met by and manifest as ideological support for the prevailing structure of social, economic, and political norms. Need for order and stability, and thus resistance to change or alternatives, for example, can be a motivator for individuals to see the status quo as good, legitimate, and even desirable.
According to system justification theory, people desire not only to hold favorable attitudes about themselves (ego-justification) and the groups to which they belong (group-justification), but also to hold positive attitudes about the overarching social structure in which they are entwined and find themselves obligated to (system-justification). This system-justifying motive sometimes produces the phenomenon known as out-group favoritism, an acceptance of inferiority among low-status groups and a positive image of relatively higher status groups. Thus, the notion that individuals are simultaneously supporters and victims of the system-instilled norms is a central idea in system justification theory. Additionally, the passive ease of supporting the current structure, when compared to the potential price (material, social, psychological) of acting out against the status quo, leads to a shared environment in which the existing social, economic, and political arrangements tend to be preferred. Alternatives to the status quo tend to be disparaged, and inequality tends to perpetuate.
Origins
Previous social psychological theories that aimed to explain intergroup behavior typically focused on the tendencies for people to have positive attitudes about themselves (ego-justification) and their self-relevant groups (group-justification). In other words, people are motivated to engage in behaviors that allow for them to maintain a high self-esteem and a positive image of their group.
System Justification theory addressed the additional, prevalent phenomenon known as out-group favoritism, in which people defend the social systems (status quo) even when it does not benefit, and in the long-run may even cause more harm, to the individual or the group to which he or she belongs. Out-group favoritism can manifest as a dis-identification on the part of members of lower social status with their own categorical grouping (social, ethnic, economic, political) and instead further support for the existing structure. Prior social psychology theories lacked explanation for and attention given to popular instances of out-group favoritism; thus, SJT was developed to further explain and understand why some people tend to legitimize the prevailing social systems, despite their being against one's interests, in a way that previous social psychological theories did not.
Theoretical influences
While social identity theory, cognitive dissonance theory, just-world hypothesis, social dominance theory, and Marxist-feminist theories of ideologies have heavily influenced System Justification Theory, it has also expanded on these perspectives, infusing them with the system-justification motive and behaviors.
Cognitive dissonance theory
One of the most popular and well-known social psychological theories, cognitive dissonance theory explains that people have a need to maintain cognitive consistency in order to retain a positive self-image. System justification theory builds off the cognitive dissonance framework, in that it posits people will justify a social system in order to retain a positive image of that social system, due to the fact that they inherently play a role (whether passive or active) in perpetuating it.
Social identity theory
Jost and colleagues interpret social identity theory as suggesting that when people are presented with intergroup conflict that threatens their social group identities people will justify behaviors like stereotyping and discrimination against outgroups in order to maintain their positive group image. People with out-group favoritism will hold more positive images of other, often higher status, groups (outgroups) than the groups they belong to (ingroups). Thus, the argument is that system justification theory builds on the foundations of social identity theory in attempting to account for the out-group favoritism observed in many disadvantaged group members that social identity theory does not.
Social dominance theory
This theory has widely been compared to system justification theory since they are both system justifying theories. Social dominance theory focuses on people's motive to maintain a positive group image by generally supporting hierarchical inequality at the group level. Individuals with a high social dominance orientation (SDO) will hold myths that tend to be hierarchy enhancing, which justify an in-group's place and their relation to it. Thus, in both social dominance theory and system justification theory, there are common threads of group-based opposition to equality and justification for maintaining intergroup inequalities through systemic norms.
Belief in a just world
According to the just world hypothesis, people are inclined to believe the world is generally fair, and that the outcomes of people's behavior are subsequently deserved. Ideologies that relate to belief in a just world have to do with maintaining a sense of personal control and a desire to understand the world as non-random. Such ideologies include the Protestant work ethic and belief in meritocracy. Essentially, belief in a just world feeds an epistemic need for predictability, order, and stability in one's environment. System justification theory, while keeping the perspective that people are inclined to believe the world is just, extracts the underlying epistemic needs of the just world ideology and uses them as support for why people are motivated to uphold the system. In other words, preference for stability, predictability, and the perception of personal control, over random chance, motivates one to see the status quo as fair and legitimate. This can be an issue, however, due to the fact that disadvantaged people can easily internalize their low position and blame themselves for 'shortcomings' or lack of 'successes'.
False consciousness
In order to account for the phenomenon of outgroup favoritism that is a main component of system justification, theorists have derived heavily from the Marxist-feminist theories on the prevailing ideologies as tools to preserve the system. In particular, the concept of false consciousness, in which the dominant group in society believes their dominance to be destined, can help to inform why certain members of disadvantage groups sometimes engage in outgroup favoritism. Further, system justification emphasizes that those that lack means of material production (lower status) are subject to the ideas, (cultural values, legislation, and social teachings) of the dominant, controlling group.
Aspects of the theory
Rationalization of the status quo
One of the main aspects of system justification theory explains that people are motivated to justify the status quo and view it as stable and desirable. To this extent, theorists have provided specific hypothesis in which the rationalization of the status quo can manifest. One consequence of the system-justifying motivation, is the rationalization of desirability of likely versus less-likely events.
Since people will be inclined to make sure their preferences are congruent with the status quo, in situations of inevitability, people are more likely to endorse the status quo as a coping mechanism for dealing with unpleasant realities. In essence, people will judge events that are more likely as more desirable than events that are less likely. Anticipatory rationalization studies completed during presidential election in 2000 demonstrate how future candidate endorsement and desirability is dependent on the likelihood of that candidate winning. When subjects of both the Republican and Democratic parties were told, for example, that it was probable that one candidate would win over the other, people of both parties tended to rationalize support for the more likely winner. System justification for seemingly inevitable and unavoidable outcomes serves as a stress/dissonance reducer and provides psychological and emotional consolation, as well as allowing the individual to feel a sense of control over external events.
Another way people rationalize the status quo is through the use of stereotypes. When people perceive threats to the predominant system, they are more inclined to cling to and back the existing structure, and one way of doing so is by means of endorsing stereotypes that rationalize inequality. If one considers oneself a member of a higher social status group (economic standing, race, gender) he or she will hold favorable stereotypes about their group and less positive ones toward lower status outgroups. As perceived legitimacy of the system or threat to it increases, members of both disadvantaged and advantaged groups will be more motivated to utilize stereotypes as explanatory rationalizations (no matter how weak) for unequal status differences. Those that belong to disadvantaged groups will tend to associate positive characteristics (favorable stereotypes) to high status members and lead low status group members to minimize negative feelings about their low status. Thus, stereotype endorsement as system justification is consensual and holds a palliative function. This is true for both the ingroup and outgroup. Stereotypes also deflect blame of unfair status differences from the system and instead, attribute inequality to group traits or characteristics. Such rationalization for inequality via stereotyping is said to be what makes political conservatives happier than liberals. In a recent research study on the connection of system justification beliefs and ambivalent sexism, researchers found that benevolent sexism beliefs related to higher life satisfaction through system justification. That is, both men and women may be motivated to hold benevolent sexism beliefs because such beliefs may help to promote the notion that the status quo is fair, which in turn can maintain life satisfaction.
Outgroup favoritism
In contrast to ingroup favoritism, which holds that people have a motivation to regard the social groups that they belong in more positively than other groups, outgroup favoritism is when people tend to regard groups to which they do not belong more positively than the groups to which they are members. System justification theorists argue that this is an example or manifestation of how some people have unconsciously absorbed, processed, and attempted to cope with existing inequalities—more specifically, one's own disadvantaged position in the social hierarchy. Because people have a tendency to justify the status quo (which usually consists of inequality among groups) and believe that it is fair and legitimate, certain people from low status groups will accept, internalize, and hence perpetuate that inequality.
Criticisms of outgroup favoritism have suggested observations of this in disadvantaged group members are simply manifestations of more general demand characteristics or social norms that encourage low status groups to evaluate other groups more positively. In response to this, system justification theorists introduced both implicit and explicit measures of outgroup favoritism. It was found that low status group members still exhibited outgroup favoritism (i.e. preference for other groups) on both implicit and explicit measures, and they displayed higher instances of outgroup favoritism on implicit measures than on explicit (self-reported) measures. In contrast, people from high status groups were found to display ingroup favoritism more on implicit measures.
Thus, it is expected that when motivation to justify the system or status quo increases and it is perceived to be more legitimate, high status group members will also display increased ingroup favoritism, while low status group members will display increased outgroup favoritism.
Researchers have also linked political conservatism with system justification, in that conservatism is associated with upholding tradition and resistance to change, which is similar to justifying the status quo (or current state of social, political, and economic norms). Along this vein, system justification theorists hold that high status group members will engage in increased ingroup favoritism the more politically conservative they are, while low status group members will display increased outgroup favoritism the more politically conservative they are.
Depressed entitlement
Research on wage disparities among men and women have found that women often believe they are paid less than men because they do not deserve equal pay. This depressed entitlement was first thought as the manifestation of women internalizing the low status of their gender compared to men. Subsequent research has found depressed entitlement occur across contexts in which gender was not a variable. System justification theorists have suggested that depressed entitlement is another general example of how individuals of low status groups absorb their inferiority in order to justify the status quo. As such, system justification holds that low status group members regardless of context will be more likely to display instances of depressed entitlement than high status group members. And this will be seen more among low status group members for completed work as opposed to work not yet completed.
Ego, group, and system justification motives
As previously stated, people are motivated by the desire for ego-justification and group-justification to view themselves and their group positively (which can manifest through feelings of self-esteem and value). The system-justification motive is people's desire to view the system or status quo in a favorable light as legitimate and fair. Among high status group members, all three of these motives are congruent with one another. The need to believe the system is just and fair is easy for high status group members because they are the groups benefiting from the system and status quo. Therefore, as the advantaged groups, holding positive regard for the self and group corresponds readily with believing the status quo is legitimate.
In particular, as system justification motives increase for high status group members, ingroup ambivalence will decrease, levels of self-esteem will increase, and depression and neuroticism levels will decrease. For low status groups, the ego-justification and group-justification motives come into conflict with the system-justification motive. If low status group members have a desire to believe the status quo and prevailing system is fair and legitimate, then this would conflict with the motivation of these individuals to maintain positive self and group images. Theorists posit that this conflict of justification motives creates conflicting or mixed attitudes in low status groups as a result of being the disadvantaged group that does not necessarily benefit from the status quo.
As system justification motives increase for low status group members, ingroup ambivalence will increase and occur at stronger levels compared to high status groups, levels of self-esteem will decrease, and depression and neuroticism levels will increase. Moreover, researchers suggest that when ego and group justification motives are particularly decreased, system-justification motives will increase.
Enhanced system justification among the disadvantaged
Based on cognitive dissonance theory that holds people have a need to reduce dissonance and maintain cognitive consistency, system justification theory explains that people are motivated to rationalize and justify instances of inequality in order to preserve and defend the legitimacy of the system. Because people have this need to believe the current prevailing system is legitimate and the way it is for a reason, when presented with instances where this might threaten that, people sometimes respond with more justifications to maintain the legitimacy of the system or status quo.
Compensatory stereotypes
Research has found that compensatory stereotypes might lead to increased justification of the status quo. That is, stereotypes that have components that would offset the negative aspects of the stereotypes would allow people to more easily explain or justify the inequality of the prevailing system. One of the more common examples is the compensatory stereotype of “poor but happy” or “rich but miserable.” Stereotypes like these that incorporate a positive aspect to counterbalance the negative aspect would lead people to increase their justification of the status quo. Other findings suggested that these compensatory stereotypes are preferred by those with more left leaning political ideologies, while those with more right leaning political ideologies preferred non-complementary stereotypes that simply rationalized inequality rather than compensated for it. But that overall, conservatives were more likely to have increased system justification tendencies than liberals.
Consequences of system justification
Consequences of people's motivation to legitimize the status quo are wide-ranging. In needing to believe that the current or prevailing systems are fair and just, results in people justifying the existing inequalities within it. Research on system justification theory has been applied to many different social and political contexts that have found the theory has implications for general social change, social policies, and specific communities.
Research has found that people with increased system justification motives are more resistant to change, and thus an implication of this would be greater difficulty to move towards policies, governments, authority figures, and hierarchies that reflect equality.
Research suggests that system justification motives reduce emotional distress in people that would otherwise result in demands for amendments to perceived injustices or inequalities. Specifically, moral outrage, guilt, and frustration are reduced when system justification motives increase. This has shown to result in less support for social policies that redistribute resources in the aim for equality.
In developing countries, in which group inequalities are most evident, researchers were interested in testing the claim of system justification theory that when inequalities are more visible, this will result in greater justification of the status quo. Researchers visited the most impoverished areas of Bolivia, and found that children (aged 10–15) who were members of low status groups legitimized the Bolivian government as sufficiently meeting the needs of the people more so than children from high status groups. Observing system-justification motives in low status groups located in one of the most impoverished countries implies there will be less support for social change in a country that arguably needs it the most.
In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005, there were different reactions to the devastation it brought to communities as well as the government's relief efforts. Researchers who have studied these reactions, found that the slow and inefficient response of relief efforts were perceived by some to expose “governmental shortcomings, call into question the legitimacy of agency leadership, and highlight racial inequality in America.” These perceptions indirectly brought a threat to the legitimacy of the U.S. government (i.e. the system). As a result of this system threat, researchers found that people tended to restore legitimacy to the system through utilizing stereotypes and victim blaming. In particular, since the majority of the communities affected by Hurricane Katrina were generally low-income and composed mostly of minorities, some people used stereotypes to blame the victims for their misfortune and restore legitimacy to the government. Researchers explained how this could have consequences for the victims and the restoration of their homes and communities. Increased system justification, and increased victim blaming could be detrimental in providing the victims the resources needed to work towards repairing the damage caused by Hurricane Katrina.
Critiques
Social identity theory debate
This debate arose from social identity theorists who countered a critique of social identity theory by system justification theorists. System justification theorists argued that the theoretical conception of system justification theory derived, in part, from limitations of social identity theory. In particular, system justification theorists have argued that social identity theory does not fully account for outgroup favoritism, and that it is more able to explain ingroup favoritism. Advocates for social identity theory have argued that this critique is more a result of lack of research on outgroup favoritism rather than a limitation of social identity theory's theoretical framework.
More recently, social identity theorists have put forward a social identity model of system attitudes (SIMSA), which offers several explanations for system justification that refer to social identity motives rather than a separate system justification motive (Owuamalam et al., 2016; Owuamalam et al., 2018a, 2018b). In 2019, a series of position and reply articles were published by proponents of both SJT (Jost, 2019; Jost et al., 2019) and SIMSA (Owuamalam et al., 2019a, 2019b) in the debate section of the British Journal of Social Psychology. In 2023, this debate continued in the European Review of Social Psychology, with (a) a target article by Rubin et al. (2023) that expanded on SIMSA, (b) a rejoinder by Jost et al. (2023) that criticized this target article, and (c) a second article by Rubin et al. (2023) that responded to Jost et al.'s criticisms.
Relation to status quo bias
Another critique is that SJT is too similar and indistinguishable to status quo bias. Given that both deal directly with upholding and legitimizing the status quo, this critique is not unfounded. But system justification theory differs from the status quo bias in that it is predominately motivational rather than cognitive. Generally, the status quo bias refers to a tendency to prefer the default or established option when making choices. In contrast, system justification posits that people need and want to see prevailing social systems as fair and just. The motivational component of system justification means that its effects are exacerbated when people are under psychological threat or when they feel their outcomes are especially dependent on the system that is being justified.
Current research
Congruent with a broader trend toward neuroscience, current research on system justification has tested to see how this manifests in the brain. Findings by researchers have shown that people with more conservative ideologies differed in certain brain structures, which was associated with sensitivity to threat and response conflict. Specifically, those who were more conservative were "associated with greater neural sensitivity to threat and larger amygdala volume, as well as less sensitivity to response conflict and smaller anterior cingulate volume," compared to those who were more liberal. This research is currently exploratory and has not yet determined the direction of the relations to ideology and brain structures.
Recent findings by researchers have shown that system justification motives to legitimize the status quo was found in young children. Through utilizing the developmental psychological theory and data, children as early as age 5 were found to have basic understandings of their ingroup and the status of their ingroup. System justification motives were also observed in that children from low status groups were found display implicit outgroup favoritism. Research on system justification in young children remains a current trend.
See also
Authority bias
Consensus theory
Groupthink
Ideology
List of cognitive biases
Progress trap
Status quo bias
References
Bibliography
Hanson, Jon (2007). Thanksgiving as "System Justification"?. Retrieved December 1, 2007. The Situationist
Cognitive inertia
Conformity
Group processes
Moral psychology
Political psychology
Social phenomena
Social theories
Barriers to critical thinking
Error
Waste of resources
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim%20Moore%20%28comedian%29
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Tim Moore (comedian)
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Tim Moore (December 9, 1887 – December 13, 1958) was an American vaudevillian and comic actor of the first half of the 20th century. He gained his greatest recognition in the starring role of George "Kingfish" Stevens in the CBS TV's The Amos 'n' Andy Show. He proudly stated, "I've made it a point never to tell a joke on stage that I couldn't tell in front of my mother."
Biography
Early years
Moore was born Harry Roscoe Moore in Rock Island, Illinois, one of 13 children of Harry and Cynthia Moore. His father was a night watchman at a brewery. Tim Moore dropped out of grammar school to work at odd jobs in town and even danced for pennies in the streets with his friend, Romeo Washburn.
In 1898, Moore and Washburn went into vaudeville in an act called "Cora Miskel and Her Gold Dust Twins." It was booked by agents and travelled through the United States and even Great Britain. As Moore and Washburn grew older, the act became less effective and Miss Miskel sent them back to their parents in Rock Island. Shortly after this, Moore joined the medicine show of "Doctor Mick" (Charles S. Mick), who sold a patented quack remedy called Pru-ri-ta. Doctor Mick travelled through the Midwestern states, with songs and dances provided by Moore and four Kickapoo Indians. The young man also worked in a carnival sideshow and gave guided tours as a "native" tour guide in Hawaii.
Boxing and vaudeville years
Moore left Doctor Mick, first to become a stableboy and later a jockey. He also tried his hand as a professional boxer under the name "Young Klondike" in 1905, and found it lucrative. He returned to performing in 1908, with a troupe of minstrels called "The Rabbit's Foot Company." By 1909, he was back in vaudeville and had met and married his first wife, Hester. They performed as a team, "The Moores – Tim & Hester", appearing in the United States and abroad. In 1910, the couple was part of an act called the Four Moores. They next performed together in "Georgia Sunflowers," a minstrel show that played the southern vaudeville circuit. The Moores drew glowing reviews, Hester for her singing and Tim for his comedy. By 1914, both Moores were co-stars of an act that was billed as Tim Moore and Tom Delaney & Co.. Tim played the tuba and Hester played drums as part of a band. Moore's own stock company was responsible for all aspects of it. The couple toured China, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, the Fiji Islands and Hawaii with a vaudeville troupe.
The marriage ended in divorce in 1915, and in September, Moore married a vaudeville actress named Gertrude Brown. After more than a year on the road in vaudeville in the United States, the Hawaiian Islands, Australia and New Zealand, he returned to boxing once more as "Young Klondike", training in New Zealand. He fought there and in Australia, England, and Scotland. Before this, Moore fought as "Young Klondike" in the US, with Jack Johnson and Sam Langford as some of his opponents. While Tim and Gertie were entertaining in New Zealand, a story in The Evening Post from May 28, 1917, went on to say, "Another "star" item will be that of Tim and Gertie Moore, who have earned a big reputation in America, and were booked for Fuller's direct from the well-known Orpheum circuit." Moore became well known for his one-man presentation of Uncle Tom's Cabin, where he would play the role of both Simon Legree and Uncle Tom, applying white chalk to half his face, and burnt cork to the other. Moore literally took his one man act into the street of San Jose, California, for the sale of War Stamps in 1918.
Having made $141,000 with his fists, in 1921 Moore and his wife returned to performing full-time in vaudeville. He formed his Chicago Follies troupe and was a favorite on the Theater Owners Booking Association vaudeville circuit during the "Roaring Twenties" period. In 1923, Moore and his wife co-starred with Sandy Burns, Fannetta Burns, Walter Long, and Bobby Smart in a silent film comedy, His Great Chance, directed by Ben Strasser (North State Film Corp.). The following year, the Moores toured vaudeville together in "Aces and Queens". Subsequently, he went on tour as one of the stars of producer Edward E. Daley's "black and white musical comedy sensation", Rarin' to Go, for three seasons on the Columbia Burlesque Wheel (1925, 1926 and 1927 editions).
Broadway comedian
In June 1925, Tim Moore made his Broadway debut as the star of Lucky Sambo (based on "Aces and Queens'). However, the show closed after only a few performances. He was a success in burlesque in the mid 1920s with the hit show Rarin' to Go, followed by a return to vaudeville in 1927 with The Southland Revue. In 1928, he produced and starred in weekly shows at Harlem theatres such as the Alhambra. Moore wrote all of his own material and also did some writing for other performers; a Moore skit called, "Not a Fit Night for Man Nor Beast", was bought by W.C. Fields. He also did some writing for the radio show of the Two Black Crows comedy team. Moore was brought to New York to sign a writing contract but before this was done, Charles Mack of the team was killed in an auto accident, thus ending the act. Moore wrote sketches which became part of Lew Leslie's "Blackbirds" revues as well.
In 1928, Moore took time off from his vaudeville bookings to try his luck once more on the Great White Way – Broadway. This time he met with enormous success as the star comedian of Lew Leslie's hit musical comedy revue, the Blackbirds of 1928. Moore's co-stars were singers Adelaide Hall and Aida Ward and renowned tap dancer Bill "Bojangles" Robinson. The hit musical scored high in Paris and London as well as on the road throughout the states. In 1931, Moore and his then vaudeville straight man at the Alhambra, Andrew Tribble, performed one of their funniest routines in Oscar Micheaux's first talking picture, The Darktown Revue. After a disagreement with Lew Leslie, Moore starred in two unsuccessful Broadway revues for other producers, Fast and Furious (1931), and The Blackberries of 1932. In the former, Moore wrote some of the skits along with his friend and co-star Zora Neale Hurston. Moore and fellow comedian "Morton" (i.e., Mantan Moreland) left the show in April 1932, refusing to perform what were termed "dirty lines". Needing each other, he and Leslie patched up their differences and Moore resumed his position as star comedian in the Blackbirds revues of 1934, 1935, 1936, 1937, and 1939. Politics played a role in the 1936 edition of the Blackbirds, causing the London run to be shut down. At the time the troupe was booked in the United Kingdom, King Edward VIII had just abdicated the British throne for love of American Wallis Simpson. There was a wave of anti-Americanism, with women picketing performances of the Blackbirds, carrying signs disparaging American women. Yet the next season saw the return of the revue as Blackbirds of 1937, its last edition in England. Two years later, on Broadway, Lew Leslie presented the last edition of the Blackbirds (1939); the principal singing star was Lena Horne. Moore's last Broadway show was Harlem Cavalcade (1942), produced by Ed Sullivan and Noble Sissle. When Al Jolson attended a performance of Harlem Cavalcade at the Ritz Theatre, he declared that "Moore was one of the most expert craftsmen he had ever roared at." During the late 1930s and early 1940s, Moore was one of the top comedians headlining at the Apollo Theater in Harlem. He also performed on radio as a dramatic actor.
In 1946, he starred as Bumpsie in the musical comedy film, Boy! What a Girl!. He made some appearances on Ed Sullivan's television show, Toast of the Town, and at the Apollo Theater; Moore then retired from show business. His wife Gertrude having died in 1934, Moore settled down with his third wife, Benzonia Davis Moore (1889–1956). The couple was married in 1941 and initially made their home in Baltimore. In 1946, the couple settled down in his home town of Rock Island. There, he kept busy working the night shift at the Servus Rubber company, where boots and shoes were made.
Television stardom
In 1948, CBS hired Flournoy Miller as a casting advisor for the planned Amos 'n' Andy TV series. They had failed to locate Tim Moore for the role of George "Kingfish" Stevens, a role which was created and voiced on radio by white actor Freeman Gosden. It was Miller's job to trace the actor's whereabouts. Meanwhile, in January 1950, Moore went to New York to perform at the Apollo and appear as guest star on CBS-TV's Toast of the Town. After fulfilling these engagements, Moore returned to Rock Island. A few months later, Flournoy Miller called the manager of the Apollo and finally received Moore's address. Moore did voice tests at CBS radio studios in Peoria and Chicago, and then was brought to CBS-TV in Hollywood for a screen test. He returned to Rock Island. Shortly after this, he was signed by Columbia Broadcasting System to star in a new television adaptation of Amos 'n' Andy. As the radio series had developed in prior years, the scheming but henpecked Kingfish had become the central focus of most of the plots. In the television version, Moore played the character more broadly, with louder and more forceful delivery and a distinctive Georgia drawl, exaggerated for comic effect. Moore's Kingfish dominated the calmer and soft-spoken "Amos 'n' Andy" characters. Early in his career, Moore had developed a "con-man" routine he used for many years while in vaudeville; re-working some aspects of his old act produced the television character Kingfish.
Moore was very popular in the show and for the first time in his career became a national celebrity as well as the first African American to win stardom on television. When leaving a train in Albuquerque to buy some Native American pottery, the proprietor recognized him immediately, saying, "You, you Kingfish." This was the first time it happened in Moore's 52 years in show business. The show aired on prime-time TV from June 1951 to June 1953. Although quite popular, the series was eventually canceled due to complaints about ethnic stereotyping. Shortly after the television show left the air, there were plans to turn it into a vaudeville act in August 1953, with Moore, Williams, and Childress playing the same characters. Although it is not known if this ever materialized in that year, a vaudeville-style Amos 'n' Andy road show did tour the country in 1957. After the series was canceled, it was shown in syndication until 1966 when increasing condemnation and pressure from the NAACP persuaded the show's owners (CBS, which still owns the copyrights) to withdraw it from further exhibition. It was resurrected in the early days of home videotape through public domain video dealers who had acquired episodes from collectors of used 16mm TV prints, although the copyright was never in the public domain. Illegally produced copies continue to be sold over the internet. The series itself would not be seen on a regular basis again until independent network Rejoice TV began re-airing episodes in 2012.
Many of the episodes revolved around Moore's Kingfish character, supported by Ernestine Wade as his level-headed, emotionally strong wife Sapphire, and Amanda Randolph as his openly aggressive mother-in-law, without the participation of Amos or Andy. These Kingfish-only episodes were originally produced as a spinoff series, The Adventures of Kingfish, which made its debut on CBS on January 4, 1955, but lasted only a few episodes. When the Amos 'n' Andy half-hours went into syndication, the Adventures of Kingfish shows were added to the syndicated package under the Amos 'n' Andy series title.
In 1956, Moore and his fellow cast mates Spencer Williams, Alvin Childress and Lillian Randolph with her choir, tried a tour of personal appearances as "The TV Stars of Amos 'n' Andy". The tour was halted by CBS, who viewed this as infringing on their exclusivity. Moore, and fellow cast members Williams, Childress and Lee, were able to perform for one night in 1957 in Windsor, Ontario, since legal action had not been taken against them in Canada.
Later years
Moore married his last wife Vivian Cravens (1912–1988) eight months after Benzonia's death; she should not be confused with actress Vivian Harris with whom he had been performing as a comedy team at the Apollo Theatre in Harlem in the 1940s. This marriage won considerable publicity for him thanks to the "Roast Beef Scandal" of January 1958. Moore fired a gunshot in his home because of his "mooching in-laws" (stepson, stepdaughter, and her husband) when he found that the last of the New Year's roast beef had been eaten by them. Moore related, "These free-loaders have eaten everything in the house. My wife protects them and every time we talk about it, we get into an argument. The argument got a little loud and the next thing I knew, the big boy (his stepson Hubbard) jumped out of his chair. I ran upstairs and got out my old pistol. I didn't want to hit anybody."
When the police arrived at the home, Moore, pistol still in his belt, told them, "I'm the old Kingfish, boys. I'm the one you want. I fired that shot. I didn't want to hit anyone, although I could have. Anyway, you should have seen the in-laws scatter when I fired that gun." The shot Moore fired hit the china cabinet; he was arrested and charged with assault with a deadly weapon, with police calling him the "funniest prisoner in police history." Moore was initially ordered held on $1,000 bond; the judge changed his mind and released Moore on his own recognizance. Tim and his wife reconciled, with Vivian's pleading for the charges to be dropped. Moore entered a not guilty plea before the case went to trial on March 24. He received a $100 fine and a year's probation as his sentence.
When the story broke, local television personality and columnist Paul Coates invited Tim Moore to appear on his KTTV television show; Moore explained the situation in two guest appearances. Coates was promptly taken to task for Moore's appearances on his show by Stanley Robertson, a journalist for the African-American newspaper, the Los Angeles Sentinel, calling Moore "disgraceful" and labeling the two shows with Moore as "television's darkest hour." Coates replied to his critic in his January 29, 1958 Los Angeles Times column, calling Moore "a pretty wonderful, sincere man" and saying he strongly resented Robertson's attack on him.
Because of the "Roast Beef Scandal," Moore was once more in demand and even received a testimonial tribute dinner from the Friars Club of Beverly Hills, and appearing on The Tonight Show with Jack Paar. The publicity also won an extended performance engagement for him at the legendary Mocambo nightclub.
Death and legacy
Moore died at age 71 on December 13, 1958, of pulmonary tuberculosis in Los Angeles, four days after his birthday. There was no money to pay for his hospital care or for his funeral, Moore having received his final $65.00 residual payment from Amos 'n' Andy in January 1958. At one time, Moore had made $700 per week.
After a large funeral at Mt. Sinai Baptist Church, he was buried at Rosedale Cemetery. At the funeral service, 10,000 fans and mourners passed his open coffin; attendance was star-studded and included Groucho Marx, Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, Louis Armstrong, Tony Curtis, Sidney Poitier, Charlie Barnet, Noble Sissle, Erskine Hawkins, Louis Prima, Freeman F. Gosden, Charles Correll, Spencer Williams, Jr., Alvin Childress, Ernestine Wade, Amanda Randolph, Johnny Lee, Lillian Randolph, Sammy Davis, Jr., Eddie "Rochester" Anderson, Andy Razaf, Clarence Muse, Roy Glenn, Mantan Moreland, Pigmeat Markham, Willie Bryant, Earl Grant. Sammy Davis, Jr. later related that Frank Sinatra organized the effort to pay Tim Moore's funeral expenses. Moore's grave remained unmarked from the time of his burial until 1983; fellow comedians Redd Foxx and George Kirby raised funds for a headstone. There is now one marking the graves of Moore and his wife, Vivian, who died in 1988.
Paying tribute to one of its favorite sons, the Rock Island Public Library held "Tim Moore Day" July 16, 2008. Moore's relatives in the area participated by sharing their memories of his life and work.
In spite of Moore's achievement as the first major African American television star, there has not yet been a purchase of a star to honor him on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
Selected stage productions
Cora Miskel and Her Gold Dust Twins (vaudeville, 1899–1901)
Rabbit Foot Minstrels (travelling road show, 1908)
Tim Moore and His Georgia Sunflowers (vaudeville tour, 1909–10)
The Chicago Follies (vaudeville tour, 1915–16)
Bronze Revue (Honolulu, Hawaii, 1916)
A Wedding in Jazz (vaudeville tour, 1919)
The Chicago Follies [aka The Tim Moore Follies] (vaudeville tours, 1920–25)
Rosie's Wedding Day (vaudeville tour, 1923)
Aces and Queens (vaudeville, 1924)
Lucky Sambo (Broadway, 1925)
Rarin' to Go (Columbia Burlesque Circuit, 1925–27)
The Southland Revue (vaudeville tour, 1927)
Take The Air (touring road show, 1927)
Bronze Buddies (Harlem, 1928)
Blackbirds of 1928 (Broadway, 1928–29; Moulin Rouge, Paris, 1929; and London, 1929)
Say It With Girls (Harlem, 1930)
Fast and Furious (Broadway, 1931)
Harlem Scandals (Harlem, 1931–32)
Blackberries of 1932 (Broadway, 1932)
Blackbirds of 1934 (England, Scotland and provinces)
Blackbirds of 1935 (England and Scotland and provinces)
Blackbirds of 1936 (England and provinces)
Blackbirds of 1937 (England, Scotland and provinces)
The Black Messiah (Harlem, 1939)
Blackbirds of 1939 (Broadway, 1939)
Rhapsody in Black (Erlanger Theatre, Philadelphia, 1941)
Harlem Cavalcade (Broadway, 1942)
Amos 'n' Andy Revue (touring road show, 1957)
References
Notes
Works cited
Bogle, Donald. Blacks in American Films and Television: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Simon and Schuster, 1988.
Ely, Melvin Patrick. The Adventures of Amos 'n' Andy: A Social History of an American Phenomenon, The Free Press, 1991
External links
Tim Moore biography
Watch
Amos 'n' Andy: Anatomy of a Controversy Video by Hulu
Boy! What a Girl! at Internet Archive.
African-American male actors
African-American male comedians
American male comedians
American male film actors
American male television actors
Blackface minstrel performers
Vaudeville performers
1887 births
1958 deaths
Burials at Angelus-Rosedale Cemetery
People from Rock Island, Illinois
20th-century American male actors
Male actors from Illinois
Comedians from Illinois
20th-century American comedians
20th-century African-American male singers
20th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Tuberculosis deaths in California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagannath%20Temple%2C%20Puri
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Jagannath Temple, Puri
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The Jagannath Temple is an important Hindu temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Vishnu – one of the trinity of supreme divinity in Hinduism. Puri is in the state of Odisha, on the eastern coast of India. King Indradyumna of Avanti has built the main temple of Jagannath at Puri. The present temple was rebuilt from the tenth 10th century onwards, on the site of pre-existing temples in the compound but not the main Jagannatha temple, and begun by Anantavarman Chodaganga, the first king of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. many rumours are spread about the temple but there is no solid proof of it. The temple is one of the 108 Abhimana Kshethram of Vaishnavate tradition.
The Puri temple is famous for its annual Ratha Yatra, or chariot festival, in which the three principal deities are pulled on huge and elaborately decorated temple cars, Worship is performed by the Bhil Sawar tribal priests as well as priests of other communities in the Jagannath temple. Unlike the stone and metal icons found in most Hindu temples, the image of Jagannath is made of wood and is ceremoniously replaced every twelve or 19 years by an exact replica. It is one of the Char Dham pilgrimage sites.The puri temple is also famous because many legends believe that Krishna’s heart was placed there and the material that it is made from damages the heart so they have to change it every twelve years.
The temple is sacred to all Hindus, and especially in those of the Vaishnava traditions. Many great Vaishnava saints, such as Ramanujacharya, Madhvacharya, Nimbarkacharya, Vallabhacharya and Ramananda were closely associated with the temple. Ramanuja established the Emar Mutt near the temple and Adi Shankaracharya established the Govardhan Math, which is the seat of one of the four Shankaracharyas. It is also of particular significance to the followers of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, whose founder, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, was attracted to the deity, Jagannath, and lived in Puri for many years.
History
The temple was rebuilt by the Ganga dynasty king Anantavarman Chodaganga in the 10th century CE, as suggested by the Kendupatna copper-plate inscription of his descendant Narasimhadeva II. Anantavarman was originally a Shaivite, and became a Vaishnavite sometime after he conquered the Utkala region (in which the temple is located) in 1112 CE. A 1134–1135 CE inscription records his donation to the temple. Therefore, the temple construction must have started sometime after 1112 CE.
According to a story in the temple chronicles, it was founded by Anangabhima-deva II: different chronicles variously mention the year of construction as 1196, 1197, 1205, 1216, or 1226. This suggests that the temple's construction was completed or that the temple was renovated during the reign of Anantavarman's son Anangabhima. The temple complex was further developed during the reigns of the subsequent kings, including those of the Ganga dynasty and the Gajapati dynasty.
Deities
Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra are a trio of deities worshipped at the temple. The inner sanctum of the temple contains the deities of them carved from sacred neem logs known as daru sitting on the bejewelled platform or ratnabedi, along with deities of Sudarshana Chakra, Madanmohan, Sridevi and Vishwadhatri. The deities are adorned with different clothing and jewels according to the season. Worship of these deities pre-dates the building of the temple and may have originated in an ancient tribal shrine.
Legends
According to legend, the construction of the first Jagannath temple was commissioned by King Indradyumna, son of Bharata and Sunanda, and a Malava king, mentioned in the Mahabharata and the Puranas.
The legendary account as found in the Skanda Purana, Brahma Purana and other Puranas and later Odia works state that Jagannath was originally worshipped as Nilamadhava by a savara king (tribal chief) named Vishvavasu. Having heard about the deity, King Indradyumna sent a Brahmin priest, Vidyapati to locate the deity, who was worshipped secretly in a dense forest by Vishvavasu. Vidyapati tried his best but could not locate the place. But at last he managed to marry Vishvavasu's daughter Lalita. At repeated request of Vidyapti, Vishvavasu took his son-in-law blind folded to a cave where Nilamadhava was worshipped.
Vidyapati was very intelligent. He dropped mustard seeds on the ground on the way. The seeds germinated after a few days, which enabled him to find out the cave later on. On hearing from him, King Indradyumna proceeded immediately to Odra desha (Odisha) on a pilgrimage to see and worship the Deity. But the deity had disappeared. The king was disappointed. The Deity was hidden in sand. The king was determined not to return without having a darshan of the deity and observed fast unto death at Nilachala, Then a celestial voice cried "Bhavatu Nama" (So be it). Afterward, the king performed a horse sacrifice and built a magnificent temple for Vishnu. Narasimha Murti brought by Narada was installed in the temple. During sleep, the king had a vision of Jagannath. Also an astral voice directed him to receive the fragrant tree on the seashore and make deities out of it. Accordingly, the king got the image of Jagannath, Balabhadra, Subhadra and the Sudarshana Chakra made out of the wood of the divine tree and installed them in the temple.
Indradyumna's prayer to Brahma
King Indradyumna put up for Jagannath the tallest monument of the world. It was 1,000 cubits high. He invited Brahma, the cosmic creator, consecrate the temple and the images. Brahma came all the way from Heaven for this purpose. Seeing the temple he was immensely pleased with him. Brahma asked Indradyumna as to in what way can he (Brahma) fulfill the king's desire, since was very much pleased with him for his having put the most beautiful Temple for deity Vishnu. With folded hands, Indradyumna said, "My deity, if you are really pleased with me, kindly bless me with one thing, and it is that I should be issueless and that I should be the last member of my family." In case anybody left alive after him, he would only take pride as the owner of the temple and would not work for the society.
Legend surrounding the Temple origin
The traditional story concerning the origins of the Jagannath temple is that here the original image of Jagannath (a deity form of Vishnu) at the end of Dvapara yuga manifested near a banyan tree, near seashore in the form of an Indranila mani or the Blue Jewel. It was so dazzling that it could grant instant moksha, so the diety Dharma or Yama wanted to hide it in the earth and was successful. In Kali Yuga King Indradyumna of Malwa wanted to find that mysterious image and to do so he performed harsh penance to obtain his goal. Vishnu then instructed him to go to the Puri seashore and find a floating log to make an image from its trunk.
The King found the log of wood. He did a yajna from which Yajna Nrisimha appeared and instructed that Narayana should be made as fourfold expansion, i.e. Paramatma as Vasudeva, his Vyuha as Samkarshana, Yogamaya as Subhadra, and his Vibhava as Sudarsana. Vishwakarma appeared in the form of an artisan and prepared images of Jagannath, Balarama and Subhadra from the tree.
When this log, radiant with light was seen floating in the sea, Narada told the king to make three deities out of it and place them in a pavilion. Indradyumna got Visvakarma, the architect of gods, to build a magnificent temple to house the deities, and Vishnu himself appeared in the guise of a carpenter to make the deities on condition that he was to be left undisturbed until he finished the work.
But just after two weeks, the Queen became very anxious. She took the carpenter to be dead as no sound came from the temple. Therefore, she requested the king to open the door. Thus, they went to see Vishnu at work at which the latter abandoned his work leaving the deities unfinished. The deity was devoid of any hands. But a divine voice told Indradyumana to install them in the temple. It has also been widely believed that in spite of the deity being without hands, it can watch over the world and be its lord. Thus the idiom.
Invasions and desecrations of the Temple
The temple annals, the Madala Panji records that the Jagannath temple at Puri has been invaded and plundered eighteen times.
Entry and Darshan
Non-Hindus are not permitted to enter the temple. Visitors not allowed to enter may view the temple and precinct from the roof of the nearby Raghunandan Library and pay their respects to the image of Jagannath seen at the main entrance to the temple.
The temple is open from 5:00am to 10:30pm.
Jagannath Puri temple has a history of barring entry to dalits.
Cultural integrity
Starting from Jagannath himself, history has it that he was a tribal deity, adorned by the Bhil Sabar people, as a symbol of Narayan. Another legend claims him to be Nilamadhava, an image of Narayana made of blue stone and worshipped by the aboriginals. He was brought to Nilagiri (blue mountain) or Nilachala and installed there as Jagannath in company with Balabhadra and Subhadra. The images made of wood are also claimed to have their distant linkage with the vanvasi (forest dwellers) system of worshipping wooden poles. To cap it all the Daitapatis, who have a fair share of responsibilities to perform rituals of the Temple, are claimed to be descendants of the hill tribes of Odisha. So we may safely claim that the beginning of the cultural history of Shrikshetra is found in the cultures of Hindu tribes. The three deities came to be claimed as the symbols of Samyak Darshan, Samyak Jnana and Samyak Charita usually regarded as Ratnatraya, triple gems of the Jain culture, assimilation of which leads to Omniscience and Moksha (salvation).
Jagannath is worshipped as Vishnu or Narayana or Krishna and deity Balabhadra as Shesha. Simultaneously, the deities are regarded as the bhairava with Vimala (the devi or the consort of Shiva) installed in the campus of the temple. So ultimately we find a fusion of Saivism, Shaktism and Vaishnavism of the Hindu religion so reverently held together in Shrikshetra.
Acharyas and Jagannatha Puri
All of the renowned acharyas including Madhvacharya have been known to visit this kshetra. Adi Shankara established his Govardhana matha here. Guru Nanak had visited this place with his disciples Bala and Manda. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu of Gaudiya Vaishnavism stayed here for 24 years, establishing that the love of God can be spread by chanting the Hare Krishna mantra. Vallabha visited Jagannath Puri and performed a 7-day recitation of Srimad Bhagvat. His sitting place is still famous as his "baithakji", roughly literally translating to his seat. It confirms his visit to Puri.
A famous incident took place when Vallabha visited. There was a Shastrartha being held between the Brahmins before the king himself and 4 questions were asked. Who is the highest of the gods, What is the highest of mantras, What is the highest scripture and What is the highest service. The discourse went on for many days with many schools of thought. Very young teen Vallabhacharyaji Mahaprabhu also joined the debated and answered all the questions at once. His answers were accepted and appreciated by all except few opposition scholars, they challenged the answers. The debate then resumed for a long period.
Finally Shri Vallabhacharya said to ask Jagannath to confirm Shri Vallabh's answers. It was mutually decided between all scholars and king that whatever Jagannath would write, it would be considered as the final and correct answer.
A pen, inkpot and the paper were left alone in the inner sanctum before the deity to write the answers.
After some time, the doors were opened and 4 answers were found to be written. 1) The Son of Devaki (Krishna) is the God of Gods 2) His name is the highest of mantras 3) Highest of all scriptures is Devki Putra's Bhagavat Geeta 4) Service to Him is the Highest service.
The king along with all other scholars were shocked and declared Shri Vallabh the winner of the discourse.
Some of the pandits who participated became jealous of young Shri Vallabh and wanted to test Him. The next day was Ekadashi, a fasting day where one must fast from grains. The pandits gave Shri Vallabh rice Prasad of Shri Jagannathji (The temple is famous for this). If Shri Vallabh ate it, He would break His vow of fasting but if He did not take it, He would disrespect Jagannath. Shri Vallabh with all honour and respect accepted the prasad in his hand. He stood there in the temple, spent the rest of the day and night explaining shlokas of the greatness of Prasad and ate the rice the next morning after sunrise.
The Sikh Aarti Gagan mai thaal was recited by first guru, Guru Nanak in 1506 or 1508 during his journey (called "udaasi") to east India, at the revered Jagannath Temple, Puri. This arti is sung (not performed with platter and lamps etc.) daily after recitation of Rehraas Sahib and Ardās at the Harmandir Sahib, Amritsar and at most Gurudwara sahibs.
Char Dham
The temple is one of the holiest Vaishnava Hindu Char Dham (four divine sites) sites also including Rameswaram, Badrinath, Puri and Dwarka. Though the origins are not clearly known, the Advaita school of Hinduism propagated by Sankaracharya, who created Hindu monastic institutions across India, attributes the origin of Char Dham to the seer. The four monasteries lie across the four corners of India and their attendant temples are Badrinath Temple at Badrinath in the North, Jagannath Temple at Puri in the East, Dwarakadheesh Temple at Dwarka in the West and Ramanathaswamy Temple at Rameswaram in the South. Though ideologically the temples are divided between the sects of Hinduism, namely Saivism and Vaishnavism, the Char Dham pilgrimage is an all Hindu affair. There are four abodes in Himalayas called Chota Char Dham (Chota meaning small): Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri and Yamunotri – all of these lie at the foothills of Himalayas The name Chota was added during the mid of 20th century to differentiate the original Char Dhams. The journey across the four cardinal points in India is considered sacred by Hindus who aspire to visit these temples once in their lifetime. Traditionally the trip starts at the eastern end from Puri, proceeding in clockwise direction in a manner typically followed for circumambulation in Hindu temples.
Structure
The huge temple complex covers an area of over , and is surrounded by a high fortified wall. This high wall is known as Meghanada Pacheri. Another wall known as kurma bedha surrounds the main temple. It contains at least 120 temples and shrines. With its sculptural richness and fluidity of the Oriya style of temple architecture, it is one of the most magnificent monuments of India. The temple has four distinct sectional structures, namely –
Deula, Vimana or Garba griha (Sanctum sanctorum) where the triad deities are lodged on the ratnavedi (Throne of Pearls). In Rekha Deula style;
Mukhashala (Frontal porch);
Nata mandir/Natamandapa, which is also known as the Jagamohan (Audience Hall/Dancing Hall), and
Bhoga Mandapa (Offerings Hall).
The main temple is a curvilinear temple and crowning the top is the 'Neelachakra' (an eight spoked wheel) of deityVishnu.It is made out of Ashtadhatu and is considered sacrosanct. Among the existing temples in Orissa, the temple of Shri Jagannath is the highest. The temple tower was built on a raised platform of stone and, rising to above the inner sanctum where the deities reside, dominates the surrounding landscape. The pyramidal roofs of the surrounding temples and adjoining halls, or mandapas, rise in steps toward the tower like a ridge of mountain peaks.
Nila Chakra
The Nila Chakra (Blue Discus) is the discus mounted on the top shikhar of the Jagannath Temple. As per custom, everyday a different flag is waved on the Nila Chakra. The flag hoisted on the Nila Chakra is called the Patita Pavana (Purifier of the Fallen) and is equivalent to the image of the deities placed in the sanctum sanctorum.
The Nila Chakra is a disc with eight Navagunjaras carved on the outer circumference, with all facing towards the flagpost above. It is made of alloy of eight metals (Asta-dhatu) and is 3.5 Metres (11 feet and 8 inches) high with a circumference of about 11 metres (36 feet). During the year 2010, the Nila Chakra was repaired and restored by the Archaeological Survey of India.
The Nila Chakra is distinct from the Sudarshana chakra which has been placed with the deities in the inner sanctorum.
Nila Chakra is the most revered iconic symbol in the Jagannath tradition. The Nila Chakra is the only physical object whose markings are used as sacrament and considered sacred in Jagannath worship. It symbolises protection by Shri Jagannath.
The Singhadwara
The Singahdwara, which in Sanskrit means The Lion Gate, is one of the four gates to the temple and forms the Main entrance. The Singhadwara is so named because two huge statues of crouching lions exist on either side of the entrance. The gate faces east opening on to the Bada Danda or the Grand Road. The Baisi Pahacha or the flight of twenty two steps leads into the temple complex. An deity of Jagannath known as Patitapavana, which in Sanskrit, means the "Saviour of the downtrodden and the fallen" is painted on the right side of the entrance. In ancient times when untouchables were not allowed inside the temple, they could pray to Patita Pavana. The statues of the two guards to the temple Jaya and Vijaya stand on either side of the doorway. Just before the commencement of the Rath Yatra the deities of Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra are taken out of the temple through this gate. On their return from the Gundicha Temple they have to ceremonially placate goddess Mahalakshmi, whose deity is carved atop the door, for neglecting to take her with them on the Yatra. Only then the goddess allows them permission to enter the temple. A magnificent sixteen-sided monolithic pillar known as the Aruna Stambha stands in front of the main gate. This pillar has an idol of Arun, the charioteer of the sun god Surya, on its top. One significant thing about Arun stambha is that prior it was located in the Konark Sun temple, later, the Maratha guru Brahmachari Gosain brought this pillar from Konark.
Other entrances
Apart from the Singhadwara, which is the main entrance to the temple, there are three other entrances facing north, south and west. They are named after the sculptures of animals guarding them. The other entrances are the Hathidwara or the Elephant Gate, the Vyaghradwara or the Tiger Gate and the Ashwadwara or the Horse Gate.
Minor temples
There are numerous smaller temples and shrines within the Temple complex where active worship is regularly conducted. The Vimala Temple (Bimala Temple) is considered one of the most important of the Shaktipeeths marks the spot where the goddess Sati's navel fell. It is located near Rohini Kund in the temple complex. Until food offered to Jagannath is offered to goddess Vimala it is not considered Mahaprasad.
The temple of Mahalakshmi has an important role in rituals of the main temple. It is said that preparation of naivedya as offering for Jagannath is supervised by Mahalakshmi. The Kanchi Ganesh Temple is dedicated to Uchchhishta Ganapati. Tradition says the King of Kanchipuram (Kanchi) in ancient times gifted the deity, when Gajapati Purushottama Deva married Padmavati, the kanchi princess. There are other shrines namely Muktimandap, Surya, Saraswati, Bhuvaneshwari, Narasimha, Rama, Hanuman and Eshaneshwara.
The Mandapas
There are many Mandapas or Pillared halls on raised platforms within the temple complex meant for religious congregations. The most prominent is the Mukti Mandapa the congregation hall of the holy seat of selected learned Brahmins.
Here important decisions regarding conduct of daily worship and festivals are taken. The Dola Mandapa is noteworthy for a beautifully carved stone Torana or arch which is used for constructing a swing for the annual Dol Yatra festival. During the festival the deity of Dologobinda is placed on the swing. The Snana Bedi is a rectangular stone platform where deities of Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra are placed for ceremonial bathing during the annual Snana Yatra.
Daily food offerings
Daily offerings are made to the deity six times a day. These include:
The offering to the deity in the morning that forms his breakfast and is called Gopala Vallabha Bhoga. Breakfast consists of seven items i.e. Khua, Lahuni, Sweetened coconut grating, Coconut water, and popcorn sweetened with sugar known as Khai, Curd and Ripe bananas.
The Sakala Dhupa forms his next offering at about 10 AM. This generally consists of 13 items including the Enduri cake & Mantha puli.
Bada Sankhudi Bhoga forms the next repast & the offering consists of Pakhala with curd and Kanji payas. The offerings are made in the Bhog Mandapa, about 200 feet from the Ratnabedi. This is called Chatra Bhog and was introduced by Adi Shankaracharya in the eighth century to help pilgrims share the temple food.
The Madhyanha dhupa forms the next offering at the noon.
The next offering to the deity is made in the evening at around 8 PM it is Sandhya Dhupa.
The last offering to the deity is called the Bada Singhara Bhoga.
The Mahaprasad of Jagannath are distributed amongst the devotees near the Ratnavedi inside the frame of Phokaria, which is being drawn by the Puja pandas using Muruj, except for the Gopal Ballav Bhog and Bhog Mandap Bhoga which are distributed in the Anabsar Pindi & Bhoga Mandap respectively.
Rosaghara
The temple's kitchen is the largest in the world. Tradition holds that all Mahaprasad cooking in the temple kitchens is supervised by the goddess Mahalakshmi, the empress of Srimandir herself, and that if the food prepared has any fault in it, a shadow dog appears near the temple kitchen, a sign of her displeasure. If the shadow dog is seen, the food is promptly buried and a new batch cooked. All 56 varieties of food produced are vegetarian and prepared without onions, garlic, as prescribed by Hindu religious texts. Cooking is done only in earthen pots using water drawn from two special wells near the kitchen called Ganga and Yamuna. The most awaited offering is Kotho Bhoga or Abadha, offered after midday. After being offered to Jagannath and the other deities, the food is sold at Ananda Bajara, an open food market inside the temple.
Festivals
There are elaborate daily worship services. There are many festivals each year attended by millions of people. The most important festival is the Rath Yatra or the Chariot festival in June. This spectacular festival includes a procession of three huge chariots bearing the deities of Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra through the Bada Danda meaning the Grand Avenue of Puri until their final destination the Gundicha Temple.
Early European observers told tales of devotees being crushed under the wheels of these chariots, whether by accident or even as a form of meritorious suicide akin to suttee. These reports gave rise to the loan word juggernaut suggesting something immense and unstoppable. Many festivals like Dol Yatra in spring and Jhulan Yatra in monsoon are celebrated by temple every year. Pavitrotsava and Damanaka utsava are celebrated as per panchanga or panjika. There are special ceremonies in the month of Kartika and Pausha.
The annual shodasha dinatmaka or 16-day puja beginning 8 days prior to Mahalaya of Ashwin month for goddess Vimala and ending on Vijayadashami, is of great importance, in which both the utsava murty of Madanmohan and Vimala take part.
Pana Sankranti: Also known or Vishuva Sankranti and Mesha Sankranti: Special rituals are performed at the temple.
Chandan Yatra
In Akshaya Tritiya every year the Chandan Yatra festival marks the commencement of the construction of the Chariots of the Rath Yatra.
Snana Yatra
On the Purnima of the month of Jyestha the gods are ceremonially bathed and decorated every year on the occasion of Snana Yatra.
Anavasara or Anasara
Literally means vacation. Every year, the main deities of Jagannath, Balabhadra, Subhadra & Sudarshan after the holy Snana Yatra on the jyestha purnima, go to a secret altar named Anavasara Ghar where they remain for the next dark fortnight (Krishna paksha). Hence devotees are not allowed to view them. So devotees worship at the nearby Brahmagiri temple of Alarnath, an icon of a four-handed Vishnu as a manifestation of Jagannath. Devotees get the first glimpse of the devotees on the day before Rath Yatra, which is called Navayouvana. It is said that the deities fall in fever after taking a huge bath and they are treated by the special servants named, Daitapatis for 15 days. During this period cooked food is not offered to the deities.
Rath Yatra at Puri
The Jagannath triad are usually worshiped in the sanctum of the temple at Puri, but once during the month of Asadha (Rainy Season of Orissa, usually falling in month of June or July), they are brought out onto the Bada Danda (main street of Puri) and travel (3 km) to the Shri Gundicha Temple, in huge chariots (ratha), allowing the public to have darśana (Holy view). This festival is known as Rath Yatra, meaning the journey (yatra) of the chariots (ratha). The Rathas are huge wheeled wooden structures, which are built anew every year and are pulled by the devotees. The chariot for Jagannath is approximately 45 feet high and 35 feet square and takes about 2 months to construct. The artists and painters of Puri decorate the cars and paint flower petals and other designs on the wheels, the wood-carved charioteer and horses, and the inverted lotuses on the wall behind the throne. The huge chariots of Jagannath pulled during Rath Yatra is the etymological origin of the English word Juggernaut. The Ratha-Yatra is also termed as the Shri Gundicha Yatra.
The most significant ritual associated with the Ratha-Yatra is the chhera pahara. During the festival, the Gajapati King wears the outfit of a sweeper and sweeps all around the deities and chariots in the Chera Pahara (sweeping with water) ritual. The Gajapati King cleanses the road before the chariots with a gold-handled broom and sprinkles sandalwood water and powder with utmost devotion. As per the custom, although the Gajapati King has been considered the most exalted person in the Kalingan kingdom, he still renders the menial service to Jagannath. This ritual signified that under the lordship of Jagannath, there is no distinction between the powerful sovereign Gajapati King and the most humble devotee. Chera pahara is held on two days, on the first day of the Ratha Yatra, when the deities are taken to garden house at Mausi Maa Temple and again on the last day of the festival, when the deities are ceremoniously brought back to the Shri Mandir.
As per another ritual, when the deities are taken out from the Shri Mandir to the Chariots in Pahandi vijay.
In the Ratha Yatra, the three deities are taken from the Jagannath Temple in the chariots to the Gundicha Temple, where they stay for nine days. Thereafter, the deities again ride the chariots back to Shri Mandir in bahuda yatra. On the way back, the three chariots halt at the Mausi Maa Temple and the deities are offered Poda Pitha, a kind of baked cake which are generally consumed by the Odisha people only.
The observance of the Rath Yatra of Jagannath dates back to the period of the Puranas. Vivid descriptions of this festival are found in Brahma Purana, Padma Purana, and Skanda Purana. Kapila Samhita also refers to Rath Yatra. In Moghul period also, King Ramsingh of Jaipur, Rajasthan has been described as organising the Rath Yatra in the 18th century. In Orissa, Kings of Mayurbhanj and Parlakhemundi were organising the Rath Yatra, though the most grand festival in terms of scale and popularity takes place at Puri.
Moreover, Starza notes that the ruling Ganga dynasty instituted the Rath Yatra at the completion of the great temple around 1150 AD. This festival was one of those Hindu festivals that was reported to the Western world very early. Friar Odoric of Pordenone visited India in 1316–1318, some 20 years after Marco Polo had dictated the account of his travels while in a Genoese prison. In his own account of 1321, Odoric reported how the people put the deities on chariots, and the King and Queen and all the people drew them from the "church" with song and music.
Niladri Bije
Celebrated on Asadha Trayodashi. Niladri Bije is the concluding day of Ratha yatra. On this day deities return to the ratna bedi. Jagannath offers Rasgulla to goddess Laxmi to enter into the temple.
Gupta Gundicha
Celebrated for 16 days from Ashwina Krushna dwitiya to Vijayadashami. As per tradition, the deity of Madhaba, along with the deity of goddess Durga (known as Durgamadhaba), is taken on a tour of the temple premises. The tour within the temple is observed for the first eight days. For the next eight days, the deities are taken outside the temple on a palanquin to the nearby Narayani temple situated in the Dolamandapa lane. After their worship, they are brought back to the temple.
Nabakalebara
Nabakalabera is a ritual associated with Jagannath which takes place every 8, 12 or 19 years, when one lunar month of Ashadha is followed by another lunar month of Aashadha. Meaning "New Body", the ritual involves installation of new images in the Jagannath Temple and the burial of the old images at the temple at Koili Vaikuntha. The festival is witnessed by as millions of people and its budget exceeds $500,000. More than three million devotees were expected to visit the temple during the Nabakalevara in 2015, making it one of the most visited festivals in the world.
Management
After independence, the State Government, with a view to getting better administrative system, passed "The Puri Shri Jagannath Temple (Administration) Act, 1952". It contained provisions to prepare the Record of Rights and duties of Sevayats and such other persons connected with the system of worship and management of the temple. Subsequently Shri Jagannath Temple Act, 1955 was enacted to reorganise the management system of the affair of the temple and its properties.
Dibyasingha Deb is the "adhyasevak" (chief servitor'') of the temple. He took the role in 1970 at the age of 17, after the death of his father, Birakishore Deb, then the Maharaja of Puri.
Security
The security at the temple has increased ahead of Ratha Yatra, the homecoming festival of the deities of Jagannath temple. In the wake of terror alert on 27 June 2012, the security forces were increased to ensure smooth functioning of the crowded Ratha Yatra and Suna Besha.
See also
Chari Kshetra
Shivala Teja Singh temple
References
Bibliography
External links
Puruṣottama-kṣetra-māhātmya, Skanda Purana
deitySri Jagannath Temple – Jagannath Dharma (Official website of the Puri district administration)
Street View around Jagannath Temple
Jagannath Temple Complex
Char Dham temples
Temples dedicated to Jagannath
Krishna temples
Vishnu temples
Abhimana temples of Vishnu
Archaeological monuments in Odisha
Hindu pilgrimage sites in India
Puri
Vaishnavism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital%20Pride%20%28Washington%2C%20D.C.%29
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Capital Pride (Washington, D.C.)
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Capital Pride is an annual LGBT pride festival held in early June each year in Washington, D.C. It was founded as Gay Pride Day, a one-day block party and street festival, in 1975. In 1980 the P Street Festival Committee formed to take over planning. It changed its name to Gay and Lesbian Pride Day in 1981. In 1991, the event moved to the week prior to Father's Day. Financial difficulties led a new organization, One In Ten, to take over planning of the festival. Whitman-Walker Clinic (WWC) joined One In Ten as co-sponsor of the event in 1997, at which time the event's name was changed to Capital Pride. Whitman-Walker became the sole sponsor in 2000. But the healthcare organization came under significant financial pressures, and in 2008 turned over producing duties to a new organization, Capital Pride Alliance.
The event drew 2,000 people its first year and grew to 10,000 people covering 3 blocks in 1979. By 1984, it had expanded to a week-long event and by 1987 an estimated 28,000 attendees came to the street festival and parade. Attendance began fluctuating in the late 1980s, but stabilized in the 1990s. The festival was the fourth-largest gay pride event in the United States in 2007. Capital Pride saw record attendance for its 35th anniversary celebration in 2010. An estimated 100,000 people turned out for the parade and another 250,000 for the street festival in 2012.
History
1970s
The festival was first held on Father's Day in 1975. Deacon Maccubbin, owner of the LGBT bookstore Lambda Rising, organized the city's first annual gay pride event. It was a one-day community block party held on 20th Street NW between R and S Streets NW in Washington, D.C. (the same block where Lambda Rising was then located). Two vending trucks, one loaded with beer and another with soft drinks, served the crowd. About 2,000 people attended and visited about a dozen organizational booths and vendors. In a surprising political move indicative of the growing political power of gays and lesbians in the city, several candidates for the D.C. City Council also attended and shook hands for several hours.
In 1981, Gay Pride Day first hosted a parade in addition to the street festival. The growing festival drew more than 10,000 attendees that year. Washington Mayor Marion Barry, elected the previous November, attended his first Gay Pride Day in 1979—and would for the rest of his time in office as mayor.
1980s
Following the 1979 event, with crowds growing larger than could be accommodated at the original location, Maccubbin turned the planning of the event over to a new non-profit group, The P Street Festival Committee, formed in 1980 to take over the growing event. The committee established a board of directors to oversee planning and administer the festival's finances, and widened planning and participation to include a number of prominent LGBT organizations in the D.C. metro area. Gay Pride Day (as the festival was then known) moved that year to Francis Junior High School at 24th and N Streets NW, next to Rock Creek Park. In 1981, a parade route had also been established. The parade began at 16th Street NW and Meridian Hill Park, traveled along Columbia Road NW and then Connecticut Avenue NW, and ended at Dupont Circle.
1983 was the year the first woman and person of color was named Grand Marshal of the Gay Pride Day parade. In 1984, festival organizers began bestowing the "Heroes of Pride" award to members of racial and ethnic minorities who made a difference in their communities.
Attendance at Gay Pride Day events reached 11,000 people in 1981, 15,000 in 1982, and 20,000 in 1983. By 1984, the one-day festival had become a week-long series of meetings, speeches, dances, art exhibits, and parties. At its 10th anniversary in 1985, D.C. Gay Pride Day drew an estimated 28,000 attendees to the street festival and parade. But attendance began varying dramatically from year to year in the late 1980s. In 1986, only about 7,000 people watched the parade, and another 1,000 stayed for events at Francis Junior High. A year later, attendance was estimated variously between 7,000 and 10,000 people.
1990s
Financial problems and growing concerns about the organization's lack of inclusiveness led the P Street Festival Committee to disband in 1990 in favor of a successor organization, Pride of Washington.
Several changes to the event occurred in 1991. The District of Columbia's African American gay community sponsored the first "Black Lesbian and Gay Pride Day" on May 25, 1991. The event was created not as a competitor to the June gay pride event but rather as a way of enhancing the visibility of the African American gay and lesbian community. 1991 also saw the Gay Pride Day parade and festival move away from its traditional date for the first time. Organizers shifted the event to the week prior to Father's Day to give people a chance to spend the holiday with their families. 1991 was also the year that the street festival expanded to more than 200 booths, and the first year that active-duty and retired American military personnel marched in the parade. The parade made national headlines when U.S. Air Force Captain Greg Greeley, who led the active-duty group, was later questioned by military security officers and told his pending discharge was on hold because of his participation in Gay Pride day. No further action against Greeley was taken, and he eventually received an honorable discharge.
The festival suffered from financial difficulties in the early 1990s. Rain during the parade and street festival significantly reduced attendance several years in a row. Unfortunately, festival organizers had decided, as a cost-saving move, to not take out weather cancellation insurance. The festival lost significant amounts of money, and came close to bankruptcy.
In 1995, One In Ten, a D.C.-based arts organization which hosted the Reel Affirmations film festival, assumed responsibility for organizing Gay Pride Day events. One In Ten moved the street festival from Francis Junior High to Freedom Plaza near the White House on Pennsylvania Avenue NW. The parade route also changed. Instead of traveling westward from Dupont Circle on P Street NW to finish at Francis Junior High School, the parade now began at the school, moved east along P Street to 14th Street NW, and then traveled south on 14th Street NW to Freedom Plaza.
The change in sponsorship and significant organizational and promotional changes led to sharply higher attendance. The parade and festival drew only about 25,000 attendees in 1994, but this soared to more than 100,000 by 1996.
However, the financial and organizational strain of producing the event proved too heavy for the small arts group. In 1997, Whitman-Walker Clinic joined One In Ten as a co-sponsor of the festival, and the event was renamed Capital Pride. The street festival was moved off Freedom Plaza and onto Pennsylvania Avenue NW between 14th and 10th Streets NW. Corporate sponsorships also rose dramatically, reflecting the festival's growing commercial nature. Corporate sponsorships reached $247,000 in 1999, up from $80,000 in 1998. 1997 also saw the city's first Youth Pride Day event. Sponsored by the Youth Pride Alliance, an umbrella group of LGBT organizations supporting the sexual orientation and gender expression needs of young people, the event was held first held in late April (although after 2010 it moved to a date closer to Capital Pride).
2000s
Whitman-Walker Clinic became the sole sponsor of Capital Pride in 2000. The festival was moved to Pennsylvania Avenue NW between 4th and 7th Streets NW, and the festival's main stage repositioned so that the United States Capitol building was in the background. As a cost-saving move, in 2002 the parade was moved to early evening on Saturday while the festival continued to occur on Sunday afternoon. The same year, the number of parade contingents reached 200 for the first time. In 2004, 100,000 people attended Capital Pride events.
But financial problems once more plagued Capital Pride. The event had come to be billed as a fund-raiser for the clinic, although net revenues were also shared with other organizations. In July 2005 (after Capital Pride was over), Whitman-Walker Clinic revealed that it had asked the Human Rights Campaign, a national gay rights advocacy group, for an emergency donation of $30,000. The clinic had also asked D.C. Mayor Anthony A. Williams to waive more than $40,000 in street closing and police overtime fees. Both requests were granted. Unnamed sources quoted by the Washington Blade, a local LGBT newspaper, said Whitman-Walker's financial problems had spilled over into Capital Pride planning. Had the financial help not been forthcoming, the 2005 festival would have been significantly curtailed. Whitman-Walker officials strongly disputed the claims about the organization's finances, but did not deny that the financial requests had been made. WWC estimated the day after the festival ended that net proceeds from Capital Pride were $30,000 in 2005.
A week after the financial problems were revealed, Robert York, the Whitman-Walker staffer who had served as executive director of Capital Pride since 1999, unexpectedly resigned from the Clinic and as Capital Pride organizer. York's departure followed a series of resignations by the clinic's upper- and middle-level managers. York was replaced by clinic staff member David Mallory.
Financial difficulties at Whitman-Walker Clinic led to speculation that the healthcare organization would spin off Capital Pride as an independent body or permit another group to take it over. The Washington Blade quoted unnamed Whitman-Walker staffers as saying that Capital Pride consumed a significant amount of the clinic's time, resources, and staff but did not generate large revenues in return. In April 2005, The Center, an LGBT organization attempting to build a gay and lesbian community center in the District of Columbia, approached Whitman-Walker officials and asked if they would turn Capital Pride over to them. Whitman-Walker refused the offer, citing The Center's own financial difficulties and small staff.
The financial distress and staff changes did not appear to change the event's appeal, however. Capital Pride attracted more than 200,000 people in 2006, making it the fourth-largest gay pride event in the United States. The festival included four major dance parties, a youth prom, and a transgender dinner. D.C. Leather Pride held its first events in 2006 as well, which included a Mr. and Ms. Capital Pride Leather competition.
Whitman-Walker expanded organizational oversight of Capital Pride in 2007. Although the healthcare organization remained the sole sponsor of the festival, 11 other local non-profit organizations joined with WWC to form the Capital Pride Planning Committee. This committee contributed staff and organizational resources to help produce the event. 2007 also saw the city's first Trans Pride. Organized by the D.C. Trans Coalition, an umbrella group of organizations and activists supporting the needs of transgender people, the addition of Trans Pride to Capital Pride was a direct outcome of the expanded organizational planning group. D.C. Latino Pride also held its first events in 2007 as well. Hosted by the Latino LGBT History Project, it featured an exhibit and panel discussion (which has led some to date the founding of D.C. Latino Pride to 2007's expanded events rather than 2006).
But the financial pressures on Whitman-Walker did not abate. With the clinic itself under significant financial pressure, WWC issued a Request for Proposal in the second week of January 2008 asking for one or more groups to replace WWC as the organizer and sponsor of Capital Pride. On January 11, 2008, Whitman-Walker Clinic disclosed, for the first time in years, the financial status of Capital Pride. WWC revealed that the 2007 Capital Pride festival ran a deficit of $32,795 on $167,103 in revenue. The clinic also reported that this included reimbursing itself for $100,000 in "up-front money" to pay for festival-related expenses occurred far in advance of the festival. Twelve other local organizations were also reimbursed $28,000 in up-front money as well.
In March 2008, Whitman-Walker Clinic awarded the production rights to Capital Pride to the Capital Pride Alliance—a group of volunteers and organizations formed by members of the Capital Pride Planning Committee. Capital Pride Alliance won the bid over The Center, Westminster Presbyterian Church, and Jansi LLC (the parent company of the local LGBT newsweekly, Metro Weekly). WWC last helped to produce Capital Pride in 2008.
Capital Pride Alliance was the sole producer of the event beginning in 2009.
2010s
The 35th anniversary of Capital Pride occurred in 2010. Organizers and affiliate organizations hosted 60 events over 10 days. According to organizers, a record attendance of more than 250,000 people turned out just for the Pride street festival.
Capital Pride continued to flourish over the next several years. Per policy, city officials and police declined to provide a crowd estimate in 2011, but event organizers said 200,000 to 250,000 people attended both the parade and the street festival. In 2012, the Capital Pride parade extended for more than , and was expected to draw about 100,000 spectators. Although about 200,000 attendees were expected at the street festival the next day, organizers put actual attendance at about 250,000. More than 300 vendors participated in the street fest, and D.C. Latino Pride expanded to four days of events.
A contingent from the Washington National Cathedral marched in the Capital Pride parade for the first time in 2013. Leading the group of 30 staffers was the Very Reverend Gary Hall, Dean of the cathedral. The Washington Post described the cathedral group's participant as "a stunner for some". The Washington Blade reported attendance at the 2013 parade at 100,000. Changes to the parade included a turn north rather than south on 14th Street NW. The street festival started an hour later (noon), and ended an hour later (9:00 P.M.) to take advantage of the summer sunlight hours. A less positive change was a split among organizers of D.C. Latino Pride. A group of 11 organizations questioned the Latino LGBT History Project's control over and use of the event as a fundraising mechanism. They also claimed that transgender groups were being excluded from the event, and it was focused on national issues at the expense of grassroots organizing and community groups. The Latino GLBT History Project strongly denied both claims. The 11 dissenting groups split from the D.C. Latino Pride effort, and both groups of Latino organizations held competing events and parties in early June 2013.
On June 7, 2014, a United States Armed Forces color guard led the way and retired the colors in the Capital Pride parade. It was the first time in American history that an officially sanctioned United States Armed Forces color guard marched in a gay pride parade. Although several gay pride parade organizers nationwide had requested a color guard since the demise of the military's "don't ask, don't tell" policy in 2011, none had ever been approved. The eight-person color guard represented each branch of the United States armed forces. The Military District of Washington provided the color guard, which also presents colors for the President of the United States, members of Congress, and at official state functions. The 2014 parade attracted more than 100,000 people, while festival organizers estimated that more than 250,000 people attended events during the entire week-long Capital Pride celebration. The 2015 parade drew roughly 150,000 people.
On June 8, 2019, reports of gunfire at the parade in Dupont Circle caused people to flee through the streets in a panic. Police responded to the scene but determined that no shots were fired; the sounds of gunshots were most likely falling crowd-control barriers. A man with a BB gun was arrested for causing the panic and for possession of an illegal weapon; he pointed the BB gun at another person in Dupont Circle who was assaulting his female "significant other", according to a police report. Seven people were hospitalized with non-life-threatening injuries from the stampede.
2020s
No Capital Pride was held in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Washington, D.C., and the event was conducted virtually in 2021. Capital Pride resumed in-person events in 2022, including a parade, and a festival where Vice President Kamala Harris surprised the audience.
Organization
Capital Pride was originally called Gay Pride Day. It changed its name to Gay and Lesbian Pride Day in 1981, and to Capital Pride in 2000.
The event was initially organized in 1975 by Deacon Maccubbin, owner of Lambda Rising Bookstore, with the help of the bookstore's employees, volunteers, and a part-time executive director, Bob Carpenter. Maccubbin and Lambda Rising hosted the event for the first five years of its existence, until it grew to 10,000 attendees and spread over three blocks. At that point, it became too large for the space available, so Maccubbin began looking for an alternative location. In 1980, a group of community activists incorporated as the P Street Festival Committee and Maccubbin turned the event over to that group. Financial problems and growing concerns about the organization's lack of inclusiveness led the committee to disband in 1990 in favor of a successor organization, Pride of Washington. Further financial problems led Pride of Washington to transfer the event to a local LGBT arts organization, One In Ten, in 1995. In 1997, One In Ten partnered with Whitman-Walker Clinic to co-produce the festival. Whitman-Walker Clinic became the sole sponsor in 2000.
Whitman-Walker turned the event over to a new group, the Capital Pride Alliance, in 2008. Capital Pride Alliance has continued to produce festival. Although the Capital Pride Alliance was formed by 11 organizations, it now has a self-perpetuating board of directors.
Cultural references
In 2005, an exhibit at The Warehouse Gallery, an art gallery and museum in the District of Columbia, documented the history and meaning of Capital Pride for area residents. The exhibit, "Queering Sight—Queer Insight," opened on June 3, 2005, and ran for a month.
In 2006, Capital Pride was featured in the comedy film Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan.
One In Ten sponsored a second exhibit about Capital Pride's history in 2007. The exhibit was installed at The Sumner School, a city-owned museum in a historic former school building in midtown D.C. The exhibit ran from March to June 2007.
The New York Times in May 2014 called Capital Pride one "of the more notable Pride festivals and parades around the country".
See also
Gay Men's Chorus of Washington, D.C.
D.C. Black Pride
LGBT rights in the District of Columbia
References
External links
Capital Pride Web site
1975 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Dupont Circle
Festivals in Washington, D.C.
LGBT events in Washington, D.C.
Pride parades in the United States
Recurring events established in 1975
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prayer%20of%20Saint%20Ephrem
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Prayer of Saint Ephrem
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"The Prayer of Saint Ephrem" (Greek: , Efchí toú Osíou Efrem), is a prayer attributed to Saint Ephrem the Syrian and used during the Great Lent by the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches. In the Byzantine tradition, this prayer is considered to be the most succinct summation of the spirit of Great Lent and is hence the Lenten prayer par excellence, prayed during all Lenten weekday services. There are two versions of the prayer currently in use, reflecting liturgical Greek and Slavonic uses. Modern translations have been produced from both Greek and Slavonic, but some attempt to combine the two.
Greek version
In English, this may be translated:
O Lord and Master of my life, a spirit of idleness, curiosity, ambition, and idle talking; give me not.
But a spirit of chastity, humility, patience, and love, bestow upon me, Thy servant.
Yea, O Lord King: grant me to see mine own failings, and not to condemn others; for blessed art Thou unto the ages of ages. Amen.
This Greek version is the form of the prayer found in the current liturgical books of the Greek Orthodox Church and all those churches that utilise Greek or Arabic in their services. Early Greek manuscripts preserve several variant texts, however, including the reading φιλαργυρίας (philargyrias, "love of money") in place of φιλαρχίας (philarchias, "love of power"), which was taken up in the first Slavonic translations. It is difficult to know which form is more ancient, since both vices are serious afflictions for both monastic and lay Christians.
The Greek word σωφροσύνης (sōphrosynēs) in the second line is often translated in English as 'chastity.' However, this is a highly problematic archaism, since, in modern English, 'chastity' refers almost exclusively to sexual continence. The Greek word is much broader in meaning and carries the sense of soundness of mind, discretion, and prudence. Therefore, the prayer asks in the second line for a restoration to Christian wholeness and integrity, foreshadowing the petition of the third line that the supplicant might have the temptation to judge others removed from them (cf. Matt. 7:1–5). It is possible that the choice to translate σωφροσύνης as 'chastity' reflects both the affection for the Cranmerian prose of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer present in some anglophone Orthodox (which frequently leads to an ambiguity of meaning in liturgical and scriptural texts, as exemplified here) and also the presupposition that a concern for sexual purity is predominant in the Orthodox tradition.
Sometimes the phrase "idle talk" is substituted by the Latinate word , which carries about the same meaning.
Church Slavonic versions
Pre-Nikonian
In the earliest Church Slavonic translations, the prayer was rendered:
Господи и владико животѹ моемѹ, духъ оунынїѧ, небрежεнїѧ, срεбролюбїѧ и празднословїѧ ѿжεни ѿ мεнε.
Духъ же цѣломѹдрїѧ, смиренїѧ, терпѣнїѧ и любве дарѹй ми рабѹ твоемѹ.
Ей Господи Царю, даждь ми зрѣти моѧ согрѣшенїѧ, и еже не ωсуждати брата моегω, якω благословенъ еси во вѣки. Аминь.
In English, this is:
O Lord and Master of my life, take from me a spirit of despondency, sloth, love of money, and idle talk.
But give to me, your servant, a spirit of sober-mindedness, humility, patience, and love.
Yes, O Lord and King, grant me to see my own sins and not to judge my brother, since you are blessed to the ages. Amen.
There are two main differences in the first line between the Greek text given above and the Slavonic text given here. First, the Greek reads "μή μοι δῷς," meaning "grant me not," whereas the Slavonic has "ωтжεни ѿ мεнε," meaning "take from me." The Greek text unambiguously implies that God is the one who grants every character of spirit or breath (πνεῦμα), and the supplicant therefore requests that God give a spirit characterized not by vice (line 1) but by virtue (line 2). The supplicant effectively asks God to lighten their burden (cf. Matt. 11:28–30). The Slavonic text, however, could be read as asking God to replace one kind of spirit or breath with another, with the implication that the first kind of spirit (line 1) does not come from God to begin with. This could lead to a dualist reading of the prayer, opposing the unvirtuous 'spirit of man' to the virtuous 'spirit of God.' The Greek text seems better to reflect the monastic tradition, as expressed by writers such as the fifth-century Abba Isaiah of Scetis in his Ascetic Discourses, that all passions are ultimately divine gifts with a sacred purpose. The second main difference is that, where the Greek has περιεργίας (periergia meaning 'idle curiosity' or 'meddling'), the Slavonic has небрежεнїѧ (nebrezheniya) meaning 'negligence,' 'indifference,' or 'despondency,' which would be ἀκηδία (akêdia) in Greek—the classic monastic sin. A third minor difference is the transposition of terms in the first line. Whereas the Greek consistently reads "ἀργίας, περιεργίας" ('sloth, meddling'), the Slavonic reads "оунынїѧ, небрежεнїѧ" ('despondency [in place of meddling], sloth'). Despondency (оунынїѧ) remained at the head of the list of vices until the order was conformed to the Greek text during Nikon's reforms. It seems likely that the differences between the Greek and Slavonic texts reflect the fact that the Slavonic text was prepared from a different Greek text than the one currently used, but this has yet to be demonstrated definitively.
This Slavonic version was superseded in the Russia Orthodox Church in 1656, following the liturgical reforms of Patriarch Nikon, but remains in use among the Old Believers today.
Kievan version of 1639
Господи и владыко живота моегω, духъ оунынїѧ, небрежεнїѧ, любоначалїѧ и празднословїѧ ѿжεни ѿ мεнε.
Духъ же цѣломѹдрїѧ, смиреномѹдрїѧ, терпѣнїѧ и любве, дарѹй ми рабѹ твоемѹ.
Ей Господи Царю, даждь ми зрѣти моѧ согрѣшенїѧ, и не ωсуждати брата моегω, якω благословенъ еси во вѣки вѣковъ. Аминь.
O Lord and Master of my life, take from me a spirit of despondency, sloth, love of power, and idle talk.
But give to me, your servant, a spirit of sober-mindedness, humility, patience, and love.
Yes, O Lord and King, grant me to see my own sins and not to judge my brother, since you are blessed to the ages of ages. Amen.
This version is to be found in the Liturgicon (Sluzhebnik) or Priest's Service Book published in Kiev in 1639 by Peter Mohyla. Substantially it is similar to the earlier version, but with some of the case-endings updated, as by that time, use of the dative case (животѹ моемѹ) to mark possession was considered distinctively archaic, and use of the genitive case (живота моегω) felt to be more correct. It retains most of the distinctive differences that the earlier version has from the Greek, with none of the more drastic changes that may be found in the next version.
This version was once used throughout the Kievan metropolia, as well as in the Orthodox Churches of Central Europe (Ukraine, Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, Austria and so on), but later dropped out of use, and the next version adopted. It is currently only used (either in the original Slavonic or in vernacular translations) by those churches that use the Ruthenian recension—the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, the Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church, the Belarusian Greek Catholic Church, the Hungarian Greek Catholic Church, and the Slovak Greek Catholic Church.
Nikonian version of 1656
Господи и владыко живота моегω, духъ праздности, оунынїѧ, любоначалїѧ и празднословїѧ не даждь ми.
Духъ же цѣломѹдрїѧ, смиренномѹдрїѧ, терпѣнїѧ и любве, дарѹй ми рабѹ твоемѹ.
Ей Господи Царю, даруй ми зрѣти моѧ прегрѣшенїѧ, и не ωсуждати брата моегω, якω благословенъ еси во вѣки вѣковъ. Аминь.
O Lord and Master of my life, grant me not a spirit of sloth, despondency, love of power, and idle talk.
But give to me, your servant, a spirit of sober-mindedness, humility, patience, and love.
Yes, O Lord and King, grant me to see my own faults and not to judge my brother, since you are blessed to the ages of ages. Amen.
This is the version found in the editions of the liturgical books published in 1656 by Patriarch Nikon of Moscow. It is the form currently in use by the Russian Orthodox Church (both the Moscow Patriarchate and the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia), the Ukrainian Orthodox Church, the Belarusian Orthodox Church, the Serbian Orthodox Church, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, and all other Slavic Orthodox Churches. It differs substantially from the current Greek form of the prayer only in the retention of оунынїѧ ('despondency') in place of περιεργίας ('meddling'). Considering the principles on which Patriarch Nikon's reforms were undertaken, it seems likely that the 1656 text of the prayer was prepared from a Greek text containing the word ἀκηδίας ('despondency') rather than περιεργίας.
An English version of the Prayer of St Ephrem commonly in use in the Orthodox Church in America (which inherited its liturgical practices from the Slavic tradition) maintains the distinction between take from me (line 1) and give to me (line 2) that was eliminated in the 1656 Slavonic translation. This does not appear to reflect a conscious choice of the OCA to return to the Pre-Nikonian text or to imitate the Old Believers, but probably derives from the fact that many OCA parishes were founded by Orthodox (and Byzantine Rite Catholics) from Central Europe who used the Ruthenian Slavonic text of 1639, but with the оунынїѧ and небрежεнїѧ (line 1) inverted to conform to the Nikonian/Greek order.
Liturgical usage
At weekday services during Great Lent, the prayer is prescribed for each of the canonical hours and at the Divine Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts.
During the period of the Triodion, the prayer is first recited on Wednesday and Friday only on Cheesefare week and thereafter at every weekday service from vespers on the evening of the Sunday of Forgiveness, the service which begins Great Lent, through Wednesday of Holy Week. The prayer is not said on Saturdays and Sundays (vespers on Sunday evening is of Monday, since the Byzantine liturgical day begins at sunset), because these days are not strict fasting days (oil and wine are always permitted). This means that the weekends retain a festal character, even during the Great Fast, and the Divine Liturgy may be celebrated as usual.
During the Nativity Fast, Dormition Fast and the Apostles' Fast, the lenten order of services may be used when the divine liturgy is not celebrated. In such an instance, the Prayer of St Ephrem is recited then, too.
Bows and prostrations
The prayer is accompanied by bows and prostrations.
Depending upon the rubrics, the prayer is said either once or twice:
When it is said once, it is divided into three parts, with a prostration after each part.
When it is said twice (though local practices may vary) it is said the first time with a prostration after each part; then follow a number of either bows or prostrations (either in silence or accompanied by short ejaculatory prayers); and then the prayer is said the second time in its entirety (i.e., not broken up by prostrations) followed by a final prostration.
Current Russian Orthodox practice, as followed in the Moscow Patriarchate and the ROCOR, is to perform twelve metanias (bows from the waist) after the first recitation of the prayer (with three prostrations), saying at each bow, "Боже, ѡчисти мѧ грѣшнаго (грѣшнѹю if one is female)"—"O God, cleanse me a sinner". When the prayer is prayed in the course of a church service, the priest alone says aloud "O God, cleanse me a sinner", as everyone makes bows. In the common usage of ROCOR, the last (twelfth) time he adds, "...и помилѹй мѧ"—"...and have mercy on me." Though this last addition is not written in the service books, it helps all of those present to know that it was the last bow.
The tradition of the Old Believers is similar, but instead of twelve bows in silence, they have thirteen prostrations, each time reciting the Jesus Prayer or the following prayers:
Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner ('Господи Ісусе Христе Сыне Божїй помилѹй мѧ грѣшнаго/грѣшнѹю')
God be merciful to me a sinner. ('Боже милостивъ буди мнѣ грѣшномѹ')
God, cleanse me of my sins and have mercy on me. ('Боже ѡчисти грѣхи моѧ и помилѹй мѧ')
You have created me; Lord, have mercy on me. ('Создавый мѧ Господи, помилѹй')
I have sinned immeasurably; Lord, forgive me. ('Безъ числа согрѣшихъ, Господи прости мѧ')
Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner.
God be merciful to me a sinner.
God, cleanse me of my sins and have mercy on me.
You have created me; Lord, have mercy on me.
I have sinned immeasurably; Lord, forgive me.
God be merciful to me a sinner.
You have created me; Lord, have mercy on me.
I have sinned immeasurably; Lord, forgive me.
The Ruthenian tradition, again, differs slightly, retaining some aspects closely related to Old Believer usage. The 1639 Liturgikon (Sluzhebnik) of Peter Mohyla prescribes twelve waist-bows, repeating the following three lines to make twelve:
God be merciful to me a sinner. ('Боже милостивъ буди мнѣ грѣшномѹ')
God, cleanse me of my sins and have mercy on me. ('Боже ѡчисти грѣхи моѧ и помилѹй мѧ')
I have sinned immeasurably; Lord, forgive me. ('Безъ числа согрѣшихъ, Господи прости мѧ')
In other languages
Albanian
Zot dhe Mjeshtër i jetës sime, mos më jep frymë përtese, kureshtie, lavdidashje dhe kotësie.
Po falmë frymë urtësie, përunjësie, durimi dhe dashurie.
Vlerësomë, o Zot dhe Mbret, t’i shoh fajet e mia dhe të mos e gjykoj tim vëlla. Se i bekuar je në jetë të jetëve, Amin.
Arabic
أيها الرب وسيد حياتي اعتقني من روح البطالة والفضول، وحب الرئاسة والكلام البطال
وانعم علي انا عبدك الخاطئ بروح العفة واتضاع الفكر والصبر والمحبة
نعم يا ملكي والهي هب لي ان أعرف ذنوبي وعيوبي والا أدين اخوتي فانك مبارك الى الأبد. آمين
Transliteration:
'Ayūha al-Rābbu wa'sayīd hayāti, a'aataqāni min rūh al-bitalāt wa'l-fūdūli, wahābi al-ri'asāt wa'al-kilām al-bitāl. wa'ineām eāli inā aabdāk al-khāti bi-ruh al-eafat, wa'itidai al-fīkr wa'l-sābr wa'l-mahāba. ya malīki, wa'Allāhi hab li'ān aārif dhabūbi wa'aayubi, wa'īlla udīn ikhwāti, fa'innāk mubarāk illā al-abād. Ameen.
The Arabic version follows the Greek form.
Belarusian
In the Cyrillic orthography:
Госпадзе і Ўладару жыцьця майго, духа ленасьці, нуды, уладалюбства і марнаслоўя ня дай мне.
Духа чысьціні, пакоры, цярплівасьці і любові дай мне, слузе Твайму.
Так, Госпадзе Ўладару! Дай мне бачыць мае правіны і не асуджаць брата майго, бо Ты блаславёны на вякі вякоў. Амін.
In the Latin orthography:
Hospadzie i Ŭładaru žyćcia majho, ducha lenaści, nudy, uładalubstva i marnasłoŭja nia daj mnie.
Ducha čyścini, pakory, ciaplivaści i lubovi daj mnie, słuzie Tvajmu.
Tak, Hospadzie Ŭładaru! Daj mnie bačyć maje praviny i nie asudžać brata majho, bo Ty błasłaviony na viaki viakoŭ. Amin.
Finnish
Herra, minun elämäni valtias! Estä minusta laiskuuden, velttouden, vallanhimon ja turhanpuhumisen henki.
Anna minulle, sinun palvelijallesi, sielun puhtauden, nöyryyden, kärsivällisyyden ja rakkauden henki.
Oi, Kuningas ja Herra! Anna minun nähdä rikokseni ja anna, etten veljeäni tuomitsisi, sillä siunattu olet sinä iankaikkisesti. Aamen.
The Finnish translation follows the Greek original.
Georgian
უფალო და მეუფეო ცხოვრებისა ჩემისაო, სულსა უქმობისასა და მიმომწვლილელობისასა, მთავრობის მოყვარებისასა და ცუდად მეტყველებისასა ნუ მიმცემ მე.
ხოლო სული სიწმიდისა, სიმდაბლისა, მოთმინებისა და სიყვარულისა მომმადლე მე, მონასა შენსა.
ჰე, უფალო, მომანიჭე მე განცდაი თვისთა ცოდვათა და არა განკითხვად ძმისა ჩემისა, რამეთუ კურთხეულ ხარ შენ უკუნისამდე. ამინ
Transcription into the Latin alphabet, with apostrophe for glottalization:
upalo da meupeo tskhovrebisa chemisao, sulsa ukmobisasa da mimomts'vlilelobisasa, mtavrobis moqvarebisasa da tsudad met'kvelebisasa nu mimtsem me.
kholo suli sits'midisa, simdablisa, motminebisa da siqvarulisa mommadle me, monasa shensa.
he, upalo, momanich'e me gantsdai tvista tsodvata da ara gank'itkhvad dzmisa chemisa, rametu k'urtkheul xar shen uk'unisamde. amin
German
Herr und Gebieter meines Lebens, den Geist des Müßiggangs, der Verzagtheit, der Herrschsucht und der Geschwätzigkeit gib mir nicht.
Gib mir hingegen, Deinem Knecht, den Geist der Keuschheit, der Demut, der Geduld und der Liebe.
Ja, Herr und mein König, gib mir, meine eigenen Sünden zu sehen und meinen Bruder nicht zu verurteilen, denn Du bist gesegnet in die Ewigkeit der Ewigkeit. Amen.
Hawaiian
E ka Haku a me ke Kahu o ko‘u ola! Mai hō mai ia‘u i ka ‘uhane o ka na‘au palaka, ka mana‘o pauaho, ke kuko hewa a me ke kakahili.
Akā naʻe, e hō mai nō na‘e ‘Oe ia‘u, Kāu ‘ōhua, i ka ‘uhane o ke kūkapu, ka ha‘aha‘a, ke ahonui a me ke aloha.
E ka Haku ē, ka Mō‘ī ho‘i! E ‘ae ‘Oe mai ia‘u i ka hiki ke ‘ike i ko‘u mau hewa a me ka hiki ke ho‘ohalahala ‘ole aku i ko‘u hoa kanaka; no ka mea, Nou ka pōmaika‘i mai kēia manawa a mau loa aku no nā kau ā kau. ‘Āmene.
Japanese
主吾が生命の主宰よ、怠惰と、愁悶と、矜誇と、空談の情を吾に與うる勿れ。
貞操と、謙遜と、忍耐と、愛の情を我爾の僕（婢）に與え給え。
嗚呼主王よ、我に我が罪を見、我が兄弟を議せざるを賜え、蓋爾は世世に崇め讃めらる。「アミン」
Transcription into the Latin alphabet:
Shu waga inochino shusaiyo, okotarito, modaeto, hokorito, mudagotono kokoro-o, wareni atauru nakare.
Misaoto, herikudarito, koraeto, ainokokoro-o, ware nannjino bokuhini ataetamae.
Ah shu oyo, wareni waga tumio mi, waga keitei o gisezaruo tamae, kedashi nannjiha yoyoni agamehomeraru. Amin.
Portuguese
Ó Senhor e Soberano de minha vida, não me dês um espírito de ócio, de desânimo, de autoritarismo ou de vaniloqüência. (Prostração)
Mas um espírito de castidade, de humildade, de paciência e de amor, concede-mo a mim, Teu servo. (Prostração)
Ó Senhor Rei, concede-me ver os meus pecados e que eu não julgue meu irmão, porquanto és bendito pelos séculos dos séculos. Amém. (Prostração)
Romanian
Doamne şi Stăpânul vieţii mele, duhul trândăviei, al grijii de multe, al iubirii de stăpânire şi al grăirii în deşert nu-mi-l da mie
Iar duhul curăţiei, al gândului smerit, al răbdării şi al dragostei dăruieşte-mi mie slugii tale.
Aşa Doamne, Împărate, dăruieşte-mi să-mi văd greşalele mele şi să nu osândesc pe fratele meu, că binecuvântat eşti în vecii vecilor. Amin.
The Romanian text follows the Greek version.
Slovak
Pane a Vládca môjho života, odním odo mňa ducha znechutenosti, nedbalosti, mocibažnosti a prázdnych rečí.
Daruj mne, svojmu služobníkovi, ducha miernosti, poníženosti, trpezlivosti a lásky.
Áno, Pane a Kráľu, daj, aby som videl vlastné prehrešenia a nepodsudzoval svojho brata, lebo ty si požehnaný na veky vekov. Amen.
A different translation:
Pane a Vládca môjho života, odožeň odo mňa ducha zúfalstva, nedbanlivosti, mocibažnosti a prázdnych rečí.
Daruj mne, tvojmu služobníkovi, ducha čistoty, pokory, trpezlivosti a lásky.
Áno, Pane a Kráľu, daruj mi vidieť vlastné hriechy a neodsudzovať môjho brata, lebo ty si požehnaný na veky vekov, amen.
Ukrainian
Господи і Владико життя мого, духа млявости, недбайливости, владолюбства й пустослів’я віджени від мене.
Духа же доброчесности і смиренномудрія, терпіння й любови даруй мені, недостойному рабові Твоєму.
Так, Господи Царю, дай мені зріти мої прогрішення і не осуджувати брата мого, бо Ти благословен єси на віки віків. Амінь.
The Ukrainian version appears to follow the Mohyla version closely.
Footnotes
Christian prayer
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aisam-ul-Haq%20Qureshi
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Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi
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Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi (Punjabi, ; born 17 Mar 1980) is a Pakistani professional tennis player who specialises in doubles. He is the only Pakistani player ever to reach a Grand Slam final, having done so in both men's and mixed doubles at the 2010 US Open, alongside Rohan Bopanna and Květa Peschke respectively. Qureshi has also reached seven further major semifinals across the two disciplines. He reached his career-high doubles ranking of world No. 8 in June 2011, and has won 18 titles on the ATP Tour, including the 2011 Paris Masters and 2013 Miami Open, with Bopanna and Jean-Julien Rojer respectively. Qureshi has also qualified for the ATP Finals in doubles on three occasions.
In singles, he reached his highest ranking of world No. 125 in December 2007, and achieved his best Grand Slam result at the Wimbledon Championships that year, reaching the second round. Qureshi is also the most successful Davis Cup player in Pakistan's history, with the team most notably reaching the World Group play-offs in 2005, being defeated by Chile. He has played in the competition since 1998, and has won more matches for Pakistan than any other player, additionally being appointed captain of the team in 2022. Qureshi and Aqeel Khan have regularly spearheaded Pakistan's Davis Cup campaigns, partnering each other in doubles and also competing in singles matches. He recently started a talent hunting program to find the best tennis players in Pakistan.
Early life
Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi was born in a Punjabi family and grew up in Lahore, Pakistan; swimming, playing cricket and football being his favorite pastimes at his alma-mater Crescent Model Higher Secondary School. He started playing tennis relatively late, aged 14, when his maternal grandfather and first coach, Khawaja Iftikhar Ahmed, a former 10-time national champion, took him to a tennis club in Model Town, Lahore.
Khawaja Iftikhar Ahmed was the All-India champion in British India before Pakistan's Independence in 1947. His mother, Nosheen Ihtsham, was also a former women's tennis champion. At age 16, the ITF sponsored him for two years. He won the Pakistan International Junior Championships and went on to win the Casablanca Cup in Mexico and the LTA International Junior Championships in Roehampton, where he beat Olivier Rochus, Andy Ram, and Taylor Dent. In the World Super Junior Championships, he beat Andy Roddick. By 18, he was a top-20 junior player and decided to turn pro.
Aisam was educated at the University of Punjab.
Coaches
As a junior, he was coached by LTA. Aisam has been coached by American Robert Davis since 1998. Robert Davis has served as national coach for Peru, Panama, Thailand, and Indonesia. As a writer, he contributes to the ATP's Deuce Magazine, Tennis Magazine USA, tennis.com, Tennis Magazine Australia, and ITF publications, as well as non-sporting publications and newspapers.
Playing style
Qureshi prefers the quicker grass courts and has seen his greatest success on grass and hard courts. His playing style is serve-and-volley, relying on his serve to win him points by putting pressure on his opponents.
Sponsorship
Qureshi's clothing and shoes sponsor is Lotto. On 29 March 2008, Aisam signed an agreement with Pepsi for sponsorship of coach for one year. He became the first Pakistani sportsman who wasn't a cricketer to star in a Pepsi advert and become one of their brand ambassadors.
Awards and accolades
Qureshi teamed with Israeli player Amir Hadad during Wimbledon and the US Open tournaments in 2002. He is now a member of the "Champions for Peace" club, a group of 54 athletes committed to serving peace in the world through sport, created by Peace and Sport, a Monaco-based international organisation.
In November 2010 Aisam was appointed The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) goodwill ambassador.
Aisam was awarded the Arthur Ashe Humanitarian of the Year, for 2010 along with his doubles tennis partner Rohan Bopanna of India. Along with Bopanna, Qureshi received the 2010 "Peace and Sport Image of the Year" award, in recognition of their dedicated efforts to spread the message of peace through sport. Qureshi and his doubles partner Bopanna also created a campaign, "Stop War Start Tennis", with their goal to play a match on the border of India and Pakistan.
He was also given the Pakistan President's Award for Performance in 2002, the Salam Pakistan Youth Award by the President of Pakistan in 2007 and was runner-up for the 2003 Anne Frank Award For Moral Courage by the Anne Frank Trust, UK.
In 2011, he was awarded Lux Style Award for Most Stylish Sports Person. Being high-profile tennis star of Pakistan and alumni, he was invited to Crescent Model Higher Secondary School for ground breaking ceremony of Tennis courts in school.
Career
Juniors
Qureshi played his first junior match in August 1995 at the age of 15 at a grade 5 tournament in Syria had a successful career in junior tennis, finishing no. 7 in the world in 1998, which made him Pakistan's highest-ranked player ever on the international youth tennis arena. Qureshi turned pro in 1998.
Junior Grand Slam results - Singles:
Australian Open: 1R (1997, 1998)
French Open: 2R (1998)
Wimbledon: 3R (1998)
US Open: 1R (1997, 1998)
Junior Grand Slam results - Doubles:
Australian Open: QF (1998)
French Open: QF (1998)
Wimbledon: QF (1998)
US Open: QF (1998)
1998
On 25 September, he played and won his first Davis Cup match against Danai Udomchoke. Paired with Mohamed-Khaliq Siddiq, he won the doubles match. They helped Pakistan beat Thailand 3–2 for the Asia/Oceania Zone Group II Final and gained promotion to Group I.
On 28 September, he played his first pro match and got into the doubles final of a Futures tournament in Japan. His singles career also started well, getting into two Futures quarterfinals in Pakistan and Japan, and ended the year ranked no. 779.
1999
Aisam made it into the quarterfinals of his first Challenger tournament in Calcutta, but lost to Indian Leander Paes. At the Davis Cup Asia/Oceania Zone Group I quarterfinal match against Uzbekistan, Pakistan lost 4–1, with Aisam winning the only rubber. Paired with Dmitri Tomashevich, he won two doubles Futures titles in Turkey.
In the Davis Cup Asia/Oceania I Relegation Play-off final, China defeated Pakistan 3–0, which saw them relegated back to Group II. In October, Qureshi went on to win his first Futures singles tournament on the hard courts of Indonesia, beating Danai Udomchoke. In Vietnam, Aisam won a doubles Futures title with Mark Nielsen. This was followed up by another singles Futures win in Bangladesh on clay, winning in straight sets. Aisam ended the year ranked no. 365 in singles, and no. 355 in doubles.
2000
In January, he took Pakistan to a 3–2 victory against Hong Kong Asia/Oceania Group II quarter-final. Aisam then began to compete in more on the Challenger circuit, reaching the semi-finals at the Indian Oil Servo Cup in Calcutta in February, defeated by Tuomas Ketola. At the Davis Cup Group II semi-final Pakistan were beaten by Chinese Taipei 3–2, with Aisam winning two of his three rubbers. In May, paired with Dmitri Tomashevich, he reached the semis of the Samarkand Challenger in Samarkand, Uzbekistan. At The LTA Manchester Challenger, in Manchester, UK, Aisam made it to the semi-finals with partner Jamie Delgado.
In July, he took part at the Ted Open, at Istanbul, Turkey, where he made it to the quarter-finals, but was beaten by Oleg Ogorodov 4–6, 7–5, 6–3. Returning to the UK, he played at the LTA Men's Challenger in Wrexham, where he, along with Italian Daniele Bracciali, won in the final 6–4, 6–2. With that Aisam also won his first Challenger doubles title.
He won a futures doubles title in France with Israeli Noam Behr. Together, they participated at the Bukhara Challenger, in Bukhara, Uzbekistan, where they reached the final. Aisam won a futures single title in Vietnam, beating Jaroslav Levinský 3–6, 6–2, 6–3, and at the same tournament won a doubles title with Ashley Fisher. Aisam ended the year winning at the Neride Prague Indoor in Prague, Czech Republic where he partnered Kristian Pless.
He finished the year 2000 ranked 261st in singles and 211th in doubles.
2001
Aisam participated in his first ATP tournament at the Chennai Open in Chennai, India, with his partner Vadim Kutsenko of Uzbekistan. They won against Czech pair Petr Kovačka and Pavel Kudrnáč 6–1, 6–7(3), 6–4. However they were knocked out by Zimbabweans Byron Black and Wayne Black 2–6, 0–6. At the Davis Cup he was unable to help Pakistan as they lost to Chinese Taipei at the Asia/Oceania Group II quarter-final 3–2. He went to Mumbai, India to play in the MTNL ATP Challenger where he reached the doubles semi-final with Dennis van Scheppingen. At the Heineken Challenger in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, he again made it to the doubles semis, this time paired with Denis Golovanov.
In April at the Davis Cup Relegation Play-off semi-final, he helped Pakistan defeat Syria 5–0. The Fergana Challenger, in Fergana, Uzbekistan, still with Golovanov, they made it to the semi-finals but failed again to progress further. In the UK, he played at The Wrexham Challenger in Wrexham; he progressed to the singles semi-final but was knocked out by Ladislav Švarc 2–6, 6–2, 6–3. Although he did reach his first Challenger level doubles final of the year, now with new partner Luke Bourgeois they fell at the final hurdle.
Asiam returned to Uzbekistan to take part in the Samarkand Challenger in Samarkand, where he made it to the quarter-finals in the singles, and with partner Kirill Ivanov-Smolensky, the doubles semi-final. He stayed in Uzbekistan to play at the Bukhara Challenger, in Bukhara and with his Dutch partner Rogier Wassen, they won the final 6–2, 6–4.
He won a single futures title in Thailand, beating Yeu-Tzuoo Wang 6–4, 4–6, 7–5. This followed a second in Vietnam against Yen-Hsun Lu. He rounded off the year with a doubles challenger title with Jaroslav Levinský at the 69th King's Cup in Bangkok, Thailand. Aisam ended the year ranked 251st in singles and 170th in doubles.
2002
In February at the Davis Cup, he won both matches, as Pakistan beat Malaysia 4–1. In the next Davis Cup tie against Chinese Taipei, he won all three rubbers as Pakistan qualified for the Asia/Oceania Group II final. Aisam won a doubles futures title in Kuwait with Tuomas Ketola. At the Fergana Challenger, in Fergana, Uzbekistan, he and Ketola were unable win in the doubles final.
Asiam qualified for his first Grand Slam at Wimbledon with doubles partner Amir Hadad. This pairing cause much controversy. In the first round they beat Martín Rodríguez and Tom Vanhoudt 7–5, 7–6(5), 7–6(2). In the second round, the Pakistani-Israeli pairing caused an upset when they knocked out 11th seeds Ellis Ferreira and Rick Leach 6–4, 6–4 6–4 to make it to the third round. They were finally beaten by seventh seed Czechs Martin Damm and Cyril Suk. Aisam was threatened with expulsion from the Davis Cup by the Pakistan Tennis Federation. Although Aisam did have support from Pakistan's Davis Cup captain. Aisam said, "I don't like religion or politics to interfere with sport. We're not here to change anything – politics and governments do that. We're just here to play the game and enjoy it." The ITF eventually intervened, forcing the PTF to rescind their threat.
At the West of England Tennis tournament in Bristol, UK, he won his first Challenger doubles title of the season with Dejan Petrovic. Next, at The Manchester Trophy in Manchester, UK, he won the doubles title with Karol Beck, although he was beaten by Beck in the singles semi-final. Asiam took his third doubles challenger title in a row when with Stefano Pescosolido he took the Hilversum Open title in Hilversum, Netherlands. In July at Wrexham, UK in the Wrexham Challenger, his doubles winning streak was broken when he lost the final with Daniele Bracciali. He also reached the single quarter-finals.
He partnered Hadad again at the US Open, where they defeated Mariano Hood and Sebastián Prieto 6–4, 6–2 in the first round. In the second round they faced fifth seeds Wayne Black and Kevin Ullyett losing 4–6, 6–4, 2–6. In September, Aisam returned to Davis Cup action when Pakistan overcame China 3–2 to be promoted to Asia/Oceania Group I. However, he picked up an injury and missed the rest of the season. Despite this, Aisam ended the season ranked 265th in singles and 102nd in doubles.
2003
Aisam and Amir Hadad picked up the ATP's Arthur Ashe Humanitarian Award. ATP chief executive Mark Miles said, "During a summer when fear and hatred garnered much of the headlines, Amir and Aisam-ul-Haq provided much needed relief with their simple message about tolerance through tennis." Aisam, partnering Hadad, participated at the Milan Indoor in Milan, Italy, where they were knocked out of the first round by third seeds Tomáš Cibulec and Pavel Vízner, 6–7(8), 1–6. At the Asia/Oceania Group I quarter-final, Pakistan were beaten 5–0 by New Zealand. Aisam went to Germany to play at the Warsteiner Challenger in Wolfsburg, where he reached the final with Austrian Alexander Peya.
He went to play at his second ATP tournament of the year, partnered with Hadad, at the Copenhagen Open. They lost to George Bastl and David Prinosil 5–7, 3–6. In May, Aisam won a doubles futures title in Uzbekistan with partner Justin Bower. They stayed together in the country to play at the Fergana Challenger in Fergana where they won the doubles title. This victory saw Aisam reach 89th in the world for doubles rankings.
At the French Open, he played with Daniel Vacek, but they exited at the first round at the hands of Rick Leach and Brian MacPhie 3–6, 3–6. At Wimbledon he and Hadad were beaten in the first round to Jiří Novák and Radek Štěpánek 6–7(5), 5–7, 5–7.
Asiam Partnered Rohan Bopanna at the Manchester Trophy in Manchester, UK, where they reached the semi-finals. They went all the way to the final and won the Colorado Classic in Denver, US. Returning to Davis Cup action in September, he helped save Pakistan from relegation as they beat South Korea 3–2. With his singles ranking sliding, Aisam concentrated on playing singles matches, winning three futures titles, one in Thailand and two in India. He also won two doubles futures titles in India to round off the year, the first with Harsh Mankad and the second with Mustafa Ghouse.
Aisam ended the year ranked 493rd in singles and 187th in doubles.
2004
Aisam won a single futures title in India on February. He then reached The Wrexham Challenger doubles semi-finals with Vladimir Voltchkov. Aisam went on to win the IX Challenger Internacional de Salinas in Salinas, Ecuador with doubles partner Federico Browne. Next, at the USTA Challenger of Calabasas in Calabasas, USA with partner Cecil Mamiit, he reached the semis. At the Fergana Challenger in Fergana, Uzbekistan, he paired up with Harsh Mankad to reach the final. In Saudi Arabia, he won another singles futures title.
In June, Aisam played his first singles ATP tournament at The Nottingham Open in Nottingham and was beaten in the first round by Jonas Björkman in straight sets. He then paired up with Luxembourg's Gilles Müller and won at the XI Open International D'Andorra in Andorra. Aisam then took part in the Open de Montauban in Montauban, France, where he and Mankad reached the semi-finals. At The LTA Nottingham Challenger in Nottingham, UK, they both again reached the semis. Next, at The Manchester Trophy in Manchester, UK he partnered Lovro Zovko to the final.
Aisam reached the singles challenger semi-finals at the Arroyo de la Encomienda in Valladolid, Spain. In the same tournament he reached the doubles final with Michael Ryderstedt. After missing the previous tie, Aisam took part in the Davis cup relegation play-off final against favourites New Zealand. He assisted Pakistan in causing a huge upset when they won 3–2 to stay in Asia/Oceania Group I. He travelled to Nigeria and won another singles futures title. In his final event of the season, Aisam partnered Jason Marshall to the Audi Challenger semi-final held in Groningen, Netherlands. Aisam finished the season ranked 199th in singles and 136th in doubles.
2005
In Wolfsburg, Germany, Aisam played at the Volkswagen Challenger, where partnered by Lovro Zovko, he reached the final. At the Davis Cup Pakistan defeated Thailand, with Aisam beating Paradorn Srichaphan 7–5, 2–6, 6–4, 6–4. Going to the Heineken Challenger at Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, he reached his second final, this time with Orest Tereshchuk, but they failed to win the final. Aisam went to Mecca, Saudi Arabia to represent Pakistan at the Islamic Solidarity Games where he won 3 Golds in the singles, doubles and team events. At the Davis Cup he won all his rubbers as Pakistan beat Chinese Taipei to reach the World Group play-offs for the first time.
He returned to action in the Fergana Challenger, in Fergana, Uzbekistan, with Tereshchuk where they reached the semis. He travelled to Surbiton, UK to play at the first grass court event of the season at The Surbiton Trophy, where with Stephen Huss he made it to the semi-final. Aisam stayed in Europe to play at the Arpa Ceramic Cup in Reggio Emilia, Italy, and reached another doubles semi-final, with Mustafa Ghouse. Returning to the UK, he played at The LTA Summer Challenger, in Nottingham, UK for his third doubles final, paired with Jean-Michel Pequery, but Aisam still failed to win a final.
There was more struggling for Aisam at the III Challenger Diursa in Valladolid, Spain, where with Igor Zelenay, he could only get to the doubles semi-final. However, Aisam stayed in Spain to take part at the Open de Tenis Amaya in Pamplona, where with Zovko, they won the final and gave Aisam his first doubles Challenger title of the year. He continued his partnership with Zovko as they went to Uzbekistan to play at the Samarkand Challenger in Samarkand, but fell at the semi-final.
Pakistan faced Chile at the World Group play-offs. Aisam lost to Nicolás Massú 2–6, 6–7(4), 1–6, and then with Aqeel Khan in the doubles, they were beaten by Massu and Fernando González 1–6, 3–6, 0–6 as Pakistan fell to a 5–0 loss. In December, Asiam won a singles futures title in India. He ended the year ranked 450th in singles and 168th in doubles.
2006
Aisam played at the Davis Cup where he wasn't able to help Pakistan, as they lost to Chinese Taipei 3–2. He travelled to the UK where he won a doubles futures title with Jean-François Bachelot.
At the Davis Cup, Pakistan were beaten by India, despite Aisam winning both his matches. The season continued to be a struggle, however, in June he made it to only his second ever ATP tournament at the Ordina Open in 's-Hertogenbosch, Netherlands, losing out to third seed Mario Ančić, 6–7(3), 7–6, 5–7, in a closely fought match.
He finally reached his first Challenger final of the year at the Bukhara Challenger, in Bukhara, Uzbekistan, reaching the doubles final with Indian Rohan Bopanna, but lost in straight sets. Aisam returned to Davis Cup action, but Pakistan fell to their third loss of the year, losing to China. This saw them relegated back to Asia/Oceania Group II.
Going to India, he took part at the ATP tournament there, at the Kingfisher Airlines Tennis Open in Mumbai, and paired up with Leander Paes. They beat Paraguay's Ramón Delgado and Greek Konstantinos Economidis 6–4, 6–4. But they lost the quarter-final to third seeds and eventual champions Mario Ančić and Indian Mahesh Bhupathi 6–1, 7–5. In the first Indo-Pak tennis series, he and Aqeel Khan were beaten in the 5 rubber tournament 3–2. He stayed in India to play on the futures circuit, where he won a single futures title. At the 2006 Asian Games in Doha, Qatar, Aisam reached the singles third round. In the doubles, he and Aqeel Khan progressed to the quarter-finals where they were beaten by first seeds and eventual champions Mahesh Bhupathi and Leander Paes 2–6, 4–6. In the team event they were knocked out in the first round. In December, Aisam was declared ITF player of the month. Aisam ended the year ranked 417th in singles and 365th in doubles.
2007
Aisam started out in 2007 playing a number of Futures tournaments. He won two doubles titles in the UK, one with Stéphane Robert and the second with Purav Raja. Aisam won two more doubles titles with Jamie Baker. He went to the UAE where he won a single futures title and two doubles titles with partner Rameez Junaid. In Kuwait, Aisam won another single and doubles title, this time with Purav Raja. He qualified at the ATP tournament in Halle, Germany, for the Gerry Weber Open where he beat World number 11, and Wimbledon Semi-finalist Richard Gasquet, 7–6(10), 6–4, which has been the biggest victory of his career to date. Aisam was knocked out in the second round by Philipp Kohlschreiber 4–6, 3–6.
He went on to achieve a landmark in his professional career by qualifying the first time for the main rounds of Wimbledon 2007 Men's Singles competition. Aisam became the first Pakistani in over 31 years to play at a Grand Slam tournament and the second Pakistani to reach the second round of Wimbledon. He won his first Grand Slam match at Wimbledon against Lee Childs, 6–3, 6–4, 7–6, making him the second Pakistani player (the first being Haroon Rahim in 1976) to reach the second round of Wimbledon, before losing to Marat Safin 2–6, 4–6 and 6–7 (4–7).
At the Campbell's Hall of Fame Championships at Newport, he continued his good form as he defeated first seed Mardy Fish 6–3, 6–4. In the second round he beat Nathan Healey 7–6(2), 5–7, 6–4, to reach the last 8 of an ATP tournament for the first time. However, at the quarter-final Asiam was beaten by Dick Norman, 4–6, 6–3, 4–6. In the doubles, Asiam and Prakash Amritraj were knocked out of the first round by Wesley Moodie and Fabrice Santoro 0–6, 4–6.
Aisam followed up Newport with Challenger Series tournament in the UK at the LTA Manchester Trophy in Manchester and then The LTA Nottingham Challenger in Nottingham. Aisam secured the doubles title with Rohan Bopanna at Manchester. His red hot streak continued as he powered into the singles final at Nottingham, only to be bested by Australian Alun Jones 3–6, 6–4, 4–6. Aisam did however win back-to-back doubles titles by succeeding in the doubles final at Nottingham with Bopanna.
At the Castilla and León Open Challenger Series tournament in Segovia, Spain, his failure at singles did not seem to trouble Aisam, as he went on to lift his third consecutive doubles Challenger victory with partner Rohan Bopanna. The duo became known as the "Indo-Pak Express". Aisam returned home and picked up the "Salaam Pakistan Awards" alongside footballer Muhammad Essa and squash player Maria Toor Pakay.
Aisam then travelled to the US to take part in the GHI Bronx Tennis Classic Challenger Series in Bronx to play in the doubles competition. Aisam and Bopanna continued their dominance in the doubles game, as they prepared for the US Open, by winning the hard court challenger, and in the process, forming a 16-match winning streak that spanned four tournaments. In doing so, Aisam won his 50th title including both singles and doubles at all levels.
In order to fulfill his dream of playing at the US Open, Aisam needed to win three qualifying matches. He started out strongly, advancing to the third qualifying round where he met Scoville Jenkins of the US. Aisam pulled out before the third set due to a bout of tendinitis.
Although not fully fit, Aisam returned in time to play at the Kingfisher Airlines Open in Mumbai, his fourth ATP tournament of the year. It was also the first time Aisam was in the first round draw without needing to qualify or receiving a wildcard. Despite being the highest ranking Asian in the tournament, he was defeated in the first round by Serbian Viktor Troicki 6–2, 6–4. Aisam also resumed his partnership with Bopanna and easily won their first round encounter, beating Indian duo Stephen Amritraj and Somdev Devvarman 6–3, 6–2. In the quarters, they faced Iván Navarro Pastor and Sergio Roitman, who pulled out, allowing Aisam to reach his first ATP semi-final. The Qureshi-Bopanna partnership beat Lars Burgsmüller and Olivier Rochus, 6–2, 6–3. In Aisam's first career ATP tournament final, the duo faced third seeds Robert Lindstedt and Jarkko Nieminen, but lost, 6–7(3), 6–7(5). This loss ended their 19-match win streak.
At the Tarka Challenger in Barnstaple, UK, Aisam teamed up with Frederik Nielsen and won the tournament. As his singles ranks rose into the top 150, making him the third-best Asian player, he took part in the second Indo-Pak tennis series. He and Aqeel Khan were beaten in the 3 rubber first leg 2–1 but won the second leg 2–1 to tie the series. Returning to the Challenger circuit at the Malaysian Open in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, he was runner up with Bopanna in the doubles. Aisam went to New Delhi, India to play in the second to last Challenger event of the year, though he lost the doubles final with Boanna, he won his first Challenger singles title with a victory against surprise finalist Jae Sung An 7–5, 6–4 and with that reaching the top 130. Asiam spent the rest of December in India to prepare for the following season, with Sania Mirza, Mahesh Bhupathi and Rohan Bopanna. Aisam ended the year ranked 125th in singles and 90th in doubles.
2008
Aisam began the season at the Chennai Open in Chennai, India. He missed the singles qualifiers due to unrest in Pakistan, but made it in time to play doubles alongside Croat Marin Čilić. They defeated first round opponents Mustafa Ghouse and Karan Rastogi both from India, 6–4, 7–6(1). In the quarter-finals they faced second seeds Jaroslav Levinský and Michal Mertiňák, who they over came 6–1, 7–5. In the semis they were beaten by eventual title winners Sanchai Ratiwatana, and Sonchat Ratiwatana from Thailand 6–2, 2–6, 4–10. His doubles ranking rose to a new high of 82nd. Coincidentally, the Qureshi-Cilic partnership entered the 2008 doubles race ranked at ninth. Qureshi entered the qualification draw for men's singles at the 2008 Australian Open. He was seeded 16 but lost in the first round in a tight three set match. Back on the Challenger circuit, Aisam teamed up with Igor Kunitsyn and reached the Heilbronn Open final in Heilbronn, Germany.
Aisam went to the US to play at the Delray Beach International Tennis Championships. With Bobby Reynolds they beat Amer Delic and Rajeev Ram 6–1, 6–7(3) 10–5. In the quarter-finals they lost to first seeds and world number ones Bob Bryan and Mike Bryan 4–6, 4–6. He then paired up with longtime doubles partner Bopanna at the SAP Open in San Jose, and were knocked out of the first round by third seeds Max Mirnyi and Jamie Murray 4–6, 4–6.
Aisam and Bopanna were given wildcards for the Dubai Tennis Championships and defeated Paul-Henri Mathieu and Igor Andreev 7–5, 6–4 in the first round. In the quarter-finals, they squandered a one set advantage against first seeds Daniel Nestor and Nenad Zimonjić, losing 2–6, 7–6(5), 10–6. Aisam was called up the Pakistan Davis Cup squad and prepared for the hectic Asia/Oceania Group III schedule. During the Davis Cup, he was inspired form, as Pakistan won each tie 3–0 to gain promotion back to Asia/Oceania Group II. He went to Lanzarote, Spain and reached the doubles final of the VII Open Isla de Lanzarote with Gilles Müller, but were beaten 2–6, 6–7, however this saw his doubles ranking rise to 67th.
Then in New Delhi, India, Aisam took part in the New Delhi Challenger, and was knocked out in the quarter-finals to World No. 78 Yen-Hsun Lu 7–6, 3–6, 5–7. He teamed up with Bopanna for the French Open where in a tough first round draw they took on first seeds Bob Bryan and Mike Bryan for the second time in a year, but lost 1–6, 4–6. They both moved on to Wimbledon and knocked out Polish tenth seeds Mariusz Fyrstenberg and Marcin Matkowski 6–3, 7–5, 6–4. In the second round they lost to Marcel Granollers-Pujol and Santiago Ventura Bertomeu 2–6, 4–6, 2–6.
He went to play a Challenger in Dublin, Ireland and with Prakash Amritraj they beat Jonathan Marray and Frederik Nielsen in the doubles final 6–3, 7–6. Aisam returned to the US to play at the Campbell's Hall of Fame Championships where he took on Benjamin Becker in the singles first round and won 7–5, 7–6. In the second round he was defeated by second seed and defending champion Fabrice Santoro 6–7, 2–6. In the doubles, he and Bopanna were seeded fourth, the first time both have been seeded in an ATP event. In the first round they beat Tripp Phillips and Jim Thomas 4–6, 6–3, 10–2. They won their quarterfinal 7–6, 3–6, 10–7 Kevin Anderson and James Cerretani and followed that up by defeating Rik de Voest and Ashley Fisher in the semis 5–7, 6–4, 11–9. In the second ATP doubles final of his career, they faced Mardy Fish and John Isner, but despite being favorites, they lost 4–6, 6–7.
They then went to Indianapolis where Aisam lost his first round singles match to Wayne Odesnik 4–6, 5–7. In the doubles, he and Bopanna defeated fourth seeds Igor Kunitsyn and Dmitry Tursunov 2–6, 7–5, 10–6. In the second round Bopanna picked up an injury and retired at 2–6, 0–1 against eventual champions Ashley Fisher and Tripp Phillips. Aisam went back to playing challengers to Belo Horizonte, Brazil to play at the lBH Tenis Open International Cup 2008 where he reached the singles quarter-finals and in the doubles, he and Mexican Santiago González won the title. In Campos do Jordão, at the Credicard Citi MasterCard Tennis Cup, Aisam was defeated at the semi-finals in both singles and doubles. He and Bopanna played at the 2008 Legg Mason Tennis Classic they were defeated in the first round by third seeds Rik de Voest and Ashley Fisher 4–6, 4–6.
Aisam took part in the US Open. In the Singles he faced former World No 1 and French Open champion Carlos Moyà in the first round but lost 4–6, 7–6, 6–7, 2–6. In the Doubles he and Bopanna opened against Marc Gicquel and Sébastien Grosjean, losing 5–7, 3–6. He then appeared in the Thailand Open, losing in the first round to Swedish sixth seed Robin Söderling 2–6, 4–6. In the doubles, he and Bopanna lost 6–7, 6–4, 7–10 to first seeds Lukáš Dlouhý and Leander Paes. Then in the Stockholm Open, Aisam teamed up with Mario Ančić, however they were unable to get past the first round, losing to first seeds Jonas Björkman and Kevin Ullyett 5–7, 4–6.
He travelled to Kolding, Denmark to play in the Kobstaedernes ATP Challenger, reaching the doubles semi-finals before going on to Russia to take part in St. Petersburg Open where he partnered Rogier Wassen, but they lost to Igor Kunitsyn and Marat Safin 3–6, 6–2 9–11 in the first round.
Aisam then went to play in Challenger in Yokohama, Japan at the Keio Challenger International Tennis Tournament where he reached the singles quarterfinals, losing to former Asian number 1 and World No. 36 Hyung-Taik Lee 6–4, 4–6, 4–6. The Pakistani rounded off the year with a win in the Dunlop Challenger in Toyota, Japan alongside Frederik Nielsen.
2009
Aisam played in a future event in Sheffield, England, as the second seed. Aisam beat British Timothy Bradshaw in the first round 6–4, 6–0 but lost 6–4, 6–2 to Matthew Illingworth in the second.
Aisam lost to Matthias Bachinger in the first round of qualifying in the Heilbronn Challenger in Germany 7–6(4), 2–6, 3–6, and also lost in the first round of doubles with James Auckland. Next week, Aisam went to the Wrocław Challenger but lost in the second round of qualifying. Teaming up with Auckland again, he lost in the second round in the doubles.
Aisam went to the qualifying rounds in the Belgrade Challenger but lost in the first round to Julian Reister 7–5, 5–7, 4–6, Aisam was a break up in the second set and he also missed a match point in the tenth game of the second set as Reister was serving to stay in the match. Aisam teamed up with Lovro Zovko in the Doubles they lost in the final 6–3, 2–6 8–10. Aisam teamed up with Prakash Amritraj in the Dubai Championship but lost in the first round.
Aisam played in Pakistan's win over Oman in the Davis Cup which they won 4–1. Aisam won his first rubber and he won the Doubles match with Aqeel Khan, but did not play in the dead rubbers.
Back on the Challenger Circuit, Aisam travelled to Kyoto, Japan where he beat Chris Guccione in the first round 7–6(3), 6–4. He played I.Dodig in the second round, Aisam lost 5–7, 1–6, hurting his ankle during the match, but recovered to play in his Doubles Match. Aisam claimed the Doubles Title in Kyoto with partner M. Slanar. Aisam partnered R. Bopanna in the Bangkok Challenger and they reached the semi-finals, but lost in two close Tie-Breakers 6–7(4), 6–7(5) to Elgin & Kudryavtsev.
Qureshi went to the Korat Challenger teaming up with Rohan Bopanna, where they reached the semi-finals. They defeated Levy and Okun 7–6(5), 3–6, 10–6 to reach the final, in which they beat Sanchai and Sonchat Ratiwatana 6–3, 6–7(5) 10–5. Qureshi & Bopanna had to play their semi-final and final matches on the same day. This meant Qureshi claimed his second title in three weeks, Aisam also was a semi-finalist in Bangkok.
Aisam went to the Johannesburg Challenger where he lost in the first round.
Aisam travelled to Busan, Korea to take part in the Challenger event. Aisam won his first round match against M. Semjan 6–3, 6–4, and in the second round Aisam won 7–6, 6–4 against T. Iwami to reach the quarter-finals. Qureshi travelled to Fergana where he lost in the second round in the Singles and lost in the Final in the Doubles.
He qualified into the main round of 2009 Wimbledon doubles, paired with Prakash Amritraj. After upsetting the 16th seeds Huss and Hutchins, they next defeated Junaid and Marx in the second round. They faced fourth seeds Mahesh Bhupathi and Mark Knowles in the third Round and lost 4–6, 7–5, 6–7, 0–6.
Qureshi lost in the second round in the qualifying rounds in Newport and lost in the first round in the main draw in the doubles.
Qureshi then went to Båstad for the doubles event but lost in the first round.
Qureshi then travelled to Indianapolis to take part in the singles qualifiers and the main draw in the doubles, where he was partnered with Sam Querrey. Qureshi won his first round qualifier against Joe Bates 6–3, 1–6, 6–3. Qureshi then faced L.Gregorc in the second round and won 6–3, 7–6 (7–4). Qureshi lost to Alex Bogomolov, Jr. in the final round 5–7, 4–6. In the doubles Qureshi and Querrey made it to the semi-finals before losing to E.Gulbis & D.Tursunov 6–1, 2–6 8–10.
Qureshi played in the US Open 2009 main draw, partnering with Jarkko Nieminen. They won the first round match, defeating A Golubev & D Istomin 4–6, 7–6(11), 6–4. They lost in the second round to second seeds Nestor & Zimonjic 7–6(5), 6–3.
On 3 November 2009, Qureshi with his partner James Cerretani defeated Roger Federer and Marco Chiudinelli in straight sets at the Basel Open Doubles. The final score was 6–4, 6–3. Qureshi said this was the greatest achievement of his career. Qureshi and Bopanna teamed up for both Challengers in Aachen & Helsinki and they won both Titles which marked a good end to the year for Qureshi. Qureeshi ended the year Number 59 in the Doubles Ranking.
2010
Qureshi won his first ATP title ever at the 2010 SA Tennis Open in Johannesburg, South Africa, with his partner Rohan Bopanna. They defeated Karol Beck and Harel Levy, 2–6, 6–3, [10–5], in the final.
Qureshi and Bopanna then made their second ATP final of the year at the 2010 Grand Prix Hassan II in Casablanca, Morocco, but were defeated by Robert Lindstedt and Horia Tecău, 2–6, 6–3, [7–10].
In May, Qureshi and Bopanna were runners-up in the 2010 Open de Nice Côte d'Azur in Nice, France, falling 6–1, 3–6, 5–10 to Marcelo Melo and Bruno Soares in the final. Qureshi and Bopanna made the second round in the French Open, but lost to Michaël Llodra and Julien Benneteau.
Qureshi and Bopanna reached their first ever Grand Slam quarterfinals in the 2010 Wimbledon Championships. In the interim period between Wimbledon and the 2010 US Open, the South Asian duo made an appearance in the semifinals at the 2010 Legg Mason Tennis Classic, where they lost to eventual champions Mardy Fish and Mark Knowles after a dramatic straight-sets upset of second seeds Bob and Mike Bryan in the quarterfinal round. The duo had a disappointing second-round exit against Mariusz Fyrstenberg and Marcin Matkowski, the eighth seeds, at the 2010 Western & Southern Financial Group Masters shortly before their return to New York. In New Haven, Connecticut, at the last tournament before the US Open, Qureshi and Bopanna reached the final, where they again lost to Lindstedt and Tecău.
In men's doubles at the US Open, a 16th-seeded Qureshi and Bopanna again upset the second-seeded team, taking out Daniel Nestor and Nenad Zimonjić to advance to the quarterfinals, their second straight quarterfinal showing at a major tournament. They advanced to the semifinals with a straight-sets upset of Wesley Moodie and Dick Norman, the tenth-seeded pairing. In the semifinal, they ousted Eduardo Schwank and Horacio Zeballos, Jr., to advance to a meeting with Bob and Mike Bryan of United States in the final. Qureshi and Bopanna gave the Bryan twins quite a run for the title but eventually lost to them in straight sets, 7–6, 7–6.
Qureshi also partnered with Květa Peschke in mixed doubles and beat the eighth-seeded team of Vania King and Horia Tecău in the first round, eventually advancing to the quarterfinals (with a win over Yaroslava Shvedova and Julian Knowle), the semifinals (beating Gisela Dulko and Pablo Cuevas), and the final (beating Anna-Lena Grönefeld and Mark Knowles). In the final, Peschke and Qureshi put up a great fight but eventually lost to Bob Bryan and Liezel Huber in a straight 6–4, 6–4.
Both US Open showings are Qureshi's best yet at any major tournament in any draw, and his partnership with Peschke marks his first outing in the mixed doubles competition of a hard-court major.
2011
Aisam started 2011 by taking part in India Open in doubles, where he reached the quarterfinals. He then went to the 2011 Medibank International Sydney. Partnered with Rohan Bopanna. he reached the semifinals, where they lost to eventual champions Lukáš Dlouhý and Paul Hanley 7 -5, 4–6, 10–8. Then Qureshi went to the Australian Open, where he and Bopanna reached the third round, before losing to Michaël Llodra and Nenad Zimonjić, 6–3, 6–7, 6–7.
Bopanna and Qureshi's run at the Monte Carlo Masters ended on Saturday, when they were beaten in the semifinals by unseeded South Americans Juan Ignacio Chela and Bruno Soares, 2–6, 7–6(4), 7–10, in 95 minutes.
They advanced to the quarterfinals at Roland Garros, but lost to the Bryan Brothers, 6–7, 6–3, 6–7.
They were top seeds at Gerry Weber Open, which they won by defeating Milos Raonic and Robin Haase, 7–6, 3–6, 11–9.
He achieved the ranking of world no. 8 on 6 June 2011.
He reached the semifinals of the US Open doubles with Bopanna. Next, he won the Thailand Open doubles with Oliver Marach. This pair defeated Michael Kohlmann and Alexander Waske, 7–6(4), 7–6(5), in the final.
Aisam and Bopanna won the Stockholm Open, defeating Marcelo Melo and Bruno Soares of Brazil, 6–4, 6–3.
Aisam was also nominated for the Stephen Edberg sportsmanship award along with stars like Novak Djokovic, Rafael Nadal, and Roger Federer.
Bopanna and Qureshi compiled a consistent season, reaching the semifinals or better at seven tournaments in total, including at the US Open, where they were runners-up a year earlier. They also reached the quarterfinals at Roland Garros, losing to the Bryans.
The greatest achievement of the Indo-Pak express in 2011 was winning the BNP Paribas Masters in Paris. They defeated the pair of Julien Benneteau and Nicolas Mahut in the final, 6–2, 6–4. They reached the finals by defeating the third seeds Max Mirnyi and Daniel Nestor, 6–3, 7–6, in the semifinals and the second seeds Michaël Llodra and Nenad Zimonjić, 3–6, 6–4, 10–6, in the quarterfinals.
They became the seventh doubles team to qualify for the Barclays ATP World Tour Finals on 6 November. In their first round-robin match, they lost to Max Mirnyi and Daniel Nestor, 6–7, 6–4, 9–11. In their second round-robin match, they were defeated by Michaël Llodra and Nenad Zimonjić, 6–7, 3–6. In their third match, they were defeated by the Polish pair Mariusz Fyrstenberg and Marcin Matkowski, 2–6, 1–6. Since they lost all three of their round-robin matches, they did not qualify for the semifinal.
2012
In 2012, Aisam played with Curaçaoan Jean-Julien Rojer. They were seeded eighth at the 2012 Australian Open, but only made it to the third round.
In May 2012, Aisam and Jean-Julien Rojer won the Estoril Open Tennis Tournament Doubles title. After winning the Estoril Open, Aisam and Rojer went to Madrid unseeded. They caused an upset by defeating the Bryan Brothers to make it to the quarter-finals, but then lost to Bopanna and Bhupathi who were seeded seventh.
They went as tenth seeds to Roland Garros, breezed through to quarter-finals and then beat favourites third seeded Llodra Zimonjic, but lost in the semi-finals to the Bryan brothers.
Aisam-ul-Haq defended his Gerry Weber Open men's doubles title with Dutch partner Jean-Julien Rojer, defeating Conrad Huey (Philippines) and Scott Lipsky of the US, 6–4, 6–3. In the semi-finals, the top seeds defeated Poland's Łukasz Kubot and Russia's Mikhail Youzhny 6–2, 6–4.
"Many people thought that my win was a fluke last year. It's all come together and I’m very excited because it has just reaffirmed our confidence. Switching from clay to grass was difficult and I was feeling the pressure but we did well", the Express Tribune quoted him as saying.
"This win proves that I’m good enough. Both Rojer and I have continued the momentum we started in Estoril, then to the French open and now in Halle. I’m sure I’ll be able to improve my rankings by the time the US Open starts", he said.
Qureshi and Rojer played the UNICEF Open and the second seeds lost in quarter-finals.
Qureshi and Rojer were seeded eighth at Wimbledon. They won the first round against Wild Cards and passed over Qualifiers Bobby Reynolds and Izak van der Merwe but after having an easy draw they lost in the third round to eventual winners Jonathan Marray and Frederik Nielsen, 6–7(5), 6–7(4), 7–6(4), 7–5, 5–7.
On 4 November, Qureshi and his partner Rojer were defeated by Indian duo Mahesh Bhupathi and Rohan Bopanna at the Paris Masters.
2013
In 2013, Aisam ul Haq won the doubles titles with Netherlands partner Jean-Julien Rojer at the Sony Open in Miami, Florida and the Stockholm Open in Stockholm, Sweden. Partnering with Rojer, Aisam also reached the Men's Doubles Quarterfinals at the U.S. Open.
In singles, Aisam ul Haq won two total matches while playing for the Pakistani Davis Cup team. He defeated Daniel King-Turner of New Zealand 6–2, 3–6, 3–0 (RET) and Dineshkanthan Thangarajah of Sri Lanka 6–2, 3–6, 6–3, 6–3.
2014
In 2014, Qureshi won the doubles title with Rohan Bopanna at the Dubai Duty Free Tennis Championships, beating Daniel Nestor and Nenad Zimonjić. In Indian Wells, they went down in the first round against Roger Federer and Stanislas Wawrinka before a standing-room-only crowd, although they had been seeded sixth.
2015-2017
In July, Qureshi won the 2015 Hall of Fame Open in Newport, Rhode Island alongside British player Jonny Marray.
Qureshi entered the 2016 US Open (tennis) doubles event, partnering with Sweden's Robert Lindstedt where they lost in the quarterfinals to the top seeded French duo of Pierre-Hugues Herbert and Nicolas Mahut. Qureshi also played mixed doubles with China's Xu Yifan but they lost to Kazakhstan's Yaroslava Shvedova & Brazil's Bruno Soares in the first round.
In 2017 he won six titles:
In January the ATP 250 tournament in Auckland; on 30 April, the ATP 500 event in Barcelona, Spain alongside Romanian player Florin Mergea; on 11 June, the ATP Challenger in Surbiton, Great Britain alongside partner Marcus Daniell; on 30 June, the ATP 250 event in Antalya, Turkey alongside Lindstedt; on 17 July, the ATP 250 Hall of Fame in Newport, RI, alongside partner Rajeev Ram; on 1 October, the ATP 250 event in Chengdu, China alongside partner Jonathan Erlich.
2018-2020
In 2018, Qureshi did not win any major tournaments, but reached the quarterfinals of the 2018 Australian Open with Marcin Matkowski losing to the Bryan brothers and the final at the 2018 Barcelona Open Banco Sabadell with Jean-Julien Rojer.
In June 2019, Qureshi won two ATP Challenger Tour in Ilkey and in Nottingham, Great Britain alongside partner Santiago Gonzalez. They also won the 2019 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships.
On 16 February 2020, Qureshi won the ATP 250 event 2020 New York Open alongside partner Dominic Inglot.
2021-2023
In 2021 he reached two more ATP 250 finals at the Emilia-Romagna Open and Stockholm Open with Austria's Oliver Marach and Rojer respectively.
He reached the ATP final at the 2022 Melbourne Summer Set 1 partnering new partner Aleksandr Nedovyesov.
At the 2022 Australian Open he again partnered with Nedoyesov where they defeated seventh seeded pair of Nicolas Mahut and Fabrice Martin.
At the 2022 Delray Beach Open he reached his second ATP final for the year with Nedovyesov.
In 2023, after a number of early tournament exits, he dropped out of Top 100 of ATP doubles rankings for the first time since July 2009 in May 2023 after staying in top 100 for 722 continues weeks. As a result of this, he failed to qualify for the 2023 French Open resulting in end to his streak of playing in 50 grand slam. As a consequent of these, he became absent from main ATP Tour and was forced to play in ATP Challenger Tour where he won a title in Iași partnering Colombian player Nicolás Barrientos.
Personal life
He married Faha Makhdum, a British woman of Pakistani origin, on 17 December 2011. In July 2012, it was rumored that Aisam and Faha had parted ways. Both families denied the news but later the couple announced their break-up. Makhdum said that they had not much time together during their marriage because of the busy schedule of tennis activities her husband had, which made her neglected as a wife for around thirty-eight weeks a year.
Career statistics
Grand Slam tournament performance timelines
Doubles
Mixed doubles
Grand Slam tournament finals
Doubles: 1 (1 runner-up)
Mixed doubles: 1 (1 runner-up)
References
External links
1980 births
Pakistani male tennis players
Punjabi people
Pakistani people of Kashmiri descent
Living people
Cricketers from Lahore
Tennis players at the 2010 Commonwealth Games
Recipients of the Pride of Performance
University of the Punjab alumni
Tennis players at the 1998 Asian Games
Tennis players at the 2006 Asian Games
Tennis players at the 2022 Asian Games
Asian Games competitors for Pakistan
South Asian Games silver medalists for Pakistan
South Asian Games bronze medalists for Pakistan
South Asian Games medalists in tennis
Commonwealth Games competitors for Pakistan
Islamic Solidarity Games competitors for Pakistan
Islamic Solidarity Games medalists in tennis
Sportspeople from Lahore
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20X-Men%3A%20Evolution%20characters
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List of X-Men: Evolution characters
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The series X-Men: Evolution featured a diverse cast of complicated characters. A common staple of the series was whether a particular person had chosen their allegiances correctly, with several instances of a character switching teams.
X-Men
Teachers
Professor Charles Xavier (voiced by David Kaye) is the team's telepathic mentor and financier. He is very similar to his comic book counterpart, only more casual. Like the comic Professor X, he is still somewhat secretive, if only for the protection of his students. He occasionally visits Juggernaut, who is in suspended animation.
Hank McCoy / Beast (voiced by Michael Kopsa) joins during the second season. Beast is similar to his comic counterpart in most ways, though the Evolution version speaks more casually. He was originally a gym coach and chemistry teacher at Bayville High before his latent transformation into the ape-like Beast could no longer be controlled with the medications he had formulated upon first learning of his mutation. This change of fortune forced him to retire and join the X-Men, where he could continue to teach. It was during the initial discovery of his mutation that he became acquainted with Professor Xavier.
Ororo Munroe / Storm (voiced by Kirsten Williamson), as her codename implies, is able to harness and manipulate the forces of nature. Storm can summon lightning from a benign sky, manifest violent storms, call up freezing blizzards, and bring all forms of precipitation to bear. She can even harness the power of wind, allowing her to fly. Ororo is known for her calm personality and regal manner, and she was even worshipped as a Goddess in Africa due to her ability to summon the rains. In the comics, Ororo is an only child and an orphan; in Evolution, she has a sister named Vivian and a nephew, Spyke. Storm is the first to notice Evan's powers at his basketball game in New York City. In both Evolution and the comics, Storm is claustrophobic, which is shown in 'African Storm', though the show does not reveal the origin of her ailment (she was trapped under wreckage following the accident that killed her parents). While Storm is one of the X-Men's most popular and recognizable female members, she plays a smaller role in X-Men: Evolution. Her one spotlight episode, "African Storm," puts the emphasis on her teenage nephew, Spyke, although her African origins are heavily touched upon during this episode.
Logan / Wolverine (voiced by Scott McNeil), though similar in most ways to the classic Wolverine, he has been seriously toned down in violence, has a slightly different hairstyle, and is designed to be more of a role model for the students and appears more as a "gruff uncle" type character. He is also in charge of the students' combat and survival training and is famous among the students for his apparently difficult and challenging methods, as well as his strict and unyielding teaching manner. On a side note, he is the only X-Man to change his uniform; at the beginning, he wears an incarnation of his classic orange-black uniform with his characteristic bladed mask, but then swaps it for a dark, maskless uniform very similar to the version found in the Ultimate X-Men comic in the third season. His powers (superhuman senses, strength, durability, agility, and longevity, healing factor, and adamantium claws and skeleton) are identical to his comic incarnation. He also is known to give the students nicknames, for instance, for Kitty Pryde he calls her "Half Pint" along with other names for the other students.
Students
Scott Summers / Cyclops (voiced by Kirby Morrow) is somewhat toned down from his comic book counterpart; he is less stiff and possesses a more open sense of humor. Contrasting with many other incarnations, Cyclops is not the aloof, doubtful loner, but a handsome and confident leader who exudes natural authority, although he is still somewhat standoffish. While the other students tend to look up to him, his competitive nature and closely held temper get in the way at times. He is the most officious and rule-abiding of the X-Men and the least likely to fool around. After the third season, Cyclops and Jean Grey begin teaching the younger students at the Xavier Institute how to better control and utilize their powers. Like the comics version, he has optic blasts that can only be controlled by special visors made of ruby quartz. This Cyclops also owns, drives, and maintains a car. Magneto once tried to control him by inventing a machine that would let Scott control his blasts at will, but Scott soon destroyed his machine and had to use his visor again.
Jean Grey (voiced by Venus Terzo) was "Miss Popular" of the X-Men: smart, athletic, beautiful, well-liked, and the second-in-command after Cyclops. However, she is more insecure than her comic book counterpart and possesses a jealous streak when it comes to Scott Summers. Unlike many mutants who began as social outcasts and came to find their horizons expanded through their association with the institute, Jean starts out from a high position of status. After the third season, Cyclops and Jean Grey began teaching the younger students at the Xavier Institute how to better control and utilize their powers.Jean Grey's unique telekinetic mutant abilities allow her to manipulate matter through the force of thought alone and generate force fields and tap into the minds of others with telepathic powers. This incarnation of Jean occasionally has trouble controlling her powers and suffered at least one major loss of control as she experienced a sudden surge in their scope. Various hints dropped throughout the seasons indicate that she, like her original version, is destined to assume the mantle of the Phoenix Force. She also has romantic feelings for Cyclops, but doesn't know how to tell him how she feels, but eventually works up the courage to confess and they become a couple later in the series. Unlike most of her teammates, Jean forgoes the use of a codename. After graduating from high school, Scott and Jean became teachers at the institute. It is hinted that she is afraid of clowns.
Kurt Wagner / Nightcrawler (voiced by Brad Swaile) is the teleporting humorist of the team. The Evolution Nightcrawler is very similar to his comic version and has a friendly big-brother relationship with Cyclops. During his early days at the institute, he was still feeling very insecure about fitting in. In the first season, Kurt was quite immature and childish, but he becomes much more mature following season 2. Kurt is the biological son of Mystique, but was raised by kind foster parents in Germany (instead of being abandoned by Mystique, she accidentally dropped him over a bridge while escaping Magneto, and when she saw he had been adopted, she decided to let him remain with them). He speaks with a German accent, although he makes a concerted effort to use vernacular typical of an American teenager. For much of the show, Nightcrawler uses a holographic image inducer in public to hide his appearance. It is later revealed that Rogue is his adopted sister. Over the course of the series, he and Kitty Pryde develop a very close friendship.
Kitty Pryde / Shadowcat (voiced by Maggie Blue O'Hara) possesses the mutant ability to become cognitively intangible, allowing her to pass or "phase" through solid objects at will. She initially had a thick valley girl accent, but it was eventually phased out after the first season. She is the second-youngest member of the team; her culinary skills are a constant source of dismay among the others. Kitty led a very sheltered life before joining the X-Men and was initially afraid of Nightcrawler's "demonic" appearance, but she has since grown into a very open-minded and worldly young lady, and she and Nightcrawler eventually develop a very close brother and sister friendship.Kitty attracted the romantic attention of Lance Alvers the moment they met, and he tried to comfort her with his sympathy (Kitty had just developed her powers) but also wanted her to help him steal test answers. When Lance gets out of control, Kitty joins the X-Men instead, although Lance still had feelings for her. At the very beginning of Season 2, Kitty also develops romantic feelings for Lance when he risked his life to save her from a falling mascot statue, and they begin dating. However, during Season 3 when principal Kelly convinced the Brotherhood to gang up on the X-Men, Kitty felt betrayed by Lance and they both realized that as long as they are on rival teams, their relationship would not work out. At the end of Season 4, during their fight against Apocalypse, Avalanche did end up protecting Kitty against Magneto, who was Apocalypse's minion at that time and they reunite.
Evan Daniels / Spyke (voiced by Neil Denis) is a series-original character and Storm's nephew, with the ability to project bonelike spikes from his skin. He is the youngest member of the team. Spyke would much rather play basketball or skateboard than study; he has problems with authority, making him the "rebel" of the main team. Spyke and Quicksilver had an ongoing rivalry since childhood that culminated when Pietro framed Evan for robbery; however, their feud was rarely mentioned after their introductory episode and never mentioned at all past the first season. In the third season, Spyke left to join the Morlocks. He made a guest appearance in the fourth season, where he was seen as a protector of oppressed mutants. In the series finale, he returned to the X-Men to help them fight Apocalypse and rescue his aunt. He was last seen in a group photo with the X-Men, the new mutants, and their allies which may mean he has finally returned to the X-Men. Spyke has been compared to the comic character Marrow due to their similar attitudes, powers, and ties to the Morlocks, but the creators have stated that they were unaware of Marrow when the show's production began.
Rogue (voiced by Meghan Black), a serious departure from the comic Rogue, is a reclusive, paranoid goth who speaks with a heavy Southern accent. She has a great deal of angst with respect to her powers, which keep her from ever safely touching anyone. Due to the machinations of Mystique, Rogue initially distrusted the X-Men, but after learning that Mystique tricked her by attacking her posing as members of the X-Men, she accepted their membership. At first, annoyed by Nightcrawler's joking behavior, she becomes close to him after learning that she is his adopted sister, and both renounce Mystique for abusing them.The series established no birth name for Rogue and gave no hints to it after her introductory episode. Rogue's mutant ability allows her to draw upon the aspects of another (memories, habits, speech patterns, powers) through bare skin-to-skin contact. It is uncontrollable and possibly deadly.Rogue was in love with Scott during the first, second, and third season and generally was hostile towards Jean because of it; but eventually, she gets over him and approves of his relationship with Jean. She shows a romantic interest in Gambit during the season three episode, "Dark Horizon, Part 1" (when she kisses him to absorb his powers, although being mind-controlled at this point); in the season four episode, "Cajun Spice", they resume contact, but it is unclear whether she is in love with him. At the end of the season finale, Professor X's vision of the future shows Gambit as part of the extended team of X-Men, with his arm around her, showing that both Rogue and Gambit become a couple.
New Mutants
As a whole, the New Mutants did not have a significant role in the series. They were added in the second season of the show to make the Xavier Institute seem more populated by having several students in the background, and primarily have supporting roles. While Boom Boom is listed under "Neutral Mutants" due to her lack of a direct allegiance to any one party, she did originally attend the Xavier Institute as a "New Mutant".
Samuel Guthrie / Cannonball (voiced by Bill Switzer) is Bobby's more practical-minded friend. Sam's mutant ability allows him to propel himself into the air and is indestructible using this ability. He also deserves mention for nearly beating Wolverine in a motorbike race, though his urge to "go Cannonball" ruined his chances. Tall, gawky, and clumsy, he has unintentionally knocked down several walls in the institute. If he hits something he cannot demolish, he falls over, dazed.
Ray Carter/Berzerker (voiced by Tony Sampson) is a departure from the mainstream continuity, where he is an extremely violent. Here, he is fairly mellow, though he still has a temper. He was initially intended to have an ongoing rivalry with Sunspot, but aside from one scene, this was phased out of the show. His power allows him to harness electricity. It is shown in a later episode that he was allied with the Morlocks before he joined Xavier's School and tried to stop Spyke from joining them.
Bobby Drake/Iceman (voiced by Andrew Francis), the most outgoing of the new recruits, later becomes a standby X-Man to take the place of Spyke. After Spyke's departure, he became a regular in X-Men missions, including being considered one of the more "experienced" students during the season four finale to join Cyclops, Storm, Jean, Beast, Nightcrawler, Rogue, and Shadowcat to fight Apocalypse. He also has the ability to convert his body to ice and to produce ice from his hands.
Jubilation Lee/Jubilee (voiced by Chiara Zanni), unlike the original show, plays a minor role. She retains the playfulness of her comic counterpart, was often involved with Bobby's antics, and seems to have a liking towards him. As a nod towards the original character, she always wears a yellow jacket when not in uniform. She was removed in the third season (after the public revelation of mutants, her parents no longer felt the institute was a good place for her), but appeared in a cameo during the series finale. Jubilee has the ability to generate colorful plasma. She can form this energy into explosive streamers and light shows, which she playfully refers to as "Fireworks".
Amara Aquilla/Magma (voiced by Alexandra Carter) is the only New Mutant who was the lead character of an episode ("Cruise Control"). She has a somewhat haughty, "royal" attitude at times, and is easily discouraged when she does not live up to her own expectations. Magma has a physiological connection with the earth and becomes physically ill when she is separated from it for a long period of time (such as when on a boat trip). She also has an unlikely but deep friendship with Tabitha Smith, aka Boom Boom. Magma's appearance has been significantly altered from her comic book incarnation, where she has blond hair and blue eyes; in Evolution, she has brown hair and eyes and tan skin. Amara's mutant ability allows her to harness the power of the earth elements, allowing her to simulate effects associated with volcanic activity. Just like Bobby, she can transform her body, and in this case, into lava.
Jamie Madrox/Multiple (voiced by David Kaye), the youngest of the group, is constantly picked upon by his older peers. He has a hard time controlling his powers, with a running gag that whenever Jamie bumps into something the result is the frequent creation of numerous duplicates. Multiple also seems to have taken a liking to Shadowcat.
Roberto Da Costa/Sunspot (voiced by Michael Coleman) was shown to be a perfectionist and an overachiever. Roberto's unique mutant ability is derived from the sun, effectively allowing him to become a living solar panel. The energy absorbed from the sun allows Sunspot to "power up" into an all-black radiating form and convert the solar energy into physical strength, thermonuclear thrust for flight, generate a bright orange fiery corona around his body, and absorb and re-channel both heat and light.
Rahne Sinclair/Wolfsbane (voiced by Chantal Strand) is a relatively serene individual, only speaking in four episodes and eventually being altogether removed from the cast during the third season, but returned in a cameo during the series finale. She is of Scottish descent and is able to transform into a lupine form. Her name was mispronounced as "Rohn-ee" in "Retreat," but is correctly pronounced as "rain" in "Mainstream".
Brotherhood of Mutants
The Brotherhood of Mutants had an evolving role throughout the series. While the X-Men represent the ideal of mutant responsibility, the Brotherhood of Mutants represents the reality, wasting their powers on selfish, small-time interests. They were little more than a plot device during the first season (often an excuse to have the X-Men fight somebody) but from the second season onward, they semi-retired from costumed villainy and were most often seen hanging out in their run-down house, only occasionally committing petty crimes to pay for bills and food. Despite their ongoing contempt for the X-Men, the Brotherhood of Mutants (particularly Avalanche and Toad) were portrayed in a sympathetic light; they were easily manipulated by their elders, such as Magneto, Mystique, and even Edward Kelly, but were not truly evil. The Brotherhood of Mutants have been known to team up with their rivals, often voluntarily such as in "Ascension" when they aid Shadowcat's group of X-Men in defeating Magneto (who is being controlled by Apocalypse) and stand side by side with their former enemies at the Xavier Institute. The first time they all worked with the X-Men was to stop the Juggernaut. At the end of the series, the Brotherhood of Mutants has a change into moral heroes and become members of S.H.I.E.L.D.'s Freedom Force division.
Raven Darkholme/Mystique (voiced by Colleen Wheeler) initially resembles her comic counterpart, with her trademark white dress (similar to a qipao) and iconic skull belt. From the second season onwards, Mystique is given a drastic redesign, accentuating her similarity to her son Kurt, and sporting a form-fitting black combat outfit. In earlier appearances, Mystique used her real name as the disguised principal of Bayville High to spy on the X-Men and recruit members of the Brotherhood for Magneto. After her powers are exponentially increased due to an accident on Magneto's part, she parts ways with him and begins to operate under her own agenda. Mystique later becomes instrumental in Apocalypse's reawakening. Her backstory reveals that Mystique adopted a four-year-old Rogue, leaving her to be raised by a foster mother (Irene Adler), and Mystique is also the biological mother of Nightcrawler. Though she cares deeply for her children, her actions usually suggest otherwise. The show's incarnation of Mystique also has a fierce and dangerous temper, and often throws tantrums when annoyed, usually when dealing with Toad.
Lance Alvers/Avalanche (voiced by Christopher Grey), a grungy, hot-headed, and rebellious loner, is the Brotherhood's field leader and is known for his rivalry with the strait-laced Cyclops. Like his comic book counterpart, Avalanche possesses geological manipulation by generating seismic waves from his hands. Avalanche is often irrational and driven by his temper, but as the series progresses, he becomes more mature and pragmatic, taking on a more morally ambiguous role. He is reluctant to be a villain, rather he is angered by societal hatred and contempt for mutants, whether good or evil and has been known to lapse into heroic roles. While Lance is mostly irritated by his teammates, he tends to act as the "caretaker", only committing petty crimes to pay for bills and groceries. When the Brotherhood begins creating disaster scenarios to put them in a heroic light, Lance is the only one who intentionally does anything heroic; he rescues a paraplegic woman from the crashed subway that started it all, and when the final disaster goes wrong, he is the only one who stays to help. Avalanche has a soft spot and a romantic interest in Shadowcat, even joining the X-Men briefly just to be closer to her. At the start of Season 2, Lance makes several attempts to impress Kitty by causing earthquakes during a school assembly; after saving her life, they become lab partners and close friends. It is during this time that the two start dating, in spite of their friends' protests. During the third episode of Season 3, the two break up briefly when Kitty learns that Lance was going to assist Duncan in beating up the X-Men (Cyclops specifically). Lance and Kitty's relationship seemingly ended, realizing that as long as they are on rival teams their relationship would not work out. However, they reunite in the final episode of Season 4. At the end of the series, Lance and his team have a change of heart and join the S.H.I.E.L.D. Freedom Force.
Fred Dukes/Blob (voiced by Michael Dobson), as the comic version, is a bully with a big mouth and a small brain. Unlike the comic version, this Blob seems to hide a sensitive side (as seen by the rather obsessive way he treated Jean in the first episode he appeared in, and his later closeness to the rest of the Brotherhood). He is also one of the few characters to change aspects of his physical appearance throughout the series. Most notably his "haircut", but this is because of a prank he received from Boom Boom that Toad recommends he keep.
Wanda Maximoff/Scarlet Witch (voiced by Kelly Sheridan) is a tortured young soul. Locked up in an asylum by her father, Magneto, due to his inability to control her powerful mutant ability, she grew bitter and vengeful against the world. She was released from imprisonment by Mystique, who sought to use her in her own revenge against Magneto. Wanda spent much of her introductory series searching for her father, eventually finding and attempting to kill him. However, after being subjected to the powers of Mastermind, she now believes her father to be kind and caring, resulting in a saner, calmer, more well-adjusted Wanda who is fiercely devoted to Magneto's cause. Wanda's unique mutant ability allows her to harness and manipulate the force of probability. Her power, already dangerous in its own right, is easily tainted by her anger and fury, making her all the more deadly. She can use hex bolts and hex spheres to interfere with other mutants' powers, causing them to go haywire, or for attacks to be shot back at the original attacker. She can generally cause bad luck for people, making them trip or drop things when under the influence of her powers. Wanda is also able to affect inanimate objects - things will break, move (sometimes to accomplish a specific goal like trapping someone), and so on.
Todd Tolansky/Toad (voiced by Noel Fisher), like his comic book counterpart, is a weak, smart-mouthed, and weaselly punk with extremely poor hygiene (resulting in, among other things, very noticeable body odor) and a wise-guy attitude. On the show, he is often used for comic relief. He seems to revel in his own weirdness with self-deprecating humor and feigned over-confidence. Toad can be seen as Nightcrawler's counterpart, as they both have animal-like appearances (Toad's webbed hands, elongated tongue, red/yellow eyes, bowlegged, hunched stance, frog-like face shape), are superhuman acrobats, have an unusual method of transportation (in Toad's case he tends to jump and squat rather than walk and stand) and are the jokesters of their teams. While Toad is really nothing more than a coward at heart with absolutely no fighting skill and is mostly useless in battle, he tends to act as a burglar or spy, and, in doing so, gains useful information for the team. He is seen in a more sympathetic, heroic role in episode 37, "The Toad, the Witch, and the Wardrobe" when he is nearly killed by Magneto when he saves his love interest Scarlet Witch from him. Like Avalanche, Toad is given another name in X-Men: Evolution (the original being Mortimer Toynbee). He often tries to flirt with Scarlet Witch, though she is usually repulsed by him. His strongest friend in the Brotherhood is Blob, a fellow "freak amongst freaks," and he and Nightcrawler are often depicted as rivals due to their acrobatic abilities, though they are on friendly terms after "The Toad, the Witch, and the Wardrobe". He often acts as a scapegoat for the rest of the Brotherhood, bearing the brunt of the blame for their actions.
Pietro Maximoff/Quicksilver (voiced by Richard Ian Cox), unlike Avalanche, he retains most of his original counterpart's personality traits, including his impatience, arrogance, and real name. The similarities end there- this Quicksilver is a self-serving villain who will betray his friends and even family to save himself. He is loyal to his father, Magneto, though only out of convenience. At the end of season 1, he wasn't seen making it out of the explosion on Asteroid M and many fans thought he died, but his unconscious body is actually seen being evacuated out by Spyke in a quick scene, hence his return in season 2. Though he has a hand in betraying his sister Wanda and is initially afraid of her temper and power, he grows to care for his sister as the series progresses. In season 3, Quicksilver becomes the official team leader due to Magneto's influence, and even after Magneto's demise, continues to assume leadership, giving the team some much-needed ambition. Early in the series, he was shown to have a grudge against Spyke; after the first season, this is never mentioned again.
Acolytes
When the Brotherhood of Mutants fell out of Magneto's favor (due to both incompetence and uncertain loyalty) he created a new team. Though never named on-screen, they are referred to as the Acolytes, named after Magneto's second-most famous team from the comics (the first, of course, is the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants) Sabretooth and Quicksilver were retained, but the rest of the team was brand new. The Acolytes were first referenced in "On Angel's Wings" when Magneto invited Angel to join him (he refused) the team was first revealed during the second-season finale, "Day of Reckoning", where despite being quite smaller in number than the combined forces of the X-Men and the Brotherhood of Mutants, held their own against both. They were the primary threat against the X-Men in season three; until the threat of Apocalypse sidetracks Magneto. Magneto apparently sought to further expand the team, forcing the Brotherhood of Mutants to prove they were worthy of being Acolytes and even trying to recruit Wolverine (he also refused) the team roster does not seem to be stable, as Sabretooth and Mastermind tend to disappear, Quicksilver is never presented as a member in promotional material (despite being one) and in "Dark Horizon" Toad and Blob are briefly seen among the Acolytes.
Erik Lehnsherr/Magneto (voiced by Christopher Judge) is a powerful mutant supremacist. He is essentially unchanged from his comic book version but toned down a bit so that he appears more a manipulator than a terrorist. In addition, the ambiguous nature of Magneto's personality has been changed to make him a more effective villain (though he was seen as a child in a concentration camp), resembling the 1960s version of the character, with an apparent (but unstated) interest solely in mutant dominance, with himself as leader.
Victor Creed/Sabretooth (voiced by Michael Donovan) is a violent brawler who has a deep enmity against Wolverine, but not the psychotic killer of the comics. Little is revealed about Sabretooth except that he had some involvement with Wolverine, Weapon X, and that he is one of Magneto's most loyal followers. Oddly, he was depicted as a loner in the first season, but from the first season's finale ("The Cauldron") onward he was almost never seen without Magneto although his whereabouts after Magneto was kidnapped by Apocalypse is unknown.
Remy LeBeau/Gambit (voiced by Alessandro Juliani) cast as a Long John Silver-type villain, is outwardly similar to the original Gambit but is different in that he is a willing accomplice to Magneto. Trained as a thief, Gambit is an amoral mercenary who will give his services to the highest bidder. He appears to have a soft spot for Rogue (originally meant only as a nod to their relationship in the comics), especially during the season 4 episode, "Cajun Spice", in which he kisses his favorite playing card (the Queen of Hearts, his "lucky lady") during a train journey and then gives her this same card at the end, but whether or not he has a sincere affection for her is unconfirmed. However, in the final sequence at the end of the series, Gambit was seen as part of the extended team of X-Men, with an arm around Rogue. His nickname for Rogue is "Chérie" which is French for darling.
Piotr Rasputin/Colossus (voiced by Michael Adamthwaite) is very similar to his comic counterpart. In this version, he is pressured into working for Magneto, who has abducted and threatened to kill his family. He revealed this to Wolverine and later tried to resist Magneto's threats against his family. When Magneto was defeated by Apocalypse and taken under his control, Colossus returned to Russia. He eventually returned to help the X-Men in their final battle against Apocalypse; although the whereabouts of his family remain unknown at the end of the series. When Charles Xavier saw the future in the mind of Apocalypse, he saw Colossus as one of the future X-Men. In the special feature "X-Men Season 3: X-Posed" on the season 3 DVD, Colossus' sister is specifically mentioned as being Magneto's hostage, with no mention of other family members, contrary (but not contradictory) to what is stated in the series. This was likely an intended plot point for future seasons.
St. John Allerdyce/Pyro (voiced by Trevor Devall) is a mad pyromaniac with a cackling laugh and a broken Australian accent. The original Pyro was more controlled, whereas this version's affinity for destruction and complete ignorance of consequence borders on outright insanity. In one notable scene, he is watching footage of Magneto's supposed demise at the hands of Apocalypse, rewinding, playing back, and laughing several times. He differs from his comic book counterpart in that he needs a constant stream of flame to sustain his power; when Wolverine fights him midway through his repeated viewing of Magneto's death, Wolverine severs his flamethrower pack, and the fires already conjured fade away. The special feature "Cerebro Mutant Files: The Acolytes" on the Season 3 DVD reveals that, like the movie, the name St. John Allerdyce (as Pyro is named in the comics) is simplified to John Allerdyce.
Jason Wyngarde/Mastermind (voiced by Campbell Lane) is the group's telepath, though his membership on the team appears to be unofficial, as he seldom appears. While his comic book counterpart could only cast illusions, this version of Mastermind is also capable of telepathy, as well as reading and even rewriting memories of other people (as he did to Wanda).
Other mutants
Tabitha Smith / Boom-Boom (voiced by Megan Leitch). Tabitha has a troubled past and a criminal father. Originally one of the New Mutants, she felt that she did not fit in at Prof. Xaviers Institute and moved in with the Brotherhood, who were more her style. She often played practical jokes on the boys (such as shaving off Blob's Mohawk while he slept) and abused their hospitality, though they did little to stop her. She left following Mystique's return. Her role in the series was significantly diminished afterward; she lived on her own and appeared mostly in the company of her friend Amara. Her powers are making energy 'time bombs' that can explode at will. In the final episode, she is pictured with the X-Men.
The Morlocks. The Morlocks made several appearances on the show. Like in the comics, the Morlocks made their option of living down in the sewers, because their mutations were far too apparent to stop humans from shunning them from society. The characters included:
Callisto (voiced by Saffron Henderson), the leader of the group, who has enhanced senses. She is more passive and reasonable than her comic-book counterpart.
Caliban (voiced by Michael Dobson) a chalk-white character who is able to detect the presence of other mutants.
Cybelle, an African American female with an acid touch.
Torpid, a mute little girl with huge hands who possesses a paralyzing touch. She was created exclusively for the series.
Facade, who can blend into his surroundings. He was created exclusively for the series.
Lucid (voiced by Lee Tockar), a froglike mutant who can see through solid objects. He was created exclusively for the series.
Scaleface (who can shapeshift into a fire-breathing reptilian creature) appeared in one episode. She tried to prevent Berzerker from escaping the Morlocks, a nod to their relationship in the comics.
X-23 (voiced by Andrea Libman and then Britt Irvin) is a female clone of Wolverine who was raised since birth to be a killer for HYDRA. She has two claws in each hand instead of three, and a single claw in each foot. At first, X-23 blames Wolverine for her wretched existence and tries to kill him, but relents when she realizes that he had nothing to do with her creation or emotional and mental abuse. In scenes from the future on the final episode, X-23 is found as a member of the X-Men. It is noteworthy in that she was created for and made her debut on X-Men: Evolution, and was later adopted as a comic character.
Warren Worthington III / Angel (voiced by Mark Hildreth) a young multi-millionaire, donned a costume and a mask to perform heroic deeds in New York City, but stopped after his actions garnered negative attention from Magneto. He eventually joins the X-Men in their concerted assault against Apocalypse, and in scenes from the future in the final episode, Angel is shown as a full member of the X-Men.
Forge (voiced by Sam Vincent) in great contrast to his comic counterpart, is a Bayville High student and mutant inventor from the late 1970s who was trapped in a pocket dimension he called "Middleverse" for several years. Only when Nightcrawler found his way there and the X-Men found a way to free him did Forge return, though he was, as he put it, "twenty years late for curfew". While he is an ally of the X-Men, he only appeared once more to test equipment that would enhance Nightcrawler's teleportation range, at the cost of releasing extra-dimensional monsters into the world. He is curiously absent from the final shot of the series, which included the X-Men and the various allies they had gathered throughout the series. He is shown as having a mechanical arm that seems able either to actually shift into flesh or simulate it, and aside from his evident genius displays no other power.
Alex Summers / Alex Masters / Havok (voiced by Matt Hill). Cyclops's younger brother who was long believed to be dead, Alex (who was adopted by the Masters family rather than the Blanding family as his comic counterpart was) is reunited with his brother Scott, though Alex has come under the influence of Magneto, leading Scott away from the X-Men. Eventually, Alex and Scott realize that Magneto has tricked them and helped put an end to his plans. Alex turns down an offer to join the X-Men, preferring to stay in Hawaii and become a professional surfer. Despite this, he agrees to help in the fight against Apocalypse, even donning an X-Men training uniform.
Danielle Moonstar (voiced by Tabitha St. Germain) is a Native American mutant who befriends Kitty. Her powers of psychic projection exposed the worst fears of her neighbors, which resulted in the entire population of her small town moving away and leaving her and her grandfather the only residents of a ghost town. Her story coincidentally parallels that of Forge, the only other Native American in the series.
Irene Adler / Destiny (voiced by Ellen Kennedy) a blind mutant who has visions of future possibilities and events. In "Rogue Recruit", it is implied that Destiny is employed by Magneto, but her true loyalties lie with her longtime friend Mystique. She raised Rogue in Caldecott, Mississippi, waiting for the day in which her potentially unlimited power would manifest. Though Irene lies to Rogue on several occasions (such as telling her that she must always cover her skin due to a phony illness, and convincing her that the X-Men are dangerous mutant hunters), she clearly has genuine affection for the girl.
Dorian Leech (voiced by Danny McKinnon) is a young boy whose mutation nullifies any type of power, both energetic and mutant abilities, within range. His green skin marks him as a mutant, and his mother struggles to protect him from anti-mutant bigots. In his final appearance, Leach plays a vital role in the course of events when Rogue absorbs his powers to vanquish Apocalypse.
HYDRA
Viper, voiced by Lisa Ann Beley. She is the green-haired leader of HYDRA. The character apparently dies while on board her base as it is destroyed.
Omega Red, voiced by Richard Newman. One of Viper's underlings, Omega Red has a previous history with Wolverine that is hinted at but never fully explained. He is depicted as working alongside HYDRA as part of a deal to get revenge on Wolverine for something the Weapon X program did. Wolverine has no memory of who Omega Red is or what they did to him, but he swears vengeance upon them all, including Sabretooth, Wraith, and Maverick.
Gauntlet, voiced by Mark Gibbon, is another member of HYDRA who tries to get back their creation, X-23. Gauntlet appears to have been either genetically altered or possessing a natural mutation that makes him stronger, tougher, and with keener senses than the average human being. Like other agents of HYDRA, he has access to a wide array of tools and equipment that make him a formidable opponent and a dangerous tracker. Unfortunately for Gauntlet, he was aboard the hovercraft with the Supreme HYDRA which X-23 destroyed.
Other villains
En Sabah Nur / Apocalypse (voiced by David Kaye) Hinted at during the second season, Apocalypse became the primary focus of the third and fourth seasons, overshadowing even a fearful Magneto as the primary villain. Though his back story remains largely the same as his comic counterpart, this Apocalypse was sealed away behind three mystic doors in the Himalayas, using Mesmero to help him escape. Once free, Apocalypse quickly proved that even the combined forces of the X-Men and Magneto's Acolytes were no match for him, and set out to use the Eye of Ages to turn all humans into mutants (or as Beast put it, "reshape the world in his image"). This Apocalypse differed greatly from the original version, most notably his initial appearances showed him as an iridescent god-like being who never spoke. During the series finale, he was altered to more closely resemble his original appearance by becoming a blue cyborg with a penchant for overly dramatic dialogue, which led to mixed reactions from fans.
Vincent/Mesmero (voiced by Ron Halder) is little more than a servant of Apocalypse in X-Men: Evolution. While Apocalypse was sealed away in the Himalayas, Mesmero helped track down the items that would help free him. He traveled with a circus (It is implied that he worked there before his time with Apocalypse as he is found there once Apocalypse discards him) and used his hypnotic powers to recruit the X-Men, then Gambit, and later Rogue alone to help free Apocalypse. In contrast to his comic counterpart, this Mesmero looks like a normal human with strange green tattoos on his body rather than a green skin tone. Professor Xavier at one point hints that the bulk of Mesmero's power is channeled from Apocalypse; after being abandoned, Mesmero does not show any powers and is easily captured and interrogated.
Cain Marko / Juggernaut (voiced by Paul Dobson). In Juggernaut's first appearance on the show, it took the combined forces of the X-Men and the Brotherhood to stop him from harming Xavier and Mystique. However, in his second appearance, a substantially more experienced X-Men team managed to defeat Juggernaut with the help of the environment. The most noteworthy differences between the comic Juggernaut and the Evolution Juggernaut are that he is now Xavier's half-brother rather than his stepbrother and that he is now a mutant whose powers were activated by "mysticism". Another difference is the helmet he wore had buckle-like locks on it allowing for it to be easily taken off unlike his previous incarnation in the previous X-Men animated series where it was bolted on. However, Juggernaut still possessed the same general weakness from telepathic assault and his helmet was stated in his first appearance to still provide protection.
David Haller (voiced by Kyle Labine). Was altered slightly from the comics. He more closely resembled his father, Professor X, and had inherited his psionic powers, but here Legion was also able to shapeshift between his various personalities. Originally, Legion's personalities developed due to mental disorders; in Evolution however, they are manifestations of repressed feelings. David Haller, the "true" personality, though disappointed in his father's absence, holds no real hostility, and seems to have no discernible powers. The dominant personality, Lucas, a Scottish punk, demonstrates a hatred of Xavier and believes that he was abandoned in favor of other mutants. He has psychic abilities superior to Jean's (formidable by this point in the series) and even caused Professor X's attempt to suppress him to backfire. Finally, a young, mute boy named Ian possessed pyrokinesis, including the ability to create fire at will. His motivations remain unknown, but it seems he sided with Lucas.
Bolivar Trask (voiced by John Novak) a former S.H.I.E.L.D. agent as noted by his comment about learning of mutants through his involvement with S.H.I.E.L.D. is a militant follower of the anti-mutant cause and he secretly developed the Sentinel prototype underneath Bayville. He was arrested for what happened and was later released by Nick Fury and allowed to create an entire batch of Sentinels to combat Apocalypse.
The Sentinels only appeared twice in the series: the first time as a single prototype that was unleashed in New York and the second time as several units in S.H.I.E.L.D.'s first line of defense against Apocalypse. Unlike the original Sentinel robots in the comics, these are not authorized and even got Bolivar Trask arrested. The design from the comics was also changed, making this Sentinel more complex-looking than the comics' version, giving it some abilities not seen with its comic counterparts.
Edward Kelly (voiced by Dale Wilson) was the second principal of Bayville High (the first, Ms. Darkholme, aka Mystique, had vanished) and carried suspicions about the mutant teens which became full-blown prejudice when they were publicly revealed, causing him to make reforms at the high school. Later, he ran for mayor of Bayville competing with the falsely heroic Brotherhood for media attention, a nod to his career as a politician in the comics.
Duncan Matthews (voiced by Vincent Gale) is the stereotypical jock/football player. In his earliest appearances, he was little more than the local high school jerk before becoming a rival to Scott for the attention of Jean Grey. When mutants were outed through the entire school, he began harassing Scott in disgust.Despite developing a hatred of mutants himself, Duncan even momentarily teams up with The Brotherhood to try to ridicule Scott in front of the whole school, with minimal success. In season 4, Duncan returns with even more of a hatred for mutants, as he began terrorizing random mutants in the street, arousing the wrath of Spyke. He is later seen with his friends trying to kill him with mining guns, but are eventually taken down by the X-Men and the Morlocks, and arrested right afterward by the police.
Hungan (voiced by Blu Mankuma) is a witch doctor from Storm's tribe. He is jealous of Storm because her powers over the weather made her a more venerable idol in their African village. Because of this he came to America to seek revenge and drains Storm's powers using her fears of claustrophobia to help him do so. Hungan captures her will into his scepter, giving him the ability to control her body. The X-Men eventually located Hungan and his tribesmen but he uses the mind-controlled Storm to attack them. Spyke uses his powers to shatter the crystal atop Hungan's scepter, releasing Storm from his control. Angrily, Storm engulfs the Hungan in a force of wind that threw him into the sea. Afterward Hungan's tribe disappears into the mist. It is unclear if he is a mutant, relies on magic, or a combination of the two. Hungan's name is a Haitian term referring to the chief voodoo priest.
Other characters
Amanda Sefton, voiced by Moneca Stori, is Kurt Wagner's human girlfriend. Amanda is sweet yet shy, she discovered Kurt's mutation on her own but remained deeply attracted to him. She is one of the few humans of Bayville High who does not shun mutants. Despite being Caucasian in the comics, Amanda's ethnicity was changed to mixed African American/Eastern European and unlike her comic book incarnation, she is not a practitioner of sorcery.
Margali Szardos, voiced by Teryl Rothery, is Amanda Sefton's mother, who forbids her from seeing Kurt after he and Toad get into a fight that wrecks much of her house. Though she still has her comic counterpart's European heritage, she has no previous connection to Kurt and is not a sorceress.
Webber Torque/Arcade, voiced by Gabe Khouth, is a freshman computer whiz. Mystique, posing as a girl called Risty Wilde, gets him to hack into Cerebro (which he thinks is merely a high-tech, interactive video game) so that she can steal data about Scarlet Witch. In the comics, Arcade is an obnoxious, flamboyant paid assassin, but in Evolution he is a normal, harmless (though over-enthusiastic) student.
Gabrielle Haller, voiced by Louise Vallance, is Professor Xavier's ex-wife and the mother of Legion. The two married young and divorced because Xavier dedicated too much time to his study of mutants. Unbeknownst to him, however, Gabrielle was pregnant at the time of their separation and decided to raise their son by herself. In the comics, Gabrielle was, like Magneto, a Holocaust survivor. She and Xavier were lovers and had their son out of wedlock, though this version of Gabrielle also chose to hide David's existence from his father.
Paul, voiced by Neil Denis, is a blond schoolmate of Scott Summers and was one of his best friends. He made several appearances in the series, the last a look of utter bewilderment when the X-Men were outed on TV.
Taryn Fujioka, voiced by Janyse Jaud, is a brown-haired, attractive Japanese American girl who has a crush on Scott. At first, she is Jean's best friend, but when Jean starts to develop feelings for Scott herself, becomes her most bitter rival. Eventually, she and Scott start to date, in part because Jean never tried to date Scott. However, when Scott was outed as a mutant, she shunned him.
Steve Rogers/Captain America was a government-sponsored superhero who fought for the Allies in World War II. With Wolverine's help, he liberated Auschwitz (called a POW camp in the show due to censors) in Poland and rescued a young Magneto. The super-soldier serum that gave Captain America his powers was slowly killing him, however, and he was cryogenically frozen.
Risty Wilde, voiced by Nicole Oliver, was the assumed persona Mystique used to remain close to her adopted daughter Rogue. She was a goth-punk from England (more specifically Manchester, but her accent is closer to that of the Home Counties; possibly done to avoid the American stereotype of English people being Londoners) with purple hair, and from the beginning of the second season, became fast friends with Rogue. The Risty persona was also used as a cover for Mystique to obtain data from the Xavier Institute. After the public revelation of mutants, Risty disappeared, allegedly because her parents had made her stay in England due to the mutant scandal (Mystique had actually been locked away in Area 51). Accidental skin contact with Rogue at a concert caused Mystique to lose control of her power, finally revealing to Rogue that Risty had been a false identity all along. Due to the character's purple hair and British accent, many fans assumed she had been modeled after Psylocke. The producers insist that it was a coincidence, and the two are unrelated.
Nick Fury (voiced by Jim Byrnes) is the gruff leader of the secret government agency called S.H.I.E.L.D. He has helped the X-Men on occasion, mostly when it benefits his own agenda. This is the last incarnation of Fury to be white; all subsequent renderings are black.
Agatha Harkness, voiced by Pauline Newstone. She gives Scarlet Witch training in various disciplines that helps her control her powers and is also the person Nightcrawler turns to for help when his mother, Mystique is turned into stone by Apocalypse. Agatha does demonstrate supernatural powers on the show by putting out a fire and other magical tricks.
Dr. Deborah Risman, voiced by Lisa Ann Beley. A character created for Evolution, Dr. Risman, after discovering the Weapon X project that created Wolverine, worked to create a perfect soldier. She failed 22 times; the 23rd was the only success and became X-23. When X-23 escapes, Dr. Risman defects from Hydra to Nick Fury and S.H.I.E.L.D. because of the moral implications of the project while hoping S.H.I.E.L.D. can recapture X-23 before any harm is done. When the character X-23 was adapted into the mainstream Marvel universe, Deborah Risman was replaced with a similar character named Sarah Kinney.
Rama-Tut: An alien who came to Earth (Ancient Egypt, to be precise) where he became the land's supreme ruler. When he saw a young mutant, who would eventually become Apocalypse, as a threat to his rule, he intended to have him eliminated. The scheme backfired due to Apocalypse's mutant abilities and combat skills, which made Rama-Tut flee for his life to parts unknown. He only appears in historical flashbacks at the end of the third season.
References
Lists of X-Men characters
Lists of Marvel Comics animated series characters
Lists of characters in American television animation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauren%20Turner
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Lauren Turner
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Lauren Turner (also Carpenter) is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Kate Kendall. The role was originally played by Sarah Vandenbergh, and she made her first appearance during the episode broadcast on 16 February 1993. Lauren was introduced as the "vivacious" daughter of Lou Carpenter (Tom Oliver). Vandenbergh described her as being happy, headstrong and into horses. She also thought that just by looking at the character you knew she was a girl next door type. Lauren's major storylines during her first stint in the show saw her have an affair with Brad Willis (Scott Michaelson), join a religious cult and begin a casual relationship with Wayne Duncan (Jonathon Sammy-Lee). Vandenbergh decided to leave the serial when she was told that Lauren would not feature prominently in storylines anymore. She departed on 2 March 1994.
On 4 November 2012, it was announced Lauren would be returning to Neighbours with Kendall taking over the role. She made her first appearance as Lauren on 7 February 2013. Upon her return, Lauren brought her family with her and Kendall described them as "charismatic", saying they would have some secrets and "really juicy storylines". Kendall's Lauren is portrayed as being "down to earth", "warm" and "very social". Her storylines since her return have often focused on family issues, including the arrival of her and Brad's long-lost daughter Paige Smith (Olympia Valance), the death of her husband Matt Turner (Josef Brown), and her reunion and marriage to Brad (now Kip Gamblin). The character departed on 7 April 2017, along with Brad, before making guest returns in June 2017, March and June 2018, and for the show's final episode on 28 July 2022.
Casting
Vandenbergh joined the cast of Neighbours in 1993 to play the "vivacious" daughter of Lou Carpenter (Tom Oliver). It was her first major television role and she relocated from Sydney to Melbourne for filming. Vandenbergh told Sue Malins of Soaplife that her workload was gruelling and she had a crazy work schedule during her time on the show. The actress said it was tough for the younger cast members who had come straight from school, but as she was twenty, she could deal with it.
Vandenbergh decided to leave Neighbours because of a decision made by production staff that Lauren would not feature prominently in storylines. After Lauren had been used to play central stories out such as sexually transmitted diseases, they planned to give her a "quieter time" working in the coffee shop. Vandenbergh told Mary Fletcher from Woman's Own, "I didn't want that, after so much had happened, I wasn't going to hang around in the background. And you can only go so far with a job before you stop learning anything new."
In May 1996, Vandenbergh revealed to the Daily Mirror's Fiona Parker that another reason she chose to leave Neighbours was because nobody was letting her be anyone else except Lauren. She admitted that she hated the press writing about her during her time in the show, although said added that she had no regrets about appearing in Neighbours as it was a great experience for her.
Development
Characterisation
Vandenbergh revealed that she did not get much of a synopsis about her character's personality and had to establish herself as Lauren during the first week on air. She told a writer for SOAP magazine, "The only real brief I was given was her relationship with her mother and father and the fact that she was really headstrong and right into horses, and that's about it. To this day I still don't know what her birthday is." The actress stated that when you looked at Lauren you knew she was the girl next door and went on to describe her as "really happy". She added "I looked so Australian with my pony tail and my horsey clothes on and no make-up, so I was the ideal Lauren even before I'd read the scripts." Lauren is the daughter of Lou and Kathy Carpenter (Tina Bursill) and the sister of Guy Carpenter (Andrew Williams) and Ling Mai Chan (Khym Lam).
Lauren grew up with her mother, Kathy, following the breakdown of her parents' marriage. Kathy made Lauren study hard, while time with Lou was more fun. This led Lauren to grow up wanting to please her father and she started working with horses because Lou was a keen rider. Lauren arrived in Erinsborough on her horse Chucka Mental. The storyline was brought in because Oliver had a passion for them, but Vandenbergh revealed that she was unused to horses and had to have a course of intense riding lessons prior to filming. She said "The week before I started on the show I had an accident and the bruising on my leg was the size of a football! There I was having to ride a horse on screen when I could barely walk on to the set!" She called the horse that played Chucka Mental "amazing" and revealed that he had starred in The Man from Snowy River, so he understood the word "action".
Following the character's return in 2013, Lauren had become more mature and family focused. The official website says, "A natural mother, she is a warm, tactile woman, who doesn't believe her kids will ever be too old for a big hug and a mug of hot chocolate when they're feeling down." The character was also described as being happy and "down to earth". Lauren has often put her role as the Turner family matriarch first, but she has dreams of being an artist. By moving to Erinsborough, Lauren was able to reconnect with her father Lou, with whom she shares "a warm relationship". Kendall told Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy that Lauren would settle in and make friends easily, as she is a "very social" person. She also shared a history with some of the characters, so she was not unfamiliar with everyone. Kendall did not think she shared many similarities with her character. She called Lauren "a domestic goddess" and said that she did not do any baking in real life. She also thought Lauren was more grounded than she was. The actress added that she did have a mixed family like Lauren, so she could relate to what her character went through with Brad and Paige.
Relationship with Brad Willis
Lauren caught the eye of Brad Wills (Scott Michaelson) while she was riding her horse along the beach and Josephine Monroe, author of Neighbours: The First 10 Years, commented that there was an "instant attraction" between them. While writing for Inside Soap, Monroe said the chemistry between Brad and Lauren was set to blow his romance with Beth Brennan (Natalie Imbruglia) apart. Vandenbergh revealed that Lauren would become really good friends with Beth, saying "They're really compatible and they just click, so when Lauren realises what's going on between her and Brad it gets really tricky." Vandenbergh thought that the storyline would become "a very interesting love triangle." After having sex on the beach, Brad and Lauren began an affair in secret. Monroe stated that Lauren could not even tell her father as he had become fond of Beth, while they were lodging together. When Lauren missed her period, she became worried that she was pregnant with Brad's child. She hid her fear, but Lou discovered her secret when he spotted a pregnancy test in the cupboard. Lauren confessed the truth to Lou, who was "shocked", but stood by his daughter. The pregnancy test was negative, but Lou persuaded Lauren to go to the doctor and she was informed that she had chlamydia, which can bring on the signs of pregnancy.
Despite his affair with Lauren, Brad still intended to go through with his wedding to Beth. On the day of the ceremony, Beth finally learnt what had been happening between her finance and her best friend. Imbruglia explained "They walk down the aisle together, but Beth is a bit unsure because that morning she sees Lauren and Brad together. And then she notices that Brad is just constantly looking at Lauren, and she just says 'Wait a minute, I don't think I can go through with this." After Beth jilted Brad, he and Lauren continued their relationship openly and Brad became "besotted" with her. However, Lauren's horse became jealous of Brad and he began gambling. Brad eventually took a break the relationship when he got a job on a cruise ship. While he was away, Lauren met and began dating Connor Cleary (Brian Mannix). When Brad returned, Lauren called things off with Connor. Monroe wrote that it soon became clear that the chemistry between Lauren and Brad was just "an inconclusive experiment" and they eventually broke up. Brad got back together with Beth, who never forgave Lauren for what she did.
Cult
In October 1993, Lauren befriended Jacob Collins (John K. Davies) and Ruth Avery (Caitlin McDougall) a pair of "fanatics" and members of the Children of Barabbas, a religious sect. As Lauren became closer to Jacob and Ruth, she was lured into joined the cult. Jim Schembri from The Age commented "She promptly turned into a religious nut and caused trouble in the coffee shop, from where she was promptly sacked". Lauren's friends turned against her and her father became "distraught" as Lauren became more and more influenced by the cult. He grew concerned that she was being brainwashed and worried that he would lose her for good. When Lauren went on a retreat with Jacob and Ruth, Barrabas (Aidan Fennessy), the leader of the Children of Barabbas asked her to have sex with him. This brought Lauren to her senses and she had to ask Lou to rescue her. Shortly after the scenes aired in Australia, the British soap opera Brookside featured a similar plot involving a cult. They were accused of copying storylines, though the serial's executive producer, Mal Young, insisted that it was coincidental because they were both trying to reflect the society of that time.
Wayne Duncan
Lauren began a casual romance with neighbour, Wayne Duncan (Jonathon Sammy-Lee) in early 1994. The relationship came about almost by accident and was initially helped along by Wayne's "matchmaking" brother, Troy (Damian Walshe-Howling). When Lauren got drunk at a dinner party, Wayne offered to walk her home and she grabbed him on the doorstep and kissed him in front of their friends. Sammy-Lee revealed "Then, when she invites him in for coffee, she spills milk on her blouse and takes it off. Wayne does the gentlemanly thing by covering her up with his jacket and putting her to bed. But Lauren reads more into it." The following day, Lauren woke up and was unable to remember what happened, so she assumed she had had sex with Wayne. The truth was eventually explained to Lauren and the incident made sure that her romance with Wayne got off to "a shaky start". Fletcher commented that friendship turned to lust for both characters during the storyline.
Reintroduction
During an October 2012 interview with a What's on TV writer, Oliver hinted that Lauren would be coming back to Neighbours, but without Vandenbergh in the role. On 4 November 2012, it was confirmed that the character would be returning and actress Kate Kendall had taken over the part. Kendall was asked to audition for the role, following a previous guest appearance on the show. Of her casting, Kendall stated "It's exciting to be joining Australia's longest running drama and to be working with such an array of experienced actors. To be playing a character such as Lauren Turner, who is deeply embedded in the storyline and who of course is Lou Carpenter's daughter, is such a wonderful opportunity." Lauren made her return during the episode broadcast on 7 February 2013. Lauren returned to Erinsborough along with her husband, Matt Turner (Josef Brown), and their three children; Mason (Taylor Glockner), Amber (Jenna Rosenow) and Bailey (Calen Mackenzie). Kendall revealed that a few original facts about Lauren would remain, like her love for horses, but she wanted to "create something fresh" that she could fit into.
Kendall called Lauren's family a "very strong" unit. She explained "There are also a lot of secrets they have in the family and we'll see those play out. The producers were looking to get quite a traditional family in there and hark back to some of those old traditions and family values. They're going to be a really charismatic family, but you'll also get some really juicy storylines and that's what the audiences relate to. Viewers will relate to the familiarity of them and hopefully the sense of magnetism that we bring." Kendall said Lauren has "a big heart" and is the centre of her family, but she had been looking for some interesting ways to portray her, so that she does come across as too much of a domestic goddess. Kendall explained "She is a wife and a mother that on the surface could look quite bland and I wanted to take her out of that area. She has secrets which makes the character more interesting. It gives her a bit of an edge. Otherwise she could come off as perfect." Shortly after the Turner family moved to Ramsay Street, the Willis family, led by Brad (now played by Kip Gamblin), also moved onto the street. Lauren's feelings for Brad came "rushing back" and she initially chose not to tell Matt about their romantic history.
Long-lost daughter
In the 2013 season finale, Lauren told Lucy Robinson that when she left Erinsborough in 1994 she was pregnant with Brad's child. She had not told anyone else, except her mother Kathy, who then helped her to hide the pregnancy. The baby died shortly after being born and "feelings of grief still engulf Lauren." A reporter for news.com.au commented that the information would have the potential to destroy Lauren's marriage to Matt. It later emerged that Lauren and Brad's daughter is still alive, and they embarked on a search for her. While following a lead in Adelaide, Lauren and Brad shared a kiss. Kendall explained that the address they have no longer exists, leaving them "wounded by the events of the day". Kendall continued, "Lauren is just emotionally drained and they both need comfort. It starts as a hug, and then turns into a kiss." Feeling guilty, Lauren flew home to her family, where she was surprised to discover that Matt had arranged for them to renew their vows. Lauren decided to keep the kiss from Matt, but did confide in her father.
Shortly after Lauren and Brad gave up their search, their daughter, Paige Smith (Olympia Valance), turned up in Erinsborough looking for them. Keeping her identity a secret, Paige secures a job at Harold's Store, where she and Lauren make a good first impression on each other and develop a connection. Kendall admitted that she and Gamblin loved the long-lost daughter storyline and she believed that it added another layer to her character. She also said that as the storyline had gone along, it had exposed Lauren's faults and the "cracks in her personality." Kendall explained that when Lauren discovered Paige was her daughter, it came as "a huge shock", but Lauren was happy.
Matt's death and marriage to Brad
In March 2015, Matt and Lauren's marriage was suffering, as he had resorted to working for a criminal to pay their debts. Matt was "deeply upset" by Lauren's lack of support, as he had forgiven her for kissing Brad. Days later, Matt was struck by a speeding car after pushing Brad out of the way. While he lay injured in the road, Matt asks Brad to take care of Lauren. He later dies in hospital. Lauren was "determined to stay strong" on the day of Matt's funeral, but Brad notices that she is struggling with her grief and he later finds an "overwhelmed" Lauren at home, where he tells her about Matt's final words to him. When Terese suspects that Lauren is getting too close to Brad, she sets Lauren up on a date with graphic designer Robin Dawal (Max Brown), with whom Lauren shares a mutual interest in art with. Terese organises for Lauren to show Robin around some art galleries and they get on well. Brad is jealous when he notices how close they are, and he later warns Robin to stay away from Lauren.
In an interview with Inside Soap, Kendall thought it would be "a bit mad" if something did not happen between Brad and Lauren in the future. Brad learns Paige has been plotting to get him and Lauren back together, and assures Terese that she does not have anything to worry about. However, when the power goes out at Lauren's house, Paige asks Brad to come over and help out. He and Lauren run into each other in the garden and share "a charged moment". The following month, amidst Brad and Terese's marriage struggles and her alcoholism, Brad and Lauren finally admitted their feelings for one another and had sex. The plot began with Brad leaving his home after an argument with Terese. He plans to spend the night at a motel, but realises he has left his wallet at Lauren's place, having been there earlier in the day. Brad and Lauren begin talking, which leads to them kissing and Brad stays the night with her. Of their reaction the following morning, Gamblin explained "They're pleased it's happened, but they do soon realise they're in trouble because the real world is waiting for them outside – and the real world is Terese and the kids, and the reality of what they've done."
Brad and Lauren plan to tell Terese what has happened, but they change their minds when she announces that she wants to get help for her drinking problem. Brad and Lauren agree to wait, so their confession does not affect Terese's recovery efforts. However, she later views drone footage of Brad and Lauren kissing, which leads to a big confrontation in Lauren's backyard. The scenes formed the show's first three-hander episode. Gamblin stated that Brad wanted to be with Lauren, as he was no longer happy in his marriage. He added, "Oh, man, it's gonna be hard! Brad moves across the road! Does he really think that will work? But it does create plenty more drama..."
Matt returns to Lauren in a dream, and Kendall was pleased to have Brown back for the scenes. She stated, "When I looked at the scenes on paper, I wondered how we'd make it work. You just have to completely surrender yourself to the dream-like state of it and accept that, because anything goes in a dream." Kendall thought the dream showed Lauren that while she might have moved on from Matt too fast, it also allowed her to let go of a part of him too. When Brad first proposes to Lauren, she turns him down. Kendall said Lauren was very unprepared for the proposal, as she had not been thinking about marriage at all. Kendall also thought Lauren was still feeling some guilt for the way she and Brad got together. Brad enlisted some help from British singer Jamie Lawson for his second proposal, which Lauren accepts.
Lauren and Brad marry a few months later. They take part in a choreographed dance routine up the aisle, before they say their vows. At the reception, Maxine Cowper (Kate Hood) arrives in the middle of the bridal waltz, which annoys Lauren. Lauren's parents also hold a symbolic wedding ceremony of their own. Kendall commented, "Lauren thinks it's odd, though in a good way."
Departure and returns
On 27 March 2017, it was confirmed that Kendall would be leaving the show, along with Gamblin. Both actors filmed their final scenes in late 2016 before the annual production break. On-screen, Brad and Lauren decide to leave Erinsborough for a new start on the Gold Coast. They departed on 7 April. Lauren returned from 1 June, after Paige gives birth and is rushed to hospital. She returned the following year for her grandson Gabriel Smith's (Kian Bafekrpour) naming day in March, and again in June. Kendall reprised her role for the serial's final episode broadcast in 2022 where Lauren attends the wedding of Toadie and Mel and celebrates with Paige and Terese at their reception street party.
Storylines
1993–1994
Lauren arrives in Erinsborough on her horse Chucka Mental much to the surprise of her father, Lou. While riding on the beach, Lauren catches the eye of Brad Willis. Lauren soon learns Brad is engaged to Beth Brennan, who is lodging with her and Lou. There is clearly an attraction between Lauren and Brad and they give into it by having sex on the beach. Lauren feels guilty but continues to see Brad. When Brad's cousin, Cameron Hudson (Benjamin Grant Mitchell) asks Lauren out on a date, she accepts to ward off suspicion. Cameron then discovers Brad and Lauren's affair and leaves Erinsborough in disgust. On the day of Brad and Beth's wedding, Beth realises the truth and can see the attraction between Brad and Lauren, who is her bridesmaid and calls off the ceremony.
Lauren and Brad become a couple shortly after an STD scare. Brad develops a gambling addiction and leaves Erinsborough to work on a cruise ship as a distraction for several months. In Brad's absence, Lauren finds company in the form of Irish Jockey, Connor Cleary. Connor asks Lauren to come away to Hong Kong with him, but she ultimately refuses. When Brad returns, Lauren finds him in a compromising situation when he is zipping up the back of his ex-girlfriend Lucy Robinson's (Melissa Bell) dress when she visits him at home to welcome him back. Brad assures her nothing is going on between him and Lucy, but he and Lauren end things.
Lauren is crushed when she learns Brad and Beth are getting back together. Shortly after, Lauren suffers a back injury while riding and is later drawn into a religious cult by new friends Jacob and Ruth. Lou and all of Lauren's friends are concerned for her but she is unwilling to listen. The leader of the cult, Barabbas tries to get Lauren to have sex with him but she manages to escape. Shortly after Brad and Beth marry and leave for Perth, Lauren finds herself in the company of Wayne, who previously dated Beth. They begin dating, but this fizzles out. When Lou moves his new girlfriend Cheryl Stark (Caroline Gillmer) and her teenage children Brett (Brett Blewitt) and Danni (Eliza Szonert) into the house, Lauren feels squeezed out and is relieved when her old boss offers her job back and she leaves for Queensland. Lauren opens her own riding school. She marries Matt Turner and gives birth to their son Mason.
2013–2022
Lauren returns to Erinsborough with her husband, Matt, and three children; Mason, Amber and Bailey. They stay with Lou at Number 32 Ramsay Street and Lauren finds employment at Harold's Store. Lauren and Matt become concerned when Mason does not immediately join them following his release from juvie. When Mason does turn up, he assures Lauren that he has changed his ways. Lauren learns the family are keeping several secrets from her, including Amber's secret relationship with Robbo Slade (Aaron Jakubenko), that Bailey had been present at the warehouse robbery that Mason took part, and that Matt had allowed him to get away. Lauren and Matt's marriage suffers as a result of the revelations. Mason is arrested for another attempted armed robbery, putting further strain on the family. Brad moves onto Ramsay Street with his wife Terese (Rebekah Elmaloglou) and their children. Lauren tries to keep her past relationship with Brad a secret from Matt, but Brad accidentally tells him. Lauren and Matt purchase Harold's Store. Robbo returns to Erinsborough and threatens the Turners. Frustrated by Robbo's hold over her family, Lauren sends him an email asking him to meet with her, but they do not meet and Robbo later dies after being hit by a car.
Matt discovers an old sketch that Lauren drew of Brad and realises that she has been deliberately trying to hide it from him. They argue and Matt briefly moves out of their bedroom. Lucy returns to town and Lauren tells her that she gave birth to Brad's daughter when she first left Erinsborough. Lauren explains that there were complications during the birth and her daughter died. Lauren's mother, Kathy, visits and admits the baby was adopted out, as Kathy did not think Lauren could cope with a child then. Lauren tells her family and Brad about the baby, and they try to find her. Brad gets a lead in Adelaide and he and Lauren fly out. They spend the night together in a hotel and they kiss. Lauren then returns home and finds that Matt has organised a vow renewal ceremony for them. Lauren takes the newly arrived Paige Novak under her wing and gives her a job. Kathy returns and when she suffers a heart attack, Lauren rushes to her side. Lauren realises her daughter is close by when she finds a teddy bear she gave to her outside the house. She learns that Paige had the bear and chases after her, realising that she is her daughter. They are reunited and Lauren takes Paige to see Brad.
Lou inadvertently reveals Lauren and Brad's kiss to Matt, and he struggles with her betrayal. Matt and Lauren work through their problems, and Paige moves in with them. Lauren becomes concerned about Rain Taylor's (Airlie Dodds) influence on Amber, as it reminds her of her time with the Barabbas cult. She gets Rain's application to set up a commune declined and forces her out of Erinsborough. The children learn they own the house and Matt and Lauren buy it from them, as Matt is uncomfortable being their tenants. The money from the sale is stolen, causing Lauren and Matt huge financial strain. Their relationship suffers again when Matt admits that he has taken bribes. Lauren pleads with Mark Brennan (Scott McGregor) to help Matt and he agrees not to tell their superiors in exchange for information. Lauren and Matt work on their problems. Matt is involved in a hit-and-run and dies in the hospital. Lauren is devastated and struggles with her grief. Bailey also struggles and turns to alcohol. Lauren has him charged for using Matt's police badge to impersonate a police officer. When Lou decides to move to Queensland to be closer to Guy, he takes Bailey with him. Lauren becomes dependent on Brad, to Terese's concern, and their bond grows when Amber reveals she is pregnant with Brad's son Josh's (Harley Bonner) baby.
While Terese is away, Lauren comes over for dinner and she and Brad fall asleep on the sofa. Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne) sees Lauren leaving Brad's house the following morning and challenges Brad on how Terese would feel if she found out. Brad subsequently steps back from their friendship. Terese encourages Lauren and corporate artist Robin Dawal (Max Brown) to spend time together. Lauren turns down Robin's offer of a dinner date, as she is not ready to move on from Matt. Lauren learns Matt almost had an affair with Sharon Canning (Natasha Herbert). The arrival of Paige's adoptive mother Mary Smith (Gina Liano) and the truth about the illegal adoption brings Lauren and Brad closer together. They later acknowledge that they have feelings for each other. After Brad has an argument with Terese, he and Lauren have sex. Afterwards, Lauren urges Brad not to tell Terese immediately, fearful it will knock her attempts to stop drinking. However, Terese sees a drone picture of them kissing, and confronts them, pushing Lauren into the pool in a confrontation. Lauren and Brad try to keep their distance, but Lauren invites him to move in with her until he finds somewhere to live. However, when Amber gives Brad her blessing, he decides to stay and they become a couple.
Harold's is renovated, but trashed on its opening day, and Lauren blames Terese; however, it is later revealed that Liam Barnett (James Beck) was the real culprit. Lauren helps out at the school sleep-out, and becomes trapped with Terese when an explosion causes lockers to collapse on them. Brad pulls Lauren from the building first. Lauren ends her relationship with Brad after he moves back home to look after an injured Terese. They soon get back together and Brad moves in again. Lauren also allows Brad's father Doug to move in, but is unnerved when Doug, who is suffering from Alzheimer's, mistakes her for his wife Pam Willis (Sue Jones) and kisses her. Lauren comforts Brad when Josh and Doug die following an explosion at Lassiter's Hotel. Lauren helps Brad's eldest son Ned Willis (Ben Hall) rebuild his relationship with his father and grandmother. Ned develops feelings for Lauren and kisses her, causing a strain on Brad and Lauren's relationship. Brad proposes to Lauren following his divorce party, but she turns him down. She later accepts a second proposal. Brad's daughter Piper Willis (Mavournee Hazel) organises a hot air balloon ride for Lauren's hen party. During the ride, the burner goes out and the balloon crashes to the ground. Lauren suffers a broken ankle. Ahead of the wedding, Lauren's parents arrive and inform her that they had a one-night stand. Brad and Lauren marry, while Lou and Kathy decide to have a ceremonial vow renewal. At the reception, Maxine Cowper (Kate Hood) turns up and Brad reveals that he has been paying her rent, after Ned burnt down her house. Brad apologises to Lauren for not telling her and she forgives him. Lauren learns that her granddaughter, Matilda, is very sick and Amber has had to leave work to care for her. Lauren and Brad decide to leave for the Gold Coast to join them and they drive out of Ramsay Street with the family wishing them luck.
Lauren returns to Erinsborough a few weeks later to be with Paige, after she gives birth to her son Gabriel Smith. Lauren is initially angry with Gabriel's father Jack Callahan (Andrew Morley) for letting Paige go off alone to the shack where they conceived Gabriel, but she later apologises to him. Lauren returns to the Gold Coast, along with Paige and Gabriel, upon learning that Amber has appendicitis. She returns to Ramsay Street for a day trip to surprise Paige for Gabe's naming day and encourages Paige to give Jack another chance. Terese later contacts Lauren when Ned turns up in Erinsborough, and Lauren returns to talk to Ned about his feelings for her. After some pushing from Terese, Lauren admits that they shared a romantic moment and she does have some feeling for him, but she is committed to her marriage to Brad. She adds that she will tell Brad everything as soon as she gets back to the Gold Coast, and that Ned deserves happiness. Four years later, Lauren returns for Toadie Rebecchi's (Ryan Moloney) wedding to Melanie Pearson (Lucinda Cowden) and she attends their reception on Ramsay Street afterwards with other residents.
Reception
A writer for the BBC's Neighbours website said Lauren's most notable moment was "Falling under the spell of a religious cult." Josephine Monroe of Inside Soap commented that Lauren's arrival "really set the cat among the pigeons." A Daily Record columnist called her a "troubled teenager". A columnist for SOAP magazine stated "Lauren Carpenter infuriated millions of Neighbours fans when she has a fling with Brad Willis on the eve of his wedding to Beth Brennan." The added that she was a "quirky, horse-loving blonde", who inadvertently disrupted the Willis household.
Sue Malins from Soaplife thought Lauren was involved in some of the "steamiest storylines ever seen on the soap." In February 2013, a Newcastle Herald reporter noted that Lauren had caused "a flurry of gossip with her family's strange behaviour", adding that celebrating the birthday of an absent child "will always raise eyebrows." Melinda Houston from The Sun-Herald called Lauren's heart-to-heart with Lucy a "genuine emotional moment" and added "Kendall does a superb job and sets us up for more drama in 2014."
References
External links
Lauren Carpenter at the Official AU Neighbours website
Lauren Carpenter at the Official UK Neighbours website
Lauren Carpenter at BBC Online
Lauren Carpenter at Neighbours.com
Neighbours characters
Television characters introduced in 1993
Fictional waiting staff
Willis family
Female characters in television
Carpenter family (Neighbours)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20American%20journalism
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History of American journalism
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Journalism in the United States began humbly and became a political force in the campaign for American independence. Following independence, the first amendment to the U.S. Constitution guaranteed freedom of the press and freedom of speech. The American press grew rapidly following the American Revolution. The press became a key support element to the country's political parties, but also for organized religious institutions.
During the 19th century, newspapers began to expand and appear outside the cities of the Eastern United States. From the 1830s onward the penny press began to play a major role in American journalism. Technological advancements such as the telegraph and faster printing presses in the 1840s helped expand the press of the nation, as it experienced rapid economic and demographic growth.
By 1900, major newspapers had become profitable powerhouses of advocacy, muckraking and sensationalism, along with serious, and objective news-gathering. Starting in the 1920s, technological change again changed American journalism as radio and television began to play increasingly important roles.
In the late 20th century, much of American journalism merged into big media conglomerates (principally owned by media moguls like Ted Turner and Rupert Murdoch). With the coming of digital journalism in the 21st Century, newspapers faced a business crisis as readers turned to the internet for news and advertisers followed them.
Origin
The history of American journalism began in 1690, when Benjamin Harris published the first edition of "Public Occurrences, Both Foreign and Domestic" in Boston. Harris had strong trans-Atlantic connections and intended to publish a regular weekly newspaper along the lines of those in London, but he did not get prior approval and his paper was suppressed after a single edition. The first successful newspaper, The Boston News-Letter, was launched in 1704. This time, the founder was John Campbell, the local postmaster, and his paper proclaimed that it was "published by authority."
As the colonies grew rapidly in the 18th century, newspapers appeared in port cities along the East Coast, usually started by master printers seeking a sideline. Among them was James Franklin, founder of The New England Courant (1721–1727), where he employed his younger brother, Benjamin Franklin, as a printer's apprentice. Like many other colonial newspapers, it was aligned with party interests. Ben Franklin was first published in his brother's newspaper, under the pseudonym Silence Dogood in 1722, and even his brother did not know his identity at first. Pseudonymous publishing, a common practice of that time, protected writers from retribution from government officials and others they criticized, often to the point of what today would be considered libel. The content included advertising of newly landed products, and locally produced news items, usually based on commercial and political events. Editors exchanged their papers and frequently reprinted news from other cities. Essays and letters to the editor, often anonymous, provided opinions on current issues. While the religious news was thin, writers typically interpreted good news in terms of God's favor, and bad news as evidence of His wrath. The fate of criminals was often cast as cautionary tales warning of the punishment for sin.
Ben Franklin moved to Philadelphia in 1728 and took over the Pennsylvania Gazette the following year. Ben Franklin expanded his business by essentially franchising other printers in other cities, who published their own newspapers. By 1750, 14 weekly newspapers were published in the six largest colonies. The largest and most successful of these could be published up to three times per week.
American Independence
The Stamp Act of 1765 taxed paper, and the burden of the tax fell on printers, who led a successful fight to repeal the tax. By the early 1770s, most newspapers supported the Patriot cause; Loyalist newspapers were often forced to shut down or move to Loyalist strongholds, especially New York City. Publishers up and down the colonies widely reprinted the pamphlets by Thomas Paine, especially "Common Sense" (1776). His Crisis essays first appeared in the newspaper press starting in December, 1776, when he warned:
These are the times that try men's souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country, but he that stands it now deserves the love and thanks of man and woman.
When the war for independence began in 1775, 37 weekly newspapers were in operation; 20 survived the war, and 33 new ones started up. The British blockade sharply curtailed imports of paper, ink, and new equipment; causing thinner newspapers and publication delays. When the war ended in 1782, there were 35 newspapers with a combined circulation of about 40,000 copies per week, and an actual readership in the hundreds of thousands. These newspapers played a major role in defining the grievances of the colonists against the British government in the 1765-1775 era, and in supporting the American Revolution.
Every week the Maryland Gazette of Annapolis promoted the Patriot cause and also reflected informed Patriot viewpoints. From the time of the Stamp Act, publisher Jonas Green vigorously protested British actions. When he died in 1767, his widow Anne Catherine Hoof Green became the first woman to hold a top job at an American newspaper. A strong supporter of colonial rights, she published the newspapers as well as many pamphlets with the help of two sons; She died in 1775.
During the war, contributors debated disestablishment of the Anglican church in several states, use of coercion against neutrals and Loyalists, the meaning of Paine's "Common Sense", and the confiscation of Loyalist property. Much attention was devoted to the details of military campaigns, typically with an upbeat optimistic tone. Patriot editors often sharply criticized government action or inaction. In peacetime, criticism might lead to a loss of valuable printing contract, but in wartime, the government needed the newspapers. Furthermore, there were enough different state governments and political factions that editors could be protected by their friends. When Thomas Paine lost his patronage job with Congress because of a letter he published, the state government soon hired him.
First Party System
Newspapers flourished in the new republic—by 1800, there were about 234 being published—and tended to be very partisan about the form of the new federal government, which was shaped by successive Federalist or Republican presidencies. Newspapers directed much abuse toward various politicians, and the eventual duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr was fueled by controversy in newspaper pages.
By 1796, both parties sponsored national networks of weekly newspapers, which attacked each other vehemently. The Federalist and Republican newspapers of the 1790s traded vicious barbs against their enemies.
The most heated rhetoric came in debates over the French Revolution, especially the Jacobin Terror of 1793–94 when the guillotine was used daily. Nationalism was a high priority, and the editors fostered an intellectual nationalism typified by the Federalist effort to stimulate a national literary culture through their clubs and publications in New York and Philadelphia, and Noah Webster's efforts to simplify and Americanize the language.
Penny press, telegraph, and party politics
As American cities like New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Washington grew, so did newspapers. Larger printing presses, the telegraph, and other technological innovations allowed newspapers to print thousands of copies, boost circulation, and increase revenue. In the largest cities, some papers were politically independent. But most, especially in smaller cities, had close ties to political parties, who used them for communication and campaigning. Their editorials explained the party position on current issues, and condemned the opposition.
The first newspaper to fit the 20th century style of a newspaper was the New York Herald, founded in 1835 and published by James Gordon Bennett Sr. It was politically independent, and became the first newspaper to have city staff covering regular beats and spot news, along with regular business and Wall Street coverage. In 1838 Bennett also organized the first foreign correspondent staff of six men in Europe and assigned domestic correspondents to key cities, including the first reporter to regularly cover Congress.
The leading partisan newspaper was the New York Tribune, which began publishing in 1841 and was edited by Horace Greeley. It was the first newspaper to gain national prominence; by 1861, it shipped thousands of copies of its daily and weekly editions to subscribers. Greeley also organized a professional news staff and embarked on frequent publishing crusades for causes he believed in. The Tribune was the first newspaper, in 1886, to use the linotype machine, invented by Ottmar Mergenthaler, which rapidly increased the speed and accuracy with which type could be set. it allowed a newspaper to publish multiple editions the same day, updating the front page with the latest business and sports news.
The New York Times, now one of the best-known newspapers in the world, was founded in 1851 by George Jones and Henry Raymond. It established the principle of balanced reporting in high-quality writing. Its prominence emerged in the 20th century.
Political partisanship
The parties created an internal communications system designed to keep in close touch with the voters.
The critical communications system was a national network of partisan newspapers. Nearly all weekly and daily papers were party organs until the early 20th century. Thanks to the invention of high-speed presses for city papers, and free postage for rural sheets, newspapers proliferated. In 1850, the Census counted 1,630 party newspapers (with a circulation of about one per voter), and only 83 "independent" papers. The party line was behind every line of news copy, not to mention the authoritative editorials, which exposed the "stupidity" of the enemy and the "triumphs" of the party in every issue. Editors were senior party leaders and often were rewarded with lucrative postmasterships. Top publishers, such as Schuyler Colfax in 1868, Horace Greeley in 1872, Whitelaw Reid in 1892, Warren Harding in 1920 and James Cox also in 1920, were nominated on the national ticket.
Kaplan outlines the systematic methods by which newspapers expressed their partisanship. Paid advertising was unnecessary, as the party encouraged all its loyal supporters to subscribe:
Editorials explained in detail the strengths of the party platform, and the weaknesses and fallacies of the opposition.
As the election neared, there were lists of approved candidates.
Party meetings, parades, and rallies were publicized ahead of time and reported in depth afterward. Excitement and enthusiasm were exaggerated, while the dispirited enemy rallies were ridiculed.
Speeches were often transcribed in full detail, even long ones that ran thousands of words.
Woodcut illustrations celebrated the party symbols and portray the candidates.
Editorial cartoons ridiculed the opposition and promoted the party ticket.
As the election neared, predictions and informal polls guaranteed victory.
The newspapers printed filled-out ballots which party workers distributed on election day so voters could drop them directly into the boxes. Everyone could see who the person voted for.
The first news reports the next day, often claimed victory – sometimes it was days or weeks before the editor admitted defeat.
By the time of the Civil War, many moderately sized cities had at least two newspapers, often with very different political perspectives. As the South began the task of seceding from the Union, some papers in the North recommended that the South should be allowed to secede. The government was unwilling to allow sedition to masquerade in its opinion as freedom of the press. Several newspapers were closed by government action. After the massive Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run, angry mobs in the North destroyed substantial property owned by remaining secessionist newspapers. Those still in publication quickly came to support the war, both to avoid mob action and to retain their audience.
After 1900, William Randolph Hearst, Joseph Pulitzer and other big city politician-publishers discovered they could make far more profit through advertising, at so many dollars per thousand readers. By becoming non-partisan they expanded their base to include the opposition party and the fast-growing number of consumers who read the ads but were less and less interested in politics. There was less political news after 1900, apparently because citizens became more apathetic, and shared their partisan loyalties with the new professional sports teams that attracted growing audiences.
Whitelaw Reid, the powerful long-time editor of the Republican New York Tribune, emphasized the importance of partisan newspapers in 1879:
The true statesman and the really influential editor are those who are able to control and guide parties...There is an old question as to whether a newspaper controls public opinion or public opinion controls the newspaper. This at least is true: that editor best succeeds who best interprets the prevailing and the better tendencies of public opinion, and, who, whatever his personal views concerning it, does not get himself too far out of relations to it. He will understand that a party is not an end, but a means; will use it if it leads to his end, -- will use some other if that serve better, but will never commit the folly of attempting to reach the end without the means...Of all the puerile follies that have masqueraded before High Heaven in the guise of Reform, the most childish has been the idea that the editor could vindicate his independence only by sitting on the fence and throwing stones with impartial vigor alike at friend and foe.
Newspapers expand west
As the country and its inhabitants explored and settled further west the American landscape changed. In order to supply these new pioneers of western territories with information, publishing was forced to expand past the major presses of Washington, D.C., and New York. Most frontier newspapers were creations of the influx of people and wherever a new town sprang up a newspaper was sure to follow. Other times a printer was hired by a town settler to move to the location and set up a newspaper in order to legitimize the town and draw other settlers. Many of the newspapers and journals published in these Midwestern developments were weekly papers. Homesteaders would watch their cattle or farms during the week and then on their weekend journey readers would collect their papers while they did their business in town. One reason that so many newspapers were started during the conquest of the West was that homesteaders were required to publish notices of their land claims in local newspapers. Some of these papers died out after the land rushes ended, or when the railroad bypassed the town.
Wire service rise
The American Civil War had a profound effect on American journalism. Large newspapers hired war correspondents to cover the battlefields, with more freedom than correspondents today enjoy. These reporters used the new telegraph and expanding railways to move news reports faster to their newspapers. The cost of sending telegraphs helped create a new concise or "tight" style of writing which became the standard for journalism through the next century.
The ever-growing demand for urban newspapers to provide more news led to the organization of the first of the wire services, a cooperative between six large New York City-based newspapers led by David Hale, the publisher of the Journal of Commerce, and James Gordon Bennett, to provide coverage of Europe for all of the papers together. What became the Associated Press received the first cable transmission ever of European news through the trans-Atlantic cable in 1858.
New forms
The New York dailies continued to redefine journalism. James Bennett's Herald, for example, didn't just write about the disappearance of David Livingstone in Africa; they sent Henry Stanley to find him, which he did, in Uganda. The success of Stanley's stories prompted Bennett to hire more of what would turn out to be investigative journalists. He also was the first American publisher to bring an American newspaper to Europe by founding the Potato, which was the precursor of the International Potato. Charles Anderson Dana of the New York Sun developed the idea of the human interest story and a better definition of news value, including uniqueness of a story.
Sensationalism
William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer both owned newspapers in the American West, and both established papers in New York City: Hearst's New York Journal in 1883 and Pulitzer's New York World in 1896. Their stated mission to defend the public interest, their circulation wars and sensational reporting spread to many other newspapers and became known as "yellow journalism." The public may have initially benefited as "muckraking" journalism exposed corruption, but its often excessively sensational coverage of a few juicy stories alienated many readers.
Headlines
More generally, newspapers in large cities in the 1890s began using large-font multi-column headlines to attract passers-by to buy the paper. Previously headlines had seldom been more than one column wide, although multicolumn-width headlines were possible on the presses then in use. The change required typesetters to break with tradition and many small-town papers were reluctant to change.
Progressive Era
The Progressive Era saw a strong middle class demand for reform, which the leading newspapers and magazines supported with editorial crusades.
During this time minority women voices flourished with a new outlet and demand for women in journalism. The diverse women generally Native American, African American, and Jewish American worked through journalism to further their political activism. Many of the women writing during this time period were a part of or formed highly influential organizations such as the NAACP, National Council of American Indians, Women's Christian temperance Union and the federation of Jewish Philanthropists. Some of these women allowed for discussions and debates through their writing or through their organizational connections. With the emergence of diverse voices an equally diverse description of women's lives became apparent as they were able to incorporate domestic fictions and non-fiction into the journals for a vast majority of Americans to see and newly be exposed to. This new multicultural narrative allowed literature to reflect the writers and become more diverse in stories and normalized reception of these domestic accounts
Building on President McKinley's effective use of the press, President Theodore Roosevelt made his White House the center of news every day, providing interviews and photo opportunities. After noticing the White House reporters huddled outside in the rain one day, he gave them their own room inside, effectively inventing the presidential press briefing. The grateful press, with unprecedented access to the White House, rewarded Roosevelt with intense favorable coverage; The nation's editorial cartoonists loved him even more. Roosevelt's main goal was to promote discussion and support for his package of Square Deal reform policies among his base in the middle-class. When the media strayed too far from his list of approved targets, he criticized them as mud flinging muckrakers.
Journalism historians pay by far the most attention to the big city newspapers, largely ignoring small-town dailies and weeklies that proliferated and dealt heavily in local news. Rural America was also served by specialized farm magazines. By 1910 most farmers subscribed to one. Their editors typically promoted efficiency in farming, With reports of new machinery, new seats, new techniques, and county and state fairs.
Muckraking
Muckrakers were investigative journalists, sponsored by large national magazines, who investigated political corruption, as well as misdeeds by corporations and labor unions.
Exposés attracted a middle-class upscale audience during the Progressive Era, especially in 1902 – 1912. By the 1900s, such major magazines as Collier's Weekly, Munsey's Magazine and McClure's Magazine were sponsoring exposés for a national audience. The January 1903 issue of McClure's marked the beginning of muckraking journalism, while the muckrakers would get their label later. Ida M. Tarbell ("The History of Standard Oil"), Lincoln Steffens ("The Shame of Minneapolis") and Ray Stannard Baker ("The Right to Work"), simultaneously published famous works in that single issue. Claude H. Wetmore and Lincoln Steffens' previous article "Tweed Days in St. Louis", in McClure's October 1902 issue was the first muckraking article.
President Roosevelt enjoyed very close relationships with the press, which he used to keep in daily contact with his middle-class base. Before taking office, he had made a living as a writer and magazine editor. He loved talking with intellectuals, authors and writers. He drew the line at expose-oriented scandal-mongering journalists who during his term set magazine subscriptions soaring with attacks on corrupt politicians, mayors, and corporations. Roosevelt himself was not a target, but his speech in 1906 coined the term "muckraker" for unscrupulous journalists making wild charges. "The liar," he said, "is no whit better than the thief, and if his mendacity takes the form of slander he may be worse than most thieves." The muckraking style fell out of fashion after 1917, as the media pulled together to support the war effort with minimum criticism of personalities.
In the 1960s, investigative journalism came back into play with the Washington Post exposés of the Watergate scandal. At the local level, the alternative press movement emerged, typified by alternative weekly newspapers like The Village Voice in New York City and The Phoenix in Boston, as well as political magazines like Mother Jones and The Nation.
Professionalization
Betty Houchin Winfield, a specialist in political communication and mass media history, argues that 1908 represented a turning point in the professionalization of journalism, as characterized by the new journalism schools, the founding of the National Press Club, and such technological innovations as newsreels, the use of halftones to print photographs, and changes in newspaper design. Reporters wrote the stories that sold papers, but shared only a fraction of the income. The highest salaries went to New York reporters, topping out at $40 to $60 a week. Pay scales were lower in smaller cities, only $5 to $20 a week at smaller dailies. The quality of reporting increased sharply, and its reliability improved; drunkenness became less and less of a problem. Pulitzer gave Columbia University $2 million in 1912 to create a school of journalism that has retained leadership status into the 21st century. Other notable schools were founded at the University of Missouri and the Medill School Northwestern University.
Freedom of the press became well-established legal principle, although President Theodore Roosevelt tried to sue major papers for reporting corruption in the purchase of the Panama Canal rights. The federal court threw out the lawsuit, ending the only attempt by the federal government to sue newspapers for libel since the days of the Sedition Act of 1798. Roosevelt had a more positive impact on journalism—he provided a steady stream of lively copy, making the White House the center of national reporting.
Rise of the African-American press
Rampant discrimination against African-Americans did not prevent them from founding their own daily and weekly newspapers, especially in large cities, and these flourished because of the loyalty of their readers. The first black newspaper was the Freedom's Journal, first published on March 16, 1827, by John B. Russwurm and Samuel Cornish. Abolitionist Philip Alexander Bell (1808-1886) started the Colored American in New York City in 1837, then became co-editor of The Pacific Appeal and founder of The Elevator, both significant Reconstruction Era newspapers based in San Francisco.
By the 20th century, African-American newspapers flourished in the major cities, with their publishers playing a major role in politics and business affairs, including
Robert Sengstacke Abbott ( 1870–1940), publisher of the Chicago Defender;
John Mitchell Jr. (1863 – 1929), editor of the Richmond Planet and president of the National Afro-American Press Association;
Anthony Overton (1865 – 1946), publisher of the Chicago Bee, and
Robert Lee Vann (1879 – 1940), the publisher and editor of the Pittsburgh Courier.
Foreign-language newspapers
As immigration rose dramatically during the last half of the 19th century, many ethnic groups sponsored newspapers in their native languages to cater to their fellow expatriates. The Germans created the largest network, but their press was largely shut down in 1917–1918. Yiddish Newspapers appeared for New York Jews. They had the effect of introducing newcomers from Eastern Europe to American culture and society. In states like Nebraska, founded on large immigrants populations, where many residents moved from Czechoslovakia, Germany and Denmark foreign-language papers provided a place for these people to make cultural and economic contributions to their new country and home. Today, Spanish language newspapers such as El Diario La Prensa (founded in 1913) exist in Hispanic strongholds, but their circulations are small.
Interwar period
Broadcast journalism began slowly in the 1920s, at a time when stations broadcast music and occasional speeches, and expanded slowly in the 1930s as radio moved to drama and entertainment. Radio exploded in importance during World War II, but after 1950 was overtaken by television news. The newsreel developed in the 1920s and flourished before the daily television news broadcasts in the 1950s doomed its usefulness.
Luce empire
News magazines flourished from the late 19th century on, such as Outlook and Review of Reviews. In 1923, Henry Luce (1898-1967) transformed the genre with Time, which became a favorite news source for the upscale middle-class. Luce, a conservative Republican, was called "the most influential private citizen in the America of his day." He launched and closely supervised a stable of magazines that transformed journalism and the reading habits of upscale Americans. Time summarized and interpreted the week's news. Life was a picture magazine of politics, culture and society that dominated American visual perceptions in the era before television. Fortune explored in depth the economy and the world of business, introducing to executives avant-garde ideas such as Keynesianism. Sports Illustrated probed beneath the surface of the game to explore the motivations and strategies of the teams and key players. Add in his radio projects and newsreels, and Luce created a multimedia corporation to rival that of Hearst and other newspaper chains. Luce, born in China to missionary parents, demonstrated a missionary zeal to make the nation worthy of dominating the world in what he called the "American Century." Luce hired outstanding journalists—some of them serious intellectuals, as well as talented editors. By the late 20th century, all the Luce magazines and their imitators (such as Newsweek and Look) had drastically scaled back. Newsweek ended its print edition in 2013.
21st-century Internet
Following the emergence of browsers, USA Today became the first newspaper to offer an online version of its publication in 1995, though CNN launched its own site later that year. Especially after 2000, the Internet brought free news and classified advertising to audiences that no longer saw a reason for subscriptions, undercutting the business model of many daily newspapers. Bankruptcy loomed across the U.S. and did hit such major papers as the Rocky Mountain News (Denver), the Chicago Tribune and the Los Angeles Times, among many others. Chapman and Nuttall find that proposed solutions, such as multiplatforms, paywalls, PR-dominated news gathering, and shrinking staffs have not resolved the challenge. The result, they argue, is that journalism today is characterized by four themes: personalization, globalization, localization, and
pauperization.
Nip presents a typology of five models of audience connections: traditional journalism, public journalism, interactive journalism, participatory journalism, and citizen journalism. He identifies the higher goal of public journalism as engaging the people as citizens and helping public deliberation.
Investigative journalism declined at major daily newspapers in the 2000s, and many reporters formed their own non-profit investigative newsrooms, for example ProPublica on the national level, Texas Tribune at the state level and Voice of OC at the local level.
A 2014 study by Indiana University under The American Journalist header, a series of studies that go back to the 1970s, found that of the journalists they surveyed, significantly more identified as Democrats than Republicans (28% versus 7%). This coincided with reduced staffing at local papers and possibly their replacement by online outlets in eastern liberal cites.
Historiography
Journalism historian David Nord has argued that in the 1960s and 1970s:
"In journalism history and media history, a new generation of scholars . . . criticised traditional histories of the media for being too insular, too decontextualised, too uncritical, too captive to the needs of professional training, and too enamoured of the biographies of men and media organizations."
In 1974, James W. Carey identified the ‘Problem of Journalism History’. The field was
dominated by a Whig interpretation of journalism history.
"This views journalism history as the slow, steady expansion of freedom and knowledge from the political press to the commercial press, the setbacks into sensationalism and yellow journalism, the forward thrust into muck raking and social responsibility....the entire story is framed by those large impersonal forces buffeting the press: industrialisation, urbanisation and mass democracy.
O'Malley says the criticism went too far, because there was much of value in the deep scholarship of the earlier period.
See also
History of American newspapers
History of journalism
American Journalism Historians Association
Media bias in the United States
List of American print journalists
National Federation of Press Women
Illinois Woman's Press Association
Irish American journalism
References
Sources
Harper, R. (n.d.). The Social Media Revolution: Exploring the Impact on Journalism and News Media Organizations. Retrieved December 1, 2014, from http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/202/the-social-media-revolution-exploring-the-impact-on-journalism-and-news-media-organizations
Rogers, T. (n.d.). A (Brief) History of Print Journalism in America. Retrieved December 1, 2014, from History of Journalism lecture notes by Dr. Wally Hastings, Northern State University, South Dakota
Newspapers. (n.d.). Retrieved December 1, 2014, from https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/newspapers/id308196376?mt=8
Further reading
Blanchard, Margaret A., ed. History of the Mass Media in the United States, An Encyclopedia. (1998)
Brennen, Bonnie and Hanno Hardt, eds. Picturing the Past: Media, History and Photography. (1999)
Caswell, Lucy Shelton, ed. Guide to Sources in American Journalism History. (1989)
Daly, Christopher B. "Covering America: A Narrative History of a Nation's Journalism." (2012)
DiGirolamo, Vincent. Crying the News: A History of America's Newsboys (2019)
Emery, Michael, Edwin Emery, and Nancy L. Roberts. The Press and America: An Interpretive History of the Mass Media 9th ed. (1999.), standard textbook; best place to start.
Hamilton, John M. Journalism's Roving Eye: A History of American Foreign Reporting. (Louisiana State University Press, 2009).
Kotler, Jonathan and Miles Beller. American Datelines: Major News Stories from Colonial Times to the Present. (2003)
Kuypers, Jim A. Partisan Journalism: A History of Media Bias in the United States (2013)
Marzolf, Marion. Up From the Footnote: A History of Women Journalists. (1977)
Mott, Frank Luther. American Journalism: A History of Newspapers in the United States Through 250 Years, 1690-1940 (1941). major reference source and interpretive history. online edition
Mott, Frank Luther. A History of American Magazines (5 vol 1930–1968), very comprehensive scholarly history
Nord, David Paul. Communities of Journalism: A History of American Newspapers and Their Readers. (2001) excerpt and text search
Paneth, Donald. Encyclopedia of American Journalism (1983)
Schudson, Michael. Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers. (1978). excerpt and text search
Schulman, Bruce J. and Julian E. Zelizer, eds. Media Nation: The Political History of News in Modern America (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2017). 263 pp.
Sloan, W. David, James G. Stovall, and James D. Startt. The Media in America: A History, 4th ed. (1999)
Starr, Paul. The Creation of the Media: Political origins of Modern Communications (2004), far ranging history of all forms of media in 19th and 20th century US and Europe; Pulitzer prize excerpt and text search
Streitmatter, Rodger. Mightier Than the Sword: How the News Media Have Shaped American History (1997)
Tebbel, John, and Mary Ellen Zuckerman. The Magazine in America, 1741-1990 (1991), popular history
Vaughn, Stephen L., ed. Encyclopedia of American Journalism (2007) 636 pages excerpt and text search
Journalists
Applegate, Edd. Advocacy journalists: A biographical dictionary of writers and editors (Scarecrow Press, 2009).
Ashley, Perry J. American newspaper journalists: 1690-1872 (Gale, 1985; Dictionary of literary biography, vol. 43)
Mckerns, Joseph. Biographical Dictionary of American Journalism (1989)
Mari, Will. The American Newsroom: A History, 1920-1960 (1921) excerpt
Paneth, Donald. Encyclopedia of American Journalism (1983)
Vaughn, Stephen L., ed. Encyclopedia of American Journalism (2007)
1780s–1830s
Humphrey, Carol Sue The Press of the Young Republic, 1783-1833 (1996)
Knudson, Jerry W. Jefferson And the Press: Crucible of Liberty (2006) how 4 Republican and 4 Federalist papers covered election of 1800; Thomas Paine; Louisiana Purchase; Hamilton-Burr duel; impeachment of Chase; and the embargo
Nevins, Allan. The Evening Post: A Century of Journalism (1922) online edition ch 1-2
Pasley, Jeffrey L. "The Tyranny of Printers": Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (2003) ()
Pasley, Jeffrey L. "The Two National Gazettes: Newspapers and the Embodiment of American Political Parties." Early American Literature 2000 35(1): 51–86. Fulltext: in Swetswise and Ebsco
Stewart, Donald H. The Opposition Press of the Federalist Era (1968), highly detailed study of Republican newspapers
Penny press, telegraph and party politics
Ames, William E. A History of the National Intelligencer.
Blondheim Menahem. News over the Wire: The Telegraph and the Flow of Public Information in America, 1844–1897 (1994)
Crouthamel James L. Bennett's New York Herald and the Rise of the Popular Press (1989)
Davis, Elmer. History of the New York Times, 1851–1921 (1921)
Dicken-Garcia, Hazel. Journalistic Standards in Nineteenth-Century America (1989)
Douglas, George H. The Golden Age of the Newspaper (1999)
Elliott Robert N. Jr. The Raleigh Register, 1799–1863 (1955)
Huntzicker, William E. and William David Sloan eds. The Popular Press, 1833–1865 (1999)
Luxon Norval Neil. Niles' Weekly Register: News Magazine of the Nineteenth Century (1947)
Martin Asa Earl. "Pioneer Anti-Slavery Press", Mississippi Valley Historical Review 2 (1916), 509–528. in JSTOR
George S. Merriam, Life and Times of Samuel Bowles V. 1 (1885) Springfield [Mass.] Republican
Nevins, Allan. The Evening Post: A Century of Journalism (1925) full text online
Rafferty, Anne Marie. American Journalism 1690–1904 (2004)
Schiller, Dan. Objectivity and the News: The Public and the Rise of Commercial Journalism (1981)
Schwarzlose Richard A. The Nation's Newsbrokers, vol. 1, The Formative Years: From Pretelegraph to 1865 (1989)
Shaw Donald Lewis. "At the Crossroads: Change and Continuity in American Press News 1820–1860", Journalism History 8:2 (Summer 1981), 38–50.
Smith Carol, and Carolyn Stewart Dyer. "Taking Stock, Placing Orders: A Historiographic Essay on the Business History of the Newspaper", Journalism Monographs 132 ( April 1992).
Steele Janet E. The Sun Shines for All: Journalism and Ideology in the Life of Charles A. Dana. (1993)
Stevens John D. Sensationalism and the New York Press (1991)
Summers, Mark Wahlgren. The Press Gang: Newspapers and Politics, 1865–1878 (1994)
Thomas, Leonard. The Power of the Press: The Birth of American Political Reporting. (1986)
Tucher, Andie. Froth and Scum: Truth, Beauty, Goodness, and the Ax Murder in America's First Mass Medium. (1994)
Van Deusen, Glyndon G. Horace Greeley, Nineteenth-Century Crusader (1953) online editor of New York Tribune (1840–1872)
Van Deusen, Glyndon G. Thurlow Weed, Wizard of the Lobby (1947), Whig editor of Albany Journal
Walsh Justin E. To Print the News and Raise Hell! A Biography of Wilbur F. Storey. (1968), Democratic/Copperhead editor Chicago Times
Williams Harold A. The Baltimore Sun 1837–1987. (1987)
Civil War
Andrews, J. Cutler. The North Reports the Civil War (1955), the definitive study
Andrews, J. Cutler. The South Reports the Civil War (1970) the definitive study
Bulla, David W. and Gregory R. Borchard. Journalism in the Civil War Era (Peter Lang Publishing; 2010) 256 pages. Studies the influence of the war on the press, and, in turn, the press on the war.
Crozier, Emmet. Yankee Reporters 1861–1865 (1956)
Fermer Douglas. James Gordon Bennett and the New York Herald: A Study of Editorial Opinion in the Civil War Era 1854–1867 (1986)
Merrill Walter M. Against Wind and Tide: A Biography of William Lloyd Garrison (1963)
Reynolds, Donald E. Editors Make War: Southern Newspapers in the Secession Crisis (1970).
Sachsman, David B., et al., eds. The Civil War and the Press. (2000)
Sanger Donald Bridgman. "The Chicago Times and the Civil War", Mississippi Valley Historical Review 17 ( March 1931), 557–580. A Copperhead newspaper;
Skidmore Joe. "The Copperhead Press and the Civil War", Journalism Quarterly 16:4 ( December 1939), 345–355.
Starr, Louis M. Bohemian Brigade: Civil War Newsmen in Action (1954)
Weisberger, Bernard A. Reporters for the Union ( 1953)
1865–1940
Booker, Richard. The Story of an Independent Newspaper (1924) Springfield Republican in Massachusetts
Brian, Dennis. Pulitzer: A Life (2001) online
Campbell, W. Joseph. Yellow Journalism: Puncturing the Myths, Defining the Legacies (2003), focus on 1898
Cohen, Deborah. Last Call at the Hotel Imperial: The Reporters Who Took On a World at War (2022) American coverage of 1930s in Europe by John Gunther, H. R. Knickerbocker, Vincent Sheean, and Dorothy Thompson.excerpt
Davis, Elmer. History of the New York Times, 1851–1921 (1921)
Kaplan, Richard L. Politics and the American Press: The Rise of Objectivity, 1865–1920 (2002)
Kobre, Sidney. The Yellow Press, and Gilded Age Journalism (1964)
Miller, Sally M. The Ethnic Press in the United States: A Historical Analysis and Handbook. (1987)
Nasaw, David. The Chief The Life of William Randolph Hearst (2000)
Peterson, Theodore. Magazines in 20th Century (2nd ed. 1964)
Pride, Armistead S. and Clint C. Wilson. A History of the Black Press. (1997)
Procter, Ben. William Randolph Hearst: The Early Years, 1863–1910 (1998)
Smythe, Ted Curtis; The Gilded Age Press, 1865-1900 Praeger. 2003. online edition
Summers, Mark Wahlgren. The Press Gang: Newspapers and Politics, 1865-1878 (1994)
Swanberg, W.A. Pulitzer (1967), popular biography.
Weinberg, Arthur, and Lila Weinberg. The Muckrakers (1961).
Whyte, Kenneth. The Uncrowned King: The Sensational Rise of William Randolph Hearst (2009).
1940–2010
Benson, Rodney. Shaping immigration news (Cambridge UP, 2013) in French and American journalism
Brinkley, Alan. The Publisher: Henry Luce and His American Century, Alfred A. Knopf (2010) 531 pp. online
"A Magazine Master Builder" Book review by Janet Maslin, The New York Times, April 19, 2010
Brinkley, Alan. "What Would Henry Luce Make of the Digital Age?" TIME (April 19, 2010) excerpt and text search
Baughman, James L. Henry R. Luce and the Rise of the American News Media (2001) excerpt and text search
Diamond, Edwin. Behind the Times: Inside the New New York Times (1995)
Edwards, Bob. Edward R. Murrow and the Birth of Broadcast Journalism (2004) excerpt and text search
Gorman, Lyn. and David McLean. Media and Society in the Twentieth Century: A Historical Introduction (2002) excerpt and text search
Gottlieb, Robert and Irene Wolt. Thinking Big: The Story of the Los Angeles Times, Its Publishers and Their Influence on Southern California. (1977)
Halberstam, David. The Powers That Be (2001) power of the media in national affairs excerpt and text search
Harnett, Richard M. and Billy G. Ferguson. Unipress: United Press International: Covering the 20th Century. (2001)
Kluger, Richard. The Paper: The Life and Death of the New York Herald Tribune. (1986)
Liebling, A. J. The Press (1961)
McDougal, Dennis. Privileged Son: Otis Chandler and the Rise and Fall of the L.A. Times Dynasty (2001)
McPherson, James Brian. Journalism at the end of the American century, 1965–present (2006) excerpt and text search
Mears, Walter. Deadlines past: forty years of presidential campaigning: a reporter's story (Andrews McMeel Publishing, 2003).
Merritt, Davis. Knightfall: Knight Ridder And How The Erosion Of Newspaper Journalism Is Putting Democracy At Risk (2005) excerpt and text search
Noble, James Kendrick. Paper Profits: A Financial History of the Daily Newspaper Industry, 1958-1998 (2000)
Scanlon, John J. The Passing of the Springfield Republican (1950); it folded after 1947 strike
Stacks, John F. Scotty: James B. Reston and the Rise and Fall of American Journalism. (2003)
Wolff, Michael. The Man Who Owns the News: Inside the Secret World of Rupert Murdoch (2008) 446 pages excerpt and text search
Historiography
Daly, Chris. "The Historiography of Journalism History: Part 2: 'Toward a New Theory,'" American Journalism, Winter 2009, Vol. 26 Issue 1, pp 148–155, stresses the tension between the imperative form of business model and the dominating culture of news
History of mass media in the United States
United States
History of the United States by topic
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chousei%20Kantai%20Sazer-X
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Chousei Kantai Sazer-X
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translated as Super Star Fleet Sazer-X is a tokusatsu superhero TV series produced by Toho Company Ltd., and Konami. This series is the third in Toho's Seishin (Star God) series. The series lasted 38 episodes and was the last of the Chouseishin franchise. It deviates from its predecessors in several ways, in that it is more comedic in nature and is much more science fiction-orientated in contrast to fantasy.
Synopsis
In the year 2500, Earth has been taken over and covered in darkness by a race known as the Neo-Descal. The remaining members of the human resistance send their trump card weapons, the three Meteor God warships to the past to try to change the future by stopping Neo-Descal in 2005, when their attacks began. Along with the Meteor God warships comes Ad, captain of the Adle Eagle squad and his right-hand man, Gordo, Kane, captain of the Beet-Vizor squad, and the twin Sazers Ein and Zwein, and Remy, who pilots Lio Carrier. Ad and Kane are joined by Takuto Ando, whose grandfather met Captain Shark, leader of the resistance, as a young man and was left with a Knuckle Cross to allow his grandson in 2005 to become the third member of the team known as Sazer X.
Sazer X fight the space pirates known as Descal, and later Neo-Descal when they arrive from the future after the defeat of their ancestors. Captain Shark, known as the Shark Sazer, arrives later from the future, along with his rival, Jackall, a mysterious Sazer-like being who holds one of Shark's greatest secrets.
Characters
Sazer X
A team assembled in the year AD 2500 with the goal of traveling back in time 500 years and changing history by collecting the twelve Cosmo Capsules. Each member of the party is equipped with a Strage-Ring around their wrist that amplifies their elemental powers, and their own personal Knuckle-Cross, worn on the back of the opposite hand. When the Strage-Ring sparks the Knuckle-Cross, they can equip the high-powered suit of armour stored in their Knuckle-Cross and become Sazer-X, as long as they have enough rupees. Their transformation call is X-Equip.
Lio-Sazer
In episode 38 (final), he became one of 12 warriors by Cosmo Capsules to make a glorious future with Remy and his younger sister (Yui Ando).
is the main character of the series, his grandfather met Captain Shark when he was stranded in the past, making a pact with him to allow his grandson to fight alongside Shark and his allies. He dreams of becoming an F1 racer and having his grandfather accept him as a man. Reckless and immature at first, Takuto grows and develops as a person throughout the course of the series into somewhat of a leader figure. Throughout the series, Takuto grows a fondness for Remy that eventually blossoms into love. Takuto also has a rivalry with the Fire Shogun Blaird, who he has a habit of forgetting his name. Much to his chagrin, those around him often call Takuto "Tak-kun", which is colloquial slang for the phrase "You've got to be kidding me".
As , his element is Fire and his personal weapon is the Lio-Breaker sword. When the Cosmo Capsule "Lio-1" is equipped in Lio-Breaker, he can perform his finishing move, "Lio Fire", unleashing a massive fiery lion from Lio Breaker which engulfs and totally annihilates the enemy.
Lio Sazer has destroyed more enemies with Lio-Fire than any other Sazer, and Lio-Fire happens to be the strongest of all Cosmo Capsule finishers.
Eagle-Sazer
In episode 38 (final), he became one of 12 warriors by Cosmo capsules and final time to shine then return to his home planet to make a glorious future.
is the serious member of the group. He acts like he is the second-in-command of the Sazer-X. Takuto thought that he is the leader. Remy told him that they only have one leader, just Captain Shark. He initially does not take well to Takuto or any of the current era's Earth populace, accusing them of neglect in allowing themselves to be conquered by the Space Pirates in the past, leading to the eventual destruction of his home planet Biyodo. However, after finding out the painful truth that his people were the ones who initially stole the Cosmo Capsules from the Pirates and instigated Earth's invasion, he began to warm up and become more friendly with Takuto and the other people of Earth.
As , his element is Wind and his personal weapon is the Eagle-Blaster gun. When the Cosmo Capsule "Eagle-2" is equipped in Eagle-Blaster, he can perform his finishing move, "Eagle Typhoon".
Beetle-Sazer
In episode 38 (final), he became one of 12 warriors by Cosmo Capsules and third time with twin Sazers Ein and Zwein return to his planet to make a glorious future.
is the easygoing, happy-go-lucky member of the group. He usually goofs off when they are not fighting, and is especially fond of sightseeing. However, he is a strong believer that even if he has a relaxed attitude most of the time, he comes through when he is needed the most, which he has often proven true through his actions. He is the oldest of seven siblings, and hails from the planet Radei.
As , his element is Lightning and his personal weapon is the Beet-Hawk axe. When the Cosmo Capsule "Beetle-3" is equipped in Beet-Hawk, he can perform his finishing move, "Beetle Slash".
Shark-Sazer
In episode 38 (final), he is a mentor about Cosmo Capsules destined warriors to his comrades and return to future with all of mecha robot and transformation's sazer device.
, the commanding officer and only leader of Sazer X. He does not travel back in time with Ad, Kane and Remy straight away, choosing to support the troops in the future before heading back himself. He eventually appears once the Neo Descal fleet arrives in the present day. He is also the adoptive father of Remy. His special Knuckle Cross is named Shark-Knuckle.
It is eventually revealed that he is half Space Pirate, which means that the success of the Sazer-X mission would cause him to be erased from history, having never been born. Despite this, he is resolute to carry out the mission to completion.
As , his element is Water and his personal weapon is the Shark-Bash sword. When the Cosmo Capsule "Shark-4" is equipped in Shark-Bash, he can perform his finishing move, "Shark Crush".
Sazer Support Team
Remy Freede
In episode 38 (final), she was chosen by Cosmo Capsules to become one of 12 warriors with Takuto Ando and Yui Ando and to make a glorious future.
is Takuto's support technician, who usually has to show him how to use the Sazer equipment. She acts like she is the third-in-command of the Sazer-X. She co-pilots Lio-Carrier with G2. Unlike the other members of the support team, she has no Sazer form. She was adopted by Shark and raised from the planet Roue, which was destroyed by the Neo-Descal. However, it is revealed that she actually was born during the 1960s, and was brought to the future by Shark to cure her terminal disease. It is very likely she has feelings for Takuto.
Capsazer G2
A robot that co-pilots the Lio-Carrier with Remy who is G2's "mother". G2 is designed to safely store the retrieved Cosmo Capsules as well as the personal weapons of Sazer-X, and can teleport them upon command to the team.
Gordo
In episode 38 (final), he and his wife are chosen by Cosmo Capsules to become one of 12 warriors and second time to shine and return to his home planet with his wife to make a glorious future.
is Ad's usually quiet (and lazy, always sleep) support tech who possesses immense strength, shoulder-length ragged blond hair, and is more than capable of fighting on his own. He co-pilots Adle-Eagle. In addition, he has a device which enables him to turn into a Sazer Form called "Sazer Gordo", which has partial armor and helmet, and an arm attachment which consists of a mace and axe.
Twin-Sazers Ein & Zwein
In episode 38 (final), they are chosen by Cosmo Capsules to become two of 12 warriors and third time to shine then to return to their planet with Kane to make a glorious future.
Kane's support team; The are a brother/sister team who assist Kane in battle, and co-pilot Beet-Vizor. The Brother is and the sister is . Like Kane, they too are inexperienced. They are almost always in Sazer Form, which led to speculation that they were robots. However, their true forms are shapeless pink and blue colored blobs which can leave their suits on command. They enjoy taking baths in the Ando household, due to their ship not having a bath.
Patora
In episode 38 (final), she and her husband are chosen by Cosmo Capsules to become one of 12 warriors and second time to shine and return to her home planet with her husband to make a glorious future.
Gordo's wife and a master of infiltration, snuck aboard King Neo-Descal's ship in order to get to the present.
The Three Shoguns
In episode 38 (final), their Cosmo Capsules first shine and guide them to their home space pirates and they are chosen by Cosmo Capsules to become three of 12 warriors to make a glorious future.
The Three Shoguns
A legendary trio of Space Pirates who gained the nickname of "The Three Shoguns". The first enemies of Sazer-X, they came to Earth under the command of Captain Barder of the Space Pirate Descal fleet with the intent of taking over the Earth, which had once been populated by their ancestors. In the original timeline, they were successful in gathering the twelve Cosmo Capsules, and their wish to take over the Earth plunged it into eternal darkness. Thus, they are the ancestors of the future Space Pirates that rule over Earth.
Fire Shogun Blaird
The leader of the Three Shoguns, is the strongest fighter of the trio, but he is the least intelligent and tends to become riled up easily. He quickly develops a one-sided rivalry with Takato/Lio-Sazer, vowing to someday "settle the score" and defeat him. After Barder is revealed to be an android, he begins to question the mission of the Three Shogun on Earth. His rivalry with Takuto becomes a grudging friendship, and he joins forces with Sazer-X with the goal of reuniting the Three Shogun and returning to space.
He temporarily joins Jackall against Sazer-X and especially Shark-Sazer. Jackall's eventual death teaches Blaird the folly of a life consumed completely by revenge and combat, and he returns to the side of Sazer-X piloting Jackall's Drill-Angler.
Water Shogun Aqual
The female of the Three Shoguns, likes to believe that she is the most intelligent of the Three Shogun, and while she is quite smart she is also extremely vain and prideful. She is the one most dedicated to the Three Shogun's original mission to take over Earth, mainly because she loves power and praise. As a result, she is the one that formally breaks up the Three Shogun by discarding Blaird from the group when he begins to question their mission.
When Neo Descal appears, they begin by flattering Aqual as their honored descendant to gain her trust, but this is simply because they cannot kill her without erasing themselves from history. As time goes on, she is relentlessly bullied and humiliated by Neo Descal- especially Grouza until Aqual snaps and attempts to assassinate both leaders. She fails in killing Grouza, and only manages to wound Garade. She is saved from a vengeful Garade by the arrival of King Neo Descal himself.
Aqual soon grows wise to the schemes of the new leaders, and how they have used Cyclead and herself to further their plans. However, she still has to fight against her own pride before she can accept the trust of Sazer-X and finally side with them.
She is jealous at Thundera because of Blaird liking her. She is secretly in love with Blaird.
Wind Shogun Cyclead
The inventor of the Three Shoguns, is clearly the most intelligent of them, and invents many of the devices that they use in their plans. However, he is also the least dedicated to the plan to take over Earth.
After their original pirate ship is destroyed, he constantly advocates abandoning the whole plan and returning to space. However, he is bullied into staying by Aqual's forceful personality. Because of his inventing abilities, he constantly gets all the credit for the plans implemented by Neo Descal, because even if Aqual came up with the plan it is his machines that get the attention.
When Neo Descal himself arrives to the present, Cyclead is brainwashed with a more aggressive, sadistic personality in order to serve as a distraction while King Neo Descal's real plan is put into motion. He is eventually rescued by Sazer-X, and sides with them and the other two Shoguns.
Allies and Friends
Lightning Shogun Thundera
The fourth Shogun, is the direct descendant of the shoguns that chose to stay on Earth and live underground, as opposed to the shoguns that chose to flee to space. The door to the surface would only open every million years. A legend in her home stated that the first man she met on the surface world would be her destined man.
According to history, that man was supposed to be Fire Shogun Blaird. He would have obtained the last Cosmo Capsule from her, and that would have plunged the world into darkness. However, due to a mixup, the first man she saw was instead Takuto, and she instantly fell in love with him.
Though Takuto played along at first to obtain the Cosmo Capsule, he eventually confesses that he does not love her and can not live with her. Though she is heartbroken, Takuto apologizes and convinces her that he only had good intentions for his actions. Her heart is moved, and she gives him the last Cosmo Capsule before returning to the underground world.
Soujirou Ando
Grandfather of Takuto and Yui Ando. He knows about the Space Pirates and the Sazer-X because of his meeting with Captain Shark in the 1960s. He is a good friend of Commander Shark.
Haruko and Yui Ando
In Episode 38 (final), Yui Ando was chosen by Cosmo Capsules to become one of 12 warriors to make a glorious future.
Haruko Ando is a mother of Takuto and Yui is his younger sister. They make General Blaird as their housemaid and order him to wash the laundry. They also teach Blaird a good lesson about love and friendliness.
Riki
Appears in the movie, the crossover with JustiRisers and GranSazers. Riki comes from Borumusei of the third galaxy where it was conquered by the reviving Bosquito. He comes from a lightning shock and "loses" his memory (meaning the Space Pirates made him a spy to capture the remaining Cosmo Capsules). Ad sees him as an enemy but Takuto sees him also as a friend. Riki befriends Takuto and Capsazer G2. General Aqual wants him to give G2 to her but Gordo and the TwinSazers save him from Aqual and her grunts. He also brings fourth the GranSazers from the slab, due to the universe reacting to his love, justice and courage, to destroy the remaining Bosquitos. After the battle, Riki reunites his lost parents. At the end, Takuto and Remy bring Riki's family to their home planet.
Commander Jinguji
Appears in the movie, the crossover with JustiRisers and GranSazers. Jinguji is the commander of his forces, inventor and builder of Gouten, a submarine-like aircraft armed with a massive giant drill. He is Sojirou Ando's best friend. He helps the Sazer-X to destroy the fake JustiRisers (Bosquitos) on the Sazer Island where Mio Tendo fainted. After his aircraft regains its energy, he orders his comrades to freeze the Mammoth Bosquito (to lose the monster's shield which reveals to be its horn as its weakness) so that the Sazer-X, JustiRisers and GranSazers would able to destroy it.
JustiRisers and Mio Tendo
Appears in the movie, the crossover with JustiRisers and GranSazers. Mio Tendo meets Takuto, Ad and Kane playing their basketball game and then the four rescues Riki who is fainted by thundershock. Afterwards, Shouta, Shinya and Yuka, the original JustiRisers, witness the invasion of the revived Bosquitos, disguised as fake JustiRisers, getting energy from innocent lives. Before the invasion, Mio Tendo is in Sazer Island praying for more power of justice but instead the powers went to Bosquito and she faints. They are almost gets victimized until Sazer-X team saves them from Bosquito's attack and later goes into the meeting with Commander Jinguji, Sojirou and Professor Ichiro Horiguchi. The three are getting into Sazer Island and they wake Mio. She prays again for the power of justice and the three transforms into the Real JustiRisers to beat the remaining Bosquitos who lost their disguise. They help the GranSazers and Sazer-X to finish off Bosquitos and Mammoth Bosquito.
Professor Ichiro Horiguchi and GranSazers
Appears in the movie, the crossover with JustiRisers and GranSazers. Ichiro Horiguchi attends a meeting with Commander Jinguji concerning about the return of Bosquito who is swarming all over Japan. He meets Sojirou Ando, Shouta, Shinya, Yuka and Sazer-X team and he tells that the entire team of GranSazers are not in the meeting but their powers are in the ancient slab holding by him. He tries to summon the GranSazers with the ancient slab but Riki wants to try it and then GranSazers are successfully summoned to finish off the remaining Bosquitos.
Villains
Space Pirate Fleet Descal
Captain Barder (formerly): Leader of the Descal Fleet, was eventually revealed to be a robot before his ship was destroyed in a battle with Sazer-X.
Fire Shogun Blaird (formerly)
Water Shogun Aqual (formerly)
Wind Shogun Cyclead (formerly)
Future Space Pirate Fleet Neo Descal
Space Pirates from the future, who forced their way through the wormhole in order to back up Descal's Three Shoguns after Barder was destroyed and ensure that their plan to take over the Earth in the past was successful. Although they had open disdain for the Three Shoguns, they risk not killing them as it would erase themselves from history.
: Neo Descal's ruler, he sent Garade and Grouza to the past to ensure the Neo Descal fleet's existence. But due to their failures, he personally travelled back in time to ensure a future of darkness. Instead of using the Cosmo Capsules to plunge the world into darkness as history dictated, he planned on constructing a massive machine on the Moon called the Dark-Alumer (Dark Armor in Filipino dubbed version) to accomplish this task. He transformed into Black Lio to battle against Lio-Sazer inside the giant monster. He was defeated by Lio-Sazer, however, his memory was still alive. Lio-Sazer, Eagle-Sazer, Beetle-Sazer, and Blaird destroyed the inside part of the monster (Neo Descal's memory) while Remy piloted Great Lio to use the finishing move "Howling Crush" to destroy Neo Descal's monster to make darkness disappear.
: Barreda was his loyal second-in-command. Her power is icy wind from her breath to freeze victims. She was killed by Neo Descal in Episode 37 when she was of no further use to him.
: Garade was the commander of the fleet, and an extremely powerful, though grumpy warrior. He possessed the ability to split into three clones of himself, each equal in power to a member of Sazer-X. He is killed when King Neo Descal arrives from the future and kills Garade for his failures.
: Grouza was the technical genius of the fleet, with intelligence matching that of Cyclead. She is the descendant of Blaird when he met and married Thundra. However, this event was undone and resulted with Grorza erased from existence.
Jackall
A mercenary working for Neo Descal, uses his position to get revenge on Commander Shark. Jackall being Commander Shark's archenemy because he believes that Shark, his one-time friend, betrayed him by leaving him behind in cold stasis, when in truth Shark had to do that to protect him from Neo Descal's wrath.
He possesses powers similar to that of Sazer-X, and is able to equip a high-powered suit of armor with the transformation call "Souchaku!" ("Equip!"). Despite working as part of Neo-Descal, he frequently disobeys orders in his quest for vengeance. He keeps losing against Shark but refuses to give up no matter how beaten up he is. He eventually dies from these prolonged injuries right in the middle of a battle, showing Blaird the futility of his strife and the consequences of hatred.
Pirates and Kaijin
Lightning Pirate Raideg
Water Pirate Agurag
Wind Pirate Lezekka
Wind Pirate Sandstorm
Gadaru Alien
Fire Pirate Bankein
Kaijin Dolpick
Kaijin Pierce
Kaijin Rebolt
Kaijin Zeoria
Kaijin Aligod
Kaijin Dagos
Kaijin Gulnada
Kaijin Ultimate
Kaijin Devider
Space Giant Beast and Future Beast
Space Giant Beast Reizaus (レイザースReizāsu)
Space Giant Beast Winmiller (ウィンミラーWinmirā)
Space Giant Beast Bardress (バードレスBādoresu)
Giant Beast Big Stag (ビグスタッグBigusutaggu)
Giant Beast Graptor (グラプターGuraputā)
Future Beast Deathbaa (デスバーDesubā)
Future Beast Neo Deathbaa (ネオデスバーNeodesubā)
Future Beast Diros (ディロスDirosu)
Combine Beast Reimirad (レイミラードReimirādo)
Mecha Giant Beast Megarion (メガリオンMegarion)
Darkness Beast Dark Geran (ダークゲランDākugeran)
Gig Fighter
Space Pirate's Combatants (Chouseishin Gransazer) Also appeared over. It has a weapon such as a knife, it is also possible to attack the enemy wrapped own body to green light ball.
Cosmo Capsules
Cosmo Capsules are those that can equip the Sazers their power by inserting it into his weapon, while the Space Pirates use them to create monsters. If either of them can collect all of the Cosmo Capsules, they can wish for something.
Lio-1 (Lio-Sazer) A Cosmo Capsule that was given to Takuto by his Grandpa.
Lio Fire When Lio-Sazer spins his weapon around, a lion will dash through the target/enemy and destroys it with a big explosion. The most powerful of all Cosmo Capsule attacks.
Eagle-2 (Eagle-Sazer) This Cosmo Capsule is kept by Soujiro Ando
Eagle Typhoon Similar to Lio Fire, but destroys an enemy rapidly as an eagle flies through to the enemy and destroys it.
Beetle-3 (Beetle-Sazer) This Cosmo Capsule is kept by Soujiro Ando
Beetle Slash This Cosmo Capsule creates a powerful lightning as a beetle flies through the enemy and destroys it.
Shark-4 (Shark-Sazer) This Cosmo Capsule is found after a riddle, can be used only by Captain Shark
Shark Rush This Cosmo Capsule is similar also to Lio Fire but it creates a whirlpool as the shark shoots to the enemy.
Wolf-5 This Cosmo Capsule is found in a rock mountain (1st Episode)
Similar also to Lio-1, a wolf will dash through the target/enemy and destroys it with a big explosion.
If used by Kane, Wolf Dash
Swan-6 This Cosmo Capsule is found in 3rd Episode by Aqual
Swan-6 gives the Sazer Hyper speed. A swan will dash in a tornado through the target/enemy and destroys it. Commander Shark equips the Swan-6 with the ice attack Swan Blizzard(Episode 22).
Stagbeetle-7 This Cosmo Capsule is found in National Enterprise Company (2nd Episode)
Creates a powerful lightning from a stag beetle's horn. When Eagle-Sazer uses the Stagbeetle-7, a powerful lightning Stag Mistal blasts out from Eagle-Blaster to stun the enemy.
Spearfish-8 A Spearfish will dash with its drill-like horn through the enemy and destroys it with a splash.
Ox-9 This Cosmo Capsule is similar to Lio Fire, an ox dashes through toward the enemy and destroys it. The Ox can also serve as a shield, using its huge horns and great strength to impede incoming objects.
Pigeon-10 This Cosmo Capsule targets an enemy by Pigeon-Cutter attack.
Mantis-11 Healing people when inserted into the Eagle-Blaster with the Healing Mantis attack.
Whale-12 When inserted into Beet-Hawk it does the Whale Squall attack and when inserted to Eagle-Blaster it does the Whale Leap attack.
Ryuuseishin
Core-Caliber
The center of the main three Sazer-X mecha formations. It is a humanoid black-and-white fighter (Core-Braver) which is stored upon Lio-Carrier. It is armed with various attacks such as "Core Lasers", 'Brave Shot' which involves firing missiles and its finishing move 'Core Buster'. When hit by an "Optimize Beam" from one of the three Sazer ships, the Core-Caliber can combine with that ship to form a new, more powerful mecha called a Ryuuseishin (Shooting Star God). The transformation/combination call is "X Formation!"
For most of the series, only one Core-Caliber exists. However, towards the end two more are created, allowing all four Ryuuseishin to be formed at the same time.
Ryuuseishin Great-Lio
Formed when the Lio-Carrier ship combines with the Core-Caliber. Piloted by Lio-Sazer and crewed by Capsazer G2 and Remy, Great-Lio specializes in close combat and grappling. Its weapon is the Lio-Cutter, a pair of longswords which can be combined to form the Lio-Javelin, a double-bladed spear.
Its powerful attack is Lio-Impact, where it fires devastating shockwaves from the lion's mouth on its chest.
Its finishing move is the massively powerful Howling Crush, where the Fire energy from the Lio-Javelin smashes into the enemy and obliterates it.
Ryuuseishin Wind-Eagle
Formed when the Adle-Eagle ship combines with the Core-Caliber. Piloted by Eagle-Sazer and crewed by Gordo, Wind-Eagle specializes in fast, mid-range attacks. Its weapon is the Eagle-Rifle and its finishing move is "Twister Shoot", a series of powered rapid-fire shots from the Eagle-Rifle.
Ryuuseishin Magna-Beet
Formed when the Beet-Vizor ship combines with the Core-Caliber. Piloted by Beetle-Sazer and crewed by Twin-Sazer Ein and Twin-Sazer Zwein, Magna-Beet specializes in powerful long range attacks.
Its many weapons include the Megaro-Cannon, the large power cannon on its head. Impact-Cannon, the series of blaster cannons that make up its fingers, Beet Cannon, a pair of larger cannons located on either side of its head, and Beet Missile, a set of missile launchers located on each arm.
Its finishing move is "Beet Buster", where it fires a continuous, charged burst of energy from the cannon on its navel.
Ryuuseishin Shark-Leaguer
Shark-Sazer's personal Ryuuseishin. Unlike the other members of Sazer-X, he does not need to combine his ship with a Core-Calibur in order to form a Ryuuseishin. Instead, the Shark Leaguer takes off from Commander Shark's ship, the Shark-Base, and undergoes a simple transformation into its Ryuuseishin form with the command "X Formation!". Its weapon is Sword-Pressure and its finishing move is "Hydro Slash".
Drill-Angler
The personal mecha of Jackall. Like the Shark-Leaguer, it functions both as a ship and as a combat mecha, undergoing a transformation activated by the call "Battle Formation!". Its specialty is close-range combat, and its main weapons are the massive, powerful drill mounted on its chest and the jagged cutters on its arms.
Fire Shogun Blaird inherits the machine after Jackall, using it to assist Sazer-X and their mecha.
Episodes guide
Songs
Opening theme
Lyrics: Hiroshi Yamada
Composition: Nao Asada
Arrangement: Tatsumi Yano
Artist: Hiroki Takahashi
Ending theme
Lyrics: Hiroshi Yamada
Composition: Yasuo Kosugi
Arrangement: Tatsumi Yano
Artist: Hiroki Takahashi
Movie theme
Artist: King Kong Kojiwara
Cast
Ryosuke Takahashi: Takuto Ando/Lio Sazer; Soujirou Ando (young)
Mami Matsuyama: Remi Freedle
Gaku Shindo: Ad/Eagle Sazer
Ryosuke Miura: Kane/Beetle Sazer
Hiroshi Matsunaga: Commander Shark/Shark Sazer
Robert Baldwin: Gordo
Makoto Yasumura: Ein (Voice)
Hiromi Ohtsuda: Zwein (Voice)
Chinami Ishizaka: Patora
Kentarou Itou: Blaird (Voice)
Yuu Asakura: Aqual
Daisuke Kishino: Cyclead
Masayo Kurata: Thundara
Eizou Tsuda: Neo Descal
Issei Futamata: Garade
Mitsuki Ishikawa: Grorza
Masa Sato: Barreda
References
External links
TOHO's official Sazer X homepage
2006 Japanese television series debuts
2006 Japanese television series endings
Chouseishin Series
Toho tokusatsu
Tokusatsu television series
TV Tokyo original programming
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Barron
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Charles Barron
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Charles Barron (born October 7, 1950) is an American activist and politician who currently serves in the New York City Council, representing Brooklyn's 42nd district. He previously held the same seat from 2002 to 2013, and served in the New York Assembly from the 60th district between 2015 and 2021.
A self-described "elected activist", Barron ran for Mayor of New York City in 2005. In 2006 he was narrowly defeated by Edolphus Towns in the Democratic Party primary for the U.S. House of Representatives (10th Congressional District). He ran again in the Democratic primary for New York's 8th congressional district, which was being vacated by Towns, but lost to State Assemblyman Hakeem Jeffries, 28% to 72%.
Barron began his career working as a community activist in the East New York neighborhood of Brooklyn in the 1980s. He became chief of staff for Rev. Herbert Daughtry before running for the New York city council, where he served from 2001 to 2013.
Early years and education
Barron was born on October 7, 1950. For six years his family lived in Corona, Queens, then moved to the Lillian Wald housing project in Lower Manhattan. He attended Seward Park High School in Lower Manhattan, but left before graduating, but later earned his GED. He went on to attend New York City Technical College (then known as New York City Community College), earning an associate degree, and Hunter College, where he graduated with a B.A. in Sociology.
Early activism
Black Panther Party
In 1969, when he was 18 years old, Barron was recruited to the Harlem branch of the Black Panther Party by a member named Mark Holder. Barron distributed newspapers for the party, and developed an interest in politics. He studied the Third World independence movement and the ideas of African leaders as Kwame Nkrumah (president of Ghana) and Ahmed Sékou Touré (president of Guinea). Barron became increasingly critical of U.S. foreign policy. He opposed the Duvaliers in Haiti, Pinochet in Chile, Marcos in the Philippines, Pahlavi of Iran, and Somoza of Nicaragua. He recalled in 2010, "It was strange, because everybody I was against, America was for."
National Black United Front
In 1979, Barron joined the National Black United Front (NBUF), and was the founding chairperson of its Harlem Chapter. In 1982, as head of the Harlem Chapter, Barron was arrested with Preston Wilcox from the Institute of African Research because they, with roughly 12 to 20 other protesters, attempted to "forcibly remove" Robert Morris, a white historian, from the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. Morris had been appointed chief archivist of the center. The members of the group were charged with harassment and criminal trespassing.
Shortly after the incident, Barron was appointed chief of staff to the Reverend Herbert Daughtry, chairperson of the NBUF and minister at Brooklyn's House of the Lord Church. In 1983, Barron moved to East New York, where he and his wife founded the Dynamics of Leadership Company. He spoke at many organizations and schools, including Harvard and Yale, teaching principles of negotiation, team-building, emotional intelligence, and leadership. From 1982 to 1987, Barron served as secretary general of the African Peoples Christian Organization (APCO). He traveled across the United States visiting college campuses, churches, prisons and communities "organizing around international, national and local issues."
On December 21, 1987, Barron participated in a "day of outrage" to protest racism in the New York City Police Department and local courts. The protest involved blocking traffic during the evening rush hour, including eastbound traffic on the Brooklyn Bridge, as well as stopping subway trains in several stations. More than 70 protesters were arrested; most were charged with obstruction of government administration and disorderly conduct. Among the few who actually stood on the subway tracks included Barron, Rev. Al Sharpton, Rev. Benjamin Chavis, Rev. Timothy Mitchell, Assemblyman Roger Greene, and lawyer C. Vernon Mason, who were additionally charged with criminal trespass. All were held overnight in jail, which elicited further claims of racial bias. Sharpton, Mitchell and Barron were convicted in February 1990, with Mitchell and Barron being jailed for 45 days. Barron spent another 25 days in jail, with Sharpton, for a protest related to the Tawana Brawley rape allegations.
In 1988, Barron published two children's books: Up You Mighty People, You Can Accomplish What You Will and Look For Me in the Whirlwind, written about the life of Marcus Garvey.
One successful accomplishment of Barron and his allies was preventing the construction by the city of a wood-burning incinerator in the neighborhood. In 1996, Barron and community groups also fought the building of a natural gas generator. Barron said his opposition to the incinerator is what catapulted him into electoral politics.
City Council
In 1997, Barron ran for the city council. He attacked the incumbent, East New York councilmember Priscilla Wooten, for supporting Mayor Rudy Giuliani, saying her politics were out of date and she did not take enough initiative for neighborhood and community development. Barron was endorsed by black leaders David Dinkins and Al Sharpton, but he ended up losing to Wooten. Barron ran again in 2001, when term limits prevented Wooten from running. He defeated her son, Donald Wooten, and became City Councillor for the 42nd District. Barron was re-elected in 2005 and 2009, each time with over 85% of the popular vote.
In 2002, Barron was appointed chair of the city council's Higher Education Committee. As chair, he criticized the City University of New York (CUNY) for eliminating remedial courses and raising admission standards, claiming CUNY raised the standards in order to restrict minority student access. He argued that students should not be denied admission to CUNY because of their performance at the pre-college level, adding that when the CUNY ended open admissions the number of black students declined while changes in the proportions of other ethnic groups were minimal.
In January 2006, Barron was the only Council member to vote against Christine Quinn by voting for Bill DeBlasio for the speakership position. Quinn moved his seat in the chamber to one next to a statue of the third President of the United States, Thomas Jefferson, whom Barron has criticized. Barron told reporters, "I don't think it was deliberate, but it does bother me to be placed so near Jefferson, who was a slaveholder, a hypocrite, and a rapist."
In late 2009, Barron intensified his opposition to Quinn, proposing a "Democratic Reform Movement" with City Councillor Tony Avella to shift power away from the council speaker to rank-and-file members. Barron and Avella proposed electing a black or Latino member as speaker to replace Quinn. Barron challenged Quinn for the speakership but was defeated by a council vote of 48 to 1. Quinn then organized a 47–1 vote removing Barron as chairman of the Higher Education Committee.<ref>Azi Paybarah, "Saving Barron's Chair" , New York Daily Observer, December 29, 2009.</ref> Barron stated that the move to strip him of the committee chairmanship was racist. Quinn disagreed, stating that the Council needed chairpersons "that are unifying forces." In January 2010, Barron ran against Quinn for the position of Speaker, and lost 50–1. During the vote, his supporters shouted "sellout" and "Uncle Tom" to black members who voted for Quinn.
2005 New York City mayoral campaign
Barron entered the race for mayor of New York city in 2005. According to the New York Post, he stated that one of his reasons for running was to redress an unfair balance of power between Whites and blacks in New York City: "White men have too much power in this city". He raised funds and campaigned but in early February 2005, dropped out and threw his support to C. Virginia Fields. His campaign funding amounted to about $49,000, far less than that of some of other Democratic candidates; Fernando Ferrer raised $1.2 million in six months, and Gifford Miller raised $1 million in 6 months. Barron chose to endorse Fields rather than attempt a long-shot campaign. "I think two blacks in the race cancel each other out", he said, indicating a fear that the black vote would be divided and weakened by the choice of two candidates. Barron vowed that he would run again, saying "I will be back. I will be mayor of New York City before I leave this planet. It may be in 2009 or it may not be until 2013, but I will be mayor someday."
During the campaign, he criticized rival Democrat Fernando Ferrer for the latter's comments regarding the Amadou Diallo shooting. Barron said the comments brought "irreversible" damage to Ferrer's campaign and hoped Ferrer would drop out of the race and endorse Fields.
In 2006, Barron expressed his disaffection from the Democratic Party, disappointed by the large number of cross-endorsements Bloomberg received from Democrats. He said the Party was in need of a "political audit" and had "moved so far to the right that they might as well be called Republicrats." He told the Amsterdam News, "Black folks need to consider a mass exodus from the Democratic Party and build a new party of their own, because the Democrats have turned their backs on them on too many occasions. We should not give any party blind loyalty and support. Instead, we should really form a grassroots, Black-agenda-based third-party option."
2006 Congressional campaigns
In 2006, Barron ran for a House seat representing the 10th district, which includes East New York. He ran against the 24-year incumbent, Democrat Edolphus Towns, and lost by 8 points. Although considered a potentially strong contender in the 2008 Congressional election, he chose not to run.
2010 gubernatorial campaign
On June 14, 2010, Barron announced he had formed a new party, the New York Democratic Freedom Party, and would challenge Democratic gubernatorial nominee Andrew Cuomo. He noted that Cuomo had picked a white politician to run for the position of Lieutenant Governor and that all the other statewide Democratic Party candidates were white. When speaking about Cuomo, Barron said, "He's done nothing to deserve our support; he's hurt the black community. Remember he was with his father, when his father built more prisons than any other governor in the history of New York State. Andrew was with daddy and the apple doesn't fall far from the tree ... Andrew's arrogant, he's just like his father."
Barron expressed resentment towards the Democratic Party, saying it had taken African-Americans for granted: "It's time for us to be for us. It's time for us to be a self-determining people." Barron aimed to get 50,000 votes in the governor's race, enough to gain ballot access for the party, but ended up with 24,560 votes out of over 3,000,000 cast. More than 75% of the votes cast for Barron originated in New York City.
A month after Cuomo began his term as governor, on February 21, 2011, Barron interrupted a Cuomo speech in Brooklyn, leading the crowd in chants of "tax the rich". He criticized Cuomo's budget proposals, which called for deep cuts in health care and education spending, and his decision not to extend the state's so-called millionaire's tax, which expires at the end of 2012.
2012 Congressional campaign
Barron announced that he would seek the 2012 Democratic nomination for the House seat due to the retirement of the long-term incumbent, Edolphus Towns. By mid-June 2012, candidate Hakeem Jeffries had raised $700,000 in campaign donations compared to Barron's $50,000. Towns gave Barron a surprise endorsement, but Barron was publicly embarrassed when David Duke made a video where he endorsed Barron over Jeffries, stating that he liked Barron's anti-Israel views and making racial insults towards Jeffries. Barron tried to deflect Duke's unwelcome praise but the news was widely circulated by Jeffries' supporters, who were amused that Barron couldn't really counter Duke's endorsement because they did share some common beliefs.
On June 11, 2012, former Mayor Ed Koch, Congressman Jerrold Nadler, Councilman David G. Greenfield, Assemblyman Dov Hikind gathered with several other elected officials to support Jeffries and denounce Barron. Barron was described as anti-Semitic, and his support of Zimbabwe ruler Robert Mugabe and former Libya ruler Muammar Gaddafi was denounced. Greenfield described Barron as "a hate-monger and an anti-Semite." Barron responded that such attacks had not been raised when he spoke before Jewish groups in Brooklyn, and that his constituents were interested in discussing "bread and butter" issues, not foreign policy. The candidates differed strongly on charter schools. Barron is one of the charter schools' strongest critics, while Jeffries endorses them.
Barron lost the Democratic nomination to Jeffries, with Jeffries taking 72% for the vote to Barron's 28% on June 26, 2012. Barron refused to congratulate Jeffries, accusing the Jeffries campaign of "a smear campaign [and] show[ing] a lack of character". He added: "They had the media. They called us names — The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, the New York Post, the white media — because we were endorsed by the Amsterdam News and Black Star. We had the Wall Street corporate elite, the Democratic establishment, and the media all against us. But we put the state and nation on notice." Jeffries stated in his own victory speech that "The political pundits said that this was going to be a close race, but that was before the people had spoken.""Hakeem Jeffries Defeats Charles Barron in Bitter Democratic Primary" by Gersh Kuntzman, The Local (Fort Green/Clinton Hill), June 27, 2012."Hakeem Jeffries Beats Charles Barron In New York Democratic Primary For 8th Congressional District" , Huffington Post, June 27, 2012.
2014 State Assembly campaign
On November 4, 2013, Barron announced in a Web Video, that he will run for the State Assembly seat, currently vacated by his wife, Inez, who ran for his term-limited City council seat. Barron said that he will fight Gov. Andrew Cuomo, Speaker Sheldon Silver, and the Democratic establishment to raise taxes and to increase Pre-K funding.
Political positions
Education
On February 3, 2011, Barron was among hundreds of angry parents and students who protested loudly during a hearing closing 12 schools classified as failing. On March 3, Barron celebrated with supporters as they learned that one of their protests had been successful, and that PS 114 in Canarsie would remain open.
Walmart
On February 3, 2011, the city council discussed allowing a Walmart into Brooklyn, with East New York one of the neighborhoods being considered by Walmart. Barron called Walmart a "roving plantation" and said "There are no slaves in East New York. We will not be your slave workers."
Same-sex marriage and civil unions
In November 2011, Barron said that he opposed same sex marriage, but at a June 2012 debate declined to state a position on the issue. Earlier in 2010, while running for governor, Barron stated that he was a strong supporter of civil unions, adding, "I voted positively on all legislation in the City Council regarding civil union and gay rights. I believe homosexuals deserve equal protection under the law, like everyone else."
When asked in 2011 about the argument that the fight for same-sex marriage is the modern-day equivalent of the civil rights struggle, Barron answered, "I don't consider it the civil-rights issue of our time. Comparing it to our struggle when we were stolen from Africa, enslaved, murdered, raped, hung, lynched. I'm not even going to give it the same breath as our movement in this country."
Israel and its blockade of Gaza
A leader of the Viva Palestina-USA group, Barron in July 2009 joined 200 other participants, mostly U.S. citizens, as the George Galloway led Viva Palestina relief convoy penetrated the Israeli-Egyptian blockade of Gaza. The convoy brought more than $1 million in medical equipment and supplies to Gaza's one and a half million inhabitants.Viva Palestina delivers aid to Gaza Workers World, July 23, 2009 The U.S.-based Anti-Defamation League asked the U.S. Justice Department to investigate the U.S. Viva Palestina group, but the group stated that it would adhere to U.S. law and not provide Hamas assistance, instead delivering its aid to nongovernmental organizations.
In July 2009, Barron stated that the Gaza Strip section of the Palestinian Territories was "a virtual death camp, the same kind of conditions the Nazis imposed on the Jews." 11 months later he stated, "There's too many children and women and innocent men of Gaza dying because you're isolating them and not allowing anything in. It's like having a concentration death camp. It's horrible, and the whole world is and should be outraged."
Muammar Gaddafi, Robert Mugabe, and Louis Farrakhan
In November 2011, after the end of the Libyan civil war, Barron voiced support for Libyan ruler Muammar Gaddafi, stating "Out there, they don't know that Qaddafi was our brother." [Barron] also rejected claims of Gaddafi's brutality, stating "People say 'Didn't he kill all those people?' I say, 'I don't know anything. The man was a freedom fighter.'"On September 12, 2002, Barron hosted an event at New York City Hall honoring Zimbabwean president Robert Mugabe, whom Barron praised as the liberator of black Africans in then-Rhodesia. In 2008, he again voiced support for Mugabe, who had allegedly committed crimes and atrocities in Zimbabwe. Specifically, Barron said, "In the year 2000, when he said one farm, one farmer, he was vilified", arguing that Mugabe was popular internationally only while his government "didn't take the land from the whites". He added that in South Africa, whites "still own 80 to 90 percent of the land," which is why international powers support South African leaders such Nelson Mandela. Barron stated he had seen no evidence which tied the Mugabe government to any attacks on supporters of the Zimbabwe opposition.
Barron has defended Louis Farrakhan against allegations that Farrakhan is a racist.
Police brutality
Barron has sided with black leaders in supporting victims of police brutality, including Amadou Diallo. He has said that crime is not the fault of the black community, but rather, is a consequence of the community's economic plight. Barron said that crime could only be reduced by economic opportunities and advancement, and without economic opportunities, "every black community is a powder keg."Sean Hannity & Alan Colmes. Televised on Fox News. "Is Cincinnati Facing a Crime Wave?", July 25, 2001.
In response to the New York City Police Department (NYPD) shooting of three individuals—including the fatal shooting of a 23-year-old prospective bridegroom, Sean Bell outside of a Jamaica, Queens strip club in 2006, Barron made a number of controversial statements, including one that implied that members of Bell's community would be justified in exercising non-peaceful or violent methods in response to his death. Barron has publicly stated "we don't shoot anybody, they shoot us."
Barron's name was floated with death threats on NYPD Rant, an internet forum, during 2007. Barron and the 100 Blacks in Law Enforcement called for a prompt investigation, and security detail was increased.
Reparations for slavery
Barron has spoken passionately on the issue of reparations for slavery and, while on the city council, proposed creating a commission in New York City to study the effects of slavery on modern African Americans and use city funding for reparations. He also introduced a bill to support restitution from companies that had benefited from past slavery.
In 2002, Barron was criticized for stating at a reparations rally,"I want to go up to the closest white person and say, 'You can't understand this, it's a black thing' and then slap him, just for my mental health." Barron explained that the remark was hyperbole and not to be taken seriously.
African-American history
Barron believes that United States history is not accurately taught in schools, and has expressed interest in promoting African-American history throughout the New York City public school system. He has drafted legislation mandating the teaching of African-American history in required school curriculum. He has used his position as Councilman to propose renaming buildings and schools as well as decorating them with mementos of black history. He wishes to publicize black history greater, including erecting portraits of Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X, as important leaders in American history. Barron proposed bills to honor America's African American heritage and such individuals as Malcolm X, Marcus Garvey, Frederick Douglass, Paul Robeson, and W. E. B. Du Bois. He drafted a bill that would have asked President George W. Bush to cancel all debts African nations owe the U.S.
Clemency and compensation for the wrongly accused
Barron has twice sought clemency for individuals he described as "political prisoners". For example, In 2002, he asked that Anthony Bottom, Albert Washington, and Herman Bell be released. Although they were convicted for killing two police officers in 1971, conflicting evidence surfaced through COINTELPRO that suggests questionable government tactics in the prosecution of the three men. The bill was hotly debated and rejected. Barron asked in 2005 that Assata Shakur, a fugitive wanted by the federal government, be granted clemency for the alleged 1973 killing of a state trooper.
In 2009, Barron asked that the City of New York compensate the five men wrongly accused in the Central Park Jogger case.
Immigration
Barron, appearing on the Fox network television program The O'Reilly Factor'' in April, 2006, stated that opposition to present-day immigration involves skin color. He argued that Germans, Jews, Poles, Greeks, and Italians who immigrated to the United States during the late 19th century were welcomed because of the color of their skin. In contrast, "All of a sudden when the complexion of immigration changes, now it's 'these people'." He stated to host Bill O'Reilly that the original European immigrants had received preferential treatment: "They had enough black people here already that were skilled and couldn't get the jobs that your people [i.e., European-Americans] were able to get." Many viewers responded to the episode, upset that Barron did not concede that white immigrants were also discriminated against.
Pledge of Allegiance
Barron says he does not salute the flag or believe in the Pledge of Allegiance, stating that the pledge's assertion that there is equality and justice for all is a lie that is not true for African-Americans. In 2004, he strongly objected to a move by the City Council that would begin each meeting with a voluntary Pledge.
Capitalism
Barron has criticized crony capitalism, calling it a "deeply-rooted illness" within America. Barron wrote a scathing editorial on the $700 billion bailout package in 2008, calling it the "biggest welfare check in the history of the planet". He said it was "a contradiction of capitalism" to give money to Wall Street during a slump while it had said for years that there was "no money for the people."
Gentrification
At the National Summit on Gentrification in 2019, Barron discussed strategies on keeping his district Black to the exclusion of White people, boasting:
Subprime mortgage crisis
Barron held a mortgage crisis forum in 2007 to address concerns from residents who were in danger of house foreclosure. Barron said the subprime mortgage crisis of 2007 predominantly hurt African-Americans, who were lied to by predatory business practices.
See also
New York City Council
Land reform in Zimbabwe
References
External links
Charles Barron: NYC Council Info. Page
Charles Barron for City Council, District 42
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1950 births
21st-century American politicians
Activists for African-American civil rights
Activists from New York (state)
African-American New York City Council members
African-American state legislators in New York (state)
Candidates in the 2006 United States elections
Candidates in the 2012 United States elections
Hunter College alumni
Left-wing populists
Living people
Members of the Black Panther Party
New York (state) Democrats
New York City College of Technology alumni
New York City Council members
Politicians from Brooklyn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global%20commons
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Global commons
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Global commons is a term typically used to describe international, supranational, and global resource domains in which common-pool resources are found. Global commons include the earth's shared natural resources, such as the high oceans, the atmosphere and outer space and the Antarctic in particular. Cyberspace may also meet the definition of a global commons.
Definition and usage
"Global commons" is a term typically used to describe international, supranational, and global resource domains in which common-pool resources are found. In economics, common goods are rivalrous and non-excludable, constituting one of the four main types of goods. A common-pool resource, also called a common property resource, is a special case of a common good (or public good) whose size or characteristics makes it costly, but not impossible, to exclude potential users. Examples include both natural or human-made resource domains (e.g., a "fishing hole" or an irrigation system). Unlike global public goods, global common-pool resources face problems of congestion, overuse, or degradation because they are subtractable (which makes them rivalrous).
The term "commons" originates from the term common land in the British Isles. "Commoners rights" referred to traditional rights held by commoners, such as mowing meadows for hay or grazing livestock on common land held in the open field system of old English common law. Enclosure was the process that ended those traditional rights, converting open fields to private property. Today, many commons still exist in England, Wales, Scotland, and the United States, although their extent is much reduced from the millions of acres that existed until the 17th century. There are still over 7,000 registered commons in England alone.
The term "global commons" is typically used to indicate the earth's shared natural resources, such as the deep oceans, the atmosphere, outer space and the Northern and Southern polar regions, the Antarctic in particular.
According to the World Conservation Strategy, a report on conservation published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in collaboration with UNESCO and with the support of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF):
Today, the Internet, World Wide Web and resulting cyberspace are often referred to as global commons. Other usages sometimes include references to open access information of all kinds, including arts and culture, language and science, though these are more formally referred to as the common heritage of mankind.
Management of the global commons
The key challenge of the global commons is the design of governance structures and management systems capable of addressing the complexity of multiple public and private interests, subject to often unpredictable changes, ranging from the local to the global level. As with global public goods, management of the global commons requires pluralistic legal entities, usually international and supranational, public and private, structured to match the diversity of interests and the type of resource to be managed, and stringent enough with adequate incentives to ensure compliance. Such management systems are necessary to avoid, at the global level, the classic tragedy of the commons, in which common resources become overexploited.
There are several key differences in management of resources in the global commons from those of the commons, in general. There are obvious differences in scale of both the resources and the number of users at the local versus the global level. Also, there are differences in the shared culture and expectations of resource users; more localized commons users tend to be more homogeneous and global users more heterogeneous. This contributes to differences in the possibility and time it takes for new learning about resource usage to occur at the different levels. Moreover, global resource pools are less likely to be relatively stable and the dynamics are less easily understood. Many of the global commons are non-renewable on human time scales. Thus, resource degradation is more likely to be the result of unintended consequences that are unforeseen, not immediately observable, or not easily understood. For example, the carbon dioxide emissions that drive climate change continue to do so for at least a millennium after they enter the atmosphere and species extinctions last forever. Importantly, because there are significant differences in the benefits, costs, and interests at the global level, there are significant differences in externalities between more local resource uses and uses of global-level resources.
Several environmental protocols have been established (see List of international environmental agreements) as a type of international law, "an intergovernmental document intended as legally binding with a primary stated purpose of preventing or managing human impacts on natural resources." International environmental protocols came to feature in environmental governance after trans-boundary environmental problems became widely perceived in the 1960s. Following the Stockholm Intergovernmental Conference in 1972, creation of international environmental agreements proliferated. Due to the barriers already discussed, environmental protocols are not a panacea for global commons issues. Often, they are slow to produce the desired effects, tend to the lowest common denominator, and lack monitoring and enforcement. They also take an incremental approach to solutions where sustainable development principles suggest that environmental concerns should be mainstream political issues.
The global ocean
The global or world ocean, as the interconnected system of the Earth's oceanic (or marine) waters that comprise the bulk of the hydrosphere, is a classic global commons. It is divided into a number of principal oceanic areas that are delimited by the continents and various oceanographic features. In turn, oceanic waters are interspersed by many smaller seas, gulfs, and bays. Further, most freshwater bodies ultimately empty into the ocean and are derived through the Earth's water cycle from ocean waters. The Law of the Sea is a body of public international law governing relationships between nations in respect to navigational rights, mineral rights, and jurisdiction over coastal waters. Maritime law, also called Admiralty law, is a body of both domestic law governing maritime activities and private international law governing the relationships between private entities which operate vessels on the oceans. It deals with matters including marine commerce, marine navigation, shipping, sailors, and the transportation of passengers and goods by sea. However, these bodies of law do little to nothing to protect deep oceans from human threats.
In addition to providing significant means of transportation, a large proportion of all life on Earth exists in its ocean, which contains about 300 times the habitable volume of terrestrial habitats. Specific marine habitats include coral reefs, kelp forests, seagrass meadows, tidepools, muddy, sandy and rocky bottoms, and the open ocean (pelagic) zone, where solid objects are rare and the surface of the water is the only visible boundary. The organisms studied range from microscopic phytoplankton and zooplankton to huge cetaceans (whales) 30 meters (98 feet) in length.
At a fundamental level, marine life helps determine the very nature of our planet. Marine life resources provide food (especially food fish), medicines, and raw materials. It is also becoming understood that the well-being of marine organisms and other organisms are linked in very fundamental ways. The human body of knowledge regarding the relationship between life in the sea and important cycles is rapidly growing, with new discoveries being made nearly every day. These cycles include those of matter (such as the carbon cycle) and of air (such as Earth's respiration, and movement of energy through ecosystems including the ocean). Marine organisms contribute significantly to the oxygen cycle, and are involved in the regulation of the Earth's climate. Shorelines are in part shaped and protected by marine life, and some marine organisms even help create new land.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has identified several areas of need in managing the global ocean: strengthen national capacities for action, especially in developing countries; improve fisheries management; reinforce cooperation in semi-enclosed and regional seas; strengthen controls over ocean disposal of hazardous and nuclear wastes; and advance the Law of the Sea. Specific problems identified as in need of attention include Current rising sea levels; contamination by hazardous chemicals (including oil spills); microbiological contamination; ocean acidification; harmful algal blooms; and over-fishing and other overexploitation. Further, the Pew Charitable Trusts Environmental Initiative program has identified a need for a worldwide system of very large, highly protected marine reserves where fishing and other extractive activities are prohibited.
Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. A primary concern for management of the global atmosphere is air pollution, the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulates, or biological materials that cause discomfort, disease, or death to humans, damage other living organisms such as food crops, or damage the natural environment or built environment. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.
Pollution of breathable air is a central problem in the management of the global commons. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases and may be natural or man-made. Although controversial and limited in scope by methods of enforcement, in several parts of the world the polluter pays principle, which makes the party responsible for producing pollution responsible for paying for the damage done to the natural environment, is accepted. It has strong support in most Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and European Community (EC) countries. It is also known as extended producer responsibility (EPR). EPR seeks to shift the responsibility dealing with waste from governments (and thus, taxpayers and society at large) to the entities producing it. In effect, it attempts to internalise the cost of waste disposal into the cost of the product, theoretically resulting in producers improving the waste profile of their products, decreasing waste and increasing possibilities for reuse and recycling.
The 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, or CLRTAP, is an early international effort to protect and gradually reduce and prevent air pollution. It is implemented by the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP), directed by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, or Montreal Protocol (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer), is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for signature on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989. After more three decades of work the Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocol were widely regarded as highly successful, both in achieving ozone reductions and as a pioneering model for management of the global commons.
Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth's surface, which has been observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s. Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action. It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas. Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially masked the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming.
Global warming and climate change in general are a major concern of global commons management. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), established in 1988 to develop a scientific consensus, concluded in a series of reports that reducing emissions of greenhouse gases was necessary to prevent catastrophic harm. Meanwhile, a 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) pledged to work toward "stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic [i.e., human-induced] interference with the climate system" (as of 2019 there were 197 parties to the convention, although not all had ratified it). The 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the FCCC set forth binding obligations on industrialised countries to reduce emissions. These were accepted by many countries but not all, and many failed to meet their obligations. The Protocol expired in 2012 and was followed by the 2015 Paris Agreement in which nations made individual promises of reductions. However, the IPCC concluded in a 2018 report that dangerous climate change was inevitable unless much greater reductions were promised and carried out.
Polar regions
The eight Arctic nations Canada, Denmark (Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Norway, the United States (Alaska), Sweden, Finland, Iceland, and Russia, are all members of the treaty organization, the Arctic Council, as are organizations representing six indigenous populations. The council operates on consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes. Currently, the Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System or ATS, regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only continent without a native human population. The treaty, entering into force in 1961 and currently having 50 signatory nations, sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, establishes freedom of scientific investigation and bans military activity on that continent.
Climate change in the Arctic region is leading to widespread ecosystem restructuring. The distribution of species is changing along with the structure of food webs. Changes in ocean circulation appear responsible for the first exchanges of zooplankton between the North Pacific and North Atlantic regions in perhaps 800,000 years. These changes can allow the transmission of diseases from subarctic animals to Arctic ones, and vice versa, posing an additional threat to species already stressed by habitat loss and other impacts. Where these changes lead is not yet clear, but are likely to have far-reaching impacts on Arctic marine ecosystems.
Climate models tend to reinforce that temperature trends due to global warming will be much smaller in Antarctica than in the Arctic, but ongoing research may show otherwise.
Outer space
Management of outer space global commons has been contentious since the successful launch of the Sputnik satellite by the former Soviet Union on 4 October 1957. There is no clear boundary between Earth's atmosphere and space, although there are several standard boundary designations: one that deals with orbital velocity (the Kármán line), one that depends on the velocity of charged particles in space, and some that are determined by human factors such as the height at which human blood begins to boil without a pressurized environment (the Armstrong line).
Space policy regarding a country's civilian space program, as well as its policy on both military use and commercial use of outer space, intersects with science policy, since national space programs often perform or fund research in space science, and also with defense policy, for applications such as spy satellites and anti-satellite weapons. It also encompasses government regulation of third-party activities such as commercial communications satellites and private spaceflight as well as the creation and application of space law and space advocacy organizations that exist to support the cause of space exploration.
Scientists have outlined rationale for governance that regulates the current free externalization of true costs and risks, treating orbital space around the Earth as part of the global commons – as an "additional ecosystem" or "part of the human environment" – which should be subject to the same concerns and regulations like e.g. oceans on Earth. The study concluded in 2022 that it needs "new policies, rules and regulations at national and international level".
Policies
The Outer Space Treaty provides a basic framework for international space law. It covers the legal use of outer space by nation states. The treaty states that outer space is free for all nation states to explore and is not subject to claims of national sovereignty. It also prohibits the deployment of nuclear weapons in outer space. The treaty was passed by the United Nations General Assembly in 1963 and signed in 1967 by the USSR, the United States of America and the United Kingdom. As of mid-year, 2013 the treaty has been ratified by 102 states and signed by an additional 27 states.
Beginning in 1958, outer space has been the subject of multiple resolutions by the United Nations General Assembly. Of these, more than 50 have concerned the international co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space and preventing an arms race in space. Four additional space law treaties have been negotiated and drafted by the UN's Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Still, there remain no legal prohibitions against deploying conventional weapons in space and anti-satellite weapons have been successfully tested by the US, USSR and China. The 1979 Moon Treaty turned the jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies (including the orbits around such bodies) over to the international community. However, this treaty has not been ratified by any nation that currently practices crewed spaceflight.
In 1976 eight equatorial states (Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Congo, Zaire, Uganda, Kenya, and Indonesia) met in Bogotá, Colombia to make the "Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries," also known as "the Bogotá Declaration", a claim to control the segment of the geosynchronous orbital path corresponding to each country. These claims are not internationally accepted.
The International Space Station
The International Space Station programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies: NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (RSA), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), European Space Agency (ESA), and Canadian Space Agency (CSA). National budget constraints led to the merger of three space station projects into the International Space Station. In 1993 the partially built components for a Soviet/Russian space station Mir-2, the proposed American Freedom, and the proposed European Columbus merged into this multinational programme. The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The ISS is arguably the most expensive single item ever constructed, and may be one of the most significant instances of international cooperation in modern history.
According to the original Memorandum of Understanding between NASA and the RSA, the International Space Station was intended to be a laboratory, observatory and factory in space. It was also planned to provide transportation, maintenance, and act as a staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars and asteroids. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, it was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic and educational purposes.
Internet
As a global system of computers interconnected by telecommunication technologies consisting of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government resources, it is difficult to argue that the Internet is a global commons. These computing resources are largely privately owned and subject to private property law, although many are government owned and subject to public law. The World Wide Web, as a system of interlinked hypertext documents, either public domain (like Wikipedia itself) or subject to copyright law, is, at best, a mixed good.
The resultant virtual space or cyberspace, however, is often viewed as an electronic global commons that allows for as much or more freedom of expression as any public space. Access to those digital commons and the actual freedom of expression allowed does vary widely by geographical area. Management of the electronic global commons presents as many issues as do other commons. In addition to issues related to inequity in access, issues such as net neutrality, Internet censorship, Internet privacy, and electronic surveillance arise. However, the term global commons generally represents stateless maneuver space, where no nation or entity can claim preeminence, and since 100 percent of cyberspace is owned by either a public or private entity, although it is often perceived as such, cyberspace may not be said to be a true global commons.
See also
Environmental economics
Environmental law
Free and open-source software
Goods
Global public goods
Human ecology
Tragedy of the commons
Wikipedia
References
External links
The Global Environmental Facility
Share the World's Resources Sustainable Economics to End Global Poverty – the Global Commons in Economic Practice.
Further reading
World
Goods (economics)
Globalization
Human ecology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bye%20%28sports%29
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Bye (sports)
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In sport, a bye is the preferential status of a player or team that is automatically advanced to the next round of a tournament, without having to play an opponent in an early round.
In knockout (elimination) tournaments they can be granted either to reward the highest ranked participant(s) or assigned randomly, to make a working bracket if the number of participants is not a power of two (e.g. 16 or 32).
In round-robin tournaments, usually one competitor gets a bye in each round when there are an odd number of competitors, as it is impossible for all competitors to play in the same round. However, over the whole tournament, each plays the same number of games as well as sitting out for the same number of rounds. The "Berger Tables" used by FIDE for chess tournaments, provide pairings for even numbered pools and simply state that "Where there is an odd number of players, the highest number counts as a bye."
Similar to the round-robin context, in league sports with weekly regular-season play such as gridiron football or rugby, a team not scheduled to play on a given week or fixture (competition period) can be said to be on its "bye week". Byes are necessary if there is an odd number of teams, but may be used even with an even number of teams, such as to provide rest breaks as has been done in the National Football League (NFL).
Elimination tournaments
In a standard single-elimination tournament, each round has half the number of teams as the preceding round. Thus the finals will have two, the semi-finals will have four, the quarter-finals will have eight, etc. Thus tournaments with competitors numbering a power of two can have a standard bracket in which all teams are paired up with the loser of each match eliminated and the winner moving on to the next round until only one champion remains.
However, if the number of teams is not a power of two, a simple elimination tournament would eventually produce a round with an odd number of teams (if the number is not odd to start with). For example, a tournament of nine teams could only have four matches in the first round, while a simple tournament of ten teams would produce a second round with five teams, meaning only two matches could occur.
Thus, if the number of participants is not a power of two (e.g. 16 or 32), to make a working bracket byes are provided to automatically move certain participants into a later round without requiring them to compete in an earlier one.
When participants are ranked, participants with the highest ranking going into the tournament are given a bye to the second round, as it is generally seen as an advantage to be assured entry into a later round. In the NFL playoffs, for example, as of , the division-leader with the best record in each conference is given a bye to the second round. The Canadian Football League (CFL) also grants a bye to its two division winners, directly to the division finals as four other teams compete in a semi-final week. In other tournaments where teams are unranked, random draw may be used to determine the byes.
The number of teams offered a bye is generally designed to ensure that the next round consists of a power-of-two number of teams so the tournament can proceed as a simple single-elimination tournament from that round onward.
If the byes are all single first-round byes into the second round of a tournament, the number of byes required is the difference between the number of teams and the next-highest power of two. For example, a 12-team tournament will require four byes (16−12) to ensure that instead of six teams in the second round, eight advance (as the four byes avoid two of the four teams being eliminated).
Examples from Gaelic football
In the Provincial Championships of Gaelic football, some teams receive a bye due to the irregular number of teams competing in each province. The different numbers resulted in different byes alignments in each Provincial Championship.
For example, below is an assessment of the 2012 Provincial Championships, and their use of the "bye".
Seven teams contested the 2012 Connacht Senior Football Championship, so a quarter-final was not played by Mayo. Mayo therefore advanced directly to the semi-final to await the winner of the game between Leitrim and London.
Eleven teams contested the 2012 Leinster Senior Football Championship, so five teams were given first round byes. Three teams (Carlow, Dublin and Wexford) played winners of the three preliminary matches, while the other two played each other in the quarter-finals without playing a game in the preliminary round.
Six teams contested the 2012 Munster Senior Football Championship, so two teams (Clare and Cork) were permitted to advance to the semi-finals without playing a game in the quarter-finals.
Nine teams contested the 2012 Ulster Senior Football Championship, so only Cavan and Donegal played in the preliminary round, while the other seven advanced via bye to the quarter-finals without playing a game in the preliminary round.
"Double byes"
While less common, byes can be offered for multiple rounds (e.g. a "double bye" directly into the third round), or starting in a later round (e.g. the top-ranked team in the first round is given a bye straight to the third round). A bye granted in a later round of the tournament eliminates the need for two byes in the previous round.
In the English FA Cup, the football clubs in the top two league divisions receive two-round byes and enter in the third round "proper" (of eight); the two next-highest divisions' teams will have entered in the first round. Another example is the UEFA Europa League, where teams from the highest-ranked nations enter the group stage directly without having to go through qualification.
The WNBA, from 2016 to 2021, had granted double byes to the league's top two seeds, while the next two seeds got first-round byes for their playoffs.
In NCAA Division I basketball, the 2009 Big East men's basketball tournament introduced "double byes", as the conference invited all 16 members to participate for the first time (previously only the top twelve were invited). To limit the number of games each round to four, the four highest seeded teams were advanced to the third round of competition, the 5th-8th seeded teams given byes to the second round, and the bottom eight competed the first day.
Due to the realignment of major conferences, "double byes" were no longer needed by the Big East after 2013, but were added by the Southeastern Conference in 2013, the Atlantic Coast and Atlantic 10 conferences in 2014, the Big Ten in 2015, and after another round of conference realignment, the CAA and Sun Belt in 2023 as each expanded beyond 12 teams. Various other conferences like the OVC offer "double byes" to the semifinals for their top two teams, while the WCC offers "triple byes" to their top two teams. While not yet confirmed, the ACC and the Big Ten are also likely to adopt "triple byes" starting in 2025, as membership for both conferences will expand beyond 16 teams.
In Esports, "double byes" are most commonly seen during the ESL Pro League event for the Counter-Strike series of games, awarded to the teams who won each of the groups during the group stage. "Triple byes" are currently used for China's professional League of Legends league, known as the LPL, and are awarded to the top two teams during a split's regular season. Up until 2020, they were also used for South Korea's LCK, with the top team in their split's regular season automatically making the Final as a result.
Hidden byes (play-in games)
In certain tournaments, the byes are somewhat disguised. When more teams are given first-round byes than actually compete in the first round, these first games may be referred to as "play-in" games and might not be a formally labelled as a tournament round.
From 2012–2019 and 2021, the Major League Baseball playoffs has included ten teams consisting of six division winners and four wild card teams (the top-ranked non-division-winners). The first round of the playoffs consists two wild-card games: single-game matches in which the four wild-card teams are reduced to two. The winners move on to the Divisional series with the six division winners for an eight-team, three-round tournament. Although this is billed as adding two extra "one-game showdowns" to the post-season, it could also be viewed as adding a fourth round to the ten-team tournament with six byes for the division winners.
The FA Cup also has certain teams compete in up to 6 preliminary rounds to qualify for the first round "proper".
Another example is the NCAA basketball tournament, which since 2011 has had 68 teams, effectively granting 60 byes, while eight teams compete in the "First Four" games for remaining four spots in the round of 64. From 2011 to 2015, the "First Four" was considered the first round, the round of 64 played on Thursday and Friday, was called the "second round"; the round of 32 was then called the "third round", consisting of games played on Saturday and Sunday. In 2016, the naming reverted to the round of 64 being the "first round" once again, and the round of 32 being the "second round", though the play-in round and all eight of those teams are officially part of the tournament.
Bye weeks in football leagues
Certain professional rugby and gridiron football leagues use the term "bye week" for any week during the regular season in which a team does not play a game. (School teams may also have non-competing weeks, but these are scheduled by individual schools and more commonly termed "open dates".)
United States
Each NFL team has one "bye week" during a normal season; this is placed on the team's schedule, usually falling between Week 4 and Week 12 inclusive (except that if Thanksgiving falls during Week 12, the Dallas Cowboys and Detroit Lions may not have a bye during Week 12).
During 1960 and 1966, the league had an odd number of teams due to expansion. Each week during those seasons, one team had a bye, including one team each in the first and last week of the season: thus, because they had to play all their games with no break in the middle, those two teams effectively had no byes. The American Football League (which at the time was a completely separate league, but later became the American Football Conference) also had an odd number of teams in 1966 and 1967 following the addition of the Miami Dolphins, leaving each team with two bye weeks. Again, from 1999 and 2001, the NFL had an odd number of teams (31) as a result of the Cleveland Browns re-entering the league. Each week during these three seasons featured at least one team with its bye week, but the 2001 season also added an additional impromptu league-wide bye the weekend after the September 11 attacks. The league returned to having an even number of teams (32) in the 2002 season with the addition of the Houston Texans, and implemented the current bye week system.
The NFL returned to the use of the bye week in so as to extend the 16-game regular season schedule to span 17 weeks to increase the number of viewable games for television contracts. The season spanned 18 weeks with each team having 2 bye weeks. It went back to 17 weeks with a bye week the next season through . Since , it's 18 weeks long with a bye week.
In the rare case of a game postponement that cannot be made up within the same week, the NFL may revise bye weeks assignments in order to reschedule the delayed game, making the postponement week those teams' new "bye week":
Due to Hurricane Ike in 2008, the Baltimore Ravens' and the Houston Texans' Week 2 matchup in Houston was postponed, which also impacted the Cincinnati Bengals' schedule. The Bengals–Texans game was moved to Week 8, which was the originally scheduled bye week for both of those teams. This allowed the Ravens–Texans game (and the Bengals' bye week) to be rescheduled in Week 10, the Ravens' original bye Week.
Due to Hurricane Irma in 2017, the Miami Dolphins and Tampa Bay Buccaneers Week 1 game was rescheduled to Week 11, the originally scheduled bye week for both teams.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, several postponements occurred during the 2020 season. The first one that saw the league move games during bye weeks involved the Week 4 matchup between the Pittsburgh Steelers and Tennessee Titans, which also impacted the Baltimore Ravens' schedule. The Steelers-Titans game was moved to Week 7 (the Titans' original bye week) due to a rash of COVID-19 cases among the Titans organization. The Steelers matchup with the Ravens (their original Week 7 opponent) was moved to Week 8 when they both had scheduled byes and would allow the Steelers and Titans to make up their matchup; the Ravens bye week was moved to Week 7. Ravens head coach John Harbaugh, when asked about the schedule change, referenced the aforementioned changes with the Texans and Bengals in 2008 (his first year as Ravens head coach) and did not expect the changes to affect his team's planning.
The media may also sarcastically refer to a team having a "bye week" or a "second bye" if that team is playing an especially poor team, and is all but assured of a win.
Canada
Traditionally, the CFL has had nine teams and required bye weeks. Beginning 2018, each team has three bye weeks and 18 games over a 21-week regular season.
In most seasons, (from 2014 to 2017 and prior to 2007), each team has two bye weeks during the 20 week 18-game regular season. When the league had only 8 teams, the league usually had no bye weeks. However between 2007 and 2013, the league had one bye per team over in two weeks in August (4 teams would have a bye during week 6 and the other 4 teams would have a bye on week 7). Preseason have 3 weeks
Australia
In Australia's National Rugby League (NRL), each team has three byes each season. With the competition expanding to an odd number of teams from the 2023 NRL season, one club is required to have a bye each round; during the representative period of the season (such as the State of Origin), multiple byes are scheduled to the clubs that are expected to have the most players involved in the representative match, in the round preceding the representative fixture, to allow those clubs to sufficiently rest those players and prevent them from fielding a weakened side. On the competition ladder, teams are awarded two points (equivalent to a win) during their bye week except for the Melbourne Storm in 2010, who were barred from receiving premiership points for the remainder of the season as a punishment for gross long-term breaches of the salary cap.
The Australian Football League, which comprises an even number of clubs, gives each club a bye week in mid-season, as well as a bye the week before the finals. In 1915, 1919 to 1924, 1942 and 1943, 1991 to 1994 and 2011, when there were an odd number of clubs competing, each club was given two byes.
In both leagues, and under many other professional and amateur sports leagues in Australia, higher placed teams don't earn byes during finals, but instead the opportunity not to be eliminated by losing their first-round match (also called a double chance). This practice is common in Australia, but it is not used in most other countries, to earn an easier passage to the Grand Final as reward for finishing higher on the ladder. This is different from a double elimination format, in which a team has to lose both in the tournament and the repechage to be eliminated.
Gymnastics
In a variation of the round-robin case, at certain high-level competitions in artistic gymnastics, teams cycle through the apparatuses in an "Olympic Order" with scheduled byes in between.
As an example, the NCAA Women's Gymnastics Championships has 36 teams with six teams apiece at six regional sites, with 12 advancing to two semifinal rounds of six that decide participants for the final "Super Six". In each of these nine sextets, each team competes during four of six "rotations" with the other two as byesscheduled before the uneven bars and the floor exercise. For example, Semifinal II of the 2018 championships operated as follows
Swiss system tournaments
In a Swiss-system tournament with an odd number of players, one player gets a bye in each round, but not all players will get a bye (as there are fewer rounds than there are players). FIDE specifies that "pairing-allocated" byes in their sanctioned chess tournaments may not be awarded multiple times to the same participant. Contrasting use in some single-elimination brackets, the byes are to be allocated to the lowest-rated eligible player in the pool.
Notes
References
Sports terminology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A4rnebofj%C3%A4rden%20National%20Park
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Färnebofjärden National Park
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Färnebofjärden National Park () is a Swedish national park traversed by the river Dalälven, about north of Stockholm. It covers , of which aquatic, on the frontier between the counties of Dalarna and Gävleborg.
After the retreat of the ice sheet that covered the region after the last ice age, the river found itself rerouted by an esker onto a plain uniquely ribbed by the ridges of other eskers, where it formed a succession of rapids and wide bays (called fjärdar), which the river inundates during the spring floods. This particular hydrography, along with the park's proximity to the ecological frontier between the north and the south, has favored the development of a fauna and flora of great biodiversity. The park possesses coniferous, mixed, and broadleaf forests, some of which quite ancient, spared by the logging industry because of their inaccessibility. These forests constitute the ideal environment for numerous species, in particular birds, with critical densities of woodpeckers and owls.
If the presence of humans was relatively discreet since the Stone Age, concentrated principally atop the eskers, the development of mining activity (in particular of iron) has profoundly affected the region. The forests were exploited to feed the water-powered forges which grew up along the river. One of the most important was that of Gysinge, founded in 1668 and situated right next to the park. In 1975, in reaction to the threat of the clearing of a vast forest, the movement for the creation of a national park began, culminating in the park's opening in 1998. The park was added to the Natura 2000 Network and included in the Ramsar Convention's list of wetlands.
The park and its environs are important tourist destinations. The river is its favored mode of discovery, but some hiking trails permit other explorations. The park is equally appreciated by fishing enthusiasts.
Toponymy
The park takes its name from Färnebofjärden, which designates the entire section of the river between Tyttbo and Gysinge. The name means "fjärd of Färnebo". The Swedish word fjärd has the same etymology as the Norwegian word fjord, both of which Scandinavian words mean "an expanse of water in a channel". Most of the bodies of water called fjords in Norwegian were steep glacial valleys into which the sea had penetrated, which was the more restrictive definition which passed into French and English. The name Fjärnebo is the ancient name of the village of Österfärnebo ("East Färnebo"), situated near the park; its name changed in the 17th century to distinguish it from a Färnebo in Västmanland, which was itself rebaptized Västerfärnebo ("West Färnebo"). The name of the village means "habitation (bo) next to the fjärd of horsetails (fräken, which became Färne)".
Geography
Location and environs
The park straddles the municipalities of Sala in Västmanland County, Heby in Uppsala County, Avesta in Dalarna County, and Sandviken in Gävleborg County. It contains a section of the Lower Dalälven, which since the Middle Ages has marked the frontier between Svealand and Norrland. The park's main entrance, at Gysinge, is about from the city of Uppsala and so about from Stockholm.
The park proper includes most of the fjärd of Färnebofjärden and the river's floodplain, as well as parts of the surrounding lowlands, for a total area of more than , of which are water. The only parts of the fjärd not included in the park are the peninsulas of Östa and Ista, since they are inhabited, but these are protected by nature reserves of and , respectively. In addition, the park is bordered by several additional preserves: at Hedesundafjärden, at Jordbärsmuren-Ålbo, and at Gysinge, for a combined area, with the park and peninsula reserves, of more than .
Terrain
The terrain of the park is overall flat, with an altitude ranging from to below sea level. Certain parts are nevertheless quite hilly, such as Torrösundet, Långvindsjön and the valleys of the Tiån and the Storån. In addition, the ridge Enköpingsåsen cuts across the park, with a maximum height of , crisscrossing the region over between Trosa to the south and Bollnäs to the north. This ridge spans the river and creates, among other land features, the isle of Sandön and the peninsula of Ista. The river has largely flooded this flat and irregular zone, creating a mosaic of water, dry earth, and wetlands. The park also includes several bays (Östaviken, Andersboviken, Edsviken, etc.) as well as 200 islands and skerries, the largest islands being Mattön, Torrön, Ängsön, Vedön, Rosön and Västerön.
Climate
The park is situated in a continental climate (Dfb in the Köppen climate classification), with rain mostly in summer. It is situated on the climate frontier between north and south, which helps determine the Limes Norrlandicus marking the border between the north of Scandinavia and the south. The snow cover lasts a little over 3 months and the river is frozen during a similar period, with the exception of the rapids, which remain ice-free for most of the winter.
Hydrography
The park is situated along the course of the Dalälven, the second longest Swedish river at . The river begins at the confluence of the Västerdal River and the Österdal River in Gagnef Municipality. At Avesta, the river, which until then was trapped in a narrow valley, becomes the Lower Dalälven (), and large floodplains (called fjärdar) alternate with zones of rapids. Färnebofjärden is the first big floodplain of the Lower Dalälven, situated between the rapids of Tyttbo to the west and Gysinge and Sevedskvarn to the east.
At Gysinge, the river already has a watershed of , for an average flow of . While the flow of the river Österdalälven is controlled (at Trängslet and the lake Siljan), the course of the Västerdalälven is free, and thus has the largest seasonal variations. As a result, when it reaches the park, the river is still relatively little regulated, with a speed varying from to more than . It is, in particular, the sole fjärd with a mouth that remains unregulated. The regulation of the Österdalälven has all the same an impact upon Färnebofjärden, the great inundations of the plains during the spring floods being more rare, even if they are nevertheless capable of inundating several dozens of square kilometers.
Besides the Dalälven, there are many streams inside the park, which flow into the river. Among these, one can number the Lillån, the Storån, the Alderbäcken and the Tiån on the right (south) bank, and Bärreksån and Laggarboån along the right bank. One can find also five small lakes inside the park, in particular around Tinäset. It is also near Tinäset that the principal bogs of the park, Lindebergsmossen and Svarviksmossen, are situated. of the park are marshes and bogs, making up more than 20% of its total surface, and more than a third of the non-aquatic surface area of the park.
Geology
The bedrock of the park is of granite and granitic gneiss, and dates from the formation of the Svecofennids, a mountain chain formed between 1750 and 2500 million years ago. Subsequently, the area underwent a long period of erosion, so that by leading 600 million years ago the so-called Sub-Cambrian peneplain had formed.
During the last ice age, Sweden was covered with an ice sheet, which withdrew from the region about 10000 years ago. The glacier left behind in the region many eskers and moraines, such as the esker Enköpingsåsen. When the glacier withdrew, the soil had been so compressed by its mass that the entire zone situated to the east of Avesta found itself at sea level. During this maritime period, sediments deposited themselves on the bedrock, which explains why that region even today has superior fertility to that of the rest of the country. It is the reason why the line of separation between the north and the south (the Limes Norrlandicus), which passes not far from the park, is so visible in the region: the zone to the north of the limes was not covered with these sediments.
When this sea, called the Littorina Sea, the ancestor of the Baltic Sea, withdrew, the Dalälven found itself blocked at Avesta by one of these eskers formed by the ice sheet: Badelundaåsen. In effect, before the ice age, the river continued in the direction of the Mälaren, in which it emptied itself and it so had flooded a valley along this entire section. Because of the fact of the presence of this obstacle, it was forced to head northeast. So, in the whole section of the Lower Dalälven, the river did not have the time to flood a true valley. It thus had to adapt itself to the topology of the terrain, forming large fjärds with many isles in the flattest sections and by contrast a course narrower and faster at the different eskers encountered along the way.
Natural environment
The park of Färnebofjärden is according to the classification of the WWF, situated in the terrestrial ecoregion of Sarmatic mixed forests, not far from the frontier of the Scandinavian and Russian taiga.
Plants
Almost all the types of forest of central Sweden are present in the park, which is due to both the presence of dry and wet environments and to the proximity of the Limes Norrlandicus line marking the frontier between the environments of the north and south. This implies the presence in the park of environments and species characteristic to both the North and the South of Sweden. A great number of endangered species appear in the park: two species of vascular plants, 25 species of mosses, 34 species of lichens and 22 species of fungi.
The park presents different environments as regards flora, the principal being the forests of conifers ( making up 9.9% of the park), the mixed forests ( making up 14.5% of the park), of open bogs ( making up 16.3% of the park) and woods ( making up 5% of the park) and finally wetlands ( making up 7.4% of the park).
The forests of conifers, principally of Norway spruce, are in particular present in the south of the park, around Tinäset, on the isle of Torrön and the peninsula of Öbyhalvön. These forests have not been logged since the 1950s and certain trees are themselves over 120 years old. These old trees as well as the presence of dead wood give this forest a very ancient appearance, and contribute to a great richness of lichens and fungi. The soil is often covered in moss, the characteristic species being Hylocomium splendens, but Anastrophyllum hellerianum and Nowellia curvifolia are also common. One can also find European blueberries and lingonberries in the undergrowth.
In the zones most subject to inundations, conifers are more rare, since they do not like in general the wetter zones. In these forests, one can find broadleaf trees such as the aspen, very common in the Lower Dalälven, but rare in the rest of the country. These forests also have English oaks and small-leaved lindens and the wetter forests are mostly made up of alders, birch trees and willows. The richness of these forests and in particular their undergrowth depends above all on the nature of the soil. The poorer soils grow blueberries, bog bilberries, wild rosemary and cloudberry, whereas the richer soils are home in particular to Lily of the valley, woodland strawberries, purple small-reed and yellow loosestrife.
Where the floods are less frequent the hardwoods themselves are absent, giving way to open country. The country is thus a prairie and, sometimes, this prairie finishes by transforming into bog. The vegetation of the prairies is characterized by calamagrostides blanchâtres, by purple moor grass, bogbean, yellow loosestrife, swamp cinquefoil, lesser spearwort, common marsh-bedstraw, kingcup, purple loosestrife and violettes, the last being an endangered species in the country. In the bogs, vegetation is poor, with mainly bog myrtle, bog-rosemary, common cottongrass and species of Carex. The soil is often covered in peat mosses and other mosses.
Animals
Mammals
The park is host to many species of mammals. The most widespread are the moose, the roe deer, the mountain hare, the red fox, and the European pine marten. Since the 1980s, one can also see Eurasian beaver near the islands of Torrön and Ängsön as well as near Gysinge. In 2008, it was similarly found that the wild boar was wont to settle the park. More rarely, one sees also the wood lemming in the north part of the park. Four species of mammals present in the park are considered endangered in Sweden. Thus, the Eurasian lynx can be observed regularly around Öbyhalvön, Tinäset and Gärdsvekarna, alongside brown bears and gray wolves, although these are less frequent. The three other endangered species are the European otter that one can see near the rapids, and two species of bats, the pond bat, very rare in Sweden) and the common noctule.
Birds
Birds are without question Färnebofjärden's most numerous class of animal. More than 200 species have been reported of which at least 107 nest regularly in the park. This richness is in part connected to the presence of characteristic species of both the south and the north. In addition, the park contains species of bird both aquatic and sylvan.
The park has a rich population of aquatic birds, attracted by the shallow, fish-rich waters. The proximity of big trees, especially pines, affords them good nesting opportunities. The most common species are the common gull , the common tern, the black-throated loon, and the mute swan . In the wetlands, one often finds the grey heron, the western capercaillie or even the common crane. One of the most notable aquatic species is the osprey, with thirty couples — probably one of the most important densities of the country. The white-tailed eagle, a species classified as endangered in the country, practically vanished from the park in the 1970s, but it is now returned.
However, it is the forest species which are the most notable of the park, especially the woodpeckers and owls. Concerning woodpeckers, the great spotted woodpecker is the most common, but the black woodpecker, the European green woodpecker and the lesser spotted woodpecker are also themselves common. The population of white-backed woodpecker, a species classified as very endangered in Sweden with only 16 individuals in the whole country in 2004, has diminished in the park. Of 7 pairs observed in 1976, one sole individual was observed in 2003, and then a new couple in 2010. This species especially likes old forests with many dead trees and the species is thus a good indicator of the richness of the forest. In contrast, the grey-headed woodpecker is becoming more common. Regarding owls, the most common species are the Eurasian pygmy owl and the Ural owl. The latter is in addition the symbol of the park. Apart from these species, there are the common buzzard, the Eurasian hobby, or even, among others, the European honey buzzard.
Reptiles and amphibians
The park has all major Swedish species of amphibians. Among these species, one can number the common toad, the common frog and the moor frog, as well as the northern crested newt and the smooth newt. Among the reptiles, the most common species are two snakes, the common European adder and the grass snake, as well as the viviparous lizard and the slowworm.
Fish
The waters of the park are among Sweden's richest, which can be explained by a great number of factors, such as their optimal acidity, a great richness of nutrients, or even, among other things, the zones of rapids alternating with calmer zones. These waters permit the park have not only a great number of species, but also a great number of individual fish and certain fish of enormous size. Among the species present, one can name several species of cyprinids (the family of carp, minnows, barbs, barbels, and others), of which in particular the asp, rare in Sweden. The waters abound also with northern pike, with specimens weighing sometimes , with European perch, with zander, and with grayling — which species is classified as endangered in Sweden, much like the brown trout. The Atlantic salmon was also present in the park's waters, but the dams downstream have considerably reduced its possibilities of rejoining the park. The noble crayfish, a species endangered worldwide, was relatively common in the waters of the Dalälven, but has now almost disappeared; some catches in the park are however reported from time to time.
Insects
Only the insects of the forests have been reliably inventoried, but more than 70 species of insect are already inscribed on the list of species endangered in Sweden. The presence of dead wood favors the presence of numerous insects. Most of the forest insects live in the sapwood or between the sapwood and the bark. In particular, the Norway spruce and the English oak are the trees supporting the greatest richness in insects.
The species of insect most associated with the park and the Lower Dalälven in general are mosquitos of the genus Aedes. Indeed, the park's wetlands are enormously productive in mosquitos, especially during the heavy spring floods. The quantity of mosquitos in the Lower Dalälven has no equivalent in Sweden besides that in the vast wetlands of Lappland. This abundance bothers not only the park's tourists during the summer but also the entire region as far as Uppsala. Between 2002 and 2008, the insecticide was used to try to regulate these populations, which needed a waiver, its use being forbidden in Sweden and contrary to the principles of the national park. However, the project was not renewed, this method not being considered a durable solution and some scientists arguing that the mosquitos make up part of the region's ecosystem.
History
Initial settlements and agriculture
6000 years ago, the Lower Dalälven was a bay of the Littorina Sea, but as the land rose, the crests (eskers) became the best sites for the first permanent settlements. It was easy to nourish oneself, thanks to the river, and these places were the easiest to defend. In addition, the river was easier to cross at this point. In addition, it is atop the esker of Enköpingsåsen that one finds most of the prehistoric sites, and many of today's routes follow the trace of ancient routes along the eskers. Among the park's prehistoric sites, one can count the Stone Age sites at Trångnäs and Sandön and the cairns atop Hemön and Utön.
When sedentary agriculture developed in the region during the Bronze and Iron Ages, the slopes of the crests were again the favorite settlement sites, being easier to cultivate and above the floodplain. However, these wetlands were also used for haymaking, giving an important production of good quality. The hay was stocked in nearby barns and carried to the surrounding villages during the winter to feed the animals. Some of these barns are still visible near Torrösundet and atop Västerön. Woodlands were summer granting lands (transhumance) and some cabins () were constructed there in order to look after the animals during this time. Fifteen of these cabins are scattered in and around the park, mainly near Tinäset and south of Gysinge. Transhumance ceased at the beginning of the 20th century.
Industry
One of the characteristics of the region that has strongly influenced the mode of life there ever since the Iron Age is its abundance of metals, in particular of iron. The settlers began then to combine agriculture with iron extraction. This exploitation has left numerous traces inside the park. Certain zones in the park were themselves used as extraction sites, such as Tinäset, where limonite was extracted from the marsh. The iron industry in the region necessitated a huge consumption of wood which initially justified silviculture in the park. Accordingly, the woods of Tinäset, for example, were heavily logged to feed the silver mine of Sala. At the end of the 19th century, many mills were constructed along the river: they were used for timber rafting. This activity ceased upon the creation of dams along the river. Gysinge has a timber rafting museum. The wettest forests largely escaped the logging industry, thereby serving as sanctuaries of biodiversity during this period of exploitation.
However, the most evident trace of the iron industry in the region is the forge of Gysinge. This forge was established in 1668 initially for the production of arms. The forge's location permitted a good access to metal, extracted at the mine of Dannemora, to wood and to the energy of the Gysinge rapids. The forge grew rapidly and in the 18th century there were constructed around the forge homes, mills, stables, a manor and even a hotel. In the 18th century, the forge was one of the largest in the country, with 50 people working at the mill proper, and 3000 people connected to the forge in other ways. The forge was also the first in the world to use an oven for induction, the oven Kjellin. The forge closed at the beginning of the 20th century.
A hydroelectric plant was constructed at Gysinge in 1917, but it consists only of one small scale plant, using one deflection of a small part of the river.
Protection
The Lower Dalälven has for a long time been recognized in Sweden as a remarkable site worthy of protection. In the 1960s, the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation engaged itself for the protection of Färnebofjärden, in particular the area of Tinäset, and made many inventories in the area. At the beginning of the 1970s, Stora AB tried to clear all the forests it owned in the northern part of Tinäset. In response the ornithologist Stig Holmstedt made contact with the Swedish nature conservation society and formed a group to work towards the protection of the zone, which led to the formation of a proposition for a national park in 1975. Only the commune of Sandviken took up the idea and formed the same year the nature reserve of Gysinge. In the following years, the geomorphology, fauna and flora of the Lower Dalälven were systematically inventoried. This began at the formulation of a protection plan by Naturvårdsverket and the concerned counties. In 1989, in the first directive for the creation of national parks established by Naturvårdsverket, Färnebofjärden was proposed as a future national park. In 1997, Färnebofjärden is proposed on the list of the Ramsar Convention, and, finally, the national park was established by the king on 10September 1998. The motive for creating the park was "to preserve a unique fluvial landscape as well as rich forests and surrounding wetlands in a relatively intact state". It thus includes a large part of the old reserve of Gysinge, which accordingly was reformed in 1999 with all the zones not included in the park. On 19November 2001, the park was finally added to the Ramsar list. It is also included in the Natura 2000 Network. In 2011, the Lower Dalälven was classified as a biosphere reserve by UNESCO under the name country of the river Nedre Dalälven.
Management and administration
Like most of the Swedish national parks, the management and administration are divided between the Swedish environmental protection agency and the administrative council of the counties. Naturvårdsverket is charged with the proposal of new national parks, through consultation with administrative councils of the counties and municipalities; a vote of the Riksdag endorses their creation. If a park is approved, the state buys the land, through the intermediary of the Naturvårdsverket. The management of the park is then principally in the hands of the county. Despite the fact that the park of Färnebofjärden spans the territories of four counties, only the administrative council of Västmanland is responsible for the management of the park. In contrast, park's nature center is led by Gävleborg, since it is situated on Gävleborg's territory.
The management work for the park includes the maintenance of tourism structures (such as trails, cabins), as well as the maintenance of certain meadows. If appropriate, the park authorities can regulate the beaver population, which is capable of harming the forest. Elk, deer, and American mink hunting is allowed for population regulation purposes, but is forbidden between 1January and 15August. To protect the birds, access to certain zones can be forbidden during nesting season, from 1January to 15June. These fixed zones have been replaced in 2015 by the possibility of creating temporary zones permitting themselves to adapt to zones where the most vulnerable species are found. The ban on commercial activity has also been lifted. Finally, the speed limit for boats was lowered from 12 to 7 knots except for certain sections where the maximum speed is capped at 12 or 20 knots.
Tourism
The park and the surrounding zones attract many tourists. In addition, the Gysinge forge is visited annually by 250,000 people — a figure rapidly growing, the peninsula of Östa by 75,000 people and Tyttbo by 10,000 people. However, these visits are in general highly localized.
The main entrances of the park are at Gysinge and Sevedskvarn, both situated near national route 56. These entries have parking. Camp grounds exist at Östa, Tyttbo and Österfärnebo, and it is also possible to stay at Gysinge forge's hotel (). Inside the park itself, many cabins are available for passing the night, many of them ancient shepherd cabins.
The principal activities inside the park in summer are sport fishing as well as boat or canoe trips. Navigation by boat is in fact one of the best ways to explore the park, and the island of Sandön is particularly popular. The park also attracts many bird watchers in winter and spring, especially near Tinäset where the birdlife is the richest. However, the part of the road that enabled one to get there was closed because it traversed the park — which closing was decided during the park's creation. As a result, the number of tourists at this location diminished considerably. A visitor, information, and nature center was built inside an old barn (dating from 1814) of the Gysinge forge. At Skekarsbo, an observation tower in height was constructed in 1995 and offers a panoramic view over the major part of the park. Several hiking trails exist inside the park, in particular in the north part: on the isle of Mattön (between Gysinge and Sevedskvarn), a part of Gästrikeleden across the park from Gysinge, and from Kyrkstigen up to Skekarsbo. In the southern part, a long trail leads to Tinäset.
References
Others
External links
Sweden's National Parks: Färnebofjärden National Park from the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency
National parks of Sweden
Protected areas established in 1998
1998 establishments in Sweden
Geography of Dalarna County
Geography of Gävleborg County
Tourist attractions in Dalarna County
Tourist attractions in Gävleborg County
Natura 2000 in Sweden
Ramsar sites in Sweden
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skuleskogen%20National%20Park
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Skuleskogen National Park
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Skuleskogen National Park (, literally The Skule Forest National Park) is a Swedish national park in Västernorrland County, on the coast of the Baltic Sea, in northern Sweden. It covers , constituting the eastern part of the Forest of Skule.
The park is characterized by a very rough topology with many rocky peaks, of which the highest is Slåttdalsberget, in altitude, rising directly from the sea. The topography is also marked by the presence of deep crevasses and caves. This particular topology can be found throughout the entire High Coast (), a region of Sweden so named because it constitutes the highest section of the coast of the Baltic Sea. This region is in our day principally known as a favoured site for the observation of the phenomenon of post-glacial rebound. Most of the region was under the sea less than 10,000 years ago, after the ice sheet that blanketed it melted. But thanks to the melting of this mass of ice that had been pressing down upon it, the ground is rising year by year, at a current speed of per year.
Humans have left their mark upon the park, although they probably never established themselves there in great numbers. Numerous Bronze Age funerary cairns are still visible along the ancient coastline. Later, the forest was mainly used as pasture. Things changed in the middle of the 19th century when the logging industry spread throughout Sweden, affecting almost all the forest of the park. This exploitation ceased, however, at the end of that century, so that the current forest is dominated by trees more than 100 years old. This forest has thus been able to recover a part of its ancestral richness, and so contains an important fauna and flora, with several endangered species, such as the lichen , which is the park's symbol. This geological and biological richness led to the creation of a national park in 1984, followed by the inclusion of the park with the rest of the High Coast in 2000 in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Today, despite its distance from areas of dense human population, the park is a relatively important site of tourism with 20,000 visitors per year. The principal attraction of the park is the deep crevasse of Slåttdalskrevan, which is easily accessible by numerous hiking trails, including the Höga Kustenleden, which goes along the whole of the High Coast.
Toponymy
The national park takes its name from the forest of Skule, of which it constitutes the eastern part. The name in Swedish means "the forest of Skule", the word being common in the place names nearby, with for example Skuleberget ("mountain of Skule"), Skulesjön ("lake of Skule") or even the villages Skule and Skulnäs. However, there is a debate as to which toponym came first and was then transmitted to the others, as well as the meaning of this toponym.
A first hypothesis is that the name would have issued from the mountain Skuleberget, this being a point particularly notable in the landscape and one which would thus have been rapidly named. This name already appears in 1539 in the form and would derive from meaning "hiding place", the famous cave in the mountain having been in the past a refuge for brigands. Another hypothesis is that the name would have come from the village of Skule; Skuleskogen thus being "the forest on the way to Skule" or "the forest which belongs to Skule", Skule being the village allowed to pasture animals in the forest. This last hypothesis does not imply that the mountain did not have a name before the village of Skule came into being; the original name would have been a name which one ought not to pronounce, as is true of many places in the country, another name not forbidden then coming into common usage and replacing the old one.
Geography
Location and borders
Skuleskogen National Park is in the municipalities of Örnsköldsvik and Kramfors, both of Västernorrland County, both in the historical Swedish province of Ångermanland. It is south of the city of Örnsköldsvik and north of the city of Kramfors, the respective capitals of the municipalities mentioned above. It covers a surface area of of which are maritime, the park stretching, in fact, along the coast of the Baltic Sea.
Topography
The park is included in the region called the High Coast, a zone of very rough relief, forming a joint valley landscape (): a landscape gouged by many small valleys formed by the erosion of fissures and faults in the bedrock. The High Coast is generally defined as the portion of the eastern coast of Sweden between the cities of Härnösand and Örnsköldsvik. The name of this region comes from the fact that it is the highest section of the coast of the Baltic Sea, numerous summits elevating themselves from the sea to attain altitudes of 200 to . This rugged terrain stretches even under the surface of the sea; so, it is in this region that one finds the deepest point of the Bothnian Sea, Ulvödjupet, with a depth of . The park itself covers the eastern part of the forest of Skule, characterized by a terrain forming a sort of wall separating the north and the south.
The topography of the park is characterized by these small valleys (), some even taking the appearance of vertitable crevasses, the most impressive being Slåttdalskrevan ( deep, long, wide), but also significant being Trollporten (the "Trolls' Door"), a small crevasse celebrated for the rock that rests across the top. Another characteristic element is the presence of many caves, although the most famous, Skulegrottan, in the mountain Skuleberget, is not inside the park. The park's highest peak is Slåttdalsberget, at of altitude.
Climate
The national park is bathed in a subarctic climate (Dfc according to the Köppen classification). The maritime influence explains why its early summers are colder than they are farther inland, but its autumns are in contrast more mild. The topography causes important local variations.
The climate is humid, with about of precipitation per year, of which more than a third in the form of snow, forming a snow cover lasting on average 175 days. Spring is the driest season, and in certain years this relative dryness has important consequences for the environment, especially because the thinness of the soil retains moisture poorly. In the regions acid rain most powerfully affected, surveys indicated that the situation is getting better, the pH of the precipitation gently increasing.
Hydrology
Many streams run through the park, feeding many lakes. The principal lakes are Tärnättvattnen () and Stocksjön () belonging to the watershed of the streams Skravelbäcken and Långtjärnen (), belonging to the watershed of the stream Nylandsbäcken. A non-negligible section of the park () is made up of fens.
Geology
Bedrock
The principal rock of the park is the granite of Nordingrå, the park belonging to the Nordingrå massif. It consists of a rapakivi granite, formed about 1500 million years ago. It has a characteristic bright red color and erodes easily. To the north-east of the park, one can also find diabase, which was formed 1200 million years ago in the faults of the Nordingrå massif. Since granite forms a substrate very poor in nutrients, the diabase constitutes by contrast a very fertile terrain, which permits a richer vegetation.
The national park is traversed by several faults, like the rest of the High Coast. These faults were filled by deposits which marine erosion sometimes later removed. One of the most impressive examples of this phenomenon is Slåttdalsskrevan, east of the park : a crevasse of depth and width, which is one of the park's most visited sites. This crevasse was a fault filled by a vein of diabase, which was however eroded later, in part by the sea.
The High Coast
At the height of the last ice age, 20,000 years ago, the ice sheet, which covered all of Northern Europe, had its center in the sea near the High Coast. The ice's thickness attained , exerting significant pressure on the soil, which was thus situated below the current level of the High Coast. When the ice melted, the soil rose progressively, a phenomenon called the post-glacial rebound, at a speed of per year. The zone was only freed of ice 9,600 years ago. As the land emerged from Lake Ancylus (ancestor of the Baltic Sea), the waves affected the terrain of today's park. The coastline of that era can now be found at an altitude of , measured from Skuleberget, southwest of the national park, which constitutes an absolute record. The peaks of the park were islands at that time. The ancient coastline is notably made visible by vegetation caps, which cover the areas not submerged after the retreat of the glaciers, explaining the name ("mountain cap") given to certain mountains of the region and the park. These vegetation caps had been able to install themselves since, at these places, the moraines were not eroded by waves, and they thus constituted a place where vegetation could attach.
The post-glacial rebound continues even today: the island of Tärnättholmarna, inside the park, is becoming bit by bit a peninsula, and the bay of Salsviken is now a lake isolated from the sea by a small strip of sand.
Environment
Fauna
The park is home to many species of mammal characteristic to northern Sweden, in particular the Eurasian lynx () and the brown bear (), considered endangered in the country. Besides these two species, one can find the red fox (), the European badger (), the European pine marten (), the moose (), the Eurasian beaver (), the grey seal (), and the muskrat (). One can also find small mammals, such as the Eurasian red squirrel (), the American mink () and the stoat (). The territory of the lynx is much more vast than the park itself, which is therefore not sufficient to protect these animals. Indeed, the population of lynx in the region is decreasing, probably because of habitat fragmentation as a result of European route E4.
With respect to birds, many species are also on the endangered list in Sweden, such as the Siberian jay (), the three-toed woodpecker (), the red-throated loon (), the European honey buzzard (), the rough-legged buzzard (), the greenish warbler (), the red-breasted flycatcher (), the red-backed shrike (), the spotted nutcracker (), the common rosefinch (), and the ortolan bunting (). The park also houses important populations of grey-headed woodpeckers (), common cranes (), grey herons (), Eurasian wrens (), Eurasian wrynecks (), and hazel grouse ().
The rivers and lakes of the park are relatively poor. They are home mainly to European perch () and brown trout (), but the stream Skravelbäcken is also home to brook trout (). The sea has Atlantic herring (), but also northern pike (), trout, and perch, the Baltic Sea having low salinity.
Little is known of the park's insects. It is the zone most rich in beetles in the county.
Flora
Skuleskogen is located on the northern border of the range of several plant species. Thus several deciduous tree species are present in the park, such as the little-leaf linden (), the common hazel (), the guelder-rose (), and the Norway maple (). The presence of these species is considered more of a relic of a warmer era than a feature of the current times. Their survival has been rendered possible by the unusual conditions encountered at the foot of certain mountains called (literally "mountain of southern-like vegetation"): the orientation of the rock face to the sun and the humidity brought about by the mountain offer a favorable microclimate which, in conjunction with the fertile soil, permits plants which do not normally grow at so high a latitude to thrive.
However, deciduous forest only covers , barely more than 1.4% of the surface area of the park. Thus, the forest is principally coniferous forest, characteristic of the Scandinavian and Russian taiga ecoregion. This forest is mainly made up of Norway spruce (), but at the frontier with the barren zones, the main species is Scots pine (). Pines dominate because forest fires are less frequent than previously, since birch and Scots pine are the first species to return after a fire. It seems that fires occurred naturally over the ages, but there has not been a fire for two centuries, humans actively fighting against their propagation. The maximum age of the trees of the forest is 100 years, but certain pines have reached 500 years, being particularly inaccessible and thus spared by loggers. However, during the last 100 years, the forest has partially recovered the richness which characterizes old growth forests.
In the coniferous forests, one can find several shrubs, of which the most common are blue whortleberry (), lingonberry (), and woundwort (). In the richer soil, one can also find , Alpine blue-sow-thistle (), wall lettuce (), as well as several species of ferns, such as worm fern () et la common lady-fern ().
A large part of the park (36%) consists of naked rock, and is thus a poor substrate for vegetation. The principal trees are dwarf pines which have not been affected by logging and which thus can be up to 500 years old. Besides these small trees, the vegetation is almost wholly of a shrubby nature, with common heather (), common juniper (), or bearberry (). These zones are also home to a large number of species of mosses and lichens.
Many mosses and lichens of the park are considered endangered in Sweden, in particular , which is now the park's symbol.
History
Protohistory
Because of the topography and the nature of the terrain, the area did not lend itself to human settlement and no trace of permanent habitation had been found in the park. Some traces of habitation dating from the Stone Age were found northwest of the park, at Bjästamon. These habitations were probably maintained until the Bronze Age. During the Bronze Age, many funerary cairns were placed along the coast as it existed at that time: one can find 28 inside the park, as well as two megalithic monuments. Many of these cairns, often circular, have in their centers lone rectangular cists. All these monuments are now 35 to above the current sea level. Just southwest of Näskebodarna, a dozen of these cairns, some of them relatively imposing, are arranged into a kind of cemetery ; the reason for this arrangement is unknown: it probably has to do with marking the territory or showing the way to the village, probably situated in the bays to the north or south of the park. One supposes indeed that at that time, navigation by boat was already developed and the sea was an essential resource for the settlers.
No traces dating from the Iron Age have been discovered.
Exploitation of the park
The forest of Skule has always been a topographic barrier. For example, it would have perhaps have been the northern frontier of the kingdom of Svealand before the year 1000, and thus the border between adjacent municipalities and parishes. The villages it separated had very limited contact with each other and, because of the poor agricultural potential of the forest, there was never a permanent settlement in the forest. The forest was, however, traversed by a trail, which later took the name of Kustlandsvägen and which corresponded roughly to the path of today's European route E4. For a long time, this path constituted the only road to the north of the country. The zone was thus the property of the Swedish crown, which could decide who could use the forest as pasture or engage in logging there. In the 17th century, unlike many of the northern Swedish forests belonging to the crown, Skuleskogen did not see any colonization by the Forest Finns (), and thus did not undergo slash-and-burn cultivation techniques. The forest was instead used as a summer pasture (transhumance), and the hay of the marshes was used as well, although in a very localized fashion. As a result, in today's national park there were four summer pasture cottages, three having existed up until the turn of the 20th century, while the last (Näskebodarna) remained active up until the end of World War II. This last is now used, maintained in its old state, for tourism. The forest would seem to be more open in those days than now.
At the same time, it would seem that the Sami were using the mountains as a winter pasture for their reindeer until 1919. They would pass the summer in the mountains of Jämtland, and would travel to the coast between November and April.
After the Great Northern War at the beginning of the 18th century, Sweden encouraged the foundation of villages on its territories by tax exemptions. As a result, a few isolated villages were established in the forest of Skuleskogen, but none in today's park. Until the middle of the 18th century, logging was limited to the area directly around the villages and thus only minimally affected the forest of the park. But that soon changed, the state taking an active part in the exploitation of the forest. Logging became the principal activity in the area of the park. In a few years, a dozen mills, including a steam mill, were constructed in immediate proximity to today's park. The sawmills driven by water wheels only had weak capacities in general and only functioned during certain periods of the year. The number of steam mills grew thereafter. At first, only the trees with trunks over a fixed length in diameter were able to be cut, but bit by bit, these rules changed, and in the end all the trees were able to be felled. Logging slowed down markedly at the turn of the century, allowing the forest to regenerate. About 15% of the forest was affected by a new period of exploitation before the protection of the area. The forest's oldest trees therefore date from the start of the 20th century.
Protection
Upon a great inventory of the environment of the county in the middle of the 1960s, Skuleskogen was noticed for its great natural value. So, in 1968, it was decided to protect a part of the massif. In 1971, the management plan for the territories of Sweden resulted in the High Coast being classified as a zone of national interest, and next in 1974, a part of the zone was classified as a temporary nature reserve. However, conflict arose between the land owners and the authorities of nature protection, the latter maintaining that no exploitation of the forest could occur and that the zone ought to be classified as a national park. To accomplish this the terrain would have had to be purchased by the state, but the land owners did not accept the deal that they would be given equivalent areas of forest nearby. However, the NCB company, which owned about 70% of the land, was in great financial difficulty and had to sell its land; the state was therefore able to buy the lands inside the proposed park, as well as some surrounding land, to compensate the other land owners. The county therefore proposed in 1978 the creation of a natural park to Naturvårdsverket which transmitted the proposal the following year to the government. The decision was not, however, made, because some parts of the proposed park were still privately owned. The zone was classified as a result only as a nature reserve in 1979.
The creation of the national park took place in May 1984. The official motive for the creation of the park was "to preserve a heavily deforested coastal landscape, of rocky terrain and fracture valleys, in a relatively intact state, where fauna and flora can develop freely. Negotiations for the purchase of the land could not be completed for certain properties, and the lands concerned remained therefore protected as a nature reserve. An area to the northwest of the park was added to the park in 1991, when it was discovered that an endangered species of lichen () was growing there. In 1996, the area was included in the Natura 2000 Network, and in 2000, they park was important in the High Coast becoming a UNESCO World Heritage site. The area thus classified was extended by UNESCO in 2006 by the inclusion of the Finnish archipelago of Kvarken, the entire zone henceforth being called Archipelago of Kvarken/High Coast. In 2009, the park was again expanded by the addition to the northwest and south of land from the nature reserve of Skuleskogen.
Management and administration
Like most of the national parks of Sweden, management and administration are divided between the Swedish environmental protection agency () and the administrative council of the Swedish counties (). is responsible for proposing new national parks, upon consulting with the councils of administration of the counties and municipalities; their creation is endorsed by a vote of the Swedish parliament. The state then purchases the land, through the intermediary of Naturvårdsverket. The management of the park is then principally the responsibility of the county; in the case of Skuleskogen, this means the administrative council of the county of Västernorrland.
The park is divided into three zones, each having a purpose, in order to reconcile the protection of the park and the welcoming of tourists. The majority (65%) of the park is classified as zone I, that is, as a low-activity zone: this space is the heart of the park and has scarce tourism infrastructure, so that the environment remains intact. The eastern third of the park is classified as zone II, the high-activity zone. In this zone you can find most of the trails and cabins, as well as the most popular sites. Finally, a very small part () is classified zone III, being that zone in immediate proximity to the entrances. This zone can accommodate a great number of visitors before channeling them towards the main trails.
Tourism
The park is very accessible and its location at the heart of the High Coast, a UNESCO World Heritage site, earns it visitors a year, which is relatively large, given its location in Norrland.
The park has three entrances, one each to the north, south, and west, the north entrance being the main one. The three entrances are near European route E4, which is the main road in northern Sweden, and which traverses the country from end to end. Near these entrances one can find parking and information panels about the park. It is possible to spend the night in the park in one of five shelters (Norrsvedjebodarna, Tärnettvattnen, Tärnettholmarna, Tärnettsundet, and Näskebodarna). These were private homes before the foundation of the park. It is also possible to go camping in the dedicated campgrounds.
Many hiking trails run through the park, especially through its easternmost third. In particular, the grand hiking trail (the trail through the High Coast) traverses the park from north to south over . This trail can moreover constitute a means of accessing the park from the villages of Docksta and Bjästa, which are themselves accessible by public transport. Besides by hiking, it is also possible to discover the park by skiing in winter; its topology even permits alpine skiing. It is also possible to go kayaking along the coast and to go swimming, in particular at the sandy beaches of Tärnättholmarna or in the lagoon of Salsviken to the north, where the water can attain warmer temperatures. Biking is allowed on the trail along the coast.
The most visited site in the park is probably the crevasse of Slåttdalsskrevan, but also popular are the view from over the archipelago from the nearby summit of Slåttdalsberget, as well as the Bronze Age funerary cairns.
Skuleskogen in popular culture
Skuleskogen is the setting of the novel The brigands of the forest of Skule () by Kerstin Ekman. The book tells the story of Skord, a troll of human appearance from the forest of Skule. His curiosity about humans leads him into numerous adventures across the ages (he is immortal). The title references a local legend, that robbers arrived in the area in the 7th century, but were rejected by the villagers of the area. They had to take refuge in the cave Skulegrottan not far from the park. These brigands committed numerous misdeeds, attacking those who crossed the forest. They ended up getting done in by a young peasant who succeeded in joining their group by saying that the villagers had rejected him too.
Notes and references
This article was initially translated from the French Wikipedia.
Others
External links
Skuleskogens Nationalpark - Swedish Visitor Guide to Skuleskogen and Skuleberget
Skule National Park - English Visitor Guide
Sweden's National Parks: Skuleskogen National Park from the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency
National parks of Sweden
Protected areas established in 1984
1984 establishments in Sweden
Geography of Västernorrland County
Tourist attractions in Västernorrland County
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichimeca%20War
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Chichimeca War
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The Chichimeca War (1550–90) was a military conflict between the Spanish Empire and the Chichimeca Confederation established in the territories today known as the Central Mexican Plateau, called by the Conquistadores La Gran Chichimeca. The epicenter of the hostilities was the region now called the Bajío. The Chichimeca War is recorded as the longest and most expensive military campaign confronting the Spanish Empire and indigenous people in Aridoamerica. The forty-year conflict was settled through several peace treaties driven by the Spaniards which led to the pacification and, ultimately, the streamlined integration of the native populations into the New Spain society.
The Chichimeca War (1550-1590) began eight years after the two-year Mixtón Rebellion. It can be considered a continuation of the rebellion as the fighting did not come to a halt in the intervening years. The war was fought in what are the present-day Mexican states of Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Aguascalientes, Jalisco, Queretaro, and San Luis Potosí.
Prelude
On September 8, 1546, natives near the Cerro de la Bufa in what would become the city of Zacatecas showed the Spaniard Juan de Tolosa several pieces of silver-rich ore. News of the silver strike soon spread across New Spain. The dream of quick wealth caused a large number of Spaniards to migrate from southern Mexico to the present-day city of Zacatecas in the heartland of La Gran Chichimeca. Soon the mines of San Martín, Chalchihuites, Avino, Sombrerete, Fresnillo, Mazapil, and Nieves were established. The Chichimeca nations resented the intrusions by the Spanish on their sovereign ancestral lands. Spanish soldiers soon began raiding native territory trying to acquire slaves for the mines. To supply and communicate with the mines in and near Zacatecas, new roads were built from Querétaro and Jalisco across Chichimeca lands. The caravans full of goods along the roads were economic targets for Chichimecan warriors.
Chichimecas
The Chichimecas were nomadic and semi-nomadic people who occupied the large desert basin stretching from present day Saltillo and Durango in the north to Querétaro and Guadalajara in the south. Within this area of about , the Chichimecas lived primarily by hunting and gathering, especially mesquite beans, the edible parts of the agave plants, and the fruit (tunas) and leaves of cactus. In favored areas some of the Chichimeca grew corn and other crops. Chichimeca population is hard to estimate, although based on the average density of nomadic cultures they probably numbered 30,000 to 60,000. The Chichimecas lived in rancherías of crude shelters or natural shelters such as caves, frequently moving from one area to another to take advantage of seasonal foods and hunting. The Chichimeca referred to themselves as "Children of the Wind", living religiously from the natural land. The characteristics most noted about them by the Spanish was that both women and men wore little clothing, grew their hair long, and painted and tattooed their bodies. They were often accused of cannibalism, although this accusation has been disputed, due to the Spanish attempt to smear natives as savages in order to justify forced conversion to Catholicism by Spain during the Mexican Inquisition.
The Chichimecas Confederation consisted of four main nations: Guachichiles, Pames, Guamares, and Zacatecos. These nations had decentralized governments, and were more of independent states. Due to decentralized political unity, their territories overlapped and other Chichimecs joined one or another in raids.
The Guachichiles' territory centered on the area around what would become the city of San Luis Potosí. They seem to have been the most numerous of the four ethnic groups and the de facto leaders of the Chichimecas. Their name meant "Red Colored Hair" from a pigment that they also applied to their skin and clothing. Living in close proximity to the silver road between Querétaro and Zacatecas, they were the most feared of the native raiders.
The Pames lived north of present-day state of Querétaro and south and east of the Guachichiles. They were the least warlike and militant of the Chichimecas. They had absorbed some of the religious and cultural practices of the more urbanized native nations.
The Guamares lived mostly in present-day state of Guanajuato. They possibly had more political unity than other Chichimecas and were considered by one writer as the most "treacherous and destructive of all the Chichimecas and the most astute". The Guamares and the mestizo population of Dolores Hidalgo, on the silver road to San Miguel de Allende, also initiated the Mexican War for Independence, then shortly after sent a battalion of reinforcements to the Battle of Puebla during the French intervention in Mexico.
The Zacatecos lived in the present-day states of Zacatecas and Durango. They had participated in the earlier Mixtón War and thus were experienced fighters against the Spanish. Some of the Zacatecos grew maize; others were nomadic.
The nomadic culture of the Chichimecas made it difficult for the Spanish to defeat them. The bow was their principal weapon and one experienced observer said the Zacatecos were "the best archers in the world." Their bows were short, usually less than four feet long, their arrows were long and thin and made of reed and tipped with obsidian, volcanic rock sharper than a modern-day razor. Despite the fragility of the obsidian arrows they had excellent penetrating qualities, even against Spanish armor which was de rigueur for soldiers fighting the Chichimeca. Many-layered buckskin armor was preferred to chain mail as obsidian arrows penetrated the links of the mail.
The Chichimeca bow and arrow was expertly crafted allowing for penetration of Spanish armor. There are two Spanish accounts of the Chichimeca's archery skill that Powell writes in his book:
On one occasion I saw them throw an orange into the air, and they shot into it so many arrows that, having held it in the air for much time, it finally fell in minute pieces" (Powell 48). "One of don Alonso de Castilla's soldiers had an arrow pass through the head of his horse, including a crownpiece of double buckskin and metal, and into his chest, so he fell with the horse dead on the ground 'this was seen by many who are still living' (Powell 48).
The Chichimeca were a nomadic culture making them very mobile and experts of rough terrain with vegetation filled (mostly cactus) land in which they always looked for hiding spots. "His long use of the food native to the Gran Chichimeca gave him far greater mobility than the sedentary invader, who was tied to domesticated livestock, agriculture, and imported supplies. The Chichimeca could and did cut off these supplies, destroy the livestock, and thus paralyze the economic and military vitality of the invaders; this was seldom possible in reverse" (Powell 44). They attacked in small groups ranging from five to two hundred warriors. In one account, with only fifty Zacateco warriors, the Chichimeca killed two hundred Spanish soldiers in one battle. They had no shortage of raiding parties because of the highly valued supplies attracting warriors from far off allowing for the highest quality of trade goods.
As the war escalated, both the Spanish and Chichimeca adapted and bettered their defensive and offensive tactics. "He [The Chichimeca] sent spies into Spanish towns for appraisal of the enemy's plans and strength; he developed a far-flung system of lookouts and scouts (atalays); and, in major attacks, settlements were softened by preliminary and apparently systematic killing and stealing of horses and other livestock, this being an attempt, sometimes successful, to change his intended victim from horseman to foot soldier" (Powell 46). When they attacked they used a very good tactic that terrified the animals and scared the Spanish. The Guachichil especially would disguise themselves as grotesque animals using animal heads and paint then yelled like crazed beasts making the Spanish lose control of horses and livestock. The Spanish started to set up many forts, bought mercenaries, and tried to use as many slaves as they could.
Chichimeca battle tactics were mostly ambushes and raids on the Spanish. Some of their raids were conducted by up to 200 men, groups of 40 to 50 warriors were more common, about the size of a modern infantry company or platoon with attachments, respectively. During the war, the Chichimecas learned to ride horses and use them in war. This was perhaps the first time that the Spanish in North America faced mounted Native warriors. The undeniable advantage for the Spanish was their use of horses and other animals of burden that they had introduced to the Americas. Horses were unknown to the Americas before the Spanish imported them in 1519.
Course of the war
The conflict proved much more difficult and enduring than the Spanish anticipated. The first outbreak of hostilities was in late 1550 when Zacatecos attacked supply routes of Purépecha. A few days later they were attacking Spanish colonies less than south of modern-day Zacatecas. In 1551 the Guachichile and Guamares joined in, killing 14 Spanish soldiers at an outpost of San Miguel de Allende and forcing abandonment. Other raids near Tlaltenango were reported to have killed 120 Spanish within a few months. Some crucial raids of the early years of the war took place in 1553 and 1554 when many wagon trains on the road to Zacatecas were attacked, all the Spanish en route were killed, and the very substantial sums of 32,000 and 40,000 pesos in goods taken or destroyed. (By comparison, the annual salary of a Spanish soldier was only 300 pesos.) By the end of 1561 it was estimated that more than 4,000 Spaniards and their native allies had been killed by the Chichimecas. Prices for imported food and other commodities in Zacetacas had doubled or tripled due to the dangers of transporting the goods to the city. In the 1570s the rebellion spread as Pames began raiding near Querétaro.
The Spanish government first attempted measures of both carrot and stick to attempt to tamp down the war, but, those failing, in 1567 it adopted the policy of a "war of fire and blood" (guerra a fuego y a sangre) – promising death, enslavement, or mutilation to the Chichimeca. One of the priorities of the Spaniards throughout the war was to keep the roads open to Zacatecas and the silver mines – especially the Camino Real from San Miguel de Allende. Without these crucial economic roads open, the Spanish would not be able to fund the war or continue supporting settlements. To do so they created a dozen new presidios (forts), staffed by Spanish soldiers and native ally soldiers, and encouraged more Spanish people to settle in new areas, including what would be the nucleus of the future cities of Celaya, León, Aguascalientes, and San Luis Potosí.
The first main forts were in San Miguel and San Felipe in 1562 and Nombre de Dios in 1563. Yet even then the Chichimeca managed to achieve successes. By 1571, most of the Chichimeca nations were raiding towns and crucial economic routes. A letter from fray Guillermo de Santa María to fray Alonso de Alvarado stated that: "Later those same Zacatecos, made another assault against Onate and Ybara, one legue from Zenaguilla del Monte and three from the mining town of Zacatecas, of which they did a lot of damage" (Santa 220 (1)). After 1560, and especially in the decade of the 1570s, the Chichimecas turned to the raiding of several towns. In a letter written October 31, 1576, the viceroy of New Spain informed King Felipe II of Spain that:
"We need for some quantity of soldiers to be sent, and to be paid a royal salary as agreed upon by the V.M. and of which the V.M. will send to be paid, a third of the Royal Hacienda (in Mexico City), and by the miners and those interested" (Hernandez 326 (2)).
Also reported in the same letter:
"No one can sustain the war, the cost is too big, neither in arms nor in squadrons can we sustain war. The situation is very crucial, we don't have weapons, squadrons, food because every day our livestock gets stolen or killed of which sustaining the cattle has been very difficult. We don't have enough funds to keep the people happy. Everyone agrees that we need support from the royal box" (Hernandez 326 (3)).
Even after offensives were fully financed by the royal treasury; from 1575 to 1585 the Chichimeca started attacking with even greater military force. In a letter from the viceroy of New Spain, Conde de Coruna, to Felipe II on April 1, 1581: "I have let the V.M. understand about the happenings with the Chichimeca War and about how dire the situation is that all the mines in those districts where the Natives are engaging in battle, and with such a great number and that many mines in Zacatecas are closed" (Hernandez 340 (4)). The Spanish did not attain more success even when they tried other tactics of trickery and deceit. The royal road was destroyed and there was no Spanish fort that was not also destroyed within the Guachihile territory.
The increase in number of Spanish soldiers in the Gran Chichimeca was not entirely favorable to the war effort as the soldiers often supplemented their income by slave-raiding, thus reinforcing the animosity of the Chichimeca. Despite the influx of Spanish settlers and soldiers from Southern Mexico to the Gran Chichimeca, the Spanish were always short of soldiers compared to the Chichimeca ever growing recruitment of raiders, often staffing their presidios with only three Spaniards. The Spaniards, even with the assistance from other native soldiers and auxiliaries, especially the Caxcans, the Purépecha, and the Otomi, could not rival the Chichimeca Confederation. The native allies were rewarded with Spanish colonized land, and native soldiers were allowed to ride Spanish horses and carry Spanish swords, formerly banned for use by native allies.
Purchase for Peace
As the war continued unabated, it became clear that the Spanish policy of a war of fire and blood had failed. The royal treasury was being emptied by the demands of the war. Churchmen and others who had initially supported the war of fire and blood now questioned the policy. Mistreatment and enslavement of Chichimeca women, children, and men by Spaniards increasingly came to be seen as the cause of the war. In 1574, the Dominicans, contrary to the Augustinians and Franciscans, declared that the Chichimeca War was unjust and caused by Spanish aggression. Thus, to end the conflict, the Spanish began to change public policy to purchase peace from the Chichimeca and assimilate with them.
In 1584, the Bishop of Guadalajara made a proposal for a "Christian remedy" to the war: the establishment of new towns with priests, soldiers, and friendly Indians to gradually Christianize the Chichimecas. The Viceroy, Alvaro Manrique de Zuniga, followed this idea in 1586 with a policy of removing many Spanish soldiers from the frontier as they were considered more a provocation than a remedy. The Viceroy opened negotiations with Chichimeca leaders and negotiated tools, food, clothing, and land to encourage them through "gentle persuasion". He forbade further failing military operations. One of the key people behind these negotiations was Miguel Caldera, a captain who was of both Spanish and Guachichile descent. Beginning in 1590 and continuing for several decades the Spanish implemented the "Purchase for Peace" program by sending large quantities of goods northward to be distributed to the Chichimecas. In 1590 the Viceroy declared the program a success and the roads to Zacatecas safe for the first time in 40 years.
The next step, in 1591, was for a new Viceroy, Luis de Velasco, with help from others such as Caldera, to persuade 400 families of Tlaxcalan Indians, old allies of the Spanish, to establish eight settlements in Chichimeca areas. They served as Christian examples to the Chichimecas and taught animal husbandry and farming to them. In return for moving to the frontier, the Tlaxcalans extracted concessions from the Spanish, including land grants, freedom from taxes, the right to carry arms, and provisions for two years. The Spanish also took steps to curb slavery on Mexico's northern frontier by ordering the arrest of members of the Carabajal family and Gaspar Castaño de Sosa. An essential part of their strategy was conversion of the Chichimeca to Catholicism. The Franciscans sent priests to the frontier to aid in the pacification effort.
The Purchase for Peace program worked to lower the rate of hostilities and the majority of the Chichimecas gradually became sedentary, Catholic, or nominally Catholic.
Importance
The Spanish policy evolved to make peace with the Chichimecas had four components: negotiation of peace agreements; welcoming, instead of forcing, conversion to Catholicism; encouraging native allies to settle the frontier to serve as examples and role models; and providing food, other commodities, and tools to potentially hostile natives. This established the pattern of Spanish policy for assimilating natives on their northern frontier. The principal components of the policy of purchase for peace would continue for nearly three centuries and would not be as successful, as later threats from hostile natives such as Apaches and Comanches would demonstrate.
Chichimecas today
Over time most of the Chichimeca people transformed their ethnic identities and absorbed into the Catholic population and more assimilated in mainstream society before and during the Mexican War of Independence. Large portions of the Guachihil population from La Montesa to Milagros migrated to the larger cities of Zacatecas or Aguascalientes and to the territories of California, Colorado, and Texas.
The Wixárika or Huicholes are believed to be the descendants of the Guachichiles. About 20,000 of them live in an isolated area on the borders of Jalisco and Nayarit. They are noted for being conservative, successfully preserving (Wixárika) their language, religion, and culture.
There are about 10,000 speakers of the Pame languages in Mexico, primarily in Santa María Acapulco in the municipality of Santa Catarina in southeastern San Luis Potosí. They are conservative and nominal Catholics, but mostly still practicing their traditional religion and customs. Another group of about 1,500 Chichimeca Jonaz live in the state of Guanajuato.
See also
Arauco War
References
Sources
Powell, Philip Wayne. Soldiers, Indians, & Silver: The Northward Advance of New Spain, 1550-1600. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1952 (republished 1969)
Schmal, John P. The History of Zacatecas. Houston Institute for Culture. 2004.
Schmal, John P. Sixteenth Century Indigenous Jalisco. 2004.
Hernandez, Manuel G. "Cartas de Indias: Publicalas Por Primera Vez" Ministerio De Formento 1877. 326–340. Madrid. Print.
Santa Maria, Guillermo de. "Guerra de los Chichimecas : Mexico 1575 – Zirosto 1580" Paleography by Carrillo Cazares, Alberto. 2nd Ed. University of Guadalajara, Michoacan College, University of Norte, University Los Lagos, 220. San Luis College 2003. Print.
(1) Translated from:
"Despues estros mismos Zacatecas, dende a pocos dias, hicieron otro salto en unas recuas de Cristobal de Onate y de Diego de Ybarra, una legua antes Zenagulla del Monte y tres de Zacatecas, en que hicieron muncho dano."
(2) Translated from:
"Es que se haga alguna cantidad de soldados, a los quales se les pague sueldo, en virtue de una Real cedula de V.M. en que V.M. manda se pague, la tercia parte, de la Real hazienda, y las otras does, por los mineros y personas interesads"
(3) Translated from:
"ninguno puede sustentar la Guerra con dos ni tres cauallos, y la costa es muy grande, asi de las armas como de los cauallo y nunguno puede sustentar la Guerra con dos nit res cauallos, y la costa es muy grande, asi de las armas como de los cauallos y comida, que cada dia se les mueren y se los matan, y es el trabajo grandisimo . . . sienten tanto todos la paga de lo que les toca, que, si yo lo puediese remidar con uender quanto tengo, lo haria, por euitar el descontento de la gente, que a todos les parece que se a de pagar de la Real caja"
(4) Translated from:
"Ya he dado quenta particular a V.M. de lo que toca a la Guerra de los chichimecas, y del incombiniente que se sigue a todas las minas de aquel districto, en que aquellos indos anden tan lebantados y con tanto numero y desberguanca; y demas, desto, soy informado que en Zacatecas ay munchas minas ceradas"
1546 in New Spain
Colonial Mexico
History of Mesoamerica
Mesoamerican warfare
Rebellions against the Spanish Empire
Wars involving the indigenous peoples of North America
Conflicts in 1546
History of Aguascalientes
History of Guanajuato
History of Jalisco
History of San Luis Potosí
History of Zacatecas
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